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4192110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20Ilan%20Halimi | Murder of Ilan Halimi | The murder of Ilan Halimi () was the kidnapping, torture, and murder of a young Frenchman of Moroccan Jewish ancestry in France in 2006. Halimi was kidnapped on 21 January 2006 by a group calling itself the Gang of Barbarians. The kidnappers, believing that all Jews are rich, repeatedly contacted the victim's modestly placed family demanding very large sums of money. Halimi was held captive and tortured for three weeks, and died of his injuries. The case drew national and international attention as an example of antisemitism in France.
Kidnapping
Halimi was a mobile phone salesman living in Paris with his divorced mother and his two sisters.
On 20 January 2006, one of the perpetrators, Sorour Arbabzadeh (known as Yalda or Emma), a 17-year-old girl of French-Iranian origin, went to the phone store in Paris where Halimi worked and struck up a conversation with him. She eventually asked for Halimi's number, which he gave to her, and left the store. The woman called him the next evening and told him to come to her apartment for a drink. He was lured to an apartment block in the Parisian banlieues where he was ambushed and held captive by the group upon arrival. No one saw or heard from Halimi until the next afternoon, when his sister received an email containing a picture that showed Halimi gagged and tied up to a chair with a gun to his head. In text, the abductors threatened his life and demanded 450,000 euros from his family, stating that they would kill him if they went to the police. Not having the money, though, Halimi's family had no other option than to contact the police.
The abductors, who called themselves the Gang of Barbarians, tortured him and sent phone and video messages to his family while they were in contact with the police. During the 24 days of abduction, the leader of the gang, Youssouf Fofana, managed to travel back and forth to his home country of Ivory Coast. At some point he was suspected of being related to the gang and was taken to the police station, but they were forced to release him due to a lack of proof of his connection to the group. The demand for ransom, initially elevated at 450,000 euros, diminished as the abductors got more anxious with the attention they were drawing from the police and media. Suspicious neighbours said they did not go to the police station out of fear while others said they did not want to intervene in a business that was not theirs.
After three weeks and no success in finding the captors, the family and the police stopped receiving messages from the captors. Halimi, severely tortured, more than 80% burned and unclothed, was dumped next to a road at Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois on 13 February 2006. He was found by a passer-by who immediately called for an ambulance. Halimi died from his injuries on his way to the hospital.
The decision by the police to keep certain matters secret was seen as counter-productive, and may have prevented a facial composite of Sorour Arbabzadeh ("Emma"), the girl who lured Halimi to the apartment. Investigation showed that more than twenty people, some of them teenagers, took part directly or indirectly in the kidnapping. Some of them later claimed they never knew his fate, and Arbabzadeh (who was seventeen at the time), later sent a letter to his family to say how sorry she was.
A woman, referred to as Audrey L., surrendered after the police had released a facial composite picture. She pointed to the Barbarians, a gang of (North) African immigrants who had perpetrated similar abductions in the past. In the subsequent days, French police arrested 15 people in connection with the crime. The leader of the gang, Youssouf Fofana (born 1980), who had been born in Paris to parents from Côte d'Ivoire, fled to his parents' homeland together with the woman used as bait. They were arrested on February 23 in Abidjan and extradited to France on March 4, 2006.
Ransom
The kidnappers originally thought Halimi was wealthy because he came from a Jewish family, although he came from the same poor and working-class neighborhood on the outskirts of Paris as the kidnappers did.
According to then Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy, members of the gang confessed that they believed all Jews to be rich and it motivated them to target several Jews.
The kidnappers demanded ransom, initially EUR 450,000, eventually decreasing to EUR 5,000. It has been claimed that the family of Halimi was told that if they could not raise the money, they should get it from the Jewish community.
In order to convince Halimi's parents their son had been kidnapped, the abductors sent a picture of the young man being threatened by a gun and holding a newspaper to prove the date and time.
Police investigation
The French police were heavily criticized because they initially believed that antisemitism was not a factor in the crime.
Police have attributed to the banlieues' gang subculture a "poisonous mentality that designates Jews as enemies along with other 'outsiders,'" such as Americans, mainstream French, and Europeans in general. "If they could have gotten their hands on a (non-Jewish) French cop in the same way, they probably would have done the same thing," a retired police chief opined. This may have hampered the original investigation. Antisemitism is an aggravating circumstance () in a murder case in France.
Ruth Halimi, Ilan's mother, subsequently co-authored a book with Émilie Frèche titled (24 days: the truth about the death of Ilan Halimi), released April 2009. In the book, Ruth claimed that French police never suspected her son's kidnappers would kill the 23-year-old after three weeks in captivity in 2006, partly because they would not face the antisemitic character of the crime (as reported in the French newspaper Le Figaro). Émilie Frèche stated that "by denying the anti-semitic character, ... [the police] did not figure out the profile of the gang." The book details how Ilan's parents were told to stay silent during the ordeal and were ordered not to seek aid in order to pay the ransom, nor show their son's photo to people who might have come forward with information about his whereabouts.
In an interview with Elle Magazine on March 27, 2009, Ruth Halimi stated that "The police were completely off the mark. They thought they were dealing with classic bandits, but these people were beyond the norm." Halimi stated that she wrote the book to "alert public opinion to the danger of anti-semitism which has returned in other forms, so that a story like this can never happen again".
Gang of Barbarians
The crime was committed by a group of persons belonging to a gang calling themselves . Many of them had criminal records and had been imprisoned. A total of 27 people were accused of involvement in the crime and were tried for kidnapping and murder in 2009. One person was acquitted and the rest were convicted. Gang leader Youssouf Fofana was sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum of 22 years before the possibility of parole. The woman who had lured Halimi to his abduction was sentenced to nine years imprisonment. Two of his close associates, Jean-Christophe Soumbou and Samir Ait Abdel Malek, received 18 and 15-year prison terms respectively, and Malek's prison term was later increased to 18 years upon appeal. Six others convicted over their involvement received sentences ranging from 12 to 15 years imprisonment, and seven others received sentences ranging from 8 months to 11 years imprisonment. While Fofana chose not to appeal his sentence, 14 of the 27 verdicts were appealed by the prosecution. The convictions were upheld on appeal in December 2010. In 2017, a Paris court sentenced Fofana to an additional 10 years imprisonment for other extortions he had committed.
During the investigation it appeared that key members of the group were probably implicated in at least 15 other cases of kidnapping or racketeering. Posing as members of the National Front for the Liberation of Corsica or members of the French division of the PFLP, they threatened several high-ranking CEOs including Jérôme Clément, president of the European TV operator Arte, Rony Brauman, former president and co-founder of Médecins Sans Frontières, and the CEO as well as another high-ranking member of a large company selling home appliances. They sent threatening pictures of an unknown man dressed as a middle-eastern Arab in front of a picture of Osama bin Laden. In another case, the owner of a large grocery store was directed to pay 100,000 euros.
In total, 27 individuals were under investigation and were subsequently put on trial. Among these:
Youssouf Fofana (2 August 1980), the self-proclaimed Brain of the Barbarians. He was born in Paris to immigrants from Côte d'Ivoire and served time in prison for various crimes including armed robbery, car theft and resisting arrest. In an interview he denied killing Halimi, but showed no remorse for his actions.
Christophe Martin-Vallet, nicknamed Moko, a French man originally from Martinique, specializing in computers. He appears to have masterminded the kidnapping and to have been the lieutenant of Fofana.
He is suspected of other kidnappings and was responsible for the honeypot activities of the girls.
Jean-Christophe Soumbou, also known as Craps, Crim or Marc. Fellow inmate of Fofana. Imprisoned for car theft with violence. Supplied the car with which Halimi was transported. He is also suspected of other kidnappings.
Jean-Christophe Gavarin, usually known as JC or by his nickname Zigo, one of the individuals who tortured Halimi. He was a minor at the time of the crime. He had been expelled from school and had been involved with the law because of a theft and possession of cannabis. He has admitted to pushing a burning joint in the face of Halimi.
Samir Aït Abdelmalek, nicknamed Smiler, who was the owner of the apartment and is considered the right-hand man of Fofana (he had known Fofana for more than ten years). Had been convicted for possession of drugs and car theft. He also furnished the acid used to burn Halimi.
Jérémy Pastisson involved in a number of kidnapping cases, his car was used to transport Halimi.
Tiffenn Gouret, former girlfriend of Jean-Christophe Gavarin and friend of Arbabzadeh, supplied Fonfana with "bait". She is also suspected in other kidnappings.
Sorour Arbabzadeh nicknamed Yalda (also known as "Emma"), a seventeen-year-old French-Iranian girl who acted as appât (bait, honeypot) to entrap Halimi.
Sabrina Fontaine, was used as bait in other kidnapping cases.
Audrey Lorleach, nicknamed Léa or Natacha, young student who was used as bait. She turned herself in and served 9 months in prison.
Others who were implicated:
Gilles Serrurier (1967), nicknamed the concierge, was the caretaker of the apartment building to which Halimi was taken and who lent the gang the apartment and cellar in which they held and tortured Halimi.
Yahia Touré Kaba, nicknamed Yaks, one of the jailers (gaolers).
Fabrice Polygone, one of the jailers (gaolers).
Jérôme Ribeiro, known as Coup de Tête (headbutt). Although he had left the group, he was promised a lot of money. One of the jailers (gaolers).
Guiri Oussivo N'Gazi and Francis Oussivo N'Gazi, friends of Ribeiro who acted as one of the jailers (gaolers).
Nabil Moustafa, known as Bilna, pizza delivery man, one of the jailers (gaolers).
Cédric Birot Saint-Yves, known as Babas, friend of Nabil Moustafa, one of the jailers (gaolers).
Many others were implicated, but their direct connection to the crime could not be proven.
2009 trial
The trial, which started on 29 April 2009, was conducted behind closed doors because two of the suspects were minors.
The Halimi family wanted the trial to be conducted openly. Francis Szpiner spoke for Ruth Halimi, saying, "A public trial would have helped [people] better understand the criminal machine, to make parents and teenagers reflect. It's the law of silence that killed her son, it would be unbearable for the trial to remain silent."
The trial took 10 weeks.
Incidents during and around the trial
A number of videos with Fofana appeared on YouTube.
Fofana appeared in court wearing a white T-shirt, smiling, pointing to heaven and saying Allāhu Akbar. He claimed he had nothing to say and would be silent to the grave. When asked his name and date of birth he answered: Je m'appelle arabe, africaine révolte armée barbare salafiste. Je suis né le 13 février 2006 à Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois. (My name is arab, armed african rebellion salafist barbarian army and I was born on February 13, 2006 in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois: the date and place Ilan Halimi was found).
Fofana threw a shoe at the empty benches and again when he was taken down, shouting All the Jews in the world are there [in the empty box], they are my enemies. This is an Arab attack with a booby-trapped shoe!
Fofana claimed in court that he had friends who would "take pictures to identify people." Francis Szpiner, lawyer for the Halimi family, believed that Fofana was alluding to the jurors, and was implying that he was going to put a price on their heads.
Verdict and sentencing
On the evening of Friday, 10 July 2009, the verdict was given. Ilan Halimi's mother and others were absent from the court, as the Sabbath had already started.
Of the 27 people on trial, 3 were acquitted.
A number of others, whose implication was not direct, or related to other activities of the gang, received smaller sentences. Three persons were acquitted. Notable is that one person, for whom originally no sentence was asked, received a suspended sentence.
After the trial
Sorour Arbabzadeh, the then-17-year-old French-Iranian woman who acted as bait to trap Halimi, was sentenced to 9 years imprisonment. While serving her sentence in the Versailles women's prison, she seduced a guard and the director of the prison, Florent Gonçalves, who is now imprisoned himself. For this she was sentenced to four months imprisonment.
2010 retrial
The sentences issued after the first trial were criticized as too lenient by some parties, while others such as the attorney general Philippe Bilger found the sentences "exemplary". Minister of Justice Michèle Alliot-Marie, demanded an appeal of 8 of the 17 heaviest verdicts.
Richard Prasquier, president of CRIF, France's main Jewish organization, said that a law may soon be available that would preclude closed-door trials in this type of case. "Perhaps in a year's time there will be a new trial, and perhaps it will be public."
A Halimi relative said: "The important thing for me is not handing out heavier jail terms, honestly. The important thing is to open this to the press and public and make it a learning experience."
The retrial was officially announced Monday 10 July 2009. It started on 25 October 2010, and ended on 17 December 2010, with all convictions upheld and some sentences extended.
Similar assault
On 22 February 2008, six members of a group calling themselves Barbarians assaulted 19-year-old Mathieu Roumi in the same Paris suburb of Bagneux where Halimi was kidnapped. For two hours the attackers tortured the young man. One shoved cigarette butts into his mouth, another took issue with Roumi's Jewish origin (paternal), grabbed correction fluid and scrawled sale juif ("dirty Jew") and sale PD ("dirty faggot") on his forehead. When the issue of his sexual orientation arose, one of them placed a condom on the tip of a stick and shoved it in Roumi's mouth. The six men proceeded to scream at him and threaten that he would die the way Halimi did. The men were all arrested.
Public interest and reaction
The case was widely reported on both in and outside France, and prompted strong reactions.
France
Then French prime minister, Dominique de Villepin declared that the "odious crime" was antisemitic, and that antisemitism is not acceptable in France.
Six French associations called for a mass demonstration against racism and antisemitism in Paris on Sunday, February 26. Between 33,000 (as estimated by police) and 80,000 to 200,000 (as estimated by the organizers) people participated in Paris, as well as thousands around the country. Present were public figures such as Philippe Douste-Blazy, François Hollande, Lionel Jospin and Nicolas Sarkozy. Also among the participants were Dalil Boubakeur, head of the Paris Mosque and Chairman of the Council of Muslims in France, and Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger. Right-wing politician Philippe de Villiers was booed by far-left militants and had to leave under police guard.
Outside France
On 9 May, the United States Helsinki Commission held a briefing titled "Tools for Combatting Anti-Semitism: Police Training and Holocaust Education" chaired by Commission Co-Chairman Chris Smith (a Republican representative) who said: "[Halimi's] tragedy made brutally clear that Jews are still attacked because they are Jews, and that our work to eradicate all forms of anti-Semitism in all its ugly forms and manifestations is far from done."
Aftermath
Burial
Ilan Halimi was initially buried in the Cimetière parisien de Pantin near Paris, and the funeral drew a large Jewish crowd. At the request of the family, his remains were reburied in Har HaMenuchot cemetery in Jerusalem, Israel on 9 February 2007. It was timed to allow his first Yartzeit, on Tu Bishvat, to pass before the reburial. The date and time (11:30 am) also marked "exactly one year after his burial in France according to the Jewish Calendar."
Memorials
A garden in the Jerusalem Forest was named after him. In May 2011, a garden in the 12th arrondissement of Paris where Halimi used to play as a child was renamed after him.
A tree commemorating Ilan Halimi was cut down in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois shortly before the anniversary of his death in 2019.
Legacy and analysis
The kidnapping brought many Jews to speak out against antisemitism and racism, but also stirred discussion about whether Jews could still feel safe in France or not. Emigration to Israel rose as a result.
In 2017 The Washington Post revisited Ilan Halimi's murder, describing it as similar to the murder of Sarah Halimi, because French authorities similarly refused to acknowledge the antisemitic nature of the murder or to investigate it as ethnically and ideologically motivated terrorism.
Books
A number of books have been written about the case. Among them:
24 jours: la vérité sur la mort d'Ilan Halimi; Ruth Halimi and Émily Frèche; Éditions du Seuil; April 2009; . This books was written by his mother, Ruth Halimi, about her experience of the events, together with Émilie Frèche. In late April 2014, a movie by French filmmaker Alexandre Arcady about this case was released. Entitled 24 Jours: La vérité sur l’affaire Ilan Halimi (24 Days: The Truth about the Ilan Halimi Case), it is based on the above-mentioned book.
Si c'est un Juif : Réflexions sur la mort d'Ilan Halimi ; Adrien Barrot; Editions Michalon; January 2007;
Ilan Halimi, le canari dans la mine : Comment en est-on arrivé là ?; Yaël König et al; Editions Yago; June 2009;
Des Barbares Dans la Cité. Reflexions Autour du Meurtre d'Ilan Halimi; David Mascré; Éditions de l'Infini; April 2009;
A novel, Tout, tout de suite written by Morgan Sportés was inspired by the events and published in 2011. A film version of the novel, starring Marc Ruchmann as Halimi was released in 2015.
See also
Antisemitism in 21st-century France
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing person cases
References
Media reports
In English
In French
Les événements heure par heure, timeline of events from Le Nouvel Observateur, February 24, 2006
Itinéraires d'une bande meurtrière, Libération, February 22, 2006
2000s missing person cases
2006 murders in France
2000s murders in Paris
February 2006 events in France
Antisemitic murders in 21st-century France
Antisemitism in France
Deaths by person in Paris
Formerly missing people
Kidnapped French people
Kidnappings in France
Male murder victims
Missing person cases in France
Torture |
4192416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian%20dance | Ukrainian dance | Ukrainian dance (, translit. Ukrainskyi tanets) mostly refers to the traditional folk dances of the Ukrainians as an ethnic group, but may also refer to dances originating from the multiple other ethnic groups within Ukraine.
A household folk dance is a folk dance that is done in a particular territory and is traditionally done under common circumstances like weddings or festivals, with characteristic movements, rhythms, costumes, etc.
A folk-stage dance, staged by a choreographer in a professional or amateur collective for performance on stage, may be Ukrainian, but is no longer an everyday folk dance.
The main dance genres of Ukrainians' folk dance are round dance, as one of the oldest types of folk dance art, very typical to all Slavic dances, the performance of which is associated with calendar rites, and everyday dance, which includes metelitsa, hopak, kozachok, hutsulka, kolomyika, square dance, and polka.
Pre-modern history
Judging by the figures depicted in motion on Trypillian clay vessels, dance has been performed in the lands of present-day Ukraine since at least the third millennium BC. It has been assumed that up to the introduction of Christianity in Kyivan Rus in 988, dance served a very important ritual function in the lands of present-day Ukraine. Pre-Christian rituals combined dance with music, poetry, and song. A remnant of these ritual dances (, translit. Obryadovi tantsi; see also Khorovody) which survive in limited form today are the Spring Dances, or Vesnianky, also referred to as Hahilky, Hayilky, Hayivky, Yahilky, or Rohulky. Another seasonal event featuring dances was the yearly pre-harvest festival of Kupalo, which to this day remains a favorite theme for Ukrainian choreographers.
These religious ritual dances proved to be so strongly ingrained into the culture of the people prior to the introduction of Christianity, that rather than attempting to eliminate them, Christian missionaries incorporated Christian themes into the songs and poetry which accompanied the dancing, using the dances to spread their religion, as well as enabling millennia-old steps and choreographic forms to continue to be passed down from generation to generation.
At about the time of Ukraine's Kozak uprisings, social dances became more and more popular among the people native to the lands of present-day Ukraine. Ukrainian social dances (, translit. Pobutovi tantsi) can be distinguished from the earlier Ukrainian ritual dances by two characteristics: the prevalence of musical accompaniment without song, and the increased presence of improvisation. The early Hopak and Kozachok developed as social dances in the areas surrounding the River Dnieper, while the Hutsulka and Kolomyjka sprang up in the Carpathian mountains to the west. Eventually, social dances of foreign extraction such as the polka and quadrille also gained in popularity, developing distinct variations after having been performed by native dancers and musicians gifted in improvisation.
The third major type of Ukrainian folk dancing which developed prior to the modern era were the thematic or story dances (, translit. Siuzhetni tantsi). The story dances incorporated an artistically sophisticated level of pantomime and movement which entertained audiences. Thematic story dances told the story of a particular group of people through movements which mimicked their work; such dances included Shevchyky (, "the tailors"), Kovali (, "the blacksmiths"), and Kosari (, "the reapers").
By the turn of the eighteenth century, many of these traditional dances began to be performed, or referred to thematically, by a blossoming theatrical trade. Peasant or Serf Theaters entertained the subjugated native peoples of present-day Ukraine, who remained relegated to lower social classes in their own homelands, while their foreign rulers often lived lavishly in comparison, importing foreign entertainers and their dances. It is within this context that staged Ukrainian folk dances, which depicted the ideals of an agrarian society, gained even more popularity with the native population, which further developed the theater into a thriving occupation.
Modern history
Ukrainian folk-stage dance began the path to transforming into its present incarnation first and foremost through the work of Vasyl Verkhovynets (b. 1880, original surname Kostiv), an actor, choirmaster, and amateur musicologist. Verkhovynets had acquired a professional level of training in the arts as part of Mykola Sadovsky's theatrical troupe, which had itself incorporated a distinguished level of folk dance in its productions of dramas based on Ukrainian folk themes. While touring central Ukraine with the theatrical troupe, Verkhovynets' would take off whenever he could and visit the villages surrounding the cities he was performing in, in order to learn about and record the villages' traditional dances. His landmark book which he based upon this research, Theory of Ukrainian Folk Dance (Teopiя Українського Hapoднoго Taнкa) (1919), brought together for the first time the various steps and terminology now recognized by all contemporary students of Ukrainian dance. It also fundamentally altered the nature of Ukrainian folk dance by setting dances on a stage (with the audience seated at the front, two wings, and a backdrop), and laid out a method of transcribing folk dances, which was later put into use across the Soviet Union. This book has since been reprinted five times (the last time in 1990) and remains a basic instructional text of Ukrainian dance.
The history of Ukrainian dance diverges at this stage of Vasyl Verkhovynets career. Because of the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, it would develop contemporaneously both in Ukraine as well outside of the Iron curtain for more than 40 years. In Ukraine, Verkhovynets remained involved in the training of the next generation of dancers, while outside of Ukraine Vasyl Avramenko, building on Verkhovynets' work, would develop the art form in the Ukrainian diaspora.
Development in Ukraine
Classical choreographers in Ukraine began to turn to Vasyl Verkhovynets for his expertise when incorporating the increasingly popular folk motifs into their works. In addition to established names like V. Lytvynenko and Leonid Zhukov, younger choreographers like Pavlo Virsky, Mykola Bolotov, and Halyna Beryozova were choreographing with folk steps and forms. During this period (between the world wars), the three-part Hopak was developed by Verkhovynets.
In 1937, Pavlo Virsky and Mykola Bolotov founded the State Folk Dance Ensemble of the Ukrainian SSR, with the goal of elevating folk-stage dance to its highest artistic level, and solidifying it as a viable stage art form. Although the group was disbanded during the Second World War, Lydia Chereshnova (who had directed the Ukrainian Song and Dance Ensemble entertaining troops during the war) brought it back into existence in 1951. After Vakhtang Vronsky of the Odesa Opera Theatre directed for a few seasons, Pavlo Virsky returned as artistic director of the State Folk Dance Ensemble of the Ukrainian SSR from 1955 until his death in 1975. During this twenty-year period, Pavlo Virsky demonstrated tremendous creativity in his choreography and propelled Ukrainian Folk-Stage Dance to a world-renowned level.
Other notable Ukrainian choreographers and companies include:
The Ukrainian Folk Choir, founded under the direction of Hryhoriy Veryovka in Kharkiv in 1943, including a contingent of dancers under directors Oleksander Dmytrenko, Leonid Kalinin, and later O. Homyn.
The Chornohora Songs and Dance Ensemble was founded by in 1946, and renamed Halychyna in 1956.
The Dnipropetrovsk Dance Ensemble was founded in Dnipro prior to WWII, and flourished under Kim Vasylenko from 1947. Vasylenko has written numerous times on the topic of Ukrainian folk-stage dance, including the classic Lexicon of Ukrainian Folk-Stage Dance.
The Yatran Dance Ensemble was founded in Kropyvnytskyi in 1949, and gained great renown beginning in 1957 under director Anatoliy Krivokhyzha
Development in North America
Ukrainian immigrants brought their native traditions to the lands they settled, largely in Canada, Australia, the United States, and South America. Many village dances had survived the trip abroad and retained their traditional place at community gatherings (as documented in Andriy Nahachevskyy's book Social Dances of Ukrainian-Canadians). However, it was through the work of Vasyl Avramenko that Ukrainian dance secured a foothold in the West, developing as its own artform.
Vasyl Avramenko (1895–1981), began his career as a dance instructor at a Polish internment camp in 1921, having previously studied the theatrical arts in Kyiv, and later with Mykola Sadovsky's troupe, where he met and received training from Vasyl Verkhovynets. After the war, Avramenko toured western Ukraine, instructing where he could, but eventually setting out to spread Ukrainian dance throughout the world. After travelling through Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Germany, Avramenko came to Canada in 1925.
Avramenko was able to create a dance troupe by enlisting local immigrants in Canada almost immediately upon his arrival. His missionary zeal soon spread a series of dance schools throughout Canada, including the cities of Toronto, Calgary, Oshawa, Hamilton, Fort William, Port Arthur, Kenora, Winnipeg, Edmonton, Yorkton, Regina, Vegreville, Canora, Dauphin, Windsor, and many others.
Eventually, Avramenko would establish schools in the United States, including New York City, Philadelphia, Detroit, Cleveland, Utica, Yonkers, Buffalo, Boston, and others.
Avramenko created many Ukrainian dance groups in his lifetime. A nomad by nature, he would often stay in one area for only 2–3 months at a time, or about as long as it took him to teach his entire set of dances to a new group of students. When he eventually left a town, Avramenko would appoint a leader to continue teaching the dances. Many of these appointed leaders later created their own Ukrainian dance groups. One of these leaders was Chester Kuc, who in 1959 became the first Artistic Director of the Ukrainian Shumka Dancers and founded the Cheremosh Ukrainian Dance Company in Edmonton in 1969. Because of this "Johnny Appleseed" approach to his artform, Vasyl Avremenko is known in the Ukrainian diaspora as the "Father of Ukrainian Dance", and is credited with spreading this Ukrainian dancing across the world.
Avramenko's students toured much of North America, performing to tremendous acclaim at important venues such as World's Fairs, and the White House. He once even gathered over 500 dancers to appear on stage with him in a lavish evening of Ukrainian dance performed at New York's Metropolitan Opera House, in 1931. Avramenko eventually moved into film production in the United States, producing film versions of the Ukrainian operas Natalka Poltavka and Cossacks in Exile, as well as other Ukrainian dramas, starring Ukrainian immigrants, and always featuring Ukrainian dancing.
In 1978, the Ukrainian Dance Workshop was started in New York by several leading teachers of Ukrainian dance in North America, including Roma Pryma-Bohachevsky. Trained in Lviv, Vienna, and later Winnipeg, Pryma-Bohachevsky had toured the world before settling in the United States and becoming the country's most prolific teacher and choreographer of Ukrainian Folk-Stage Dance. For over twenty-five years, her direction of the Ukrainian Dance Workshop, and her Syzokryli Ukrainian Dance Ensemble, not only developed some of the finest Ukrainian dancers of North America, but also attracted already-established dancers. This combined pool of talent allowed Roma Pryma to try ever more innovative choreography, evoking modern Ukrainian themes such as the murder of outspoken musician Volodymyr Ivasiuk and the Chernobyl disaster. After developing the next generation of Ukrainian folk-stage dance instructors, establishing numerous schools and instructional intensives, choreographing hundreds of dances, and teaching thousands of students, Pryma-Bohachevsky died in 2004.
Development in Australia
One of the leading figures in the instruction of Ukrainian dance in Australia was Vladimir Kania, who organized his first adult dance ensemble in Perth in 1951, and ran that ensemble and others for decades. Kania had been trained in Ukrainian dance in his hometown of Jarosław.
Another early innovator in Australia was Natalia Tyrawski, who founded the Ukrainian National Ballet (later renamed "Veselka") in 1952 in Sydney. Tyrawski had studied and performed professionally in Ukraine, and continued to teach Ukrainian dance in Australia for almost fifty years.
In the 1960s, Vasyl Avramenko visited Australia and experienced similar successes in developing dancers on yet another continent and promoting the Ukrainian Folk-Stage Dance style which he and Vasyl Verkhovynets had pioneered. Most of Avramenko's influence in Australia stemmed from his massive workshops, which were attended by students of various ages.
Marina Berezowsky moved to Perth, Australia with her husband in 1949, after having performed with numerous dance companies in Ukraine. After working extensively with the West Australian Ballet and the Australian Ballet School, she founded and became artistic director and resident choreographer of the Kolobok Dance Company in Melbourne in 1970, in the wake of successful Australian tours by various international folk dance companies. Kolobok's goal was to give artistic expression to the varied dance traditions brought to Australia by Ukrainians and other immigrants.
The "Kuban Cossacks" dance troupe was formed in 1956 in Melbourne, and led by Wasyl and Lilly Kowalenko, achieved international success for their performances of Ukrainian cossack dances and songs. By 1989 the troupe had appeared in 13,000 live shows in 30 countries, and had appeared on 160 television shows.
Regional styles of dance
Ukrainian folk dance was fundamentally altered when it began to be performed on stage, as it was transformed into a new art form: Ukrainian folk-stage dance. Once dance masters such as Verkhovynets and Avramenko began gathering a repertoire of dances and touring Ukrainian lands with their troupes, teaching workshops in the villages as they went, the inherent regional variations which stemmed from the improvisational nature of pre-modern Ukrainian folk dances began to slowly fade. The types of dances one would see in one part of the country began to be performed in other parts of the country, and "Ukrainian dances" became a more homogeneous group.
Ukraine has many ethnocultural regions, many with their own music, dialect, form of dress, and dance steps. The scholarship of Verkhovynets and Avramenko, however, was mostly limited to the villages of central Ukraine. Gradually, others began filling in the gaps of this research, by researching the dance forms of the various ethnic groups of western Ukraine, publishing this scholarship, and founding regional dance ensembles. Most of this research, however, occurred after Verkhovynets' and Avramenko had already toured Ukraine, which limited the available sources of "traditional dance" knowledge to isolated villages or the immigrant communities who left their native territories before Verkhovynets and Avramenko began touring.
Because of the spread and influence of Verkhovynets and Avramenko's early work, most of the dances representing these ethnocultural regions, as performed by modern-day Ukrainian folk-stage dance ensembles, still incorporate the basic steps of bihunets and tynok, although new variations between "regional" styles of dance have developed as a result of more and more advanced instruction and choreographies becoming prevalent. Story (character) dances, such as pantomimed fables, and staged ritual dances are not necessarily linked to particular regions.
The stage costumes adopted by modern-day Ukrainian dance ensembles are based on traditional dress, but represent an idealized image of village life, with dancers identically dressed in vibrant colors untarnished by time or nature. While the dance-steps, costumes, and music differ from dance to dance, it is important to realize that many of these variations are modern-day choreographic constructs, with changes having been made to advance the art more than to preserve cultural traditions.
The "regional dances" of Ukrainian dance include:
Central Ukrainian or Kozak (Cossack) Dances, representing the culture and traditions of the Ukrainian Kozaks (Kozaky), Poltava and other central Ukrainian lands surrounding the River Dnieper; these are the dances most commonly associated with Ukrainian dance. The culture of central and eastern Ukraine developed under many foreign influences, due to both trade and foreign invasion. The greatest indigenous cultural influence was the semi-military society of the Kozaks, whose love of social dances spawned the Hopak (), the Kozachok (), the Povzunets (), the Chumaky (), and many others. The men's costumes for these dances are styled after Kozak dress, with boots, a comfortable shirt, a sash (poyas) tied around the waist, and loose, billowy riding trousers (sharovary); common accessories include overcoats, hats, and swords. The women's costumes have subtler variations since the woman's blouse generally displays more embroidery than the men's shirt, the skirt (plakhta) is woven with various geometric and color patterns, and they wear a headpiece of flowers and ribbons (vinok). All of these pieces can vary from village to village, or even based on a family tradition, although most professional ensembles dress their performers with identical costumes, for aesthetic reasons. The style of these dances is acrobatic and physically demanding for the men, who are often showcased individually; women have traditionally played secondary roles, displaying grace and beauty while often dancing in technically demanding unison.
Hutsul Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Hutsulshchyna. While Vasyl Avramenko's Hutsul dances are notoriously inaccurate depictions of the dances of the Hutsuls, the highlanders who inhabit the Carpathian Mountains, the demand for additional research to fill in the gaps of Verkhovynets initial work eventually brought about a revived interest in Hutsul customs and traditions, and soon Hutsul and Carpathian dance ensembles had developed the second most-recognizable style of Ukrainian dance. The well-known dances of the region of Pokuttia is the Kolomyika () which is named after the biggest city of the region, Kolomea; the Hutsulka (, ). The mountainous Hutsul region of Ukraine, Hutsulshchyna, is adjacent to the Romanian regions of Bukovina and Maramureş, and the regions are ethno-culturally linked. In depicting Hutsuls dances, dancers traditionally wear leather moccasins known as postoly, and decorated vests known as keptari. Men's pants are not as loose as the kozak dress, and women wear a skirt composed of front and back panels, tied at the waist. Hutsul costumes traditionally incorporate orange, brown, green, and yellow embroidery. Hutsul dances are well known for being lively and energetic, characterized by quick stamping and intricate footwork, combined with swift vertical movements. A well-known Hutsul dance is the arkan ('lasso', cf. Romanian arcan), in which men dance around a fire.
Transcarpathian Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Ukrainian Zakarpattia. Dances from this region are known for their large sweeping movements and colourful costumes, with the general movement being "bouncy". A signature dance from this region is bereznianka.
Bukovinian Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Bukovina, a transitional highland between Ukraine and Romania, historically ruled by the Romanian Principality of Moldavia, as well as the Habsburg Empire and the Tatars. Ukrainian dances depicting Bukovinian music and dance is peppered with dichotomies and contrapuntal themes, perhaps reflecting the political histories of the region. In these dances, both men and women perform a variety of foot-stamps. Usually, the girls' headpieces are very distinctive, consisting of tall wheat stalks, ostrich feathers, or other unique protuberances. The embroidery on the blouses and shirts is typically stitched with darker and heavier threads, and women's skirts are sometimes open at the front, revealing an embroidered slip.
Volyn' Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Volyn'. This region is located in north-western Ukraine. The representative costumes worn by Ukrainian dancers are bright and vibrant, while the dance steps are characterized by energetic jumping, high legs, and lively arms. The dances representing this region have been influenced by the traditional dances of Poland, due to Volyn's geographical proximity with Poland, and Poland's extended rule over the area.
Polissian Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Polissia. The steps of Polissian dance as depicted by Ukrainian dancers are characteristically very bouncy and with emphasis on high knee movement. The costumes often incorporate white, red, and beige as the main colors, and girls often wear aprons. A popular Polissian dance is called mazurochky.
Lemko Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Lemkivshchyna. The ethnographic region of the Lemkos lays mainly in Poland, with a small part falling within current Ukrainian borders. Relatively isolated from ethnic Ukrainians, the Lemko people have a unique lifestyle and ethnography, like that of the Hutsuls, which Ukrainian dance choreographers enjoy depicting. The dance costumes typically depict the men and women with short vests, with the style of dance being light-hearted as well as lively.
Podillian Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Podillia. Podillian dances are oftentimes accompanied with the traditional custom of welcoming with bread and salt, in addition to singing ritual greetings alongside high-energy and colourful dances. Podillian dances share some similarities with those of Central Ukraine.
Boiko Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Boikivshchyna. Boiko customs, including traditional dances & folk clothing differ from that of the Lemkos & Hutsuls.
Polissian Dances, representing the cultures and traditions of Polissia. The dances in Polissia are reflective of the region’s natural geography (marsh & woodlands), performing elastic, jump-like movements softly, in a lively manner, with a gradual advance. Though Polissia also encompasses parts of Poland & Belarus, dances from Ukrainian Polissia are uninfluenced by either neighbouring country. Polissian dances place emphasis on knee movement & typically feature bouncing movements.
Romani Dances, representing the culture and traditions of Ukrainian Tsyhany: The Romani people have lived in Ukraine for centuries. Those inhabiting the Carpathian Mountains have even developed their own dialect of the Rom language, as well as customs and traditional dances limited to their own villages. Many Ukrainian folk-stage dance ensembles have incorporated stylized Tsyhans'ky ("Gypsy") dances into their repertoire (, ).
Crimean Dances, representing the culture & traditions of Crimea. Crimean dances encompasses that of Crimea’s indigenous inhabitants, the Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks & Crimean Karaites. Dances from this region heavily feature body turns, with sharp hand movements being absent. Features commonly presented in Crimean men’s dances include a slender body, arms outstretched in multiple directions and elbows bent in half. In Crimean women’s dances, majestic & graceful movements are featured, variable steps of the toes & soft hand movements. Notable Crimean dances include Haytarma, Tym-Tym, Çobani & Ağir Ava.
See also
Ukrainian dancers, 1890s and early 1900s painting series by Edgar Degas
List of ethnic, regional, and folk dances by origin
References
In English:
Lawson, Joan (1953). European Folk Dance: Its National and Musical Characteristics, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. .
Lawson, Joan (1964). Soviet Dances (selected and translated from the book, Folk Dances of the U.S.S.R. by T. Tkachenko), Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing.
Shatulsky, Myron (1980). The Ukrainian Folk Dance, Kobzar Publishing Co. Ltd. .
Zerebecky, Bohdan (1985). Ukrainian Dance Resource Booklets, Series I-IV, Ukrainian Canadian Committee, Saskatchewan Provincial Council.
In Ukrainian:
Avramenko, Vasyl (1947). Ukrainian National Dances, Music, and Costumes (Українські Національні Танки, Музика, і Cтрій), National Publishers, Ltd.
Humeniuk, Andriy (1962). Ukrainian Folk Dances (Українські Hароднi Танцi), Academy of Sciences Ukrainian of the SSR.
Humeniuk, Andriy (1963). Folk Choreographic Art of Ukraine (Hароднe Xореографiчнe Mиcтeцтвo України), Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR.
Nahachevskyy, Andriy (2001). Social Dances of Ukrainian-Canadians (Пoбytoвi Танцi Кaнaдськиx Українцiв), Rodovid. .
Pihuliak, Ivan (1979). Wasyl Avramenko and the Rebirth of Ukrainian National Dancing, Part 1 (Василь Авраменко та Відродження Українського Танку, Частина Перша), published by the author.
Poliatykin, Mykola. Folk Dances of Volyn’ and Volyn’-Polissia (Hароднi Танцi Вoлинi i Вoлинського Пoлiccя y зaпиcax Mиkoли Пoляткiнa), Volyn' Oblast Publishers.
Stas'ko, Bohdan (2004). Choreographic Arts of Ivano-Frankivs’k (Xореографiчнe Mиcтeцтвo Iвaнo-Фpaнкiвщини), Lyleya NV. .
Vasylenko, Kim (1971). Lexicon of Ukrainian Folk-Stage Dance (Лeкcикa Українського Hapoднo-Cцeнiчнoго Taнцю), Art.
Verkhovynets’, Vasyl’ (1912). Ukrainian Wedding (Українськe Вeciлля).
Verkhovynets’, Vasyl’(1919). Theory of Ukrainian Folk Dance (Teopiя Українського Hapoднoго Taнкa).
Verkhovynets’, Vasyl’ (1925). Vesnyanochka (Becнянoчкa) State Publishers of the Ukraine.
Zaitsev, Evhen (1975). Fundamentals of Folk-Stage Dance (Ocнoви Hapoднo-Cцeнiчнoго Taнцю), Books 1 and 2. Library of Amateur Art, Nos. 1 & 4
In Polish:
Harasymchuk, Roman (1939). Hutsul Dances (Tance Huculskie).
In Russian:
Vasylenko, Kim (1981). Ukrainian Folk Dance (Украинский нapoдньiй тaнeц), Samodeatelniy teatr: Repertuar i metodyka.
Tkatchenko, T. (1954). Folk Dance (Hapoдньiй Taнeц), Art.
Online:
Regions of Ukraine/Costuming:
Boiko Region
Bukovina
Dnipropetrovsk Region
Hutsul Region
Volyn’
Zakarpattia
Central Ukrainian: Hopak Costume
Bukovinian Costume
Notes
External links
Canada's National Ukrainian Festival
Alberta Ukrainian Dance Association
Cheremosh Ukrainian Dance Company
Canada’s Ukrainian Shumka Dancers
New York City based Syzokryli Ukrainian Dance Ensemble
Ukrainian Cultural Festival at Soyuzivka Heritage Center (NY)
Folk!, Trailer for a documentary film about the U.S. Ukrainian Folk Dance community
European dances
Ukrainian-Canadian culture
Ukrainian folk dances |
4192551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist%20government | Nationalist government | The Nationalist government, officially the National Government of the Republic of China (), also known as the Second Republic of China or simply as the Republic of China, refers to the government of the Republic of China from 1 July 1925 to 20 May 1948, led by the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party).
After the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution on 10 October 1911, revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen was elected Provisional President and founded the Provisional Government of the Republic of China. To preserve national unity, Sun ceded the presidency to military strongman Yuan Shikai, who established the Beiyang government. After a failed attempt to install himself as Emperor of China, Yuan died in 1916, leaving a power vacuum which resulted in China being divided into several warlord fiefdoms and rival governments. They were nominally reunified in 1928 by the Nanjing-based government led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, which after the Northern Expedition governed the country as a one-party state under the Kuomintang, and was subsequently given international recognition as the legitimate representative of China. The Nationalist government would then experience many challenges such as the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War and World War II. The government was in place until it was replaced by the current Government of the Republic of China in the newly promulgated Constitution of the Republic of China of 1948.
History
The oldest surviving republic in East Asia, the Republic of China was formally established on 1January 1912 in mainland China following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang Uprising on 10October 1911, replacing the Qing dynasty and ending nearly three thousand years of imperial rule in China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–28), Japanese invasion (1937–45), and the Chinese Civil War (1927–49), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927–37), when most of China came under the control of the Kuomintang (KMT) under an authoritarian one-party state.
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies, and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The legitimacy of this transfer is disputed and is another aspect of the disputed political status of Taiwan.
After World War II, the civil war between the ruling Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) resumed, despite attempts at mediation by the United States. The Nationalist Government began drafting the Constitution of the Republic of China under a National Assembly, but was boycotted by the CCP. With the promulgation of the constitution, the Nationalist Government abolished itself and was replaced by the Government of the Republic of China. Following their loss of the Civil War, the Nationalist Government retreated and moved their capital to Taipei while claiming that they were the legitimate government of the mainland.
Founding
After Sun's death on 12 March 1925, four months later on 1 July 1925, the National Government of the Republic of China was established in Guangzhou.
The following year, as Generalissimo of the National Revolutionary Army, Chiang Kai-shek became the de facto leader of the Kuomintang (KMT), or Chinese Nationalist Party. He especially headed the right-wing of the Nationalist Party, while the Communists formed part of the Party's left-wing. Chiang led the Northern Expedition through China with the intention of defeating the warlords and unifying the country. The National Revolutionary Army received significant aid from the Soviet Union; Chiang himself was surrounded by Soviet military advisors. Much of the Nationalist Party, however, became convinced, not without reason, that the Communists, under recent orders from the Comintern, wanted to break from the United Front and get rid of the KMT.
Chiang decided to strike first and purged the Communists, killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts took place in the south of China where peasant associations supported by the CCP were attacking landlords and local gentry, who formed a base of political support for the KMT right-wing and recruitment for Nationalist soldiers. These events eventually led to the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalist Party and the CCP. Chiang Kai-shek pushed the CCP into the interior as he sought to destroy them, and moved the Nationalist Government to Nanjing in 1927. Leftists within the KMT still allied to the CCP, led by Wang Jingwei, had established a rival Nationalist Government in Wuhan two months earlier, but soon joined Chiang in Nanjing in August 1927. By the following year, Chiang's army had captured Beijing after overthrowing the Beiyang government and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, marking the beginning the Nanjing Decade.
Nanjing Decade and War with Japan
According to Sun Yat-sen's "Three Stages of Revolution" theory, the KMT was to rebuild China in three phases: the first stage was military unification, which was carried out with the Northern Expedition; the second was "political tutelage" which was a provisional government led by the KMT to educate people about their political and civil rights, and the third stage would be constitutional government. By 1928, the Nationalists claimed that they had succeeded in reunifying China and were beginning the second stage, the period of so-called "tutelage". In 1931, they promulgated a provisional constitution that established the one-party rule of the KMT and promised eventual democratization. In practice, this meant that Chiang Kai-Shek was able to continue authoritarian rule.
Even had it been the KMT's intention, historians such as Edmund Fung argue that they may not have been able to establish a democracy under the circumstances of the time. Despite nominal reunification, the Chiang's Nationalist Government relied heavily on the support of warlords such as Ma Hushan, Yan Xishan, and Chang Hsueh-liang to exert control on the provinces. The loyalty of these figures was often highly suspect, and they frequently engaged in acts of open defiance, as in the Xi'an Incident of 1936, or even rebellion. In alliance with local landlords and other power-brokers, they blocked moderate land reforms that might have benefits the rural poor. Instead, the poor peasants remained a consistent source of recruits for the Communist Party. While weakened by frequent massacres and purges—historian Rudolph Rummel estimated that 1,654,000 people were killed by the KMT in anti-Communist purges during this period—the Communists were able to survive and posed a major latent threat to the regime. However, perhaps the biggest challenges came from within the administration itself. As Chiang Kai-Shek told the state council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse ... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep." Corruption was endemic at all levels of government. The tension between Chiang's centralizing tendencies and the warlords who supported him led to friction and inconsistent direction. Even the KMT itself was disunified, with the pro-Chiang factions of the CC Clique, Political Study Clique, and fascist-inspired Blue Shirts Society opposed by a left-wing faction under Wang Jingwei and a right-wing faction influenced by Hu Hanmin. To control the opposing KMT factions, Chiang relied increasingly on the National Revolutionary Army.
Economic growth and social improvements were mixed. The Kuomintang supported women's rights and education, the abolition of polygamy, and foot binding. The government of the Republic of China under Chiang's leadership also enacted a women's quota in the parliament with reserved seats for women. During the Nanjing Decade, the spread of education increased the literacy rate across China and promoted the ideals of Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People of democracy, republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese Nationalism based on the Political Tutelage of the Kuomintang. However, periodic famines continued: in Northern China from 1928 to 1930, in Sichuan from 1936 to 1937, and in Henan from 1942 to 1943. In total, these famines cost at least 11.7 million lives. GDP growth averaged 3.9 per cent a year from 1929 to 1941 and per capita GDP about 1.8 per cent. Among other institutions, the Nationalist Government founded the Academia Sinica and the Central Bank of China. In 1932, China for the first time sent teams to the Olympic Games.
The Nationalists faced a new challenge with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, with hostilities continuing through the Second Sino-Japanese War, part of World War II, from 1937 to 1945. The government of the Republic of China retreated from Nanjing to Chongqing. In 1945, after the war of eight years, Japan surrendered and the Republic of China, under the name "China", became one of the founding members of the United Nations. The government returned to Nanjing in 1946.
Post-World War II
After the defeat of Japan during World War II, Taiwan was surrendered to the Allies, with ROC troops accepting the surrender of the Japanese garrison. The government of the ROC proclaimed the "retrocession" of Taiwan to the Republic of China and established a provincial government on the island. The military administration of the ROC extended over Taiwan, which led to widespread unrest and increasing tensions between local Taiwanese and mainlanders. The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered an island-wide unrest, which was brutally suppressed with military force in what is now known as the February 28 Incident. Mainstream estimates of casualties range from 18,000 to 30,000, mainly Taiwanese elites. The 28 February Incident has had far-reaching effects on subsequent Taiwanese history.
From 1945 to 1947, under United States mediation, especially through the Marshall Mission, the Nationalists and Communists agreed to start a series of peace talks aiming at establishing a coalition government. The two parties agreed to open multiparty talks on post-World War II political reforms via a Political Consultative Conference. This was included in the Double Tenth Agreement. This agreement was implemented by the Nationalist Government, who organized the first Political Consultative Assembly from 10 to 31 January 1946. Representatives of the Kuomintang, CCP, Chinese Youth Party, and China Democratic League, as well as independent delegates, attended the conference in Chongqing. However, shortly afterward, the two parties failed to reach an agreement and the civil war resumed. In the context of political and military animosity, the National Assembly was summoned by the Nationalists without the participation of the CCP and promulgated the Constitution of the Republic of China. The constitution was criticized by the CCP, and led to the final break between the two sides. The full-scale civil war resumed from early 1947.
After the National Assembly election, the drafted Constitution was adopted by the National Assembly on 25 December 1946, promulgated by the National Government on 1 January 1947, and went into effect on 25 December 1947. The Constitution was seen as the third and final stage of Kuomintang reconstruction of China. Chiang Kai-shek was also elected as the 1st President of the Republic of China under the constitution by the National Assembly in 1948, with Li Zongren being elected as vice-president. The Nationalist Government was abolished on 20 May 1948, after the Government of the Republic of China was established with the presidential inauguration of Chiang. The CCP, though invited to the convention that drafted it, boycotted and declared after the ratification that not only would it not recognize the ROC constitution, but all bills passed by the Nationalist administration would be disregarded as well. Zhou Enlai challenged the legitimacy of the National Assembly in 1947 by accusing the KMT of hand-picking the members of the National Assembly 10 years earlier; claiming they thus could not legitimately represent the Chinese people.
Government
The National Government governed under a dual-party state apparatus under the ideology of Dang Guo, effectively making it a one-party state; however, existing parties continued to operate and new ones formed. After the end of the Second World War, and particularly after the passage of the constitution in 1946, the National Government was reconstituted to include multiple parties, in preparation for a full democratic government to come.
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress held in Nanjing passed the Reorganization of the National Government Act. This act stipulated the national government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the National Government being elected by KMT Central Committee. Under the national government was seven ministries – Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce. There were also additional institutions such as the Supreme Court, Control Yuan, and the General Academy.
With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the National Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches or Yuan, namely the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first Chairman of the National Government, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of political tutelage, and the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the National Government in the execution of important national affairs and that the council has the power to interpret or amend the organic law.
Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang Kai-shek. All major policy changes on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval. According to historian Odd Arne Westad, "no other leader within the GMD had the authority to force through even the simplest decisions.The practical power of high-ranking officials like ministers or the head of the Executive Yuan was more closely tied to their relationship with Chiang than with the formal authority of their position. Chiang created multiple layers of power in his administration which he sometimes played off each other to prevent individuals or cliques from gathering power that could oppose his authority.
Military
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) (), pre-1928 sometimes shortened to or Revolutionary Army and between 1928 and 1947 as or National Army was the Military Arm of the Kuomintang (KMT) from 1925 until 1947, as well as the national army of the Republic of China during the KMT's period of party rule beginning in 1928.
Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China against warlordism, the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Imperial Japanese Army, and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the CCP were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces (), with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949.
Forced conscription campaigns were conducted by the military; they are described by Rudolph Rummel as such:
"Then there was the process of conscription. This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like Buchenwald. Probably 3,081,000 died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1,131,000 during the Civil War – 4,212,000 dead in total. Just during conscription."Because of the Nationalist government's increasing inability to fund the military, especially after Japan's success in Operation Ichigo, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling. The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to press-gang peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units.
Economy
After the Kuomintang reunified the country in 1928, China entered a period of relative prosperity despite civil war and Japanese aggression. In 1937, the Japanese invaded and laid China to waste in eight years of war. The era also saw additional boycott of Japanese products.
Chinese industries continued to develop in the 1930s with the advent of the Nanjing decade in the 1930s when Chiang Kai-shek unified most of the country and brought political stability. China's industries developed and grew from 1927 to 1931. Though badly hit by the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935 and Japan's occupation of Manchuria in 1931, industrial output recovered by 1936. By 1936, industrial output had recovered and surpassed its previous peak in 1931 prior to the Great Depression's effects on China. This is best shown by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China's GDP peaked at US$28.8 billion, before falling to $21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to $23.7 billion by 1935. By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled $3.5 billion, with Japan leading ($1.4 billion) and the United Kingdom at 1 billion. By 1948, however, the capital stock had halted with investment dropping to only $3 billion, with the US and Britain leading.
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to massive falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped" in China). In 1931, imports of rice in China amounted to 21 million bushels compared with 12 million in 1928. Other goods saw even more staggering increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition leads to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices (which were cheaper) and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were 41 percent of 1921 levels. Rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels by 1934 in some areas. Under this peculiar context for rural China, the Chinese Rural Reconstruction Movement was implemented by some social activists who graduated as professors of the United States with tangible but limited progress in modernizing the tax, infrastructural, economical, cultural, and educational equipment and mechanisms of rural regions. The social activists actively coordinated with the local governments in towns and villages since the early 1930s. However, this policy was subsequently neglected and canceled by the Nationalist government due to rampant wars and the lack of resources following the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second Chinese Civil War.
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east China coast was occupied by the Japanese, who carried out various atrocities such as the Rape of Nanjing in 1937 and random massacres of whole villages. In one anti-guerrilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade. Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20 percent capacity and had 25 percent of the output of pre-war China.
One effect of the war was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government-owned industries were only 15% of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries in order to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to control and supervise firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70 percent of the capital of Chinese industry was owned by the government.
Following the war with Japan, Chiang acquired Taiwan from Japan and renewed his struggle with the Communists. However, the corruption of the KMT, as well as hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic and sympathy for the communists. Nearly all studies of the collapse of the Nationalist government identify hyperinflation as a major factor in the government's failure.
The communist land redistribution movement was an important factor in the Nationalists' defeat, particularly because it linked the interests of peasants in the north and northeast to the Communists' success.
In 1949, the People's Liberation captured Beijing and later Nanjing as well. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China central government relocated to Taipei on 7 December 1949, to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.
Former sites
Almost all of the former sites of the nationalist government are headquartered in the city of Nanking, the capital at the time, with only one exception.
When the city of Nanking was not captured by the Nationalist Government, they chose the following buildings as their headquarters.
See also
Government of the Republic of China
Kuomintang
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Beiyang government (1912–1928)
Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)
Tibet (1912–1951)
Mongolian People's Republic
Sino-German cooperation (1926–1941)
Diplomatic history of World War II
Nanjing Decade
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Bergere, Marie-Claire. Sun Yat-Sen (1998), 480 pages, the standard biography
Boorman, Howard L., et al., ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967–1979). 600 short scholarly biographies excerpt and text search. Also online at Internet Archive.
Boorman, Howard L. "Sun Yat-sen" in Boorman, ed. Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (1970) 3: 170–89, complete text online
Dreyer, Edward L. China at War, 1901–1949. (1995). 422 pp.
Eastman Lloyd. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937– 1945. (1984)
Eastman Lloyd et al. The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949 (1991)
Fairbank, John K., ed. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912–1949. Part 1. (1983). 1001 pp.
Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 2. (1986). 1092 pp.
Fogel, Joshua A. The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography (2000)
Gordon, David M. "The China-Japan War, 1931–1945," The Journal of Military History v70#1 (2006) 137–182; major historiographical overview of all important books and interpretations; online
Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine, eds. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945 (1992), essays by scholars
Hsi-sheng, Ch'i. Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945 (1982)
Hung, Chang-tai. War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937–1945 (1994) complete text online free
Lara, Diana. The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945 (2010)
Rubinstein, Murray A., ed. Taiwan: A New History (2006), 560pp
Shiroyama, Tomoko. China during the Great Depression: Market, State, and the World Economy, 1929–1937 (2008)
Shuyun, Sun. The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth (2007)
Taylor, Jay. The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China. (2009)
Westad, Odd Arne. Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. (2003). 413 pages.
External links
Politics of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
Government of the Republic of China
1927 establishments in China
1948 disestablishments in China
1920s in China
1930s in China
1940s in China
Second Sino-Japanese War |
4192777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20World%20Wide%20Web | History of the World Wide Web | The World Wide Web ("WWW", "W3" or simply "the Web") is a global information medium which users can access via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as email and Usenet do. The history of the Internet and the history of hypertext date back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web.
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web while working at CERN in 1989. He proposed a "universal linked information system" using several concepts and technologies, the most fundamental of which was the connections that existed between information. He developed the first web server, the first web browser, and a document formatting protocol, called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). After publishing the markup language in 1991, and releasing the browser source code for public use in 1993, many other web browsers were soon developed, with Marc Andreessen's Mosaic (later Netscape Navigator), being particularly easy to use and install, and often credited with sparking the Internet boom of the 1990s. It was a graphical browser which ran on several popular office and home computers, bringing multimedia content to non-technical users by including images and text on the same page.
Websites for use by the general public began to emerge in 1993-94. This spurred competition in server and browser software, highlighted in the Browser wars which was initially dominated by Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. Following the complete removal of commercial restrictions on Internet use by 1995, commercialization of the Web amidst macroeconomic factors led to the dot-com boom and bust in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
The features of HTML evolved over time, leading to HTML version 2 in 1995, HTML3 and HTML4 in 1997, and HTML5 in 2014. The language was extended with advanced formatting in Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and with programming capability by JavaScript. AJAX programming delivered dynamic content to users, which sparked a new era in Web design, styled Web 2.0. The use of social media, becoming common-place in the 2010s, allowed users to compose multimedia content without programming skills, making the Web ubiquitous in every-day life.
Background
The underlying concept of hypertext as a user interface paradigm originated in projects in the 1960s, from research such as the Hypertext Editing System (HES) by Andries van Dam at Brown University, IBM Generalized Markup Language, Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based memex, which was described in the 1945 essay "As We May Think". Other precursors were FRESS and Intermedia. Paul Otlet's project Mundaneum has also been named as an early 20th-century precursor of the Web.
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to experiment with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to another page.
When Berners-Lee built ENQUIRE, the ideas developed by Bush, Engelbart, and Nelson did not influence his work, since he was not aware of them. However, as Berners-Lee began to refine his ideas, the work of these predecessors would later help to confirm the legitimacy of his concept.
During the 1980s, many packet-switched data networks emerged based on various communication protocols (see Protocol Wars). One of these standards was the Internet protocol suite, which is often referred to as TCP/IP. As the Internet grew through the 1980s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize files and use information. By 1985, the Domain Name System (upon which the Uniform Resource Locator is built) came into being. Many small, self-contained hypertext systems were created, such as Apple Computer's HyperCard (1987).
Berners-Lee's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software. Shortly after Berners-Lee's return to CERN, TCP/IP protocols were installed on Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe. In 1988, the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was established and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. He was inspired by a book, Enquire Within upon Everything.
1989–1991: Origins
CERN
While working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee became frustrated with the inefficiencies and difficulties posed by finding information stored on different computers. On 12 March 1989, he submitted a memorandum, titled "Information Management: A Proposal", to the management at CERN. The proposal used the term "web" and was based on "a large hypertext database with typed links". It described a system called "Mesh" that referenced ENQUIRE, the database and software project he had built in 1980, with a more elaborate information management system based on links embedded as text: "Imagine, then, the references in this document all being associated with the network address of the thing to which they referred, so that while reading this document, you could skip to them with a click of the mouse." Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the existing meanings of the word hypertext, a term that he says was coined in the 1950s. Berners-Lee notes the possibility of multimedia documents that include graphics, speech and video, which he terms hypermedia.
Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners-Lee was encouraged by his manager, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web. Berners-Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in his colleague and fellow hypertext enthusiast Robert Cailliau who began to promote the proposed system throughout CERN. Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners-Lee's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision.
Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested to members of both technical communities that a marriage between the two technologies was possible. But, when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies:
a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier (UDI), later known as uniform resource locator (URL);
the publishing language Hypertext Markup Language (HTML);
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
With help from Cailliau he published a more formal proposal on 12 November 1990 to build a "hypertext project" called World Wide Web (abbreviated "W3") as a "web" of "hypertext documents" to be viewed by "browsers" using a client–server architecture. The proposal was modelled after the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration.
At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for about two months and the first web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. Berners-Lee's proposal estimated that a read-only Web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available".
By December 1990, Berners-Lee and his work team had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a web editor), the first web server (later known as CERN httpd) and the first web site (http://info.cern.ch) containing the first web pages that described the project itself was published on 20 December 1990. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the web server and also to write the web browser.
Working with Berners-Lee at CERN, Nicola Pellow wrote a simple text browser that could run on almost any computer, the Line Mode Browser, which worked with a command-line interface.
1991–1994: The Web goes public, early growth
Initial launch
In January 1991, the first web servers outside CERN were switched on. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt.hypertext, inviting collaborators.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM/CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to host the SPIRES-HEP database and display SLAC's catalog of online documents. This was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America.
The World Wide Web had several differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The Web required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn, presented the chronic problem of link rot.
Early browsers
The WorldWideWeb browser only ran on NeXTSTEP operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992, and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei-Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix. In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11-ported Mosaic browser. ViolaWWW became the recommended browser at CERN. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web—previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers. The Web was successful at CERN and spread to other scientific and academic institutions.
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text-only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web in 1992. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was not worth visiting.
In these earliest browsers, images opened in a separate "helper" application.
From Gopher to the WWW
In the early 1990s, Internet-based projects such as Archie, Gopher, Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS), and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Gopher was a document browsing system for the Internet, released in 1991 by the University of Minnesota. Invented by Mark P. McCahill, it became the first commonly used hypertext interface to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way. In less than a year, there were hundreds of Gopher servers. It offered a viable alternative to the World Wide Web in the early 1990s and the consensus was that Gopher would be the primary way that people would interact with the Internet. However, in 1993, the University of Minnesota declared that Gopher was proprietary and would have to be licensed.
In response, on 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due, and released their code into the public domain. This made it possible to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. Coming two months after the announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this spurred the development of various browsers which precipitated a rapid shift away from Gopher. By releasing Berners-Lee's invention for public use, CERN encouraged and enabled its widespread use.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What's New" page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
After 1993 the World Wide Web saw many advances to indexing and ease of access through search engines, which often neglected Gopher and Gopherspace. As its popularity increased through ease of use, incentives for commercial investment in the Web also grew. By the middle of 1994, the Web was outcompeting Gopher and the other browsing systems for the Internet.
NCSA
The National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (UIUC) established a website in November 1992. After Marc Andreessen, a student at UIUC, was shown ViolaWWW in late 1992, he began work on Mosaic with another UIUC student Eric Bina, using funding from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US-federal research and development program initiated by US Senator Al Gore. Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features. Historians generally agree that the 1993 introduction of the Mosaic web browser was a turning point for the World Wide Web.
Before the release of Mosaic in 1993, graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages, and the Web was less popular than older protocols such as Gopher and WAIS. Mosaic could display inline images and submit forms for Windows, Macintosh and X-Windows. NCSA also developed HTTPd, a Unix web server that used the Common Gateway Interface to process forms and Server Side Includes for dynamic content. Both the client and server were free to use with no restrictions. Mosaic was an immediate hit; its graphical user interface allowed the Web to become by far the most popular protocol on the Internet. Within a year, web traffic surpassed Gopher's. Wired declared that Mosaic made non-Internet online services obsolete, and the Web became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet.
Early growth
The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularising use of the Internet. Although the two terms are sometimes conflated in popular use, World Wide Web is not synonymous with Internet. The Web is an information space containing hyperlinked documents and other resources, identified by their URIs. It is implemented as both client and server software using Internet protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP.
In keeping with its origins at CERN, early adopters of the Web were primarily university-based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as SLAC and Fermilab. By January 1993 there were fifty web servers across the world. By October 1993 there were over five hundred servers online, including some notable websites.
Practical media distribution and streaming media over the Web was made possible by advances in data compression, due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media. Following the introduction of the Web, several media formats based on discrete cosine transform (DCT) were introduced for practical media distribution and streaming over the Web, including the MPEG video format in 1991 and the JPEG image format in 1992. The high level of image compression made JPEG a good format for compensating slow Internet access speeds, typical in the age of dial-up Internet access. JPEG became the most widely used image format for the World Wide Web. A DCT variation, the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) algorithm, led to the development of MP3, which was introduced in 1991 and became the first popular audio format on the Web.
In 1992 the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed by David Williams, withdrew support of Berners-Lee's work. A two-page email sent by Williams stated that the work of Berners-Lee, with the goal of creating a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners-Lee left CERN for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he continued to develop HTTP.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.
1994–2004: Open standards, going global
The rate of web site deployment increased sharply around the world, and fostered development of international standards for protocols and content formatting. Berners-Lee continued to stay involved in guiding web standards, such as the markup languages to compose web pages, and he advocated his vision of a Semantic Web (sometimes known as Web 3.0) based around machine-readability and interoperability standards.
World Wide Web Conference
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since.
World Wide Web Consortium
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in September/October 1994 in order to create open standards for the Web. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet. A year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national computer research lab) with support from the European Commission; and in 1996, a third continental site was created in Japan at Keio University.
W3C comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone. Netscape and Microsoft, in the middle of a browser war, ignored the W3C and added elements to HTML ad hoc (e.g., blink and marquee). Finally, in 1995, Netscape and Microsoft came to their senses and agreed to abide by the W3C's standard.
The W3C published the standard for HTML 4 in 1997, which included Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), giving designers more control over the appearance of web pages without the need for additional HTML tags. The W3C could not enforce compliance so none of the browsers were fully compliant. This frustrated web designers who formed the Web Standards Project (WaSP) in 1998 with the goal of cajoling compliance with standards. A List Apart and CSS Zen Garden were influential websites that promoted good design and adherence to standards. Nevertheless, AOL halted development of Netscape and Microsoft was slow to update IE. Mozilla and Apple both released browsers that aimed to be more standards compliant (Firefox and Safari), but were unable to dislodge IE as the dominant browser.
Commercialization, dot-com boom and bust, aftermath
As the Web grew in the mid-1990s, web directories and primitive search engines were created to index pages and allow people to find things. Commercial use restrictions on the Internet were lifted in 1995 when NSFNET was shut down.
In the US, the online service America Online (AOL) offered their users a connection to the Internet via their own internal browser, using a dial-up Internet connection. In January 1994, Yahoo! was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo, then students at Stanford University. Yahoo! Directory became the first popular web directory. Yahoo! Search, launched the same year, was the first popular search engine on the World Wide Web. Yahoo! became the quintessential example of a first mover on the Web.
Online shopping began to emerge with the launch of Amazon's shopping site by Jeff Bezos in 1995 and eBay by Pierre Omidyar the same year.
By 1994, Marc Andreessen's Netscape Navigator superseded Mosaic in popularity, holding the position for some time. Bill Gates outlined Microsoft's strategy to dominate the Internet in his Tidal Wave memo in 1995. With the release of Windows 95 and the popular Internet Explorer browser, many public companies began to develop a Web presence. At first, people mainly anticipated the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information. By the late 1990s, the directory model had given way to search engines, corresponding with the rise of Google Search, which developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.
Netscape had a very successful IPO valuing the company at $2.9 billion despite the lack of profits and triggering the dot-com bubble. Increasing familiarity with the Web led to the growth of direct Web-based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. Many dot-com companies, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web. Over the next 5 years, over a trillion dollars was raised to fund thousands of startups consisting of little more than a website.
During the dot-com boom, many companies vied to create a dominant web portal in the belief that such a website would best be able to attract a large audience that in turn would attract online advertising revenue. While most of these portals offered a search engine, they were not interested in encouraging users to find other websites and leave the portal and instead concentrated on "sticky" content. In contrast, Google was a stripped-down search engine that delivered superior results. It was a hit with users who switched from portals to Google. Furthermore, with AdWords, Google had an effective business model.
AOL bought Netscape in 1998. In spite of their early success, Netscape was unable to fend off Microsoft. Internet Explorer and a variety of other browsers almost completely replaced it.
Faster broadband internet connections replaced many dial-up connections from the beginning of the 2000s.
With the bursting of the dot-com bubble, many web portals either scaled back operations, floundered, or shut down entirely. AOL disbanded Netscape in 2003.
Web server software
Web server software was developed to allow computers to act as web servers. The first web servers supported only static files, such as HTML (and images), but now they commonly allow embedding of server side applications. Web framework software enabled building and deploying web applications. Content management systems (CMS) were developed to organize and facilitate collaborative content creation. Many of them were built on top of separate content management frameworks.
After Robert McCool joined Netscape, development on the NCSA HTTPd server languished. In 1995, Brian Behlendorf and Cliff Skolnick created a mailing list to coordinate efforts to fix bugs and make improvements to HTTPd. They called their version of HTTPd, Apache. Apache quickly became the dominant server on the Web. After adding support for modules, Apache was able to allow developers to handle web requests with a variety of languages including Perl, PHP and Python. Together with Linux and MySQL, it became known as the LAMP platform.
Following the success of Apache, the Apache Software Foundation was founded in 1999 and produced many open source web software projects in the same collaborative spirit.
Browser wars
After graduating from UIUC, Andreessen and Jim Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994 to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator, which soon became the dominant web client. They also released the Netsite Commerce web server which could handle SSL requests, thus enabling e-commerce on the Web. SSL became the standard method to encrypt web traffic. Navigator 1.0 also introduced cookies, but Netscape did not publicize this feature. Netscape followed up with Navigator 2 in 1995 introducing frames, Java applets and JavaScript. In 1998, Netscape made Navigator open source and launched Mozilla.
Microsoft licensed Mosaic from Spyglass and released Internet Explorer 1.0 that year and IE2 later the same year. IE2 added features pioneered at Netscape such as cookies, SSL, and JavaScript. The browser wars became a competition for dominance when Explorer was bundled with Windows. This led to the United States v. Microsoft Corporation antitrust lawsuit.
IE3, released in 1996, added support for Java applets, ActiveX, and CSS. At this point, Microsoft began bundling IE with Windows. IE3 managed to increase Microsoft's share of the browser market from under 10% to over 20%. IE4, released the following year, introduced Dynamic HTML setting the stage for the Web 2.0 revolution. By 1998, IE was able to capture the majority of the desktop browser market. It would be the dominant browser for the next fourteen years.
Google released their Chrome browser in 2008 with the first JIT JavaScript engine, V8. Chrome overtook IE to become the dominant desktop browser in four years, and overtook Safari to become the dominant mobile browser in two. At the same time, Google open sourced Chrome's codebase as Chromium.
Ryan Dahl used Chromium's V8 engine in 2009 to power an event driven runtime system, Node.js, which allowed JavaScript code to be used on servers as well as browsers. This led to the development of new software stacks such as MEAN. Thanks to frameworks such as Electron, developers can bundle up node applications as standalone desktop applications such as Slack.
Acer and Samsung began selling Chromebooks, cheap laptops running ChromeOS capable of running web apps, in 2011. Over the next decade, more companies offered Chromebooks. Chromebooks outsold MacOS devices in 2020 to become the second most popular OS in the world.
Other notable web browsers emerged including Mozilla's Firefox, Opera's Opera browser and Apple's Safari.
2004–present: The Web as platform, ubiquity
Web 2.0
Web pages were initially conceived as structured documents based upon HTML. They could include images, video, and other content, although the use of media was initially relatively limited and the content was mainly static. By the mid-2000s, new approaches to sharing and exchanging content, such as blogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. The video-sharing website YouTube launched the concept of user-generated content. As new technologies made it easier to create websites that behaved dynamically, the Web attained greater ease of use and gained a sense of interactivity which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. This new era also brought into existence social networking websites, such as Friendster, MySpace, Facebook, and Twitter, and photo- and video-sharing websites such as Flickr and, later, Instagram which gained users rapidly and became a central part of youth culture. Wikipedia's user-edited content quickly displaced the professionally-written Microsoft Encarta. The popularity of these sites, combined with developments in the technology that enabled them, and the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. This new media-rich model for information exchange, featuring user-generated and user-edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0, a term coined in 1999 and popularized in 2004 at the Web 2.0 Conference. The Web 2.0 boom drew investment from companies worldwide and saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a newly "democratized" Web.
JavaScript made the development of interactive web applications possible. Web pages could run JavaScript and respond to user input, but they could not interact with the network. Browsers could submit data to servers via forms and receive new pages, but this was slow compared to traditional desktop applications. Developers that wanted to offer sophisticated applications over the Web used Java or nonstandard solutions such as Adobe Flash or Microsoft's ActiveX.
Microsoft added a little noticed feature in 1999 called XMLHttpRequest to MSIE. Developers at Oddpost used this feature in 2002 to create the first Ajax application, a webmail client that performed as well as a desktop application. Ajax apps were revolutionary. Web pages evolved beyond static documents to full-blown applications. Websites began offering APIs in addition to webpages. Developers created a plethora of Ajax apps including widgets, mashups and new types of social apps. Analysts called it Web 2.0.
Browser vendors improved the performance of their JavaScript engines and dropped support for Flash and Java. Traditional client server applications were replaced by cloud apps. Amazon reinvented itself as a cloud service provider.
The use of social media on the Web has become ubiquitous in everyday life. The 2010s also saw the rise of streaming services, such as Netflix.
In spite of the success of Web 2.0 applications, the W3C forged ahead with their plan to replace HTML with XHTML and represent all data in XML. In 2004, representatives from Mozilla, Opera, and Apple formed an opposing group, the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG), dedicated to improving HTML while maintaining backward compatibility. For the next several years, websites did not transition their content to XHTML; browser vendors did not adopt XHTML2; and developers eschewed XML in favor of JSON. By 2007, the W3C conceded and announced they were restarting work on HTML and in 2009, they officially abandoned XHTML. In 2019, the W3C ceded control of the HTML specification, now called the HTML Living Standard, to WHATWG.
Microsoft rewrote their Edge browser in 2021 to use Chromium as its code base in order to be more compatible with Chrome.
Security, censorship and cybercrime
The increasing use of encrypted connections (HTTPS) enabled e-commerce and online banking. Nonetheless, the 2010s saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as internet censorship and the growth of cybercrime, including web-based cyberattacks and ransomware.
Mobile
Early attempts to allow wireless devices to access the Web used simplified formats such as i-mode and WAP. Apple introduced the first smartphone in 2007 with a full-featured browser. Other companies followed suit and in 2011, smartphone sales overtook PCs. Since 2016, most visitors access websites with mobile devices which led to the adoption of responsive web design.
Apple, Mozilla, and Google have taken different approaches to integrating smartphones with modern web apps. Apple initially promoted web apps for the iPhone, but then encouraged developers to make native apps. Mozilla announced Web APIs in 2011 to allow webapps to access hardware features such as audio, camera or GPS. Frameworks such as Cordova and Ionic allow developers to build hybrid apps. Mozilla released a mobile OS designed to run web apps in 2012, but discontinued it in 2015.
Google announced specifications for Accelerated Mobile Pages (AMP), and progressive web applications (PWA) in 2015. AMPs use a combination of HTML, JavaScript, and Web Components to optimize web pages for mobile devices; and PWAs are web pages that, with a combination of web workers and manifest files, can be saved to a mobile device and opened like a native app.
Web 3.0 and Web3
The extension of the Web to facilitate data exchange was explored as an approach to create a Semantic Web (sometimes called Web 3.0). This involved using machine-readable information and interoperability standards to enable context-understanding programs to intelligently select information for users. Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access a lot of new content.
Web3 (sometimes also referred to as Web 3.0) is an idea for a decentralized Web based on public blockchains, smart contracts, digital tokens and digital wallets.
Historiography
Historiography of the Web poses specific challenges including, disposable data, missing links, lost content and archived websites, which have consequences for web historians. Sites such as the Internet Archive aim to preserve content.
See also
History of email
History of hypertext
History of the Internet
History of telecommunication
History of web syndication technology
List of websites founded before 1995
References
Further reading
External links
Web History: first 30 years
"A Little History of the World Wide Web: from 1945 to 1995", Dan Connolly, W3C, 2000
"The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future", Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996
The History of the Web
Web Development History
A Brief(ish) History of the Web Universe, Brian Kardell
Web History Community Group, W3C
The history of the Web, W3C
info.cern.ch, the first website
World Wide Web
World Wide Web
World Wide Web |
4193325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dents%20du%20Midi | Dents du Midi | The Dents du Midi (; French: "teeth of south") are a three-kilometre-long mountain range in the Chablais Alps in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. Overlooking the Val d'Illiez and the Rhône valley to the south, they face the Lac de Salanfe, an artificial reservoir, and are part of the geological ensemble of the Giffre massif. Their seven peaks are, from north-east to south-west: the Cime de l'Est, the Forteresse, the Cathédrale, the Éperon, the Dent Jaune, the Doigts and the Haute Cime. They are mainly composed of limestone rock, with gritty limestone rock in the upper parts.
The Dents du Midi are accessible from Champéry, les Cerniers, Mex, Salvan and Vérossaz, but they have only been climbed since the end of the 18th century. A footpath around the Dents du Midi has existed since 1975. The mountain range represents a local symbol and is often used to promote the Val d'Illiez and various brands and associations in the region.
Names
The first name of the Dents du Midi was "" ("alpine pasture of Chalen"), dating from 1342. It was later transformed into Chalin and which gave its name to a glacier, a hamlet and a mountain refuge. The term "" was first mentioned in 1656 in the book by pastor Jean-Baptiste Plantin. During the 19th century several names were used. In writing, the most common were "" or ", but the inhabitants of the Val d'Illiez used "" or "", from the Tsalin patois word meaning "high bare pasture". The name "" ("teeth of south") seems to come from the fact that during the 20th century, the inhabitants of the Val d'Illiez used the massif to tell the time. This theory is supported by the old name of the Dent de Bonavau, to the south-east, which was called "" ("tooth of one o'clock") on maps published in 1928.
The Cime de l'Est (eastern peak) was called "" before 1636, then, after a landslide, "" in honour of the Archangel Michael and finally "" ("black tooth") until the first maps. Five of the summits had no names at the time. At the end of the 19th century, the names Forteresse (Fortress), Cathédrale (Cathedral), Éperon (Spur) and Dent Jaune (Yellow Tooth) appeared after the first ascents, although the Éperon and the Dent Jaune still bore the names "" (ruined tooth) and "" (red tooth) on several maps until around 1915. In that year, the "" (Champéry's finger) and the "" (Salanfe's finger) were grouped together under a common name and became Les Doigts ("the fingers"). The Haute Cime also had several names: "" (west peak), "" (tooth of south), "" (tooth of Tsallen) and "" (tooth of Challent).
Geography
Location
The Dents du Midi are situated on the border between the communes of Val-d'Illiez and Evionnaz. The north face rises above the Val d'Illiez while the south face overlooks the , an artificial reservoir. The ridge of the chain is situated at an altitude varying between ; it is visible from Montreux, to the north, as well as from the whole of the Rhône plain of the . The Dents du Midi are oriented along an axis running from north-east to south-east over a length of .
Topography
The main summits of the Dents du Midi are, from north-east to south-west: (), (), (), (), (), () and (, highest point). The chain is part of the Giffre massif, of which it is the northern limit and which continues south to the Mont Blanc massif.
There are three passes between the different summits: the Cime de l'Est pass (), the (Soi window) between the Forteresse and the La Cathédrale () and the (Dents du Midi pass) between the Dent Jaune and the Doigts (). A fourth, the (the lazy ones' pass), is situated below the Haute Cime (). The Dents du Midi are linked to the Tour Sallière by a ridge to the south. It is on this ridge that the (Susanfe pass) is located, which allows one to pass from the valley of Susanfe to that of Salanfe.
Geology
The Dents du Midi appeared about 60 million years ago, during the continental collision between the Africa and Europe. The collision caused folds in the tectonic plate, which caused the Dents du Midi to protrude from the surface. They represent the frontal hinge of the Morcles nappe, which extends to the south-west and includes Mont Joly and the Aravis mountain range in Savoie and Haute-Savoie. When they were formed, the Dents du Midi were connected with the Dent de Morcles. The current shape of the Dents du Midi appeared during the Würm glaciation, the last of the great glaciations, which began 100,000 years ago. It was then that the chain was separated from the Dent de Morcles by the Rhône glacier, that the glacier of the Val d'Illiez cleared the flysch at the base of the Dents du Midi and that the regional waters shaped the summits according to the weaknesses of the rock. According to certain sources, the Éperon was the highest point of the Dents du Midi in the 18th century. The shape of the summit and the presence of boulders towards the Salanfe lake suggest that it collapsed.
The summits of the Dents du Midi are formed mainly from limestone rocks formed during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic in the Paleocean Tethys. Among these, we find, on the north face, Urgonian Limestone, formed during the Cretaceous by rudists in a light band at the base of the massif and interspersed with a younger and very dark layer formed by nummulites. Higher up, there is gritty limestone, dating from the Valanginian, which is distinguished by a darker colour. The southern face is made of Cretaceous limestones which cover a sedimentary layer dating from the Triassic. Native flysch appeared during the Alpine folds and covers this layer on the north face. This flysch is formed from clay, elastic quartz and pyrite among other materials.
Hydrography
There are three glaciers on the chain of the Dents du Midi: the Plan Névé glacier on the south face, and the Chalin and Soi glaciers (also spelled Soy or Soie) on the north face. The latter supplies the Lac de Soi, a small mountain lake located at an altitude of . A torrent of the same name starts there and flows into the Vièze. The Lac de Salanfe, which is situated on the southern slope of the Dents du Midi, at an altitude of , supplies the Bains de Val-d'Illiez, a thermal park, situated below the northern slope at an altitude of and from the lake. The hot spring appeared in 1953 after several minor earthquakes. Its origin was unknown until 2001, when a scientific investigation concluded that the water came from a leak to the south of the lake.
Seismicity and landslides
According to the Swiss Seismological Service, the Cime de l'Est and the entire southern face are in seismic risk zone 3b, the category of the most exposed regions, while the northern slope is in seismic risk zone 3a.
There is a large amount of scree on the Dents du Midi. In 1925, the eastern face of the Cime de l'Est collapsed; landslides reached the Bois Noir region in Saint-Maurice over several days, destroying roads and the town's water supply system. Other notable collapses took place in 563, 1635, 1636 and 1835. The last major landslide took place in 2006: of rock broke away from the Haute Cime on the northern slope. These events are high-altitude phenomena and generally do not involve dwellings.
Climate
According to Köppen climate classification, the climate of the Dents du Midi is a tundra climate (ET). There is no weather station on the Dents du Midi. The most representative nearby station is the one on the Rosa Plateau, located to the south-east at an altitude of . The climate in both places has very cold winters and cool summers. The Dents du Midi act as a dam against the air masses coming from the northwest, creating precipitation around the peaks and over the villages of the Val d'Illiez.
Fauna and Flora
The massif of the Dents du Midi spans an elevation difference of over 2,800 metres, therefore hosting a wide variety of ecosystems, from deciduous forests, to coniferous forests, alpine tundra and glaciers. The highest section of the Dents du Midi is located between the subalpine zone and the snow line, above the tree line. The unstabilised scree slopes at an altitude of around only leave room for particular plant species. For example, the Noccaea rotundifolia, the yellow mountain saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides) and the purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia) or the Artemisia can be found in hard-to-reach places. Rare plants such as Viola cenisia can be found near glaciers. Above , the Dents du Midi are covered with snow nine months of the year which means there is very little vegetation. The rare plants that grow here are Bavarian gentians (Gentiana bavarica), snow willow (Salix reticulata) and Ranunculus alpestris.
The fauna of the Dents du Midi is, as in the whole of the Valais Alps, mainly composed of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), marmots (Marmota) and alpine ibex (Capra ibex). It also includes various species of birds, such as the wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria), the rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta), the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and sometimes the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Approximately 40,000 fry are introduced each year into Lac de Salanfe, where fishing is permitted. Finally, herds of cows are sometimes pastured around the lake.
History
The Val d'Illiez has been inhabited since ancient history, but it was not until the end of the 18th century that the first recorded ascents of the Dents du Midi were made. In ancient times, the mountains inspired awe and were sometimes considered to be inhabited by the Devil. In 1784, the vicar of Val-d'Illiez, Jean-Maurice Clément, a passionate mountaineer, became the first to climb the Haute Cime. In 1832, the priest of Val-d'Illiez Jean-Joseph Gillabert had the first Christian cross installed at the summit of the Haute Cime. Ten years later, on August 16, 1842, an expedition led by Nicolas Délez and including canon Bruchon of Saint-Maurice Abbey and four other people made the first ascent of the Cime de l'Est. Having set off from the mountain pasture of Salanfe, canon Bruchon declared in a text for the Gazette du Simplon that he had gone through "a thousand difficulties" to reach the summit, but described the view as "the most ravishing spectacle". The conditions being very difficult, the Cime de l'Est was climbed very little during the rest of the 19th century. Some had to climb it several times before they succeeded, and the bells of the church of Salvan rang every time someone reached the summit. At the beginning of the 20th century, however, this tradition came to an end, as there were now more than a hundred climbs a year.
On June 7, 1870, the writer and mountaineer Émile Javelle, accompanied by a guide, was the first to reach the summit of the Forteresse. The Dent Jaune was climbed for the first time on August 24, 1879. The climb, which lasted only one day, was led by guides Fournier and Bochatay. The ascent was made easier by the proximity of the Alpe de Salanfe, where one can take refuge in case of difficulties. Two years later, on August 31, 1881, Auguste Wagnon, Beaumont and their guide Édouard Jacottet achieved the first ascent of the Cathédrale. Les Doigts were climbed in two stages: first the Doigt de Champéry in 1886 by Wagnon, Beaumont and a guide, then the Doigt de Salanfe by Breugel and his guide in 1892. The last summit to be climbed was the Éperon, on August 8, 1892, by Janin and his guide.
In 1902, during the topographical levelling of Switzerland for the Federal Office of Topography, Heinrich Wild, the founder of Wild Heerbrugg, found himself in a storm at the top of the Dents du Midi. As the equipment was heavy and difficult to transport, he was unable to complete the measurement and had to leave the site in an emergency. This event motivated him to design an easily transportable theodolite. The tool represented a revolution in the field of geomatics and is still in use in the 21st century. In 1942, the Alpine Club of Saint-Maurice celebrated the centenary of the first ascent of the Cime de l'Est by erecting a metal cross at the top of the tooth.
On December 23, 1970, the guides Werner Kleiner and Marcel Maurice Demont made the first winter ascent of the Cime de l'Est, the Forteresse and the Cathédrale. On March 2, 1980, Beat Engel and Armand Gex-Fabry, respectively a ski teacher and an employee of Télé-Champoussin, made the first winter ski descent of the Doigts couloir. They set off at 2 a.m. from a hamlet above Salvan, and the effort represented thirteen hours of ascent for two hours of descent. In 1981, Engel and Diego Bottarel, also a ski teacher, attempted to reach the summit of the Haute Cime in a hot air balloon and then descend the Couloir des Doigts. The attempt was unsuccessful, however, as the weather conditions did not allow them to land.
Activities
Sports tourism
Several dozen kilometres of trails are available on the Dents du Midi. The "trail des Dents du Midi", a foot race created in 1961 by Fernand Jordan, took place every year in mid-September between 1963 and 2000, and restarted in 2011. The race is long with of ascent; it is the first of its kind in Europe and the precursor of trail running. In 1975, the success of the trail led to the creation of a footpath going around the Dents du Midi. This footpath offers a total difference in height of and is accessible from Champéry, les Cerniers, Mex, Salvan and Vérossaz. Nine refuges are situated on the tour and allow the 18-hour walk to be completed in several days. Since 2010, the paths have been maintained by the "Tour des Dents du Midi" association. This association brings together nearby communes as well as the people in charge of the refuges and local guides.
Access to the summits of the Dents du Midi is possible in summer in the form of a trek and in winter by ski touring or mixed climbing. The normal route to the Cime de l'Est starts from the Dents du Midi refuge (), on the southern face, crossing the Plan Névé glacier. About a hundred metres after the Cime de l'Est pass, which is no longer used because it is blocked by scree, it climbs a mountainside, either by taking the Rambert couloir, which may be snow-covered, or by going around it. At the top of this couloir there is a path on the north face of the hillside which ends about twenty meters below the summit. The summit can also be reached from the Chalin hut () by climbing the northeast face of the Cime de l'Est or by climbing the Harlin pillar. The normal route to the Forteresse is similar to that of the Cathédrale. It starts from the Chalin hut on the northern face, joins the mountain pasture of the same name and climbs the ridge of Soi before arriving in the Forteresse-Cathédrale corridor. From the top of the corridor, known as the "Fenêtre de Soi", both peaks are accessible for climbing. The "Fenêtre de Soi" is also accessible on foot from the Dents du Midi refuge. Access to the Dent Jaune is via the "Vire des Genevois". This route starts from the Dents du Midi refuge, crosses the Plan Nevé glacier to the Dent Jaune pass, follows the peak on a bend and then follows the ridge to the summit of the Dent Jaune. The normal route of the Haute Cime starts at the Susanfe hut (), follows the Saufla torrent to the Susanfe pass and crosses scree to the summit.
Economy
The emergence of tourism in the 19th century saw several hotels open in the villages of the Val d'Illiez. As early as 1857, the construction of the Grand Hôtel de la Dent du Midi enabled Champéry to expand, the image of the Dents du Midi being widely used to promote the village. Outside the Val d'Illiez, the villages of Bex, Gryon and Leysin also used the relief of the Dents du Midi in their promotional material, as did certain hotels on the Swiss shores of Lake Geneva. In 2018, the communes of Champéry, Troistorrents and Val-d'Illiez joined forces with the Portes du Soleil and other local associations to create a tourism management body in the name of Région Dents du Midi. Its main aim is to unify the tourism development policy of the Val d'Illiez.
The 7 Peaks brewery, located in Morgins, bases its brand on the image of the Dents du Midi. Its name refers to the seven peaks of the chain, which give their name to the seven styles of beer on offer.
Environmental protection
There are two protected sites on the north-eastern face of the Dents du Midi: the Aiguille and the Teret. These areas of each were classified in 2017 with the aim of protecting Switzerland's dry meadows and pastures from agricultural use, almost 95% of which have disappeared since 1900.
Culture
The Dents du Midi are represented in painting by many artists, most often as a backdrop for paintings of villages, Lake Geneva or Chillon Castle, but also alone.
They are also described or mentioned by Étienne Pivert de Senancour in Oberman (1804), Alexandre Dumas in Impressions de voyage en Suisse (1834), Eugène Rambert in Les Alpes suisses (1866) and Bex et ses environs (1871), Émile Javelle in Souvenirs d'un alpiniste (1886), Maurice Bonvoisin in La vie à Champéry (1908) and finally Charles Ferdinand Ramuz in La guerre dans le Haut-Pays (1915) and Vendanges (1927).
The Dents du Midi can be found on the coat of arms of the commune of Val-d'Illiez as well as on the 10 farinets banknotes, a local currency of the Valais named after Joseph-Samuel Farinet, which circulated between 2017 and 2019.
See also
List of mountains of Valais
List of mountains of Switzerland
List of most isolated mountains of Switzerland
References
Bibliography
External links
The Dents du Midi on SummitPost
Pictures of Dents du Midi (taken from the village of Champery)
Mountains of Valais
Mountains of the Alps
Alpine three-thousanders
Mountains of Switzerland |
4193364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder%20head%20porting | Cylinder head porting | Cylinder head porting refers to the process of modifying the intake and exhaust ports of an internal combustion engine to improve their air flow. Cylinder heads, as manufactured, are usually suboptimal for racing applications due to being designed for maximum durability. Ports can be modified for maximum power, minimum fuel consumption, or a combination of the two, and the power delivery characteristics can be changed to suit a particular application.
Dealing with air
Daily human experience with air gives the impression that air is light and nearly non-existent as we move slowly through it. However, an engine running at high speed experiences a totally different substance. In that context, air can be thought of as thick, sticky, elastic, gooey and heavy (see viscosity), and head porting helps to alleviate this.
Port modifications
When a modification is decided upon through testing with an air flow bench, the original port wall material can be reshaped by hand with die grinders or by numerically controlled milling machines. For major modifications the ports must be welded up or similarly built up to add material where none existed.
The Ford two-liter F2000 engine in stock trim equipped with the head shown above was capable of delivering 115 horsepower at 5500 rpm for a BMEP of 136 psi.
This aftermarket Pro Stock racing head was used in an engine capable of 1300 horsepower at 9500 rpm with a BMEP of 238 psi. A BMEP of 238 puts it close to the limit for a naturally aspirated gas-burning engine. Naturally aspirated Formula One engines typically achieved BMEP values of 220 psi. Cam profiles, engine RPM, engine height constraints and other limitations contribute to the difference in engine power with the Ford unit as well, but the difference in port design is a major factor.
Port components
Wave dynamics
When the valve opens, the air doesn’t flow in, it decompresses into the low-pressure region below it. All the air on the upstream side of the moving disturbance boundary is completely isolated and unaffected by what happens on the downstream side. The air at the runner entrance does not move until the wave reaches all the way to the end. It is only then that the entire runner can begin to flow. Up until that point all that can happen is the higher pressure gas filling the volume of the runner decompresses or expands into the low-pressure region advancing up the runner. (Once the low-pressure wave reaches the open end of the runner it reverses sign, the onrushing air forces a high pressure wave down the runner. Not shown in this animation.)
Conversely, the closing of the valve does not immediately stop flow at the runner entrance, which continues completely unaffected until the signal that the valve closed reaches it. The closing valve causes a buildup of pressure that travels up the runner as a positive wave. The runner entrance continues to flow at full speed, forcing the pressure to rise until the signal reaches the entrance. This very considerable pressure rise can be seen on the graph below, it rises far above atmospheric pressure.
It is this phenomenon that enables the so-called “ram tuning” to occur, and it is what is being “tuned” by tuned intake and exhaust systems. The principle is the same as in the water hammer effect so well known to plumbers. The speed that the signal can travel is the speed of sound within the runner.
This is why port/runner volumes are so important; the volumes of successive parts of the port/runner control the flow during all transition periods. That is, any time a change occurs in the cylinder – whether positive or negative – such as when the piston reaches maximum speed.
This point occurs at different points depending on the length of the connecting rod and the throw of the crank, and varies with the connecting rod ratio (rod/stroke). For normal automotive design this point is almost always between 69 and 79 degrees ATDC, with higher rod ratios favoring the later position. It only occurs at 1/2 stroke (90 degrees) with a connecting rod of infinite length.
The wave/flow activity in a real engine is vastly more complex than this but the principle is the same.
At first glance this wave travel might seem to be blindingly fast and not very significant but a few calculations show the opposite is true.
In an intake runner at room temperature the sonic speed is about and traverses a port/runner in 0.9 milliseconds. The engine using this system, running at 8500 rpm, takes a very considerable 46 crank degrees before any signal from the cylinder can reach the runner end (assuming no movement of the air in the runner). 46 degrees, during which nothing but the volume of the port/runner supplies the demands of the cylinder. This not only applies to the initial signal but to any and every change in the pressure or vacuum developed in the cylinder.
Using a shorter runner to reduce the delay is not feasible because, at the end of the cycle, the long runner now continues to flow at full speed disregarding the rising pressure in the cylinder and providing pressure to the cylinder when it is needed most. The runner length also controls the timing of the returning waves and cannot be altered. A shorter runner would flow earlier but also would die earlier while returning the positive waves much too quickly (tuned to a higher RPM) and those waves would be weaker. The key is to find the optimum balance of all the factors for the engine requirements.
Further complicating the system is the fact that the piston dome, the signal source, continually moves. First moving down the cylinder, thus increasing the distance the signal must travel. Then moving back up at the end of the intake cycle when the valve is still open past BDC. The signals coming from the piston dome, after the initial runner flow has been established, must fight upstream against whatever velocity has been developed at that instant, delaying it further. The signals developed by the piston do not have a clean path up the runner either. Large portions of it bounce off the rest of the combustion chamber and resonate inside the cylinder until an average pressure is reached. Also, temperature variations due to the changing pressures and absorption from hot engine parts cause changes in the local sonic velocity.
When the valve closes, it causes a pile up of gas giving rise to a strong positive wave that must travel up the runner. The wave activity in the port/runner does not stop but continues to reverberate for some time. When the valve next opens, the remaining waves influence the next cycle.
The graph above shows the intake runner pressure over 720 crank degrees of an engine with a intake port/runner running at 4500 rpm, which is its torque peak (close to maximum cylinder filling and BMEP for this engine). The two pressure traces are taken from the valve end (blue) and the runner entrance (red). The blue line rises sharply as the intake valve closes. This causes a pile up of air, which becomes a positive wave reflected back up the runner and the red line shows that wave arriving at the runner entrance later. Note how the suction wave during cylinder filling is delayed even more by having to fight upstream against the inrushing air and the fact that the piston is further down the bore, increasing the distance.
The goal of tuning is to arrange the runners and valve timing so that there is a high-pressure wave in the port during the opening of the intake valve to get flow going quickly and then to have a second high pressure wave arrive just before valve closing so the cylinder fills as much as possible. The first wave is what is left in the runner from the previous cycle, while the second is primarily created during the current cycle by the suction wave changing sign at the runner entrance and arriving back at the valve in time for valve closing. The factors involved are often contradictory and requires a careful balancing act to work. When it does work, it is possible to see volumetric efficiencies of 140%, similar to that of a decent supercharger, but it only occurs over a limited RPM range.
Porting and polishing
It is popularly held that enlarging the ports to the maximum possible size and applying a mirror finish is what porting entails. However, that is not so. Some ports may be enlarged to their maximum possible size (in keeping with the highest level of aerodynamic efficiency), but those engines are highly developed, very-high-speed units where the actual size of the ports has become a restriction. Larger ports flow more fuel/air at higher RPMs but sacrifice torque at lower RPMs due to lower fuel/air velocity. A mirror finish of the port does not provide the increase that intuition suggests. In fact, within intake systems, the surface is usually deliberately textured to a degree of uniform roughness to encourage fuel deposited on the port walls to evaporate quickly. A rough surface on selected areas of the port may also alter flow by energizing the boundary layer, which can alter the flow path noticeably, possibly increasing flow. This is similar to what the dimples on a golf ball do. Flow bench testing shows that the difference between a mirror-finished intake port and a rough-textured port is typically less than 1%. The difference between a smooth-to-the-touch port and an optically mirrored surface is not measurable by ordinary means. Exhaust ports may be smooth-finished because of the dry gas flow and in the interest of minimizing exhaust by-product build-up. A 300- to 400-grit finish followed by a light buff is generally accepted to be representative of a near optimal finish for exhaust gas ports.
The reason that polished ports are not advantageous from a flow standpoint is that at the interface between the metal wall and the air, the air speed is zero (see boundary layer and laminar flow). This is due to the wetting action of the air and indeed all fluids. The first layer of molecules adheres to the wall and does not move significantly. The rest of the flow field must shear past, which develops a velocity profile (or gradient) across the duct. For surface roughness to impact flow appreciably, the high spots must be high enough to protrude into the faster-moving air toward the center. Only a very rough surface does this.
Two-stroke porting
In addition to all the considerations given to a four-stroke engine port, two-stroke engine ports have additional ones:
Scavenging quality/purity: The ports are responsible for sweeping as much exhaust out of the cylinder as possible and refilling it with as much fresh mixture as possible without a large amount of the fresh mixture also going out the exhaust. This takes careful and subtle timing and aiming of all the transfer ports.
Power band width: Since two-strokes are very dependent on wave dynamics, their power bands tend to be narrow. While struggling to get maximum power, care must always be taken to ensure that the power profile does not get too sharp and hard to control.
Time area: Two-stroke port duration is often expressed as a function of time/area. This integrates the continually changing open port area with the duration. Wider ports increase time/area without increasing duration while higher ports increase both.
Timing: In addition to time area, the relationship between all the port timings strongly determine the power characteristics of the engine.
Wave Dynamic considerations: Although four-strokes have this problem, two-strokes rely much more heavily on wave action in the intake and exhaust systems. The two-stroke port design has strong effects on the wave timing and strength.
Heat flow: The flow of heat in the engine is heavily dependent on the porting layout. Cooling passages must be routed around ports. Every effort must be made to keep the incoming charge from heating up but at the same time many parts are cooled primarily by that incoming fuel/air mixture. When ports take up too much space on the cylinder wall, the ability of the piston to transfer its heat through the walls to the coolant is hampered. As ports get more radical, some areas of the cylinder get thinner, which can then overheat.
Piston ring durability: A piston ring must ride on the cylinder wall smoothly with good contact to avoid mechanical stress and assist in piston cooling. In radical port designs, the ring has minimal contact in the lower stroke area, which can suffer extra wear. The mechanical shocks induced during the transition from partial to full cylinder contact can shorten the life of the ring considerably. Very wide ports allow the ring to bulge out into the port, exacerbating the problem.
Piston skirt durability: The piston must also contact the wall for cooling purposes but also must transfer the side thrust of the power stroke. Ports must be designed so that the piston can transfer these forces and heat to the cylinder wall while minimizing flex and shock to the piston.
Engine configuration: Engine configuration can be influenced by port design. This is primarily a factor in multi-cylinder engines. Engine width can be excessive for even two cylinder engines of certain designs. Rotary disk valve engines with wide sweeping transfers can be so wide as to be impractical as a parallel twin. The V-twin and fore-and-aft engine designs are used to control overall width.
Cylinder distortion: Engine sealing ability, cylinder, piston and piston ring life all depend on reliable contact between cylinder and piston/piston ring so any cylinder distortion reduces power and engine life. This distortion can be caused by uneven heating, local cylinder weakness, or mechanical stresses. Exhaust ports that have long passages in the cylinder casting conduct large amounts of heat to one side of the cylinder while on the other side the cool intake may be cooling the opposite side. The thermal distortion resulting from the uneven expansion reduces both power and durability although careful design can minimize the problem.
Combustion turbulence: The turbulence remaining in the cylinder after transfer persists into the combustion phase to help burning speed. Unfortunately, good scavenging flow is slower and less turbulent.
Methods
The die grinder is the stock in trade of the head porter and are used with a variety of carbide cutters, grinding wheels and abrasive cartridges. The complex and sensitive shapes required in porting necessitate a good degree of artistic skill with a hand tool.
Until recently, CNC machining was used only to provide the basic shape of the port but hand finishing was usually still required because some areas of the port were not accessible to a CNC tool. New developments in CNC machining now allow this process to be fully automated with the assistance of CAD/CAM software. 5-Axis CNC controls using specialized fixtures like tilting rotary tables allow the cutting tool full access to the entire port. The combination of CNC and CAM software give the porter full control over the port shape and surface finish.
Measurement of the interior of the ports is difficult but must be done accurately. Sheet metal templates are made up, taking the shape from an experimental port, for both cross-sectional and lengthwise shape. Inserted in the port these templates are then used as a guide for shaping the final port. Even a slight error might cause a loss in flow so measurement must be as accurate as possible. Confirmation of the final port shape and automated replication of the port is now done using digitizing. Digitizing is where a probe scans the entire shape of the port collecting data that can then be used by CNC machine tools and CAD/CAM software programs to model and cut the desired port shape. This replication process usually produces ports that flow within 1% of each other. This kind of accuracy, repeatability, time has never before been possible. What used to take eighteen hours or more now takes less than three.
Summary
The internal aerodynamics involved in porting is counter-intuitive and complex. Successfully optimizing ports requires an air flow bench, a thorough knowledge of the principles involved, and engine simulation software.
Although a large portion of porting knowledge has been accumulated by individuals using "cut and try" methods over time, the tools and knowledge now exist to develop a porting design with a measure of certainty.
References
External links
Free demo engine simulator used to generate graph above
Cylinder head porting techniques
The Brzezinski "UnderCover" Cast Iron Cylinder Head Porting Technique
A 5-axis CNC cylinder head porting machine in action.
A number of articles about porting.
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) - Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
Engine technology
Vehicle modifications |
4193490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhammer%3A%20Mark%20of%20Chaos | Warhammer: Mark of Chaos | Warhammer: Mark of Chaos is a real-time tactics game set in the Warhammer universe. It was developed by Black Hole Entertainment and co-published by Namco Bandai Games in the US and Deep Silver in PAL territories. The game was released for Microsoft Windows in the US on November 14, 2006, with subsequent release in PAL territories on November 23, 2006.
An expansion, Battle March, was released on September 2, 2008. It contains one new campaign and the addition of Dark Elves and Orcs & Goblins as playable races. An Xbox 360 version was released and titled as Warhammer: Battle March, dropping the Mark of Chaos moniker.
Gameplay
The game, according to the developers, is a game "focusing on the armies and battles while de-emphasizing the tedious aspects of base and resource management". Set in the Warhammer Old World, the player can command one of four armies from the tabletop game.
The gameplay is primarily focused on battlefield tactics, thus not featuring RTS gameplay aspects like base-building, resource harvesting or in-battle unit production. Instead, the gameplay is intended to be focused on high fantasy/late medieval battles. Its gameplay is superficially similar to its predecessors and the Total War games; however, the basic game play model is significantly more simplified, and battles are more similar to real-time strategy games like Warcraft III than other real-time tactics titles.
The objective for each battle is defeat of the enemy army by either completely destroying it or causing the remaining units to flee off the battlefield. Battles are fought on a variety of landscapes and settings, with specific terrain types granting bonuses or penalties to units. Units also have morale, and will break and flee if they suffer enough damage or get hit by specific types of weaponry, and stamina, which will cause them to lose defense and speed when sufficiently drained.
The troops present in the game are presented as "units", which is anything from 1 to 96 individual "models", with the specific number depending on the type of unit. The control system is similar to the Total War and Dawn of War in that orders are issued to units in their entirety, as opposed to being issued to individuals. As well as standard orders you are also able to arrange your units into a number of formations, with each formation conferring advantages against specific kinds of attacks. Units will also gain experience over the course of a battle or campaign and will gain improved statistics and more models.
In addition to standard units there are special "Hero" units; unique individuals considerably more powerful than the average combatant. In addition to being able to use and learn new abilities, they can also be equipped with additional weapons, armour or potions that grant the hero with both offensive and defensive skills and bonuses. Heroes also gain experience from fighting, and by gaining levels the player is able to unlock various skills that supplement its combat abilities. Unlike units which consist of multiple models, Heroes are controlled individually. However they can be attached to standard units, fighting alongside the unit's models, giving the unit a morale boost and increasing its fighting capability through the use of skills. Hero units can also initiate or be challenged to duels, where they fight the opposing army's hero uninterrupted until one slays the other, resulting in a morale penalty for the losing side. The duel is for the most part out of the player's control, however the player is also free to activate any duel-specific skills the hero has during the course of the duel, to affect its outcome.
Single Player
There are two single player campaigns, each separated into four chapters, one following the Empire and Elven Forces and the other the Hordes of Chaos and Skaven forces.
The majority of the single campaign is a number of different battle scenarios, in which your pre-selected force will combat a number of enemy forces. Winning the scenario will award the player gold. Between battles the game switches to a map of the area, with the location of their army denoted by a figure of their champion. The player is then able to select their army and move to another location. This will bring up a force selection screen, and the player will then have to select a limited number of troops and heroes to play the next scenario with. Although the campaign is for the most part linear, there are also optional side quests, which although mostly unrelated to the main story will usually result in the heroes acquiring additional gold, troops or equipment that can be used in the campaign. As well as traditional large scale battles there are also Duel scenarios in which a hero character of your choice will enter straight into a duel with an enemy champion, with victory of either champion immediately ending the scenario.
On the map the player can also access towns and encampments, which serve as the replacement for bases found in other strategy and tactic games. The player can use the gold acquired in previous battles to purchase replacements, new or improved units, upgrades such as better armour or attack power for their existing units and also wargear and items for their hero units. Conversations between characters will also occur at certain points on the map, advancing the story.
In addition to the campaign, the multiplayer modes can also be played as single player skirmish battles.
Multiplayer
The game allows for up to four players to battle using either a LAN or over the internet. Multiplayer battles are played in much the same way as the single player. The game includes four different game modes, including normal battles, siege battles where one team has to defend a stronghold from the opposing army, and a reinforcements mode, where capturing strategic points on the map awards points that enable players to buy new units during the battle.
Prior to the battle, each player has a certain number of points with which to select an army, which is chosen by the host of the game prior to army selection. The points can be used in a variety of different ways, either buying new units, upgrading units or buying additional equipment or skills for your hero units. This enables a player to outfit an army in a variety of styles suitable for their playing style. Although the player is free to choose any configuration, there are also examples of army configurations for each of the 12 factions featured in game. In a tribute to the tabletop game, players are also able to customise their army's colours and banners. In addition, there is also a comprehensive model editor where players can change the look of individual models using a variety of heads, limbs, armour and weaponry sets. These army configurations can then be saved for use later.
Setting
The setting of Mark of Chaos is the Old World of the Warhammer Fantasy universe, one year after the Great War against Chaos. In the aftermath of the war, the chaos warbands scattered, some returning to their homelands in the north, some staying and raiding the farms and villages in the northern fringes of the Empire. The Empire, already pushed to the brink of collapse as a result of the war, is undermanned and struggles to protect the isolated farms and villages. If the tribes of chaos were once again to reunite, the Empire would most likely fall. The game has 2 campaigns that follow the story from both the Empire and Chaos perspectives, with each campaign having a different progression of events.
Races
The game features four different playable races from the Warhammer game, and the units available to each race are taken straight from the tabletop wargame. All the races are visually distinctive, and have their own unique units, although there is a lot of crossover between factions and each type of unit will usually have an equivalent unit in another race. Within each race there are also three different factions, which are available to be used in multiplayer games. However beyond cosmetic differences, and the selection of troops there is minimal difference between the 3 factions.
The Empire is a vast human empire which resembles early modern (16th century) Germany in its looks and organisation. Their forces are primarily human soldiers of various specialties. In addition they are, along with the Dwarves, one of the few races who have developed black powder weaponry, and have access to handguns, cannons, and other gunpowder based siege weapons. The 3 playable factions are the Ostermark, Nuln and Talabecland armies.
The High Elves are an ancient and elegant race. In addition to their normal ranks of elven spearmen and archers, they have a considerable number of elite troops, and an above average number of magical specialists. The 3 playable factions are the Ellyrian, Shadowlands and Saphery kingdoms.
The Hordes of Chaos are Humans from the Northlands, corrupted by the gods of Chaos by their ambition, lust or the other base instincts and emotions of humanity. In addition to human warriors and Marauders they also have access to supernatural creatures such as Daemons and Spawns of Chaos. The 3 playable factions are the cults of the chaos gods Nurgle, Khorne and the pantheon Chaos Undivided.
The Skaven are a race of subterranean man sized rats. Though as individuals they are weaker than members of the other races, they compensate through vastly superior numbers. In addition they utilise a mineral called warpstone to mutate members of their race to create giant rats and rat ogres. The 3 playable factions are the Eshin, Skryre and Warlord clans.
In addition to the four playable races there are also additional races that serve as both additional enemies in the single player campaigns and also as mercenary "Dogs of War" units available at certain points in the single player campaign, and also as additional choices in multiplayer games. The available mercenary races are Greenskins and Dwarves. The Vampire Counts are also present in the single player campaign, but are not available to be used by the player.
The Hordes of Chaos Campaign
The Chaos campaign follows the progress of Thorgar the Blooded One, a Chaos champion who fought alongside the warlord Asavar Kul in the Great War. Now he is looking to build his forces to launch another attack on The Empire. During this time he is guided by a sorcerer by the name of Sudobaal, who instructs Thorgar to lead his men to a Chaos shrine. After enduring a series of trials Thorgar obtains the favour and patronage of one of the chaos pantheon; either Nurgle or Khorne, depending on the player's choice. Sudobaal then instructs Thorgar to locate an elven mage who knows the location of the body of the defeated Chaos warlord Asavar Kul. During this time he allies with Kasquit, a skaven warlock engineer of clan Skryre. Having angered the skaven council, Kasquit quickly accepts the alliance in order to receive Thorgar's protection, and agrees to help Thorgar locate the mage. The campaign concludes with Thorgar killing Sudobaal for turning on him and his elevation to daemonhood, and the subsequent destruction of the city of Talabheim. Roaring his victory to the gods and claiming he can't be defeated. In the distance a huge greenskin army is preparing to launch its own attack against the Old World, this possibly heralding the game's expansion: Battle March.
The Empire Campaign
The Empire is placed from the perspective of "Stefan von Kessel" a captain in the army of Ostermark under Count Otto Gruber. He is plagued by his sad past – his father, the former Count of Ostermark and grandfather were killed for Chaos worship, deprived of their lands, and the child Stefan was branded across his eye with the mark of chaos. The campaign starts with an adult Stefan fending off an attack by chaos marauders. The battle is won and Gruber, Stefan and the other captains hold a council of war. Stefan heads north towards a fortress and engages in several battles with Chaos and Orc forces along the way. He takes the fortress, though he damages it in the process. After a heated exchange between himself and Gruber, he is sent to help the elves after the Reiksmarshal brings "requests" from the Emperor.
It's at this point we meet Aurelion, an Archmage of Saphery. Stefan sets camp while the elves go to gather their forces who are arriving by sea. The elves depart and Aurelion finds her people have been scattered. She gathers them and after fighting Chaos and Skaven forces they arrive at a fortress soon to be assaulted. The story switches back to Stefan who makes his way to the fortress to relieve Aurelion and the other defenders. After the battle Stefan and Aurelion speak with Prince Khalanos who wants Stefan to go north with him to counter the advance of Chaos while Stefan's orders are to head east to deal with a gathering.
In the end they go their separate ways and Stefan, after helping Brother Gunther (a warrior priest of Sigmar defending a shrine from the Skaven), learns that Count Otto Gruber (whose army could not be found) was guilty of worshiping Nurgle, the Chaos god of the rot. Stefan is outraged for it was Gruber who accused his father and grandfather taking their lands for his own and in fact, accusing them to cover his own misdeeds. Stefan retrieves a Daemon slayer's sword from the tomb of a vampire count and heads east to deal with Gruber. He is stopped, however, by plague clouds, and he is forced to pull back. Meanwhile, Aurelion and her warriors decide to find out more about the clouds. They locate and destroy a shrine dedicated to Nurgle, allowing Stefan to make for Gruber's fortress.
Stefan arrives to find a massacre: Gruber's army has been slaughtered after they had discovered his treachery. Stefan attacks and destroys Gruber's defenses and mortally wounds Gruber. By right of deed and ancestry, Stefan claims Gruber's sword, a Runefang and symbol of an Elector Count of the Empire. The Reiksmarshal returns and informs Stefan that the Emperor has restored him the lands taken by Gruber and named him the new Count of Ostermark. Stefan then must face Thorgar the Bloodied One, a Chaos Champion that has ascended to Daemonhood, in the Campaign's final chapter.
Development
Development of the game was given to Black Hole Entertainment, who were hired by Namco Bandai Games after being impressed by their work on the real-time strategy title Armies of Exigo.
Two different styles of box art were released, one depicting an Empire Warrior Priest and the other depicting a Chaos Champion. At the same time, a Collector's Edition was released, containing the official soundtrack on audio CD, the official novelization written by Anthony Reynolds, an art book, posters and several Warhammer themed ornaments.
Soundtrack
The game features an orchestral soundtrack composed entirely by award-winning composer Jeremy Soule, who is most famous for his work on Supreme Commander, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, Icewind Dale, and the Guild Wars series of video games. The entire soundtrack is included in audio CD format in the Collectors Edition box set. The CD is not sold separately, however it is available for download direct from Soule's website.
Track list
Reception
{{video game reviews
| GR = 74/100
| MC = 73/100
| Edge = 6/10
| GI = 6.75/10
| IGN = 8/10<ref name="IGN3">{{cite web | url=http://uk.pc.ign.com/articles/745/745192p3.html | title=Warhammer: Mark Of Chaos review at IGN page 3 | last=Adams | first=Dan | work=IGN | date=November 11, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007 | archive-date=February 6, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206221158/http://uk.pc.ign.com/articles/745/745192p3.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
| GSpot = 7.2/10
| GSpy = 3.5/5
| OXM = 5.5/10
| PCZone = 82/100
| PCGUS = 83/100
| PCGUK = 69/100
}}
The game was received with mixed and extremely varying reviews. Reviewers generally praised its distinctive and varied visuals, with the character models and the special effects earning high praise from the majority of reviews, but also criticised the rather basic combat animations and a shallowness of tactical depth for a game focusing purely on battlefield operations.
The single player campaigns received criticism for its linearity, and the storytelling especially when compared to the game's opening cinematic. The multiplayer support was also disparaged for its temperamental and glitch-prone account system and connection issues, although this was addressed and partly fixed in subsequent patches.
Despite the criticisms received however, the game was received positively overall, obtaining an average score of 73 at Metacritic, and similarly an average score of 74% at GameRankings with over 80% of reviews scoring 70% or better.
Criticism
The game received criticism upon release, mainly centered on two things: the marketing of the game, and, related to this, the lack of faithfulness to the Warhammer tabletop original.
Before release, Warhammer: Mark of Chaos was claimed to feature "dynamic cooperative campaign mode and a full assortment of multiplayer modes for both casual and competitive gamers". However, the cooperative campaign was omitted from the released game, even though still marketed as featuring this (the developer's homepage still listed it as a feature as of July 2007). Mark of Chaos was marketed as of "epic" scale, with "thousands of characters battling on screen"; in reality, the game features hundreds rather than thousands of individual characters. Namco, the publisher, targeted the substantial tabletop game fan base by naming Mark of Chaos a faithful translation to computer game format. However, core elements of the tabletop game (e.g. formation movement rules, combat resolution systems, and unit overlap prohibitions) are missing, invalidating tabletop tactics.
Further common sources of criticism in reviews, discussion and technical support are that the game suffers from numerous bugs, instability and prohibitively long load screens: "the standard loading screen is preceded by its own loading screen, for meta-loading''", as Game-Revolution put it in their review. Also, the hero duels, one of the more distinctive features of the game, are often singled out as dull, repetitive or distracting.
See also
List of Games Workshop video games
References
External links
Warhammer: Mark of Chaos at MobyGames
2006 video games
Bandai Namco games
Games for Windows
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time tactics video games
Video games developed in Hungary
Video games scored by Jeremy Soule
Video games with expansion packs
Mark of Chaos
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Deep Silver games
Black Hole Entertainment games |
4193867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Culshaw | John Culshaw | John Royds Culshaw, OBE (28 May 192427 April 1980) was a pioneering English classical record producer for Decca Records. He produced a wide range of music, but is best known for masterminding the first studio recording of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen, begun in 1958.
Largely self-educated musically, Culshaw worked for Decca from the age of 22, first writing album liner notes and then becoming a producer. After a brief period working for Capitol Records, Culshaw returned to Decca in 1955 and began planning to record the Ring cycle, employing the new stereophonic technique to produce recordings of unprecedented realism and impact. He disliked live recordings from opera houses, and sought to put on disc specially made studio recordings that would bring the operas fully to life in the listener's mind. In addition to his Wagner recordings, he supervised a series of recordings of the works of Benjamin Britten, with the composer as conductor or pianist, and recordings of operas by Verdi, Richard Strauss and others.
Culshaw left Decca in 1967 and was appointed head of music programmes for BBC Television, where he remained until 1975, employing a series of innovations to bring classical music to the television viewer. He later undertook several academic posts. He remains best remembered for his Decca records; along with Fred Gaisberg and Walter Legge, he was one of the most influential producers of classical recordings. The Times said of him that "he stood in that great tradition of propagandists from Henry Wood to Leonard Bernstein, who seek to bring their love and knowledge of music to the widest audience."
Biography
Early years
Culshaw was born in Southport, Lancashire, one of at least two children of Percy Ellis Culshaw, a bank inspector, and his first wife, Dorothy née Royds. He was educated first at Merchant Taylors' School, Crosby, which he despised for its snobbery and its sports-obsessed philistinism. His father then sent him to King George V Grammar School, Southport. When he left school in 1940, aged 16, he followed his father into the staff of the Midland Bank as a clerk, working at a branch in Liverpool. He had little aptitude or liking for banking, failing to pass the company's examination in banking theory, and in 1941 he volunteered to join the Fleet Air Arm as soon as he reached the minimum recruitment age in May 1942. He trained as a navigator, was commissioned as an officer, and promoted to lieutenant as a radar instructor. What spare time he had, he devoted to his passionate interest in music.
Apart from piano lessons as a child, Culshaw was self-taught musically, and had no ambitions to be a performer. The critic and biographer Richard Osborne wrote of him, "Like many people for whom music is an obsession, Culshaw was a lonely and meticulous person, jealously guarding the sense of personal integrity which his precocious interest in music had helped form and deepen." While in the Fleet Air Arm, Culshaw "wrote articles on music by the dozen and – quite rightly – they came back by the dozen." After many rejections, his first substantial article to be accepted for publication was a piece on Sergei Rachmaninoff, for The Gramophone, published in March 1945. This led to invitations to broadcast musical talks for the BBC and to contribute articles to classical music magazines.
Decca
After demobilisation from the forces, Culshaw joined the Decca recording company in November 1946, writing musical analyses and biographies of recording artists for Decca's classical albums. His first book, a short biography of Rachmaninov, was published in 1949 and was well received. The critic of The Times praised it for its discriminating judgment, conciseness and discretion. It was followed by two further books; a popular introduction to concertos (The Concerto in "The World of Music" series in 1949), and a guide to modern music (A Century of Music in 1952).
By 1947 Culshaw had been given the chance to produce classical sessions for Decca's rapidly expanding catalogue. At Decca, the musicians whom he recorded included Ida Haendel, Eileen Joyce, Kathleen Ferrier and Clifford Curzon. In 1948 he first worked with Georg Solti, a pianist and aspiring conductor. In 1950, after the introduction of the long-playing record (LP), he produced the first LP versions of the Savoy Operas with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company.
In 1951, Culshaw and one of Decca's senior engineers, Kenneth Wilkinson, were sent to the Bayreuth Festival to record Wagner's Parsifal. For Culshaw, Wagner was an abiding passion, and he persuaded Decca and the Bayreuth management to let him record that year's Ring cycle in addition to Parsifal. The Ring recording could not be released, probably for contractual reasons.{{#tag:ref|The recordings of the first three operas in the cycle were not successful, musically or technically, and have never been officially released. The Götterdämmerung recording was more successful and was finally released, in 1999, when Gramophone described it as "an experience from the opera house that nobody ought to miss."<ref>Blyth, Alan, "Wagner Gotterdammerung," Gramophone, October 1999, p. 126</ref>|group= n}} The Parsifal recording, on the other hand, was released to great acclaim in 1952. The Decca team returned to Bayreuth to record the 1953 performances of Lohengrin. The resultant recording was well reviewed, but Culshaw wrote of it:
… the cast was only of moderate ability, and we had access to far too few performances to make up anything really worth while. It was still felt that this was the only economic way to record Wagner, for the expense involved in taking his major works to the studio did not seem to be justified by the sales potential. But after the Lohengrin experience I found myself fervently hoping that I would never return to Bayreuth, at least in a recording capacity.
Capitol
From 1953 to 1955 Culshaw headed the European programme for Capitol Records. As Capitol at that time had commercial ties with Decca, Culshaw's move did not estrange him from the head of Decca, Edward Lewis, who generally took a dim view when his employees left Decca to join its competitors. Culshaw found his attempts to build up a roster of classical artists for Capitol frustrated by bureaucracy at the company's headquarters in Los Angeles. He was prevented from encouraging the soprano Kirsten Flagstad to emerge from retirement, or from signing the conductor Otto Klemperer. The latter misjudgment, as Culshaw noted in his memoirs, was not repeated by Walter Legge of EMI, who signed Klemperer up with great artistic and commercial success. Capitol further frustrated Culshaw by ignoring the impending introduction of stereophony which the major companies were working on. Among the recordings Culshaw was able to make for Capitol were a Brahms Requiem conducted by Solti in Frankfurt, and what Peter Martland in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography calls "a series of remarkable recordings of performances by Eduard van Beinum and the Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam."
In early 1955, Lewis warned Culshaw that he had heard rumours that Capitol was on the point of severing its ties with Decca. Within days it was announced that Capitol had been taken over by EMI. Capitol sessions already booked were completed, including two records of Jacques Ibert conducting his own works, but EMI made it clear that it would put an end to Capitol's classical activity, which was regarded as superfluous. Lewis invited Culshaw to rejoin Decca, which he did in the autumn of 1955.
Stereo and the Decca Ring
Finding on his return to Decca that other recording producers were capably filling his former role, Culshaw concentrated on the emerging stereophonic recording technology, and stereo opera in particular. A year after his return he was made manager of the company's classical recording division, a position of great influence in the classical music world. The Gramophone obituarist wrote of him in 1980: "To meet John Culshaw for the first time, quiet, charming, sharp-eyed but with no signs of aggressiveness about him, was to marvel that here was one of the two great dictators of recording art. If Walter Legge in a flash had one registering extrovert forcefulness in the very picture of a dictator, John Culshaw's comparable dominance was something to appreciate over a longer span. … [H]e transformed the whole concept of recording."
Culshaw hoped to record Die Walküre with Flagstad, whom he persuaded out of retirement, as Brünnhilde. Flagstad, however, was over sixty, and would not agree to sing the whole opera. To capture as much of her Wagner as she was willing to record, Culshaw produced separate sets of parts of the opera in 1957. Act 1 was conducted by Hans Knappertsbusch with Flagstad in the role of Sieglinde; in the other set the "Todesverkundigung" scene from Act 2 and the whole of Act 3 were conducted by Solti with Flagstad as Brünnhilde. In those early years of stereo, Culshaw worked with Pierre Monteux in recordings of Stravinsky and Ravel, and with Solti in a recording of Richard Strauss's Arabella. He also recorded the first of many New Year's Day concerts by the Vienna Philharmonic and Willi Boskovsky.
By 1958 Decca, with its pre-eminent technical team (The Times called them "Decca's incomparable engineers") was in a position to embark on a complete studio recording of Wagner's Ring cycle. Decca decided to begin its cycle with Das Rheingold, the shortest of the four Ring operas. It was recorded in 1958 and released in the spring of 1959. Culshaw engaged Solti, the Vienna Philharmonic and a cast of established Wagner singers. The performance won enthusiastic praise from reviewers, and the engineers were generally acknowledged to have surpassed themselves. The Gramophone described the recording quality as "stupendous" and called the set "wonderful … surpass[ing] anything done before." To the astonishment and envy of Decca's rivals the set outsold popular music releases such as those of Elvis Presley and Pat Boone.Culshaw (1967), pp. 91 and 124 The cast included Flagstad in one of her last recorded performances, in the role of Fricka, which she had never sung on stage. Culshaw hoped to record her as Fricka in Die Walküre and Waltraute in Götterdämmerung, but her health did not permit it. His cast for the remaining three Ring operas included Birgit Nilsson, Hans Hotter, Gottlob Frick, Wolfgang Windgassen, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Régine Crespin, with even minor roles sung by such stars as Joan Sutherland.
In these productions Culshaw put into practice his belief that a properly-made sound recording should create what he called "a theatre of the mind". He disliked live recordings such as those attempted at Bayreuth; to him they were technically flawed and, crucially, were merely sound recordings of a theatrical performance. He sought to make recordings that compensated for the lack of the visual element by subtle production techniques, impossible in live recordings, that conjured up the action in the listener's head.
Culshaw took unprecedented pains to meet Wagner's musical requirements. Where in Das Rheingold the score calls for eighteen anvils to be hammered during two brief orchestral interludes – an instruction never followed in opera houses – Culshaw arranged for eighteen anvils to be hired and hammered. Similarly, where Wagner called for steerhorns, Culshaw arranged for them to be used instead of the trombones habitually substituted at Bayreuth and other opera houses. In The Gramophone, Edward Greenfield wrote:
It was thanks to Culshaw's devotion to Wagnerian intentions – ever encouraged by the engineer who was at his right hand through the whole project, Gordon Parry, himself a devoted Wagnerian – that in the Solti Ring cycle one is able to hear the scores in a way literally impossible in the theatre. Siegfried's voice made to sound like Gunther's, the voice of Fafner from his cave, not to mention the splendour of anvils and rainbow bridge harps in Rheingold, all transcend what is heard in the opera-house.
In 1967, after the Decca Ring was complete, Culshaw wrote a memoir, Ring Resounding, about the making of the recording. In 1999, Gramophone ran a poll of its readers to find "the ten greatest recordings ever made." The Decca Ring topped the poll.
Britten, Karajan and others
Culshaw produced a series of Decca recordings of Britten's music with the composer as conductor or pianist. The Times described them as "a priceless heritage for posterity." Culshaw persuaded Decca to make the first complete recording of Peter Grimes, arguing that unless they did so they should abandon their exclusive agreement with the composer and so "give him a chance to try his luck with other companies". Decca, unwilling to lose out to competition, gave the go-ahead. Culshaw, who was then responsible for recordings in Vienna, was unavailable to produce that pioneering recording, which was also the first modern opera to be recorded in stereo: instead, he "planned it down to the last detail", and passed his detailed instructions to Erik Smith, who produced the recording. Among the works Culshaw himself recorded with Britten were the operas Albert Herring (1964), A Midsummer Night's Dream (1967), and Billy Budd (1968). Culshaw wrote, "The happiest hours I have spent in any studio were with Ben, for the basic reason that it did not seem that we were trying to make records or video tapes; we were just trying to make music."
Culshaw thought of all his recordings, that of Britten's War Requiem was the finest. Greenfield says of it, "another recording which confounded the record world not just by its technical brilliance but by the way it sold in huge quantities." The recording was made in London in 1963, the year after the premiere of the Requiem at the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral. For the recording Culshaw managed to assemble the three singers whom Britten had in mind when writing the work, uniting Russian, German and English soloists to represent the former enemy nations – Galina Vishnevskaya, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Peter Pears.
One composer Culshaw had nothing to do with was Mahler. He had a strong aversion to Mahler's music, writing that it made him feel sick: "not metaphorically but physically sick. I find his strainings and heavings, juxtaposed with what always sounds (to me) like faux-naif music of the most calculated type, downright repulsive".
Culshaw produced many of the conductor Herbert von Karajan's best-known operatic and orchestral sets, which remain in the catalogues four decades later. The opera sets include Tosca, Carmen, Aida, Die Fledermaus and Otello; among the orchestral sets were Holst's The Planets and several Richard Strauss works including the then rarely heard Also sprach Zarathustra.Osborne, pp. 440 and 468
In the late 1950s Decca entered into a commercial partnership with RCA, by which Decca teams recorded classical works in European venues on RCA's behalf. Among the recordings supervised by Culshaw for RCA were Sir Thomas Beecham's lavishly re-orchestrated version of Handel's Messiah. Other artists with whom he worked for Decca and RCA included pianists such as Wilhelm Backhaus, Arthur Rubinstein and Julius Katchen; conductors including Karl Böhm, Sir Adrian Boult, Pierre Monteux, Fritz Reiner, and George Szell; and singers such as Carlo Bergonzi, Jussi Björling, Lisa Della Casa, Leontyne Price, and Renata Tebaldi.
Later years
By 1967 Culshaw wished for a change. He was growing disenchanted with the top management of Decca, which he believed had lost its pioneering enthusiasm. He moved from the record industry to become BBC Television's head of music programmes. He inaugurated, and supervised several series of, André Previn's Music Night, in which Previn would talk informally direct to camera and then turn and conduct the London Symphony Orchestra (LSO), whose members were dressed not in evening clothes but in casual sweaters or shirts. The programme attracted unprecedented viewing figures for classical music; an historian of the orchestra wrote, "More British people heard the LSO play in Music Night in one week than in sixty-five years of LSO concerts." Culshaw also screened more formal concerts, including Klemperer's 1970 Beethoven symphony cycle from the Royal Festival Hall. In 1973 he organised for BBC television to broadcast a complete performance of Wagner's Siegfried conducted by Reginald Goodall, but the project never happened. In 1974 Verdi's Un ballo in maschera was broadcast from the Covent Garden. Culshaw also set up BBC studio productions of The Marriage of Figaro, The Yeomen of the Guard, The Flying Dutchman and La traviata.
Culshaw commissioned Britten's opera Owen Wingrave, written expressly for television. He also persuaded Britten to conduct television productions of Peter Grimes and Mozart's Idomeneo, and to accompany Pears in Schubert's Winterreise.Greenfield, Edward, "Music on 2", The Guardian, 16 November 1970, p. 8 Britten and Pears invited him to Snape, not far from their base at Aldeburgh in Suffolk and he encouraged them to transform the Snape Maltings into a concert-hall. He later initiated the Benson and Hedges music festival at Snape and was planning the fourth season at the time of his death. Some of his BBC programmes have been preserved on DVD, including films of the Amadeus Quartet playing works by Schubert and Britten. He took time off from the BBC to return to the recording studio, rejoining his old Decca engineering team in 1971 to produce Der Rosenkavalier, conducted by Leonard Bernstein.
In 1975, Culshaw left the BBC and worked freelance as a record and stage producer, writer and broadcaster. He was invited to serve on the Arts Council of Great Britain in 1975 and was chairman of its music panel from 1975 to 1977. In 1977 he became a senior fellow in the creative arts at the University of Western Australia, and was visiting professor at the University of Houston, the University of Southern California and the University of Melbourne. He also took on the responsibility for the annual United Nations concert in New York, and acted as a music consultant to the Australian Broadcasting Commission. He frequently served as a commentator for broadcasts of Metropolitan Opera performances, and his 1976 book, Reflections on Wagner's "Ring", was based on the series of interval talks he gave during the broadcasts of the Met's Ring cycle in 1975.
Culshaw died in London in 1980, at the age of 55, from a rare form of hepatitis. He was unmarried. His unfinished autobiography, Putting the Record Straight, was published after his death.
Among the honours given to Culshaw, The Times listed "eight Grands Prix des Disques, numerous Grammys and in 1966 an OBE", and the Vienna Philharmonic's Nicolai Medal in 1959 and its Schalk Medal in 1967.
Publications
A lesser-known part of Culshaw's work was writing fiction. He published two novels in the early 1950s; the first, The Sons of Brutus (1950) had been inspired by what he had seen during trips to ruined German cities in the aftermath of the war. It was chosen by The Observer as one of its books of the year in 1950. At the time of its publication he was working on a second novel. He gave it the title A Harder Thing, but was persuaded by his publisher to change it to A Place of Stone. It was published in 1951.
Culshaw's musical books were: Sergei Rachmaninov, 1948; The Concerto, 1949; A Century of Music, 1951; Ring Resounding: The Recording of Der Ring des Nibelungen, 1967; Reflections on Wagner's "Ring", 1976; Wagner: The Man and His Music, 1978; and Putting the Record Straight: The Autobiography of John Culshaw, 1981.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Link to talk by Culshaw on Die Walküre An audio file from a Metropolitan Opera radio broadcast intermission feature (scroll to "From The Archives – 1 March 1975 – John Culshaw discusses Die Walküre''; you will need RealPlayer to hear this)
1924 births
1980 deaths
English record producers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at King George V College
Fleet Air Arm personnel of World War II
People from Southport
BBC television producers |
4194077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20occupation%20of%20the%20Channel%20Islands | German occupation of the Channel Islands | The military occupation of the Channel Islands by Nazi Germany lasted for most of the Second World War, from 30 June 1940 until liberation on 9 May 1945. The Bailiwick of Jersey and Bailiwick of Guernsey are British Crown dependencies in the English Channel, near the coast of Normandy. The Channel Islands were the only de jure part of the British Empire in Europe to be occupied by Nazi Germany during the war. Germany's allies, Italy and Japan, also occupied British territories in Africa and Asia, respectively.
Anticipating a swift victory over Britain, the occupying German forces initially experimented by using a moderate approach to the non-Jewish population, supported by local collaborators. However, as time progressed the situation grew gradually worse and ended in near starvation for both occupied and occupiers during the winter of 1944-45. Armed resistance by islanders to the German occupation was nearly non-existent. Many islanders were employed by the Germans, and Germany imported thousands of captive workers to build extensive defensive works on the islands. Island leaders maintained some authority, independence, and freedom of decision from the German occupiers.
Before occupation
Early months of the Second World War
Between 3 September 1939, when the United Kingdom declared war against Germany, and 9 May 1940, little changed in the Channel Islands. Unlike in the UK, conscription did not exist, but a number of people travelled to Britain to join up as volunteers. The horticulture and tourist trades continued as normal; the British government relaxed restrictions on travel between the UK and the Channel Islands in March 1940, enabling tourists from the UK to take morale-boosting holidays in traditional island resorts. On 10 May 1940, Germany attacked the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg by air and land and the war stepped closer. The Battle of France was reaching its climax on Empire Day, 24 May, when King George VI addressed his subjects by radio, saying, "The decisive struggle is now upon us ... Let no one be mistaken; it is not mere territorial conquest that our enemies are seeking. It is the overthrow, complete and final, of this Empire and of everything for which it stands, and after that the conquest of the world. And if their will prevails they will bring to its accomplishment all the hatred and cruelty which they have already displayed."
On 11 June 1940, as part of the British war effort in the Battle of France, a long range Royal Air Force aerial sortie carried out by 36 Whitley bombers against the Italian cities of Turin and Genoa departed from small airfields in Jersey and Guernsey, as part of Operation Haddock. Weather conditions resulted in only ten Whitleys reaching their intended targets. Two bombers were lost in the action.
Demilitarisation
On 15 June, after the Allied defeat in the Battle of France, the British government decided that the Channel Islands were of no strategic importance and would not be defended, but did not give Germany this information. Thus despite the reluctance of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the British government gave up the oldest possession of the Crown "without firing a single shot." The Channel Islands served no purpose to the Germans other than the propaganda value of having occupied British territory. The "Channel Islands had been demilitarised and declared...' an open town'".
On 16 June 1940, the Lieutenant-Governors of each island were instructed to make available as many boats as possible to aid the evacuation of British soldiers from Saint-Malo in France. Guernsey was too far away to help at such short notice. The Bailiff of Jersey called on the Saint Helier Yacht Club in Jersey to help. Four yachts set off immediately, with fourteen others being made ready within 24 hours. The first yachts arrived in Saint-Malo on the morning of 17 June and embarked troops from shore to waiting transport ships; the remaining yachts from Jersey arrived on 18 June and helped clear the last parties from land.
On 17 June 1940, a plane arrived in Jersey from Bordeaux evacuating Brigade General Charles de Gaulle from France. After coffee and refuelling, the plane flew on to Heston, outside London, where next day the general made his historic appeal of 18 June to the French people via the BBC. The last troops left the islands on 20 June, departing so quickly that bedding and half-consumed meals were left in Castle Cornet. No. 501 Squadron RAF which had arrived in Jersey from Dinard, in France, on 17 June with their Hawker Hurricane fighters, evacuated to England on 21 June.
Evacuation
The realisation of the necessity of civilian evacuation from the Channel Islands came very late. With no planning and secrecy being maintained, communications between the island governments and the UK took place in an atmosphere of confusion and misinterpretation. Opinion was divided and chaos ensued with different policies adopted by the different islands. The British government concluded its best policy was to make available as many ships as possible so that islanders had the option to leave if they wanted to.
The authorities in Alderney, having no direct communication with the UK, recommended that all islanders evacuate, and all but a handful did so. The Dame of Sark, Sibyl Hathaway, encouraged everyone to stay. Guernsey evacuated 80% of children of school age, giving the parents the option of keeping their children with them, or evacuating them with their school. By 21 June it became apparent to the government of Guernsey that it would be impossible to evacuate everyone who wanted to leave and priority would have to be given to special categories in the time remaining. The message in Guernsey was changed to an anti-evacuation one; in total, 5,000 school children and 12,000 adults out of 42,000 were evacuated. In Jersey, where children were on holiday to help with the potato crop, 23,000 civilians registered to leave; however the majority of islanders, following the consistent advice of the island government, then chose to stay with only 6,600 out of 50,000 leaving on the evacuation ships. Nearby Cherbourg was already occupied by German forces before official evacuation boats started leaving on 20 June; the last official one left on 23 June, though mail boats and cargo ships continued to call at the islands until 28 June.
Most evacuated children were separated from their parents. Some evacuated children were assisted financially by the "Foster Parent Plan for Children Affected by War" where each child was sponsored by a wealthy American. One girl, Paulette, was sponsored by first lady Eleanor Roosevelt.
Emergency government
The Home Office instructed the lieutenant governors that in the eventuality of the recall of the representatives of the Crown, the bailiffs should take over their responsibilities and that the bailiffs and Crown Officers should remain at their posts. The Lieutenant Governor of Jersey discussed with the Bailiff of Jersey the matter of being required to carry on administration under German orders. The bailiff considered that this would be contrary to his oath of allegiance, but he was instructed otherwise.
Last-minute arrangements were made to enable British administration to legally continue under the circumstances of occupation. The withdrawal of the lieutenant governors on 21 June 1940 and the cutting of contact with the Privy Council prevented Royal Assent being given to laws passed by the legislatures. The bailiffs took over the civil, but not the military, functions of the lieutenant governors. The traditional consensus-based governments of the bailiwicks were unsuited to swift executive action, and therefore in the face of imminent occupation, smaller instruments of government were adopted. Since the legislatures met in public session, the creation of smaller executive bodies that could meet behind closed doors enabled freer discussion of matters such as how far to comply with German orders.
In Guernsey, the States of Deliberation voted on 21 June 1940 to hand responsibility for running island affairs to a controlling committee, under the presidency of HM Attorney General Ambrose Sherwill MC, age 50, who was selected because he was younger and more robust than the 69-year-old Bailiff, Victor Carey. The States of Jersey passed the Defence (Transfer of Powers) (Jersey) Regulation 1940 on 27 June 1940 to amalgamate the various executive committees into eight departments each under the presidency of a States member. The presidents along with the Crown Officers made up the Superior Council under the presidency of the 48-year-old bailiff, Capt. Alexander Coutanche.
Invasion
The Germans did not realise that the islands had been demilitarised (news of the demilitarisation had been suppressed until 30 June 1940), and they approached them with caution. Reconnaissance flights were inconclusive. On 28 June 1940, they sent a squadron of bombers over the islands and bombed the harbours of Guernsey and Jersey. In St. Peter Port, the main town of Guernsey, some lorries lined up to load tomatoes for export to England were mistaken by the reconnaissance flights for troop carriers. A similar attack occurred in Jersey where nine died. In total, 44 islanders were killed in the raids. The BBC broadcast a belated message that the islands had been declared "open towns" and later in the day reported the German bombing of the island.
While the Wehrmacht was preparing Operation Grünpfeil (Green Arrow), a planned invasion of the islands with assault troops comprising two battalions, a reconnaissance pilot, Hauptmann Liebe-Pieteritz, made a test landing at Guernsey's deserted airfield on 30 June to determine the level of defence. He reported his brief landing to Luftflotte 3 which came to the decision that the islands were not defended. A platoon of Luftwaffe airmen was flown that evening to Guernsey by Junkers transport planes. Inspector Sculpher of the Guernsey police went to the airport carrying a letter signed by the bailiff stating that "This Island has been declared an Open Island by His Majesty's Government of the United Kingdom. There are no armed forces of any description. The bearer has been instructed to hand this communication to you. He does not understand the German language." He found that the airport had been taken over by the Luftwaffe. The senior German officer, Major Albrecht Lanz, asked to be taken to the island's chief man. They went by police car to the Royal Hotel where they were joined by the bailiff, the president of the controlling committee, and other officials. Lanz announced through an interpreter that Guernsey was now under German occupation. In this way the Luftwaffe pre-empted the Wehrmacht's invasion plans. Jersey surrendered on 1 July. Alderney, where only a handful of islanders remained, was occupied on 2 July and a small detachment travelled from Guernsey to Sark, which surrendered on 4 July. The first shipborne German troops consisting of two anti-aircraft units, arrived in St. Peter Port on the captured freighter SS Holland on 14 July.
Occupation
The German forces quickly consolidated their positions. They brought in infantry, established communications and anti-aircraft defences, established an air service with occupied mainland France, and rounded up British servicemen on leave.
Administration
The Germans organised their administration as part of the department of Manche, where it was de facto incorporated into Vichy France but administered as part of military government Area A based in St. Germain in the occupied part of France. Feldkommandantur 515 headed by Colonel Friedrich Schumacher arrived on 9 August 1940 in Jersey to establish a civil affairs command structure, with a Nebenstelle in Guernsey (also covering Sark), an Aussenstelle in Alderney, and a logistics Zufuhrstelle in Granville.
The kommandant issued an order in Guernsey on 2 July 1940 and in Jersey on 8 July 1940 instructing that laws passed by the legislatures would have to be given assent by the kommandant and that German orders were to be registered as legislation. The civil courts would continue in operation, but German military courts would try breaches of German law. At first the bailiffs submitted legislation for the assent of the kommandant signed in their capacities as lieutenant governors. At the end of 1941, the kommandant objected to this style and subsequent legislation was submitted simply signed as bailiff.
The German authorities changed the Channel Island time zone from GMT to CET to bring the islands into line with most of continental Europe, and the rule of the road was also changed to driving on the right. Scrip (occupation money) was issued in the islands to keep the economy going. German military forces used the scrip for payment of goods and services. Locals employed by Germans were also paid in the Occupation Reichsmarks.
The Germans allowed entertainment to continue including cinemas and theatre; their military bands performed in public. In 1944, the popular German film actress Lil Dagover arrived to entertain German troops in Jersey and Guernsey with a theatre tour to boost morale.
Besides the civil administration, there was also a military commander (Befehlshaber Kanalinseln, on 1 October 1944 renamed Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Kanalinseln).
Military commanders were :
Major Albrecht Lanz (1 July 1940 - 26 Sep 1940)
Colonel Rudolf Graf von Schmettow (26 Sep 1940 – 1 June 1941)
Generalmajor Erich Müller (1 June 1941 – 1 Sep 1943)
Generalmajor Rudolf Graf von Schmettow (1 Sep 1943 - 1 Oct 1944)
Generalleutnant Rudolf Graf von Schmettow (1 Oct 1944 – 26 Feb 1945)
Vizeadmiral Friedrich Hüffmeier (26 Feb 1945 – 9 May 1945)
The islands were occupied by the 216th Infantry Division until 30 April 1941, and after that by the 319th Infantry Division.
Collaboration
The view of the majority of islanders about active resistance to German rule was probably expressed by John Lewis, a medical doctor in Jersey. "Any sort of sabotage was not only risky but completely counterproductive. More important still, there would be instant repercussions on the civilian population who were very vulnerable to all sorts of reprisals." Sherwill seems to have expressed the views of a majority of the islanders on 18 July 1940 when he complained about a series of abortive raids by British commandos on Guernsey. "Military activities of this kind were most unwelcome and could result in loss of life among the civilian population." He asked the British government to leave the Channel Islands in peace. Sherwill was later imprisoned by the Germans for his role in helping two British spies on Guernsey, and when released, deported to a German internment camp.
Sherwill's situation illustrated the difficulty for the island government and their citizens to cooperate—but to stop short of collaborating—with their occupiers and to retain as much independence as possible from German rule. The issue of islanders' collaboration with the Germans remained quiescent for many years, but was ignited in the 1990s with the release of wartime archives and the subsequent publication of a book titled The Model Occupation: The Channel Islands under German Rule, 1940–1945 by Madeleine Bunting. Language such as the title of one chapter, "Resistance? What Resistance?" incited islander ire. Bunting's point was that the Channel Islanders did not act in a Churchillian manner, they "did not fight on the beaches, in the fields or in the streets. They did not commit suicide, and they did not kill any Germans. Instead they settled down, with few overt signs of resistance, to a hard, dull but relatively peaceful five years of occupation, in which more than half the population was working for the Germans." The issue of collaboration was further inflamed on the Channel Islands by the fictional television programme Island at War (2004), which featured a romance between a German soldier and an island woman and favourably portrayed the German military commander of the occupation.
In the official history of the occupation, author Charles Cruickshank defended the island leaders and their government. Had the island leaders, he said, "simply kept their heads above water and done what they were told to do by the occupying power it would hardly be a matter for censure; but they carried the administrative war into the enemy camp on many occasions. It is not that they made some mistakes that is surprising, but that they did so much right in circumstances of the greatest possibly difficulty."
Norman Le Brocq, a leader of the Jersey resistance and a co-founder of both the Jersey Communist Party and the Jersey Democratic Movement, was bitter towards much of the island's police and government due to their collaboration with the German occupation. He accused both Jersey's police and government of going unpunished despite collaborating with the German occupation by reporting the island's Jews to the Nazis, many of whom were subsequently sent to Auschwitz and Belsen. Whilst his leadership of the resistance went unrecognised by the British government, many officials who had collaborated with the Nazis had been awarded OBE titles and knighthoods.
Civilian life during the occupation
Life as a civilian during the occupation came as a shock. Having their own governments continuing to govern them softened the blow and kept most civilians at a distance from their oppressors. Many lost their jobs when businesses closed down and it was hard to find work with non-German employers. As the war progressed, life became progressively harsher and morale declined, especially when radios were confiscated and then when deportations took place in September 1942. Food, fuel, and medicines became scarce and crime increased. Following 6 June 1944, liberation became more likely in the popular mind, but the hardest times for the civilians were still to come. The winter of 1944-45 was very cold and hungry, many of the population being saved from starvation by the arrival of Red Cross parcels.
Restrictions
On arrival in the islands, the Germans issued proclamations imposing new laws on the resident islanders. As time progressed, additional laws restricting rights were posted and had to be obeyed. The restrictions included:
Confiscation of:
weapons (1940)
boats (1940)
radios (1940) then (1942)
motor vehicles (forced sale) (1940)
cameras (1942)
fuel (1940)
houses (1940–1945)
furniture (1940–1945)
Restrictions on:
fishing (1940)
drinking spirits (1940)
exporting goods (1940)
changing prices of goods (1940)
patriotic songs and signs (1940)
more than three people meeting together (1940)
access to beaches
fuel
freedom of speech (1940)
access to medicines (1940)
some clubs and associations.
Changes to:
clocks to German time (1940)
drive on right hand side of roads (1941)
rations (1943, 1944, and 1945)
Forced to accept:
censorship (1940)
curfew (1940)
exchange rate to Reichsmarks (1940)
census (1940)
growing vegetables
food rationing (1940)
increase in income tax to 4/- (1940)
identity cards (1941)
cycling in single file (1941)
lodgers billeted
German language in schools
work from Germans
Fortification and construction
As part of the Atlantic Wall, between 1940 and 1945 the occupying German forces and the Organisation Todt constructed fortifications, roads, and other facilities in the Channel Islands. In a letter from the Oberbefehlshaber West dated 16 June 1941, the reinforcing of the islands was to be carried out on orders of Hitler, since an Allied attack "must be reckoned with" in Summer 1941. Much of the work was carried out by imported labour, including thousands from the Soviet Union, under the supervision of the German forces. The Germans transported over 16,000 slave workers to the Channel Islands to build fortifications. Five categories of construction worker were employed (or used) by the Germans.
Paid foreign labour was recruited from occupied Europe, including French, Belgian, and Dutch workers, among whom were members of resistance movements who used the opportunity to travel to gain access to maps and plans.
Conscripted labourers from France, Belgium, and the Netherlands were also assigned. In 1941 hundreds of unemployed French Algerians and Moroccans were handed to the Germans by the Vichy government and sent to Jersey. Around 2000 Spaniards who had taken refuge in France after the Spanish Civil War and who had been interned were handed over for forced labour.
Most of the Soviet slave workers came from Ukraine. One thousand French Jews were imported.
The problem of the use of local labour arose early in the occupation. In a request for labour dated 19 July 1941, the Oberbefehlshaber West cited the "extreme difficulty" of procuring local civilian labour. On 7 August Deputy Le Quesne, who was in charge of Jersey's Labour Department, refused a German order to provide labour for improvements at Jersey Airport on the grounds that this would be to provide military assistance to the enemy. On 12 August the Germans stated that unless labour was forthcoming men would be conscripted. The builders who had originally built the airport undertook the work under protest. In the face of threats of conscription and deportation to France, resistance to the demands led to an ongoing tussle over the interpretation of the Hague Convention and the definition of military and non-military works. An example that arose was to what extent non-military "gardening" was being intended as military camouflage. On 1 August 1941 the Germans accepted that the Hague Convention laid down that no civilian could be compelled to work on military projects. The case of the reinforcement of sea walls, which could legitimately be described as civilian sea defences (important for islands) but were undeniably of military benefit in terms of coastal defence, showed how difficult it was to distinguish in practice. Economic necessity drove many islanders to take up employment offered by the Germans. The Germans also induced civilian labour by offering those who contravened curfew or other regulations employment on building projects as an alternative to deportation to Germany.
The fifth category of labour were British conscientious objectors and Irish citizens. As many of the islands' young men had joined the armed forces at the outbreak of war, there was a shortfall in manual labour on the farms, particularly for the potato crop; 150 registered conscientious objectors associated with the Peace Pledge Union and 456 Irish workers were recruited for Jersey. Some chose to remain and were trapped by the occupation. Some of the conscientious objectors were communists and regarded the German-Soviet pact as a justification for working for the Germans. Others participated in non-violent resistance activities. As the Irish workers were citizens of a neutral country (see Irish neutrality during World War II), they were free to work for the Germans as they wished and many did so. The Germans attempted to foster anti-British and pro-IRA sympathies with propaganda events aimed at the Irish (see also Irish Republican Army – Abwehr collaboration in World War II). John Francis Reilly convinced 72 of his fellow Irishmen in 1942 to volunteer for employment at the Hermann Göring ironworks near Brunswick. Conditions were unpleasant and they returned to Jersey in 1943. Reilly stayed behind in Germany to broadcast on radio and joined the Sicherheitsdienst (SD).
The Channel Islands were amongst the most heavily fortified parts of the Atlantic Wall, particularly Alderney which is the closest to France. On 20 October 1941 Hitler signed a directive, against the advice of Commander-in-Chief von Witzleben, to turn the Channel Islands into an "impregnable fortress". In the course of 1942, one twelfth of the resources funnelled into the whole Atlantic Wall was dedicated to the fortification of the Channel Islands. Hitler had decreed that 10% of the steel and concrete used in the Atlantic Wall go to the Channel Islands. It is often said the Channel Islands were better defended than the Normandy beaches, given the large number of tunnels and bunkers around the islands. By 1944 in tunnelling alone, of rock had been extracted collectively from Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney (the majority from Jersey). At the same point in 1944 the entire Atlantic Wall from Norway to the Franco-Spanish border, excluding the Channel Islands, had extracted some .
Light railways were built in Jersey and Guernsey to supply coastal fortifications. In Jersey, a gauge line was laid down following the route of the former Jersey Railway from St Helier to La Corbière, with a branch line connecting the stone quarry at Ronez in St John. A line ran along the west coast, and another was laid out heading east from St Helier to Gorey. The first line was opened in July 1942, the ceremony being disrupted by passively-resisting Jersey spectators. The Alderney Railway was taken over by the Germans who lifted part of the standard gauge line and replaced it with a metre gauge line, worked by two Feldbahn 0-4-0 diesel locomotives. The German railway infrastructure was dismantled after the liberation in 1945.
Forced labour camps
The Germans built many camps in Jersey, Guernsey, and four camps in Alderney. The Nazi operated each camp and used a mixture of volunteer and forced labour to build bunkers, gun emplacements, air raid shelters, and concrete fortifications.
In Alderney the camps commenced operation in January 1942 and had a total inmate population of about 6,000. The Borkum and Helgoland camps were "volunteer" (Hilfswillige) labour camps Lager Borkum was used for German technicians and "volunteers" from European countries. Lager Helgoland was filled with Soviet Organisation Todt workers and the labourers in those camps were paid for work done which was not the case with inmates at the two concentration camps, Sylt and Norderney. The prisoners in Lager Sylt and Lager Norderney were slave labourers; Sylt camp held Jewish forced labourers. Norderney camp housed European (mainly Eastern Europeans but including Spaniards) and Soviet forced labourers. On 1 March 1943, Lager Norderney and Lager Sylt were placed under the control of the SS Hauptsturmführer Max List, turning them into concentration camps.
Over 700 of the inmates of the four camps lost their lives in Alderney or in ships travelling to/from Alderney before the camps were closed and the remaining inmates transferred to France, mainly in mid-1944. The Minotaur, carrying 468 Organisation Todt workers including women and children from Alderney, was hit by Royal Canadian Navy motor torpedo boats near St Malo; about 250 of the passengers were killed by the explosions or by drowning, on 5 July 1944. In Jersey the number of camps is unclear. Lager Wick camp in Grouville has been investigated, and an estimated 200 workers were housed there.
Norman Le Brocq's resistance movement, in a successful attempt to raise the morale of the prisoners, created posters and leaflets in both Spanish and Russian to inform the forced labourers of the German defeat at the hands of the Red Army at the Battle of Kursk and Battle of Stalingrad. Le Brocq's network was one of the only active Resistance networks on the channel island to actively sabotage the Nazis. During 1945, he had successfully convinced anti-Nazi German soldiers to plot a mutiny against their officers, the island was liberated by Allied forces before the mutiny could begin.
Jews
A small number of British and other Jews lived on the Channel Islands during the occupation. Most had been evacuated in June 1940, but British law did not allow enemy citizens, irrespective of their ethnicity, to enter Britain without a permit. When the Germans arrived, 18 Jews registered out of an estimated 30–50. In October 1940 German officials issued the first anti-Jewish Order, which instructed the police to identify Jews as part of the civilian registration process. Island authorities complied, and registration cards were marked with red "J"s; additionally, a list was compiled of Jewish property, including property owned by island Jews who had evacuated, which was turned over to German authorities. The registered Jews in the islands, often Church of England members with one or two Jewish grandparents, were subjected to the nine Orders Pertaining to Measures Against the Jews, including closing their businesses (or placing them under Aryan administration), giving up their wirelesses, and staying indoors for all but one hour per day.
The civil administrations agonised over how far they could oppose the orders. The process developed differently on the three islands. Local officials made some effort to mitigate anti-Semitic measures by the Nazi occupying force, and as such refused to require Jews to wear identifying yellow stars and had most former Jewish businesses returned after the war. Officials in the registration department procured false documents for some of those who fell within categories suspected by the Germans. The anti-Jewish measures were not carried out systematically. Some well-known Jews lived through the occupation in comparative openness, including Marianne Blampied, the wife of artist Edmund Blampied. Three Jewish women of Austrian and Polish nationality, Therese Steiner, Auguste Spitz, and Marianne Grünfeld, had fled Central Europe to Guernsey in the 1930s but had been unable to leave Guernsey as part of the evacuation in 1940 because they were excluded by UK law. Eighteen months later, Steiner alerted the Germans to her presence. The three women were deported to France in April 1942, and were later sent to Auschwitz where they were killed or died.
Freemasons
Freemasonry was suppressed by the Germans. The Masonic Temples in Jersey and Guernsey were ransacked in January 1941 and furnishings and regalia were seized and taken to Berlin for display. Lists of membership of Masonic lodges were examined. The States in both bailiwicks passed legislation to nationalise Masonic property later in 1941 in order to protect the buildings and assets. The legislatures resisted attempts to pass anti-Masonic measures and no individual Freemason was persecuted for his adherence. Scouting was banned, but continued undercover, as did the Salvation Army.
Deportations
On specific orders from Adolf Hitler in 1942, the German authorities announced that all residents of the Channel Islands who were not born in the islands, as well as those men who had served as officers in World War I, were to be deported. The majority of them were transported to the south west of Germany, to Ilag V-B at Biberach an der Riss and Ilag VII at Laufen, and to Wurzach. This deportation order was originally issued in 1941, as a reprisal for the 800 German civilians in Iran being deported and interned. The ratio was 20 Channel Islanders to be interned for every German interned but its enactment was delayed and then diluted. The fear of internment caused suicides in all three islands. Guernsey nurse Gladys Skillett, who was five months pregnant at the time of her deportation to Biberach, became the first Channel Islander to give birth while in captivity in Germany. Of the 2,300 deported, 45 would die before the war ended.
Imprisonment
In Jersey, 22 islanders are recognised as having died as a consequence of having been sent to Nazi prisons and concentration camps. They are commemorated on Holocaust Memorial Day:
Clifford Cohu: clergyman, arrested for acts of defiance including preaching against the Germans
Walter Allen Dauny: sentenced for theft
Arthur Dimmery: sentenced for digging up a buried wireless set for Saint Saviour wireless network
George James Fox: sentenced for theft
Louisa Gould: arrested for sheltering an escaped slave worker
Maurice Jay Gould: arrested following a failed attempt to escape to England
James Edward Houillebecq: deported following discovery of stolen gun parts and ammunition
Peter Bruce Johnson: Australian, deported
Frank René Le Villio: deported for serious military larceny
William Howard Marsh: arrested for spreading BBC news
Edward Peter Muels: arrested for helping a German soldier to desert
John Whitley Nicolle: sentenced as ringleader of Saint Saviour wireless network
Léonce L'Hermitte Ogier: advocate, arrested for possession of maps of fortifications and a camera, died in internment following imprisonment
Frederick William Page: sentenced for failing to surrender a wireless set
Clarence Claude Painter: arrested following a raid that discovered a wireless set, cameras, and photographs of military objects
Peter Painter: son of Clarence Painter, arrested with his father when a pistol was found in his wardrobe
Emile Paisnel: sentenced for receiving stolen articles
Clifford Bond Quérée: sentenced for receiving stolen articles
Marcel Fortune Rossi, Jr.: deported as a person of Italian heritage
June Sinclair: hotel worker, sentenced for slapping a German soldier who made improper advances
John (Jack) Soyer: sentenced for possession of a wireless, escaped from prison in France
Joseph Tierney: first member of Saint Saviour wireless network to be arrested
In Guernsey, the following are recognised as having died
Sidney Ashcroft: convicted of serious theft and resistance to officials in 1942. Died in Naumburg prison.
Joseph Gillingham: was one of the islanders involved in the Guernsey Underground News Service (GUNS). Died in Naumburg prison.
Marianne Grunfeld: Jewish adult sent to Auschwitz concentration camp
John Ingrouille: aged 15, found guilty of treason and espionage and sentenced to five years hard labour. Died in Brussels after release in 1945.
Charles Machon: brainchild of GUNS. Died in .
Percy Miller: sentenced to 15 months for wireless offences. Died in Frankfurt prison.
Marie Ozanne: refused to accept the ban placed on the Salvation Army. Died in Guernsey hospital after leaving prison.
Auguste Spitz: Jewish adult sent to Auschwitz concentration camp
Therese Steiner: Jewish adult sent to Auschwitz concentration camp
Louis Symes: sheltered his son 2nd Lt James Symes, who was on a commando mission to the island. Died in Cherche-Midi prison
Resistance
One of the first resistance cells created was the Jersey Communist Party, created by a teenage activist called Norman Le Brocq and two other young activists belonging to the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB). Using this cell, Norman Le Brocq helped create an umbrella organisation known as the Jersey Democratic Movement (JDM), to unite both communist and non-communist resistance across the island.
The size of the population actively resisting German occupation in continental European countries was between 0.6% and 3%, and the percentage of the islands' populations participating in active resistance was comparable. From a wartime population of 66,000 in the Channel Islands a total of around 4000 islanders were sentenced for breaking laws (around 2600 in Jersey and 1400 in Guernsey), although many of these were for ordinary criminal acts rather than resistance. 570 prisoners were sent to continental prisons and camps, and at least 22 Jerseymen and 9 Guernseymen did not return.
Willmott estimated that over 200 people in Jersey provided material and moral support to escaped forced workers, including over 100 who were involved in the network of safe houses sheltering escapees.
No islanders joined active German military units though a small number of UK men who had been stranded on the islands at the start of the occupation joined up from prison. Eddie Chapman, an Englishman, was in prison for burglary in Jersey when the invasion occurred, and offered to work for the Germans as a spy under the code name Fritz, and later became a British double agent under the code name ZigZag.
Resistance involved passive resistance, acts of minor sabotage, sheltering and aiding escaped slave workers, and publishing underground newspapers containing news from BBC radio. There was no armed resistance movement in the Channel Islands. Much of the population of military age had already joined the British or French armed forces. Because of the small size of the islands, most resistance involved individuals risking their lives to save someone else. The British government did not encourage resistance in the Channel Islands. Islanders joined in Churchill's V sign campaign by daubing the letter "V" (for Victory) over German signs.
The Germans initially followed a policy of presenting a non-threatening presence to the resident population for its propaganda value ahead of an eventual invasion and occupation of the United Kingdom. Many islanders were willing to go along with the necessities of occupation as long as they felt the Germans were behaving in a correct and legal way. Two events particularly jolted many islanders out of this passive attitude: the confiscation of radios, and the deportation of large sections of the population.
In May 1942, three youngsters, Peter Hassall, Maurice Gould, and Denis Audrain, attempted to escape from Jersey in a boat. Audrain drowned, and Hassall and Gould were imprisoned in Germany, where Gould died. Following this escape attempt, restrictions on small boats and watercraft were introduced, restrictions were imposed on the ownership of photographic equipment (the boys had been carrying photographs of fortifications with them), and radios were confiscated from the population. A total of 225 islanders, such as Peter Crill, escaped from the islands to England or France: 150 from Jersey, and 75 from Guernsey. The number of escapes increased after D-Day, when conditions in the islands worsened as supply routes to the continent were cut off and the desire to join in the liberation of Europe increased.
Listening to the BBC had been banned in the first few weeks of the occupation and then (surprisingly given the policy elsewhere in Nazi-occupied Europe) tolerated for a time before being once again prohibited. In 1942 the ban became draconian, with all radio listening (even to German stations) being banned by the occupiers, a ban backed up by the confiscation of wireless sets. Denied access to BBC broadcasts, the populations of the islands felt increased resentment against the Germans and increasingly sought to undermine the rules. Hidden radio receivers and underground news distribution networks spread. Many islanders hid their sets (or replaced them with home-made crystal sets) and continued listening to the BBC, despite the risk of being discovered by the Germans or being informed on by neighbours. The regular raids by German personnel hunting for radios further alienated the population.
A shortage of coinage in Jersey (partly caused by occupying troops taking away coins as souvenirs) led to the passing of the Currency Notes (Jersey) Law on 29 April 1941. Banknotes designed by Edmund Blampied was issued by the States of Jersey in denominations of 6 pence (6d), 1, 2 and 10 shillings (10/–), and 1 pound (£1). The 6d note was designed by Blampied in such a way that the word six on the reverse incorporated an outsized "X" so that when the note was folded, the result was the resistance symbol "V" for victory. A year later he was asked to design six new postage stamps for the island, in denominations of ½d to 3d. As a sign of resistance, he incorporated into the design for the 3d stamp the script initials GR (for Georgius Rex) on either side of the "3" to display loyalty to King George VI. Edmund Blampied also forged stamps for documents for fugitives.
The deportations of 1942 sparked the first mass demonstrations against the occupation. The illegality and injustice of the measure, in contrast to the Germans' earlier showy insistence on legality and correctness, outraged those who remained behind and encouraged many to turn a blind eye to the resistance activities of others in passive support.
Soon after the sinking of on 23 October 1943, the bodies of 21 members of the Royal Navy and Royal Marines were washed up in Guernsey. The German authorities buried them with full military honours. The funerals became an opportunity for some of the islanders to demonstrate their loyalty to Britain and their opposition to the occupiers: around 5,000 islanders attended the funeral, laying 900 wreaths – enough of a demonstration against the occupation for subsequent military funerals to be closed to civilians by the German occupiers.
Some island women fraternised with the occupying forces. This was frowned upon by the majority of islanders, who gave them the derogatory nickname Jerry-bags. According to the Ministry of Defence, a very high proportion of women "from all classes and families" had sexual relations with the enemy, and 800–900 children were born to German fathers. The Germans estimated their troops had been responsible for fathering 60 to 80 out of wedlock births in the Channel Islands. As far as official figures went, 176 out of wedlock births had been registered in Jersey between July 1940 and May 1945; in Guernsey 259 out of wedlock births between July 1941 and June 1945 (the disparity in the official figures is explained by differing legal definitions of non-marital births in the two jurisdictions). The German military authorities tried to prohibit sexual fraternisation to reduce incidences of sexually transmitted diseases. They opened brothels for soldiers, staffed with French prostitutes under German medical surveillance.
The sight of brutality against slave workers brought home to many islanders the reality of the Nazi ideology behind the punctilious façade of the occupation. Forced marches between camps and work sites by wretched workers and open public beatings rendered visible the brutality of the régime.
British government reaction
His Majesty's government's reaction to the German invasion was muted, with the Ministry of Information issuing a press release shortly after the Germans landed.
On several occasions British aircraft dropped propaganda newspapers and leaflets on the islands.
Raids on the Channel Islands
On 6 July 1940, 2nd Lieutenant Hubert Nicolle, a Guernseyman serving with the British Army, was dispatched on a fact-finding mission to Guernsey, Operation Anger. He was dropped off the south coast of Guernsey by a submarine and paddled ashore in a canoe under cover of night. This was the first of two visits which Nicolle made to the island. Following the second, he missed his rendezvous and was trapped on Guernsey. After a month and a half in hiding, he gave himself up to the German authorities and was sent to a German prisoner-of-war camp.
On the night of 14 July 1940, Operation Ambassador was launched on Guernsey by men drawn from H Troop of No. 3 Commando under John Durnford-Slater and No. 11 Independent Company. The raiders failed to make contact with the German garrison. Four commandos were left behind and were taken prisoner.
Operation Dryad was a successful raid on the Casquets lighthouse on 2–3 September 1942.
Operation Branford was an uneventful raid against Burhou, an island near Alderney, on 7–8 September 1942.
In October 1942, there was a British Commando raid on Sark, named Operation Basalt. Three German soldiers were killed and one captured. Actions taken by the Commandos resulted in German retaliatory action against Channel Islanders and an order to execute captured Commandos.
Operation Huckaback was a raid originally planned for the night of 9/10 February 1943, as simultaneous raids on Herm, Jethou and Brecqhou. The objective was to take prisoners and gain information about the situation in the occupied Channel Islands. Cancelled because of bad weather, Huckaback was reinvented as a raid on Herm alone. Landing on Herm and finding the island unoccupied, the Commandos left.
Operation Pussyfoot was also a raid on Herm, but thick fog on 3–4 April 1943 foiled the raid and the Commandos did not land.
Operation Hardtack was a series of commando raids in the Channel Islands and the northern coast of France in December 1943. Hardtack 28 landed on Jersey on 25–26 December, and after climbing the northern cliff the Commandos spoke to locals, but did not find any Germans. They suffered two casualties when a mine exploded on the return journey. One of the wounded, Captain Phillip Ayton, died of his wounds some days later. Hardtack 7 was a raid on Sark on 26–27 December, failing to climb the cliffs, they returned on 27–28 December, but two were killed and most others wounded by mines when climbing, resulting in the operation failing.
In 1943, Vice Admiral Lord Mountbatten proposed a plan to retake the islands named Operation Constellation. The proposed attack was never mounted.
Bombing and ship attacks on the islands
The RAF carried out the first bombing raids in 1940 even though there was little but propaganda value in the attacks, the risk of hitting non-military targets was great and there was a fear of German reprisals against the civilian population. Twenty-two Allied air attacks on the Channel Islands during the war resulted in 93 deaths and 250 injuries, many being Organisation Todt workers in the harbours or on transports. Thirteen air crew died.
There were fatalities caused by naval attacks amongst German soldiers and sailors, civilians, and Organisation Todt workers including the Minotaur carrying 468 Organisation Todt workers including women and children from Alderney that was hit by Royal Canadian Navy motor torpedo boats near St Malo, about 250 of the passengers killed by the explosions or by drowning, on 5 July 1944.
In June 1944, Battery Blücher, a 150mm German artillery emplacement in Alderney, opened fire on American troops on the Cherbourg peninsula. HMS Rodney was called up on 12 August to fire at the battery. Using an aircraft as a spotter, it fired 72x16-inch shells at a range of 25 miles (40 km). Two Germans were killed, and several injured with two of the four guns damaged. Three guns were back in action in August, the fourth by November. The naval gunfire was not very effective.
Representation in London
As self-governing Crown Dependencies, the Channel Islands had no elected representatives in the British Parliament. It therefore fell to evacuees and other islanders living in the United Kingdom prior to the occupation to ensure that the islanders were not forgotten. The Jersey Society in London, which had been formed in 1896, provided a focal point for exiled Jerseymen. In 1943, several influential Guernseymen living in London formed the Guernsey Society to provide a similar focal point and network for Guernsey exiles. Besides relief work, these groups also undertook studies to plan for economic reconstruction and political reform after the end of the war. The pamphlet Nos Îles published in London by a committee of islanders was influential in the 1948 reform of the constitutions of the Bailiwicks. Sir Donald Banks felt that there must be an informed voice and body of opinion among exiled Guernseymen and women that could influence the British Government, and assist the insular authorities after the hostilities were over. In 1942, he was approached by the Home Office to see if anything could be done to get over a reassuring message to the islanders, as it was known that, despite the fact that German authorities had banned radios, the BBC was still being picked up secretly in Guernsey and Jersey. It was broadcast by the BBC on 24 April 1942.
Bertram Falle, a Jerseyman, had been elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Portsmouth in 1910. Eight times elected to the House of Commons, in 1934 he was raised to the House of Lords with the title of Lord Portsea. During the occupation he represented the interests of islanders and pressed the British government to relieve their plight, especially after the islands were cut off following D-Day.
Committees of émigré Channel islanders elsewhere in the British Empire also banded together to provide relief for evacuees. For example, Philippe William Luce (writer and journalist, 1882–1966) founded the Vancouver Channel Islands Society in 1940 to raise money for evacuees.
Under siege
During June 1944, the Allied Forces launched the D-Day landings and the liberation of Normandy. They decided to bypass the Channel Islands due to their heavy fortifications. As a result, German supply lines for food and other supplies through France were completely severed. The islanders' food supplies were already dwindling, and this made matters considerably worse – the islanders and German forces alike were on the point of starvation.
In August 1944, the German Foreign Ministry made an offer to Britain, through the Swiss Red Cross, that would see the release and evacuation of all Channel Island civilians except for men of military age. This was not a possibility that the British had envisaged. The British considered the offer, a memorandum from Winston Churchill stating "Let 'em starve. They can rot at their leisure"; it is not clear whether Churchill meant the Germans or the civilians. The German offer was rejected in late September.
In September 1944 a ship sailed from France to Guernsey under a white flag. The American on board asked the Germans if they were aware of their hopeless position. The Germans refused to discuss surrender terms and the American sailed away.
It took months of protracted negotiations before the International Committee of the Red Cross ship SS Vega was permitted to bring relief to the starving islanders in December 1944, carrying Red Cross parcels, salt and soap, as well as medical and surgical supplies. Vega made five further trips to the islands, the last after the islands were liberated on 9 May 1945.
The Granville Raid occurred on the night of 8–9 March 1945, when a German raiding force from the Channel Islands landed in Allied-occupied France and brought back supplies to their base. Granville had been the headquarters of Dwight D. Eisenhower for three weeks, six months earlier.
Liberation
Liberation
Although plans had been drawn up and proposed in 1943 by Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten for Operation Constellation, a military reconquest of the islands, these plans were never carried out. The Channel Islands were liberated after the German surrender.
On 8 May 1945 at 10:00 the islanders were informed by the German authorities that the war was over. Churchill made a radio broadcast at 15:00 during which he announced that:
Hostilities will end officially at one minute after midnight tonight, but in the interests of saving lives the "Cease fire" began yesterday to be sounded all along the front, and our dear Channel Islands are also to be freed today.
The following morning, 9 May 1945, HMS Bulldog arrived in St Peter Port, Guernsey and the German forces surrendered unconditionally aboard the vessel at dawn. British forces landed in St Peter Port shortly afterwards.
HMS Beagle, which had set out at the same time from Plymouth, performed a similar role in liberating Jersey. Two naval officers, Surgeon Lieutenant Ronald McDonald and Sub Lieutenant R. Milne, were met by the harbourmaster (Cpt. H.J. Richmond) who escorted them to his office where they hoisted the Union Flag, before also raising it on the flagstaff of the Pomme D'Or Hotel. It appears that the first place liberated in Jersey may have been the British General Post Office Jersey repeater station. Mr Warder, a GPO lineman, had been stranded in the island during the occupation. He did not wait for the island to be liberated and went to the repeater station where he informed the German officer in charge that he was taking over the building on behalf of the British Post Office.
Sark was liberated on 10 May 1945, and the German troops in Alderney surrendered on 16 May 1945. The German prisoners of war were removed from Alderney by 20 May 1945, and its population started to return in December 1945, after clearing up had been carried out by German troops under British military supervision.
Aftermath
The main Liberation forces arrived in the islands on 12 May 1945. A Royal Proclamation read out by Brigadier Alfred Snow in both Guernsey and Jersey vested the authority of military government in him. The British Government had planned for the relief and restoration of order in the islands. Food, clothing, pots, pans and household necessities had been stockpiled so as to supply islanders immediately. It was decided that to minimise financial disruption Reichsmarks would continue in circulation until they could be exchanged for sterling.
In Sark, the Dame was left in command of the 275 German troops in the island until 17 May when they were transferred as prisoners of war to England. The UK Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, visited Guernsey on 14 May and Jersey on 15 May and offered an explanation in person to the States in both bailiwicks as to why it had been felt in the interests of the islands not to defend them in 1940 and not to use force to liberate them after D-Day.
On 7 June the King and Queen visited Jersey and Guernsey to welcome the oldest possessions of the Crown "back to freedom".
Since the state of affairs in the islands had been largely unknown and there had been uncertainty as to the extent of resistance by the German forces, the Defence (Channel Islands) Regulations of 1944 had vested sweeping administrative powers in the military governor. As it turned out that the German surrender was entirely peaceful and orderly and civil order had been maintained, these regulations were used only for technical purposes such as reverting to Greenwich Mean Time. Each bailiwick was left to make its own regulations as necessary. The situation of retrospectively regularising legislation passed without Royal Assent had to be dealt with. Brigadier Snow signed regulations on 13 June (promulgated 16 June) to renew orders in Jersey and ordinances in Guernsey as though there had been no interruption in their technical validity. The period of military government lasted until 25 August 1945 when new Lieutenant Governors in each bailiwick were appointed.
Following the liberation of 1945, allegations of collaboration with the occupying authorities were investigated. By November 1946, the UK Home Secretary was in a position to inform the House of Commons that most of the allegations lacked substance and only 12 cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, but the Director of Public Prosecutions had ruled out prosecutions on insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed to the occupying authorities against their fellow citizens. The only trials connected to the occupation of the Channel Islands to be conducted under the Treachery Act 1940 were against individuals from among those who had come to the islands from Britain in 1939–1940 for agricultural work. These included conscientious objectors associated with the Peace Pledge Union and people of Irish extraction. In December 1945 a list of British honours was announced to recognise a certain number of prominent islanders for services during the occupation.
In Jersey and Guernsey, laws were passed to confiscate retrospectively the financial gains made by war profiteers and black marketeers, although these measures also affected those who had made legitimate profits during the years of military occupation.
Women who had fraternised with German soldiers were known as "Jerry-bags". This had aroused indignation among some citizens. In the hours following the liberation, members of the British liberating forces were obliged to intervene to prevent revenge attacks.
For two years after the liberation, Alderney was operated as a communal farm. Craftsmen were paid by their employers, whilst others were paid by the local government out of the profit from the sales of farm produce. Remaining profits were put aside to repay the British government for repairing and rebuilding the island. As a result of resentment by the local population about not being allowed to control their own land, the Home Office set up an enquiry that led to the "Government of Alderney Law 1948", which came into force on 1 January 1949. The law provided for an elected States of Alderney, a justice system and, for the first time in Alderney, the imposition of taxes. Due to the small population of Alderney, it was believed that the island could not be self-sufficient in running the airport and the harbour, as well as in providing an acceptable level of services. The taxes were therefore collected into the general Bailiwick of Guernsey revenue funds (at the same rate as Guernsey) and administered by the States of Guernsey. Guernsey became responsible for many governmental functions and services.
Particularly in Guernsey, which evacuated the majority of school-age children ahead of the occupation, the occupation weakened the indigenous culture of the island. Many felt that the children "left as Guerns and returned as English". This was particularly felt in the loss of the local dialect – children who were fluent in Guernesiais when they left, found that after five years of non-use they had lost much of the language.
The abandoned German equipment and fortifications posed a serious safety risk and there were many accidents after the occupation resulting in several deaths. Many of the bunkers, batteries and tunnels can still be seen today. Some have been restored, such as Battery Lothringen and Ho8, and are open for the general public to visit. After the occupation, the islanders used some of the fortifications for other purposes, but most were stripped out in scrap drives (and by souvenir hunters) and left abandoned. One bunker was transformed into a fish hatchery and a large tunnel complex was made into a mushroom farm.
The islands were seriously in debt, with the island governments owing over £10,000,000, having had to pay for the evacuation ships, the costs incurred by evacuees in the UK, the cost of the "occupation forces", being wages, food, accommodation and transport as well as the cost of providing domestics for the Germans, providing civilian work for islanders and needing to pay for reconstruction and compensation after the war. Taxation receipts had fallen dramatically during the war period. Finally, the now worthless Occupation Reichsmarks and RM bank deposits were converted back to Sterling at the rate of 9.36RM to £1. Part of this debt was met by a "gift" from the UK government of £3,300,000 which was used to reimburse islanders who had suffered damage and loss. In addition, the cost of maintaining the evacuees, estimated at £1,000,000 was written off by the government. As one could buy a house for £250 in the 1940s, the gift was equivalent to the value of 17,000 houses.
War crime trials
After World War II, a court-martial case was prepared against ex-SS Hauptsturmführer Max List (the former commandant of Lagers Norderney and Sylt), citing atrocities in Alderney. He did not stand trial, and is believed to have lived near Hamburg until his death in the 1980s. Unlike in the rest of Europe, German collaborators who had given information which led to the deportation of the Island's Jewish population to Belsen and Auschwitz, were never punished by the British government.
Legacy
Since the end of the occupation, the anniversary of Liberation Day has been celebrated in Jersey and Guernsey on 9 May as a national holiday (see Liberation Day (Jersey)); Sark marks Liberation Day on 10 May. In Alderney there was no official local population to be liberated, so Alderney celebrates "Homecoming Day" on 15 December to commemorate the return of the evacuated population. The first shipload of evacuated citizens from Alderney returned on this day.
The Channel Islands Occupation Society was formed in order to study and preserve the history of this period.
Castle Cornet was presented to the people of Guernsey in 1947 by the Crown as a token of their loyalty during two world wars.
Some German fortifications have been preserved as museums, including the Underground Hospitals built in Jersey (Hohlgangsanlage 8) and Guernsey.
Liberation Square in Saint Helier, Jersey, is now a focal point of the town, and has a sculpture which celebrates the liberation of the island. The Liberation monument in Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, is in the form of a monumental sundial unveiled on 9 May 1995: the obelisk that acts as gnomon has 50 layers, with the top 5 sheared to represent the loss of freedom for five years during the occupation – the sundial is so constructed that on 9 May each year the shadow points to inscriptions telling the story of Liberation hour by hour.
In Jersey the end of the occupation was also marked with a penny inscribed "Liberated 1945". One million were produced between 1949 and 1952.
In 1950 the States of Jersey purchased the headland at Noirmont, site of intense fortification (see Battery Lothringen), as a memorial to all Jerseymen who perished. A memorial stone was unveiled at Noirmont on 9 May 1970 to mark the 25th anniversary of Liberation.
Saint Helier is twinned (since 2002) with Bad Wurzach, where deported Channel Islanders were interned.
In 1966, Norman Le Brocq and 19 other islanders were awarded gold watches by the Soviet Union as a sign of gratitude for their role in the resistance movement.
Former fugitives who had been sheltered by islanders were included among the guests at 50th anniversary celebrations of the Liberation in 1995.
On 9 March 2010 the award of British Hero of the Holocaust was made to 25 individuals posthumously, including four Jerseymen, by the United Kingdom government in recognition of British citizens who assisted in rescuing victims of the Holocaust. The Jersey recipients were Albert Bedane, Louisa Gould, Ivy Forster and Harold Le Druillenec. It was, according to historian Freddie Cohen, the first time that the British Government recognised the heroism of islanders during the German occupation.
Social impact
Illegitimate children
Evidence suggests that a significant number of children were born to German fathers during the occupation. Records show that the birth rate which had fallen at the start of World War II increased during the German Occupation. It has been reported that as many as 900 such babies may have been born in Jersey alone though others have cited far more modest figures. At the time under Jersey law, any child born to a married woman was automatically registered as her husband's whilst unmarried women left the section for the father's details blank and there were no formal legal structures surrounding adoption until 1947 so a child's German ancestry was often a matter of speculation. A government official in Jersey was reported to have said in the 1990s that "Many of them grew up with other families or may have been subsequently adopted. I think on the whole the children were assimilated," Many were placed in orphanages whilst there were rumours that in line with the Nazi party's racial ideas some were taken to be adopted in Germany.
In media
Music
The Liberation Jersey International Music Festival was set up in Jersey in 2008 to remember the period of occupation.
John Ireland's Fantasy-Sonata for Clarinet and Piano (1943) was partly inspired by his experience in being evacuated from the Channel Islands in advance of the occupation.
In her song "Alderney", which appears on her album The Sea Cabinet, singer-songwriter Gwyneth Herbert tells the story of the sudden evacuation of the inhabitants of Alderney when the war broke out. She sings about the irrevocable changes introduced during the Nazi occupation of the island and their effect on the islanders.
Video games
Occupied Guernsey appears in Mission 5 of Sniper Elite 5. Aptly named Festung Guernsey. Where the protagonist Karl Fairburne is tasked with infiltrating the Island to destroy the fictional Project Kraken Prototype: a Stealth equipped U-boat. At some point in the mission, Fairburne is also tasked with destroying Batterie Mirus after he hears it firing in the distance.
Television and film
Several documentaries have been made about the occupation, mixing interviews with participants, both islanders and soldiers, archive footage, photos and manuscripts and modern day filming around the extensive fortifications still in place. These films include:
In Toni's Footsteps: The Channel Island Occupation Remembered (2002) – 52min documentary tracing the history of the Occupation following the discovery of a notebook in an attic in Guernsey belonging to a German soldier named Toni Kumpel.
Lover Other, a 2006 documentary about artist Claude Cahun, directed by Barbara Hammer, features the occupation prominently, as Cahun lived in Jersey at the time.
There have also been television and film dramas set in the occupied islands:
Appointment with Venus, a 1951 film set on the fictional island of Armorel (based on the island of Sark).
Triple Cross (1966) has a passage set in Jersey in the period shortly after the German occupation commences.
The Blockhouse, a film starring Peter Sellers and Charles Aznavour, set in occupied France, was filmed in a German bunker and on L'Ancresse common in Guernsey in 1973.
The Eagle Has Landed (1976), directed by John Sturges, had a passage set in Alderney where Radl (Robert Duvall) meets Steiner (Michael Caine).
ITV's Enemy at the Door, set in Guernsey and shown between 1978 and 1980
A&E's Night of the Fox (1990), set in Jersey shortly before D-Day in 1944.
The 2001 film The Others starring Nicole Kidman was set in Jersey in 1945 just after the end of the occupation.
ITV's Island at War (2004), a drama set in the fictional Channel Island of St Gregory. It was shown by US TV network PBS as part of its Masterpiece Theatre series in 2005.
Another Mother's Son, a 2017 film about Louisa Gould, hiding a Russian war prisoner, starring Jenny Seagrove as Louisa Gould and Ronan Keating as Harold Le Druillenec.
The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society (2018) film of the novel set in 1946, composed of letters written from one character to another.
Plays
A stage play, Dame of Sark, by William Douglas-Home, is set in Sark during the German occupation, and is based on the Dame's diaries of this period. It was televised by Anglia Television in 1976, and starred Celia Johnson. It was directed by Alvin Rakoff and adapted for the small screen by David Butler.
Another stage play, Lotty's War by Giuliano Crispini, is set in the islands during the occupation, with the story based on "unpublished diaries".
Novels
The following novels have been set in the German-occupied islands:
Tickell, Jerrard (1951), Appointment with Venus, London: Hodder & Stoughton, set on the fictitious island of Armorel, based on Alderney
Higgins, Jack (1970), A Game for Heroes, New York: Berkley,
Robinson, Derek (1977), Kramer's War, London: Hamilton,
Trease, Geoffrey (1987), Tomorrow Is a Stranger (London: Mammoth, ) set during the occupation of Guernsey.
Edwards, G. B. (1981), The Book of Ebenezer Le Page (London: Hamish Hamilton, ) includes the occupation of Guernsey.
Parkin, Lance (1996), Just War, New Doctor Who adventures series, Doctor Who Books,
Binding, Tim (1999), Island Madness, London: Picador,
Link, Charlotte (2000), Die Rosenzüchterin [The Rose Breeder], condensed ed., Köln: BMG-Wort,
Walters, Guy (2005), The Occupation, London: Headline,
Shaffer, Mary Ann and Barrows, Annie (2008), The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society, New York: The Dial Press,
Cone, Libby (2009), War on the Margins, London: Duckworth,
Andrews, Dina (2011), Tears in the Sand, Trafford,
Horlock, Mary (2011), The Book of Lies, Canongate,
Lea, Caroline (2016), When The Sky Fell Apart, Text Publishing Company,
Hanley, John F (2012), Against The Tide, Matador,
Hanley, John F (2013), The Last Boat, Matador,
Hanley, John F (2015), Diamonds For The Wolf, Amazon,
Journal
Bachmann, K M (1972), The Prey of an Eagle, Guernsey: Burbridge. A personal record of family life during the German Occupation of Guernsey, 1940–1945.
See also
Aviation accidents and incidents in the Channel Islands in the 1940s
German Fortifications in Jersey
Fort Hommet 10.5 cm Coastal Defence Gun Casement Bunker
Henri Gonay, Belgian airman killed in Jersey, 1944
Military history of France during World War II
Neuengamme concentration camp subcamp list
Sark during the German occupation of the Channel Islands
Walker Collection: A collection of philatelic material in the British Library relating to the occupation.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Bell, William M. (2002), Guernsey Occupied But Never Conquered, The Studio Publishing Services,
Bunting, Madeleine (1995), The Model Occupation: The Channel Islands under German Rule, 1940–1945, London: Harper Collins,
Carr, Gillian; Sanders, Paul; Willmot, Louise (2014). Protest, Defiance and Resistance in the Channel Islands: German Occupation, 1940–45. London: Bloomsbury.
Cruickshank, Charles G. (1975), The German Occupation of the Channel Islands, The Guernsey Press,
Dunford-Slater, John (1953). Commando: Memoirs of a Fighting Commando in World War Two. Reprinted 2002 by Greenhill Books.
Edwards, G. B. (1981), "The Book of Ebenezer le Page" (New York Review of Books Classics; 2006).
Evans, Alice Alice, (2009), Guernsey Under Occupation: The Second World War Diaries of Violet Carey, The History Press,
Hamlin, John F. "No 'Safe Haven': Military Aviation in the Channel Islands 1939–1945" Air Enthusiast, No. 83, September/October 1999, pp. 6–15
Hayes, John Crossley, teacher in charge of Vauvert school (1940–1945) and composer of Suite Guernesiaise, premiered in Guernsey October 2009. Documents of life in war time Guernsey at https://web.archive.org/web/20111120142147/http://www.johncrossleyhayes.co.uk/.
Lewis, John (1983), A Doctor's Occupation, New English Library Ltd; New edition (July 1, 1983),
Maughan, Reginald C. F. (1980), Jersey under the Jackboot, London: New English Library,
Money, June, (2011) Aspects of War, Channel Island Publishing,
Nettles, John (2012), Jewels & Jackboots, Channel Island Publishing & Jersey War Tunnels,
Pether, John (1998), The Post Office at War and Fenny Stratford Repeater Station, Bletchley Park Trust Reports, 12, Bletchley Park Trust
Read, Brian A. (1995), No Cause for Panic: Channel Islands Refugees 1940–45, St Helier: Seaflower Books,
Sanders, Paul (2005), "The British Channel Islands under German Occupation 1940–1945", Jersey Heritage Trust / Société Jersiaise,
Shaffer, Mary Ann, and Barrows, Annie (2008), The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society,
Tabb, Peter A Peculiar Occupation, Ian Allan Publishing,
Winterflood, Herbert (2002), Occupied Guernsey: July 1940–December 1942, Guernsey Press,
Winterflood, Herbert (2005), Occupied Guernsey 1943–1945, MSP Channel Islands,
External links
Channel Islands Occupation Society (Guernsey branch)
Channel Islands Occupation Society (Jersey branch)
Occupation at Visit Guernsey
Jersey in Jail - Drawings by Edmund Blampied
Jersey's Occupation Story at Visit Jersey
Short documentary video
The Frank Falla archive
Jersey Communist Norman Le Brocq talking in 1992 about wartime resistance activity on the island
20th century in Guernsey
20th century in Jersey
Amphibious operations of World War II
Channel Islands
German occupation of Jersey during World War II
Invasions of Jersey
C
Politics of World War II
Channel Islands
Channel Islands |
4195047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel%20of%20Fortune%20%28Australian%20game%20show%29 | Wheel of Fortune (Australian game show) | Wheel of Fortune is an Australian television game show produced by Grundy Television until 2006, and CBS Studios International in 2008. The program aired on the Seven Network from 1981 to 2004 and January to July 2006, aired at 5:00pm from 1981 to 1989 and from 2004 to 2006 and at 5:30pm from 1989 to 2003, and is mostly based on the same general format as the original American version of the program.
After Wheel of Fortune ended, the format was revived by the Nine Network in 2008 as Million Dollar Wheel of Fortune, until it was cancelled in June 2008 due to low ratings and following arguments from long-time host John Burgess concerning why he did not like the revamped format, which coincidentally was adopted in the United States later that year and has continued with the modified Australian format. The rights to the show are currently owned by Network Ten, which now owns the video and format rights through its parent company, Paramount International Networks, which holds international rights as the American version is distributed by the company's broadcast syndication arm.
An earlier unrelated show also titled Wheel of Fortune had been broadcast on the Nine Network. That version had been developed by Reg Grundy as a radio game show before it transferred to television in 1959.
In 2010, hostess Adriana Xenides died after a long battle with illness; she had been listed in the Guinness World Records as the longest-serving hostess of a television game show until it was surpassed by her US counterpart, Vanna White in 2001.
History
In 1981, the Grundy Organisation purchased the rights to Merv Griffin's American game show Wheel of Fortune and created a faithful reproduction of the American series, as they had done with many other game shows. The new show began airing on the Seven Network on 21 July 1981 at 5:00PM, and was produced at the studios of ADS-7 in Adelaide and hosted by Ernie Sigley. The show's production moved to SAS-7 when ADS and SAS swapped network affiliations and channel frequencies at the end of 1987.
In 1996, as part of an attempted major revamp with the remaining of the show's famous theme music and sounds, the program relocated from Adelaide to Seven flagship ATN-7 in Sydney. Along with a new set, new music, faster game format and modified rules, John Burgess was sacked from his twelve-year stint as host and replaced by Tony Barber. By the time that Burgess' final episode went to air it had become common knowledge that the show had relocated and that changes would occur. However, Burgess' final words referred only to the show's relocation, thus suggesting that he was at the time oblivious to his sacking.
The following Monday after Burgess' final episode, Barber began as host, despite much controversy. Beside the fact that viewers did not appreciate the fact that Burgess was sacked without a chance to say goodbye on air, viewers had difficulty accepting the new rules and faster pace. Additionally, Burgess had made media appearances saying how he had been badly treated and only found out about his sacking accidentally when a Grundy executive had to cancel a golf date with him because he was needed at the studios to continue work on the new format.
The ratings for the first two nights appeared promising to begin with but plummeted badly from then on. Some ground was regained after Seven and Grundy, in an embarrassing about-face, reinstated as much of the old rules as possible after the first five weeks. It regained further ground presumably due to audience curiosity when Adriana Xenides took sick leave in November 1996, but neither moves were enough to return it to a credible position as far as ratings were concerned.
A 5pm nationwide newscast that replaced Family Feud on 1 July also proved fatal for Wheel and the network. On 27 November 1996, the Seven Network issued a press releases in which Barber announced his resignation from the show. In his 2001 memoir Who Am I, Barber later explained that he was removed from the position by the network and was offered future projects with the network in exchange for agreeing to the press release. The future projects, however, never came to pass. Burgess has claimed (also backed up by Barber in his memoir) on many occasions that he was offered the job back with a heavy pay raise and declined, but the Seven Network denied this story. In any event, Burgess was quickly given a contract by the Nine Network to host the game show Catch Phrase (later retitled Burgo's Catch Phrase) that would be Wheel of Fortunes rival for a few more years.
Adriana Xenides, who had been the show's co-hostess and letter-turner since its premiere, fell sick — ultimately suffering from depression and what she called a "physical breakdown".
Barber appeared at the start of the 1997 series premiere to introduce and hand the show over to Rob Elliott with former Perfect Match hostess Kerrie Friend replacing Xenides for the next seven months.
On 18 June 2006, the Seven Network announced that they had stopped broadcasting of the program with the last episode airing on 28 July, just one week after celebrating 25 years on Australian television. The final episode was filmed on 23 June at Channel 7's Epping studios. One of the contestants on the final episode was Edith Bliss, former field reporter for Simon Townsend's Wonder World, who won the game and effectively became the show's final, undefeated champion. From the Monday following the final episode, the network filled the times-lot with reruns of M.A.S.H. Following the finale, Seven also aired 20 unaired episodes from 2005 at the 10am timeslot. These were hosted by 2004 host Steve Oemcke, and clearly produced before it was decided to rest the show in 2005.
2008 Nine Network Reboot and new title "Million Dollar Wheel of Fortune"
In May 2008, the Nine Network revived the show in a revamped form known as Million Dollar Wheel of Fortune, hosted by former Home and Away actor Tim Campbell, with Kelly Landry as co-host. and airing from GTV-9 in Melbourne.
Despite an initial report stating that Burgess and Xenides disliked the show, Xenides gave positive feedback stating that it was "refreshing" and she loved the "... very cool colours ... and the opportunity of winning a million dollars, that's excellent." She also stated that John was "probably misrepresented."
Ratings for the new series were expected to top now-rival game show Deal or No Deal, broadcast on the Seven Network and to lead-in to the 6:00pm news. However, there were low ratings, although peaking at 700,000 viewers on the first night. From then, viewership went on a decline, and by the end of its short run, Wheel had on average 450,000 viewers a night, compared to the almost-1,000,000 watchers for Deal. Due to this steep ratings decline, the series was cancelled on 27 June 2008, after only five weeks on air.
2024 Network 10 Graham Norton reboot
In September 2023, news broke that the format is getting revived and will be hosted by Irish talk show host Graham Norton. Instead of being filmed in Australia, the new version will be filmed in Manchester, England (with Australian contestants) where a new British version of the format will be filmed and will be also hosted by Norton. Filming is set to commence in November 2023 at the Dock10 studios. In October 2023, it was confirmed that Network 10 will helm the series.
Format adoption in the United States
Despite its short-lived run for five weeks, format owner and producer Sony Pictures Television later adopted the Million Dollar wedge format in the American syndicated version at the start of its 26th season on 8 September 2008, except the million dollar wedge is available in the first three rounds instead of the first round only. Three players have won the prize -- Michelle Lowenstein (2008), Autumn Erhard (2013), and Sarah Manchester (2014).
This does not include a 2021 celebrity edition also featured a million dollar winner in Melissa Joan Hart, but her win used different rules to gain the wedge are different in the civilian version. In the celebrity edition, four full-spaced Million Dollar Wedges are located on the wheel during the game instead of the single one-third space wedge that is used in civilian games.
Gameplay
Before the taping begins, the players draw numbers to determine their positions on stage. Play proceeds from left to right from the viewer's perspective: from the red player to yellow, then to blue, then back to red. The red player would have the first spin in round 1, the yellow player would have the first spin in round 2 and the blue/green player would have the first spin in round 3. From 1999 to 2003 when the main game consisted of 4 puzzles, the red player would have the first spin in round 4.
From July 1996 until 1998, the host would ask a trivia question and the contestant who buzzed in with the correct answer would have the first spin. During this time the red podium was reserved for the defending champion as there was an opportunity for any contestant to have the first spin. The process used during this period was a form of continuous play (For example, if the red player buzzed in to start round 1, but the yellow player solved the puzzle, then the blue player would have the first spin in round 2).
Upon conversion of the puzzle board from a set of 52 trilons to touchscreens in 2004, the show used a Flip-Up puzzle (based on the American version; see below) to determine control of the board to start the first and fourth round, and among which the player clockwise will begin the next round and so on (in order, red, yellow, blue and red). Like the July 1996 – 1998 era, the red podium was reserved for the defending champion.
Categories
The game uses a wide variety of categories for its puzzles. Some are generic, such as "Place" or "Thing." Puzzles frequently refer to popular culture or common items encountered in everyday life.Starting In 1994‘BEFORE AND AFTER’
‘STAR AND TITLE’
‘STAR AND ROLE’
‘ARTIST(S) AND SONG’Starting In 1995‘BLANK’
‘CLUE’
‘SLANG’
'WHERE ARE WE?'Starting In 1999‘PEOPLE’
Other categories include BUILDING, LIVING THINGS, TRUE OR FALSE?, EVENT, and PHRASE.
Spinning the Wheel
The wheel has 96 pegs with 24 spaces that are each four pegs wide. These spaces represent values (in multiples of 5 instead of 50 in the American version), including one silver coloured “Top Dollar” wedge, prizes and penalty spaces, and three strategic elements for use in the game.
A player who does not land on a penalty space asks for a consonant. If it is not in the puzzle, the play proceeds to the next player. If the letter appears in the puzzle, the hostess reveals all instances of the letter and the amount spun up is added to the player's score. Unlike the American version, however, the amount won is a flat rate and not multiplied by the number of instances of the letter. The only exception is when the red mystery letter appears, which doubles the amount spun up when called. Calling a letter that has already been called results in the loss of one's turn. A "used letter board" is positioned off screen for the contestants to see to aid in their guesses. All descriptions of players being credited with a value in the remainder of this article assume that the player calls a consonant which appears in the puzzle. A player who lands on a value is credited with that amount.
"Top Dollar" values
1981–1985: $240 – $460 – $1,200
1985–1990: $360 – $690 – $1,800
1990–1994: $400 – $750 – $2,000 (first used on Episode #2,000)
1995–2000: ($)500 – ($)1,000 – ($)2,000 (From 15 July 1996 until October 1996 and again from 1999 to 2000, 1,000 was used in rounds 2 and 3, while 2,000 was used in round 4)
2000–2006: 750 – 1,500 – 2,500 (Like the previous amounts, 1,500 was used in rounds 2 and 3)
2008: $750 – $1,500 – $2,500 (rounds 3 and 4)
From July 1996 to the end of the original run, the scores, while still referred to as "dollars", were kept in points.
Buying a vowel
A player who has sufficient banked cash during the current round may choose to buy a vowel prior to spinning the Wheel. The cost of the vowel, ($)50, is deducted from the player's score and all instances of the requested vowel in the puzzle are revealed, if any. The player's score is reduced by a flat ($)50. If the purchased vowel is not in the puzzle, the player loses their turn in addition to the aforementioned cost. Multiple vowels may be purchased until either the supply of vowels is exhausted or the player's bank falls below ($)50; after which the player either spins the wheel or tries to solve the puzzle.
Special FeaturesFlip-Up/Toss Up Puzzles – Introduced in 2004, these gave control of the wheel to whoever solved the puzzle, but did not add any money to the contestant's score. The Flip-Up before the second round is a Prize Puzzle, awarding a prize related to the puzzle. On Million Dollar Wheel Of Fortune it was called Toss Up, while Prize Puzzle was renamed Cash Up because of a chance to win $500 after guessing the puzzle.Free Spin – Available only in the first round, the Free Spin wedge allowed a contestant to continue his or her turn in the event of solving a puzzle incorrectly, selecting a letter that is not in the puzzle, or landing on Bankrupt or Lose a Turn. From July 1996 the Free Spin wedge was replaced with a dollar space, and a golden token with black "Free Spin" text was placed at the top of a wedge. Upon spinning it up, the Free Spin was awarded first, and then a letter was called for the dollar amount that the "Free Spin" was placed upon. If the letter called was not in the puzzle, the contestant could use it straightaway to retain control or save it for later.Bankrupt – The black Bankrupt space ended a player's turn and loses their score currently earned for the round. Any score won from a prior round was not affected by it. From July 1996 to late 1998, the solving of a puzzle did not secure the score accrued up to that point in the game, and landing on it at any time of the game took the player's score back to 0, unless the host spun it up during the speed-up round. Between 1981 and 1996, the Bankrupt space would appear once in round 1, and twice in rounds 2 and 3. From early 1996 until July that year, Bankrupt spaces appeared once only in each round. From July 1996 until 1998, the second Bankrupt wedge was brought back for the final puzzle, and then from 1999 onwards a second Bankrupt was added to the round 2 template for the third puzzle.Lose a Turn – Ends the player's turn without affecting their current round's winnings. The Australian version is one of several foreign adaptations to employ multiple Lose a Turn spaces on a single template with a second Lose a Turn space appearing in Round 3 (or Round 4 from July–October 1996 and 1999–2006).Red Mystery Letter – Between 1993 and July 1996, and again from January 1997 to 2006, a consonant that appears in red on the puzzle board doubles the amount awarded for choosing that letter.Surprise Wedge – Introduced in 1995, the Surprise wedge featured a Mystery prize won by the contestant who picked up the wedge and solved the puzzle on the same round. After the show was moved to Sydney, the Surprise wedge was abandoned until 1997, where it would appear on a sporadic basis.Goodie – Used from July 1995 to July 1996, this automatically awarded a pre-determined prize to the first person who landed on it for the night. This did not rely upon the contestant correctly guessing a letter, it was awarded for the spin. The concept was reinstated in October 1996 with the introduction of the Top Dollar Prize.Bonus Wedge – Introduced in 1994, landing on this space and correctly guessing a letter resulted in the contestant winning the bonus prize. Originally a golden wedge with black text, the 1996 revamp saw it turn into a silver token with blue text at the top of a wedge. It was later replaced at the beginning of the 1997 season by a full blue wedge and the word "Bonus" in glittery text. Bonus would always be added to the wheel at the start of the second round. The Bonus wedge was scrapped in 2003 upon introduction of the Mystery Round, but was reintroduced in July 2006 for the show's final week.Top Dollar Prize – Worked the same way as the Goodie wedge. During the later months of the Barber era in 1996, the first person to spin up any top amount during the course of the night was awarded a small prize. Similar to the Goodie wedge, it was awarded for the spin, and did not rely upon the contestant correctly guessing a letter. Prizes ranged from CDs, videotapes, concert tickets, small packages (CD and concert ticket for example) and the electronic Wheel of Fortune game (which made by Tiger Electronics and licensed by Croner).Bonus Puzzle – Introduced in 1995, the Bonus Puzzle concept was embedded with puzzles that fell into the categories of Clue, Blank, and later Where Are We and True Or False. The contestant who solved the puzzle on the board was then given the chance to solve the Bonus puzzle for a ($)200 bonus.Mystery Wedge (Space) – Between 2003 and 2008, round two featured two 500 spaces marked with a stylized question mark placed on the wheel. If a player landed on one of these mystery wedges and correctly guessed a letter in the puzzle, said contestant was given an option to risk their current winnings by 'flipping' the mystery wedge (contains either a Bankrupt or a special prize which would be awarded if the contestant solved the puzzle), or take a 500 buyout. After one mystery wedge had been flipped, the remaining wedge functions as a regular 500 space.Car Wedge – Used from 13 March 2000 to 9 August 2002, this was a rather convoluted feature that seldom had any outcome. A contestant would need to spin the "car" wedge marked with the logo (such as Proton and Daewoo), choosing the correct consonant and pick the wedge up, then solve the puzzle without landing on the Bankrupt. The contestant have to do the process twice during the first three rounds in order to win the car. Million Dollar Wedge – Introduced in the 2008 revival, the wedge had a "$MILLION" two-pegged space sandwiched by two small Bankrupts. The wedge do not have a monetary value but requires the player to solve the puzzle during the round upon picking up. Unlike other prize wedges, the wedge remain in the contestant's possession throughout the entire game and is still susceptible to Bankrupt hits; the wedge enables a contestant to play for $1 million during the bonus round if the player wins the game with the wedge intact.
Solving a puzzle
From 1981 to 1996, money earned in each round was used to shop for prizes. Any remaining cash also counted towards the player's final score. In early 1996, however, only secured winnings counted. When this was removed in July 1996, contestants were given a set prize upon solving a puzzle. By the end of the year upon solving a puzzle, contestants could choose one of three prizes offered to them. This would continue until 2004 when it was reduced to two prizes.
For Million Dollar Wheel of Fortune, solving a puzzle allowed that player to bank any cash accumulated up to that point.
Speed-Up Round: Final Spin
At some point, when time is running short, a bell rings to indicate the Final Spin of the Wheel. The host spins the Wheel and all remaining consonants in the puzzle are worth the value of the spin. The player in control has his/her arrow determine the round's value. The players take turns calling one letter each including vowels (no cost/value). If the called letter appears in the puzzle, the player has five seconds after the hostess stops moving to try to solve the puzzle. If a player has a Free Spin, he/she can still use it to keep her turn in the speed-up round. Unlike the previous rounds, contestants may give multiple guesses within the time limit. On several episodes, there have been more than one speed-up round.
If a penalty space is landed, the host spins again until a dollar amount is spun. If the host spins up the Bonus wedge, the first player to put a letter on the board gets the prize and the amount under the Bonus wedge is what every letter is worth.
The player with the highest total became the carryover champion; from January–June 1996, only winnings secured by solving puzzles determined the winner. After June 1996, the player with the most points won the championship.
Major Prize Round (The Golden Wheel)
After the winning contestant finishes the Final Spin round, he/she advances to the Major Prize Round. At first, the winner played for a major prize usually worth an average of $4,000. By 1987, the dollar values on the wheel were replaced with the names of major prizes with at least one wedge being a new car. The contestant is given help with the final puzzle in the form of consonants and vowels; they start with two consonants and one vowel to start with, plus an additional consonant for every ($)2,000 scored in the main game. Theoretically a maximum of ($)38,000, can be earned so as to call every consonant. The winning contestant then gets 10 seconds to solve the puzzle and win the prize. Contestants can make many guesses during the time limit so long it does not expire. If a champion failed to solve the puzzle, any score would carry over to the next episode; however, once a major prize is won, the value is reset back to zero.
The round has sometimes tweaked its format. In the 1995 Family Week, contestants were given 5 consonants and vowel to choose from regardless of score. In the 1997 Celebrity Week, contestants were given the common letters R, S and E, and then had to choose a further 2 consonants and a vowel. In the 22nd Anniversary State Challenge of 2003, the winner of the grand final was given 5 consonants and 2 vowels.
Since its debut in 1987, there were two gold-silver car wedges on the Golden Wheel. On the 1,500th episode in 1988, an additional car wedge was added. On a few occasions, additional car wedges were increased by one each day it was not won. The car has never, however, regularly appeared on the wheel for more than three times.
On 15 July 1996, the Golden Wheel was briefly replaced with a selection of five envelopes. The hostess would bring them over to the contestant, the contestant would pick an envelope and then the host opened it up and revealed what the prize was as opposed to revealing it after the round is over. This was retired around September 1996 and it reintroduced the Golden Wheel with a redesign which would later be used over the remainder of the original series.
From 2000 to 2004, a new progressive jackpot system was added in addition to the car wedges (most of which were from Proton and Daewoo). The jackpot starts at $2,000 with another $100 increasing to the pot every night it was unclaimed. Two "Jackpot" slivers were sandwiched on one of the "Car" wedges. The highest jackpot won was $25,000 (added to the car, a combined prize of almost $50,000). This, and the $5,000 prize on the 5,000th episode, was one of only two cash prizes offered on the show.
From 2004 to 2006, The Golden Wheel saw the number of car wedges decreased to two when it featured a Renault and finally three with a Mitsubishi until the closing of its run on the Seven Network.
In the 2008 revival, the standard top prize (white spaces) was increased to $200,000. The car wedges (purple spaces) also returned but only two spaces are in play. For the beginning of the series, the number of $200,000 wedges started at one and increases one for every night until it was won. The same procedure then occurred with the car wedges starting with two. If a player acquired the Million Dollar wedge in the main game, one $200,000 space would be replaced with the $1 million top prize.
Celebrity weeks
Occasionally celebrities play for home viewers, with those viewers earning the prizes and total of the amounts their winning celebrity spun during the game in actual cash. At the end of the week, all those winning home viewers were entered in a drawing to win a car.
There was also a weekly series airing Saturday nights in 1990 and 1991 called "Celebrity Wheel of Fortune".
The 5,000th episode
On 21 March 2006, "Wheel of Fortune" celebrated a major milestone, as its 5,000th episode went to air on the Seven Network. An extra element was added to the special show where contestants had the chance to win $5,000 in cash. Two yellow "$5,000" wedges were added to the Round 1 wheel. A third was added to Round 2's wheel. If a contestant was to spin it up and select a correct letter, they would have 5,000 added to their score, but to win the actual money, they had to solve the puzzle (in the same way as the Surprise and Mystery wedges). In Round 2, one of the contestants did spin up the "$5,000" wedge and the Surprise wedge and solved the puzzle, winning over $10,000 in cash and prizes for that round. The other $5,000 wedges were removed for Round 3.
Champions
Record-breaking champions include:
Donovan Newton, $63,110 August 1996 (during the Tony Barber era)
Dell Edwards, $68,000 12 July 2001 (amount unknown, rounded off)
Moita Lindgren, $72,917 August 24 & 27, 2001 (mathematical mistake)
At the time of going to air, champion Luke Seager (2004) was the 4th biggest winner of all time, and the second longest champion in terms of nights on air represented. Luke credited his longevity on the wheel (10 nights) to the fact that most newcomers to the show did not comprehend the importance of controlling the wheel. His reign as champion still rates amongst the highest ratings period the program has ever enjoyed.
Presenters
Wheel of Fortune in Australia has had many hosts, hostesses and announcers through its long history. They include:
Hosts
Ernie Sigley (July 1981 – June 1984)
John Burgess (June 1984 – July 1996)
Tony Barber (July – December 1996)
Rob Elliott (January 1997 – December 2003)
Steve Oemcke (January 2004 – December 2005)
Larry Emdur (January 2006 – July 2006)
Tim Campbell (May 2008 – June 2008)
Co-hosts
Adriana Xenides (July 1981 – November 1996, July 1997 – June 1999)
Kerrie Friend (January 1997 – July 1997, as a long-term replacement for Xenides)
Sophie Falkiner (July 1999 – December 2005)
Laura Csortan (January 2006 – July 2006)
Kelly Landry (May 2008 – June 2008)
Announcers
Steve Curtis (July 1981 – December 1982)
John Dean (January 1983 – December 1985)
John Deeks (January 1986 – December 1995, January 1997 – July 2006)
David Day (January – July 1996)
Ron E. Sparks (July 1996 – December 1996)
Simon Diaz (May – June 2008)
Fill-in hostesses
Kerrie Friend (November 1996, one week; 1997, seven months)
Terasa Livingstone (November 1996, one week)
Cecilia Yates (December 1996, one week)
Bridget Adams (December 1996, one week)
Sonia Kruger (1998, two weeks)
Tania Zaetta (December 1996, one week; 1999, two weeks)
Mel Symons (2003, two weeks)
TimelineJuly 1981: The first episode to air. At the time the studio was identical to the American version at that time.1984: Red, yellow, and green sunbursts replace the green glitter backdrop, somewhat similar to the red, yellow, and blue sunbursts in the American version. The puzzleboard design is unchanged and was later slightly remodified in colour.June 1984: John Burgess replaces Ernie Sigley as host.1989: The show changes its timeslot from 5:00pm to 5:30pm.Late 1992: Sunburst backdrops are replaced with cones and the green backdrop becomes turquoise. A new colour scheme for the wheel is introduced.June 1994: John Burgess celebrates his 10th anniversary as host. It wasn't until October that an episode commemorating the milestone was shot and aired. The celebratory episode the background also changed from blue to yellow as well.1995: The theme music and the show's logo are updated. The set background colour now changes back to blue. By the middle of the year, an illuminated light box used to display the puzzle's category was removed with the category now displayed as on screen graphics.January 1996: The 1996 season premiere commences with a new puzzleboard consisting of an extra row added to the existing three rows of trilons. John Burgess has shaved the moustache, and David Day becomes the new announcer following John Deeks' departure to host Family Feud. The champion is no longer the one with the highest accumulated score, he/she now needs to have secured the most cash upon solving a puzzle.15 July 1996: The show relocated to Sydney with Tony Barber replacing John Burgess as host and Ron E Sparks replaces David Day as announcer. A new set and its theme music with the wheel mounted on a 20° incline was unveiled. Until late 1998, landing on a Bankrupt now expunges all the contestant's winnings regardless of the puzzles solved, and as such, the champion once again is the person with the highest accumulated score at the end of the last puzzle. The turquoise backdrop changes to blue. The Golden Wheel is replaced with envelopes, and the bonus round is played in front of the wheel instead of behind the wheel from the central podium, with a trend that would continue once the wheel was spun following the reintroduction of the Golden Wheel.19 August 1996: The former theme music is returned. An attempt is made to have both themes co-exist together with a derivative of the new theme music used to introduce the new contestants each night. The on-screen visuals now featured an on-screen timer display in the Major Prize Round.October 1996: Following the Family Week special, the main game reverts to a three-round format. Top Dollar prize is introduced and a new prize-shop is introduced where contestants choose a prize out of the selection of three offered to them upon solving a puzzle. The co-existence of both themes cease in favour of the reintroduced theme music and associated sound effects..18 November 1996: Kerrie Friend becomes the first substitute hostess in the show's history after Adriana Xenides took a sick leave.6 January 1997: Rob Elliott replaces Tony Barber as host. Kerrie Friend returns to the puzzleboard as a long-term replacement for Adriana Xenides until July 4. John Deeks returns to the booth as announcer. The Surprise wedge and the Red Mystery Letter are later returned.July 1999: Sophie Falkiner replaced Adriana Xenides as hostess.13 March 2000: Car wedges are introduced on the wheel beginning its run with the Proton (later Daewoo in 2001) wedge. The top values are now tweaked to 750, 1500, and 2500 respectively. A progressive cash jackpot is added on the Golden Wheel, starting at $2,000 and adding another $100 each episode until the jackpot is claimed.13 June 2000: Wheel celebrates its 4,000th episode, and four car wedges are placed on the Golden Wheel.2003: The Mystery Round is introduced along with Mystery wedges, similar to the American version's namesake round first introduced a year prior. The Bonus, Surprise, and "car" wedges are retired in favour of the new round. 11 August 2003: The set background changes to purple with another update to the show's logo. The bonus round is now played in front of the video wall next to the puzzle board instead of in front of the Wheel, in addition, First episode in HD.9 February 2004: Steve Oemcke replaces Rob Elliott as host. The set is updated that is similar to the American version (at the time), with a revamped electronic touchscreen puzzleboard replacing the trilons (similar to the American version which made the change in 1997) and eggcrate display replacing the seven-segment display and the addition of Flip Ups and Prize Puzzles. The timeslot changes back to 5:00pm as part of the Wheel and Deal hour, with Deal Or No Deal taking the previous Wheel slot.Late 2005: Larry Emdur and Laura Csortan replace Steve Oemcke and Sophie Falkiner as host and hostess respectively after it was announced by Sunrise hosts David Koch & Melissa Doyle.30 January 2006: The show returns to air after a year's hiatus. The whole set is revamped with the remaining of the letters' font, the theme music and the wheel. Wheel moves to Pyrmont from Epping's studios, with another update of the set, such as a puzzleboard with a blue border that changes colour and features light animation, similar to the American version; the LG flat screen plasmas replace the Contestant Trapezoid backdrops that animate during events on the show, such as landing on Bankrupt, bell sound, or solving the puzzle, and the return of Surprise wedge.March 2006: The show celebrates its 5,000th episode with multiple chances to win $5,000.July 2006: The show celebrates 25 years on Australia television on 21 July, and ends its run on the Seven Network a week later on 28 July. 20 unaired episodes were aired featuring Steve Oemcke, Sophie Falkiner and the old set (see the 2004 section) from 2005, before it was shelved.May 2008''': Wheel of Fortune is picked up by the Nine Network now known as Million Dollar Wheel of Fortune'' and hosted by Tim Campbell. The show runs only five weeks on air due to low ratings and negative reviews, including one where Burgess and Xenides had an argument about why they both disliked the show. Despite the low ratings, the Million Dollar wedge (with one slight modification in that it can be picked up in the first three rounds) is adopted in the United States for the ensuing season in September.
See also
Family Feud
List of longest-running Australian television series
The Chase Australia
Letters and Numbers
Sale of the Century (Australian game show)
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (Australian game show)
References
External links
Wheel of Fortune at the National Film and Sound Archive
1981 Australian television series debuts
2008 Australian television series endings
1980s Australian game shows
1990s Australian game shows
2000s Australian game shows
English-language television shows
Nine Network original programming
Seven Network original programming
Network 10 original programming
Television series by Reg Grundy Productions
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Roulette and wheel games
Wheel of Fortune (franchise)
Australian television series based on American television series |
4195498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Corps%20Series | The Corps Series | The Corps is a series of war novels written by W.E.B. Griffin about the United States Marine Corps before and during the years of World War II and the Korean War. The story features a tightly knit cast of characters in various positions within the Marine Corps, Navy, and upper levels of the United States Government.
List of books
Book I, Semper Fi (1986) - Main action takes place between January 2, 1941 and January 17, 1942.
Book II, Call to Arms (1987) - Main action takes place between December 18, 1941 and August 30, 1942.
Book III, Counterattack (1990) - Main action takes place between December 7, 1941 and August 9, 1942.
Book IV, Battleground (1991) - Main action takes place between June 4 and August 25, 1942.
Book V, Line of Fire (1992) - Main action takes place between Spring and October 11, 1942.
Book VI, Close Combat (1993) - Main action takes place between October 11 and November 19, 1942.
Book VII, Behind the Lines (1996) - Main action takes place between April 7, 1942 and February 8, 1943.
Book VIII, In Danger's Path (1999) - Main action takes place between November, 1941 and May 5, 1943.
Book IX, Under Fire (2002) - Main action takes place between June 1 and September 29, 1950.
Book X, Retreat, Hell! (2004) - Main action takes place between September 28 and November 3, 1950.
Primary characters
Major Kenneth R. "Killer" McCoy, USMCR
First Appearance: Semper Fi
His name is Kenneth R. McCoy, the introductory character of the saga, a Marine Corporal stationed in Shanghai, China with the 4th Marines (the primary component of the China Marines) prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Ken has a great affinity for languages and in China learns Japanese, Wu, Mandarin, and Cantonese, which leads to his being assigned to intelligence-gathering convoys by Captain Edward Banning, USMC, the Fourth Marine Regiment's intelligence officer. His fellow Marines call him "Killer" for killing two Italian Marines in self-defense with a baby Fairbairn–Sykes knife (to his great embarrassment), and for having killed 18 Chinese bandits in the employ of the Kempetai with a Thompson submachine gun while on an intelligence mission.
Following the action in which he killed 18 "bandits," he is transferred back to the United States and enters Officer Candidate School to earn a commission as a second lieutenant. After graduating from OCS, he is assigned as an officer courier for intelligence in the Pacific while working for the Marine Corps Office of Management Analysis, a special, little known intelligence group run by Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier General) Fritz Rickabee.
While on a courier run just after Pearl Harbor, he manages to make it into the Philippines shortly before the Japanese invasion and reunites with Captain Ed Banning while assisting in the defence of a landing beach. Following an artillery barrage, McCoy carries the wounded Banning to a monastery for treatment. He makes it through enemy lines and is returned to the States. He is awarded a Purple Heart for wounds received and a Bronze Star for his performance under fire and his efforts to save Captain Banning.
McCoy is next assigned to evaluate Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson whose methods caused concern among his superiors. He trains for six months with the Marine Raiders in San Diego, and participates in the Raid on Makin Island.
He participates in several secret missions under Brigadier General Fleming Pickering, including landing on Japanese-controlled Mindanao; staging the rescue of two Marines manning a Coastwatcher station on the island of Buka; being sent on "Operation Windmill" by General Pickering to evaluate the sanity of General Wendell Fertig and the resistance potential of his U.S. Forces in the Philippines; and setting up a weather station in the Gobi Desert urgently needed by the Navy and the Army Air Force. During the course of the series he receives a Bronze Star, three Silver Stars, the Distinguished Service Medal, the British Victoria Cross, and the Purple Heart with five stars. Following the success of Operation Gobi, McCoy is promoted to the rank of Major and is ordered to attend the U.S. Army Command and General Staff course, a desirable course which usually is reserved for officers destined for great things, by direction of President Roosevelt.
(Note: The Victoria Cross is an error on the part of the author. Only British and Commonwealth subjects serving in the armed forces were eligible for this medal, the highest award in the British honours system for combat valour. It seems more likely McCoy would have been awarded the Military Cross or the British Distinguished Service Cross.)
Following his return from establishing Station Nowhere in the Gobi Desert in May, 1943, he and Ernestine Sage were married and McCoy attended and graduated from the "long course" at C&GS School. Apart from that assignment, newly promoted Major McCoy continued to work for General Pickering in the OSS until the end of the war, though. After C&GS School the only other assignment specifically mentioned was his accompanying General Pickering on the first flight of Americans into Atsugi Air Base in August, 1945 prior to the formal Japanese surrender. During the period between his graduation and General Pickering's involvement in the Japanese surrender, Ken and Ernie were stationed at the Marine base at Quantico, VA, where his duties were not specified but it may be assumed he was an instructor of some sort, possibly teaching guerrilla operations behind the enemy lines.
Based on the fact that when the story picks up in June, 1950 McCoy is once again a captain, it is clear he was caught up in the reduction-in-force that happened to the armed services after World War II. Due to his lack of a college degree, at some point after World War II ended he was reduced in rank to captain despite having graduated from the Command and General Staff School and having more than enough time in grade to make his promotion permanent. He observed that "The Corps had a – maybe unwritten – policy that if you were reduced in grade, you were transferred ...", which saw the McCoys sent to Japan
Between the end of World War II and the start of the Korean War, McCoy is assigned to Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, General MacArthur's headquarters in Japan as part of its naval element, still working in Intelligence and specializing in Korea. He learns to speak and read Korean, and develops his own network of intelligence sources. Following his submission of a report that directly contradicts General Charles Willoughby's report to MacArthur that all is quiet in Korea, Willoughby attempts to run McCoy out of the Marine Corps. Feeling he has nothing to lose, he contacts his former boss, Fleming Pickering, and asks him to get his report (which, never having been entered into the intelligence filing system by Willoughby, he was able to spirit out of SCAP HQ without anyone noticing) into the hands of the CIA. The report comes to the attention of President Harry Truman and McCoy is retained on active duty.
After the Korean War breaks out, he is co-opted into the CIA by General Pickering, who has been recalled to active duty in the Marine Corps as the CIA Deputy Director for Asia. Once again, Pickering uses McCoy as his eyes and ears on the ground and gives him his head. This results in McCoy setting up an intelligence operation generally similar to that of Mac MacMillan in The Brotherhood of War series. Among other things, McCoy conceives and with the approval of General Pickering carries out the seizure of islands in the Flying Fish Channel in the Inchon approaches that enables Douglas MacArthur to successfully land two divisions there. As a result, he is promoted to Major by General MacArthur, and decorated with the Silver Star.
McCoy successfully rescues Pick Pickering two months after Pick was shot down while shooting up an enemy train and evaded capture by the North Koreans, and continues his intelligence operations in Korea. While this is happening, his wife Ernestine successfully gives birth to a son in Japan after repeated miscarriages.
As The Corps' final book to date (Retreat, Hell!) ends with the Korean War still raging, we know nothing of McCoy's post-Korean War life or assignments.
Colonel Edward C. Banning, USMC
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Introduced as the S-2 (intelligence) officer of the 4th Marines in China, and assigned as McCoy's legal advisor after Ken's killing of the two Italian marines. Initially he wants to plead McCoy guilty, but McCoy refuses, and to the chagrin of the prosecutor McCoy comes up with members of William E. Fairbairn's "Flying Squad" of the Shanghai Police as witnesses.
Banning quickly becomes an integral part of the book as McCoy is slowly indoctrinated into the world of intelligence gathering. After charges are dismissed, Banning sends McCoy on convoys to "get him out of sight", and discovers McCoy has great talent as an observer and evaluator of Japanese military readiness. Also a China Marine, his relationship with McCoy changes from superior officer to peer as the story progresses. Unlike the majority of pre-World War II regular Marine Corps officers, Banning is a graduate of The Citadel, the Military College of South Carolina.
When orders come down transferring the Fourth Marines to the Philippines, Banning marries his longtime lover Ludmilla Zhvikov, a stateless person (a genuine White Russian countess and daughter of a Tsarist general) traveling on a Nansen passport. But for the impending war, this would have destroyed his career; as it is, his superiors barely take note of it. He is forced to leave Milla behind when the regiment sails, as a subordinate of his, Sergeant Ernest Zimmerman, also had to do with his Chinese wife, Mae Su.
After the 4th Marines are moved from Shanghai to the Philippines, he finds himself defending the beaches of Lingayen Gulf (Luzon) during the Japanese invasion. He is temporarily blinded and transferred off Corregidor by submarine with other seriously wounded US servicemen; fortunately, his sight returns before reaching port.
Banning subsequently serves in the Office of Management Analysis and under Brigadier General Pickering in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) during World War II, finishing up the war on the staff of General Joseph Stilwell as an analyst and special cryptographer in charge of the ultra-secret MAGIC Special Channel. Killer McCoy arranges for Ludmilla to be brought out of China as part of Operation Gobi, and Banning reunites with her — and with his son, Edward Edwardovich Banning, whom he had never seen.
At the beginning of the Korean War in Under Fire, he is a colonel in charge of Marine Barracks in Charleston, South Carolina, near retirement, and contemplating a future in real estate development on islands his wealthy family own. Like Ken McCoy, he is co-opted into the CIA by General Pickering, serving on his personal staff until the General, following a meeting with Director Walter Bedell Smith, the new head of the CIA, reassigns him as the CIA's Tokyo station chief.
Nothing is known of Banning's career or life following the Korean War, although in Under Fire a possible path is given. The Banning family owns an island south of Hilton Head, and Banning has in mind developing it as a retirement community for senior military officers who have never owned homes of their own.
Master Gunner Ernest Zimmerman, USMC
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Ernest "Ernie" Zimmerman is a China Marine sergeant who serves with McCoy in Shanghai and operates with him in reconnaissance missions. He was present when a group of Chinese bandits in the pay of the Kempeitai attacked one of the convoys McCoy used as a cover for his intelligence work, killing more than a dozen of them. As a result, he is one of a very few people who can call McCoy "Killer" without incurring McCoy's wrath. Like McCoy, he is fluent in Wu, Cantonese, and Mandarin.
When the 4th Marines are ordered to the Philippines, in November 1941, Zimmermann is forced to leave his Chinese wife, Mae Su, behind. She returns to her home village, bringing Major Banning's wife, Ludmilla Zhivkov, with her. Later, the two and their children become part of a caravan of American soldiers, sailors, and Marines both active duty and retired, who intend to escape the Japanese by crossing the Gobi Desert to India.
Later, Zimmermann serves with McCoy in the Marine Raiders on the Makin Island raid. Following this, Zimmerman serves with VMF-229 in the Pacific during the first months of the Guadalcanal Campaign. At McCoy's request, he assists in landing on the Japanese-held Buka Island to resupply a Coastwatcher base; bringing in new personnel and extracting exhausted USMC personnel. He is then transferred to the OSS at Ken McCoy's request. He takes part in an evaluation mission to General Wendell Fertig in the Philippines to determine if Fertig is sane and in a position to wage guerrilla warfare against the Japanese.
Following this, he is assigned to help McCoy set up a weather station in the Gobi Desert. During that operation, Zimmerman is reunited with his wife and children. The family is evacuated to the United States after General Pickering uses his influence with Senator Fowler of California (a longtime personal friend) to write a private bill granting non-quota immigrant visas to the family. At McCoy's request, Ernie Sage provides the money to help set them up in business in South Carolina.
Following the Gobi Desert assignment in 1943, Zimmerman is promoted to Master Gunner by direction of President Roosevelt. During the Korean War, he serves with McCoy in the CIA in Korea, directly under the command of General Pickering.
Like Colonel Banning, Master Gunner Zimmerman is nearing retirement. The Bannings own an island south of Hilton Head. The Colonel and Mae Su (who is something of an entrepreneuse) are planning to build a retirement community on the island aimed at newly-retired field-grade officers of the military. It is implied that following their retirements, the Colonel and the Gunner will form a development corporation, possibly also including Ken and Ernestine McCoy.
Major Malcolm "Pick" Pickering, USMCR
First Appearance: Semper Fi
On the train from Boston to Philadelphia, McCoy meets a friendly civilian named Malcolm Pickering ("Pick" to his friends). Pick is the son of Fleming Pickering, owner of Pacific and Far East (P&FE) shipping, and Patricia Foster Pickering, heir to the Foster hotel chain (allowing Pick to stay at the exclusive hotels at no cost). He is a Harvard graduate with a degree in hotel management, having learned the business from the bottom up, starting as a busboy and working up to substitute assistant manager. By his own admission, Pick can do any job in the hotel except pastry chef, claiming he could not master handling pastry dough.
After parting company, McCoy and Pick are reunited as classmates in Officers Candidate School at Quantico, Virginia. Following their graduation and commissioning, they remain in touch, occasionally being involved in the same mission.
While Ken acts as an officer courier just before Pearl Harbor, Pick is accepted for flight training and attends flight school at Pensacola. After earning his wings, Pickering transitions into Wildcats and flies with the Cactus Air Force on Guadalcanal. He qualifies as a fighter ace and is decorated with the Distinguished Flying Cross. He is sent back to the States to participate in a War Bond tour, following which he is promoted to captain, qualifies as an F4U Corsair instructor pilot, and is made the executive officer of VMF-262, serving under his friend William "Billy" Dunn, with whom he had flown at Guadalcanal.
Unfortunately, despite his skill as a pilot Pick suffers from a lack of maturity that repeatedly (and deservedly) lands him in hot water. He is also a ladies' man who is sought out by women, whom he frequently beds without considering the consequences. The combination of immaturity and success with the ladies results in his involuntarily volunteering for the Gobi Operation as copilot of one of the PBY-5A Catalinas. Following the success of that mission, he returns to the United States and continues to fly Corsairs for the rest of World War II, shooting down more Japanese and being shot down himself more than once. Women continue to pursue him, and he sometimes pursues them as well through the course of the series.
Pick was promoted to Major while commanding a USMC Reserve fighter squadron shortly before the Korean War. At the same time, he is working as Chief Pilot of Trans-Global Airways, the airline started by his father following the end of the war. His squadron was subsequently activated and deployed to Korea. He gained a reputation for hunting enemy trains, important and dangerous targets, painting locomotive silhouettes on his Corsair to mark each kill, determined to become the Marine Corps' first "Locomotive Ace." Flying combat missions off the escort carrier USS Badoeng Strait, he is shot down over enemy territory after busting yet another locomotive but survives, evades capture, and returns to friendly lines, rescued by Killer McCoy. The experience seemed to finally mature him, coupled with the loss of a lady war correspondent with whom he had been contemplating marriage and subsequently connecting with the widow of another Marine Aviator.
Nothing is known of Pick Pickering's life following the Korean War.
Brigadier General Fleming "Flem" Pickering, USMCR
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Fleming Pickering, father of Pick Pickering, is the owner and chairman of Pacific and Far Eastern Shipping, a large and successful worldwide shipping conglomerate. During the First World War, he was a Marine corporal, and was thrice wounded in action during the Battle of Belleau Wood where he was awarded the Navy Cross (the Navy's second-highest award for valor and the equivalent of the Distinguished Service Cross). During his World War I service, he was also awarded the Silver Star, the World War I Victory Medal, and the French Legion of Honor in the rank of Chevalier, plus the Croix de Guerre. (The wound stripes he was awarded during the war were converted to the Purple Heart plus two gold stars in lieu of the second and third awards when the Purple Heart was reauthorized in 1932.)
Following the war, he went to sea and worked his way up to an unlimited Master's license and several ship commands before his father's unexpected death propelled him to the position of Chairman and CEO of P&FE when he was 26. As Chairman of P&FE, he modernized the company, assigning officers where the company needed them instead of permitting them to monopolize one ship. He has no prejudice against officers who "came up through the hawsepipe" rather than graduating from a maritime academy, having worked his way up from Ordinary Seaman to Captain himself. As improvements in cargo-handling equipment are made, they are installed in his ships and their cargo terminals.
Shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, then-Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox asked him to take a wartime commission as a Navy Captain, to act as Knox's plenipotentiary in the Pacific theater. During this period of his World War II service he was awarded the Silver Star and his fourth Purple Heart after taking command of a destroyer when her skipper was killed in an air attack. Pickering was aboard the destroyer following service as the Acting G-2 of the First Marine Division on Guadalcanal, which volunteering for the job had seriously annoyed Secretary Knox. General Archer Vandegrift recommended him for the Legion of Merit for his service in that role, which medal was awarded to Pickering by President Roosevelt personally.
Pickering was commissioned a Marine Brigadier General and assigned as the Office of Strategic Services Deputy Director for the Pacific by President Roosevelt in an attempt to force Douglas MacArthur to permit the OSS to operate in his theater of operations. Pickering establishes Special Detachment 16 of the Marine Corps to deal with secret missions in the Southwest Pacific Ocean Area that are not entirely supported by Supreme Commander MacArthur. General Pickering stages the relief of an important Coastwatcher station on Buka; a mission codenamed "Operation Windmill" to evaluate the guerrilla potential of General Wendell Fertig's United States Forces in the Philippines; and Operation Gobi, the establishment of a vitally needed weather station in the Gobi Desert.
He also becomes involved in investigating a possible security breach of MAGIC, the top secret communication system and Japanese codebreaking and analysis operation. It falls to General Pickering to determine if the secret has been compromised, which sends him around the world to make the determination. Being able to read the Japanese coded messages is a priceless asset to the Allies, but one which would evaporate if the Japanese realize their codes, which they consider unbreakable, have been broken.
Following the war, Fleming Pickering resumes his position as Chairman and CEO of Pacific and Far East Shipping, but also establishes an airline, Trans-Global Airways, with his pilot son Pick Pickering as its President and Chief Pilot. While on a visit to Tokyo, he is contacted by Captain Ken McCoy. McCoy gives him an intelligence analysis that concludes the North Koreans are readying an attack on South Korea. General Willoughby, MacArthur's Chief of Intelligence, has informed MacArthur that all is quiet in Korea, squashed McCoy's contradictory report, and attempted to railroad McCoy out of the Marine Corps.
Pickering takes the report to the Director of the CIA, who is skeptical of its accuracy but orders an investigation by his station chiefs. When McCoy's report turns out to be right on the mark, Pickering is recalled to active duty as a USMC Brigadier General and is named the CIA's Deputy Director for Asia, essentially the same position he had held in the OSS. He supports McCoy in establishing a secret intelligence and operations group generally similar to Mac MacMillan's Task Force Able in the Brotherhood of War series. He also stages an operation in support of General MacArthur's Inchon landing.
Nothing further of Fleming Pickering's life or career is known.
Major (previously Lieutenant) Robert Macklin, USMC
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Robert Macklin, USMC is a "generally slimy creature" and the epitome of everything a good Marine officer shouldn't be. A Naval Academy graduate, he is regarded with contempt by all officers who know him. He worked for then-Captain Ed Banning in China before the war, but proved to be unfit for intelligence work. After writing a self-serving report on the missionary convoy mission where Corporal Ken McCoy earned the nickname "Killer McCoy," Banning sent him home from China with an efficiency report that should have seen him thrown out of the Corps.
World War II gave him a stay of execution. Assigned to Quantico as a mess officer, he attempted to prevent Ken McCoy from being commissioned. Captain Jack NMI Stecker caught him at it, and the base commander advised him to find another home. He volunteered for the Marine Parachutists, earned his jump wings, and was assigned as a supernumerary officer to the First Battalion of the Para-Marines. Blown off the dock in the assault on Gavutu and wounded in the face and the leg, he had to be pried loose from a dock piling by the corpsmen. He was sent to a hospital in Australia, where Major Jake Dillon recruited him as a "hero" for a war bond tour because while he is a scumbag, he is handsome.
After running a second war bond tour, Macklin volunteered for the OSS, believing he could salvage his career by so doing. A Marine major who did not know Macklin's record arranged for him to be promoted to captain, and because he was available, he was assigned to "Operation Windmill," the OSS's code name for the mission to General Wendell Fertig in the Philippines.
Despite the objections of several officers in Washington who knew Macklin, Secretary of the Navy Knox ordered him sent on Operation Windmill. However, General Pickering, who was staging the operation, gave Lieutenant McCoy, the mission commander, permission to kill Macklin if he got in the way of carrying out the operation. He was not joking. The feeling of the officers involved in the mission was summed up by Captain Ed Sessions, who answered Navy Lieutenant Chambers Lewis's question "If you hate this guy so much, why don't you just drown him?" with "I think that's probably been considered. If anyone had asked me, I would have voted 'yes.' "
Captain Macklin was sent ashore with the rest of the Operation Windmill team. He expected to be pulled out when the first supply submarine arrived, but instead was ordered to remain with United States Forces in the Philippines under the command of an OSS Major. General William Donovan, Director of the Office of Strategic Services, did not want it known that he had sent a paranoid, delusional screw-up into the field, observing to his Deputy Director for Special Projects, "Get somebody competent there in time to get on the sub" (the submarine carrying supplies to the USFIP). "Somebody senior to Macklin ... if Macklin is the idiot everybody seems to think he is, I don't think he should be in a position to give orders." As a result, Macklin spent the rest of the war with the guerrillas in the Philippines, without command responsibilities, until the islands were liberated.
Macklin, now a major, reappears in Under Fire, working in Personnel at Camp Pendleton. With Captain McCoy about to be involuntarily separated from the Marine Corps, Macklin has several plans to make his remaining time as a Marine officer miserable. After Macklin disobeyed the G-1 (Personnel) colonel's order to remain in his office until McCoy, who was on leave prior to separation, was located to be shipped to Washington and duty with the CIA, he is in trouble for disobedience of a direct order. (The Killer's separation had been canceled by the outbreak of the Korean War, though Macklin did not know this. The intelligence analysis he had done predicting the North Korean attack came into the hands of the head of the CIA and President Truman, and he was retained on active duty.)
When the G-1 figured out Macklin's scheme, it is implied Macklin will be assigned to permanent storeroom inventory duty until he takes the hint and submits his resignation.
Supporting characters
Ernestine Sage
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Ernestine "Ernie" Sage is the daughter of a pharmaceutical magnate. The Pickering and Sage families are old friends. Patricia Pickering and Ernie's mother were roommates in college. Ernie and Pick have known each other since childhood. Their parents hoped that Ernie and Pick would fall in love and marry, but they ended up being friends rather than lovers. Ernie meets - and falls in love with - Ken McCoy at a party thrown by Pick Pickering shortly before he and Pick were commissioned. She once confessed that half an hour after they met, she knew she was going to marry Ken.
Ernie is an advertising executive at the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in New York City, working on the American Personal Pharmaceuticals account, the company owned by her father. However, she has worked her way up to creative director on the APP account at the agency on her own. This connection enables her to drop whatever she was doing any time Ken McCoy is in the vicinity (which can be defined as "anywhere on the East Coast"), and to take extended leaves of absence, including one three month period when they cohabited aboard the yacht Last Time in San Diego as McCoy was preparing for the Makin Island Raid while assigned to the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion.
The couple became engaged just before McCoy set out to deliver the Special Channel equipment to USMMCHI (the United States Military Mission to China) and subsequently to stage and carry out Operation Gobi in March 1943. Ken promised he and Ernie would be married on his return from the mission. When we meet Ernie again in Under Fire, she and Captain McCoy have been married for several years. As with her husband, we know nothing about her life during the latter half of World War II, other than they spent a year stationed at Fort Leavenworth while Ken attended the US Army Command and General Staff College, and another year at Marine Corps Base Quantico. Because she is living with her husband in Tokyo while he is assigned to the naval element at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, we can presume she is either on an extended leave of absence from J. Walter Thompson or has left the agency, probably the latter. As she pointed out to her father in an earlier book, the income from her trust funds was several times the amount she earned at the ad agency.
When it looked as if the Killer was about to be involuntarily separated from the Corps, she tried to tempt him into joining the Bannings and the Zimmermans in a real estate project which would have had the families building estatelets on land owned by the Bannings on a couple of South Carolina islands. He might have found this a worthwhile thing to do, but was spared the necessity of making a decision when he was called to extended active duty first with the Corps and then with the CIA.
Ernie's desire for children was thwarted by a series of miscarriages. However, after coming under the care of a wise Navy physician and his wiser nurse in Retreat, Hell!, she is successfully delivered of a one month premature healthy baby boy, Pickering Kenneth McCoy.
Nothing further is known of Ernestine Sage's life.
Captain George Hart, USMCR
First Appearance: Line of Fire
George Hart, a St. Louis homicide detective before the war, was conned into the Corps by a zealous (and unscrupulous) recruiter. During boot camp, he was pulled out of training by Lieutenant Ken McCoy, promoted to Sergeant, and assigned to act as Brigadier General Pickering's personal bodyguard. Hart volunteers to accompany McCoy on the Buka rescue operation, going ashore on the island in a rubber raft and remaining alone on the landing beach while McCoy makes contact with the Coastwatchers they have come to extract and brings them out. He was decorated with the Bronze Star for his contribution to the mission.
Afterwards, he was directly commissioned as a second lieutenant USMCR and nominally assigned as one of General Pickering's aides. At the same time, he acquires a collateral duty as a MAGIC cryptographer with a MAGIC code clearance working with Major Pluto Hon, which precludes his further assignment to field operations. Standing orders forbid individuals with MAGIC clearances from engaging in any activities which might place them at risk of being captured by the Japanese.
Following the war, Hart married and had a couple of children. (It is not clear if his wife is a girl from St. Louis, or a reformed call girl he met who fell in love with him during the war.) He remained in the Marine Corps Reserve, transferring to the infantry. He was promoted to Captain while in command of a reserve rifle company at some point before Korea erupted. After his reserve company was broken up and assigned to the replacement depot for the First Marine Division, he was reassigned to serve with CIA Deputy Director for Asian Operations General Fleming Pickering in the same role he had held in World War II, a combination aide and bodyguard.
The readers can presume that following the end of the Korean War, Hart returned to his job as a detective lieutenant with the St. Louis Police Department.
Patricia Pickering
First Appearance: Semper Fi
Patricia Pickering has been the Chairman of the Foster Hotel chain since her father, Andrew Foster, died in the years between World War II and the Korean War. She is the wife of Fleming Pickering and mother to Malcolm ("Pick") Pickering. Notably, while her husband was serving in the Pacific during World War II, she also served as the chairman of Pacific & Far East Shipping, her husband's international company. By the time the Korean War broke out, she appears to be the CEO of Foster Hotels, based in San Francisco but spending a fair bit of time traveling in the course of her duties. She was not at all pleased with Fleming Pickering being recalled to active duty, and at first refused to believe it had been ordered by President Harry Truman personally.
Brigadier General Jack (NMI) Stecker, USMC
First Appearance: Semper Fi
A Medal of Honor recipient during World War I, Jack (NMI - No Middle Initial) Stecker served with Fleming Pickering and Doc McInerney when they were all enlisted men. Like McInerney, Stecker was offered an appointment to the United States Naval Academy; but he turned it down because he wanted to marry.
Jack Stecker first appears as a seasoned Master Gunnery Sergeant who sees more than a little of himself in Ken McCoy and helps him adjust to life at Quantico. He is commissioned as a Mustang Captain, enabling him to stop persecution of McCoy by 1st Lieutenant Macklin, a self-serving (and dishonest; unusual for a career Marine and Naval Academy graduate) officer McCoy knew in China, who had previously given McCoy problems.
Stecker's oldest son, Jack Jr., was an ensign aboard and was killed during the Pearl Harbor attack. His younger son Dick becomes friends with Pick during aviator training at Pensacola, Florida. The two of them flew together from Henderson Field during the Battle of Guadalcanal until Dick was injured in a crash landing of his Wildcat. While this was happening, Captain Stecker was promoted to Major and given command of the Second Battalion of the Fifth Marine Regiment, which he commanded in combat on Gavutu. When Colonel Frank Goettge, Division G-2 of the First Marine Division, was killed on Guadalcanal, Stecker was assigned as the acting G-2 until a replacement for Goettge could be sent to the island.
Following this, he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and reassigned to Australia to help the Corps prepare for the transfer of the First Marine Division there for rest, rehabilitation, and re-equipping. General Pickering learned he was there and co-opted him as an expert on guerrilla warfare. (Stecker had served multiple tours in Nicaragua during the Banana Wars of the 1920s.) Pickering intended to send him into the Philippines as the head of the evaluation mission to U.S. Forces in the Philippines, but following his promotion to full colonel and being informed General Vandegrift wanted Stecker as a member of his personal staff, Colonel Stecker became an advisor to the team being sent in under the command of Lieutenant Ken McCoy.
After being transferred back to Washington to Headquarters, USMC Stecker was promoted to Brigadier General and assigned to the staff of General Alexander A. Vandegrift (Marine Corps Commandant). His duties were not made clear; Vandegrift seemed to use him as a troubleshooter and as the Corps' liaison to the Office of Strategic Services because of his relationship with General Pickering, Deputy Director for Pacific Operations.
General Stecker is not mentioned in any of The Corps's novels set in the Korean War era.
Other notable characters
Captain Jim ("Captain Mustache") Carstairs, USMC: Pick Pickering & Dick Stecker's IP (Instructor Pilot) in Pensacola. He reappears in Close Combat, where he got Pickering and Billy Dunn out of a jam with an officious colonel at Pensacola by having them appear at a morale-boosting formation and a mock dogfight in which they whip two of the instructor pilots and their gun camera film teaches the student pilots the reality of combat shooting.
Brigadier General (previously Lieutenant Colonel) Clyde ("The Dawk") Dawkins, USMC: Commanding Officer, MAG-21 on Guadalcanal. Later Deputy Commander of USMC Camp Pendleton during the early days of the Korean War. Dawkins was loyal to the officers who flew for him in the Cactus Air Force, and to officers and senior noncoms he worked with on classified projects. The Dawk had a soft spot in his heart for Pick Pickering, Billy Dunn, and Ken McCoy, going out of his way to assist them when they had difficulties dealing with higher authority, or (especially in Pick's case) found themselves in trouble.
Major Jake Dillon, USMCR: former enlisted China Marine sergeant; a Vice President of Metro-Magnum Studios in peacetime with a wide circle of friends, from stuntmen to major movie stars. He returns to wartime duty in the Corps as a Major in the Public Affairs office. Major Dillon led a team of Marine combat correspondents during the Guadalcanal Campaign, and put together a documentary short subject from the footage shot by his men, from the preparations for the invasion to the Marines turning the island over to the U.S. Army to mop up the few remaining Japanese. Dillon was co-opted by General Pickering into the OSS because of his renowned skills as a problem-solver and troubleshooter. His resourcefulness was essential to the successful staging of Operation Gobi.
Major (previously Lieutenant) Hon Son "Pluto" Do, USA: Signals & Cryptographic officer attached to MacArthur's headquarters in Australia. A graduate and PhD out of MIT, he was recruited into the Signal Corps by Brigadier General H.A. Albright, a cryptographic genius who reverse-engineered the German Enigma machine and set up the Special Channel communications system. Pluto is a gifted intelligence analyst as well as a crypto officer; and frequently is invited to play bridge with General and Mrs. MacArthur, much to the displeasure of the Bataan Gang at SWPOA headquarters.
Lieutenant Colonel (previously Lieutenant) William Dunn, USMC: Executive officer, and later Acting CO, of VMF-229. After transitioning into F4U Corsairs, Dunn became the CO of VMF-262. In the Korean War, Lieutenant Colonel Dunn becomes the group commander of the three Marine fighter squadrons embarked in the escort carrier . Billy is a fighter ace, a superb combat commander, and frequently despairs of his scapegrace friend, former wingman, and subordinate aboard the Badoeng Strait, Pick Pickering.
Eric Feldt, Lieutenant Commander, RAN: director of the Coastwatcher organization.
Ellen Feller: wife of a Christian missionary in China, married to a homosexual minister. Ellen enters the story when she accompanies McCoy on a convoy sent out to seek intelligence on the Japanese. She seduces and uses McCoy for her own ends, then dumps him. She reappears as a civilian linguist & analyst, first attached to Naval Intelligence in Washington; later attached to MacArthur's Australia headquarters in connection with MAGIC. As a result of her sexual appetites and the military secrets she knows, when her actions threaten the security of MAGIC she is shipped back to the United States and confined to an insane asylum, presumably St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, DC.
Richardson Fowler: Junior Senator from California. Longtime friend of Fleming Pickering, President Roosevelt describes Richardson, who owns several newspapers and radio stations, as "the chief of my more-or-less loyal opposition."
Captain (previously Technical Sergeant) Charles Galloway, USMC: Commanding Officer, VMF-229. Gets into serious trouble when he flies a fighter assembled from pieces of several wrecked F4F Wildcats at Pearl Harbor to the USS Saratoga enroute to Wake Island, that is not expecting him. Directly commissioned by Marine Commandant Holcomb personally, he is put in command of VMF-229. Flying Wildcats off Guadalcanal, Galloway became an ace. While there, he flew a modified C-47 Gooney Bird as part of the Buka rescue operation. Following transitioning into Corsairs, VMF-229 becomes the Corps' dumping ground for Marine Aviators regarded as screw-ups, including Pick Pickering. It was said Galloway took pilots no one else could handle and made superb pilots and officers out of them.
Captain David Haughton, USN: Executive Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy. While his main function is to act as the gatekeeper to those wishing access to Frank Knox, he also is a sort of liaison officer to the Office of Management Analysis and the Office of Strategic Services via General Pickering. His performance in this role is superlative, though he would much rather be at sea in command of a ship, as he wistfully mentions from time to time.
Lieutenant General (previously Major General) Thomas Holcomb: Commandant of the Marine Corps; later relieved by Lieutenant General Alexander Archer Vandegrift.
Caroline Howell: Ed Banning's love interest after returning from the Philippines. A rich divorcee, she met Banning at the New York Public Library when he requested all the Shanghai newspapers and magazines from the date the Fourth Marines sailed for the Philippines until the city fell to the Japanese. Despite Banning's telling her at the beginning that he was married and searching for news of his wife, the two begin a friends with benefits relationship that develops into a love affair. Had Ludmilla not survived, it seems likely Caroline and Banning would have married. However, when Banning is transferred to USMMCHI in connection with Operation Gobi (with the possibility of learning the fate of his wife), Caroline angrily breaks up with him.
Frank Knox: wartime Secretary of the Navy.
Staff Sergeant Thomas McCoy, USMCR: Ken McCoy's ne'er-do-well younger brother. A Marine Raider, he was promoted to sergeant, possibly as a reward for shooting up a Kawanishi H8K seaplane with a Boys anti-tank rifle so badly it crashed on takeoff during the Makin Island Raid. He was awarded the Medal of Honor for valor above and beyond the call of duty on Guadalcanal at the Battle of Bloody Ridge. After Guadalcanal, he was nicknamed "Machinegun McCoy" by the press and sent back to the United States for a war bond tour, with two tough Marine gunnery sergeants to keep him in line. (Thomas McCoy is possibly based on Staff Sergeant "Manila John" Basilone, the hero of the Battle for Henderson Field, whose actions in that battle were very similar to McCoy's on Bloody Ridge as described in the books.) There is no further information presented in any of the later books. It is not known if Sergeant McCoy survived World War II. If he was in fact based on Manila John Basilone, the chances are he did not.
Carolyn McNamara: Girlfriend of Charles Galloway. An upperclass divorcee who dumped her banker husband after he was caught in flagrante delicto with his chippy of a secretary, she meets and immediately falls in love with Galloway in much the same way Ernie Sage fell for Ken McCoy. Although it is plain the two are in love, it is not clear when or if they will marry. As there is no mention of Galloway following the successful staging of Operation Gobi, the question remains open.
Major General (previously Brigadier General) D.G. "Doc" McInerney, USMC: Director of Marine Corps Aviation. He and Fleming Pickering were two of Sergeant Jack Stecker's corporals in World War I, and were present when Stecker earned his Medal of Honor. Offered an appointment to Annapolis following the war, he accepted it and graduated (probably in the Class of 1922). He got into Marine Aviation early, and fought alongside then-Sergeant "Big Steve" Oblensky in Nicaragua during the Banana Wars. He kept in touch with both Stecker and Pickering over the years, eventually becoming Director of Marine Corps Aviation. In that role, he rescued Pick Pickering from the role Personnel had had in mind for him, which was as a mess and officer's club officer, arranging for him to become a pilot. After advising Fleming Pickering there was nowhere in the Corps his skills could be put to good work, he was pleased when Pickering became Secretary of the Navy Knox's eyes and ears. He worked with General Pickering on a number of occasions, most notably in connection with the Buka rescue operation and Operation Gobi. Following the events of In Danger's Path, nothing more is known of General McInerney's life and career.
Lieutenant John Moore, USMCR: cryptographic & analysis officer attached to the Office of Management Analysis. The son of Christian missionaries, he was born and raised in Japan. He speaks fluent Japanese and knows the Japanese culture and mind as only someone immersed in it for years can know it. Pulled from boot camp and promoted to sergeant, Moore is sent to Brisbane to assist Pluto Hon, he deduces what MAGIC is and becomes a cryptographic analyst. He is seduced by Ellen Feller, who has also been sent to assist Pluto. When their relationship becomes inconvenient to Feller, she fails to prevent his transfer to Guadalcanal (where, as someone with knowledge of MAGIC, he should never have been sent) as an intelligence analyst to replace a lieutenant killed in action. He suffers shrapnel wounds while on a patrol to gather information about enemy intentions. When General Vandegrift learns Moore knows what MAGIC is, he is immediately medevacked to Australia. He is treated for his wounds by a nurse who falls for him, and he for her. Given the affectionate nickname of "Gimpy" by his fellow dungeon-dwellers because he walks with a limp, he is a valuable member of the intelligence staff. When the decision was made to provide Chiang Kai Shek with MAGIC capability, Moore is reassigned to Chungking under Colonel Ed Banning as an cryptographer and analyst. Nothing further is known of Moore's career, although it may be presumed he married his nurse/lover. While stationed in Australia, they could not marry because their wedding would have resulted in her being transferred Stateside due to the regulations in effect at the time.
Brigadier General (previously Lieutenant Colonel) Fritz Rickabee, USMC: Commanding Officer, Office of Management Analysis. Appropriately for a senior intelligence officer, Griffin gives the reader little background information on Rickabee. Presumably a graduate of the Naval Academy, when the readers meet him he is already the head of Management Analysis, a cover name for a secret intelligence gathering and analysis organization which reports directly to the Secretary of the Navy. Although their existence is known to the head of Marine Intelligence and Management Analysis works with them, they answer directly to the Secretary. Rickabee built the organization up from nothing and is very careful who is recruited into it. He was one of the officers who press-ganged Ken McCoy into OCS, because he could do more for the Corps as an officer than an enlisted man. When Fleming Pickering was transferred from the Navy back into the Marines at the direction of President Roosevelt and assigned to head up the Office of Management Analysis, Rickabee was seriously annoyed. His annoyance did not last long, however, once he got to know Pickering and realized that despite the fact he was a general he still thought like a Marine sergeant. The two achieved mutual respect. Pickering was responsible for Rickabee's promotion to Brigadier General, succeeding him as the head of Management Analysis, and for maintaining the independence of Management Analysis. William Donovan of the OSS wanted the organization subsumed into the Office of Strategic Services, reasoning that all responsibility for worldwide intelligence belonged to him; and was a longtime friend of FDR. Pickering convinced the President that Management Analysis would be more use to the nation as an independent group than it would as cogs in the OSS. The office retained its independence, continuing to report directly to the Secretary of the Navy. Following the successful establishment of Station Nowhere in the Gobi Desert, Rickabee is not seen again in the series.
Major (previously Lieutenant) Edward Sessions, USMC: officer attached to the Office of Management Analysis. A graduate of the Naval Academy, we first meet him as a lieutenant in Semper Fi. He is an intelligence officer masquerading as a Christian missionary who is given the standard Japanese humiliate-the-round-eyes treatment before coming under Ken McCoy's wing and successfully completing his mission. Promoted to captain, he returns to the United States. After McCoy's graduation from OCS and assignment to the Office of Management Analysis, Sessions helps him with the transition to commissioned status. Over the course of the World War II portion of the series, he assists McCoy in preparation for a number of his assignments, working behind the scenes. He is married with one son. This sometimes bothers McCoy, as Sessions and his wife Jeannie are the epitome of family bliss that Ernie Sage frequently throws up at him as arguments in favor of their getting married. Nevertheless, Ed and Ken are close.
First Lieutenant Dick Stecker, USMC: Jack Stecker's son and Pick Pickering's buddy. The second son of Jack and Elly Stecker (his older brother died aboard the on December 7, 1941), he chose to attend West Point instead of following his brother to Annapolis. (Qualified children of recipients of the Medal of Honor are entitled to admission to any of the service academies without an appointment and with no regard for quota requirements.) Following his commissioning as a second lieutenant, USMC, he reported to NAS Pensacola, where he met and roomed with Pick Pickering. The two were rated as Naval Aviators in F4F Wildcats and flew with the Cactus Air Force on Guadalcanal. All of the Marine pilots were aware of the shortage of fighter planes on Guadalcanal and went to extremes to bring their planes back to Henderson Field. Stecker tried to stretch a glide in a crippled Wildcat, and the airplane tumbled when a tire blew. Seriously injured in the crash, Stecker was repatriated to the States and sent to a naval hospital specializing in orthopedics in the Philadelphia area. When last seen, he had improved to the point he could walk with a cane, and was working to get physically fit and pass the flight physical. It is not clear whether he returned to flying duty.
Major General Alexander Archer Vandegrift: Commanding General, 1st Marine Division; later served as Commandant of the Marine Corps.
Captain (previously Lieutenant) James Weston, USMC: A Catalina pilot who was stranded in the Philippines just after the war began. With the tacit permission of his commanding officer, Weston escaped to Mindanao before the fall of Corregidor to fight as a guerrilla. Picking up other soldiers who had refused to surrender along the way, he links up with Brigadier General Wendell Fertig and becomes the Intelligence Officer of the U.S. Forces in the Philippines. Sent out of the Philippines to brief Generals Pickering and MacArthur by Killer McCoy (acting on Pickering's orders), he is decorated with the Silver Star. While on leave in Hawaii, he meets Charley Galloway and is rated in the Corsair. He is then caught up in the military system and sent to be evaluated before being sent on leave in accordance with standard procedures for repatriated prisoners of war. He meets and falls for a Navy nurse, and while being requalified in Catalinas meets the widow of an old friend, the daughter of an admiral, and they fall in love as well. Torn between the two, Weston volunteers for Operation Gobi, where he serves as the pilot of one of the two Cats used on the operation. His women troubles are exacerbated by Pick Pickering, his copilot, who is in love with the admiral's daughter but was spurned. Following the success of Operation Gobi, Weston is repatriated, his women problem unresolved. (Pick Pickering, prior to learning the second woman in Weston's life was the same one at Pensacola he was in love with, advised him to break it off with the nurse, accepting the screaming and probably face-slapping this would cause as the price to be free to marry the one in Florida. It seems probable this is how he solved the problem.) We learn nothing further of Weston's career following Operation Gobi.
Ludmilla Zhivkov: Ed Banning's White Russian wife. Daughter of a former Imperial Russian general who is also a count of the Russian aristocracy. After the collapse of the White Army following the Russian Civil War, she and her parents had to flee what was now the Soviet Union to Shanghai, China, becoming stateless persons. She inherits the title and rank of countess upon the death of her father. She earns her living as a private language teacher, and met Ed Banning when he wished to improve his Chinese and learn Russian. Following her escape from Japanese-occupied China after marrying Banning, she and their son Edward Edwardovich settle in with Banning's parents in Charleston, South Carolina. After the war, while Banning was Commandant of the Marine Barracks in Charleston and also instructing at The Citadel, she assists one of Banning's cadets with a report on the Imperial Russian General Staff, and points out her father in a photo in one of his books to him. Shortly afterwards, Ludmilla Banning becomes known to the entire Corps of Cadets, with profound respect, as "the Countess". We learn in Retreat Hell! that Mrs. Banning has been diagnosed with, and is being treated for, breast cancer.
General Joseph Stilwell, Chief of the U.S. Military Mission to China and Chief of Staff to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.
Lieutenant (previously Corporal) Robert Easterbrook, USMC: a short, skinny enlisted combat correspondent on Guadalcanal, fresh from Parris Island and forced to grow up fast in the heat of combat while assigned to the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion. His ears redden with anger or embarrassment, earning him the nickname "the Easterbunny" among his peers (much to his irritation). After he returns to the US for a war bond tour, he is directly commissioned by the USMC Director of Public Affairs for the incredible combat footage and photos he took on Guadalcanal. He was also identified in a national news story by Thomas "Machinegun" McCoy as "the bravest man on Bloody Ridge," whom McCoy had believed to be dead, for his attempt to carry his mortally wounded captain to an aid station, in the words of Gunny Zimmerman, while "trying to carry his officer down that fucking hill with every fucking Jap this side of Tokyo shooting at him." Taken onto General Pickering's staff, Easterbrook is qualified as a MAGIC cryptographer and accompanies Colonel Banning to USMMCHI to assist him with the heavy workload of MAGIC traffic at General Stilwell's headquarters, where it is implied he remains for the rest of the war.
Lieutenant General Edward Mallory "Ned" Almond, USA: Commander of X Corps in Korea.
References
External links
The official W.E.B Griffin Website
The Corps series page at webgriffin.com
Novels set during the Korean War
Novels set during World War II
Novel series
Novels about the United States Marine Corps |
4195899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%20Plate%20Road%20765 | Nickel Plate Road 765 | Nickel Plate Road 765 is a class "S-2" 2-8-4 "Berkshire" type steam locomotive built for the New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railroad, commonly referred to as the "Nickel Plate Road". In 1963, No. 765, renumbered as 767, was donated to the city of Fort Wayne, Indiana, where it sat on display at the Lawton Park, while the real No. 767 was scrapped in Chicago in 1964.
In the early 1970s, the newly formed Fort Wayne Railroad Historical Society (FWRHS) restored No. 765 and operate it in main line excursion service. During the 1980s to early 90s, No. 765 ran excursion trains on the ex-Southern Railway's CNO&TP division and ex-Chesapeake and Ohio's New River Gorge route. Taken out of service in 1993, No. 765 was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 12, 1996.
The No. 765 locomotive was completely overhauled and returned to service in 2005. Since 2010, it visited the Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad, hauling several excursions every year. From 2012 to 2015, No. 765 ran excursions on Norfolk Southern trackage in Indiana, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, for the 21st Century Steam program. In 2016, it ran excursions on Metra's Milwaukee District North Line and even the Rock Island District Line in 2017 and 2018. Around 2022 and 2023, it visited the Indiana Northeastern Railroad for the Indiana Rail Experience excursions.
History
Background
At the turn of the 20th century, railroads faced a surmounting problem: an increase in traffic and limited steam technology. Railroads commonly relied on drag freights with engines that could pull heavy tonnage but at low speeds. Following experiments with existing designs, Lima Locomotive Works developed a new wheel arrangement to accommodate an increase in the size of the locomotive's firebox. An increase in the firebox size allowed more coal combustion and subsequent heat output, improving the amount of steam developed and increasing horsepower. These and other modifications created the concept of "horsepower at speed" or "Super-power" in Lima's parlance.
In 1925, this "Super-power" technology was successfully realized in a prototype designated the A-1, which was tested in the Berkshire Mountains of the Boston & Albany Railroad, hence the common name of the locomotive type. The 2-8-4 design was quickly adopted by the New York Central, Erie Railroad, Illinois Central, Pere Marquette, Boston & Maine, Chesapeake & Ohio and the Nickel Plate Road.
The Nickel Plate Road was able to eventually employ 80 Berkshires on high-speed freight and passenger trains with the first order (designated S Class) 15 were supplied by the American Locomotive Works (ALCO) in 1934 based on Lima's design. Eight years later, Lima began producing three more sub-classes, which differed from the S class in little more than weight. Class S-1 (715–739) in 1942, class S-2 (740–769) in 1944 and class S-3 (770–779) in 1949. As a group, these engines were referred to as the "Seven Hundreds."
An additional number of Berkshires (S-4 class) were acquired when the Nickel Plate Road leased the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad in 1949. As a direct result of the Berkshire class, the railroad earned a reputation for high-speed service, which later became its motto.
No. 765's construction was completed on September 8, 1944.
Revenue service
No. 765 was first assigned to Bellevue, Ohio, where it was used primarily on NKP's fast freight trains. After World War II, the locomotive worked primarily out of a classification yard in the east side of Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Its final revenue run came on June 14, 1958, when No. 765 was activated to supply steam heat to a stranded passenger train. That December, it became the last Nickel Plate Road Berkshire under steam.
As evidence of their reputation, Fort Wayne's The News-Sentinel remarked in a June 7 article that "the Nickel Plate's massive Berkshires – steam engines that look like an engine should – have always been the special pets of Fort Wayne and area rail buffs. But not for long. The famed Berkshires carved an enviable record in railroad history and were the most colorful engines in this part of the country. On the Nickel Plate they were just as economical as diesel power, but the Berkshires are giving up in the inevitable face of progress."
Retirement
Though the Berkshires had competed with encroaching diesel-electric technology, they were largely retired by 1958 and kept in serviceable condition by the NKP. With the traffic reduction and the acquisition of new diesel locomotives, the steam locomotives were retired to be stored outdoors and scrapped by 1964. Because No. 765's excellent mechanical condition and favorable reputation among local crews, the NKP maintained the locomotive indoors until 1961.
In a move to honor the success of Fort Wayne's "Elevate the Nickel Plate" project, the city requested S-2 No. 767 for display in Lawton Park in recognition of it being the first ceremonial train to open the overpass. However, the No. 767 locomotive was discovered to be in deteriorated condition and was scrapped. So the NKP instead donated the No. 765 locomotive, now renumbered as No. 767, to the city on May 4, 1963, for display at 4th and Clinton Streets. A plaque commemorating the occasion read: "Nickel Plate Road Berkshire No. 767, used to break ribbon at dedication of track elevation on October 4th, 1955, donated by the New York, Chicago, and St. Louis Railroad company to the City of Fort Wayne as a monument to a great period in the development of our country – the era of steam railroading."
Restoration
In September 1971 at the annual convention of the Nickel Plate Historical & Technical Society, Wayne York, Glenn Brendel and Walter Sassmannshausen, Jr. met to discuss forming a group to cosmetically restore former Nickel no. 765/767 and Wabash no. 534, another locomotive that had been installed for display in Swinney Park in 1957.
By November 1972, York, Brendel, Sassmannshausen, and John Eichman signed incorporation papers for the Fort Wayne Railroad Historical Society, Inc.
By 1973, FWRHS undertook a 25-year lease of 765/767 and in 1974 moved the engine to New Haven, Indiana to begin what was now a restoration to operation. On October 25, the locomotive was returned to its original number and restoration officially began.
From 1975 to 1979, No. 765 was restored to operating condition at the corner of Ryan and Edgerton Roads in New Haven. The restoration site lacked conventional shop facilities and protection from the elements, but on September 1, 1979, No. 765 made its first move under its own power.
Later that winter it ran under its own power to Bellevue and Sandusky, Ohio for heated, indoor winter storage. In spring of 1980, No. 765 underwent a series of break-in runs and its first public excursion, making No. 765 the first mainline steam locomotive to be restored and operated by an all volunteer non-profit.
First excursion service
The popularity of restoring and operating steam locomotives on the general railroad system as marketing tools increased with Class 1 and regional railroads in the decades after steam was retired. Before its merger with Norfolk and Western Railway, the Southern Railway, following firebox problems with its former Chesapeake and Ohio 2716, another 2-8-4 steam locomotive, leased No. 765 in 1982 for a series of successful trips that would pave the way for Norfolk Southern to continue the steam program with larger mainline locomotives like 4-8-4 Norfolk and Western 611.
In the 1980s, the locomotive appeared in the movies Four Friends and Matewan, and became an annual attraction in the New River Gorge operating the New River Trains from 1985 to 1988 and again from 1990 to 1993. These trips regularly saw the 765 with close to and sometimes over 30 passenger cars traveling a round-trip during peak fall color season, with passengers from around the world. In 1985, the FWRHS obtained ownership of 765.
In August 1991, 765 was paired with the recently restored Pere Marquette No. 1225 for that year’s National Railroad Historical Society (NRHS) Convention in Huntington, West Virginia. In July 1993, No. 765 and NKP 2-8-2 locomotive No. 587 performed a doubleheader while pulling an excursion train, which arrived from Richlands, Virginia, by N&W 611 at Fort Wayne, bound for Chicago, Illinois for that year’s NRHS Convention. Shortly after, the engine was briefly re-lettered and renumbered to Chesapeake & Ohio No. 2765 (as a C&O Kanawha of her own) in recognition of the heritage of the route on which the New River Trains traveled.
No. 765 successfully operated over several Class 1 railroads in the Midwest and East Coast, including Conrail, CSX and Norfolk Southern; pulled the New River Train a record of 32 times by 1993; and headlined 124 trips over the Norfolk Southern by 1994. No. 765 was given the title of "veteran excursion engine" by TRAINS Magazine in 1992 and named the reason "why boys still leave home" by Railfan & Railroad Magazine in 1994.
By 1993, the locomotive had accumulated since its last major overhaul by the Nickel Plate Road, of which were incurred during its excursion career alone. The locomotive had developed signs of wear and was originally slated for a running-gear overhaul upon completion of the excursion season that year.
Downtime and overhaul
Between 1993 and 2001, No. 765 was largely a static exhibit until a complete overhaul was commenced. In the meantime, the FWRHS operated Milwaukee Road 261 and restored C&O 2716, the same locomotive which had developed firebox problems while on the Southern Railway, under lease from the Kentucky Railway Museum. After initial operations in 1996, No. 2716 required new tubes and flues per newly enacted Federal Railroad Administration regulations. At the time, the railroad historical society decided that it would fully invest its resources into a complete rebuild of No. 765.
Following a series of grant requests, the FWRHS was awarded an 80% match through the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, which at the time included historic structures. The remaining 20% was raised through donations and contributions, with a large portion of the rebuild work administered by FWRHS volunteers.
Over a period of five years, No. 765 was completely disassembled, with its boiler, frame and running-gear separated and major components re-machined or rebuilt completely. In July, 2005, the locomotive underwent a successful steam test and was later rolled-out the following October for the general public. Fort Wayne and Allen County Commissioners designated October 28, 2005, as "Engine no. 765 Day" and the locomotive completed a series of test runs on the Chicago, Fort Wayne, and Eastern Railroad in March 2006.
Overall, the rebuild consumed more than 15,000 hours and cost over $772,000.
Second excursion service
In 2006, the FWRHS was given an "Locomotive Restoration Award" by the Tourist Railway Association, Inc. and the "Outstanding Restoration Award" from the Architecture and Community Heritage Foundation of Fort Wayne.
Despite several attempts, the FWRHS was initially unable to secure a host railroad on which to operate No. 765, as mounting liability costs and busy, profitable railroads had all but curtailed the majority of mainline steam excursions during the 765's overhaul. Despite these unfavorable logistics, the FWRHS planned and executed No. 765's first trips in sixteen years at Hoosier Valley Railroad Museum on May 21, 2009.
From 2009 to 2011, No. 765 largely operated passenger excursions, photo charters and public events on regional and short line railroads, including the Chesapeake and Indiana, Great Lakes Central, Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad and Iowa Interstate, the latter of which enabled the 765 to traverse the Mississippi River for the first time.
In 2012, Norfolk Southern leased No. 765 to operate a series of employee appreciation specials in Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Missouri, to mark the company's 30th anniversary. The FWRHS, celebrating its own 40th anniversary, outfitted No. 765 with a GPS tracker which was viewed over 120,000 times on August 20, 2012, with a mobile app version downloaded over 19,000 times. Of note, the locomotive is the first steam locomotive to maintain an active Twitter presence: a practice later followed by Union Pacific's steam program.
In 2013, No. 765 was officially included in Norfolk Southern's 21st Century Steam program: an effort to engage the general public and celebrate the railroad's heritage through steam locomotive operations. It operated public trips in Ohio and Pennsylvania in May, 2013. Memorial Day Weekend marked the first public steam-powered excursions over Horseshoe Curve since 1977. In August 2013, the Fort Wayne Railroad Historical Society announced plans to run two round-trip excursions in mid-October, 2013 between Fort Wayne and Lafayette, Indiana, along a line once owned by the Wabash Railroad (and the route of the "Wabash Cannonball"). This was the first time since 1993 that a steam excursion had operated out of Fort Wayne.
The 2015 schedule for No. 765 consisted of: July 18–19: Fort Wayne, Indiana, to Lafayette, Indiana, on the route of the old Wabash Cannonball. On the weekend of July 25–26, the Berkshire hauled excursions from Youngstown, Ohio, to Ashtabula, Ohio. On the weekend of August 1–2, it traveled on the former Erie Railroad from Buffalo, New York, to Corning, New York; the highlight of the trip was the run over the Portage Viaduct at Letchworth State Park. On the weekend of August 22–23, No. 765 ran from Allentown, Pennsylvania, to Pittston, Pennsylvania. While in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in August–September for Steamtown National Historic Site's RailFest 2015, the locomotive was housed in the roundhouse alongside Nickel Plate Road 759.
Between 2016 and 2018, the FWRHS teamed up with Metra, Chicago's commuter rail system, to pull excursions; the 765 pulled excursions between the North Glenview station, on Metra's Milwaukee District / North Line, and Janesville, Wisconsin, with the train being called the Varsity in June 2016. At that time in August, No. 765 regained its original mars light. In 2017 and 2018, No. 765 pulled the Joliet Rocket over Metra's Rock Island District between Chicago and Joliet, with music and food being provided for passengers at Chicago's LaSalle Street Station, which was originally the Chicago terminus for the NKP.
In 2020, No. 765 was unable to pull any excursions due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was only steamed up on the weekend of October 2-4th, 2020.
In September 2021, No. 765 returned to the Cuyahoga Valley Scenic once more to pull more excursion trains on their trackage, and during the final days of this visit, the locomotive reunited in Bellevue with another fellow NKP 2-8-4 No. 757, which recently received a cosmetic restoration by the Mad River and NKP Railroad Museum. From July to October 2022, the No. 765 locomotive visited the Indiana Northeastern Railroad to haul the Indiana Rail Experience excursions on their trackage as part of a multi-year partnership between them and the FWRHS.
Tourism
On average, the locomotive experiences 3,000 visitors a day when operating, with visitor and passenger numbers running between 40,000 and 60,000 ticket buyers in 2009 and 2011 in less than 30 days, respectively. Typical passenger trains carry anywhere from 600 to 1,000 people at a time, with tickets for many trips selling out in 24 hours.
Press reports indicate the continuous presence of large crowds of "locals and out-of-towners" and on 765's ability to boost tourism in the towns that it travels through. In 2012, the Pittsburgh Tribune's headline photo proclaimed that No. 765 was the "engine that still can", and later in 2013 called it a "crowd favorite", with CBS Pittsburgh describing it as "400 tons of Americana."
When not operating excursions, No. 765 is maintained in a restoration shop in New Haven by a crew of 70–100 volunteers throughout the year. The shop is open to the public and houses a variety of other railroad equipment, including vintage steam and diesel locomotives, passenger cars, cabooses and more.
The operation of the locomotive is underwritten primarily by memberships to the FWRHS, donations and revenue from ticket sales.
In addition to passenger excursion service, No. 765 is the centerpiece to a proposed riverfront development project called Headwaters Junction, in the locomotive's hometown of Fort Wayne. The plan, endorsed as "big, bold, and transformational" by city leaders and civic groups, calls for the locomotive and FWRHS operations to be based in a mixed-use attraction combining railroad tourism, river access, walking trails and "retail, restaurant, residential, recreational and entertainment businesses." A local task force recommended that Headwaters Junction "not be overlooked...when developing a vision for our riverfront."
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Fort Wayne Railroad Historical Society
Indiana Rail Experience
765
2-8-4 locomotives
Lima locomotives
Freight locomotives
Individual locomotives of the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Allen County, Indiana
Railway locomotives on the National Register of Historic Places
Rail transportation on the National Register of Historic Places in Indiana
Allen County, Indiana
History of Fort Wayne, Indiana
Tourist attractions in Fort Wayne, Indiana
Standard gauge locomotives of the United States
Preserved steam locomotives of Indiana |
4196014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Baldwin%20%28baseball%29 | Mark Baldwin (baseball) | Marcus Elmore Baldwin (October 29, 1863 – November 10, 1929), nicknamed "Fido" and "Baldy", was an American right-handed professional baseball pitcher who played seven seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB). In 346 career games, he pitched to a 154–165 win–loss record with 295 complete games. Baldwin set the single-season MLB wild pitches record with 83 that still stands today.
Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Baldwin made his professional debut for a Cumberland, Maryland team in 1883. Though signed by Chicago White Stockings president Albert Spalding to pitch against the St. Louis Browns in the 1886 World Series, Baldwin did not play after Browns objected. He made his MLB debut for the White Stockings in 1887, when a writer for the Oshkosh Daily Northwestern called him the "swiftest pitcher in the National League" (NL). Released by Chicago player–manager Cap Anson, he signed with the Columbus Solons of the American Association (AA) in 1889, where he led the league in innings pitched (), losses (34), strikeouts (368), and walks (274).
In 1889, Baldwin, described as "intelligent and outspoken," recruited players for the Chicago Pirates of the Players' League (PL). Baldwin played for Chicago and finished the year as the PL leader in games played as a pitcher (58), innings pitched (492), wins (33), strikeouts (206), complete games (56), and walks (249), as the Pirates finished fourth in the league, ten games behind the first-place Boston Reds. A PL historian has described him as a star of the league. Back in the NL, he signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates, where he played from 1891 to 1893. Baldwin was arrested after the Homestead strike in 1892 and charged with aggravated riot, but never received a trial. He finished his MLB career with the New York Giants in 1893, and played several seasons for independent teams afterwards.
During his career, he batted and threw right-handed, weighed , and stood tall. After baseball, Baldwin became a physician and practiced at Passavant Hospital in Pittsburgh. He died of cardiorenal disease on November 10, 1929, and is interred at Allegheny Cemetery.
Early life
Marcus Elmore Baldwin was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on October 29, 1863, to Franklin E. and Margaret Baldwin. One of two children born to the couple, Mark and his family moved to Homestead, Pennsylvania in 1872. Franklin, a real estate speculator, previously worked as a steelworker and a nailer. As a child, Mark wanted to be a physician. Mark started to pitch for amateur Homestead teams in 1880, and, after high school, attended Pennsylvania State College (PSC), later renamed Pennsylvania State University.
Professional career
Baldwin made his professional debut for a team in Cumberland, Maryland, in 1883, while he attended PSC. Two years later, he pitched for McKeesport, who finished first in the Western Pennsylvania League. According to an 1891 article in The Pittsburgh Press, he earned per game for pitching for McKeesport. According to another article in the Press, Baldwin had asked Pittsburgh Alleghenys secretary Scandrett for a tryout, and president William A. Nimick consented, but manager Horace Phillips opposed the idea and a tryout never happened. Instead, Scandrett wrote a letter recommending Baldwin to Duluth management. According to an article in the Pittsburgh Daily Post, McKeesport manager Frank Torreyson recommended him to Duluth of the Northwestern League in spring 1886 as a third baseman, but Duluth played him as a pitcher as their pitching was weak.
On June 18, 1886, Baldwin struck out 18 batters, 12 successively, against the St. Paul Freezers. Baldwin had 19 strikeouts in 12 innings in a 4–3 loss at Oshkosh, Wisconsin on September 13, 1886. According to a friend of Baldwin, when Duluth fined Baldwin for poor play, he intentionally performed poorly until Duluth revoked the fine. According to a Pittsburgh Daily Post writer, Duluth won its league pennant due "chiefly on account of Baldwin's pitching". After a tryout, Chicago White Stockings president Albert Spalding signed Baldwin to a contract on October 20 to replace injured rookie Jocko Flynn: Chicago wanted Baldwin to play in the 1886 World Series (which ran from October 18 to October 23), but the opposing St. Louis Browns objected, so Baldwin never played.
Chicago White Stockings (1887–88)
Baldwin listed his birthdate when he played for Chicago in 1887 as 1867, which followed a theme of childishness and "extreme petulance" in him according to baseball historian David Nemec. In spring training prior to the 1887 season, a hotel employee found Baldwin and Tom Daly unconscious in their room, which smelled of gas. Either Daly or Baldwin accidentally blew out a flame in a gas light. Baldwin almost died, but both were revived. In preparation for the year, Baldwin joined Chicago during spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas. Though in March 1887, Baldwin "expected to rank next to [John] Clarkson" among Chicago's pitchers, in April, The Sporting News reported Baldwin "[was] regarded in Chicago as little better than a failure". On May 2, Baldwin made his MLB debut against the Indianapolis Hoosiers in a 9–1 Chicago loss.
Later in the month, Baldwin held the Boston Beaneaters to one run in a 3–1 Chicago victory, part of a week in which Baldwin's development surprised a writer for The Post, who discounted the earlier evaluation of Baldwin as a failure. In June, a correspondent for The Clipper complimented Baldwin on his endurance and curveballs, while an Oshkosh Daily Northwestern writer called him the "swiftest pitcher in the National League". Baldwin finished the season with an 18–17 win–loss record, with 164 strikeouts and 122 walks over 334 innings pitched, as Chicago finished 71–50, third in the NL. By December, Baldwin had re-signed with the club.
With the sale of Clarkson to Boston, only White Stockings' player–manager Cap Anson, according to one prediction, believed the team could win a pennant. In a May 30 game against the Washington Nationals, Baldwin sprained a tendon in his right leg, an injury from which he did not return until early July. The White Stockings finished the season second in the NL, nine games behind the New York Giants, with a 77–58 record. Baldwin led his team with 15 losses and 99 walks.
Baldwin played on Spalding's 1888–89 World Tour. In a game seen by 12,000 spectators, Baldwin pitched in a game for the Chicagos against the All-Americas in Melbourne as Chicago won 5–3, breaking a three-game losing streak. A monkey bit Baldwin on a ship on the tour after he fed it pretzels and beer; the bite has been reported in a different source as a serious scratch. On April 24, 1889, Anson released him and three other White Stockings and stated he would rather "take eighth place with [a team of gentlemen] than first with a gang of roughs"; according to Baldwin, Chicago did not restrict alcohol consumption on the tour (team owner Albert Spalding was a "temperance crusader"), and at various banquets Baldwin attended the wine "flowed freely". In addition to his alcohol consumption on the tour, Baldwin stated that after he hinted he would not sign for the salary of the previous season, he was released. Later in the year, Anson cited Baldwin's lack of pitch control as a reason for his release. Baldwin signed with the Columbus Solons of the AA on May 3.
Columbus Solons and Chicago Pirates (1889–90)
Baldwin, who debuted for the Solons on May 4 in a showing described by The Chicago Tribune as "anything but credible," explained his poor opening game as a result of unfamiliarity with AA coaching methods. By late June, a month in which he hit a double, three triples, and a home run over a three-game span, Baldwin was "doing better", according to a writer for The Chicago Tribune. According to a writer for The Saint Paul Globe, Baldwin pitched the "best ball in the [A]ssociation" in July. On August 31, Baldwin set the single-game AA record for strikeouts with 13 against the Browns. In his only season in the AA, Baldwin led the league in innings pitched (), losses (34), strikeouts (368), walks (274), and wild pitches (83), the last of which set a major league record that still stands today. Baldwin's 274 walks set a then-MLB record, while his strikeout total is the most post-1886 except for Nolan Ryan, Sandy Koufax, and Randy Johnson.
In November 1889, Baldwin met in Chicago with the National Brotherhood of Professional Baseball Players, a union of baseball players which would form the Players' League (PL) in 1890, where the union reportedly discussed the formation of a Chicago team. According to John Montgomery Ward, "the movement is an experiment on our part to have the men who do the work participate in the profits of the pastime". On why he joined the league, Baldwin said he was "not playing ball for principles", but rather for the "money that's in it", and on other players in the PL stated "not one of them ever had much faith in the principles which were said to have led to the revolt".
Despite an attempt by Anson to convince Baldwin to sign with an NL team in which Anson "spent more money than he [had] spent before", on November 21, Baldwin signed a PL contract for the Chicago team, nicknamed the Pirates. Baldwin's 1.77 "average earned runs per game by opponents" through May 21, 1890 ranked second-lowest in the PL, while his seven games played as a pitcher tied for second highest in the league.
Baldwin finished the year as the PL leader in games played as a pitcher (58), innings pitched (492), wins (33), strikeouts (206), complete games (56), and walks (249), as the Pirates finished fourth in the PL, ten games behind the first-place Boston Reds. PL historian Ed Koszarek has described him as a star of the league. When the PL disbanded on January 16, 1891, as the NL and AA ratified a new National Agreement, Columbus retained Baldwin under reserve, and Baldwin officially signed with the team in January 1891 for $2,900 (). After a discussion with Alleghenys team owner J. Palmer O'Neil in February, he jumped contract (thereby jumping leagues) and signed with Pittsburgh late that month or early in March despite saying he did not want to play for the club earlier in the year.
Pittsburgh Pirates and New York Giants (1891–93)
In early March, Baldwin tried to convince Jack O'Connor of the Solons and Silver King of St. Louis to sign with Pittsburgh. Chris von der Ahe, owner of the St. Louis Brown Stockings, had Baldwin arrested for allegedly conspiring with O'Neil to sign players from St. Louis to Pittsburgh shortly thereafter. The charges were nolle prossed, and Baldwin later sued von der Ahe for false imprisonment. After years of litigation, Baldwin won a judgement of $2,525 () against the owner in 1897. Around early 1891, the Alleghenys nickname changed to the Pirates due to the club's habit of signing players from other teams.
In August he allowed only one hit against the Boston Beaneaters in a complete game. He ended an eleven-game winning streak of games in which he pitched in September. Baldwin had a 2.76 earned run average (ERA) and a 1.40 walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) rate in his first year with the club as the Pirates finished last in the NL; Baldwin's 23 hit batsmen led the league, while his totals in innings pitched, wins, losses, and complete games led the club. He re-signed with the Pirates in November.
Baldwin pitched on Opening Day for Pittsburgh on April 12, 1892 in a 7–5 Pittsburgh victory against the Cincinnati Reds. In July, Baldwin asked Brooklyn Bridegrooms president Charles Byrne to trade him to the team in exchange for pitcher Tom Lovett. The proposition never went through, possibly because Brooklyn opposed it. Baldwin either asked for a ten-day vacation or the Pirates suspended him for ten games starting around August 6 due to indifferent play. Pittsburgh gave Baldwin a ten-day notice of intent to release on August 25, 1892 with a local paper stating the Pittsburgh magnates thought of him as "unreliable, of uncertain temper and [believing] his heart was never in the game". The Pirates possibly gave him a ten-day notice due to his involvement in the Homestead strike, a labor strike culminating in a battle between workers of the Carnegie Steel Company and members of the Pinkerton detective agency hired by management to introduce strikebreaker workers to the mill.
In September 1892, Carnegie Steel Company Secretary F.T.F. Lovejoy provided information which left Baldwin charged with aggravated riot. Baldwin stated he was at the strike "merely as a spectator", and when the surrender of the Pinkertons occurred he "went to his home in Homestead and in no way aided or abetted the attack on the defenseless prisoners". Baldwin was released from prison after his father posted $2,000 () bail. He later rejoined the club on the team's trip east, with the club recalling his release. Baldwin was re-arrested on September 23 along with 166 other defendants on the same charge, but never received a trial. He finished the 1892 season with a 26–27 win–loss record and a 3.47 ERA as the team ended with a 80–73–2 win–loss–tie record, sixth in the NL. He led the team in wins and losses, games pitched, innings pitched, complete games, walks, strikeouts, and tied with Red Ehret and Phil Knell for the league lead in hit batsmen.
In the off-season, Baldwin sold real estate and insurance in Homestead, and stated he did not care about returning to baseball after refusing a contract with the Pirates due to low wages. He re-signed with Pittsburgh in February 1893 for $2,400 (), the same amount for which he reportedly refused a contract with Pittsburgh earlier. In a game against a team from New Orleans during the off-season, Baldwin walked eleven batters. He appeared in one game for the 1893 Pirates before the club released him in early May. He signed with the New York Giants shortly thereafter in a move that also saw the release of King. In July, Baldwin ended a streak of eleven games pitched in which he did not record a win. He ended the year with a 16–20 record and a 4.10 ERA as the club finished at a 68–64–4 record (fifth in the NL). Baldwin's 33 complete games were second on the Giants to Amos Rusie's 50. In 346 career MLB games, he pitched to a 154–165 win–loss record with 295 complete games.
Independent ball (1894–95)
In March 1894, New York released Baldwin. An article in The Cincinnati Enquirer stated Baldwin could not find a team with which to sign due to his lawsuit against von der Ahe. A retrospective article in The Washington Post stated Baldwin and King were "marooned" due to their involvement in the Association–League war of 1891, in which clubs from opposing leagues attempted to sign each other's players. Baldwin originally did not want to play in a minor league, though he signed with the Allentown Kelly's Killers in mid May. In a game against Harrisburg in late June, Baldwin allowed at least 23 hits.
He spent the 1894 season with the Binghamton Bingoes (also known as the Allentown Buffaloes) of the Eastern League (EL), the Allentown Kelly's Killers (also known as Easton and Ashland), and the Pottsville Colts, the last two of which competed in the Pennsylvania State League (PSL). The Colts ended the season with a 62–44 record, which ranked first in the PSL, and won the league's championship in a disputed game. An article in the Pottsville Miners Journal stated "his excellent work for Pottsville in the championship games had much to do with bringing our club to first place". He additionally played four games for the Yonkers club of the EL.
Baldwin signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in October. Though an article in The Philadelphia Inquirer stated Baldwin was "certain to stay" with the team on March 31, 1895, the Phillies released him in April due to his drinking. The Phillies recalled his release in early May, but he did not appear in a regular-season game for the team. Shortly after his first release, Baldwin re-signed with the Colts for $200 () per month. The Colts granted his release in June, and he signed with the Rochester Browns of the EL for more pay; for Pottsville, he won over two-thirds of the games in which he pitched according to The Allentown Leader.
The Browns released Baldwin due to poor performance which stemmed from drinking alcohol, after which he played for a team in Palmyra and a team in Wheeling of the Iron and Oil League. Baldwin pitched to a record of 10–12 between the Browns and the Colts. During his career, he batted and threw right-handed, weighed , and stood tall.
After professional baseball and personal life
During at least two off-seasons, he joined his brother hunting. Baldwin was a close personal friend of Ad Gumbert.
In April 1896, Baldwin's father purchased a semi-professional baseball team which Mark helped organize. It folded before the end of its first season. After professional baseball, Baldwin coached the baseball team of the University of Pennsylvania. He started medical school at the university in fall 1898. He played as a guard on the American football team for either the University of Pennsylvania or Baltimore Medical College, to which he had transferred, or both. He graduated with a Doctor of Medicine from Baltimore Medical College in 1900 and practiced in Rochester, Minnesota, in Columbus, and at Passavant Hospital in Pittsburgh.
According to an obituary published in The Pittsburgh Press, Baldwin "spent some time with" physicians William James Mayo and Charles Horace Mayo in Rochester and served as assistant coroner to George Frederick Shrady Jr. in New York City. He identified as a Republican in 1889, and, in 1910, supported former teammate John K. Tener in the latter's bid for Governor of Pennsylvania. Baldwin was a Freemason. He never married.
He died at Passavant Hospital on November 10, 1929, of cardiorenal disease after a long illness, and was interred at Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career hit batsmen leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
Notes
References
External links
More information and photographs and illustrations on the Spalding World Tour, in which Baldwin took part
Baldwin on signing a PL contract
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Pennsylvania
1863 births
1929 deaths
Chicago White Stockings players
Columbus Solons players
Chicago Pirates players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
New York Giants (NL) players
Penn State Nittany Lions baseball players
Duluth Jayhawks players
Binghamton Bingoes players
Allentown Buffaloes players
Allentown Kelly's Killers players
Easton (minor league baseball) players
Ashland (minor league baseball) players
Pottsville Colts players
Rochester Browns players
19th-century baseball players
Burials at Allegheny Cemetery
Pennsylvania Republicans
University of Maryland School of Medicine alumni |
4196029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milenko%20Stefanovi%C4%87 | Milenko Stefanović | Milenko Stefanović (19 February 1930 – 25 July 2022) was a Serbian classical and jazz clarinetist. He was a prizewinner in the international competitions in Moscow, Munich, Geneva and Prague, and achieved an international career as a soloist. He was a long-time principal clarinetist of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra and Professor of Clarinet at the University of Priština and University of the Arts in Belgrade.
Education
Born in Belgrade, Kingdom of Yugoslavia (present day Serbia) in a family of amateur musicians, he began his musical studies at the age of five (violin, piano and, later, clarinet). His first clarinet teacher was Franjo Partlić, principal clarinetist of the Belgrade Opera. Stefanović graduated from the Belgrade Music Academy, as a student of Professor Bruno Brun, the founder of modern Serbian school of clarinet playing (1957). He completed there, with the same teacher, his postgraduate studies and was awarded the Magister of Arts degree (1971). Additionally, he studied chamber and orchestral playing in Salzburg, Austria in the class of Igor Markevich, Erich Leinsdorf and Fernand Oubradous.
Awards and honors
Stefanović was a top-prize winner or finalist in the major Yugoslavian and international competitions, including the competitions in Sarajevo (1952), Skopje (1954), Ljubljana (1956), Moscow (1957), Munich (1957), Geneva (1957) and Prague (1959). Additionally, he was presented with the Award of the Yugoslavian Radio-Television (Ohrid, 1972), awards of the City of Belgrade for the best concert in the previous concert season (1976, 1981, 1986), with 7 July Award (1962) – the state's highest award for the arts, as well as with many other honors. In 2007, upon recommendation of the Expert Committee of the Serbian Ministry of Culture, he was awarded Special Acknowledgment for the Highest Contribution to the National Culture in the Republic of Serbia. In 2010 he was awarded The Lifetime Achievement Award by the Association of Musical Artists of Serbia. In 2011, at the ClarinetFest® in Northridge, California, the membership of the International Clarinet Association unanimously voted Stefanović to become an Honorary Member. On behalf of Milenko Stefanović, his granddaughter Irina received the Award on 27 July 2013, at the I.C.A. Awards Ceremony, during the ClarinetFest® in Assisi, Italy. On 12 February 2016, in Belgrade, Serbia, President of the European Clarinet Association Stephan Vermeersch awarded Professor Stefanović with the European Clarinet Association Honorary Membership for Lifetime Achievements in Performance, Teaching and Professional Service.
Performance career
Stefanović was the principal clarinetist of the Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra (1954–1976).
Apart from holding that position, he also achieved international success as a soloist and chamber music player.
During his extensive career, Stefanović has played in Europe, North America and Africa. As a soloist, chamber and orchestral musician he has collaborated with Yugoslavian and international artists, including: Sir Malcolm Sargent, Sir John Barbirolli, Herbert von Karajan, Lorin Maazel, Leopold Stokowski, Kirill Kondrashin, Igor Markevitch, Bernard Keeffe, Francesco Mander, Marcus Dods, Jerzy Katlewicz, Jovan Šajnović, Borislav Pašćan, Uroš Lajovic, Anton Kolar, Anton Nanut, Vančo Čavdarski, Živojin Zdravković, Oskar Danon, Dušan Skovran, Djura Jakšić, Mladen Jagušt, Julio Marić, Franc Klinar, Sandro Zaninović, Roman Skrepek, Lambra Dimitrijević, Eric Hope, Evgeni Koroliov, Michel Dussault, Andreja Preger, Nikola Rackov, Aleksandar Pavlović, Viktor Jakovčić, Zorica Dimitrijević-Stošić, Mirjana Kršljanin, Aleksandar Lekovski, Zbigniew Chwedczuk, Josef Daniel, Oivin Fjeldstad, Bogo Leskovic, Petr Vronsky, Freddy Došek, Milan Horvat, Stanko Šepić, Bogdan Babić, Dušan Miladinović, O. Pipek, Božidar Tumpej, Jasmina Chakar, Vojislav Simić, The Zagreb Soloists, The Belgrade Trio, The Serbian String Quartet, Zagreb Quartet and many others.
Stefanović was one of the few artists to perform Copland's Clarinet Concerto under the baton of Maestro Aaron Copland (1961).
Stefanović was also a jazz musician – soloist, composer and member of the Belgrade Jazz Trio and Markićević Quintet.
He recorded for the radio and television stations in Yugoslavia and abroad (Moscow, Rome, Paris, London, Berlin...
A number of Yugoslavian composers Aleksandar Obradović, Petar Bergamo, Dušan Radić, Miodrag Ilić, Petar Ozgijan, Dejan Despić, and others dedicated to him their works.
Stefanović has been highly esteemed by the critics. Despite the great number of his appearances, he is one of the very few musicians who have never been reviewed negatively by the critics.
Stefanović has served on the juries in Yugoslavian and international competitions (Belgrade, Warsaw, Zurich...)
Compositions
Stefanovic wrote many jazz compositions and some film music.
Teaching career
Stefanović has been very successful as a teacher, too. His former students hold teaching positions in music schools and universities and play in orchestras in Europe, Asia, Australia and North America. Many of them were prizewinners in various competitions in the country and abroad.
He began his teaching career as a clarinet teacher at the Josip Slavenski School of Music (1967–1993).
He taught at the University of the Arts in Belgrade from 1976, when he was appointed upon recommendation of the previous teacher, Professor Brun, until his retirement in 1995.
Stefanović taught at the University of Priština Faculty of Arts from 1975, when he was one of the founders of its Music Division, until 2009.
He was also a Vice-Chancellor (1985–1989) and member of the Board of Trustees of the University of the Arts in Belgrade.
Stefanović wrote several textbooks for the clarinet students.
Affiliations
Stefanović was a member and former president (1977–1980) of the Association of Musical Artists of Serbia and Honorary Member of the International Clarinet Association (awarded in 2013) and European Clarinet Association (awarded in 2016).
He was a member of the Council of the Belgrade Music Festival (BEMUS) and member of the Publishing Council of Pro musica journal.
Family
Two members of Stefanović's family are also well-known musicians: his son Predrag is a clarinetist and his daughter-in-law Jovana is a composer. Both of them have built significant music careers. Beside that, they are also very esteemed as pedagogues. They have been teaching at the Josip Slavenski School of Music in Belgrade. In that school their child, Milenko's granddaughter, named Irina plays piano but she also composes.
Selected recordings
Baird: Two Caprices
Baronijan: Divertimento for Clarinet, Flute, Strings and Percussion
Bećiri: Sonata
Berg: Four Pieces
Bergamo: Concerto Abbreviato for Clarinet Solo (dedicated to M. Stefanović)
Beethoven: Duo No.2, Op. 147 for Clarinet and Bassoon (with Božidar Tumpej)
Bjelinski: Rondo
Brahms: Sonata No. 1
Brahms:Sonata No. 2
Brahms: Quintet in B minor (with the Zagreb Quartet)
Copland: Concerto (with Aaron Copland)
Cossetto: Clarinet Concerto
Debussy: Premiere Rhapsodie (with Symphony Orchestra of the Radio Television of Belgrade conducted by Oskar Danon)
Despić: Concertino for Clarinet, Bassoon & Orchestra (with Božidar Tumpej, bassoon, and Symphony Orchestra of the Radio Television of Serbia, conducted by Mladen Jagušt)
Despić: Nine Dances for Clarinet Solo (dedicated to M. Stefanović)
Frajt: The Player and the Birds (with Symphony Orchestra of the Radio Television of Belgrade conducted by Dušan Miladinović)
Hindemith: Sonata
Honegger: Sonatine (with Eric Hope)
Kalčić: Musica Concertante for Clarinet solo and Strings<ref>RBG3, 6 July 2002</ref<refTijana Popović Mlađenović, Aleksandar Pavlović
Anthology of the Serbian Music of the 20th Century for Strings –
The premiere performances of the Belgrade String Orchestra ‘Dušan Skovran’ New Sound No. 32, pp. 258–260</ref>
Kessel: Bernardo
Kotlić: Pesma
Lutoslawski: Dance Preludes
Milhaud: Concerto (with Oskar Danon)
Milhaud: Sonatina
Mozart: Concerto in A major K. 622
Mozart: Trio in E-flat major, K. 498 (Kegelstatt Trio)
Mozart: Quintet in A major, K.581 (with the Zagreb Quartet)
Obradović: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra (with the Radio Television Belgrade String Orchestra, conducted by Vančo Čavdarski, and with the strings of the Zagreb Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Milan Horvat)
Obradović: Microsonata for Clarinet Solo (dedicated to M. Stefanović)
Penderecki: Three Miniatures
Rabaud: Solo de Concours
Radić: Concertino (dedicated to M. Stefanović)
Rossini: Introduction, Theme and Variations
Schumann: Fantasy-Pieces
Saint-Saëns: Sonata (with Zorica Dimitrijević-Stošić)
Shaw: Concerto
Stamitz: Concerto in B flat major
Stefanović: Romance
Stefanović: Grotesque
Stravinsky: Three Pieces
Vauda: Sonata Brevis
Weber: Concertino (recordings with the BBC Orchestra and with Symphony Orchestra of the Radio Television of Belgrade conducted by Oskar Danon)
Weber: Concerto No. 1
Weber: Concerto No. 2
Živanović: Spring Landscape
Živanović: Rhapsody for Clarinet and Jazz Orchestra
Živković: Pean, for violin, flute, clarinet and bassoon
Notes
References
Barker, John Craig. “The Jeunesses Musicales Belgrade International Competition.” The Clarinet Vol. 15/2 (February–March 1988), pp. 38–39.
Blagojević, Andrija. Pregled istorijskog razvoja klarineta i literature za klarinet. Zvečan: Fakultet umetnosti, 2010.
Blagojevic, Andrija, and Milan Milosevic. "Milenko Stefanovic Awarded The Lifetime Achievement Award." The Clarinet Vol. 37/4 (September 2010), p. 17.
Blagojevic, Andrija, and Milan Milosevic. "Trio PON Won International Competition in Kragujevac, Serbia." The Clarinet Vol. 38/1 (December 2010), pp. 11–12.
Blagojevic, Andrija. “Ante Grgin – clarinetist and composer.” The Clarinet Vol. 39/1 (December 2011), pp. 44–45
Blagojevic, Andrija. “Jeunesses Musicales International Competition in Belgrade, Serbia.“ The Clarinet Vol. 39/4 (September 2012), pp. 78–84.
Blagojevic, Andrija."Bruno Brun (1910–1978) – Founder of the Yugoslav clarinet school." The Clarinet, Vol. 41/3 (June 2014), pp. 46–51.
Blagojevic, Andrija. “Tenth International Competition Young Virtuosos in Sofia, Bulgaria.” The Clarinet, Vol. 41/4 (September 2014), pp. 92–93.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Milenko Stefanović Receives ECA Lifetime Achievement Award." The Clarinet, Vol. 43/4 (September 2016), pp. 8–9.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Serbische Klarinettengesellschaft gegründet.” ‘rohrblatt, 31 (2016), Heft 3, pp. 130–131.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Der Klarinettist Milenko Stefanović erhielt die Ehrenmitgliedschaft der European Clarinet Association.” ‘rohrblatt, 31 (2016), Heft 3, pp. 131–132.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Dejan Despić. Neun Tänze/Devet igara/Nine Dances Op. 62 für Klarinette Solo." The Clarinet, Vol. 45/3 (December 2016), pp. 66–68.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Profesor Milenko Stefanović – dobitnik najprestižnijeg evropskog priznanja.“ Putevi kulture – časopis za kulturu i umetnost, No. 26 (2017), pp. 96–98;
Blagojević, Andrija. "Milenko Stefanović and his Collaboration with Composers." The Clarinet, Vol. 45/3 (June 2018), pp. 32–37.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Zlatan Vauda. Sonata brevis for clarinet and piano." The Clarinet, Vol. 45/3 (June 2018), pp. 71.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Belgrade SAXperience: Internationales Saxophon Festival." 'rohrblatt 34 (2019), Heft 4, pp. 178–179.
Blagojević, Andrija. "The Performance Career of Bruno Brun." The Clarinet, Vol. 47/3 (June 2020), pp. 34–37.
Blagojević, Andrija. "Profesor Milenko Stefanović (1930-2022)." Triptih: interdisciplinarni naučni časopis o umetnosti i kulturi/the interdisciplinary scientific journal of art and culture, Vol. 2/1 (2022), pp. 161-165.
Blagojević, Andrija. "A Tribute to Milenko Stefanović." The Clarinet, Vol. 50/2 (March 2023), pp. 9–10.
Brun, Bruno. "Duvački instrumenti u Muzičkoj akademiji." in Dvadeset pet godina Muzičke akademije u Beogradu: 1937–1962. Beograd: [Muzička akademija], 1963, pp. 62–67.
Bryant, Michael. “The Clarinet on record.” In The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet, edited by Colin Lawson, pp. 199–212. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Campagnolo, Gianluca. The Great Clarinettists. Modica: the author, 2010.
Cipolla, John. “The President's Message.” The Clarinet, Vol 40/2 (March 2013), p. 106.
Dvadeset pet godina Muzičke akademije u Beogradu: 1937–1962. Beograd: [Muzička akademija], 1963.
Dizon, Kristine. "Croatian Clarinet Concertos." Clarinet & Saxophone, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Spring 2018), pp. 22–25.
Đurić-Klajn, Stana. Istorijski razvoj muzičke kulture u Srbiji. Beograd: Pro musica, 1971.
Eberst, Anton. Klarinet i klarinetisti. Novi Sad: Forum, [1963].
Eberst, Anton and Milan Čuljak.Šta treba da se zna o duvačkim instrumentima. Novi Sad: Udruženje muzičkih pedagoga, 1958.
Ikonomova, Vera. Živojin Zdravković i zlatna epoha Beogradske filharmonije. Beograd: Clio, Jugokoncert, 1999.
Jugokoncert: 1946–1971, ed. by Milena Milanović. Belgrade: Yugoslav concert agency, 1971.
Krajačić, Gordana. Muzičke beleške. Beograd: the author, 2012.
Krajačić, Gordana. "In memoriam - Milenko Mima Stefanović," Blic, August 9, 2022, p. 23
Lončarević, Dušan. “Portreti umetnika – Milenko Stefanović.” Pro musica No. 2 (January 1965), pp. 2–3.
Maglov, Marija. The Best of: umetnička muzika u PGP-u. Beograd: Fakultet za medije i komunikacije, 2016.
Maglov, Marija. "The Best of: umetnička muzika u PGP-u". Beograd: Fakultet za medije i komunikacije, 2016.
Maksimović, Miodrag. Beogradska filharmonija 1951–1971. Beograd: Beogradska filharmonija, 1971.
Milenković, Živomir. "Priznanje stiglo iz Kalifornije." Prosvetni pregled (14–21 June 2012), p. 11.
Milenković, Živomir. "Milenku Stefanoviću, univerzitetskom profesoru i legendarnom srpskom klarinetisti – Evropska nagrada za životno delo." Prosvetni pregled (10 March 2016), p. 10
"Milenko Stefanović (1930-2022)." Clarinet & Saxophone Vol. 47, No. 4 (Winter 2022), ed. by Catherine Smith, p. 10; Retrieved on 29 December, 2022.
Milutinović, Žika. “Poslušni klarinet,“ Ilustrovana politika, No. 369 (November 30, 1965), p. 29
Mišić, Radmila. Živeti uz note. Kruševac: Muzička škola "Stevan Hristić", 2001.
Mošić, Andro. Markov prozor. Beograd: KK "Branko Ćopić", 2011.
"Na međunarodnom festivalu u Italiji." Grad, 6 September 2013, p. 19.
Odom, David. "A Catalog of Compositions for Unaccompanied Clarinet Published between 1978 and 1982 with an Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works." D.M.A. diss., Florida State University, 2005.
Pejović, Roksanda. “Domaći umetnici u izgradnji muzičkog života." Pro musica no. 79-80 (1975), pp. 32–33.
Pejović, Roksanda. “Jugoslovenska dela na repertoaru beogradskih umetnika.” Pro musica no. 79-80 (1975), pp. 33–35.
Pejović, Roksanda. “Jugoslovenski umetnici sa orkestrom Filharmonije.” Pro musica no. 79-80 (1975), pp. 38–39.
Pejović, Roksanda. Oskar Danon. Beograd: Univerzitet umetnosti u Beogradu, 1986.
Pejović, Roksanda, ed. Pedeset godina Fakulteta muzičke umetnosti (Muzičke akademije) 1937–1987. Beograd: Univerzitet umetnosti u Beogradu, 1988.
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Petrović, Dragoslav. NIMUS – Niške muzičke svečanosti: 1975–2004. Niš: Punta, 2006.
Plavša, Dušan. Muzika – Prošlost, sadašnjost, ličnosti, oblici. Knjaževac: Izdavačka organizacija "Nota", 1981.
Popović Mlađenović, Tijana. ”Aleksandar Pavlović: Anthology of the Serbian Music of 20th Century for Strings – The premiere performances of the Belgrade String Orchestra ’Dušan Skovran’.” New Sound 32 (2008), pp. 291–293.
Preger, Andreja. Stoleće uz muziku. Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti, 2007.
"Priznanje klarinetisti Milenku Stefanoviću." Politika, 7 September 2013, p. 12.
Ramey, Maxine. “I.C.A. General Business Meeting – Honorary Members.” The Clarinet, Vol. 39/1 (December 2011), pp. 92–94.
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Stefanović, Milenko. Laki komadi. Beograd: Milivoj Ivanović, 1970.
Stefanović, Milenko. Orkestarske studije za klarinet (2 vols.). Knjaževac: Izdavačka organizacija „Nota“, 1979.
Stojković, Milica. Bila sam svedok: Muzička produkcija RTB 1976–1992. Beograd: RDU Radio-televizija Srbije, 2011.
Yoder, Rachel. “Clarinet Pedagogy Around The World.” The Clarinet 50, no. 4 (September 2023): 57–60.
Veselinovć Hofman Mirjana, ed. Istorija srpske muzike – Srpska muzika i evropsko muzičko nasleđe. Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike, 2007.
Walzel, Robert. “The Belgrade Competition – A First Hand Account.” The Clarinet Vol. 15/2 (February–March 1988), pp. 36–38.
Ware, Allan. “A Chat With Professor Milenko Stefanovic and His Son Predrag.” The Clarinet Vol. 15/3 (May–June 1988), pp. 30–33.
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External links
Prof. Milenko Stefanovic – video by Predrag Stefanović
Vreme muzike by Maja Čolović Vasić (dedicated to Milenko Stefanović), Radio Belgrade 2, 3 March 2016
Varteks Baronijan: Divertimento, clar. Milenko Stefanović
Dejan Despić: Concertino for clarinet, bassoon and orchestra, clar. Milenko Stefanović
Ludmila Frajt: "A Musician and Birds" (1966), M. Stefanović – clarinet, SO RTB conducted by D. Miladinović (1968)
G. Gershwin: The Man I Love, clar. Milenko Stefanović
B. Kessel: Bernardo, clar. Milenko Stefanović
Aleksandar Obradović: Concerto for Clarinet and String Orchestra, performed by Milenko Stefanović
Camille Saint-Saëns: Sonata for clarinet and piano, Op. 167, performed by Milenko Stefanović and Zorica Dimitrijević-Stošić (first and second movements)
Camille Saint-Saëns: Sonata for clarinet and piano, Op. 167, performed by Milenko Stefanović and Zorica Dimitrijević-Stošić (third and fourth movements)
Stevan Markićević Sextet, clar. Milenko Stefanović
George Gershwin: "Summertime", clar. Milenko Stefanović, piano Nikola Rackov
Carl Maria Weber: Concertino in E-flat Major, performed on 25 March 1967 in the BBC Gala Concert Hall program, by Milenko Stefanović, clarinet and the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by Marcus Dods
"Mera za muziku" – interview with Prof. Milenko Stefanović, Radio Television of Serbia, 28 March 2016
"Sećanje na klarinetistu Milenka Stefanovića" by Maja Čolović Vasić, Radio Belgrade 2, August 4, 2022
Umetnost interpretacije – Milenko Stefanović, Radio Belgrade 3, March 21, 2023
1930 births
2022 deaths
Musicians from Belgrade
Serbian classical clarinetists
Serbian jazz clarinetists
University of Arts in Belgrade alumni
Academic staff of the University of Arts in Belgrade
University of Belgrade alumni
Academic staff of the University of Pristina
Yugoslav musicians
21st-century clarinetists |
4196336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinderella%20II%3A%20Dreams%20Come%20True | Cinderella II: Dreams Come True | Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (also known as Cinderella 2: Dreams Come True) is a 2002 American direct-to-video fantasy comedy anthology film. It is directed by John Kafka and features a screenplay written by Jill E. Blotevogel, Tom Rogers, and Julie Selbo. It is sequel to Cinderella, and the first in the series to use digital ink and paint. It stars the voices of Jennifer Hale, Russi Taylor, Corey Burton, and Rob Paulsen. It was released on February 26, 2002.
Plot
Prologue
In the royal palace, Cinderella's mice friends Gus and Jaq head to a chamber where the Fairy Godmother is reading the story of Cinderella to the other mice. Much to their disappointment, Gus and Jaq arrive just as she has finished the story. With her help, the mice set off to make a new book to narrate what happens after the Happily Ever After, by stringing three segments of stories together into one narrative.
Aim to Please
In the first segment, Cinderella and Prince Charming return from their Honeymoon, and Cinderella reunites with her mice friends and her dog Bruno. She is later put in charge of the palace banquets and parties while the King and Prince Charming are away. However, Cinderella is dissatisfied with the emphasis on tradition, and decides to organize the upcoming party her own way. Although he initially seems to be shocked at Cinderella's changes, the King ends up satisfied with the party.
Tall Tail
In the second segment, Jaq thinks he is too small to help Cinderella in the palace as he did in the first movie. The Fairy Godmother turns him into a human, named "Sir Hugh," so he can help out. However, this does not stop Pom Pom, the palace's cat, from chasing Jaq around. After an incident with an elephant at a fair, he learns to be happy with himself.
An Uncommon Romance
In the last segment, Anastasia, one of Cinderella's stepsisters, falls in love with a baker named Lathyn, of whom her mother Lady Tremaine and older sister Drizella disapprove. Cinderella, unbeknownst to anyone else, arrives and secretly watches as Lady Tremaine berates Anastasia, thus leading her to help Anastasia in getting ready for the ball together. Later at the ball, Anastasia thanks Cinderella for helping her. Lucifer also has an encounter with Pom Pom, the castle's cat, with whom he falls in love.
Epilogue
The mice finish their book, and the movie ends as they gather in front of the fire with Cinderella, who begins to read their story.
Credits
Directed by
John Kafka
Produced by
Mary Thorne
Unit Director
Masaki Sugiyama
Screenplay by
"Aim To Please"
Jill E. Blotevogel (as Jill Blotevogel)
Tom Rogers
"Tall Tail"
Jule Selbo
Tom Rogers
"An Uncommon Romance"
Tom Rogers
Interstitial Sequences
Tom Rogers
Cast (in order of appearance)
Jennifer Hale as Cinderella. She was voiced by Ilene Woods in the original film.
Rob Paulsen as Jaq/Grand Duke/The Baker/Sir Hugh/Bert/Flower Vendor. Both the King and Grand Duke were voiced by Luis van Rooten in the original film.
Corey Burton as Gus/Mert/Stable Hand. Jaq and Gus were voiced by Jimmy MacDonald in the original film.
Andre Stojka as The King.
Russi Taylor as Fairy Godmother, Drizella Tremaine, Mary Mouse, Beatrice, Countless Le Grande and Daphne. Fairy Godmother was voiced by Verna Felton in the original film. Drizella was voiced by Rhoda Williams in the first film
Susanne Blakeslee as Lady Tremaine. She was voiced by Eleanor Audley in the original film.
Tress MacNeille as Anastasia Tremaine/Pretty Woman. Anastasia was originally voiced by Lucille Bliss, who was uncredited.
Holland Taylor as Prudence
Christopher Daniel Barnes as Prince Charming. He was voiced by William Edward Phipps, who was uncredited in the original film.
Frank Welker as Lucifer/Pom-Pom/Bruno. Lucifer was voiced by June Foray, who was also uncredited in the original film. Bruno was also voiced by MacDonald in the first film.
Voice Casting Directors
Julie Morgavi
Jamie Thomason
Dialogue Director
Julie Morgavi
Score Composed and Conducted by
Michael Tavera
Film Editor
Julie Ann Lau (as Julie Anne Lau)
Supervising Animation Directors
Kazuyoshi Takeuchi
Hiroshi Kawamata
Storyboard Artists
Carolyn Gair
Sharon Forward
Lenord Robinson
Ken Boyer
Viki Anderson
Kevin Pawlak
Cosmo Anzilotti (as Cos Anzolotti)
Timing Directors
Joanna Romersa
Barbara Dourmaskin-Case (as Barbara Dourmashkin)
Marsh Lamore
Technical Directors
Kimberly Rose
Yasunori Hayama
Production Manager
Angi Dyste
Design & Visual Development
Key Background Artist
Lin Hua Zheng (as Lin Zheng)
Consultant Art Director
Alan Bodner
Key Location Design
Latchezar Gouchev
Kenny McGill
Character Design
Benjamin Balistreri (as Ben Balistreri)
Kenny Thompkins
Lead Color Stylist
David A. Rodriguez
Prop Design
Marty Warner
Character Animation
Assistant Director
Fumio Maezono
Animation Directors
Ken'ichi Tsuchiya (as Kenichi Tsuchiya)
Takeshi Atomura
Hirofumi Nakata
Shin'ichi Suzuki (as Shinichi Suzuki)
Key Animators
Yoshiharu Ashino
Atsuhiko Hara
Isamitsu Kashima
Hiroko Minowa
Kiyomi Miyakawa
Takayo Nishimura
Kazuhiro Ōmame (as Kazuhiro Ohmame)
Yoshiharu Satō (as Yoshiharu Sato)
Atsushi Sekiguchi
Kazuko Shibata
Kōichi Suenaga (as Kouichi Suenaga)
Sachiko Sugino
Junpei Tatenaka
Sachiko Wakabayashi
Chie Arai
Rie Arai
Genta Chiba
Tomokatsu Nagasaku
Kazuhiro Murase
Yūji Watanabe (as Yuji Watanabe)
Shigeru Yamamoto
Hisashi Wada
Yutaka Oda
Masaki Kudō (as Masaaki Kudo)
Yoshihiro Tsuji
Nobuyuki Koyanagi
Yasuto Torii (as Yasuo Torii)
Yuri Takasaki
Yūko Matsuo
Hideaki Kurakawa
Masayo Matsumoto
Clean-up Animation
Clean-up Artists
Mayumi Ōmura (as Mayumi Ohmura)
Reiko Mano
Nozomu Fujii (as Nozomi Fujii)
Koji Ukai
Takahiro Ikezoe
Tsutomu Kaneko
Manabu Kawada
Takeo Shuto
Yufuki Morimoto
Kaori Suzuki
Kyōko Satō (as Kyoko Sato)
Shizuka Kikuta
Kaori Takeuchi
Shizuko Minami
Maki Nishi
Ai Kuwabara
Kyoko Haseyama
Kumiko Tanihira
Shingo Nishiyama
Chiharu Haraguchi
Katsunori Adachi
Mai Nakazato
Shinobu Saeki
Inbetween Animation
Inbetween Artists
Masatomo Saito
Jyunichi Mineta (as Junichi Mineta)
Masako Morimitsu
Yumiko Ōhasa
Terumi Yoshida
Chizuko Iwasa
Tomoko Araki
Keiko Tanino
Izumi Masui
Kazumi Yokoyama
Ritsuko Tanaka
Morihiko Yano
Kenji Sugiyama
Takahito Sugawara
Keisuke Shimohira
Masatsugu Nishida
Yuichi Kabashima
Hiroe Ebori
Miyuki Hasegawa
Yoshiyuki Fujimori
Kenji Kajiwara
Noriko Sugiyama
Yumiko Kitajima
Satsuki Muramatsu
Chinatsu Ueno
Noriko Kai
Hiroaki Nakajima
Norihito Ogawa
Chika Okubo (as Chika Ohkubo)
Kumi Hirai
Yōhei Nakano (as Youhei Nakano)
Katsuaki Murai
Yoshitake Iwagami
Takeyoshi Ōmagari (as Takeyoshi Ohmagari)
Mio Nakano
Hiromi Ohta
Yoshihiro Kato (as Yoshihiro Katoh)
Naomi Takeuchi
Yuka Hasegawa (as Yuka Hasegawa)
Hiroyuki Namada
Tatsuo Arai (as Tatsuro Arai)
Shintarō Tsubota (as Shintaro Tsubota)
Akifumi Takahashi
Yoshihisa Suzuki
Kazuhide Kondo (as Kazuhide Kondoh)
Yoshinori Kawaguchi
Munehiro Tada
Shigetaro Tamura
Hiromi Soutome
Eriko Taka
Mie Takiguchi
Kayoko Mogi
Eiko Koyanagi
Yuko Ohara (as Yuuko Ohara)
Terumichi Maguchi
Inbetween Checkers
Etsuko Tamakoshi
Takahiro Takashima
Tsuyoshi Takahashi
Effects Animation
Supervising Effects Animation Director
Madoka Yasue (as Madoka Yasuet)
Effects Clean-up Artists
Ryuji Sasaki
Masaki Tamakoshi
CGI Animation
CGI Artists
Kiyoteru Ogawa
Hiroyuki Hatada
Backgrounds
Studio Fūga
Background Supervisor
Hiroshi Ōno (as Hiroshi Ohno)
Background Artists
Emi Kitahara
Kaoru Narashima
Kazuo Nagai
Kumiko Ōno (as Kumiko Ohno)
Kaori Anmi
Chie Ohkubo
Yutaka Akagami
Mayumi Fukuda
Additional Background Artists
Toshiharu Mizutani
Sagako Itakura
Seiki Tamura
Emiko Nishizawa
Eiko Sawada
Tōru Hishiyama (as Tohru Hishiyama)
Hideki Nakamura
Digital Production
Lead Compositor
Katsuya Kozutsumi
Assistant Lead Compositor
Tohru Kobayashi
Compositors
Ryoko Seino
Youhei Seino (as Youhei Teitei)
Additional Compositors
Pete Kranjevich (as Peter Kranjevich)
Charles Lyons
Heather McClenahan
Kristina Pace
Color Stylists
Masumi Nose
Jenny North
Assistant Color Stylist
Keiichi Funada
Digital Ink & Paint
Mami Sakamaki
Yuka Maekawa
Misako Motoyanagi
Hitomi Suzuki (as Hitomi Suzue)
Rieko Tamura
Shiho Kosuge (as Shiho Kosuga)
Aya Matsubayashi
Natsumi Kanehara (as Natsumi Kasahara)
Background Scanners
Yoko Ohyama
Sawako Narumiya
Animation Scanners
Shizuka Hashimura
Yutaka Nishino
Production Manager
Traci Balthazor
Digital Systems Manager
Kōtarō Beppu (as Kotaro Beppu)
Principal Software Engineer
David M. Adler (as David Adler)
System Administrators
Itari Naruumi (as Itaru Naruumi)
Joe Davenport (as Joseph Davenport)
Robert Jones
Technology Analyst
Joel Halvorson
T2 Studio
Color Stylist
Naomi Tazawa
Digital Ink & Paint
Akiko Shimizu
Kumi Nanjō (as Kumi Nanjyo)
Michiko Saitō (as Michiko Saito)
Yuki Yokohama
Yukiko Kakita
Production
Prodution Supervisor
Sheila Kelly
Production Coordinator
Yukari Kiso
Production Associates
Takaaki Matsudaira
Akira Matsumoto
Tamami Miura (as Tomomi Miura)
Yoko Saito
Jennifer Whitney
Continuity Checkers
Lynn Singer
Bob Revell
Production Editor
Takahiko Narita
Background Key Color Correctors
Ernie Pava (as Ernest Pava)
Additional Background Color Correctors
Christopher Staples
Donald Devine (as Don Devine)
Dean Stanley
Additional Storyboard
Phil Mosness
Nicholas Filippi (as Nick Filippi)
Kenny Thompkins
Marty Warner
Floyd Norman
Craig Kemplin
Larry Scholl
Debra Pugh
Benjamin Balistreri (as Ben Balistreri)
Shawna Cha-Gallego (as Shawna Gallego)
Storyboard Clean-up
Leonardo Pinero
Additional Production Support
Additional Producing Services
David Lovegren (as David K. Lovegren)
Additional Associate Producing Services
Mary Alice Drumm
Additional Production Management
Sylvia Edwards
Additional Production Support
Jeffery St. Ours (as Jeff St. Ours)
Todd Ford
Additional Background Artists
Calvin G. Liang (as Calvin Liang)
Mike Inman (as Michael Inman)
Joe Binggeli
Gary Eggleston
Trish Burgio
Brooks Campbell
Additional Character Design
Daniel Haskett
Casting Manager
David Wright
Script Department Manager
Anita Lish
Production Accountant
Tom Rietta
Talent Coordinators
Steven Neibert
Aaron Drown
Anne-Marie Pione
Script Coordinator
Carolyn Scully
Leona Beckert (as Leona Jernigan)
Script Continuity Coordinator
Brian Sintay
Additional Production Secretary
Rosa Martinez
Translators
Kiyoko Takemura
Kikuyo Takeishi
Editorial & Post Production
Post Prodution Manager
Steve Arenas
Assistant Film Editor
Kirk Demorest
Story Reel Editor
Pieter Kaufman
Additional Story Reel Editor
Andrew Haug
Additonal Editorial Support
Greg Nelson (as Gregory Nelson)
Andrew Sorcini
Story Reel Scanners
Tom Pniewski
Christopher Gresham
Post Production Coordinators
Craig Sawczuk
Ken Poteat
Track Reading
Skip Craig
Additional Voices
Wayne Allwine
Stephen J. Anderson (as Stephen Anderson)
Jeff Bennett
Bob Bergen
Susan Blu
Matthew Broderick (as Matt Broderick)
Rodger Bumpass
Pat Carroll
Cam Clarke (as Cameron Clarke)
Jim Cummings
Jennifer Darling
Paul Eiding
Bill Farmer
John Fiedler
Whoopi Goldberg
Jess Harnell
Nikita Hopkins
Maurice LaMarche
Sherry Lynn
Danny Mann
Cheech Marin
Edie McClurg
Terence McGovern
Mickie McGowan
Ryan O'Donohue
Patrick Pinney (as Pat Pinney)
Phil Proctor
Ken Sansom
Kath Soucie
Tara Strong
Owen Wilson
Samuel E. Wright
Title Design
SB Film Design
Negative Cutting
Mary Beth Smith
End Credit Compositing
Buena Vista Imaging
Digital Ink & Paint Software
Toon Boom Technologies
Digital Film Services
E-Film
Sound
Supervising Sound Editor
Donald J. Malouf
Supervising ADR Editor
Gail Clark Burch
Sound Editor
Adam Kopald
Foley Editor
Valerie Davidson
First Assistant Sound Editor
Ann L. Thornberg
Foley by
One Step Up
Foley Artist
Dan O'Connell
Foley Mixer
John T. Cucci (as John Cucci)
Recorded by
Erik Flockoi
Re-Recording Mixers
Terry O'Bright
Tom E. Dahl (as Tom Dahl)
Original Dialogue Recording
Carlos Sotolongo
Arnie Geher (as Arnold Geher)
Assistant Dialogue Engineer
Kelly Butler
ADR Engineer
Carlos Sotolongo
ADR Group Mixer
Troy Porter
Recordist
Sam Kaufmann (as Sam Kaufman)
ADR Group Recordist
Laverne Dewberry
Dialogue Editor
John Kwiatowski
Music
"Put it Together (Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo)"
Music by
Michael Bradford
Jerry Livingston
Performed by
Brooke Allison
Background Vocals by
Brooke Allison
Gina La Piana
Brooke Allison Vocals Produced by
Michael Blakey
Strings Arranged and Conducted by
Paul Buckmaster
Recorded and Mixed by
Cary Butler
Frank Wolf
Brooke Allison Appears Courtesy of
Virgin Records America, Inc./2K Sounds
"Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo"
Music by
Mack David
Al Hoffman
Lyrics by
Jerry Livingston
Additional Lyrics by
Tom Rogers
Performed by
Russi Taylor
Rick Logan
Bobbi Page
Rob Paulsen
Arranged by
Michael Tavera
"Follow Your Heart"
Music and Lyrics by
Alan Zachary
Michael Weiner
Performed by
Brooke Allison
Arranged by
Michael Tavera
"The World Is Looking Up To You"
Music and Lyrics by
Randy Rogel
Performed by
Brooke Allison
Arranged by
Michael Tavera
Background Vocals
Carmen Carter
Clydene Jackson (as Clydene Jackson-Edwards)
Rick Logan
"It's What's Inside That Counts"
Music and Lyrics by
Randy Rogel
Performed by
Brooke Allison
Arranged by
Michael Tavera
"A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes"
Music and Lyrics by
Mack David
Al Hoffman
Jerry Livingston
Music Consultant
Steve Gizicki
Managers of Music Production
Kimberly Oliver
Brett Swain
Orchestrations by
Billy Martin
Michael Tavera
Pete Anthony
Doug Besterman
Danny Troob
Joel McNeely
Thomas Pasatieri
David Slonaker
Michael Starobin
Orchestra Leader
Score Recorded and Mixed by
Scott Cochran
Music Editors
Michael Tavera (as Mike Tavera)
Dominick Certo
Charles Paley
Supervising Music Editor
Dominick Certo
Assistant Music Editor
Tommy Holmes
Music Preparation
Gregg Nestor (as Greg Nestor)
Darin A. Drennan (as Darin Drennan)
Julian Bratolyubov
Steven L. Smith
Booker White
Frank Macchia
Music Contractors
Michael Markman
Reggie Wilson
Vocals Recorded by
Cary Butler
Vocal Contractors
Rick Logan
Bobbi Page
Score Engineer
Nick Wollage
Ms. Allison's Vocals Produced by
Michael Blakey
Score Recorded at
Sony Pictures Studios, Los Angeles
The Newman Scoring Stage 20th Century Fox, Los Angeles
Score Mixed at
Signet Soundelux Studios, Los Angeles
Based Upon The Fairy Tale by
Charles Perrault
This film would not have been possible without
the inspiration from the original motion picture
and the work of its talented artists and animators.
American Humane
The American Humane association
monitored animal action. Scenes
depicting violence to animals were
simulated. No animal was harmed in
the making of this film.
The characters and incidents portrayed and
the names used herein are fictitious and any similiarity to
the name, character or history of any person
is entirely coincidental and unintentional.
Ownership of this motion picture is protected by copyright
and other applicable laws and any unauthorized duplication,
distribution or exhibition of this motion picture could result
in criminal prosecution as well as civil liability.
Approved No. 38480
MPAA
This picture made
under the jurisdiction of
IATSE,
affiliated with
A.F.L.-C.I.O.-C.L.C.
Dolby Digital
in selected theatres
Soundtrack Available on
Walt Disney Records
Songs as Heard on
Radio Disney
Find your station at www.radiodisney.com
Copyright © MMI, MMII Disney Enterprises, Inc.
All rights reserved.
This motion picture was created by
Walt Disney Pictures and Television for purposes
of copyright law in the United Kingdom.
Animation Production by
Walt Disney Animation (Japan), Inc.
Released by
Walt Disney Pictures
Produced by
Walt Disney Television Animation
Soundtrack
The songs for the film were performed by Brooke Allison, and while a true soundtrack was never released, all the songs were included on the compilation album Disney's Princess Favorites, which was released shortly before the film. One song, Put It Together (Bibbidi Bobbidi Boo), was also included on the compilation album Superstar Hits, which was released shortly after the film.
Reception
While the movie did surpass the $120 million mark, critical reception was mainly negative. Many critics agreed that it looked like pieced-together remains of a rejected television series, akin to Beauty and the Beast: Belle's Magical World and Atlantis: Milo's Return. On Rotten Tomatoes, it currently holds an 11% approval rating based on 9 reviews. The segment An Uncommon Romance, however, drew particular praise for developing Anastasia's character.
Release
Cinderella II: Dreams Come True was released on February 26, 2002, on DVD and VHS. It was then re-released on December 18, 2007, as a special-edition DVD, going back in the Disney Vault on January 31, 2008. On November 20, 2012, the film was released with the other Cinderella sequel Cinderella III: A Twist in Time as a two-movie collection on DVD and for the first time on Blu-ray. Both sequels along with the 'Diamond Edition' release of the original film returned to the Disney Vault on January 31, 2017.
References
External links
Cinderella II: Dreams Come True - The Official Disney DVD Website
2002 films
2002 animated films
2002 direct-to-video films
2000s American animated films
2002 fantasy films
2000s musical films
Films scored by Michael Tavera
American animated fantasy films
American anthology films
American children's animated films
American children's fantasy films
American sequel films
Animated musical films
Direct-to-video sequel films
Cinderella (franchise)
Disney direct-to-video animated films
DisneyToon Studios animated films
Films about fairies and sprites
Disney Television Animation films
Animated films about royalty
Films about wish fulfillment
2000s children's animated films
Animated films set in palaces
Animated films set in France
Animated anthology films
2000s English-language films |
4196654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uline%20Arena | Uline Arena | The Uline Arena, later renamed the Washington Coliseum, was an indoor arena in Washington, D.C. located at 1132, 1140, and 1146 3rd Street, Northeast, Washington, D.C. It was the site of one of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's inaugural balls in 1953, the first concert by The Beatles in the United States in 1964, and several other memorable moments in sports, show business, politics and in the civil rights movement of the 1960s. It had a capacity of over 8,000 people and was a major event space in Washington until the early 1970s.
The arena was home to the Washington Capitols of the Basketball Association of America (1946–1949) and National Basketball Association (1949–1950), who were once coached by Red Auerbach. Later, the American Basketball Association's Washington Caps played there in 1969–1970.
Once abandoned and used as a parking facility, today it has been renovated and houses offices and the REI's DC flagship store.
It is directly adjacent to the railroad tracks heading into Union Station and bounded by L and M Street NE. It is located across from the Metrorail NoMa–Gallaudet U station southern entrance.
History
Starting in 1938, the area of building an arena was in the works. Michael (or Migiel or Miguel) J. Uline, president of Capitol Garden Corp., was considering it June of that year but was waiting on a decision by the local government on whether or not they were going to build an arena of their own at the intersection of 4th Street NW and Constitution Avenue NW. Michael Uline held 68 patents and was a successful businessman originally from the Netherlands. His parents decided to leave their home in the province of North Brabant due to numerous floodings in the area of the Maas river and the Uline family emigrated to the United States in 1890, when Michiel was 16 years old. His first business interests in the US revolved around the production and distribution of ice, and the site in Washington, in 1931, just south of the later Arena, was dedicated to ice manufacturing, storage, and sales.
By early 1940, the arena was under construction. It was however already being criticized. On March 14, 1940, Coach Bill Reinhart of the George Washington University basketball team was critical of the design: there were too many seats behind the backboards and not enough on the sidelines. On March 20, the architect, Joe Harry Lapish, responded to the criticism by stating that the arena would be able to house between 6,500 and 7,000 basketball spectators including 4,500 to 5,000 highly desirable seats on the sidelines.
On December 28, 1940, while the arena was nearing completion, Michael Uline announced that it would open on January 28, 1941 and would present a 15-performance engagement of "Ice-Capades of 1941" in 13 days which would end on February 9. More details of the interior where also shared. The heated arena would feature arm-rest seats, each with a complete and unhindered view of the ice by post supports and beams. The ice surface would be by and be the biggest in the country. It would be frozen using the Vedder system connected to the plant located next door which would provide the brine by-pass. Raoul Le Mat was General Manager. The following day, further details of the 1941 program was announced. A rodeo was planned and other activities were in the works: roller follies, a defense exposition, possibly a Cherry Blossom Festival, professional, collegiate and amateur hockey, boxing and college basketball were also considered. On January 9, 1941, the owner announced that the arena had been awarded the Indoor Speed Skating Championship by the National Amateur Ice Skating Union to take place on February 22 and 23, 1941. All the speed skating stars from the country would be present for the event including Leo Freisinger. It was also announced that Eddie Bean, a well-known local golfe,r would become the new Ticket Sale Director for the Uline Arena. He had previously handled the ticket sales of the Washington Baseball Club and of the Redskins for a decade.
On January 22, it was announced that the third boxing performance between Joey Archibald and Harry Jeffra would take place on February 18, 1941. The following day, it was announced by the Evening Star that Mr. Uline had purchased an American Hockey League team to be known as the 'Washington Ulines'. It was to be in fact the Washington Lions. It would become a step up over the other Washington hockey team, the Washington Eagles in the Eastern Hockey League. Mr. Uline had considered getting a National Hockey League team but due to the maintenance cost had decided to go with the American Hockey League instead.
Finally, the Uline rink opened on January 28, 1941 with the Ice-Capades. The show took place in front of 3,000 people. The space in what was described as a "concrete cavern" was well received by the public. However, it seems that the ice was faulty that was to be remediated by the following night: the "blades cut the brittle surface like snowball scrapers and precipitated several unscheduled spills".
On February 10, 1941, Sonja Henie's Hollywood Ice Revue went on the ice in the Uline Arena.
The first Hockey game to take place in the arena was between Georgetown University Hoyas and Temple University Owls on February 15, 1941. The first boxing match was on March 6, 1941 between Billy Conn and Daniel Hassett in preparation for the match between Billy Conn and Joe Louis.
Soon after it opened, the Uline Arena offered public skating every day: weekdays and Sundays from 2 pm to 4:30 pm and 8:30 pm to 11 pm. It also offered Saturday morning sessions from 10:00am to 12:30 pm. Admission was 35 cents for adults in the afternoon and 55 cents in the evening. Children's admission was 25 cents in the afternoon and 35 cents in the evening.
On November 3, 1941, just a few weeks before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war on December 7, 1941, the Pageant of American Freedom took place at the Uline Arena. It was a variety show by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur with a 200 chorus of 90 voices and an Orchestra. All proceeds went to the D.C. Defense Council and the ad featured Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck and Goofy waving a flag, playing the drums and the flute. It appears that a version of the song It's Fun to Be Free was sung in this performance.
On January 30, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt celebrated his 60th birthday. It was a nationwide celebration. In the city, a banquet, six dances and special midnight shows at three theaters took place. Dances took place at the Hamilton, Mayflower, Shoreham and Wardman Park Hotels as well as the Uline Arena and the Lincoln Colonnade from 9 pm to 1 am. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was present at the Arena to cut a 650-pound birthday cake. Johnny Long's Orchestra played and Lucy Monroe sang "The Star-Spangled Banner". Several Hollywood Stars were also present including Rosalind Russell, Carol Bruce, Dorothy Lamour, Dinah Shore, Gene Raymond, and Pat O'Brien.
Basketball and hockey
After World War II ended in 1945, the arena continued to be used as an ice hockey and basketball venue. The Washington Capitols began play as a charter member of the Basketball Association of America in 1946 and became a charter member of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1949; during its five seasons of play, the team used Uline Arena as its home court. Earl Lloyd, the first African American athlete to play for an NBA team, played for the Capitols at Uline Arena on October 31, 1950. The team folded during the 1950–1951 season.
During the 1946–1947, 1949–1950, and 1950–1951 seasons, the Georgetown University Hoyas men's basketball team played home games at Uline Arena.
In 1969, the American Basketball Association's defending championship team, the Oakland Oaks, moved to Washington and played as the Washington Caps during the 1969–1970 season. The Oaks, owned by entertainer Pat Boone, had captured the ABA Championship in the 1968–69 season, and Boone sold the team to Earl Foreman due to poor attendance in Oakland. Foreman relocated the franchise to Washington. Hall of Famers Rick Barry and Larry Brown played for the Caps, with Brown leading the league in assists and Barry averaging 27 points per game. The team finished 44–40 and was eliminated by the Denver Rockets in the playoffs. Plagued by poor attendance, the franchise relocated again and became the Virginia Squires following their one season in the Washington.
The Washington Lions of the American Hockey League and Eastern Hockey League (1941–1942 and 1944–1949) and the Washington Presidents of the Eastern Hockey League (1957–1960) played at Washington Coliseum.
The arena remained segregated after its opening until January 1948.
Inauguration ball, new owner and civil rights
On December 10, 1952, Miguel J. Uline, who was 78 years old, divorced his first wife whom he had married in 1895. This divorce procedure was complicated because Uline had received an invalid Mexican divorce in 1950 and married a former beauty shop operator, Mrs Elva Houseman, the same day. Mr. Uline and his first wife, Mrs. Carolyn Eierman Uline, had not lived together since 1930. It appears that she had reached out to her husband once a year around Christmas in an effort to get back together but that in recent years, she had simply stopped as he "was living with another woman". They had two children together.
On January 20, 1953, one of President Dwight D. Eisenhower′s two inaugural balls was held at Uline Arena. Mamie Eisenhower wore a pink peau de soie gown embroidered with more than 2,000 rhinestones designed by Nettie Rosenstein. She also wore gloves matching the gown and rhinestone-and-perl earrings, necklace and bracelet by Trifaro. Her purse was beaded by Judith Leiber (an employee of Nettie Rosenstein at the time). Her shoes were made by Delman with her name printed on the left instep. The gown, shoes and purse were later gifted to the National Museum of American History by Mrs. Eisenhower.
On March 16, 1956, retired boxer Joe Louis made his debut as a professional wrestler at Uline Arena, defeating Cowboy Rocky Lee. Earlier that year on January 27, 1956, he had been the referee in the Uline Arena of a wrestling match between "Nature Boy" Rogers and Cowboy Rocky Lee.
On February 22, 1958, Michael Uline died at the age of 83. On March 28, 1958, his will was admitted to probate in the District Court. The validity of the will was under attack by his second wife, Mrs. Elva Houseman Uline. Requesting the court's sanction of the disputed documents were Uline's daughter Myrtle U. Pratt and Elizaberth R. Stine, executive Vice President of the M.J. Uline Company Inc. The will was one of three on file with the court. This will was drawn on October 15, 1957 and amended two months later. A 1955 will assigned the widow a trusteeship in the company. This provision was not in the latest will.
On May 31, 1959, Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, gave a speech in the arena to close to 10,000 members who had flown in from 70 cities and 23 states. He had arrived secretly in Washington and disproved that he was on the run from the FBI. He was escorted from the airport to the Roosevelt Hotel with a ten-motorcycle motorcade from the Metropolitan Police. He was later escorted by the same police force to the arena. A full weapon search was conducted. He called for "the American Negro [...] to defend himself from grievous and unprovoked attacks by the white man". He also spoke against integration and for justice. After returning to the hotel under police escort, he sat down for a filmed interview with WNTA of New York. The interview was not broadcast immediately but according to a spokesman, "the pending destruction of the white man will occur before 1970."
Harry G. Lynn, former vice-president of Fairfax Distributing Co., national buyer of the Kay Jewelry chain was a native of Kansas City. He bought the arena on December 17, 1959, for $1 million. He had no experience in the ice business or in sports promotion but loved Washington, D.C. and wanted to stay there. He had struggled in making the arena financially viable. The basketball Caps cost him $250,000 in 1952 and he had lost $100,000 on ice hockey. Elizabeth R. Stine was his original secretary and remained on board as vice president. Uline's daughters and widows had managed the arena after his death but this was seen as the settlement of his estate after the will's authenticity was contested the previous year. The ice plant was considered the largest in the country at the time. Lynn had made the decision to dedicate himself fully to the arena and to learn all he could about the industry. One major obstacle was the question of parking. While there were streetcars, the systems were slowly being dismantled in the late 1950s and early 1960s and there would not be a metro stop there until 2004.
In 1960, Lynn renamed the building the Washington Coliseum.
On June 4, 1961, 8,000 members of the Nation of Islam gathered again in the arena. Elijah Muhammad failed to appear at this event. Malcolm X, then one of his lieutenants, spoke instead. He said that the black community had been "brainwashed". Seven years after the US Supreme Court had made segregation in schools illegal with the landmark decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954, less than 6% were compliant. He called for "separation, not integration or segregation." There were also two female speakers who took the stage: Sister Christine, head of the University of Islam in Chicago and Sister Sherriff, Elijah Muhammad's daughter. Also present were George Lincoln Rockwell and 20 members of the American Nazi Party.
The Beatles concert
On February 11, 1964, the Beatles played their first concert in the United States at the Washington Coliseum, less than 48 hours after the band's appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show. According to John B. Lynn, Harry Lynn got a call asking him if he was interested in having the Beatles at the Coliseum. He had never heard of them but said yes. Though Harry usually did not meet his acts, he did meet the Beatles. He had been stationed in Liverpool and may have felt a connection there. He was not expecting such a crowd, especially with the snow. He had run only one ad in the Washington Post and the concert had sold out in days.
A major snowstorm had fallen on the east coast of the United States. All flights had been canceled so the Beatles arrived in Washington, D.C. through Union Station via the Congressman, the Pennsylvania Railroad express train. There were eight inches of snow on the ground all over the city but attendance was still strong.
Tickets to the show at the Coliseum ranged from $2 to $4. There were 8,092 fans at the concert, which was to be opened by The Chiffons, and Tommy Roe. However, because of the snow, The Chiffons were unable to make it and were replaced by Jay and the Americans. In 2014, Roe reflected on the event:
The Beatles took the stage at 8:31pm and opened with "Roll Over Beethoven." The artists were in the middle of the Coliseum on a boxing ring platform. It was the first time (and possibly the only time) that the band had played "in the round". The goal was to fit as many people in the Coliseum and this configuration allowed for 8,000 to fit versus 6,000 to 6,500 if they have set the stage at one end. The group played a 12-song set and played for approximately 40 minutes.
The following songs were played in this order:
Roll Over Beethoven
From Me To You
I Saw Her Standing There
This Boy
All My Loving
I Wanna Be Your Man
Please Please Me
Till There Was You
She Loves You
I Want To Hold Your Hand
Twist and Shout
Long Tall Sally
The commentary by Leroy Aarons, The Washington Post national correspondent reviewing the concert, surprised many people in the DC area who had not realized how large a following the band had garnered during its first visit to the United States.
In 2004, he reviewed his comment:
The concert was videotaped by CBS. It was then transferred to kinescope. On March 14 and 15, 1964, it was shown in 100 movie theaters and in the Uline Arena. The video of the concert not only contains the Beatles show but was also fleshed out with content from other separate performances from The Beach Boys and Lesley Gore. Three of the songs played at the venue are featured in The Beatles: The First U.S. Visit DVD: I Wanna Be Your Man, She Loves You and I Saw Her Standing There. The Anthology 3 contains She Loves You and I Saw Her Standing There as well as Please Please Me. A bootleg copy of the full concert appears to have been available in fall 2003 but it was immediately removed from the market after the legal team of Apple Records got involved.
The concert film is now available in its entirety exclusively from the iTunes Store as part of The Beatles Box Set on the Past Masters, Vols. 1&2 disc.
Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits cover
Bob Dylan performed at the Washington Coliseum, and the photograph of Dylan on the cover of Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits was taken at a concert at the Coliseum on November 28, 1965. The artist's website does not have a set list for that date.
Life magazine photographer Rowland Scherman and his wife Joan lived nearby, and attended the concert. Although he was not on duty at the time, he brought his camera and used his press pass to gain access to the backstage area to take a few photos. In Encounters With Bob Dylan, Scherman remembers the moment:
He got in touch with Columbia Records art director John Berg, who was dating his sister at the time. He bought the shot for $300. Berg along with Bob Cato used the photo for the album cover. It won the 10th Annual Grammy Award for Best Album Cover, Photography, in 1967. The photographer's name was misspelled on the award statuette and remains misspelled on the Grammy Awards website.
The Temptations riots
On Sunday October 29, 1967, The Temptations were scheduled to play. A group of fans attempted to get in the Coliseum at 6:30 pm, an hour and a half before the scheduled start of the show. Some of these youth backed a security guard named Robert E. Atkins, 23, of the Suburban Protective Agency in a corner. Fearing for his life, he drew his pistol and fired two shots in the air. The group dispersed. The Agency was supposed to send 50 officers but only sent 18. The shortage of security staff made it difficult for the crowd to be controlled during the show. The Temptations took the stage around 10:30 pm in front of a crowd of 7,000 and dozens of fans rushed on the stage to take pictures with pushing and shoving.
Suddenly a loud noise was heard. It remains unclear what it was but it startled the fans who rushed for the exits in a stampede. 14 Metropolitan police officers were stationed outside the Coliseum and attempted to separate the fans in small groups. A small group of 200 youths became disorderly and were throwing rocks and bottles at the police officers. Reinforcement was called in and a riot erupted. Groups of fans were seen running in the neighborhood streets. Thirty-three windows were broken in nine stores along with four car windows and one of the Coliseum's. There was also minor looting. Two adults and four juveniles were arrested on disorderly conduct charges. A young man was stabbed in the melee though his wounds were not critical. Two women were treated at DC General Hospital after being trampled and two police officers also suffered minor wounds.
Detention center
From May 3 to 5, 1971, the building was used as a makeshift detention and processing center. On Monday, May 3, between 1,000 and 1,200 prisoners, both male and female arrested during the 1971 May Day Protests against the Vietnam War and guarded by 150 police officers and other guards sitting in the seats under the red, white and blue pennants hanging from the ceiling and the large Pepsi Cola clock and scoreboard. They slept on the floor or on jackets. They were given food by the National Guard and the police who had arrested them (bologna or tuna sandwiches) but not anything warm. The temperature dropped to at time and the prisoners were not given blankets. There, they were also processed with arrest forms, fingerprinting and mug shots. A lot of the prisoners were arrested without record of where and when they had committed the offenses and Harold H. Greene, the Chief Judge of the DC Superior Court had ordered the city to show cause in court or release them.
On May 4, there were still 600 prisoners in the Coliseum. They joined arms and chanted "One, two, three, four, we don't want your war!" with POW written on their foreheads. They also stood in the same pose to sing the Star Spangled Banner and stopping at the line "for the land of the free" to laugh and cheer. They also sang "We all live in a concentration camp" to the tune of the Beatles song "Yellow Submarine". An additional 500 prisoners were brought in and were cheered. Later that day, 20 young men and women took off their clothes and started dancing nude on the floor with several hundreds other watching in a circle. When the guards started looking, the prisoners yelled: "Let the troops see!". The dance stopped after Rev. Joe Gibson grabbed a microphone and warned the crowd: "You're defeating your case." The protesters got dressed.
The detention center was visited by DC Delegate Walter Fauntroy and several congressmen including William F. Ryan (D-NY) and Robert Drinan (D-Massachusetts). The DC Delegate came with a delegation from the Washington black community who arrived in 12 cars.
Finally, the ruling from Judge Greene stated that prisoners could leave the arena only if they were photographed and fingerprinted but that these records could not be sent to the FBI or be part of the police record. This judgement was stayed until the next morning. Some prisoners did leave and the last 600 prisoners arrested on May 3 left the Coliseum three days later on Wednesday May 5 at 3 pm.
Tear gas, riots and fire safety concerns
On October 15, 1973, a rock concert was taking place featuring Rare Earth, Funkadelic and Ohio Players. It was "blanket party". The 5,331 permanent seats were filled and additional open space was sold to allow customers to stand or sit. In total 5,700 patrons were in the building at the time. According to witnesses, a youth ran inside from the emergency door throw a gas canister onto the main floor. As patrons were attempting to evacuate, it appears that some of the emergency exit doors were locked and that several glass windows had to be broken to escape the fumes. This was denied by the operators of the Coliseum. They did admit that "the five sets of doors were locked at one time" earlier in the evening but that they had been re-opened once the police had cleared the lobby of would-be gate crashers.
Since the Coliseum was built prior to March 8, 1946, it was not required to have panic bars installed per the city's Egress Law. A "retroactive clause" was originally in the law but was removed in 1948 due to the high cost to retrofit such equipment. The law was passed by Congress following the Coconut Grove night club fire that killed 491 people on November 28, 1942. For the Washington Coliseum, because the Fire Inspector had not witnessed the locked doors during the concert, no court action could be taken by the Fire Department but a warning would be issued.
That the Metropolitan Police exploded tear gas outside and sprayed chemical Mace on the crowd outside. The police was onsite prior to the incident as the manager had notified the Special Operations Division of the Metropolitan Police because police officers were used for traffic and crowd control outside the premise. The operators also said that the doors were broken from the outside by bricks picked up from the houses across the street. By the end of the evening, 40 people including 11 police officers had been injured and 56 people were arrested. Three police scooters and a police motorcycle were set on fire by the crowd outside.
Decline
The building fell into obscurity after the opening of the Capital Centre in suburban Landover, Maryland, in 1973. In 1970, Harry Lynn had proactively sold the Coliseum knowing he could not compete with the bigger and better venue being built by his friend Abe Pollin. The Ice-Capades, circus, wrestling moved out. The Near Northeast and H Street neighborhood had also suffered dramatically from the 1968 riots following Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination. The arena could only rely on soul concerts, roller derbies and later rock concerts which could cause problems. Subsequently, the arena was closed in 1985 to avoid the problems and the building was in a state of disrepair with shattered windows and peeling paint.
It was leased by the Takoma Park Christian Faith Center with an option to purchase the property. A $17.5 million renovation project was planned to convert the space into a center for Christian services, crusades and education. It was a welcomed project after the neighbors had suffered through the go-go concerts in 1983 and 1984 that had led to clashes between youths and the police and transformed the residential area in a war zone on concert nights. The building would be taken over on January 1, 1987 and begin with a $6.5 million renovation, the creation of an indoor prayer garden, a Christian bookstore and an administration building. The congregation of 700 would meet for worship in a small room. The leader of the congregation was Alvin Jones who was a broadcast consultant turned pastor. He and his wife also had a radio and TV show called "Successful Living" which was broadcast in Washington and Dallas. Funds would come from donations of the congregation as well as from the broadcast. The lease was good until 1991 to exercise the purchase option. This grand project never really materialized itself.
In 1994, Waste Management purchased the building and used it as a trash transfer station. Blake Van Leer II was hired to build and design the facility, he created a design to preserve its history. Van Leer is the grandson of a well known engineer Blake R. Van Leer. It was operational until 2003.
Waste Management applied for a demolition permit on May 9, 2003, and the D.C. Preservation League responded by listing the building in its "Most Endangered Places for 2003". Waste Management sold the building to Douglas Development in 2004. The filing with the DC Office of Historic Preservation was filed on June 11, 2003.
In order to protect the building from efforts to raze it, it was added to the official protection list of the D.C. Historic Preservation Review Board in November 2006. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, on May 17, 2007.
Formerly a popular spot for graffiti, the arena also was used as an indoor parking lot, with the adjacent ice house sitting vacant. Billboards also were mounted on the building. In 2009, the Coliseum was owned by Douglas Jemal under the name Jemal's Uline LLC.
Today
The arena still stands today. The external shell survived the transformation of the neighborhood. After several decades of a slow death, the building was about to experience a rebirth in the now hip NoMa neighborhood, walking distance from the NoMa–Gallaudet U station which opened in 2004 and the new apartment buildings coming out of the ground across the tracks. The old Washington Coliseum would go back to be known as the Uline building.
It started as a homage to the past history of the building. On February 11, 2014, a Beatles tribute band played in the Coliseum for the 50 years of the historic Beatles concert. While the timing was the same with the artists going on stage at exactly 8:31 pm as in 1964, the Coliseum was only a shadow of what it once was. The place could only house half of what it could in 1964 and tickets cost $100 for a seat. The song line-up was the same as in 1964 but the atmosphere was very different.
In 2015, outdoor retailer REI announced that it would develop the property into its fifth flagship store and first store in Washington, D.C. In addition to the REI store, plans called for the fully redeveloped site to house of office space and an additional of retail space for other users. The REI store opened on October 21, 2016, with a marching band and other festivities, as the largest REI store on the United States East Coast. In April 2017, Spaces, a co-working brand based in Luxembourg, became the second tenant, taking over of office space. Spaces Co-working is a subsidiary of Regus, which is owned by International Workplace Group.
On September 17, 2018, Antunovich Associates, the architecture firm who worked with Douglas Development in restoring the arena, opened their DC office on the ground level of the Uline Arena. The new office fronts directly onto Third Street Northeast, adjacent to the main building lobby.
See also
Sports in Washington, D.C.
References
Further reading
External links
The Washington Coliseum: The Forgotten Landmark
The Beatles’ First Concert in the U.S. (1964) (ghostsofdc.org)
Photo Gallery Beatles Concert February 11, 1964
Cultural Tourism DC: Uline Arena/Washington Coliseum
Library of Congress materials
Brooks Butler Hays, "Two Year Extension Given to Uline Arena Redevelopment Plans", DC MUD, 9/29/2010
Bicycles and bright colors: Regus brand millienializes its traditional space for Uline
American Basketball Association venues
Basketball Association of America venues
Boxing venues in Washington, D.C.
Defunct basketball venues in the United States
Defunct college basketball venues in the United States
Defunct college ice hockey venues in the United States
Former National Basketball Association venues
Georgetown Hoyas basketball venues
Indoor ice hockey venues in Washington, D.C.
Washington Caps
Washington Capitols
Sports venues completed in 1941
Sports venues on the National Register of Historic Places
Event venues on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, D.C.
Near Northeast (Washington, D.C.)
Washington Bullets |
4196931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commandos%20%28Portugal%29 | Commandos (Portugal) | The Commandos () are a special forces unit in the Portuguese Army. Presently, their parent unit is the Commando Regiment (Regimento de Comandos).
Their motto is Audaces Fortuna Juvat (Latin for "Fortune Favors the Bold") and their war cry is Mama Sumae (it can be translated as "here we are, ready for the sacrifice" – taken from a Bantu tribe of southern Angola).
They were created in Angola during 1962, in the scope of the Portuguese Overseas War, as counter-guerrilla forces, thus responding to the need of the Portuguese Army to have special units specially adapted to the type of war. Initially operating in the Angolan theatre, later units of Commandos also operated in the Portuguese Guinea and Mozambique theatres
The Portuguese Commandos are analogous to the 75th Ranger Regiment of the US Army.
Commando Regiment
The Portuguese Army Commando troops constitute the Commando Regiment (RCmds), a base unit that reports to the Headquarters of the Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade. Until July 2015, this unit was designated "Commando Troops Center".
The operational component of the Commando Regiment is the Commando Battalion (BCmds), which by itself includes three maneuver companies and a headquarters and support company. Together with Paratrooper and Special Operations units, the Commando Battalion is one of the operational units of the Rapid Reaction Brigade.
Besides its operational battalion, the Commando Regiment also includes a regimental headquarters and staff, a headquarters and services support company and a training company.
History
Origin
When the Overseas War started in 1961 in Angola, the Portuguese Army employed its units of Special Caçadores. These were special light infantry units organized and trained by the Special Operations Training Centre to conduct counter-insurgency operations. In 1962, however a decision was taken by the Army to enlarge the organization and training of the Special Caçadores to all the infantry units engaged in the war, at the same time disbanding those special units. This however proved to be unfeasible and the Army founded itself without units able to conduct special operations in the scope of guerrilla warfare.
So, in 1962, the Portuguese Army needed units with the ability to:
conduct special actions in the Portuguese territory or abroad
fight as assault infantry / shock troops
provide the high political and military commands with a force able to conduct irregular operations
The first objective that the army set out to achieve was that of building a force specially prepared for counter-guerrilla operations, but the Portuguese commandos also participated in irregular operations, with units specially organised for each operation, and in assault operations, with conventional warfare characteristics, especially in the last years of the war, when they operated in battalion strength, backed up by artillery and the Air Force.
The history of the Portuguese commandos began on 25 June, 1962, when, in Zemba (Northern Angola), the first six groups of those that would be the predecessors of the commandos, were formed. For the preparation of these groups, the CI 21 – Centro de Instrução de Contraguerrilha (Counter-Guerrilla Instruction Centre) was created, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Nave, and had as instructor, the photographer and former French Foreign Legion Sergeant, the Italian Dante Vachi, with experience in the Indochina and Algerian wars.
The six groups prepared in this center achieved excellent operational results. Nonetheless, the military command in Angola decided to re-evaluate the instruction and integration of these units into the army and, in 1963 and 64, the 16 and 25 Instruction Centres (CI 16 and CI 25) were created, in Quibala, Angola. For the first time, the term "Comandos" (Commandos) was applied to the troops instructed there.
On 13 February, 1964, the first Mozambique Commandos Course was initiated in Namaacha (Lourenço Marques, now Maputo) and on 23 July of the same year, in Bra (Portuguese Guinea), the first Guinea Commandos Course.
Casualties
Portuguese commando soldiers that participated in active operations: more than 9000 men (510 officers, 1587 NCOs and 6977 soldiers) served in 67 commando companies.
Combat casualties:
357 KIAs (killed in action)
28 MIAs (Missing In Action)
771 wounded
The commandos constituted about 1% of all the forces present in the Colonial War, but the number of their deaths is about 10% of the total of the casualties; a percentage ten times more than that of regular forces, which happens because they were the most employed troops. It's also generally known that the commandos eliminated more guerrilla fighters and captured more weaponry than the other forces. These characteristics made them the only ones to get a mystical aura that remained after the war.
Postwar
After the war, the commandos continued to develop their skills until 1993 when they were disbanded. This decision was influenced by a number of deaths during instruction. The commando soldiers were merged with the Paratroopers and these were transferred from the Air Force to the Army. But in 2002, the commandos were reactivated as an independent unit and the Batalhão de Comandos (Commando Battalion) was created, with two Operational Companies and an Instruction Company. They are now based in the Centro de Tropas Comandos (Commando Troops Centre) in Mafra. They were deployed to Afghanistan in 2005, where a sergeant was killed by a roadside bomb; the first commando KIA since the end of the Portuguese Colonial War. In 2006, Army Chief of Staff General "Comando" Pinto Ramalho informed that the Army was developing studies in order to raise a third Operational Company, with a size force increase; the Centro de Tropas Comando are actually a garrison in Carregueira.
In 2015 the historical title of Commando Regiment was restored.
Selection and Training
Training to become a Commando takes 34 weeks. Success candidates are expected to service a minimum of 2 years.
This is broken down in the following stages:-
Basic training; This 5 week basic training aims to provide the candidate with basic military training, with an introduction to military culture at this stage.
Additional training (stage 1); This 7 week stage aims to provide advanced military training, and combat technique is given at this stage.
Additional training (stage 2); This 5 week stage aims to provide the military with military leadership training, at this stage command and leadership modules are taught. This training is only for Officer, and Non-commissioned Officers.
Commando course; This 17 week course is broken down to two stages, a 3 week preparation stage followed by a 14 week commando course.
Organisation and evolution
In its first phase, the commandos organised into independent groups composed of volunteers from infantry battalions, forming their intervention units. The success of these groups meant that they rapidly started to be used under the commander-in-chief's and military commanders' orders, to conduct special operations.
The groups' organisation (example):
one command team (one officer, one signaller, one NCO, one medic, one sharpshooter 12,7mm command team)
three manoeuvre teams (one NCO, one sharpshooter 7,62mm, one 7,62mm machine gun and two riflemen)
depending on the mission will have two of the following teams:
two mortar teams NCO, one sharpshooter 5,62mm, one 60mm command mortar, one ammunition soldier and one soldiers)
two antitank team (one NCO, one antitank weapon Carl Gustav, one sharpshooter 5,62mm, one ammunition soldier, one soldiers)
This organisation of a group with six teams and each team with five men suffered adaptations, but the base-cell, the five-men team, remained throughout the war.
The war's evolution revealed the necessity of more commando soldiers and independent units, capable of operating during longer periods and being self-sustained: reasons that led to the creation of commando companies. The first company was formed in Portuguese Angola and its instruction started in September 1964. Its commander, Captain Albuquerque Gonçalves, received the unit's banner on February 5, 1965. The second company had as its destination Mozambique, commanded by Captain Jaime Neves.
The organisation and organisational principles of the Portuguese commandos, are established in great mobility and creativity and in counter-guerrilla combat techniques, very well defined and able to support permanent innovation.
The composition and organisation of the commando companies were always adapted to the circumstances and situations, although throughout the war it was possible to verify two main models, that originated what we can call light companies and heavy companies.
The former were composed of four commando groups, each one with four sub-groups, constituting 80 men and with few back-up components. These companies had little capability to maintain themselves, independently, during long periods of time, because they were meant as temporary reinforcements to units in quadrillage, like intervention forces, and received from those units the necessary support. In these companies, the mobility and flexibility were privileged, and were initially used in Guinea and Mozambique.
The heavy companies had five, five-team commando groups, in a total of 125 men, together with a formation of service personnel, of about 80 men, with medics, signallers, transport soldiers and cooks.
Another type of organisation was adapted to the companies of African commandos, formed in Guinea and composed of metropolitan soldiers when needed, a bit like the American special forces did in Vietnam with the "advisers".
The war's evolution, the necessity that started to exist of fighting in large units in Guinea and Mozambique and to, sometimes simultaneously, conduct special and irregular actions, led to the creation of commando battalions in those two theatres. This function of mother-unit was, in Angola and since its foundation, performed by the Centro de Instrução de Comandos (Commando Instruction Centre), that also needed to adapt, separating the instruction activity and gathering the operational units in a base in Campo Militar de Grafanil (Grafanil Military Camp), near Luanda, although it was never completely independent of the operational use under a specific command.
As larger commando units the Centro de Instrução de Comandos (Commando Instruction Center), in Angola, the Batalhão de Comandos da Guiné (Guinea Commando Battalion) and the Batalhão de Comandos de Moçambique (Mozambique Commando Battalion) were formed.
Although Angola's Commando Instruction Centre was the home and it was in that centre that the main core of doctrine of use and mystique of the commandos were formed, all battalions gave instruction to their staff and formed units to intervene in the operations theatre. Beyond this centre, that prepared units meant for Angola and Mozambique and the first commandos of Guinea, in Portugal a commando centre was also created in CIOE – Centro de Instrução de Operações Especiais (Special Operations Instruction Centre), in Lamego, that instructed units mobilised to Guinea and Mozambique.
In its history, the commandos were formed in Zemba, Angola, after June 25, 1962, in Quibala, Angola, since June 30, 1963, in Namaacha, Mozambique, since 13 February, 1964, in Bra, Guinea, since July 23, 1964, in Luanda, Angola, after 29 June, 1965, in Lamego, Portugal, since 12 April, 1966 and in Montepuez, Mozambique, after 1 October, 1969. After the Colonial War, Portugal gave independence to all of its colonies and all the commandos started to be instructed in Amadora, Portugal, since 1 July, 1974.
Commando units
Africa
Served in Angola (1963–1975)
21st Training Center (CI21) - created in 1962 and disbanded in the same year. It was the first Commando training unit;
16th Training Center (CI16) - succeeded CI21 in 1963, as the Commando training unit;
25th Training Center (CI25) - succeeded CI16 in 1964, as the Commando training unit. It was transformed in the Commando Training Center in 1965;
Commando Training Center (CICmds) - created in 1965 by the transformation of the CI25;
Commando Companies (CCmds): 1st, 2nd, 6th, 8th, 14th, 19th, 20th, 30th, 2024th, 2044th, 2046th and 2047th - temporary units mobilized in Angola from 1964. The 2nd Company served both in Angola and in Mozambique;
Commando companies: 11th, 12th, 22nd, 24th, 25th, 31st, 33rd, 37th, 36th, 2041st, 2042nd, 4042nd and 112th/74 - temporary units mobilized in European Portugal from 1967. The 11th company raised by the 5th Caçadores Battalion, the 12th company raised by the 1st Light Artillery Regiment and the remaining companies raised by the Special Operations Training Center.
Served in Portuguese Guinea (1964–1974)
Guinea Commando Training Center (CICmds) - created in 1964 and transformed in the Guinea Commando Company in 1965;
Commando groups (GrCmds): "Camaleões", "Fantasmas" and "Panteras" - temporary units, existing between 1965 and 1966;
Guinea Commando Company (CCmdsGuiné) - created in 1965 and disbanded in 1966. Included the Commando groups: "Apaches", "Centuriões", "Diabólicos", "Vampiros" and "Grusinos";
Commando companies (CCmds): 3rd, 5th, 15th, 16th, 26th, 27th, 35th and 38th - temporary units mobilized in European Portugal from 1966. The 3rd and 5th were raised by the 1st Light Artillery Regiment, the remaining by the Special Operations Training Centre;
African Commando Companies (CCmdsAfricanos): 1st, 2nd and 3rd – mobilized in Guinea from 1969 and composed entirely of blacks;
Guinea Commando Battalion (BCmdsGuiné) – created in 1972 to centralize the command, training and support to all commando companies operating Commando companies operating in the Portuguese Guinea.
Served in Mozambique (1964–1975)
Commando Companies (CCmds): 2nd, 7th, 17th and 21st - temporary units mobilized in Angola to serve in Mozambique, from 1966. The 2nd Company also served in Angola itself. All of these companies were raised by the Angola Commando Training Center;
Commando companies: 4th, 9th,10th,18th, 23rd, 28th, 29th, 32nd, 34th, 2040th,2043rd, 2045th and 4040th - temporary units mobilized in European Portugal. The 4th, 9th, 10th and 18th companies were raised by the 1st Light Artillery Regiment and the remaining were raised by the Special Operations Training Center
Mozambique Commando companies (CCmdsMoç): 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th – temporary units mobilized in Mozambique from 1970 and composed both of blacks and whites;
Mozambique Commando Battalion (BCmdsMoç) – created in 1969 to centralize the command, training and support to all Commando companies operating in Mozambique.
Portugal
Served in Portugal (1974–1993):
Commando Regiment, which included the:
Commando Battalion 11 (BCmds 11) - included the commando companies (CCmds): 111, 112, 113 and 114. BCmds 11 was formed with 2041st, 2042nd, 4041st and 112th/74 CCmds, after coming back from Angola and Guinea, changing their numbers. CCmds 113 was later deactivated;
Commando Battalion 12 (BCmds 12) - included the CCmds: 121, 122 and 123 (heavy weapons). CCmds 123 was deactivated in 1982; CCmds 131 was created later, also of heavy weapons. In this battalion was also integrated the Commando Company REDES (Raids and Destructions);
Commando Company 131 (heavy weapons) - created in 1982 as the initial company of the future Commando Battalion 13, which was never activated. It was later deactivated;
Headquarters and Support Battalion (BCS/RCmds) - included: Headquarters and Services, Specialities Training, Maintenance and Transport and Resupply companies;
Training Battalion (BInstrução/RCmds) - included Training companies: 1st and 2nd;
Serving currently in Portugal (since 2006)
Commando Regiment, which includes:
Regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Company (CCS/RCmds);
Commando Battalion - includes Battalion Headquarters and Support Company (CCA/BCmds), Commando companies (CCmds): 1st CCmds "Morcegos", 2nd CCmds "Escorpiões" and 3rd CCmds "Cobras".
Training Company (CF/RCmds).
Selection
Must be a Portuguese citizen
Must be at least 18 years old
Pass a medical and psychological exam
Physical tests:
run 2500 meters under 12 minutes
47 sit-ups under 2 minutes
5 continuous pull-ups (palms forward)
32 push-ups
jump a 3-meter ditch
jump a 90 cm-high wall
walk a 5-meter-high portico
swim 25 meters
complete a labyrinth tunnel
walk 8 km under 60 minutes, fully equipped and with extra 5 kg of weight
The physical tests are easy to complete, which allows the commandos to have large numbers of recruits; useful because there will be a lot of drop-outs during the instruction. It has been confirmed that due to the severity of the training, there is only a 20% completion rate.
After passing all the tests, the recruits will start the instruction.
Most of the instruction schedule or nature is unknown to the recruits. That means that they must be constantly ready and, to the smallest indication, present themselves on the parade ground or where they are ordered to, and follow whatever the instructors say. It might happen that they stay uninterrupted in instruction for more than a day, or that they have to conduct their daily lives during the night. The unforeseen and surprise are fundamental characteristics of the instruction. Each recruit must also be self-controlled: they have to control reactions that, otherwise, might be normal if they were not future Commandos.
All the demands made in the instruction are not obligations: each recruit has the right to refuse to do whatever he is ordered to. Obviously, doing this means that he is off the course.
When a recruit successfully completes the instruction he is badged as a commando and receives the famous red beret. The badging ceremony (like other traditions of the Commandos) is inspired by old Portuguese military orders (these were forces that, in medieval Portugal, were tasked with surveillance and intelligence in peacetime; first resistance in the defensive and first attack in the offensive; they were also the strongest forces during wartime).
Equipment
Infantry equipment
Glock 17 Gen 5
Heckler & Koch MP5
FN SCAR L
FN SCAR H
Heckler & Koch MG4
FN Minimi Mk3
Browning M2HB
Carl Gustav M3
M72A3 LAW
Heckler & Koch GMG
Combat vehicles
HMMWV M1151A1/1152A1
URO VAMTAC ST5
Ranger Special Operations Vehicle
See also
Portuguese Colonial War
Portuguese Armed Forces
Portuguese irregular forces in the Overseas War
References
External links
Military counterterrorist organizations
Special forces of Portugal
Portuguese Army
1962 establishments in Portugal
Military units and formations established in 1962
Military units and formations established in 1994
Military units and formations established in 2002
Army units and formations of Portugal |
4197115 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%20Theatre%20Company | Shakespeare Theatre Company | The Shakespeare Theatre Company is a regional theatre company located in Washington, D.C. The theatre company focuses primarily on plays from the Shakespeare canon, but its seasons include works by other classic playwrights such as Euripides, Ibsen, Wilde, Shaw, Schiller, Coward and Tennessee Williams. The company manages and performs in two spaces: The Michael R. Klein Theatre and Sidney Harman Hall. In cooperation with George Washington University, they run the STC Academy.
The company is a League of Resident Theatres member. Its current artistic director (since 2019) is Simon Godwin, who previously was based in London, serving as associate director of London's Royal National Theatre, associate director of the Royal Court Theatre and associate director at Bristol Old Vic.
History
The Folger Shakespeare Library on Capitol Hill includes a replica of an Elizabethan theatre, originally used for lectures and tours. In 1970 this space was transformed into a functioning playhouse, and soon Folger Theatre Group (later The Folger Theatre) was organized to perform.
After years of discussion, Amherst College, administering body of the Folger Shakespeare Library, in 1986 withdrew financial support for the company. To save the company, concerned citizens led by R. Robert Linowes reincorporated it as the non-profit Shakespeare Theatre at the Folger, later hiring Michael Kahn as artistic director. The company continued to perform at the Folger for the next six years.
Changing its name to The Shakespeare Theatre, the troupe moved in 1992 to the Lansburgh Theatre (now, the Klein Theatre), a newly built space in the original Lansburgh's Department Store building in the Penn Quarter. At the start of the 2005–06 season, it adopted the current name, Shakespeare Theatre Company. The company constructed another theatre, Sidney Harman Hall, which opened in 2007 in the lower part of an office building in the quarter, and the two theatres were joined to become the Harman Center for the Arts.
Meanwhile, after initially importing traveling shows from the Shenandoah Shakespeare Express the Folger Shakespeare Library developed a new Folger Theatre company to present plays in its Elizabethan replica.
Facilities
STC has two current performance venues. The newer and larger Sidney Harman Hall occupies the lower half of an 11-story office tower. The exterior is distinguished by a glass façade curtain wall on a projected bay window. The 761-seat performance space can be configured as a proscenium, thrust, semi-arena, corridor or bare stage. The smaller Klein Theatre (formerly the Lansburgh Theatre) is in the restored former Lansburgh's Department Store flagship store, originally built in 1882. The performance space is a 451-seat classic proscenium stage. The seating arrangement is reminiscent of a Greek Amphitheater. It has been described as "an intimate space for dramatic theatre, ensemble music, and dance"
In the past, the company has performed shows at the Terrace Theater in the Kennedy Center.
In addition to its performance spaces, the company maintains administrative offices, rehearsal studios, and a costume shop in the Capitol Hill neighborhood. A set construction and painting shop is near Catholic University in Northeast D.C. Finally a stage properties shop for the construction and storage of furniture, decorative items, hand props and a variety of set dressing items is located just outside D.C. on the northeast side of the city.
Theatrical focus
The Shakespeare Theatre Company's self-professed mission is "...to present classic theatre of scope and size in an imaginative, skillful and accessible American style that honors the playwrights' language and intentions while viewing their work through a 21st-century lens". Their vision is to "... endeavor to be an important resource to an expanded national and international community—as the nation’s premier destination for classic theatre, as a training ground for the next generation of theatre artists and as a model provider of high-quality educational content for students and scholars."
Artistic directors
Richmond Crinkley (1970–1973) (while Folger Theatre Group)
Louis W. Scheeder (1973–1980) (while Folger Theatre Group)
John Neville-Andrews (1980–1986) (name changed to Folger Theatre then Shakespeare Theatre at the Folger)
Michael Kahn (1986–2019) (while Shakespeare Theatre at the Folger, then Shakespeare Theatre Company)
Simon Godwin (2019–)
Current and recent productions
Resident theatre company pioneer Zelda Fichandler has stated that for resident theatre companies "repertory is destiny" – a theatre company acquires its audience by the productions it presents. Most of The Shakespeare Theatre Company's productions are from The Bard's canon. However each year up to half of the productions are classical works by other authors. The oldest has been Aeschylus's The Persians, the oldest surviving play in the history of theatre. The youngest plays include works by Tennessee Williams (Camino Real, Sweet Bird of Youth) and Harold Pinter (Old Times). The company has also produced modern interpretations of classical texts such as Mary Zimmerman's Argonautika (adapted from The Voyage of Jason and the Argonauts).
2017–2018 season
Fully staged productions:
The Lover and The Collection, by Harold Pinter
Twelfth Night, by William Shakespeare
Hamlet, by William Shakespeare
Noura, by Heather Raffo
Camelot, book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe
Shakespeare Theatre Company presentation:
Waiting for Godot, by Samuel Beckett, created and presented by Druid
2016–2017 season
Fully staged productions:
Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare
The Secret Garden, by Marsha Norman and Lucy Simon and based on the novel by Frances Hodgson Burnett
Charles III, by Mike Bartlett
Macbeth, by William Shakespeare
The School for Lies, adapted by David Ives and based on a play by Molière
Shakespeare Theatre Company Presentation:
The Select (The Sun Also Rises), based on a novel by Ernest Hemingway, adapted and presented by Elevator Repair Service,
Notable guest artists
In addition to its troupe of regular and frequently appearing actors, the Shakespeare Theatre Company invites guest performers and directors each season.
Jane Alexander – Ghosts (Mrs. Alving)
Elizabeth Ashley – Mrs. Warren's Profession (Mrs Warren), The Little Foxes (Regina)
Michael Attenborough – director (As You Like It)
René Auberjonois – The Imaginary Invalid (Argan)
Keith Baxter – actor, Measure For Measure (Duke Vincentio), Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2 (Henry IV), The Merchant of Venice (Antonio); director (Lady Windermere's Fan, The Imaginary Invalid, The Rivals, The Country Wife, Henry IV, Part 1, Mrs. Warren's Profession, An Ideal Husband, The Importance of Being Earnest)
André Braugher – Othello (Iago)
Avery Brooks – Othello (Othello), The Oedipus Plays (Oedipus), Tamburlaine (Tamburlaine)
Ron Canada – Othello (Iago)
Dixie Carter – Lady Windermere's Fan (Mrs. Erlynne)
Jeffrey Carlson – Hamlet (Hamlet)
Pat Carroll – Romeo and Juliet (Nurse), The Merry Wives of Windsor (Falstaff), Mother Courage and Her Children (Mother Courage), Volpone (Volpone)
Gale Edwards – director (Edward II, Titus Andronicus, Richard III, Hamlet)
Harry Hamlin – Henry V (Henry V)
Hal Holbrook – The Merchant of Venice (Shylock)
Tom Hulce – Hamlet (Hamlet)
Stacy Keach – Richard III (Richard), King Lear (Lear), Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2 (Falstaff)
Sabrina LeBeauf – Love's Labour's Lost (Rosaline), The Taming of the Shrew (Kathrine)
Marsha Mason – All's Well That Ends Well (Countess of Rousillon)
Kelly McGillis – The Merchant of Venice (Portia), Twelfth Night (Viola), Mourning Becomes Electra (Lavinia), MacBeth (Lady MacBeth), The Duchess of Malfi (Duchess), As You Like It (Rosalind), Measure for Measure (Isabella), All's Well That Ends Well (Helena), Much Ado About Nothing (Beatrice)
Patrick Page – Othello (Iago), Macbeth (Macbeth), Coriolanus (Coriolanus), King Lear (King Lear).
Siân Phillips – The Importance of Being Earnest (Lady Bracknell)
Richard Schiff – Hughie (Erie Smith)
Jean Stapleton – Romeo and Juliet (Nurse)
Patrick Stewart – Othello (Othello)
Rebecca Taichman – director (The Taming of the Shrew, Twelfth Night, Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale)
Richard Thomas – Richard II (Richard)
Paul Winfield – Merry Wives of Windsor (Falstaff)
Hannah Yelland – The Winter's Tale (Hermione)
Mary Zimmerman – director (Pericles, Argonautika, Candide, The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci)
Commissioned works
The Shakespeare Theatre Company commissioned playwright David Ives to translapt (translate and adapt) a series of rediscovered European comedy masterpieces, as follows:
The Liar by Pierre Corneille
The Heir Apparent by Jean-François Regnard
The Metromaniacs by Alexis Piron
School for Lies, based on Molière's The Misanthrope
The Panties, The Partner and the Profit: inspired by The Underpants, The Snob, 1913, and The Fossil by Carl Sternheim
All plays featured Ives's rhyming wordplay and were directed by Michael Kahn.
The Liar subsequently opened off-Broadway, again directed by Michael Kahn.
Notable events
Black Iago in Othello
In 1990 artistic director Michael Kahn and black director Harold Scott cast black actors as Iago and Emilia, the trusted ensign who incites the Moor's fatal jealousy and his wife. With Avery Brooks as Othello, Andre Braugher as Iago and Franchelle Stewart Dorn as Emilia, the resulting production was critically acclaimed.
Race-reversed Othello
In 1997 the Shakespeare Theatre Company produced an Othello in which Othello was white with an otherwise all-black cast. Actor Patrick Stewart approached artistic director Michael Kahn with the concept: "I've been imagining myself playing Othello and, in a sense, preparing for it, since I was about 14. When the time came that I was old enough and experienced enough to do it, it was the same time that it no longer became acceptable for a white actor to put on blackface and pretend to be African. One of my hopes for this production is that it will continue to say what a conventional production of Othello would say about racism and prejudice... To replace the black outsider with a white man in a black society will, I hope, encourage a much broader view of the fundamentals of racism." Ron Canada performed the part of Iago. During the Meet the Cast event before the production, Stewart remarked that he realized that while he had never performed this role, all of the principal male actors in the cast had. He would learn from them.
The Oedipus Plays at the Athens Festival
After seeing The Shakespeare Theatre Company's production of The Oedipus Plays in September 2001, officials from the Greek Embassy in Washington arranged for an invitation to the company to perform it as part of the 2003 Athens Festival. The show was a single-evening adaption by Michael Kahn of Sophocles' three plays Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus and Antigone. He changed the setting from Greece to central Africa, and used an all-black cast headed by Avery Brooks. The performance was on 10–11 September 2003 in the semicircular 5,000-seat Odeon theater on the south slope of the Acropolis. As a historical footnote, the original production had just opened the week before the September 11 attacks. After a single performance cancellation that night, the show went on the next night (9/12) with a new meaning for cast and audience. The second Athens' performance was two years to the day after the attack.
Love's Labor's Lost at the Royal Shakespeare Company's Complete Works Festival
The Shakespeare Theatre Company took its production of Love’s Labor’s Lost to England to participate in the Royal Shakespeare Company’s Complete Works Festival. Performances were from 17 to 26 August 2006 in the Swan Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon.
Shakespeare in Washington Festival
From January through June 2007, The Shakespeare Theatre co-hosted the International Shakespeare in Washington Festival. This celebration was conceived by Michael Kaiser, President of the Kennedy Center, and was curated by Michael Kahn. Over 60 arts organizations produced over 100 presentations.
Opening of Sidney Harman Hall
On 1 October 2007, Sidney Harman Hall opened with a gala performance emceed by Sam Waterston and featuring ballet dancers Nina Ananiashvili and Julio Bocca, Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra with Wynton Marsalis, actress Patti LuPone, violinist Anne-Sophie Mutter, The Washington Ballet, Washington Performing Arts Society’s (WPAS) Men and Women of the Gospel Mass Choir and actors from the Shakespeare Theatre Company.
Special performances of The Great Game: Afghanistan
At the request of US Department of Defense officials and with support funding from private sources, the Shakespeare Theatre Company donated Harman Hall. It provided logistical support for two all-day special performances of the full cycle of The Great Game: Afghanistan. The 10–11 February 2011 performances were offered free to soldiers, wounded veterans and government officials in the Washington, D.C., area.
Awards
The Shakespeare Theatre Company both presents and receives awards. Annually it presents The Will Award and The Emery Battis award. Additionally it regularly receives awards for its productions.
The Will Award
The William Shakespeare Award for Classical Theatre (The Will Award) has been presented by the Shakespeare Theatre Company since 1988. The Will Award is an annual honor to recognize an artist who has significantly contributed to classical theatre in America. Since at least 2008 the award ceremony has been held under the patronage of the British Ambassador and his wife.
Recipients:
1988 – Joseph Papp
1989 – Kevin Kline
1990 – Christopher Plummer
1991 – Kenneth Branagh
1992 – Mel Gibson
1993 – Morgan Freeman
1994 – Christopher Walken
1995 – Lynn Redgrave
1996 – Sam Waterston
1997 – Patrick Stewart
1998 – Hal Holbrook
1999 – Dame Maggie Smith
2000 – Sir Anthony Hopkins
2001 – Ralph Fiennes
2002 – Michael Kahn
2003 – Fiona Shaw
2004 – Dame Judi Dench
2005 – Jeremy Irons
2006 – Kevin Spacey
2007 – The Shakespeare Theatre Company’s Acting Company
2008 – Rennie Harris, Peter Martins and Chita Rivera
2009 – Sir Ian McKellen
2010 – Annette Bening
2011 – Michael Kahn in honor of his 25th Anniversary as Artistic Director
2012 – F. Murray Abraham
2013 – Elizabeth McGovern
2014 – John Hurt, Stacy Keach and Diana Rigg
2015 – Julie Taymor
2016 – Charles Dance
2017 – Laura Linney
The Emery Battis Awards
The Emery Battis Award for Acting Excellence is presented annually at the first opening night of the new season to recognize two actors whose work in a mainstage production demonstrates outstanding classical technique. The award is funded by an anonymous donor and includes a cash prize. It is named for the long time and beloved Shakespeare Theatre Company actor Emery Battis.
Award recipients include:
Received awards
Over the past 29 years, the Shakespeare Theatre Company has won over 80 Helen Hayes Awards for producing, acting, directing, and design achievements.
2012: The Shakespeare Theatre Company in Washington, D.C., received the Tony Award for Regional Theatre.
Press notices
2017: The Washington Post said, "The quality of its seasons has taken a hit over the past several years" and "Where once it regularly ventured into daring terrain...it is making a conscious choice to lead from behind."
2007: The New York Times said the Shakespeare Theatre has "a repertory of classics that no New York theater of similar size and scale can match."
2001: The Christian Science Monitor printed, "The Shakespeare Theatre: The best classical theater in the country, bar none."
1999: The Economist named the Shakespeare Theatre Company as one of the "world's three great Shakespearean theatres"
Other activities
Free for All
In 1991, the Shakespeare Theatre Company began its annual Free For All productions at the Carter Barron Amphitheatre in D.C.'s Rock Creek Park. Each summer the company remounts a production from the previous season. Until 2009, these productions were held at the outdoor Amphitheatre in Rock Creek Park. However, in 2009 the company moved the free performances downtown and indoors For a complete list of the productions, see Shakespeare Theatre Company Free For All.
Rediscovery Series
Works for the ReDiscovery Series are chosen by Artistic Director Michael Kahn and presented under the direction of Shakespeare Theatre artistic staff. Guest artists join members of the Shakespeare Theatre Company and the Washington theatrical community to investigate these great but lesser known plays of world literature. The readings occur at the Lansburgh on at least three Mondays throughout the year and are hosted by company member Ted van Griethuysen. Guest scholars, translators and adaptors involved with the evening's reading also frequently participate in the rehearsal, performance and occasional post-performance discussion when time permits.
STC Academy
The Shakespeare Theatre Company and George Washington University offer a one-year intensive graduate program leading to a Master of Fine Arts degree. The curriculum focuses on the specific craft of acting Shakespeare and other classical texts. George Washington University provides accreditation for an MFA degree, resources and strong links to the Folger Shakespeare Library and the Library of Congress. The program has graduated over 100 actors who are now performing on stages in New York, Washington, D.C., and across the country.
See also
Helen Hayes Award
Shakespeare Theatre Company Free For All
Theater in Washington D.C.
References
External links
Calendar of events at Shakespeare Theatre
Official website
1970 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Drama schools in the United States
League of Resident Theatres
League of Washington Theatres
Members of the Cultural Alliance of Greater Washington
Penn Quarter
Regional theatre in the United States
Shakespearean theatre companies
Theatre companies in Washington, D.C.
Theatres in Washington, D.C. |
4197639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul%20%28Handel%29 | Saul (Handel) | Saul (HWV 53) is a dramatic oratorio in three acts written by George Frideric Handel with a libretto by Charles Jennens. Taken from the First Book of Samuel, the story of Saul focuses on the first king of Israel's relationship with his eventual successor, David—one which turns from admiration to envy and hatred, ultimately leading to the downfall of the eponymous monarch. The work, which Handel composed in 1738, includes the famous "Dead March", a funeral anthem for Saul and his son Jonathan, and some of the composer's most dramatic choral pieces. Saul was first performed at the King's Theatre in London on 16 January 1739. The work was a success at its London premiere and was revived by Handel in subsequent seasons. Notable modern-day performances of Saul include that at Glyndebourne in 2015.
Background
The German-born Handel had been resident in London since 1712 and had there enjoyed great success as a composer of Italian operas. His opportunities to set English texts to music had been more limited; he had spent the years 1717 to 1719 as composer in residence to the wealthy Duke of Chandos where he had written church anthems and two stage works, Acis and Galatea and Esther; and had composed vocal music to English words for various royal occasions, including a set of Coronation anthems for George II in 1727, which had made a huge impact. In 1731, a performance of the 1718 version of Esther, a work in English based on a Biblical drama by Jean Racine, was given in London without Handel's participation and had proved popular, so Handel revised the work and planned to present it at the theatre where his Italian operas were being presented. However the Bishop of London would not permit a drama based on a Biblical story to be acted out on the stage, and therefore Handel presented Esther in concert form, thus giving birth to the English oratorio.
Esther in its revised form proved a popular work, and Handel, though still continuing to focus on composition of Italian operas, followed Esther with two more sacred dramas with English words to be presented in concert form, Deborah, and Athalia (which, like Esther, was also based on a Biblical drama by Racine), both in 1733.
Composition and instrumentation
By 1738, Handel was experiencing some difficulty in maintaining support for his Italian opera seasons in London and he collaborated for the first time with Charles Jennens, a wealthy landowner and lover of the arts, who also provided the texts for Messiah and other oratorios of Handel. Jennens wrote Saul, an original English text based on Biblical characters, especially designed to provide opportunities for the sort of music Handel composed.
Opera seria, the form of Italian opera that Handel composed for London, focused overwhelmingly on solo arias and recitatives for the star singers and contained very little else; they did not feature separate choruses. With the English oratorios Handel had the opportunity to mix operatic arias in English for the soloists with large choruses of the type that he used in the Coronation anthems. Jennens provided a text with well-rounded characters and dramatic effects. The collaboration with Jennens was not without tension; Jennens referred in a letter to the "maggots" in Handel's head and complained that Handel wanted to end the work with a chorus of "Hallelujahs" that the librettist did not feel was appropriate as at the end of the piece Israel has been defeated in battle and the King and Crown Prince both killed, whereas the Hallelujahs would be suited to the celebrations at the opening of the work when David has killed Goliath. Jennens got his way; in the completed version Saul does not end with a chorus of "Hallelujahs" but there is such a chorus where Jennens had wanted one.
Handel composed the music of Saul between July and September 1738. He conceived Saul on the grandest scale and included a large orchestra with many instrumental effects which were unusual for the time including a carillon (a keyboard instrument which makes a sound like chiming bells); a specially constructed organ for himself to play during the course of the work; trombones, not standard orchestral instruments at that time, giving the work
a heavy brass component; large kettledrums specially borrowed from the Tower of London; extra woodwinds for the Witch of Endor scene; and a harp solo.
In the same letter in which Jennens complained that Handel wanted a chorus of "Hallelujahs" at a point of the drama the writer felt was inappropriate, he wrote of a meeting he had with Handel to discuss the work and the composer's delight in some of the unusual instruments he planned to use: Mr. Handel's head is more full of Maggots than ever: I found yesterday in His room a very queer Instrument which He calls Carillon (Anglice a Bell) & says some call it a Tubal-cain, I suppose because it is in the make and tone like a Hammer striking upon Anvils. 'Tis played upon with Keys like a Harpsichord, & with this Cyclopean Instrument he designs to make poor Saul stark mad. His second Maggot is an Organ of 500£ price, which (because he is overstock'd with Money) he has bespoke of one Moss of Barnet; this Organ, he says, is so contriv'd that as he sits at it he has a better command of his Performers than he us'd to have; & he is highly delighted to think with what exactness his Oratorio will be perform'd by the help of this Organ; so that for the future, instead of beating time at his Oratorio's, he is to sit as his Organ all the time with his back to the Audience ... I could tell you more of his Maggots: but it grows late, and I must defer the rest till I write next; by which time, I doubt not, more new ones will breed in his Brain.
Also of note in that letter is the fact that although Handel's London seasons of Italian opera had not been drawing the audiences they had in former years, Jennens makes an incidental remark that the composer was very wealthy ("overstock'd with money").
On 5 December 1738 Lady Katherine Knatchbull, a friend and patron of Handel's, wrote to her brother-in-law James Harris, who was a writer on music and other subjects, and also a friend of the composer,
"(Handel) desired me to give his tres humble respects; and that you must come up in January, for he opens with The Loves of Saul and Jonathan, then follows another on the ten plagues of Egypt (to me an odd subject) ... He has had an instrument made after the manner of Tubal-cain's, the inventor of music." (referring to the specially-built carillon. Going on to an attempt to describe a trombone, an instrument she had obviously never seen, she writes:) "He has also introduced the sackbut, a kind of trumpet,with more variety of notes,& it is 7 or 8-foot long,& draws in like a perspective glass, so may be shortened to 3-foot as the player chuses, or thrown out to its full length; despise not this description for I write from his own words."
In the 1954 edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, specialist in the history of musical instruments Anthony Baines wrote that Saul contains the finest music for trombones composed in the 18th century.
Reception and performance history
A report in the London press remarked on the favourable reception given to the work at its first performance, with members of the royal family in attendance. The architect William Kent wrote to Lord Burlington after the first performance, referring to the passage with the carillon, "There is a pretty concerto in the oratorio, there is some stops in the Harpsicord that are little bells, I had thought it had been some squerrls in a cage. Saul was given six performances in its first season, a mark of success at that time, and was one of the works Handel most frequently revived in his subsequent seasons, being given in London in 1740, 1741,1744,1745 and 1750. Saul received a performance in Dublin under Handel's direction "by special request" in 1742.
Already in Handel's own lifetime, choral societies were formed in the English provinces with the aim of performing works of Handel and others, and Saul was performed with a fair degree of regularity by choral societies in London and elsewhere in Britain through the 19th century. Handel's major oratorios including Saul have been frequently performed, broadcast and recorded since the second half of the twentieth century. Saul is sometimes fully staged as an opera today.
The excellence of the libretto and the power of Handel's musical characterisation combine to make Saul, in the words of Handel scholar Winton Dean,"one of the supreme masterpieces of dramatic art, comparable with the Oresteia and King Lear".
Roles
Synopsis
The libretto is freely adapted from the First Book of Samuel, Chapters 16–31, with additional material from the epic poem, the Davideis by Abraham Cowley. The printed libretto of Saul from 1738 credits the Davideis as the source of the contemptuous treatment of David by Princess Merab.
Act 1
The Israelites raise their voices in magnificent thanksgiving to God, for the young warrior David has slain the Philistine giant Goliath. At the court of King Saul, once a mighty warrior himself, all the people celebrate the hero David. Saul's son, Jonathan swears eternal devotion to David, but Saul's two daughters experience contrasting emotions – Michal is in love with David, but Merab feels contempt for him as a social inferior, a feeling that only increases when Saul offers her in marriage to David. A group of Israelite young women offer further tributes to David. King Saul is enraged at the way David is praised. Unable to restrain his anger, he orders Jonathan to kill David.
Act 2
The people of Israel reflect on the destructive power of envy. Jonathan pleads David's case to Saul, who appears to relent. Saul asks Jonathan to bring David back to court and promises Michal as David's bride, though Saul anticipates David's death in battle. David and Michal express their mutual love, but David reports that Saul's rage has not diminished and that Saul threw a javelin close past his head in frustration. Saul summons David to court again as both Michal and Merab express their faith that God will protect David. Jonathan tries to explain to Saul why David has not responded to his summons. Saul rages against both David and Jonathan.
Act 3
In despair, and though aware it is unlawful, Saul asks the Witch of Endor to raise the ghost of Samuel the prophet. Asked for advice, the ghost of Samuel reminds Saul that he had once predicted his downfall for sparing the king of the Amalekites whom Samuel had ordered killed. He predicts that David will inherit the kingdom of Israel when Saul and his sons die in the next day's battle. David learns from an Amalekite soldier of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan at the hands of the Amalekites, and David orders the Amalekite killed. After a funeral march for the Israelite dead, Merab, David, and Michal each in turn express their sorrow, particularly for the loss of Jonathan. A high priest predicts David will win future victories and the Israelites urge him to restore their kingdom.
The "Dead March"
The "Dead March" played in Act Three, introducing the obsequies for the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, is in the key of C major. It includes an organ part and trombones alternating with flutes, oboes and quiet timpani. The "Dead March" in Saul has been played at state funerals in the United Kingdom, including that of Winston Churchill. It is the standard funeral march of the armed forces of Germany, played at all state funerals. It was also performed at the funeral of George Washington, during the funeral procession of Stonewall Jackson, as well as being played many times during the journey of the body of Abraham Lincoln after his assassination to Springfield, Illinois. In 2015, it was performed at the state funeral of Lee Kuan Yew, the first Prime Minister of Singapore.
List of arias and musical numbers
(Note: "Symphony" in this context means a purely instrumental piece. "Accompagnato" is a recitative accompanied by the orchestra, rather than by continuo instruments only, as in the passages marked "recitative.").
Act One
1. Overture
An Epinicion or Song of Triumph, for the victory
over Goliath and the Philistines.2a. Chorus of Israelites "How excellent thy name, O Lord"
3. Air (soprano) "An infant rais'd by Thy command"
4. Trio "Along the monster atheist strode"
5. Chorus of Israelites "The youth inspir'd by Thee, O Lord"
2b.Chorus of Israelites "How excellent Thy name, O Lord"End of the Epinicion6. Recitative (Michal) "He comes, he comes!"
7. Air (Michal)"O godlike youth"
8. Recitative (Abner, Saul, David) "Behold, O King"
9. Air (David) "O King, your favours with delight"
10. Recitative (Jonathan) "Oh,early piety!"
11. Air (Merab) "What abject thoughts a prince can have!"
12. Recitative (Merab) "Yet think on whom this honour you bestow"
13. Air (Jonathan) "Birth and fortune I despise!"
14. Recitative (High Priest) "Go on, illustrious pair!"
15. Air (High Priest) "While yet thy tide of blood runs high"
16. Recitative (Saul,Merab) "Thou, Merab, first in birth"
17. Air (Merab) "My soul rejects the thought with scorn"
18. Air (Michal "See, with what a scornful air"
19. Air ( Michal) "Ah, lovely youth"
20. Symphony
21. Recitative (Michal) "Already see the daughters of the land"
22. Chorus of Israelites "Welcome, welcome, mighty king!"
23. Accompagnato (Saul) "What do I hear? Am I then sunk so low"
24. Chorus of Israelites "David his ten thousands slew"
25. Accompagnato (Saul) "To him ten thousands, and to me but thousands!"
26. Air (Saul) "With rage I shall burst his praises to hear!"
27. Recitative (Jonathan,Michal) "Imprudent women!"
28. Air (Michal) "Fell rage and black despair possess'd"
29. Recitative (High Priest) "This but the smallest part of harmony"
30. Accompagnato (High Priest) "By Thee this universal frame"
31. Recitative (Abner) "Racked with infernal pains"
32. Air (David) "O Lord, whose mercies numberless"
33. Symphony
34. Recitative (Jonathan) "'Tis all in vain"
35. Air (Saul) "A serpent, in my bosom warm'd"
36. Recitative (Saul) "Has he escap'd my rage?"
37. Air (Merab) "Capricious man, in humour lost"
38. Accompagnato (Jonathan) "O filial piety!"
39. Air (Jonathan) "No, cruel father, no!"
40. Air (High Priest) "O Lord, whose providence"
41. Chorus "Preserve him for the glory of Thy name"
Act Two
42. Chorus "Envy, eldest born of hell"
43. Recitative (Jonathan,David) "Ah, dearest friend"
44. Air (Jonathan) "But sooner Jordan's stream, I swear"
45. Recitative (David,Jonathan) "Oh, strange vicissitude"
46. Air (David) "Such haughty beauties"
47. Recitative (Jonathan) "My father comes"
48. Recitative (Saul) "Hast thou obey'd my orders"
49. Air (Jonathan) "Sin not, O King"
50. Air (Saul) "As great Jehovah lives, I swear"
51. Air (Jonathan) "From cities stormed, and battles won"
52. Recitative (Jonathan, Saul) "Appear, my friend"
53. Air (David) "Your words, O King"
54. Recitative (Saul) "Yes, he shall wed my daughter!"
55. Recitative (Michal) "A father's will has authorized my love"
56. Duet (Michal and David) "O fairest of ten thousand fair"
57. Chorus "Is there a man, who all his ways"
58. Symphony
59. Recitative (David) "Thy father is as cruel"
60. Duet (David and Michal) "At persecution I can laugh"
61. Recitative (Michal,Doeg) "Whom dost thou seek"
62. Air (Michal) "No, no, let the guilty tremble"
63. Recitative (Merab) "Mean as he was, he is my brother now"
64. Air (Merab) "Author of peace"
65. Symphony
66. Accompagnato (Saul) "The time at length is come"
67. Recitative (Saul, Jonathan) "Where is the son of Jesse?"
68. Chorus "Oh, fatal consequence of rage"
Act Three
69. Accompagnato (Saul) "Wretch that I am"
70. Accompagnato (Saul) "'Tis said, here lives a woman"
71. Recitative (The witch of Endor, Saul) "With me what would'st thou?"
72. Air (Witch) "Infernal spirits"
73. Accompagnato (The Ghost of Samuel,Saul) "Why hast thou forc'd me from the realms of peace"
74. Symphony
75. Recitative (David, an Amalekite) "Whence comest thou?"
76. Air (David) "Impious wretch, of race accurst!"
77. Symphony: Dead marchElegy on the death of Saul and Jonathan78. Chorus "Mourn, Israel, mourn"
79. Air (High Priest) "Oh, let it not in Gath be heard"
80. Air (Merab) "From this unhappy day"
81. Air (David) "Brave Jonathan his bow never drew"
82. Chorus of Israelites "Eagles were not so swift as they"
83. Air (Michal) "In sweetest harmony they lived"
84. Solo and Chorus (David and Israelites) "O fatal day! How low the mighty lie!"End of the Elegy85. Recitative (High Priest) "Ye men of Judah, weep no more!"
86. Chorus of Israelites "Gird on thy sword, thou man of might"
Musical featuresSaul is composed for soloists and chorus, two flutes, two oboes, two trumpets, three trombones, kettledrums, organ, harp, continuo instruments, and strings. The work begins and ends in C major, a key choice which may have been influenced by the presence of trombones in the orchestra. Handel's other work of the same season to use trombones, Israel in Egypt, also favours C major for the choruses with trombones in their accompaniment.
The first piece of music is an overture in the Italian style in three movements, the first quick and fugal, then a slow movement, followed by another quick section with the addition of a concerto-like passage for organ, which Handel played himself at the original performances as he directed the musicians. The overture is followed by a slower dance-like piece for orchestra,marked andante larghetto.
Act One
The act begins with the chorus of celebration after David has slain Goliath. Trumpets and trombones, which were not present in the overture, are now added. The chorus of rejoicing is developed briefly in counterpoint. A slower air for soprano in a minor key praising David's achievement is followed by a chorus for alto, tenor and bass marked, unusually, Ardito'' (boldly), and then a longer chorus with developed counterpoint is heard. The chorus which opened the act is repeated, followed by a jubilant chorus of "Hallelujah", to end the opening "Epinicion or Song of Triumph". The expansive scale of the multi-part overture, and the glitter and celebratory quality of the Epinicion are indications, according to Jonathan Keates, of the ambition of the work as a whole and its monumental achievement.
Other of the most notable musical features of Act One include the chorus and dance movement including the carillon with a chorus of praise for David, which rouse King Saul to terrible jealousy. David's attempt to soothe the King is conveyed in an aria of "simple purity","O Lord, whose mercies numberless", followed by harp solo. David's efforts are in vain, and the King's jealousy breaks out into an aria of fury "A serpent, in my bosom warm'd", which suddenly and unexpectedly breaks off as the King hurls his javelin at David, depicted in the music by descending octaves in the strings. A chorus in the key of G minor, developed contrapuntally, ends the act as the chorus pray that God will protect David.
Act Two
The second act begins as the chorus comment on the drama after the manner of the chorus in Greek tragedy, in "Envy, eldest born of hell" which according to musicologist Paul Henry Lang is "as mighty a piece as Handel ever composed". Dotted rhythms over a relentlessly repeated ostinato bass depict the obsessive jealousy of the King as the chorus warn him "Hide thee in the black night".
Two purely instrumental passages ("symphonies") feature in Act Two. The first, depicting the celebrations for the wedding of David and Michal, is in three parts, a slow and solemn introduction with trombones prominent, the second section a brisk organ concerto, concluding with a slower movement in the form of a gavotte. The second instrumental passage in the act is a shorter festive piece with trumpets and drums, trombones, woodwinds and strings, depicting the holiday of the New Moon.
A chorus in the key of D major, with a chromatic fugal section at the end, concludes the act as the chorus denounce the King as a monster for the attempted murders of both Jonathan and David.
Act Three
Act three opens with a powerful and dramatic accompanied recitative for King Saul as he seeks advice from the Witch of Endor. The Witch invokes the ghost of Samuel in a passage which conjures up a supernatural atmosphere by the use of an irregular bass line with prominent oboes and bassoons. Bassoons also introduce the Ghost of Samuel as the apparition prophesies doom for the King. A martial "Battle symphony" with trumpets and drums ensues, followed shortly by the famous Dead March. Chorus and soloists mourn the deaths of the King and his son, and the work concludes with a chorus in the key of C major urging David to lead his country into battle against its enemies.
Selected recordings
References
External links
Libretto for Saul on WikiSource.
Full-text libretto online.
Oratorios by George Frideric Handel
1738 oratorios
Oratorios based on the Bible
Witch of Endor
Saul
Cultural depictions of David |
4198055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20and%20coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Transylvania | Flag and coat of arms of Transylvania | The flag and coat of arms of Transylvania were granted by Maria Theresa in 1765, when she established a Grand Principality within the Habsburg monarchy. While neither symbol has official status in present-day Romania, the coat of arms is marshalled within the national Romanian arms; it was also for decades a component of the Hungarian arms. In its upper half, it prominently includes the eagle, which may have been one of the oldest regional symbols, or is otherwise a localized version of the Polish eagle. Early versions of the Transylvanian charges were first designed in Habsburg Hungary at some point before 1550, and were therefore symbols of pretence.
The arms were only attested as in use by the Transylvanian Principality in or after 1580. The first Prince to recognize and use them was Sigismund Báthory, who also simplified the charges. They entered the heraldic patrimony over the next few decades, and, during Ákos Barcsay's reign, were codified as representing three separate jurisdictions: the eagle stood for Transylvania-proper, the sun-and-crescent is for Székely Land (as in the coat of arms of the Székelys), while the seven towers are canting arms of the Saxon-populated cities. They are also widely understood as ethnic symbols of the three privileged nations (therefore excluding Romanians), but this interpretation is criticized as inaccurate by various historians.
Before Maria Theresa, Transylvania's rulers used a variety of flags, which more often than not included family or factional symbols, such as the Báthory "wolf teeth"; Prince Sigismund also used a prototype of the Hungarian tricolor, but the practice died out long before the Habsburg conquest. Transylvania's Habsburg tricolor and the flag of Romania resemble each other superficially: Transylvania has blue-red-yellow displayed horizontally, while Romania has blue-yellow-red, vertically. The Transylvanian colors were codified from the heraldic tinctures, but Romanian scholars such as Iosif Sterca-Șuluțiu ascribe them a Dacian origin and links to the Romanian ethnogenesis. They became popular among the Romanian community of Transylvania in the later stages of the 1848 Revolution, after replacing combinations of blue, red and white.
On such grounds, Transylvanian flags were often used in Austria-Hungary to camouflage celebrations of Romanian nationalism, and as such contributed to a simmering Hungarian–Romanian conflict before and during World War I. In this context, references to the "Transylvanian tricolor" often referred to a blue-yellow-red horizontal variation. Saxon organizations have traditionally reduced the tricolor to a blue-over-red or red-over-blue arrangement, which was also disliked by Hungarian authorities. Both sets of flags were flown by communities supporting the 1918 union with Romania; in its aftermath, Transylvanian or Tranylvanian-derived symbols were sometimes used by Hungarians seeking autonomy for the region as a whole. In parallel, pro-autonomy activists in Székely Land have adopted a blue-gold-silver pattern.
History
Origins
Some of the earliest heraldic traditions in Transylvania relate to the 12th and 13th centuries—which is after the age of Hungarian conquest. They refer to the conquest's chronicling in the manuscript known as Gesta Hungarorum, which claims that Transylvania was settled by five Hungarian clans. Subsequent tradition codified their family crests, all of which had totem-like animal figures—Agmánd had a wolf's head; Borsa, a fish, Gyerő, a fish; Kalocsa, a bird; and Zsombor, a lion. The region had a distinct jurisdiction under a Voivode of Transylvania, the first of whom were attested in the 12th century. Whether it used a heraldic symbol at this stage is a matter of dispute among modern heraldists. Dan Cernovodeanu dismisses the notion, arguing that there was a general uninterest in regional heraldry, manifested throughout high-medieval Hungary; similarly, Károly Kisteleki argues that: "Transylvania did not have an independent coat of arms in the pre-1526 medieval Hungarian Kingdom." Historian Zsigmond Jakó argues that, since "the voivode received his commission directly from the king, [he] probably received a flag from the ruler, as proof of his appointment before an illiterate society."
The Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms claims a "green flag with a red scimitar" as standing for the "Kingdom of Siluana" or "Septem Castra". The latter is a reference to Transylvania as the country of "seven cities". According to historian Iulian Marțian, this name may predate Hungarian conquest, and is traceable to Roman Dacia. He argues that seven towers may have already been a Transylvanian symbol at that stage, noting that the "Dacian" metropolis of Sirmium was represented by a tower on a field of gules. Hungarian sources, analyzed in the 19th century by Josef Bedeus von Scharberg and Nicolae Densușianu, suggest that Transylvanian troops fought under an eagle banner, but the accuracy of such reporting is altogether doubtful. Several 15th-century armorials also feature a "Duke of Weydn" or "Weiden", which may refer to the Transylvanian Voivodes or Dukes, using an eagle on a field of argent and azure. Among the modern experts, Tudor-Radu Tiron argues for the existence of a Transylvanian eagle shield, taking as evidence a Black Church relief and the attested seal of Fehér County. Both, he argues, may be "heraldizations" of the Roman aquila, and as such folk symbols of "Dacia". At this earliest stage, individual Voivodes also had their own attested arms. Thomas Szécsényi, who governed in the 1350s, used a lion combined with the Árpád stripes. One theory proposes that Bartholomew Drágffy, rising to the position in the 1490s, used the aurochs head, which was also a staple of Moldavian heraldry.
The right to use individual coat of arms was severely limited by the codes of István Werbőczy, introduced in 1514. These effectively excluded many Vlachs (Romanians) from the ranks of Hungarian nobility. In tandem, some alternative collective symbols were being introduced within two distinct ethnic communities: the Transylvanian Saxons (German-speaking) and the Székely (Hungarian-speaking). The former group had its "one single seal" as early as 1224, though it is not recorded what that symbol was. According to Marțian, its design was the same as a 1302 seal, which depicts three kneeling men and a standing one holding up a crown. It was replaced in 1370 by a variant combining the Hungarian and Capetian arms of Louis I. Also included was a third shield, which is as either an eagle-and-rose composition or the first appearance of "three leaves", joined in triquetra, as the leading symbol of the Saxons at large. According to historian Jean-Paul Van der Elst, they are possibly water-lily leaves, establishing a connection with the heraldic traditions of the Low Countries. A tradition reported in 1896 by lawyer Vilmos Bruckner held that a Saxon flag and seal from 1222 carried the slogan AD RETINENDAM CORONAM ("To protect the Crown", in Medieval Latin). The latter's earliest documented usage is on the 1302 seal.
The original Székely symbol featured an arm holding a sword, often piercing through a crown, a bear's severed head, and a heart, sometimes alongside a star-and-crescent; the field, though often interpreted as azure, was most likely gules. Threatened by the peasant revolt of 1437, the estates of the realm established a regime of feudal privileges known as Unio Trium Nationum. This event is traditionally held as the source of a new Székely coat of arms, which only shows the sun and waxing moon (see Count of the Székelys). Marțian notes that these two devices were also used in medieval armorials as visual representations of Cumania and of the Vlachs.
The Ottoman Empire eventually took hold of central Hungary in 1541, leaving Transylvania to reestablish itself as a rump Hungarian Kingdom. During the first decades of reorganization under John Sigismund Zápolya, the region effectively used Hungary's arms, although one popular legend attributes the creation of Transylvania's arms to the same Zápolya. Zápolya's military ordinances imposed recruitment rules on the counties of Transylvania, specifying that each county would have its own banner. Meanwhile, a rival claim to Transylvania had been placed by Habsburg Hungary, which was part of the larger Habsburg monarchy and thus dynastically attached to the Holy Roman Empire. A Transylvanian symbol was probably designed at the court of Ferdinand I, and was based on Saxon heraldry, showing crossed swords and a triquetra. This is the version published by Georg Reicherstorffer (1550) and Martin Schrot (1581).
A manuscript at the Bavarian State Library (Cod. icon. 391) preserves what is perhaps the first version of the modern Transylvanian arms—designed under Habsburg influence, and probably dating back to Zápolya's reign. It has a crowned eagle's head in chief, and seven towers, gules, on seven hills, vert, over a argent field. Its design may join the earlier eagle flag with canting arms for Siebenbürgen ("Seven Cities", the German name of Transylvania); the color scheme seems to be purposefully based on the Hungarian arms. In the 1560s, the seven towers were featured on coinage issued by Habsburg client Iacob Heraclid, who became Prince of Moldavia. These artifacts also feature the Moldavian aurochs and the Wallachian bird, showing Heraclid's ambition of unifying the three realms under one crown. In 1596, Levinus Hulsius of Nuremberg published another recognizable version of Transylvania's arms, showing a crowned eagle over seven hills, with each hill topped by a tower; tinctures cannot be reconstructed.
Báthorys and Michael the Brave
The Eastern Kingdom was downgraded by its Ottoman suzerains to a Transylvanian Principality in 1570. Like with other Ottoman clients, the new Princes were granted banners-of-rule by the Sublime Porte; these were paraded in ceremonies, alongside the kaftans and scepters. Transylvania also preserved the Zápolyan practice of organizing military units under separate county banners. In heraldic practice, it perpetuated the use of Hungarian royal diadems. Their mantling was gules–argent and or–azure, which were probably remnants of the Croatian and Dalmatian tinctures. Zápolya's former realm was taken over by Stephen Báthory in 1576. Though he was the first to emphasize his princely title, he did not create any heraldic symbol for the region, and instead introduced the Báthory family arms (three "wolf's teeth") as a stand-in. Serving as regent in 1580, Christopher Báthory may have issued a heraldic medal showing an eagle and seven towers alongside the Székely sun and waxing moon, but this may be a forgery.
Stephen's son, Sigismund Báthory, rejected Ottoman rule and joined the Habsburgs in the Holy League, being recognized as a Reichsfürst in 1595. By January 1596, he had ambitions to expand his realm, and his Transylvanian troops, stationed in Moldavia, used a flag inscribed Sigismundus Rex Ungariae ("Sigismund King of Hungary"). His elevation in status allowed him to marshall the Báthory and Hulsius versions into a single coat of arms, which also included the Moldavian aurochs and the Wallachian eagle, reflecting Báthory's claim to suzerainty over both countries. No colored versions of the seal survive. While tinctures have been deduced by the authors of Siebmachers Wappenbuch during the 1890s, and are described by historian Constantin Moisil as sable devices on azure (for the eagle) and or (for the seven towers), such readings are criticized by Cernovodeanu—as he notes, the seal's hatching preceded modern conventions, and therefore could not be properly reconstructed. A relief of the Transylvanian arms was carved, probably on Sigismund's orders, in the Moldavian capital of Suceava, again highlighting his regional dominance. This variant kept only the seven towers, and replaced the eagle with an "imperial crown" supported by two lions. Sigismund's heraldry standardizes the towers' depiction by removing the corresponding hills. It, therefore, became the basic template for more modern subsequent representations, being also the first one to definitely include the Székely sun-and-moon.
The latter innovation is often described as fulfilling the visual representation of the Unio Trium Nationum, with the implicit omission of Transylvania's Romanians. In this reading, the eagle represents Hungarian nobility and the towers are a stand-in for the Saxon cities. According to historian Szabolcs de Vajay, neither of these symbols preexisted the 1590s but were appropriated by their armigers after first appearing on Sigismund's seal. Similarly, Marțian argues that the Saxons circulated an invented tradition about the origins of the seven towers as an ethnic symbol, backdating them to the 13th century. Joseph Bedeus von Scharberg and other researchers propose that the eagle is from the coat of arms of Poland, hinting to Stephen Báthory's rule as King of Poland. The bird had special significance for the superstitious Sigismund, who credited his victories in Wallachia to ornithomancy; in similar vein, he used an alternative coat of arms depicting three suns, which apparently referred to his witnessing a sun dog.
In 1599, following defeat at Șelimbăr, the Báthorys were ousted from Transylvania by Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave, who later also extended his control into Moldavia. During his interval in power, Michael issued documents bearing new seals, which included both Wallachian and Moldavian symbols; also featured were two lions rampant. Romanian scholars are in disagreement as to whether the latter symbol is meant to represent Transylvania. While Grigore Tocilescu, Dimitrie Onciul and Paul Gore have supported the notion, others, including Moisil and Ioan C. Filitti, have cast "serious doubts", and see the lions as Michael's personal emblem. Cernovodeanu proposes that the lions could represent Transylvania indirectly, as "Dacia", noting similar descriptions of "Dacian arms" in the works of Nicolae Costin and Pavao Ritter Vitezović.
In November 1599, Michael ordered new military flags to be made by the Hungarian tailor János Thamásfalvi. Flags captured by Michael and his Habsburg ally Giorgio Basta during the Battle of Guruslău, some of which are also depicted in paintings by Hans von Aachen, give additional insight into the Principality's heraldic symbolism. Samples include blue and white Székely flags displaying the old and new symbols together. A variety of Báthory flags were captured on the field of battle, prominently displaying the "wolf's teeth", but with no element from the coat of arms. As noted in 1910 by historian Iosif Sterca-Șuluțiu, "they are of all sort of colors and shapes, none of which have any significance." According to researcher Constantin Rezachevici, the white variant in Aachen's painting (displaying what Rezachevici identifies as "elephant tusks") was the inspiration for Michael the Brave's own flag of Wallachia.
17th-century variants
In 1601, at the beginning of his third and final reign in Transylvania, Prince Sigismund received from his overlord Mehmed III a red-white-green flag which superficially resembled the modern Hungarian tricolor. Scholar Péter Váczy notes that, overall, this "decidedly Hungarian" color scheme was more often embraced by Hungarians in Habsburg-held territories, including Hussars who attempted to take Transylvania in 1611; these had "20 red-white-green silk flags". By contrast: "The princes of Transylvania had their own flags, which were almost always monochrome, with their own coat of arms and that of the country."
One of Michael's allies and rivals, Moses Székely, briefly took the throne of Transylvania in 1603. His seals included a representation of the lions rampant, but there is disagreement as to whether these alluded to Michael's heraldry or to Moses' own family arms. Taking over as Prince in 1605, Stephen Bocskai removed the lions and briefly restored the seven mountains, also changing the overall arrangement. Bocskai was also the first Transylvanian Prince to include the state arms on coinage, featuring them alongside his family arms or those of the Zápolyan monarchy; all three symbols appeared on flags carried separately during his funeral procession in 1607. His successor Sigismund Rákóczi used a different design for the eagle which, according to historians such as Bedeus and Marțian, was actually a revival of the Polish arms; Moisil sees it as a borrowing from the Prince's personal arms. At that stage, a Transylvanian eagle was used on coinage issued by the Saxon city of Kronstadt (Brașov), which had risen in rebellion against Rákóczi.
Before 1621, anti-Habsburg Prince Gabriel Bethlen incorporated his claim to the Lands of the Hungarian Crown by depicting Hungary and Transylvania's arms on a single shield. His crimson swallowtail, reuniting the Bethlen family arms and Transylvanian symbols (black eagle, seven red towers on gold etc.), was preserved and reproduced in later centuries. Another red flag, which survives only through two contemporary engravings, references Bethlen's status as a defender of the Protestant faith, and was as such carried in battle by Imre Thurzó and his Hungarian–Transylvanian troops in the Thirty Years' War. It depicts a "Turkish warship" and the Lamb of God alongside Latin poetry and slogans; in one version, these include the motto CONSILIO FIRMATA DEI ("It is settled by God's decree"), which also features on Bethlen's Transylvanian coinage, alongside an arm-and-sword emblem. The latter symbol is depicted in portrait engravings of Bethlen, often at the top of the image. The bottom edge reunites the arms of Transylvania, the Bethlen family arms, and somewhat less frequently, those of Hungary as well. Other records suggest that Bethlen used countless flags during his reign, including black-and-purple or red-and-purple flags of mourning in preparation for his own death.
Historian Vencel Bíró argues that in the 1630s, under George I Rákóczi, Transylvania already had a "blue, red, gold-yellow" tricolor as its state flag. This appears in heraldry used by the Transylvanian post riders. George II Rákóczi, whose reign began in 1648, used a vast range of Transylvanian arms, freely mixing the elements and including his family's arms. A portrait of his by John Overton features the three elements as separate shields, with the Székely moon wrongly depicted as a bird's head. From 1637, the regular coat of arms, combined with dynastic symbols, was still used as a watermark by the Rákóczian paper mill of Lámkerék (Lancrăm). Between the reigns of Bethlen and Rákóczi, knowledge about "heraldic art" was spread in Transylvania by writer Ferenc Pápai Páriz, whose book standardized descriptions of both princely families' arms. While this revival saw a surge in the number of arms granted by Transylvanian Princes to their Transylvanian or Moldavian subjects and allies, the arms themselves were seldom depicted, as most recipients could not afford the cost of having them painted.
Various other designs of the state arms, featuring the same basic elements, continued under several Princes until 1659, when Ákos Barcsay restored Sigismund's basic arrangement. This was probably the result of a ruling by the Transylvanian Diet, associating each heraldic element with a distinct entity of Transylvania, and issuing orders for each to be made into a separate seal. A Diet writ also specified the introduction of distinct arms for Partium—an area of Hungary-proper which had been attached to the Principality. This subregion was to be represented by four bars and a Patriarchal cross. Nevertheless, a symbol of Partium never appeared on Barcsay's Transylvanian arms, and the notion was eventually abandoned. As attested in the 1650s by Claes Rålamb, the various towns of this area flew their own symbols, a multitude of "flags and colors".
The 1659 ruling is widely read as the first to explicitly associate each component privileged class, social as well as national. This interpretation is seen as erroneous by various historians: Marțian notes that the bird was not intended as a stand-in for the Hungarian Transylvanians, but for the multinational nobility and the regular, non-autonomous, counties; this verdict is also backed by Attila István Szekeres and Sándor Pál-Antal: the Diet ascribed a primarily geographical meaning to each element, separating between "the counties", represented by the eagle, and the two autonomous enclaves. Moisil also highlights a non-ethnic definition of the "nation" represented by the eagle, but also comments that, by that moment in time, Romanian nobles were being "gradually Magyarized".
Habsburg conquest
According to Moisil, the late adoption of a Transylvanian coat of arms, and its "few connections with the past and soul of the Romanian people", meant that the symbolism was rarely evoked in Romanian folk literature—unlike the Moldavian or Wallachian arms. The tower symbolism preserved some popularity in Romanian-inhabited areas outside Transylvania's borders. Shortly before Barcsay's ascendancy, Wallachian intellectual Udriște Năsturel used a heraldic device with gules tower appearing in crest. Researchers see this usage as reflecting a belief that "red towers" stood for Transylvanian cities in general, and for Udriște's claim to descent from the Boyar of Fogaras. Seven towers of presumed Transylvanian origin were also depicted on a stove top, dated to ca. 1700, which was recovered during excavations at the Moldavian court in Huși.
In the 1680s, at the height of the Great Turkish War, Emeric Thököly led a Hungarian–Transylvanian Kuruc army which assisted the Ottomans against the Habsburgs. This force is known to have used two banners: a blue one with an arm-and-sword, and a red one with the Thököly arms. In reaction, Leopold I and his Habsburg court backed Michael II Apafi as a rival claimant to the Transylvanian fiefdom. In June 1686, they formalized an alliance, under terms which specified that: "His Imperial Majesty may never lay claim to either the princely title or the coat of arms [of Transylvania]". Thököly's revolt ultimately failed; Apafi was briefly the Transylvanian Prince. During this time, the mint of Fogaras (Făgăraș) produced ducats, "reserved for the prince's use as gifts", with "the combined arms of Transylvania and the Apafi family". Transylvania and Partium were fully incorporated into the Habsburg realms under the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). In anticipation, Leopold already used the Transylvanian arms on his large coat of arms, by 1691, and on his coinage, by 1694.
Habsburg Transylvania, which remained a principality attached to the Hungarian Crown, issued polturas with its own markings throughout the early 18th century. These depictions introduced the practice of showing regional arms superimposed on the Reichsadler, something which was also done, with the respective arms, for coins used in Hungary, Milan or Tuscany. In Partium, Leopold also granted nobility to the Romanian peasant families Sida and Iuga in 1701. Their diploma has separate shields of Transylvania, showing the towers on azure and the eagle sable on a barry shield of or and gules. The Partium arms with the Patriarchal cross are also revived for this document, with bars of or and gules.
Transylvanian independence was briefly restored in the War of 1703–1711 by Prince Francis II Rákóczi, who also claimed the Hungarian throne. This episode began in July 1704, when the Diet abolished the instruments of Habsburg rule, including the seal of the Gubernium, which had served as a centralized body of administration. Rákóczi's Kuruc cavalry fought under a seven-bars variant of the Árpád stripes, with the slogan IUSTAM CAUSAM DEUS NON DERELINQUET ("God will not abandon the just cause"). Tradition about Transylvania's coat of arms was preserved in other Hungarian circles: in 1734, Ioannes Szegedi published an engraving of it, showing a crowned eagle, sable, and seven towers, argent, over seven mountains, vert, all on azure background; here, the Székelys were no longer represented by celestial bodies, but by the older arm-and-sword.
The Dictionarium heraldicum, printed at Vienna in 1746, referred to the Transylvanian arms as being: "Seven cities over which shines the moon". Regional symbolism was again in focus during the 1740s, when Maria Theresa took over as Queen and Empress. A medal she issued in 1740 is also the first official one to have readable hatching, with an azure background throughout. The following year, Hristofor Žefarović published a version more closely resembling the Báthory design but replacing the "teeth" with an Austrian badge. Žefarović placed the eagle on a field of or; his towers and mountains were argent and placed on a gules field.
Standardized symbols
Upon creating a "Grand Principality of Transylvania" on November 2, 1765, Maria Theresa finally standardized the coat of arms, introducing the definitive tinctures and adding the gules fess. Following this redesign, the crescent was also rendered as a waning moon. These new Transylvanian arms were also the basis for a Transylvanian blue-red-yellow banner, which may also date back to 1765. Transylvania's promotion and its modernized heraldry were both supervised by Chancellor Wenzel von Kaunitz, who encouraged a rift between Transylvania and the Hungarian Kingdom; on such grounds, Kaunitz rejected heraldic submissions by the Hungarian nobles, who wished to include a Patriarchal cross into the design. In 1769, he shocked his Hungarian adversaries by refusing to add the Transylvanian arms into those of the Kingdom. The arms still appeared on the third great seal used by Maria Theresia, which combined all her "German-Austrian and Hungarian provincial coats of arms" into a design that parted with "old heraldic simplicity and restraint".
In approving of this exclusion and distinction, Maria Theresa noted that interfering with the arms would upset Transylvania's population. By then, Romanians were readily associating with imperial symbolism. Already in 1756, Petru Pavel Aron sponsored an all-Romanian Hussar unit, which flew its own flag in the Seven Years' War. Historians Lizica Papoiu and Dan Căpățînă propose that the definitive selection of azure for the field displaying the eagle was meant to represent Maria Theresa's Romanian subjects, being derived from the Wallachian arms (which, by then, were also standardized as azure). As they note, those Romanian serfs who were raised into Transylvania's nobility also opted for azure shields. In 1762, Adolf Nikolaus von Buccow was entrusted with conscripting Székely and Romanian (or "Dacian") men into the Military Frontier, under a shared Transylvanian coat of arms.
Romanian loyalism remained high as the Székely rebelled (see Siculicidium). A blason included in the 1784 Molitvenic ("Prayer Book") of the Romanian Eastern Catholics focuses attention on the Reichsadler rather than the Transylvanian eagle, expressing solidarity with the "well-beloved", reform-minded, Joseph II. Late that year, during the anti-Hungarian revolt of Romanian peasants, insurgents reportedly carried a flag with Joseph's portrait. Their leader Horea reportedly used an emblem showing a triple cross, either alongside a dagger-pierced heart, or with seven mounds that may evoke the seven cities on the official arms; this arrangement sometimes included a slogan, NOS PRO CESARE, attesting Horea's Habsburg loyalties. In 1791, Romanian intellectuals of the "Transylvanian School" addressed Leopold II an essay demanding increased social rights. Titled Supplex Libellus Valachorum, it was illustrated with an allegory which included the Transylvanian arms. At the same time, Márton Hochmeister was putting out the newspaper Erdélyi Magyar Hírvivő, which fought against Josephinism and Germanization from a Hungarian perspective, and was headlined by the Hungarian arms with the Transylvanian arms inescutcheon.
Joseph II ended Transylvania's separate coinage, including monetary use of the regional arms. Following the consolidation of a Habsburg-ruled Austrian Empire in 1804, Transylvania became one of the crownlands depicted separately from the main arms. On the Hungarian "secret seal" (titkospecsét) of 1804, the Transylvanian arms appear, alongside other provincial arms, in an "arbitrary" arrangement. The imperial arms also came to feature it on the Reichsadler wings; the first such depiction was in 1806. The local flag, meanwhile, was still used in tandem with a multitude of other banners. As reported by historian Auguste de Gérando, in the 1840s Transylvania's chartered towns (oppida nobilia) formed individual units of the Landwehr under their respective county banners. Coins minted in Transylvania no longer had distinguishing heraldic markings after 1780, though Reichsadler-with-arms designs continued to be used by other institutions into the 19th century, including by the salt monopoly in Vizakna (Ocna Sibiului). While the tricolor scheme became a standard in official Habsburg heraldry, nostalgic or ill-informed heraldists continued to use variants without the bar, as with the 1784 Molitvenic. Mapmaker Johann Joseph von Reilly also preferred a three-shield version: the eagle and the Székely sun-and-moon each on gules, and the seven mountains on argent.
In de Gérando's time, the coat of arms was interpreted as an actual visual record of ethnic divisions, omitting the "most populous inhabitants", who were the Romanians, as well as the "tolerated nation" of Armenians. Székely woodcarvers appropriated the coat of arms, which appeared on their wooden gates, though less frequently than the Reichsadler. A unique example is on the 1816 gate at Farcád (Forțeni), where the Transylvanian eagle over seven towers was itself double-headed. One of the two heads was afterwards scratched out, possibly as a political statement. Transylvanian regional symbols, and in particular the chief portion of the crest, were now reclaimed by members of the Hungarian community; the eagle was interpreted a version of the mythical Turul. "The sun, the moon and the eagle" under a "Hungarian sky" were thus referenced in a song by Zsigmond Szentkirályi, dedicated to Governor György Bánffy. It was performed in 1821 at the National Magyar Theater, on a stage bearing a large version of the Transylvanian arms. By contrast, a variant with only towers and two eagles in supporters was used on an 1825 lithograph depicting the Saxon city of Kronstadt.
Revolutionary usage
Political usage of the red-white-green tricolor by Transylvanian Hungarians was first documented in 1846, when it appeared with members of the Védegylet association; as reported by George Barițiu, most locals were still unaware of this color scheme when the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 broke out. The revolution proclaimed Transylvania's absorption by the Hungarian Kingdom, eventually moving toward separation from the Habsburg realm. Revolutionary leader Lajos Kossuth approved a new set of national symbols, including a "medium" coat of arms with marshalled Transylvanian symbols. Unusually, this depiction used the pre-standardization variant of 1740; it also innovated by showing the Transylvanian arms, and other arms not linked to Hungary-proper, as "joined at both ends by a wavy ribbon, imagined as the national tricolor, [and] attached to the crown." One of the first laws adopted by his government specified that "annexed countries" could "each employ its own colors and arms." In practice, this definition excluded Transylvania. On March 30, Hungarians in the Transylvanian Diet symbolically removed the 1765 flag from the conference hall and replaced it with the flag of Hungary, only allowing the "blue-red-yellow tricolor" to be displayed on the tapestry of the Diet throne. When Transylvanian delegates visited Pest on April 23, they were greeted by the flags of both Hungary and Transylvania, alongside a ribbon marked Unió ("Union").
Hungarian communities were committed to the new tricolor, whereas, in 1846, the Saxons had a "national flag" of unspecified colors, with AD RETINENDAM CORONAM. By 1848, they had adopted a variant of the German colors with the arms of Transylvania displayed. Meanwhile, other Saxon communities had the Habsburg flag, or opted for the "Saxon 'national' blue and red colours." The latter's origins are obscure, though writer Teodor V. Păcățian proposes that they may derive from one of the urban flags of Saxon Transylvania. In mid 1848, Saxons were welcomed into the Hungarian National Guard. Many towns, especially Kronstadt and Broos (Orăștie), welcomed this collaboration, but formed their separate units, with distinct symbols. Specifically, these showed, on one side, the seven castles and AD RETINENDAM CORONAM, and on the other, a "coat of arms of the eleven Saxon", alongside FÜR FÜRST, RECHT UND VATERLAND ("For Prince, Law, and Fatherland").
The adoption of separate Saxon flags caused a standoff between the two camps at Regen (Reghin), but created a precedent. The advent of Romanian nationalism produced immediate grievances against this regime and its official heraldry; throughout the Revolution, Romanians and Hungarians fought each other for control of Transylvania, with the former largely loyal to the Habsburg crown. Romanian intellectuals, prompted to adopt their own symbols, opted for white-blue, blue-yellow, red-white, or red-white-blue cockades, also using white flags with blue slogans before May 1848. These groups looked forward to a new arrangement in Transylvania, also proposing a new class of standardized symbols. Their design prominently included a female allegory of "Dacia Felix", alluding to the origin of the Romanians, as well as a lion and aquila. Another proposal was consciously based on 3rd-century coinage issued by Philip the Arab. Also keeping the 1765 format, it added vexilla with markings for Legio V Macedonica and Legio XIII Gemina.
Transylvania's Romanian nationalists continued to experiment with flags, eventually arriving at (generally horizontal) variants of the pan-Romanian tricolor, blue-yellow-red, which, from 1842, had been in use as the flag of Wallachia. Historian Tiberiu Crudu rejects claims that the latter symbol was directly derived from the Transylvanian banner, noting that Romanians in Transylvania did not yet feel represented by the latter; however, he also notes that the "tricolor to which Romanians had been accustomed since 1765" may have had a subtle contribution. Specifically Romanian Transylvanian flags appeared May 1848 assembly in Blaj (Balázsfalva) alongside the Habsburg colors, showing that Romanians remained committed to the monarchy. While some scholars argue that the Romanian color scheme at Blaj already had yellow rather than white, others see this as an invented tradition. Known versions included a blue-white-red or blue-red-white arrangement, claimed by Alexandru Papiu Ilarian as "Transylvania's oldest colors", for being used in the Romanian dress. This origin was also claimed by Ioan Pușcariu, who carried a version of the banner marked with a Romanian version of the slogan Liberté, égalité, fraternité. Pușcariu advocated for the blue-red-yellow of Transylvania and was told by his peers that the gold tassels could reflect that association. Contrasting testimonies suggest that the arrangement was based on the flag of France, or that it was improvised from the "Transylvanian colors [of] red and blue", with the white band as a symbol of peace.
This "flag of the Transylvanian Romanians" was transformed into a red-blue-white, blue-red-white or white-blue-red tricolor, bearing the inscription VIRTUS ROMANA REDIVIVA ("Roman virtue revived"). The slogan's origin can be traced back to Romanian Grenz infantry regiments serving on the Transylvanian Military Frontier. A blue-red-white variant was inscribed with VIRTUTEA ROMÂNĂ REÎNVIATĂ ("Romanian virtue revived"), and carried ribbons in the Habsburg colors, with a slogan honoring Ferdinand I. Several authors note that such a color scheme merely reflected confusion among the Romanians, allowing Hungarians in the Diet to report that it was a pan-Slavic symbol. In Fogaras and Fellak (Feleac), Romanians, specifically Eastern Catholics, opted for alternative flags of blue and yellow.
Barițiu notes that the "white-blue and red tricolor" was used by the Romanian Commission of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), which constituted a "grave error". This flag, he argues, was designed by youth unaware of the "lawful Transylvanian colors", and was even seen by some Romanians as closely resembling the Russian or Serbian flags. Over the following months, blue-yellow-red replaced other variants—either under the influence of flags used in the Wallachian revolution, or because yellow was a Habsburg color. In Habsburg and Hungarian sources, this flag was depicted as a direct successor of the 1765 colors, indicating Romanian "autochtonism" after other Transylvanian communities had embraced ethnic flags. According to museographer Elena Pălănceanu, this tricolor was paraded during the May assembly by the anti-Hungarian folk army gathered by Avram Iancu, and later flown by his guerrilla units throughout the Apuseni Mountains. One variant, featuring an icon and tricolor bordure, is viewed by some historians as one of Iancu's battle flags.
In July 1848, Mór Than designed what would have been the first Hungarian postage stamp, with the Transylvanian arms included. As the conflict turned to military confrontation, anti-Hungarian paramilitaries rallied under the Habsburg or German colors, as well as their own white flag with the slogan AD RETINENDAM CORONAM. In January 1849, during the late stages of this civil war, Ioan Axente Sever's Romanian irregulars, who occupied and ransacked Straßburg (Aiud), also flew the Habsburg bicolor. Following the Hungarian revolutionaries' capitulation, Transylvania was more firmly integrated with the Austrian Empire, with the Székely seal being confiscated. In July 1852, Bishop Andrei Șaguna, as a representative of his Romanian community, met Emperor Franz Joseph I at Kiskossó (Coșevița), on Transylvania's western border. The festivities included a triumphal arch festooned with Habsburg and "blue-yellow-red" Transylvanian flags marked VIRIBUS UNITIS ("With United Forces")—the Habsburg motto. Later that year, Transylvanian Governor Karl von Schwarzenberg ordered the reintroduction of a regional flag, but used an incorrect color scheme, switching the blue and red bands. Various authors describe this as a conscious variation on the Romanian tricolor, meant to underline the connection between the monarchy and loyalist Romanians; the tricolor scheme was also granted to Șaguna upon his appointment as Reichsfreiherr.
Austria-Hungary
During the subsequent reconciliation between Hungarians and Austrians, Transylvania was merged back into Hungary. This process, which included restoring heraldic symbols to the Székely nation in June 1861, was resisted by Romanians. In 1862, ASTRA Society for Cultural Advancement staged an exhibit and political rally, which included tricolor flags and a tapestry with the Transylvanian arms protected by a lion, alongside the slogan INDEPENDENȚA TRANSILVANIEI ("Independence for Transylvania"). In July 1863, Romanian members of the Transylvanian Diet presented a draft law "on the equality of the various nationalities". Its Article 5 specified that: "A symbol particular to the Romanian nation shall be added to the Transylvanian arms." During the elections of late 1865, Romanians gathering to oppose centralization reportedly flew a large flag "in Transylvania's colors"; their Hungarian opponents used the red-white-and-green.
In this context, the Romanian community had opted for the Transylvanian eagle as its own ethnic symbol; in 1865, its representatives in the unified Diet of Hungary submitted a demand for heraldic symbols to represent "the Romanian nation in the Transylvanian bordeland", namely: "an eagle standing on a rock, holding a cross in its beak", and a flag colored "blue, red, yellow". Outside Transylvania, Romanian activists were generally more accepting of the 1765 arms, which were featured, alongside the Moldavian and Wallachian shields, on the medal Norma, issued by Wallachia's Philharmonic Society in 1838. Cezar Bolliac gave this arrangement a colored version in 1856, selecting tinctures that would reflect the Romanian tricolor, with Transylvania in yellow (or). Upon the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, Transylvanian emblems were left out of the national arms. The presence of a "Dacian" woman and lions in supporters in all Romanian national arms between 1866 and 1872 was an homage to the 1848 proposal.
Transylvanian symbols were again added to the medium coat of arms of Hungary following the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867. They were also prominently marshalled into in the amalgamated state arms of Austria-Hungary. The subsequent centralization cancelled all need for regional symbols, which were relegated to a ceremonial role. The informal Transylvanian flag was again recorded as "blue, red and yellow" in the late 1860s, with prints issued by the Armenian Zacharias Gábrus. A flag for the old crownland was also carried by Antal Esterházy (or, according to other reports, by Albert Bánffy) at Franz Joseph's coronation in June 1867. This marked the first-ever appearance of Transylvanian symbols at the enthronement of a Hungarian Habsburg king. It was not the Gábrus tricolor, but a banner of arms: "The blue flag, about a meter wide, bordered with gold, [is] decorated with the coat of arms of Transylvania in the middle".
Two months later, the coat of arms was on show at the Romanian Literary Society in Bucharest. Though intended to show the cultural unity between Romanians within and without Austria-Hungary, this exhibit was criticized by nationalist writer Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu for still describing regional divisions between Transylvanian, Wallachian, and Moldavian Romanians. In a contrary move, Bolliac retained the towers, the sun, and the moon (but not the eagle) in his unusually arranged and hatched design for Transylvanian arms on Michael the Brave's monument in University Square (1874–1876). This heraldic trend was followed by anonymous authors from either Wallachia or Transylvania, who were popularizing nationalist coats of arms for the Banat, Maramureș, and Crișana—three ethnographic subdivisions of Partium. Crișana's arms, as published in 1881 by A. E. Gorjan, were directly inspired by those of Transylvania, in that they featured a derivative eagle.
In 1868, Romanian politicians submitted for review another bill, which stated that "every nation has the right to use its national flag [...] in public political ceremonies and on public buildings, but only alongside the flag of the Hungarian crown". As reported by Pacațian, from 1848 to 1874, Romanians in and around Transylvania, including in the Banat and Maramureș, "used our national tricolor, and bore its colors on any given occasion, with no hindrance or annoyance by anyone". He reports the tricolor being a electoral flag of both pro- and anti-Hungarian Romanians. Hungarian Prime Minister Kálmán Tisza sought to curb this practice in 1874, allowing only the Hungarian tricolor to be used within the Kingdom's borders, and instituting a system of fines and penalties for those who disobeyed. Romanians generally ignored the order, or invented methods for circumventing it—such as wearing red hats decorated with blue leaves and yellow lettering. The standardized regional flag was still flown at various festivities, though its interpretation varied between Romanians and Hungarians. The "Romanian, that is to say Transylvanian flag" and the Habsburg flag were reportedly used together at Maypole dances in Kronstadt by 1881. That year, a Hungarian tricolor and a "Saxon flag" were added; the former's appearance led to a publicized brawl, with claims that Romanian students had put up the national flag of another country.
Over the 1880s, Romanians continued to argue that the Transylvanian tricolor was a cherished symbol, but regional rather than ethnic. In 1885, the community newspaper Tribuna expressed indignation at Hungarian suggestions that the Romanian state tricolor was a derivative of Transylvania's color scheme. The same year, the Romanian Athletic and Singing Society had adopted emblems with the "Transylvanian tricolor". Another incident in June 1888 saw the Romanians of Belényes (Beiuș) removing and desecrating the Hungarian national flag. In the aftermath, the community was ordered by government to cease flying the Transylvanian colors. No flags were on show during Franz Joseph's tour of Beszterce-Naszód in 1891, after local Hungarians explicitly rejected either a "Saxon flag" or the "Romanian tricolor, which is also Transylvania's flag". In 1892, Romanian youth gathering at Nagyszeben defied the ban by flying three separate monochrome flags of red, yellow, and blue.
Transylvanian regional symbols were sometimes reclaimed by other members of the Hungarian community. In May 1896, during celebrations of the Hungarian Millennium, András Bethlen presented the blue banner of 1867 to Franz Joseph; it had been since hidden, lost, and ultimately found in the Bonțida Bánffy Castle. Some Romanians and Saxons also took part in the festivities, carrying "millennial flags" representing their various civic communities. In 1903, Romanian lawyer Eugen Lemeni was fined and imprisoned for decorating a ballroom hall with Habsburg flags and the "Transylvanian emblem". During the Hungarian elections of 1906, the Romanian National Party (PNR) used white flags with green-leaf patterns, as well as green cockades, but these were also confiscated by the authorities. The Romanian (and Transylvanian) colors were camouflaged into another symbolic arrangement: the PNR distributed lapels with a blue quill and a yellow leaf, adding candidates' names in red letters. During those years, Romanian nationalist clubs began using an array of heraldic symbols evoking Dacia and the Romans. As early as 1871, the color scheme also spread into the Duchy of Bukovina, a Romanian-inhabited part of Cisleithania, where it was identified and repressed as a symbol of "anti-Austrian" subversion. Before deciding on this issue, Governor Bourguignon heard reports about flag usage among the Transylvanian loyalists; his panel of experts disagreed on whether the flag was a Transylvanian symbol or a derivation of Romania's flag, but most viewed it as a staple of pan-Romanian "irredentism".
Red and blue (popularly read as symbolic for love and sincerity) survived on flags used by rural communities of Transylvanian Saxons—including those of youth fraternities in Keisd (Saschiz), some of which date back to the 1860s. During the 1890s, this color scheme had been adopted by Hungarian police officers in Saxon cities. At that stage, Saxon activists who frowned upon Magyarization created another regional flag, bearing the old triquetra and the slogan AD RETINENDAM CORONAM—a design originally found in a highly popular print by Georg Bleibtreu (1884). The new Prime Minister, Dezső Bánffy, responded with an explicit ban on Saxon symbols. A red-over-blue bicolor, also identified as the "Saxon flag", sparked litigation in Bistritz (Bistrița) during June 1898, after Hungarian police tried to register and prosecute it as a "foreign flag". A compromised was reached in August, when the authorities of Brassó (Brașov) were allowed to fly the blue-red for Johannes Honter's 400th anniversary, but only if "evenly represented" with the Hungarian colors. The crossed swords were also revisited as a community symbol, with bishop Friedrich Teutsch explaining that they reflected an old Saxon legend: "When our fathers came into the land, they thrust two swords crosswise into the earth and swore allegiance to the king and the land over them." Teutsch himself used blue-over-red flags, which the Gendarmes took down from his parish church in 1909. Other groups of Saxons had similar bicolor banners and ribbons with the Transylvanian arms—as with the Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Munich, founded in 1910.
Romanian Transylvanian tricolor
Writing shortly after the Millennium, Sterca-Șuluțiu proposed that the Transylvanian tinctures and the Romanian flag had a single, "Dacian" and "twice-millennial" origin—though he admitted not being able to tell why Maria Theresa had selected them. He acknowledged that nationalist Romanians in both Transylvania and Bukovina had been using the 1765 color scheme as an excuse to fly the Romanian colors, but also that this practice was dying out under Hungarian pressures. In the 1890s, some Romanians were openly embracing the claim that Romania's flag was an altered "Transylvanian tricolor". One anonymous essayist from Bucharest argued in 1892 that the "red, yellow and blue" scheme was embraced by Transylvanian Romanians opposing merger into Hungary in 1848. He argued that, while Hungarians were forced to reject the "old Transylvanian" tricolor, nationalists in Wallachia and Moldavia also had to renounce traditional tinctures, and embrace a Transylvanian symbol. In 1901, the theory was reviewed as "seductive" and "probable" by Romanian journalist Constantin Berariu. It was embraced by Ștefan Cicio Pop, who, in late 1910, used it to defend flag-wavers arrested in Alsó-Fehér County.
In August 1911, a large Romanian meeting was again hosted by Balázsfalva, in this instance convened by ASTRA. The Hungarian authorities of Alsó-Fehér were convinced to participate, taking seat under a tapestry showing en eagle and tower alongside the "Transylvanian tricolor: blue, yellow and red ." This was a design by Octavian Smigelschi for Blaj Cathedral, with the tower also read as a depiction of "New Jerusalem". ASTRA's other symbols by 1911 were all-blue banners marked with the names of its sections, or generic slogans. Delegate Horia Petra-Petrescu also proposed an all-white flag marked BLAJ, which, he argued, was enough of a symbol for the Romanian communities. The tricolor ambiguity was retained during the celebrations of May 10, 1914, when Romanian students gathered to celebrate the Kingdom of Romania's national holiday. Hungarian authorities broke up the rallies, citing the aggravating presence of Romanian colors. The students were defended by Pop, who claimed that the suspicious color scheme could just as well stand for Transylvania or the Budapest tricolor.
Over the following months, with the outbreak of World War I, the Common Army tolerated, or even encouraged, the use of Romanian banners by Transylvanian conscripts. Brassó was reportedly the first Transylvanian city to allow their flying at a public gathering. In 1915, Prime Minister István Tisza modified his father's 1874 legislation, allowing Romanians to fly "their national colors", but only if accompanied by the "state colors". This reportedly marked the first time in history when Romanian nationalists voluntarily embraced the Hungarian tricolor. Although Romania remained neutral until 1916, Hungarian authorities again introduced proscriptions against the Romanian colors in February 1915. In October, a revamped version of the Hungarian arms, with minor adjustments to its Transylvanian quarter, was done by József Sebestyén Keöpeczi, a Transylvanian Hungarian scholar and painter. This design also entered the new common medium coat of arms adopted that year by Austria-Hungary. This move generated some controversy, with Hungarian nationalists such as Géza Polónyi arguing that the heraldic representation of an obsolete crownland on a major symbol would undermine the monarchy's "parity dualism". Towards the end of the year, Romania failed in her attempt to conquer Transylvania—upon which the Hungarian authorities of Marosvásárhely (Târgu Mureș) issued plaquettes with the Transylvanian arms alongside Saint George and the Dragon (in which the Dragon stood for Romania).
With the crowning of Charles IV in November 1916, Transylvanian colors made a final official appearance at the Habsburg court, being carried there by Count Ádám Teleki. According to Moisil, under Charles the region was no longer depicted in the Hungarian coat of arms, but was still represented within the amalgamated Austro-Hungarian arms. Following the Aster Revolution of 1918, Transylvanian Romanians began organizing themselves to demand union with Romania, flying horizontal tricolors of blue-yellow-red. Transylvanian soldiers stationed in Prague helped turn that city over to the Czechoslovak National Council; in recognition the city populace presented them with tricolor tippets, which were colored red-blue-yellow or yellow-blue-red. Many tricolor variants, with yellow as the middle color, were used during the popular rallies on the event marked in Romania as the Great Union (December 1, 1918). Eyewitness Petru Tămâian described these as being the "beautiful Transylvanian tricolor", distinguishing them from the vertically arranged flag of Romania; when superimposed, they "seemingly create a sign of the cross, symbolizing sufferings on both sides". Activist Vasile Goldiș also mentions the "beautiful Romanian tricolor of Transylvania" as being the flag held by Ioan Arion, who was shot by the Hungarian National Guard on his way to the rally in Alba Iulia.
The Saxons of Sibiu, who favored union with Romania, rallied under both the Romanian flag and a design of their own: "There was a search for the Saxon national banner and, since none was available, they brought in a prapur decked in red and blue ribbons". In Medwesch (Mediaș), a Saxon National Guard, which existed for some six days in December 1918, used a red-over-blue or blue-over-red bicolor, and assorted cockades. Saxon activists displayed their loyalism toward Greater Romania while continuing to show attachment toward regional symbols: Saxon officials greeting ASTRA delegates in Sibiu during July 1920 "carried many a Saxon banner." Attempts to restore an independent Transylvania were still considered by a Hungarian jurist, Elemér Gyárfás. In March 1919, he approached the PNR's Iuliu Maniu with the offer to codify an "indissoluble union of three nations" (Transylvanian Romanians, Hungarians, and Saxons). This proposed state was to have its own seal and flag. Faced with the prospect of being absorbed as a minority in Romania, some Hungarians attempted to resist and invoked the Fourteen Points against the Alba Iulia assembly. Writer István Zágoni reports that a "Székely Republic movement" hoisted its flag in Marosvásárhely, but that other Hungarians wanted it torn down. Artist Károly Kós is reported to have sought the separation of Kalotaszeg, for which he designed a flag and coat of arms.
Later echoes
As part of the union process of 1918–1922, Transylvania's symbols became an integral part of the Romanian arms. One of the first projects to include them in this overall arrangement was drafted in 1921 by Paul Gore, wherein the Transylvanian quarter also represented all of the former Partium. In Gore's original version, the fess was removed, and the field was divided or over purpure, while the towers were again replaced by seven hills, or. Another 1921 design, proposed to the Heraldic Commission by Keöpeczi, was closely based on Maria Theresa's arms of 1765. Under the new conventions, it was also used to symbolize the adjacent lands of Maramureș and Crișana, overshadowing earlier projects to emerge as the Greater Romanian arms. Derivative arms also appeared for Romanian institutions: the 28th Infantry Regiment, stationed in Târgu Mureș, featured both the city arms, with the Székely arm-and-sword, and the seven towers. Such heraldic arrangements still met some opposition, with a formal protest registered soon after adoption by magistrate Constantin Obedeanu and other intellectuals. This group favored only minimal changes to Romania's previous coat of arms, with the inclusion of the lions and hills in Michael the Brave's seal, as a stand-in for Transylvania.
In contrast, the 1765 arms returned as symbols of Hungarian irredentism during the Regency period. Also in 1921, a statue called "East" was erected in Szabadság tér, Budapest. It showed Prince Csaba setting free a female figure bearing the Transylvanian shield. Another political statement was the Transylvanian folk-song collection of Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály, which, on its 1921 edition cover, displayed the "coat of arms of Transylvania under the Hungarian royal crown". In April 1922, an "impressive procession" of irredentists took place outside St. Stephen's Basilica in Lipótváros. A "flag of separated Transylvania" was carried therein by Nándor Urmánczy, on behalf of his National Defense Party. The medium arms of 1915, including Transylvania's symbols, were still endorsed by the Regency, but for two decades appeared only rarely on its official insignia; usage again peaked in 1938–1944. A flag of Kalotaszeg was carried at the Vigadó of Pest during celebrations of Otto von Habsburg's birthday, in November 1930.
Some usage of the 1765 arms was also documented among the Hungarians of Romania, as with the Puttonyos Winery, which continued to operate in Aiud under Romanian rule. Activist József Sándor reportedly hid the banner of a main Hungarian cultural association, EMKE, which displayed the arms of Hungary with those of Transylvania inescutcheon. Kós, who designed various versions of the Transylvanian arms (including in his 1922 album, Erdély kövei), eventually established the Hungarian People's Party as a voice of Transylvanianism in Romania—the group is known to have used a flag of its own. In June 1924, Romanian authorities banned the use of Saxon flags on public buildings, and ruled that all private displays need to include Romanian flags of similar size and make. This measure was condemned, on the Romanian side, by Păcățian, who argued that Saxons had both a moral and a legal right to their own bicolor. In early 1939, schoolteacher Georg Kraft of Dedrad (Zepling) successfully defended in court his right to fly the Saxon colors alongside the Romanian ones.
At the height of World War II, following a re-partition of the region, Northern Transylvania was briefly reincorporated with Hungary. Shortly after this, in September 1940, the Székely College Students' Association created a flag for the youth at Franz Joseph University. One side was "embroidered with the coat of arms of Transylvania and the inscription Erdély örök, egyetlen miénk felírás ['Eternal Transylvania is ours forever']." A new set of monuments, featuring the eagle together with the medium arms of Hungary, were erected throughout the annexed areas. In 1941, a Hungarian ethnographer, Gábor Lükő, revisited the blue-red-yellow and its origins, suggesting that it had been invented by Gabriel Bethlen and "was taken over by the Romanians in 1848". He believed this color scheme to have seeped into the folk art of the Csángós, which was being unfairly censored in Hungary for looking "Romanian". During this renewed integration with the Hungarian crown, Béla Teleki and other local intellectuals established a regionalist and corporatist group called Transylvanian Party; it did not use the regional flag and coat of arms, but had a depiction of Saint Ladislaus as its logo.
The region was ultimately recovered by Romania during the Battle of Romania in 1944. In its aftermath, projects for a unified and independent Transylvania received some backing from the Soviet Union, with Romanian flags being routinely removed from official buildings; concrete projects of independence were submitted by Kós and Valter Roman, with Teofil Vescan proclaiming himself Prime Minister of the unrecognized country. A rumor recorded in Telegraful Român in November 1944 had it that former Hungarian officials in Cluj had switched to wearing the red flag as an armband, before switching again to "the colors of Romanian Transylvania: blue, yellow, and red". A draft proposal, submitted anonymously on behalf of the Second Hungarian Republic in mid 1945 (and since attributed to scholar Gábor Balás), discussed a neutral Federal Republic of Transylvania, coterminous with "historical Transylvania". It noted: "The colors of the flag of the Independent Transylvania [are] blue and gold. In addition to the state flag, however, all nations are free to use their own national flag."
Arms with a Transylvanian canton remained a Romanian national symbol throughout this period, until being removed by communist rule (see Emblem of the Socialist Republic of Romania). The regime involved itself in removing signs of Hungarian irredentism, such as plastering over the medium Hungarian arms on the 1941 monument in Lueta (Lövéte). It was cleaned up by community representatives during the Romanian Revolution of 1989. In spring 1990, projects were submitted for the arms of post-revolutionary Romania. Transylvania was prominently displayed in sketches submitted by Maria Dogaru, who also proposed adopting VIRTUS ROMANA REDIVIVA as the national motto. The 1921 arms were reinstated, with some modifications, under the 1992 Constitution, and were again reconfirmed in 2016.
Following the revival of heraldry in post-communist Romania, azure and gules, identified as the "Transylvanian colors", were used for the new arms of Miklós Székely National College; Simeria Reformed Church in Sfântu Gheorghe also features a 1992 mural with the 1765 arms of Transylvania. In 1996, the municipality of Ozun (Uzon) displayed the same symbol at an artificial forest which celebrated Hungarian presence in Transylvania and commemorated the soldiers of 1848. The Saxon diaspora in Germany has also continued to make use of regional symbols. In the 1990s, those who settled in Crailsheim still displayed the "Transylvanian" or "Saxon colors", described as "blue and red". Usage of the flag and coat of arms was being replaced around 2017 by displays of the logo for the Union of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany. Usage of Sibiu's coat of arms (a derivative of the triquetra arms), alongside those of Transylvania-proper, had a major revival beginning in 2007, when the city was a European Capital of Culture.
At the same stage, a Székely autonomist movement had begun using its own derivative symbol—the blue-gold-silver flag with the sun-and-moon. In September 2014, western Transylvanian Hungarians affiliated with the Hungarian People's Party selected a flag and coat of arms for Partium, in a form derived from the unrealized project of 1659. A blue-red-yellow tricolor is also spotted at rallies in support of increased autonomy for the region or its Hungarian communities. A controversy erupted on Hungarian National Day (March 15), 2017, after reports that the Romanian Gendarmerie fined people for displaying the colors. This account was rejected by Gendermerie officials, according to whom the fines were handed out to those demonstrators who refused to disperse after their authorization had expired. Transylvanian symbols, including the coat of arms, have been on display at football matches involving CFR Cluj, which has a mixed Romanian-and-Hungarian fan base.
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Ágnes R. Várkonyi, "The Last Decades of the Independent Principality (1660–1711)", in László Makkai, András Mócsy (eds.), History of Transylvania. Volume II: From 1606 to 1830 (East European Monographs 593. Atlantic Studies on Society Change 107), pp. 232–513. Boulder & Highland Lakes: Social Science Monographs & Atlantic Research and Publications, 2002.
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4198198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissed | Kissed | Kissed is a 1996 Canadian romantic/erotic drama film directed and co-written by Lynne Stopkewich, based on Barbara Gowdy's short story "We So Seldom Look on Love". It premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 1996.
The film stars Molly Parker as Sandra Larson, a young woman whose fixation on death leads her to study embalming at a mortuary school, where in turn she finds herself drawn toward feelings of necrophilia. Peter Outerbridge also stars as Matt, a fellow student who develops romantic feelings for Sandra, and so must learn to accept her sexual proclivities.
Plot
As far back as Sandra Larson (Parker) can remember, she has been fascinated by death. As a child, she dances with the corpses of animals at night, rubbing them on her body, before giving them a funeral. She performs this dance in front of her only friend, a girl named Carol (Jessie Winter Mudie), who ends their friendship soon afterward.
In college, Sandra studies biology, carefully dissecting the bodies of small animals, trying to avoid disfiguring them. She gets a job at a funeral home to be closer to dead bodies. The funeral home's janitor Jan (James Timmons) believes, like Sandra, that dead bodies still have a soul in them. While driving the hearse with a body in a coffin in the back through a car wash, Sandra looks at the body and finds a shining light, believing that body's soul is alive somewhere.
Mr. Wallis apprentices Sandra in embalming. She starts studying mortuary science, where she meets a medical student named Matt (Peter Outerbridge) who also must study corpses for his major. Matt and Sandra begin to date, and Matt is intrigued by Sandra's death fascination. Occasionally they spend nights together in Matt's basement apartment, but Sandra always leaves for late night visits to the mortuary to celebrate the dead bodies of young men with dance ceremonies which escalate into necrophilia.
Matt becomes distraught when he discovers that he is competing with dead bodies. He tries unsuccessfully to get Sandra to talk about her necrophilia, so he starts visiting her at the funeral home, which upsets her. Matt has to go to an extreme to win Sandra's heart, as she struggles with choosing between the living or the dead, with tragic results.
Cast
Molly Parker as Sandra Larson
Natasha Morley as young Sandra
Peter Outerbridge as Matt
Jay Brazeau as Mr. Wallis, Mortician
Jessie Winter Mudie as Carol, young Sandra's best friend
James Timmons as Jan, Mortuary Janitor
Joe Maffei as Biology Teacher
Robert Thurston as Detective
Annabel Kershaw as Mother Larson
Tim Dixon as Father Larson, owner of Larson's Flowers
Production
Concept
Originally, Director Lynne Stopkewich had no particular interest in death or necrophilia. However, an interview by Karen Greenlee, a young California woman caught in a necrophile act with a male cadaver in the late 1970s, got her attention. Another reason that attracted her to the theme was the reading of "We So Seldom Look on Love", a 1992 short story written by Barbara Gowdy, that she read in The Girl Wants to, a collection of female erotica edited by Lynn Crosbie, while working on another film script in February 1994. The short story, itself inspired by the Greenlee's case, impacted Stopkewich because of its originality and non-judgmental tone, and it impressed her so much that began to negatively effect her writing process.
She then contacted Gowdy, acquiring the option to the story for an undisclosed sum in May 1994. Stopkewich described her version as "an interpretation of the piece, not so much a literal translation", and stated the she did not include some details because of the film's low budget. Mainly, she omitted details about the main character's family and instead focused on her experiences as a child and young adult. Stopkewich stated "We So Seldom Look on Love" was an ideal story for a low-budget adaptation because it only featured two main characters and had few locations. The desired 1970s-like setting also helped in decreasing production costs due to thrift shops and garage sale scenarios being cheaper than a "contemporary look".
Generally, necrophiles most commonly present as single persons with an above-average IQ, a propensity for atypical belief systems, and who generally work in death-associated occupations. This is the inspiration behind the main character of the film, Sandra. Stopkewich expressed that she had never actually met a necrophile, nor did she research the topic extensively. She only visited one funeral home before the shoot, declaring it was not her aim to make Sandra "a spokesmodel for all necrophiles". Instead, she set out to create what she called an "unforgettable character," attempting to "put aside my own critical and moral judgments and allow myself to truly enter into the world of the characters".
Her goal was to explore Sandra's "interior world" by focusing on the life experiences she had in common with the character—like growing up in the suburbs, burying dead animals, keeping secret objects hidden under the bed, disco dancing, facing one's mother after the first menstruation, dealing with questions of sex and death, one's first date, and one's first sexual experience. By introducing her through flashbacks as a young girl, Stopkewich desired to create sympathy for the character in order to make her socially inappropriate, taboo passions more acceptable by the audience. Ultimately, Stopkewich described the film's focus as "really kind of a sweet emotional journey with this coming-of-age of this young woman".
Development
Stopkewich started Kissed while studying film at University of British Columbia (UBC); the first draft was written by her in July 1994, and it was shown as her thesis project under the title Wide Awake: That Necrophile Movie to obtain a Master of Fine Arts degree, an honor which she acquired in 1996. As such, the film was self-funded, Stopkewich mostly used UBC's equipments and several crew members were film students. Other crew included newcomer filmmakers such as Bruce Sweeney (whose debut Live Bait was in 1995) as boom operator, Gregory Wild (Highway of Heartache, 1994) contributing to the art direction, and her companion John Pozer as Foley artist. Stopkewich gathered some money and experience with low-budget films from working as the production designer of Pozer's two first films The Grocer's Wife (1991) and The Michelle Apartments (1995). Canadian actor's trade union ACTRA provided a 50 percent deferral of scale as part of an agreement with UBC. After receiving a $3,400 grant from UBC Film Department, Stopkewich invested $36,000 of her own money for a total of $80–100,000 raised with the help of co-producer Dean English, Pozer, family and friends. The main production company for Kissed, Boneyard Film—a Vancouver-based enterprise incorporated with Stopkewich, Pozer, and English—went $400,000 into debt during the film's production, while Stopkewich herself had a $30,000 debt in 1996.
Because of an eight-week opportunity to use equipment at discount, Stopkewich wrote the first draft in only a week to then start its filming. After Stopkewich and Angus Frazer rewrote the screenplay in August 1994, principal photography took five weeks between September and October. To reduce costs during the filming, Stopkewich had the idea of using the company's production office as a film set; after painting and decoration, it became both the funeral home interiors and Matt's basement apartment. The initial sum of money allowed the film to be shoot, but was not enough to develop the film stock, so the Kissed had to be concluded in December when the National Film Board of Canada offered its facilities to process and print the rushes. Because of that, during the first week of shooting, only select rushes were processed to ensure the filming was good. In 1995, after editing was finished on a Steenbeck machine in Pozer's mother basement, the production team applied for a Canada Council Media Arts grant, which resulted in a $47–47,500 sum. Sound recording was done between November 1995 and March 1996. The use of Nettwerk Records' music library and Western Post Productions' digital sound editing were done at deferred cost. Finally, Stopkewich obtained $25,000 from Telefilm Canada for completion money and $45–162,000 from British Columbia Film to adapt it to 35mm format at DuArt Film and Video by April 1996.
Casting and characters
For the main role, Stopkewich originally desired to cast a blonde woman, since the original story described her as "a Doris Day type of character". She was having difficulty to find such an actress and was "desperately looking for someone to play that part" since the film was already in pre-production. By chance, main actress Molly Parker was friend of the film's cinematographer Gregory Middleton and wanted to meet Stopkewich because she had never seen a woman director. After reading the script, Parker was interested in the role and performed it to Stopkewich, who was impressed and cast her. By August 1994, all other main roles—Peter Outerbridge and Jay Brazeau—were cast. For Outerbridge's part as Matt, Stopkewich appreciated Fraser's help since the story was written and directed from a woman's point of view. Matt's character became a counterbalance in a female-centric world and Fraser's constat revisions were essential to create a "full-dimensional Matt". She dubbed him the devil's advocate, "especially in regard to the male characters".
Themes and analysis
Sexuality and gender
Although Offscreens Donato Totaro said that a metaphorical interpretation of the film as female empowerment would be "an act of interpretative magicry", scholars usually interpreted it as possessing "emancipatory narratives and allegories of women's empowerment" or at least "feminist ambiguities" that depicts "extreme female sexual transgression". A Maclean's article described it as having "feminist intelligence". Stopkewich herself talked about not transforming the main character into an object; she instead wanted her to be the subject of the scenes she was in. She declared, "it was crucial to empower Sandra's sexuality when we finally see her engaged in necrophilia". As such, she made cinematic choices that fit it; for example, she tried to create intimacy during the sex scenes so the audience would not feel like they are stalking her. Instead, the protagonist looks directly to the camera when she has an orgasm in a confrontational way. Stopkewich chose to have a white light in this moment to make it possible for people to see how others are reacting and discourage people from walking out in the middle of the film. The director also said she was confronted by people angry "with the fact we've created this character who is totally inaccessible from a male, heterosexual standpoint", and commented Sandra's sexual acts were not phallocentric. Paakspuu, in the chapter "Lynne Stopkewich: Abject Sexualities" of Great Canadian Film Directors, described Sandra as an "id-driven, free spirit, in touch with her feelings and emotions—a loner with the sensitivity of a poet", and said that her quest for forbidden knowledge and deviant sexuality made her "a woman to fear".
Lee Parpart, writing in The Gendered Screen: Canadian Women Filmmakers, commented that Kissed features "contradictory impulses" in the simultaneous wish to have the audience sympathy and to keep them out of their comfort zone that make difficult to say if it is or not a feminist film. On one hand, Stopkewich called Kissed "the Disney version of a film about necrophilia", which Parpart agreed when she analyzed the different portrayal Sandra had in Gowdy's short story. Parpart said Stopkewich "de-radicalize" core aspects of the original story by removing its emphasis on middle-aged femininity, adding a spiritual tone that makes her sound inoffensive, making changes in her voice tone, and changing its ending to one that aligns Sandra with the domestic values of loyalty and monogamy. She also stated that the fact that the characters's deviant sexuality is contained within a heteronormative context helped its normalization. On the other hand, Parpart observed the film had a modernist desire to provide audience with intellectual discomfort as evidenced by Stopkewich's use of white light to constrain walking out people. She further declared it fit third-wave feminism's trend for female icons who balance empowerment with sexual availability and allure, and functioned as part of the debates within 1980s feminism in North America, including feminist reconsiderations of the role of pornography and its censorship.
Paakspuu analyzed that Sandra's obsession with death is associated with her first menstruation—an addition done by Stopkewich that fills in details that have only been implied in Gowdy's story. One of the first moments Sandra realizes her passion is when she is playing with dead animals along her friend Carol. At one point, Sandra is reprehended by Carol when she thinks Sandra had rubbed herself with animal blood when it is actually menstrual blood. According to Paakspuu, Carol's reaction could be interpreted as demonstrating a moral belief system that opposes a "good" blood (menstrual/life giving) to a "bad" one (from death/injury). By doing that, Stopkewich subverts what would be common and naturalizes the deviance.
Light use and spirituality
The display of light and darkness in Kissed was meant to be symbolic by Stopkewich, who was influenced by Gowdy's description of Sandra's sexual acts as "being like being burned by a white light". Since necrophilia is usually seen as a morbid subject, Stopkewich tried to subvert this perception by making Sandra "a child of light (and by association) of goodness". The director said: "We used burns to white whenever Sandra touches death to play against the idea of a cold so deep it is seen as a white light". The whiteness was also influenced by and a homage to German Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 1974 film Effi Briest, in which blinding fades to white denote the protagonist's desire to be free from the constraints of social status. Sandra's necrophile acts are the moments in which fog filters are used to create a "spirit-filled glow or 'aura' around the characters" that "intensify the lyrical, dream-like quality of 'crossing over'", as described by Paakspuu. Lee Parpart argued that the use of fog filters, halo effects, beloweye-line shots, and the white light made Kissed "sells its blood-loving lead character as a sensitive figure whose stated motivation for sleeping with dead bodies ... becomes all the more believable and acceptable because she is lit and shot in a way that lends her a kind of otherworldly beauty and innocence".
Paakspuu noted Stopkewich created a moral dichotomy through her symbolic use of lights, colour palette, scenarios, and sounds in the film. Sandra, presented as "a light-drenched angel" in Paakspuu's words, is shown in sparsely decorated grey-blue that mirrors the clarity of corpses. She becomes illuminated by red when she is courted by Matt, "embodying the uncontained sensuality and sexuality of a noir vamp". Matt is also thematically connected to darkness because of his basement apartment and attitudes like sitting in the dark and jumping out of the darkness at Sandra leaving the funeral home. Stopkweich said, "Darkness too plays a part if only to differentiate from the 'light' of Sandra's experience". Paakspuu wrote that Matt's darkness is shown by his interest in alternative realities and his lack of own motives that makes him try to fill that gap by making Sandra's interest his own. While she is associated with nature, shyness, and virginity because of her pagan and ritualistic's world, Matt's one is linked to science and technology and is claustrophobic and distracting. As such, their soundscapes reflect a nature–culture divide, in which Matt's surrounding sounds like traffic, household appliances and airplanes stand for the culture, while Sandra's classical elements and animals' sound effects stand for nature.
Many film critics considered that necrophilia was not the subject per se of the film. Roger Ebert said it "is about a necrophiliac, but in its approach, it could be about spirituality or transcendence." Totaro stated the film "[was] not about necrophilia at all", but a New Agey exploration of the mind–body problem. Totaro wrote it felt closer to "afterlife" or "out-of-body" experience films such as Ghost than Dellamorte Dellamore or the Nekromantik films and the that white light was used to make the audience understand that it was a spiritual experience. Parpart declared Sandra "seek[s] out a kind of sexual-spiritual union with the cadavers". Peter Bowen of Filmmaker commented that the film's opening voice-over "invit[ed] us to eroticize death in transcendent and spiritual ways" and that the light/darkness palette "symbolize[s] the story's libidinal and spiritual forces". Similarly, Paakspuu said the voice-over was used to poeticize the narrative and express Sandra's spirituality and worldview. Specific camera movement—swooping, spinning, and soaring—was also singled by Paakspuu because she considered it helped to contrast her necrophile acts as moments of "heightened sense of euphoria" in opposition to daily activities.
Release and reception
Kissed debuted at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 1996. Although it has been described as "one of the most controversial films" at the festival by Ebert, it was acquired by commercial distributors in only few days. According to The Canadian Encyclopedia, the film "caused a sensation" at film festivals, while Playback reported it "caused a stir and a bidding war" at Toronto and that on October 4, 1996, at least 300 people could not see Kissed showing in the Vancouver International Film Festival because it was crowded. Its exhibition at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival received a warm reception and was the first sell-out of the Directors' Fortnight.
The film opened in Canada on nine screens on April 11, 1997, where it was distributed by Malofilm. Although the company did not disclose box office numbers, Playback reports it grossed $256,000 at the Canadian box office. Cinépix Film Properties considered acquiring its American distribution rights, but ultimately it was done by Goldwyn Entertainment Company. In its opening three-day weekend on April 18, Kissed grossed $37,100 on eight screens. After 141 weeks in theaters in the United States, it grossed $329,211, according to Box Office Mojo, while The Numbers informs a total gross of $465,417. The film was also marketed in Europe and, according to the European Audiovisual Observatory, the film was seen by 77,887 people in the continent. The highest attendance occurred in Italy (over 19,000), the United Kingdom (18,000), and Germany (11,000). The film was described as "an art-house hit" and as a "indie hit" by The Province and The Globe and Mail, respectively.
The film received widespread critical acclaim from film critics at the time of its release. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 68% approval rating based on 22 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. Mostly positive commentary was directed towards Stopkewich's capacity of handling such a subject in a subtle and sensitive way and to Parker's performance. Maclean's reported that, despite its taboo-subject, "what shocked many of those who actually saw Kissed was that it was so sensitive, so poetic and so strangely inoffensive". It has been described as bold debut film; Maclean's called it "arguably the most provocative debut in the annals of Canadian cinema" and included both Stopkewich and Parker in a 1997's list of "100 Canadians to Watch".
The New York Times noted that "it would be easy to snicker at this Canadian film, were its subject not handled with a delicacy and lyricism that underscore the mystical rather than gruesome aspects of what Sandra coolly acknowledges is a consuming addiction." The A.V. Club stated that "There's much of interest here, and though it's rare and refreshing to find a film that genuinely tries to address the subject of death directly, Kissed is likely to leave its audience as cold as the objects of its heroine's desire."
Impact
"The Kissed hype", as described Playback, resulted in a month-long tour by Stopkewich in the United States, where she and Parker signed to the William Morris Agency. Between the aftermath of its wide release and the end of 1997, Stopkewich was receiving a lot of potential scripts from Hollywood and elsewhere. Until acting as Sandra in Kissed, Parker had only been featured in relatively unknown Canadian television productions; this was Parker's breakthrough role. After receiving critical acclaim, she appeared in Variety cover, and attracted the attention of several directors and producers, including British Michael Winterbottom (Wonderland, 1999), Hungarian István Szabó (Sunshine, 1999), and American Jodie Foster (Waking the Dead, 2000).
Along with Atom Egoyan's 1994 Exotica and David Cronenberg's 1996 Crash, Kissed helped the Canadian film industry to acquire international notoriety. The Canadian Encyclopedia article "Canadian Film History: Notable Films and Filmmakers 1980 to Present" highlighted it, calling it "a highly successful" piece.
Awards
Soundtrack
The original soundtrack album for Kissed was released by Nettwerk Records under the Unforscene Music imprint in 1997 and featured music appearing in and recorded for the film.
Don Macdonald – Bird in Hand (Original Score)
Ginger – Far Out
Don Macdonald – Ambulance (Original Score)
The Ids – Locked in a Room
Suzanne Little – This Time
Don Macdonald – Opening in Darkness (Original Score)
Tom Hooper – Come to Me
Don Macdonald – Vanity Mirror (Original Score)
Tara MacLean – That's Me
Delerium – Flowers Become Screens
Don Macdonald – Graveyard (Original Score)
Mark Findler – Train of Misery
Don Macdonald – Prep Room (Original Score)
The Aquanettas – Beach Party (remix)
Don Macdonald – Dead Matt (Original Score)
Kristy Thirsk – Bounds of Love
Don Macdonald – Love (Original Score)
Sarah McLachlan – Fumbling Towards Ecstasy
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1996 films
1996 directorial debut films
1996 drama films
Canadian erotic drama films
English-language Canadian films
Films about sexual repression
Films based on Canadian short stories
Films directed by Lynne Stopkewich
Films shot in Vancouver
Films set in Vancouver
Funeral homes in fiction
Necrophilia in film
Orion Pictures films
The Samuel Goldwyn Company films
1990s English-language films
1990s Canadian films |
4198320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20stabilization | Image stabilization | Image stabilization (IS) is a family of techniques that reduce blurring associated with the motion of a camera or other imaging device during exposure.
Generally, it compensates for pan and tilt (angular movement, equivalent to yaw and pitch) of the imaging device, though electronic image stabilization can also compensate for rotation about the optical axis (roll). It is mainly used in high-end image-stabilized binoculars, still and video cameras, astronomical telescopes, and also smartphones. With still cameras, camera shake is a particular problem at slow shutter speeds or with long focal length lenses (telephoto or zoom). With video cameras, camera shake causes visible frame-to-frame jitter in the recorded video. In astronomy, the problem of lens shake is added to variation in the atmosphere, which changes the apparent positions of objects over time.
Application in still photography
In photography, image stabilization can facilitate shutter speeds 2 to 5.5 stops slower (exposures 4 to times longer), and even slower effective speeds have been reported.
A rule of thumb to determine the slowest shutter speed possible for hand-holding without noticeable blur due to camera shake is to take the reciprocal of the 35 mm equivalent focal length of the lens, also known as the "1/mm rule". For example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed is slower than second. As a result of the 2-to-4.5-stops slower shutter speeds allowed by IS, an image taken at second speed with an ordinary lens could be taken at or second with an IS-equipped lens and produce almost the same quality. The sharpness obtainable at a given speed can increase dramatically.
When calculating the effective focal length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use an image sensor that is , , or the size of a 35 mm film frame. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5, 1.6, or 2 times the size of the digital sensor. The latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2× crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the same field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera, and can typically be handheld at second.
However, image stabilization does not prevent motion blur caused by the movement of the subject or by extreme movements of the camera. Image stabilization is only designed for and capable of reducing blur that results from normal, minute shaking of a lens due to hand-held shooting. Some lenses and camera bodies include a secondary panning mode or a more aggressive 'active mode', both described in greater detail below under optical image stabilization.
Astrophotography makes much use of long-exposure photography, which requires the camera to be fixed in place. However, fastening it to the Earth is not enough, since the Earth rotates. The Pentax K-5 and K-r, when equipped with the O-GPS1 GPS accessory for position data, can use their sensor-shift capability to reduce the resulting star trails.
Stabilization can be applied in the lens, or in the camera body. Each method has distinctive advantages and disadvantages.
Techniques
Optical image stabilization
An optical image stabilizer (OIS, IS, or OS) is a mechanism used in still or video cameras that stabilizes the recorded image by varying the optical path to the sensor. This technology is implemented in the lens itself, as distinct from in-body image stabilization (IBIS), which operates by moving the sensor as the final element in the optical path. The key element of all optical stabilization systems is that they stabilize the image projected on the sensor before the sensor converts the image into digital information. IBIS can have up to 5 axis of movement: X, Y, Roll, Yaw, and Pitch. IBIS has the added advantage of working with all lenses.
Benefits of OIS
Optical image stabilization prolongs the shutter speed possible for handheld photography by reducing the likelihood of blurring the image from shake during the same exposure time.
For handheld video recording, regardless of lighting conditions, optical image stabilization compensates for minor shakes whose appearance magnifies when watched on a large display such as a television set or computer monitor.
Names by vendors
Different companies have different names for the OIS technology, for example:
Vibration Reduction (VR) – Nikon (produced the first optical two-axis stabilized lens, a 38–105 mm f/4–7.8 zoom built into the Nikon Zoom 700VR (US: Zoom-Touch 105 VR) camera in 1994)
Image Stabilizer (IS) – Canon introduced the EF 75–300 mm f/4–5.6 IS USM) in 1995. In 2009, they introduced their first lens (the EF 100mm F2.8 Macro L) to use a four-axis Hybrid IS.)
Anti-Shake (AS) – Minolta and Konica Minolta (Minolta introduced the first sensor-based two-axis image stabilizer with the DiMAGE A1 in 2003)
IBIS - In Body Image Stabilisation – Olympus and Fujifilm
Optical SteadyShot (OSS) – Sony (for Cyber-shot and several α E-mount lenses)
Optical Image Stabilization (OIS) – Fujifilm
MegaOIS, PowerOIS – Panasonic and Leica
SteadyShot (SS), Super SteadyShot (SSS), SteadyShot INSIDE (SSI) – Sony (based on Konica Minolta's Anti-Shake originally, Sony introduced a 2-axis full-frame variant for the DSLR-A900 in 2008 and a 5-axis stabilizer for the full-frame ILCE-7M2 in 2014)
Optical Stabilization (OS) – Sigma
Vibration Compensation (VC) – Tamron
Shake Reduction (SR) – Pentax
PureView – Nokia (produced the first cell phone optical stabilised sensor, built into the Lumia 920)
UltraPixel – HTC (Image Stabilization is only available for the 2013 HTC One & 2016 HTC 10 with UltraPixel. It is not available for the HTC One (M8) or HTC Butterfly S, which also have UltraPixel)
Most high-end smartphones as of late 2014 use optical image stabilization for photos and videos.
Lens-based
In Nikon and Canon's implementation, it works by using a floating lens element that is moved orthogonally to the optical axis of the lens using electromagnets. Vibration is detected using two piezoelectric angular velocity sensors (often called gyroscopic sensors), one to detect horizontal movement and the other to detect vertical movement. As a result, this kind of image stabilizer corrects only for pitch and yaw axis rotations, and cannot correct for rotation around the optical axis. Some lenses have a secondary mode that counteracts vertical-only camera shake. This mode is useful when using a panning technique. Some such lenses activate it automatically; others use a switch on the lens.
To compensate for camera shake in shooting video while walking, Panasonic introduced Power Hybrid OIS+ with five-axis correction: axis rotation, horizontal rotation, vertical rotation, and horizontal and vertical motion.
Some Nikon VR-enabled lenses offer an "active" mode for shooting from a moving vehicle, such as a car or boat, which is supposed to correct for larger shakes than the "normal" mode. However, active mode used for normal shooting can produce poorer results than normal mode. This is because active mode is optimized for reducing higher angular velocity movements (typically when shooting from a heavily moving platform using faster shutter speeds), where normal mode tries to reduce lower angular velocity movements over a larger amplitude and timeframe (typically body and hand movement when standing on a stationary or slowly moving platform while using slower shutter speeds).
Most manufacturers suggest that the IS feature of a lens be turned off when the lens is mounted on a tripod as it can cause erratic results and is generally unnecessary. Many modern image stabilization lenses (notably Canon's more recent IS lenses) are able to auto-detect that they are tripod-mounted (as a result of extremely low vibration readings) and disable IS automatically to prevent this and any consequent image quality reduction. The system also draws battery power, so deactivating it when not needed extends the battery charge.
A disadvantage of lens-based image stabilization is cost. Each lens requires its own image stabilization system. Also, not every lens is available in an image-stabilized version. This is often the case for fast primes and wide-angle lenses. However, the fastest lens with image stabilisation is the Nocticron with a speed of f/1.2. While the most obvious advantage for image stabilization lies with longer focal lengths, even normal and wide-angle lenses benefit from it in low-light applications.
Lens-based stabilization also has advantages over in-body stabilization. In low-light or low-contrast situations, the autofocus system (which has no stabilized sensors) is able to work more accurately when the image coming from the lens is already stabilized. In cameras with optical viewfinders, the image seen by the photographer through the stabilized lens (as opposed to in-body stabilization) reveals more detail because of its stability, and it also makes correct framing easier. This is especially the case with longer telephoto lenses. This is not an issue for Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera systems, because the sensor output to the screen or electronic viewfinder is stabilized.
Sensor-shift
The sensor capturing the image can be moved in such a way as to counteract the motion of the camera, a technology often referred to as mechanical image stabilization. When the camera rotates, causing angular error, gyroscopes encode information to the actuator that moves the sensor. The sensor is moved to maintain the projection of the image onto the image plane, which is a function of the focal length of the lens being used. Modern cameras can automatically acquire focal length information from modern lenses made for that camera. Minolta and Konica Minolta used a technique called Anti-Shake (AS) now marketed as SteadyShot (SS) in the Sony α line and Shake Reduction (SR) in the Pentax K-series and Q series cameras, which relies on a very precise angular rate sensor to detect camera motion. Olympus introduced image stabilization with their E-510 D-SLR body, employing a system built around their Supersonic Wave Drive. Other manufacturers use digital signal processors (DSP) to analyze the image on the fly and then move the sensor appropriately. Sensor shifting is also used in some cameras by Fujifilm, Samsung, Casio Exilim and Ricoh Caplio.
The advantage with moving the image sensor, instead of the lens, is that the image can be stabilized even on lenses made without stabilization. This may allow the stabilization to work with many otherwise-unstabilized lenses, and reduces the weight and complexity of the lenses. Further, when sensor-based image stabilization technology improves, it requires replacing only the camera to take advantage of the improvements, which is typically far less expensive than replacing all existing lenses if relying on lens-based image stabilization. Some sensor-based image stabilization implementations are capable of correcting camera roll rotation, a motion that is easily excited by pressing the shutter button. No lens-based system can address this potential source of image blur. A by-product of available "roll" compensation is that the camera can automatically correct for tilted horizons in the optical domain, provided it is equipped with an electronic spirit level, such as the Pentax K-7/K-5 cameras.
One of the primary disadvantages of moving the image sensor itself is that the image projected to the viewfinder is not stabilized. Similarly, the image projected to a phase-detection autofocus system that is not part of the image sensor, if used, is not stabilized. This is not an issue on cameras that use an electronic viewfinder (EVF), since the image projected on that viewfinder is taken from the image sensor itself.
Some, but not all, camera-bodies capable of in-body stabilization can be pre-set manually to a given focal length. Their stabilization system corrects as if that focal length lens is attached, so the camera can stabilize older lenses, and lenses from other makers. This isn't viable with zoom lenses, because their focal length is variable. Some adapters communicate focal length information from the maker of one lens to the body of another maker. Some lenses that do not report their focal length can be retrofitted with a chip which reports a pre-programmed focal-length to the camera body. Sometimes, none of these techniques work, and image-stabilization cannot be used with such lenses.
In-body image stabilization requires the lens to have a larger output image circle because the sensor is moved during exposure and thus uses a larger part of the image. Compared to lens movements in optical image stabilization systems the sensor movements are quite large, so the effectiveness is limited by the maximum range of sensor movement, where a typical modern optically-stabilized lens has greater freedom. Both the speed and range of the required sensor movement increase with the focal length of the lens being used, making sensor-shift technology less suited for very long telephoto lenses, especially when using slower shutter speeds, because the available motion range of the sensor quickly becomes insufficient to cope with the increasing image displacement.
In September 2023, Nikon has announced the release of Nikon Z f, which has the world’s first Focus-Point VR technology that centers the axis of sensor shift image stabilization at the autofocus point, rather than at the center of the sensor like the conventional sensor shift image stabilization system. This allows for vibration reduction at the focused point rather than just in the center of the image.
Dual
Starting with the Panasonic Lumix DMC-GX8, announced in July 2015, and subsequently in the Panasonic Lumix DC-GH5, Panasonic, who formerly only equipped lens-based stabilization in its interchangeable lens camera system (of the Micro Four Thirds standard), introduced sensor-shift stabilization that works in concert with the existing lens-based system ("Dual IS").
In the meantime (2016), Olympus also offered two lenses with image stabilization that can be synchronized with the in-built image stabilization system of the image sensors of Olympus' Micro Four Thirds cameras ("Sync IS"). With this technology a gain of 6.5 f-stops can be achieved without blurred images. This is limited by the rotational movement of the surface of the Earth, that fools the accelerometers of the camera. Therefore, depending on the angle of view, the maximum exposure time should not exceed second for long telephoto shots (with a 35 mm equivalent focal length of 800 millimeters) and a little more than ten seconds for wide angle shots (with a 35 mm equivalent focal length of 24 millimeters), if the movement of the Earth is not taken into consideration by the image stabilization process.
In 2015, the Sony E camera system also allowed combining image stabilization systems of lenses and camera bodies, but without synchronizing the same degrees of freedom. In this case, only the independent compensation degrees of the in-built image sensor stabilization are activated to support lens stabilisation.
Canon and Nikon now have full-frame mirrorless bodies that have IBIS and also support each company's lens-based stabilization. Canon's first two such bodies, the EOS R and RP, do not have IBIS, but the feature was added for the more recent higher end R3, R5, R6 (and its MkII version) and the APS-C R7. However, the full frame R8 and APS-C R10 do not have IBIS. All of Nikon's full-frame Z-mount bodies—the Z 6, Z 7, the Mark II versions of both, the , Z 8 and , Z 9 have IBIS. However, its APS-C Z 50 lacks IBIS.
Digital image stabilization
Real-time digital image stabilization, also called electronic image stabilization (EIS), is used in some video cameras. This technique shifts the cropped area read out from the image sensor for each frame to counteract the motion. This requires the resolution of the image sensor to exceed the resolution of the recorded video, and it slightly reduces the field of view because the area on the image sensor outside the visible frame acts as a buffer against hand movements. This technique reduces distracting vibrations from videos by smoothing the transition from one frame to another.
This technique can not do anything about existing motion blur, which may result in an image seemingly losing focus as motion is compensated due to movement during the exposure times of individual frames. This effect is more visible in darker sceneries due to prolonged exposure times per frame.
Some still camera manufacturers marketed their cameras as having digital image stabilization when they really only had a high-sensitivity mode that uses a short exposure time—producing pictures with less motion blur, but more noise. It reduces blur when photographing something that is moving, as well as from camera shake.
Others now also use digital signal processing (DSP) to reduce blur in stills, for example by sub-dividing the exposure into several shorter exposures in rapid succession, discarding blurred ones, re-aligning the sharpest sub-exposures and adding them together, and using the gyroscope to detect the best time to take each frame.
Stabilization filters
Many video non-linear editing systems use stabilization filters that can correct a non-stabilized image by tracking the movement of pixels in the image and correcting the image by moving the frame. The process is similar to digital image stabilization but since there is no larger image to work with the filter either crops the image down to hide the motion of the frame or attempts to recreate the lost image at the edge through spatial or temporal extrapolation.
Online services, including YouTube, are also beginning to provide 'video stabilization as a post-processing step after content is uploaded. This has the disadvantage of not having access to the realtime gyroscopic data, but the advantage of more computing power and the ability to analyze images both before and after a particular frame.
Orthogonal transfer CCD
Used in astronomy, an orthogonal transfer CCD (OTCCD) actually shifts the image within the CCD itself while the image is being captured, based on analysis of the apparent motion of bright stars. This is a rare example of digital stabilization for still pictures. An example of this is in the upcoming gigapixel telescope Pan-STARRS being constructed in Hawaii.
Stabilizing the camera body
A technique that requires no additional capabilities of any camera body–lens combination consists of stabilizing the entire camera body externally rather than using an internal method. This is achieved by attaching a gyroscope to the camera body, usually using the camera's built-in tripod mount. This lets the external gyro (gimbal) stabilize the camera, and is typically used in photography from a moving vehicle, when a lens or camera offering another type of image stabilization is not available.
A common way to stabilize moving cameras after approx. year 2015 is by using a camera stabilizer such as a stabilized remote camera head. The camera and lens are mounted in a remote controlled camera holder which is then mounted on anything that moves, such as rail systems, cables, cars or helicopters. An example of a remote stabilized head that is used to stabilize moving TV cameras that are broadcasting live is the Newton stabilized head.
Another technique for stabilizing a video or motion picture camera body is the Steadicam system, which isolates the camera from the operator's body using a harness and a camera boom with a counterweight.
Camera stabilizer
A camera stabilizer is any device or object that externally stabilizes the camera. This can refer to a Steadicam, a tripod, the camera operator's hand, or a combination of these.
In close-up photography, using rotation sensors to compensate for changes in pointing direction becomes insufficient. Moving, rather than tilting, the camera up/down or left/right by a fraction of a millimeter becomes noticeable if you are trying to resolve millimeter-size details on the object. Linear accelerometers in the camera, coupled with information such as the lens focal length and focused distance, can feed a secondary correction into the drive that moves the sensor or optics, to compensate for linear as well as rotational shake.
In biological eyes
In many animals, including human beings, the inner ear functions as the biological analogue of an accelerometer in camera image stabilization systems, to stabilize the image by moving the eyes. When a rotation of the head is detected, an inhibitory signal is sent to the extraocular muscles on one side and an excitatory signal to the muscles on the other side. The result is a compensatory movement of the eyes. Typically eye movements lag the head movements by less than 10 ms.
See also
Adaptive optics
Deblurring
Heligimbal
Hyperlapse
Motion compensation
Shaky camera
Notes
References
Articles containing video clips |
4198464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual%20scavenging | Manual scavenging | Manual scavenging is a term used mainly in India for "manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or sewer or in a septic tank or a pit". Manual scavengers usually use hand tools such as buckets, brooms and shovels. The workers have to move the excreta, using brooms and tin plates, into baskets, which they carry to disposal locations sometimes several kilometers away. The practice of employing human labour for cleaning of sewers and septic tanks is also prevalent in Bangladesh and Pakistan. These sanitation workers, called "manual scavengers", rarely have any personal protective equipment. The work is regarded as a dehumanizing practice.
The occupation of sanitation work is intrinsically linked with caste in India. All kinds of cleaning are considered lowly and are assigned to people from the lowest rung of the social hierarchy. In the caste-based society, it is mainly the Dalits who work as sanitation workers - as manual scavengers, cleaners of drains, as garbage collectors and sweepers of roads. It was estimated in 2019 that between 40 and 60 percent of the six million households of Dalit sub-castes are engaged in sanitation work. The most common Dalit caste performing sanitation work is the Valmiki (also Balmiki) caste.
The construction of dry toilets and employment of manual scavengers to clean such dry toilets was prohibited in India in 1993. The law was extended and clarified to include ban on use of human labour for direct cleaning of sewers, ditches, pits and septic tanks in 2013. However, despite the laws, manual scavenging was reported in many states including Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan in 2014. In 2021, the NHRC observed that eradication of manual scavenging as claimed by state and local governments is far from over. Government data shows that in the period 1993–2021, 971 people died due to cleaning of sewers and septic tanks.
The term "manual scavenging" differs from the stand-alone term "scavenging", which is one of the oldest economic activities and refers to the act of sorting though and picking from discarded waste. Sometimes called waste pickers or ragpickers, scavengers usually collect from the streets, dumpsites, or landfills. They collect reusable and recyclable material to sell, reintegrating it into the economy's production process. The practice exists in cities and towns across the Global South.
Definition
Manual scavenging refers to the unsafe and manual removal of raw (fresh and untreated) human excreta from buckets or other containers that are used as toilets or from the pits of simple pit latrines. The safe and controlled emptying of pit latrines, on the other hand, is one component of fecal sludge management.
The official definition of a manual scavenger in Indian law from 1993 is as follows:"manual scavenger" means a person engaged in or employed for manually carrying human excreta and the expression "manual scavenging" shall be construed accordinglyIn 2013, the definition of manual scavenger was expanded to include persons employed in cleaning of septic tanks, open drains and railway tracks. It reads:
"Manual scavenger" means a person engaged or employed, at the commencement of this Act or at any time thereafter, by an individual or a local authority or an agency or a contractor, for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit into which the human excreta from the insanitary latrines is disposed of, or railway track or in such other spaces or premises, as the Central Government or a State Government may notify, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed, and the expression “manual scavenging” shall be construed accordingly.
The definition ignores many other sanitation workers like fecal sludge handlers, community and public toilet cleaners, workers cleaning storm water drains, waste segregators, etc. Such workers are not required to handle excreta directly, but get in contact due to poor working conditions, lack of segregation, and the interconnectedness of excreta management with solid waste management and storm water management, states notable sanitation crusader and investigative journalist Pragya Akhilesh. The 2013 Act adds that a person engaged or employed to clean excreta with the help of equipment and using the protective gear as notified by the Union government shall not be deemed to be a manual scavenger. Bhasha Singh argues that this clause gives the government an escape clause as all forms of manual scavenging can be kept outside the purview of the law by arguing that the person are using protective gear.
In 2021, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India advocated for the term to include other types of hazardous cleaning.
There is a very clear gender division of various types of work that is called manual scavenging in India. The cleaning of dry toilets and carrying the waste to point of disposal is generally done by women, while men are involved in cleaning of septic tanks and sewers. There is an economic reason for this distribution - the municipality employs workers to clean sewers and septic tanks and hence the salary is better. Cleaning private toilets, on the other hand, pays little and is therefore handed over to the women. The women involved are referred to differently - 'dabbu-wali' in Bengal, 'balti-wali' in Kanpur, 'tina-wali in Bihar, tokri-wali in Punjab and Haryana, 'thottikar' in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, 'paaki' or 'peeti' in Odisha, 'vaatal' in Kashmir. These names directly refer to the tools (dabbu, balti, tokri) used by the women to carry waste or dustbin (thottikar) or excreta (paaki, peeti).
Manual scavenging is done with basic tools like thin boards and either buckets or baskets lined with sacking and carried on the head. Due to the hazardous nature of the job, many of the workers have related health problems. Scavengers risk suffering from respiratory disorders, typhoid, and cholera. Scavengers may also contract skin and blood infections, eye and respiratory infections due to exposure to pollutants, skeletal disorder caused by the lifting of heavy storage containers, and burns due to coming into contact with hazardous chemicals combined with waste. The data obtained by Safai Karmachari Andolan for 2017-2018 found that the average age of deceased sewer workers to be around 32 years, that is, they do not even reach the age of retirement and a family often loses its breadwinner very early.
Not all forms of dry toilets involve "manual scavenging" to empty them, but only those that require unsafe handling of raw excreta. If on the other hand the excreta is already treated or pre-treated in the dry toilet itself, as is the case for composting toilets, and urine-diverting dry toilets for example, then emptying these types of toilets is not classified as "manual scavenging". Container-based sanitation is another system that does not require manual scavenging to function even though it does involve the emptying of excreta from containers.
Also, emptying the pits of twin-pit (see pit latrine for details) toilets is not classified as manual scavenging in India, as if used and emptied appropriately, the excreta is already treated.
The International Labour Organization describes three forms of manual scavenging in India:
Removal of human excrement from public streets and "dry latrines" (meaning simple pit latrines without a water seal, but not dry toilets in general)
Cleaning septic tanks
Cleaning gutters and sewers
Manual cleaning of railway lines of excreta dropped from toilets of trains is another form of manual scavenging in India.
The Hindi phrase safai karamchari defines not only "manual scavengers" but also other sanitation workers.
History
The practice of manual scavenging in India dates back to ancient times. According to the contents of sacred scriptures and other literature, scavenging by some specific castes of India has existed since the beginning of civilization. One of the fifteen duties of slaves enumerated in Naradiya Samhita was of manual scavenging. This continues during the Buddhist and Maurya period also.
Scholars have suggested that the Mughal women with purdah required enclosed toilets that needed to be scavenged. It is pointed out that the Bhangis (Chuhra) share some of the clan names with Rajputs, and propose that the Bhangis are descendants of those captured in wars. There are many legends about the origin of Bhangis, who have traditionally served as manual scavengers. One of them, associated with Lal Begi Bhangis, describes the origin of Bhangis from Mehtar.
Manual scavenging is historically linked to the caste system in India. Not only cleaning of toilets, but all types of cleaning jobs are considered lowly in India. The elites assigned the most lowly and polluting jobs for members of the Dalit community. The caste-based assignment of cleaning jobs can be traced back to the rise of Hinduism and revival of the Brahmanical order during the Gupta period, considered the golden era in the history of the Indian sub-continent. The workers usually belonged to the Balmiki (or Valmiki) or Hela (or Mehtar) subcastes; considered at the bottom of the hierarchy within the Dalit community itself.
Before the passage of the 1993 Act that prohibit employment for manual scavengers, local governments employed 'scavengers' to clean dry latrines in private houses and community or public facilities. These jobs were institutionalised by the British. In London, cesspits containing human waste were called 'gongs' or 'jakes' and men employed to clean them 'Gongfermours' or 'Gongfarmers'. They emptied such pits only in the night and dumped it outside the city. They had designated areas to live and were allowed to use only certain roads and by lanes to carry the waste. The British organized systems for removing the excreta and employed Bhangis as manual scavengers. They also brought Dalits working as agricultural labourers in the rural areas for the job in urban areas. This formal employment of Bhangis and Chamars for waste management by the British reinforced the caste based assignment. Even today, sanitation department jobs are almost unofficially 100% reserved for people from the Scheduled caste groups.
Current prevalence
Despite the passage of two pieces of legislation, the prevalence of manual scavenging is an open secret. According to the Socio Economic Caste Census 2011, 180,657 households within India are engaged in manual scavenging for a livelihood. The 2011 Census of India found 794,000 cases of manual scavenging across India. The state of Maharashtra, with 63,713, tops the list with the largest number of households working as manual scavengers, followed by the states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura and Karnataka. Manual scavenging still survives in parts of India without proper sewage systems or safe fecal sludge management practices. It is thought to be prevalent in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
In March 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared that there were 96 lakh (9.6 million) dry latrines being manually emptied but the exact number of manual scavengers is disputed – official figures put it at less than 700,000. An estimate in 2018 put the number of "sanitation workers" in India at 5 million, and 50% of them being women. However, not all sanitation workers are manual scavengers. Another estimate from 2018 put the figure at one million manual scavengers, stating that the number is "unknown and declining" and that 90% of them are women.
The biggest violator of this law in India is the Indian Railways where many train carriages have toilets dropping the excreta from trains on the tracks and who employ scavengers to clean the tracks manually. The situation is being improved in 2018 by the addition of on-train treatment systems for the toilet waste.
Bezwada Wilson, an activist, at the forefront in the battle to eradicate manual scavenging, argues that the practice continues due to its casteist nature. He also argues that the failure of implementation of the 1993 Act is a collective failure of the leadership, judiciary, the administration, and the Dalit movements to address the concerns of the most marginalized community. Unlike infrastructure projects like metros, the issue receives little or no priority from the Government and hence the deadline to comply with the 1993 Act has been continuously postponed. An example that demonstrates the apathy of the government is the fact that none of the Rupees 100 Crore (1,000 million) allocated in the budgets for financial years 2011-12 and 2012-13 was spent. Such is the stigma attached to manual scavengers that even professionals who work for their emancipation get labelled (for example, Bhasha Singh was wrongly labelled 'manual scavenging journalist'). Prolific investigative journalists like Pragya Akhilesh who is one of the most notable sanitation crusaders in India for her critique of the SBM is also wrongly labelled as 'Toiletwoman of India' to diminish her decade long contribution to this area.
Threats and harassment
In India, women who practice manual scavenging face pressure from their respective communities if they miss a day since toilets are cleaned every day. Many women have no choice but to turn up to clean the toilets. The practical requirement that they do not miss a day prevents them from pursuing alternate occupations like agricultural labor. And in the event that they are able to find the means and support to stop manual scavenging, women still face extreme pressure from the community.
Initiatives for eradication
Legislation
In the late 1950s, freedom fighter G. S. Lakshman Iyer banned manual scavenging when he was the chairman of Gobichettipalayam Municipality, which became the first local body to ban it officially. Sanitation is a State subject as per entry 6 of the Constitution. Under this, in February 2013 Delhi announced that they were banning manual scavenging, making them the first state in India to do so. District magistrates are responsible for ensuring that there are no manual scavengers working in their district. Within three years of the ruling municipalities, railways and cantonments were required to make sufficient sanitary latrines available.
But by using Article 252 of the constitution which empowers Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State, the Government of India has enacted various laws. The continuance of such discriminatory practice is violation of ILO's Convention 111 (Discrimination in Employment and Occupation). The United Nations human rights chief welcomed in 2013 the movement in India to eradicate manual scavenging.
In 2007 the Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers was passed to help in transition to other occupations.
The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993
After six states passed resolutions requesting the Central Government to frame a law, "The Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993", drafted by the Ministry of Urban Development under the Narasimha Rao government, was passed by Parliament in 1993. The act punishes the employment of scavengers or the construction of dry (non-flush) latrines with imprisonment for up to one year and/or a fine of Rs 2,000. No convictions were obtained under the law during the 20 years it was in force.
The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013 or M.S. Act 2013
Government has passed the new legislation in September 2013 and issued Government notification for the same. In December, 2013 Government also formulated Rules-2013 called as "The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Rules 2013" or "M.S. Rules 2013". The hearing on 27 March 2014 was held on manual scavenging of writ petition number 583 of 2003, and Supreme Court has issued final orders and case is disposed of with various directions to the Government. The broad objectives of the act are to eliminate unsanitary latrines, prohibit the employment of manual scavengers and the hazardous manual cleaning of sewer and septic tanks, and to maintain a survey of manual scavengers and their rehabilitation.
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation (Amendment) Bill, 2020
The Bill calls for a complete mechanization of cleaning sewers and septic tanks.
Activism
In India in 1970s, Bindeshwar Pathak introduced his "Sulabh" concept for building and managing public toilets in India, which has introduced hygienic and well-managed public toilet systems. Activist Bezwada Wilson founded a group in 1994, Safai Karmachari Andolan, to campaign for the demolition of then newly illegal 'dry latrines' (pit latrines) and the abolition of manual scavenging. Despite the efforts of Wilson and other activists, the practice persists two decades later. In July 2008 "Mission Sanitation" was a fashion show held by the United Nations as part of its International Year of Sanitation. On the runway were 36 previous workers, called scavengers, and top models to help bring awareness of the issue of manual scavenging.
The Movement for Scavenger Community (MSC) is an NGO founded in 2009 by Vimal Kumar with young people, social activists, and like-minded people from the scavenger community. MSC is committed to working towards the social and economic empowerment of the scavenger community through the medium of education.
The "Campaign for Dignity" (Garima Abhiyan) in Madhya Pradesh in India has assisted more than 20,000 women to stop doing manual scavenging as an occupation.
Pragya Akhilesh is an investigative journalist. Her writings on this area in platforms like the Indian Express, The Wire, Outlook, Deccan Herald and Hindustan Times has transformed the dialogue on sanitation workers and has transformed the course of truthful journalism in India despite violent attacks by the Hindu right wing government in India. She is one of the biggest sanitation crusaders rightfully called as the 'sanitation woman of India' like Rajendra Singh is called the 'Water man of India.' She has been wrongly labelled as the ‘toilet woman of Delhi’ like Bhasha Singh is called 'a manual scavenging journalist' by the government for her prolific contribution highlighting SBM's irregularities focusing on merely infrastructure building rather than protecting the rights of thousands of sanitation workers in India. Since 2010 she has highlighted the government's failure to recognise the labour movement of sanitation workers and the failure to eradicate and rehabilitate manual scavengers in India.
Other countries
Manual emptying of toilets also took place in Europe. Historically the excreta was known as night soil and in Tudor England the workers were called gong farmers.
In Pakistan municipalities still rely on Christian sweepers. In the city of Karachi, sweepers keep the sewer system flowing, using their bare hands to unclog crumbling drainpipes of feces, plastic bags and hazardous hospital refuse, part of the 1,750 million litres of waste the city's 20 million residents produce daily. Christians make up a small percentage of Pakistan's population, and they fill majority of the sweeper jobs. When Karachi's municipality tried to recruit Muslims to unclog gutters, they refused to get down into the sewers, instead sweeping the streets. The job was left to Christians and lower-caste Hindus.
Waste storage practices in homes in Sierra Leone are poor, adding to collection difficulties. Unsorted waste is often stored in old leaky buckets, and used plastic bags instead of a bin lined with plastic bags. Like most African countries, waste collection is a problem. Garbage collected by collection workers, who are not provided with personal protective equipment like gloves, from communal skips is moved straight for the city's two disposal sites. Scavengers try to earn a living from scouring through rotting rubbish, plastic bags and raw sewage for discarded things they can sell.
See also
Sanitation worker
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission)
Waste collector
Water supply and sanitation in India
References
Sewerage
Toilets
Cleaning and maintenance occupations |
4198908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengalis | Bengalis | Bengalis (singular Bengali ), also rendered as Bangalee or the Bengali people, are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the Bengal region of South Asia. The current population is divided between the independent country Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura, Barak Valley, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand and part of Meghalaya and Manipur. Most of them speak Bengali, a language from the Indo-Aryan language family.
Bengalis are the third-largest ethnic group in the world, after the Han Chinese and Arabs. Thus, they are the largest ethnic group within the Indo-Europeans and the largest ethnic group in South Asia. Apart from Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura, Manipur, and Assam's Barak Valley, Bengali-majority populations also reside in India's union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with significant populations in the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Nagaland and Uttarakhand as well as Nepal's Province No. 1. The global Bengali diaspora (Bangladeshi Bengalis and Indian Bengalis) have well-established communities in the Middle East, Pakistan, Myanmar, the United Kingdom, the United States, Malaysia, Italy, Singapore, Maldives, Canada, Australia, Japan and South Korea.
Bengalis are a diverse group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. Today, approximately 68% are adherents of Islam with a large Hindu minority and sizable communities of Christians and Buddhists. Bengali Muslims, who live mainly in Bangladesh, primarily belong to the Sunni denomination. Bengali Hindus, who live primarily in West Bengal, Tripura, Assam's Barak Valley, Jharkhand and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, generally follow Shaktism or Vaishnavism, in addition to worshipping regional deities. There also exist small numbers of Bengali Christians, a large number of whom are descendants of Portuguese voyagers, as well as Bengali Buddhists, the bulk of whom belong to the Bengali-speaking Barua group in Chittagong and Rakhine (who should not be confused with other Buddhists of Bangladesh that belong to different ethnic groups).
Like every large culture group in history, Bengalis have greatly influenced and contributed to diverse fields, notably the arts and architecture, language, folklore, literature, politics, military, business, science and technology.
Etymology
The term Bengali is generally used to refer to someone whose linguistic, cultural or ancestral origins are from Bengal. The Indo-Aryan Bengalis are ethnically differentiated from the non-Indo-Aryan tribes inhabiting Bengal. Their ethnonym, Bangali, along with the native name of the language and region Bangla, are both derived from Bangālah, the Persian word for the region. Prior to Muslim expansion, there was no unitary territory by this name as the region was instead divided into numerous geopolitical divisions. The most prominent of these were Vaṅga (from which Bangālah is thought to ultimately derive from) in the south, Rāṛha in the west, Puṇḍravardhana and Varendra in the north, and Samataṭa and Harikela in the east. In ancient times, the people of this region identified themselves with respect to these divisions. Vedic texts such as the Mahābhārata makes mention of the Puṇḍra people.
The historic land of Vaṅga (bôngô in Bengali), situated in present-day Barisal, is considered by early historians of the Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions to have originated from a man who had settled in the area though it is often dismissed as legend. Early Abrahamic genealogists had suggested that this man was Bang, a son of Hind who was the son of Ham (son of Noah). In contrast, the Mahabharata, Puranas and the Harivamsha state that Vaṅga was the founder of the Vaṅga Kingdom and one of the adopted sons of King Vali. The land of Vaṅga later came to be known as Vaṅgāla (Bôngal) and its earliest reference is in the Nesari plates (805 CE) of Govinda III which speak of Dharmapāla as its king. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, speak of Govindachandra as the ruler of Vaṅgāladeśa (a Sanskrit cognate to the word Bangladesh, which was historically a synonymous endonym of Bengal). 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his ʿAin-i-Akbarī that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyāz us-Salāṭīn.
In 1352 CE, a Muslim nobleman by the name of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah united the region into a single political entity known as the Bengal Sultanate. Proclaiming himself as Shāh-i-Bangālīyān, it was in this period that the Bengali language also gained state patronage and corroborated literary development. Thus, Ilyas Shah had effectively formalised the socio-linguistic identity of the region's inhabitants as Bengali, by state, culture and language.
History
Ancient history
Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4,000-year-old Chalcolithic civilisation in the greater Bengal region, and believe the finds are one of the earliest signs of settlement in the region. However, evidence of much older Palaeolithic human habitations were found in the form of a stone implement and a hand axe in Rangamati and Feni districts of Bangladesh.
Artefacts suggest that the Wari-Bateshwar civilisation, which flourished in present-day Narsingdi, date as far back as 1100 BC. Not far from the rivers, the port city was believed to have been engaged in foreign trade with Ancient Rome, Southeast Asia and other regions. The people of this civilisation live in bricked homes, walked on wide roads, used silver coins and iron weaponry among many other things. It is thought to be the oldest city in Bengal and in the eastern part of the subcontinent as a whole.
It is thought that a man named Vanga settled in the area around 1000 BCE founding the Vanga Kingdom in southern Bengal. The Atharvaveda and the Hindu epic Mahabharata mentions this kingdom, along with the Pundra Kingdom in northern Bengal. The spread of Mauryan territory and promotion of Buddhism by its emperor Ashoka cultivated a growing Buddhist society among the people of present-day Bengal from the 2nd century BCE. Mauryan monuments as far as the Great Stupa of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh mentioned the people of this region as adherents of Buddhism. The Buddhists of the Bengal region built and used dozens of monasteries, and were recognised for their religious commitments as far as Nagarjunakonda in South India.
One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE. The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd ('Land with the Ganges in its heart') in reference to an area in Bengal. Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire.
Middle Ages
One of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around the early 7th century, who is generally thought to have originated from Magadha, Bihar, just west of Bengal. After a period of anarchy, a native ruler called Gopala came into power in 750 CE. He originated from Varendra in northern Bengal, and founded the Buddhist Pala Empire. Atiśa, a renowned Buddhist teacher from eastern Bengal, was instrumental in the revival of Buddhism in Tibet and also held the position of Abbot at the Vikramashila monastery in Bihar.
The Pala Empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire, and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East. The people of Samatata, in southeastern Bengal, during the 10th century were of various religious backgrounds. Tilopa was a prominent Hindu priest from modern-day Chittagong, though Samatata was ruled by the Buddhist Chandra dynasty. During this time, the Arab geographer Al-Masudi and author of The Meadows of Gold, travelled to the region where he noticed a Muslim community of inhabitants residing in the region. In addition to trade, Islam was also being introduced to the people of Bengal through the migration of Sufi missionaries prior to conquest. The earliest known Sufi missionaries were Syed Shah Surkhul Antia and his students, most notably Shah Sultan Rumi, in the 11th century. Rumi settled in present-day Netrokona, Mymensingh where he influenced the local ruler and population to embrace Islam.
The Pala dynasty was later followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Empire. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region. Bakhtiyar Khalji, a Turkic general, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Bengal Sultanate for the next few hundred years. Many of the people of Bengal began accepting Islam through the influx of missionaries following the initial conquest. Sultan Balkhi and Shah Makhdum Rupos settled in the present-day Rajshahi Division in northern Bengal, preaching to the communities there. A community of 13 Muslim families headed by Burhanuddin also existed in the northeastern Hindu city of Srihatta (Sylhet), claiming their descendants to have arrived from Chittagong. By 1303, hundreds of Sufi preachers led by Shah Jalal, who some biographers claim was a Turkistan-born Bengali, aided the Muslim rulers in Bengal to conquer Sylhet, turning the town into Jalal's headquarters for religious activities. Following the conquest, Jalal disseminated his followers across different parts of Bengal to spread Islam, and became a household name among Bengali Muslims.
The establishment of a single united Bengal Sultanate in 1352 by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah finally gave rise to a "Bengali" socio-linguistic identity. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty acknowledged Muslim scholarship, and this transcended ethnic background. Usman Serajuddin, also known as Akhi Siraj Bengali, was a native of Gaur in western Bengal and became the Sultanate's court scholar during Ilyas Shah's reign. Alongside Persian and Arabic, the sovereign Sunni Muslim nation-state also enabled the language of the Bengali people to gain patronage and support, contrary to previous states which exclusively favoured Sanskrit, Pali and Persian. The born-Hindu Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah funded the construction of Islamic institutions as far as Mecca and Madina in the Middle East. The people of Arabia came to know these institutions as al-Madaris al-Bangaliyyah (Bengali madrasas).
Mughal era
The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the 16th century, ending the independent Sultanate of Bengal and defeating Bengal's rebellion Baro-Bhuiyan chieftains. Mughal general Man Singh conquered parts of Bengal including Dhaka during the time of Emperor Akbar and a few Rajput tribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands, integrating into Bengali society. Akbar's preaching of the syncretic Din-i Ilahi, was described as a blasphemy by the Qadi of Bengal, which caused huge controversies in South Asia. In the 16th century, many Ulama of the Bengali Muslim intelligentsia migrated to other parts of the subcontinent as teachers and instructors of Islamic knowledge such as Ali Sher Bengali to Ahmedabad, Shah Manjhan to Sarangpur, Usman Bengali to Sambhal and Yusuf Bengali to Burhanpur.
By the early 17th century, Islam Khan I had conquered all of Bengal and was integrated into a province known as the Bengal Subah. It was the largest subdivision of the Mughal Empire, as it also encompassed parts of Bihar and Odisha, between the 16th and 18th centuries. Described by some as the "Paradise of Nations" and the "Golden Age of Bengal", Bengalis enjoyed some of the highest living standards and real wages in the world at the time. Singlehandedly accounting for 40% of Dutch imports outside the European continent, eastern Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding, and was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world.
Mughal Bengal eventually became a quasi-independent monarchy state ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal in 1717. Already observing the proto-industrialization, it made direct significant contribution to the first Industrial Revolution (substantially textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution).
Bengal became the basis of the Anglo-Mughal War. After the weakening of the Mughal Empire with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, Bengal was ruled independently by three dynasties of Nawabs until 1757, when the region was annexed by the East India Company after the Battle of Plassey.
British colonisation
In Bengal, effective political and military power was transferred from the Afshar regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65. Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule, notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943, each killing millions of Bengalis.
Under British rule, Bengal experienced deindustrialisation. Discontent with the situation, numerous rebellions and revolts were attempted by the Bengali people. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Jalpaiguri and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. Havildar Rajab Ali commanded the rebels in Chittagong as far as Sylhet and Manipur. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolishment of the Mughal court completely and direct rule by the British Raj.
Many Bengali laborers were taken as coolies to the British colonies in the Caribbean during the 1830s. Workers from Bengal were chosen because they could easily assimilate to the climate of British Guyana, which was similar to that of Bengal.
Swami Vivekananda is considered a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America, and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, and bringing Hinduism to the status of a world religion during the 1800s. On the other hand, Ram Mohan Roy led a socio-Hindu reformist movement known as Brahmoism which called for the abolishment of sati (widow sacrifice), child marriage, polytheism and idol worship. In 1804, he wrote the Persian book Tuḥfat al-Muwaḥḥidīn (A Gift to the Monotheists) and spent the next two decades attacking the Kulin Brahmin bastions of Bengal.
Independence movement
Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant. Many of the early proponents of the independence struggle, and subsequent leaders in the movement were Bengalis such as Shamsher Gazi, Chowdhury Abu Torab Khan, Hada Miah and Mada Miah, the Pagal Panthis led by Karim Shah and Tipu Shah, Haji Shariatullah and Dudu Miyan of the Faraizi movement, Titumir, Ali Muhammad Shibli, Alimuddin Ahmad, Prafulla Chaki, Surendranath Banerjee, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Sarojini Naidu, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rashbehari Bose, and Sachindranath Sanyal.
Leaders such as Subhas Chandra Bose did not subscribe to the view that non-violent civil disobedience was the best way to achieve independence, and were instrumental in armed resistance against the British. Bose was the co-founder and leader of the Japanese-aligned Indian National Army (distinct from the army of British India) that challenged British forces in several parts of India. He was also the head of state of a parallel regime, the Azad Hind. A number of Bengalis died during the independence movement and many were imprisoned in the notorious Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands.
Partitions of Bengal
The first partition in 1905 divided the Bengal region in British India into two provinces for administrative and development purposes. However, the partition stoked Hindu nationalism. This in turn led to the formation of the All India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1906 to represent the growing aspirations of the Muslim population. The partition was annulled in 1912 after protests by the Indian National Congress and Hindu Mahasabha.
The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity in India drove the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution in 1943, calling the creation of "independent states" in eastern and northwestern British India. The resolution paved the way for the Partition of British India based on the Radcliffe Line in 1947, despite attempts to form a United Bengal state that was opposed by many people.
Bangladesh Liberation War
The rise of self-determination and Bengali nationalism movements in East Bengal, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. This eventually culminated in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War against the Pakistani military junta. The war caused millions of East Bengali refugees to take shelter in neighboring India, especially the Indian state of West Bengal, with Calcutta, the capital of West Bengal, becoming the capital-in-exile of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. The Mukti Bahini guerrilla forces waged a nine-month war against the Pakistani military. The conflict ended after the Indian Armed Forces intervened on the side of Bangladeshi forces in the final two weeks of the war, which ended with the surrender of East Pakistan and the liberation of Dhaka on 16 December 1971. Thus, the newly independent People's Republic of Bangladesh was born from what was previously the East Pakistan province of Pakistan.
Geographic distribution
Bengalis constitute the largest ethnic group in Bangladesh, at approximately 98% of the nation's inhabitants. The Census of India does not recognise racial or ethnic groups within India, the CIA Factbook estimated that there are 100 million Bengalis in India constituting 7% of the country's total population. In addition to West Bengal, Bengalis form the demographic majority in Assam's Barak Valley and Lower region as well as parts of Manipur. The state of Tripura as well as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands union territory, which lies in the Bay of Bengal, are also home to a Bengali-majority population, most of whom are descendants of Hindus from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) that migrated there following the 1947 Partition of India. Bengali migration to the latter archipelago was also boosted by subsequent state-funded Colonisation Schemes by the Government of India.
Bengali ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in other parts of the subcontinent, the Middle East and the Western World. Substantial populations descended from Bengali immigrants exist in Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and the United Kingdom where they form established communities of over 1 million people. The majority of the overseas Bengali diaspora are Muslims as the act of seafaring was traditionally prohibited in Hinduism; a taboo known as kala pani (black/dirty water).
The introduction of Islam to the Bengali people has generated a connection to the Arabian Peninsula, as Muslims are required to visit the land once in their lifetime to complete the Hajj pilgrimage. Several Bengali sultans funded Islamic institutions in the Hejaz, which popularly became known by the Arabs as Bengali madrasas. As a result of the British conquest of Bengal, some Bengalis decided to emigrate to Arabia. Notable examples include Mawlana Murad, an instructor of Islamic sciences based in Mecca in the early 1800s, and Najib Ali Choudhury, a participant of the Battle of Shamli. Notable people of Bengali-origin in the Middle East include the renowned author and journalist Ahmad Abd al-Ghafur Attar of Saudi Arabia and Qur'an translator Zohurul Hoque from Oman. The family of Princess Sarvath al-Hassan, wife of Jordanian prince Hassan bin Talal, are descended from the Suhrawardy family of Midnapore.
Earliest records of Bengalis in the European continent date back to the reign of King George III of England during the 16th century. One such example is I'tisam-ud-Din, a Bengali Muslim cleric from Nadia in western Bengal, who arrived to Europe in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim as a diplomat for the Mughal Empire. Another example during this period is of James Achilles Kirkpatrick's hookah-bardar (hookah servant/preparer) who was said to have robbed and cheated Kirkpatrick, making his way to England and stylising himself as the Prince of Sylhet. The man, presumably from Sylhet in eastern Bengal, was waited upon by the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger, and then dined with the Duke of York before presenting himself in front of the King. Today, the British Bangladeshis are a naturalised community in the United Kingdom, running 90% of all South Asian cuisine restaurants and having established numerous ethnic enclaves across the country – most prominent of which is Banglatown in East London.
Language
An important and unifying characteristic of Bengalis is that most of them use Bengali as their native tongue, believed to belong to the Indo-Iranian language family. With about 226 million native and about 300 million total speakers worldwide, Bengali is one of the most spoken languages, ranked sixth in the world, and is also used a lingua franca among other ethnic groups and tribes living within and around the Bengal region. Bengali is generally written using the Bengali script and evolved circa 1000–1200 CE from Magadhi Prakrit, thus bearing similarities to ancient languages such as Pali. Its closest modern relatives may include other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Odia and the Bihari languages. Though Bengali may have a historic legacy of borrowing vocabulary from languages such as Persian and Sanskrit, modern borrowings primarily come from the English language.
Various forms of the language are in use today and provide an important force for Bengali cohesion. These distinct forms can be sorted into three categories. The first is Classical Bengali ( Śadhu Bhaśa), which was a historical form restricted to literary usage up until the late British period. The second is Standard Bengali ( Čôlitô Bhaśa or Śuddho Bhaśa), which is the modern literary form, and is based upon the dialects of the divided Nadia region (partitioned between Nadia and Kushtia). It is used today in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content. The third and largest category by speakers would be Colloquial Bengali ( Añčôlik Bhaśa or Kôththô Bhaśa). These refer to informal spoken language that varies by dialect from region to region.
Social stratification
Bengali people may be broadly classified into sub-groups predominantly based on dialect but also other aspects of culture:
Bangals: This is a term used predominantly in Indian West Bengal to refer to East Bengalis – i.e. Bangladeshis as well as those whose ancestors originate from Eastern Bengal. The East Bengali dialects are known as Bangali. This group constitutes the majority of ethnic Bengalis. They originate from the mainland Bangladeshi regions of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Comilla, Sylhet, Barisal and Chittagong.
Among Bangals, there are four subgroups that maintain distinct identities in addition to having a (Eastern) Bengali identity. Chittagonians are natives of the Chittagong region (Chittagong District and Cox's Bazar District) of Bangladesh and speak Chittagonian. The people of Cox's Bazar are closely related to the Rohingyas of the Rakhine State in Myanmar. Sylhetis originate from the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and they speak Sylheti. Noakhailla speakers can be found in greater Noakhali region and southern Tripura. The Dhakaiya Kuttis are a small urban Bengali Muslim community residing in Old Dhaka city that noticeably differ from the rest of the people of Dhaka Division by culture.
Ghotis: This is the term favoured by the natives of West Bengal to distinguish themselves from other Bengalis.
The people of Purulia, and greater Manbhum, reside in far-western Bengal and have some regional differences with the mainland Ghotis via dialect and culture. Other Ghoti communities include the Ghosis and Lodhas.
The region of North Bengal, which hosts Varendri and Rangpuri speakers, is divided between both West Bengal and Bangladesh, and they are normally categorised into the former two main groups depending on which side of the border they reside in even though they are culturally similar to each other regardless of international borders. The categorisation of North Bengalis into Ghoti or Bangal is contested. Rangpuri speakers can also be found in parts of Lower Assam, whilst the Shershahabadia community extend into Bihar. Other northern Bengali communities include the Khotta and Nashya Shaikh.
Bengalis Hindus are socially stratified into four castes, called chôturbôrṇô. The caste system derived from Hindu system of bôrṇô (type, order, colour or class) and jāti (clan, tribe, community or sub-community), which divides people into four colours: White, Red, Yellow and Black. White people are Brahmôṇ, who are destined to be priests, teachers and preachers; Red people are Kkhôtriyô, who are destined to be kings, governors, warriors and soldiers; Yellow people are Bôiśśô, who are born to be cattle herders, ploughmen, artisans and merchants; and Black people are Shūdrô, who are born to be labourers and servants to the people of twice-born caste. People from all caste denominations exist among Bengali Hindus. Ram Mohan Roy, who was born Hindu, founded the Brahmo Samaj which attempted to abolish the practices of casteism, sati and child marriage among Hindus.
Religion
The largest religions practiced in Bengal are Islam and Hinduism. Among all Bengalis, more than two-thirds are Muslims. The vast majority follow the Sunni denomination though there are also a small minority of Shias. The Bengali Muslims form a 90.4% majority in Bangladesh, and a 30% minority among the ethnic Bengalis in the entirety of India. In West Bengal, Bengali Muslims form a 66.88% majority in Murshidabad district, the former seat of the Shia Nawabs of Bengal, a 51.27% majority in Malda, which contains the erstwhile capitals of the Sunni Bengal Sultanate, and they also number over 5,487,759 in the 24 Parganas.
Just less than a third of all Bengalis are Hindus (predominantly, the Shaktas and Vaishnavists), and as per as 2011 census report, they form a 70.54% majority in West Bengal, 50% plurality in Southern Assam's Barak Valley region, 60% majority in the India's North Eastern state of Tripura, 30% plurality in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 9% significance population in India's Eastern state of Jharkhand and 8.54% minority in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, Hindus are mostly concentrated in Sylhet Division where they constitute 17.8% of the population, and are mostly populated in Dhaka Division where they number over 2.5 million. Hindus form a 56.41% majority in Dacope Upazila, a 51.69% majority in Kotalipara Upazila and a 51.22% majority in Sullah Upazila. In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third largest Hindu populated country of the world, just after India and Nepal. The total Hindu population in Bangladesh exceeds the population of many Muslim majority countries like Yemen, Jordan, Tajikistan, Syria, Tunisia, Oman, and others. Also the total Hindu population in Bangladesh is roughly equal to the total population of Greece and Belgium. Bengali Hindus also worship regional deities.
Other religious groups include Buddhists (comprising around 1% of the population in Bangladesh) and Bengali Christians. A large number of the Bengali Christians are descendants of Portuguese voyagers. The bulk of Bengali Buddhists belong to the Bengali-speaking Baruas who reside in Chittagong and Rakhine.
Culture
Festivals
Bengalis commemorate the Islamic holidays or Hindu festivals depending on their religion. People are dressed in their new traditional clothing. During the major Islamic holidays Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr, charity is distributed. Children are given clothes or money. Relatives, friends, and neighbors visit and exchange food and sweets.
Significant cultural events or celebrations are also celebrated by the community annually. Pohela Boishakh is a celebration of the new year and arrival of summer in the Bengali calendar and is celebrated in April. It features a funfair, music and dance displays on stages, with people dressed in colourful traditional clothes, parading through the streets. Festivals like Pahela Falgun (spring) are also celebrated regardless of their faith. The Bengalis of Dhaka celebrate Shakrain, an annual kite festival. The Nabanna is a Bengali celebration akin to the harvest festivals in the Western world.
Fashion and arts
Visual art and architecture
The recorded history of art in Bengal can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Ivory, pottery and brass were also widely used in Bengali art.
Attire and clothing
Bengali attire is shares similarities with North Indian attire. In rural areas, older women wear the shari while the younger generation wear the , both with simple designs. In urban areas, the is more popular, and has distinct fashionable designs. Traditionally Bengali men wore the jama, though the costumes such as the panjabi with or pyjama have become more popular within the past three centuries. The popularity of the , a shorter upper garment, is undeniable among Bengalis in casual environments. The and are a common combination for rural Bengali men. Islamic clothing is also very common in the region. During special occasions, Bengali women commonly wear either sharis, or abayas, covering their hair with hijab or ; and men wear a panjabi, also covering their hair with a tupi, , or .
Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.
The traditional attire of Bengali Hindus is dhoti and kurta for men, and saree for women.
Performing arts
Bengal has an extremely rich heritage of performing arts dating back to antiquity. It includes narrative forms, songs and dances, performance with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and the processional forms like the Jatra and cinema. Performing of plays and Jatras were mentioned in Charyapada, written in between the 8th and 12th centuries. Chhau dance is a unique martial, tribal and folk art of Bengal. Wearing an earthy and theatrical Chhau mask, the dance is performed to highlight the folklore and episodes from Shaktism, Ramayana – Mahabharata and other abstract themes. In 2010 the Chhau dance was inscribed in the UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Bengali film is a glorious part of the history of world cinema. Hiralal Sen, who is considered a stalwart of Victorian era cinema, sowed the first seeds of Bengali cinema. In 1898, Sen founded the first film production company, named Royal Bioscope Company in Bengal, and possibly the first in India. Along with Nemai Ghosh, Tapan Sinha and others, the golden age of Bengali cinema begins with the hands of Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen and Rittwik Ghatak. Chinnamul was recognized as the first neo-realist film in India that deals with the partition of India. Ray's first cinema Pather Panchali (1955) achieved the highest-ranking Indian film on any Sight & Sound poll at number 6 in the 1992 Critics' Poll. It also topped the British Film Institute's user poll of Top 10 Indian Films of all time in 2002. In the same year, Titash Ekti Nadir Naam, directed by Ritwik Ghatak with the joint production of India and Bangladesh, got the honor of best Bangladeshi films in the audience and critics' polls conducted by the British Film Institute.
Gastronomy
Bengali cuisine is the culinary style of the Bengali people. It has the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from South Asia that is analogous in structure to the modern service à la russe style of French cuisine, with food served course-wise rather than all at once. The dishes of Bengal are often centuries old and reflect the rich history of trade in Bengal through spices, herbs, and foods. With an emphasis on fish and vegetables served with rice as a staple diet, Bengali cuisine is known for its subtle flavours, and its huge spread of confectioneries and milk-based desserts. One will find the following items in most dishes; mustard oil, fish, panch phoron, lamb, onion, rice, cardamom, yogurt and spices. The food is often served in plates which have a distinct flowery pattern often in blue or pink. Common beverages include shorbot, borhani, ghol, matha, lachhi, falooda, Rooh Afza, natural juices like Akher rosh, Khejur rosh, Aamrosh, Dudh cha, Taler rosh, Masala cha, as well as basil seed or tukma-based drinks.
East and West Bengali cuisines have many similarities, but also many unique traditions at the same time. These kitchens have been influenced by the history of the respective regions. The kitchens can be further divided into the urban and rural kitchens. Urban kitchens in eastern Bengal consist of native dishes with foreign Mughal influence, for example the Haji biryani and Chevron Biryani of Old Dhaka.
Traditional Bengali Dishes:
Shukto, Macher Patodi, Chingri Malai Curry, Aloo Posto, Mishti Doi, etc are some of the traditional dishes of the Bengali's.
Literature
Bengali literature denotes the body of writings in the Bengali language, which has developed over the course of roughly 13 centuries. The earliest extant work in Bengali literature can be found within the Charyapada, a collection of Buddhist mystic hymns dating back to the 10th and 11th centuries. They were discovered in the Royal Court Library of Nepal by Hara Prasad Shastri in 1907. The timeline of Bengali literature is divided into three periods − ancient (650–1200), medieval (1200–1800) and modern (after 1800). Medieval Bengali literature consists of various poetic genres, including Islamic epics by the likes of Abdul Hakim and Syed Sultan, secular texts by Muslim poets like Alaol and Vaishnava texts by the followers of Krishna Chaitanya. Bengali writers began exploring different themes through narratives and epics such as religion, culture, cosmology, love and history. Royal courts such as that of the Bengal Sultanate and the Kingdom of Mrauk U gave patronage to numerous Bengali writers such as Shah Muhammad Saghir, Daulat Qazi and Dawlat Wazir Bahram Khan.
The Bengali Renaissance refers to a socio-religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, centered around the city of Calcutta and predominantly led by upper-caste Bengali Hindus under the patronage of the British Raj who had created a reformed religion known as the Brahmo Samaj. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the Bengal renaissance as having begun with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).
Though the Bengal Renaissance was predominantly representative to the Hindu community due to their relationship with British colonisers, there were, nevertheless, examples of modern Muslim littérateurs in this period. Mir Mosharraf Hossain (1847–1911) was the first major writer in the modern era to emerge from the Bengali Muslim society, and one of the finest prose writers in the Bengali language. His magnum opus Bishad Shindhu is a popular classic among Bengali readership. Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899–1976), notable for his activism and anti-British literature, was described as the Rebel Poet and is now recognised as the National poet of Bangladesh. Begum Rokeya (1880–1932) was the leading female Bengali author of this period, best known for writing Sultana's Dream which was subsequently translated into numerous languages.
Marriage
A marriage among Bengalis often consists of multiple events rather than just one wedding. Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society. Marriage is seen as a union between two families rather than just two people, and they play a large part in developing and maintaining social ties between families and villages. The two families are facilitated by Ghotoks (mutual matchmakers), and the first event is known as the Paka Dekha/Dekhadekhi where all those involved are familiarised with each other over a meal at the bride's home. The first main event is the Paan-Chini/Chini-Paan, hosted by the bride's family. Gifts are received from the groom's family and the marriage date is fixed in this event. An adda takes place between the families as they consume a traditional Bengali banquet of food, paan, tea and mishti. The next event is the mehndi (henna) evening also known as the gaye holud (turmeric on the body). This is normally followed by the main event, the walima, hosting thousands of guests. An aqd (vow) takes place, where a contract of marriage (Kabin nama) and is signed. A qazi or imam is usually present here and would also recite the Qur'an and make dua for the couple. The groom is required to pay mohor (dowry) to the bride. The Phirajatra/Phirakhaowa consists of the return of the bride with her husband to her home, which then becomes referred to as Naiyor, and payesh and milk are served. Other post-marriage ceremonies include the Bou Bhat which takes place in the groom's home.
Arranged marriages are arguably the most common form of marriage among Bengalis and are considered traditional in society. Though polygamy is rarity among Bengalis today, it was historically prevalent among both Muslims and Hindus prior to British colonisation and was a sign of prosperity.
Science
The contribution of Bengalis to modern science is pathbreaking in the world's context. Qazi Azizul Haque was an inventor who is credited for devising the mathematical basis behind a fingerprint classification system that continued to be used up until the 1990s for criminal investigations. Abdus Suttar Khan invented more than forty different alloys for commercial application in space shuttles, jet engines, train engines and industrial gas turbines. In 2006, Abul Hussam invented the Sono arsenic filter and subsequently became the recipient of the 2007 Grainger challenge Prize for Sustainability. Another biomedical scientist, Parvez Haris, was listed among the top 1% of 100,000 scientists in the world by Stanford University.
Fazlur Rahman Khan was a structural engineer responsible for making many important advancements in high rise designs. He was the designer of Willis Tower, the tallest building in the world until 1998. Khan's seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings.
Jagadish Chandra Bose was a polymath: a physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, and writer of science fiction who pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the subcontinent. He is considered one of the fathers of radio science, and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction. He first practicalised the wireless radio transmission but Guglielmo Marconi got recognition for it due to European proximity. Bose also described for the first time that "plants can respond", by demonstrating with his crescograph and recording the impulse caused by bromination of plant tissue.
Satyendra Nath Bose was a physicist, specialising in mathematical physics. He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early 1920s, providing the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. He is honoured as the namesake of the boson. He made first calculations to initiate Statistical Mechanics. He first hypothesised a physically tangible idea of photon. Bose's contemporary was Meghnad Saha, an astrophysicist and politician who contributed to the theorisation of thermal ionization. The Saha ionization equation, which was named after him, is used to describe chemical and physical conditions in stars. His work allowed astronomers to accurately relate the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures.
Economics and Poverty Alleviation
Several Bengali Economists and entrepreneurs have made pioneering contributions in economic theories and practices supporting poverty alleviation. Amartya Sen is an economist and philosopher, who has made contributions to welfare economics, social choice theory, economic and social justice, economic theories of famines, decision theory, development economics, public health, and measures of well-being of countries. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 and India's Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics. Muhammad Yunus is a social entrepreneur, banker, economist and civil society leader who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for founding the Grameen Bank and pioneering the concepts of microcredit and microfinance. Abhijit Banerjee is an economist who shared the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Esther Duflo and Michael Kremer "for their experimental approach to alleviating global poverty".
Sport and games
Traditional Bengali sports consisted of various martial arts and various racing sports, though the British-introduced sports of cricket and football are now most popular amongst Bengalis.
Lathi khela (stick-fighting) was historically a method of duelling as a way to protect or take land and others' possessions. The Zamindars of Bengal would hire lathials (trained stick-fighters) as a form of security and a means to forcefully collect tax from tenants. Nationwide lathi khela competitions used to take place annually in Kushtia up until 1989, though its practice is now diminishing and being restricted to certain festivals and celebrations. Chamdi is a variant of lathi khela popular in North Bengal. Kushti (wrestling) is also another popular fighting sport and it has developed regional forms such as boli khela, which was introduced in 1889 by Zamindar Qadir Bakhsh of Chittagong. A merchant known as Abdul Jabbar Saodagar adapted the sport in 1907 with the intention of cultivating a sport that would prepare Bengalis in fighting against British colonials. In 1972, a popular contact team sport called Kabadi was made the national sport of Bangladesh. It is a regulated version of the rural Hadudu sport which had no fixed rules. The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of Bangladesh was formed in 1973. Butthan, a 20th-century Bengali martial arts invented by Grandmaster Mak Yuree, is now practiced in different parts of the world under the International Butthan Federation.
The Nouka Baich is a Bengali boat racing competition which takes place during and after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water. The long canoes were referred to as khel nao (meaning playing boats) and the use of cymbals to accompany the singing was common. Different types of boats are used in different parts of Bengal. Horse racing was patronised most notably by the Dighapatia Rajas in Natore, and their Chalanbeel Horse Races have continued to take place annually for centuries.
Football is the most popular sports among Bengalis. Bengal is the home to Asia's oldest football league, Calcutta Football League and the fourth oldest cup tournament in the world, Durand Cup. East Bengal and Mohun Bagan are the biggest clubs in the region and subsequently India, and amongst the biggest in Asia. East Bengal and Mohun Bagan participate in Kolkata Derby, which is the biggest sports derby in Asia. Mohun Bagan, founded in 1889, is the oldest native football club of Bengal. The club is primarily supported by the Ghotis, who are the native inhabitants of West Bengal. East Bengal, on the contrary, was founded on 1 August 1920 and is a club Primarily supported by the ethnic eastern Bengalis. Mohun Bagan's first major victory was in 1911, when the team defeated an English club known as the Yorkshire Regiment to win the IFA Shield. In 2003, East Bengal became the first Indian club to win a major international trophy in the form of ASEAN Club Championship. While Mohun Bagan currently holds the most amount of national titles (6 in total), East Bengal is the stronger side in the Kolkata derby, having won 138 out of a total of 391 matches in which these two teams participited. East Bengal also takes the crown for having won the most number of major trophies in India (109 compared to the 105 of Mohun Bagan). Mohammed Salim of Calcutta became the first South Asian to play for a European football club in 1936. In his two appearances for Celtic F.C., he played the entire matches barefoot and scored several goals. In 2015, Hamza Choudhury became the first Bengali to play in the Premier League and is predicted to be the first British Asian to play for the England national football team.
Bengalis are very competitive when it comes to board and home games such as Pachisi and its modern counterpart Ludo, as well as Latim, Carrom Board, Chor-Pulish, Kanamachi and Chess. Rani Hamid is one of the most successful chess players in the world, winning championships in Asia and Europe multiple times. Ramnath Biswas was a revolutionary soldier who embarked on three world tours on a bicycle in the 19th century.
See also
Bengali nationalism
List of Bangladeshis
List of Bengalis
List of people from West Bengal
States of India by Bengali speakers
References
Bibliography
Uberoi, Anuradha (6 January 2020), Chennai Brew- Some Voices Some Communities & [https://www.thehindu.com/books/chennai-brew-tells-stories-of-people-from-other-parts-of-india-who-found-warmth-and-love-in-the-city/article30491202.ece "These Communities Call Chennai 'home'''"]. The Hindu. .
Further reading
External links
Bengalis Encyclopædia Britannica'' entry
Bengali culture
Ethnic groups in Bangladesh
Indo-Aryan peoples
Ethnic groups in India
Ethnic groups in South Asia
Ethnic groups divided by international borders
Ethno-cultural designations
Bengali-language literature
Collectivism
Cultural assimilation
Linguistic groups of the constitutionally recognised official languages of India |
4199629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20SpongeBob%20SquarePants%20characters | List of SpongeBob SquarePants characters | The characters in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants were created by artist, animator, and former marine biologist Stephen Hillenburg. The series chronicles the adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. Most characters are anthropomorphic sea creatures based on real-life species. Many of the characters' designs originated in an unpublished educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in 1989.
SpongeBob SquarePants features the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan. Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite and Thomas F. Wilson. In addition to the series' regular cast, various celebrities from a wide range of professions have voiced guest characters and recurring roles.
The show's characters have received positive critical reception and attention from celebrities. They have made frequent appearances in media outside of the television show, including a theatrical film series, many video games, and two spin-off series. The characters have also been referenced and parodied throughout popular culture. The title character SpongeBob became a merchandising icon during the height of the show's second season and has seen continued commercial popularity.
Creation and conception
Stephen Hillenburg originally conceived early versions of the SpongeBob SquarePants characters in 1984, while he was teaching and studying marine biology at what is now the Orange County Marine Institute in Dana Point, California. During this period, Hillenburg became fascinated with animation, and wrote a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone starring various anthropomorphic forms of sea creatures, many of which would evolve into SpongeBob SquarePants characters, including "Bob the Sponge", who was the co-host of the comic and resembled an actual sea sponge as opposed to SpongeBob. In 1987, Hillenburg left the institute to pursue his dream of becoming an animator.
Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Pearl, and Squidward were the first other characters Hillenburg created for the show. Many of their characteristics were based on Hillenburg's experiences during his time at the Ocean Institute or inspired by the traits of their species. Patrick's personality embodies the nature of the starfish; according to Hillenburg, they look "dumb and slow" but are "very active and aggressive" in reality, like Patrick. Hillenburg drew inspiration from his former manager at a seafood restaurant while creating Mr. Krabs. According to him, this manager was redheaded, muscular, and a former army cook; these traits were all adapted into Krabs' character. His decision to design Pearl was influenced by his regular supervision of whale watches at the Ocean Institute, as well as by a cetacean skeleton at the institute. He drew Pearl with an oversized, almost geometric head as a reference to sperm whales having the largest brain size of any extant animal on Earth. He designed Squidward as an octopus because of the species' bulbous mantle; the octopus, he said, has "such a large bulbous head and Squidward thinks he's an intellectual, so of course he's gonna have [one]". Hillenburg drew Squidward with six tentacles because "it was really just simpler for animation to draw him with six legs instead of eight".
Several additions were made to the series' main cast before and after Hillenburg pitched the series to Nickelodeon; in his series bible, he added Sandy Cheeks, a squirrel clad in a diving suit, as a new friend of SpongeBob. Plankton and Karen were included in his bible but were not meant to make regular appearances; Plankton's voice actor Mr. Lawrence said that he "was only supposed to be in one or two episodes, but I was a writer on the show and I really liked this character". Following his first voice recording, Lawrence drafted some of his own ideas, hoping to "prove Plankton could survive as more than a one-note character". From then on, Plankton and Karen's roles in the series grew as Lawrence wrote ideas to give them more personality; notably, he decided to write Karen as Plankton's wife, rather than just his computer as was originally intended. They were both officially promoted to main cast members in the credits of the 2004 theatrical film, in which they play central roles.
Hillenburg added Mrs. Puff in response to a request by Nickelodeon that SpongeBob attend school. Nickelodeon executives initially wanted to make SpongeBob a child since their most successful cartoons at the time focused on young, school-age characters. Hillenburg stated that the network wanted SpongeBob to be like "Arnold [from Hey Arnold!] under the sea," but he told them, "No, that's not the show." As a compromise, he decided to put SpongeBob in a boat-driving school, allowing him to keep writing SpongeBob as an adult while also using the school as a main plot element. Showrunner Vincent Waller suggested that if Nickelodeon had creative control over SpongeBob, almost every episode would take place at Mrs. Puff's school, rather than at a variety of locations. The choice to make Mrs. Puff a pufferfish, who inflates into a ball when SpongeBob crashes, was made to evoke the appearance of car airbags.
Main characters
SpongeBob SquarePants
SpongeBob SquarePants (voiced by Tom Kenny) is a yellow anthropomorphic sea sponge who usually wears brown short pants, a white collared shirt, and a red tie. Like real sea sponges, he can filter-feed and reproduce by budding. He lives in a pineapple house and is employed as a fry cook at a fast food restaurant called the Krusty Krab. He diligently attends Mrs. Puff's Boating School but has never passed; throughout the series, he tries his hardest on the exams but remains an unintentionally reckless boat driver. He is relentlessly optimistic and enthusiastic toward his job and his friends. SpongeBob's hobbies include catching jellyfish, blowing bubbles, playing with his best friend Patrick, and unintentionally irritating his neighbor Squidward. He first appears in "Help Wanted".
Patrick Star
Patrick Star (voiced by Bill Fagerbakke) a pink starfish who lives under a rock and wears flowered swim trunks. His most prominent character trait is his extremely low intelligence. He is best friends with SpongeBob and often unknowingly encourages activities that get the two into trouble. While typically unemployed throughout the series, Patrick holds various short-term jobs as the storyline of each episode requires. He is generally slow and even-tempered but can sometimes get aggressive, much like real starfish, and occasionally performs feats of great strength.
Squidward Tentacles
Squidward Tentacles (voiced by Rodger Bumpass) a turquoise Giant Pacific octopus with a large nose who works as a cashier at the Krusty Krab. He is SpongeBob's next-door neighbor with a dry, sarcastic sense of humor. His house is between SpongeBob's and Patrick's houses. He believes himself to be a talented artist and musician, but nobody else recognizes his abilities. He plays the clarinet and often paints self-portraits in different styles, which he hangs up around his moai house. Squidward frequently voices his frustration with SpongeBob, but he genuinely cares for him deep down. This has been revealed in the form of sudden confessions when Squidward is in a dire situation.
Mr. Krabs
Eugene Krabs (voiced by Clancy Brown) is a red crab who lives in an anchor-shaped house with his daughter Pearl, who is a whale. He dislikes spending money but will go to great lengths to make Pearl happy. Krabs owns and operates the Krusty Krab restaurant where SpongeBob works. He is self-content, cunning, and obsessed with the value and essence of money. He tends to worry more about his riches than about the needs of his employees. Having served in the navy, he loves sailing, whales, sea shanties, and talking like a pirate.
Plankton and Karen
Sheldon Plankton (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) and Karen Plankton (voiced by Jill Talley) are the owners of the Chum Bucket, an unsuccessful restaurant located across the street from the Krusty Krab. Their business is a commercial failure because they sell mostly inedible foods made from chum. Plankton is a small planktonic copepod and the self-proclaimed archenemy of Mr. Krabs. His ultimate goal is to steal Krabs' secret formula for Krabby Patties, run the Krusty Krab out of business, and take over the oceanic world, but he never permanently succeeds, usually due to either SpongeBob and/or Krabs' efforts, his own incompetence and immaturity, or his own small size (except, temporarily, in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie). Plankton is a skilled inventor and possesses a Napoleon complex due to his short stature. Karen is Plankton's own invention, a waterproof supercomputer who is more competent that Plankton, being the brains behind most of his evil plans to steal Krabs' secret recipe. She is married to Plankton and usually takes residence in the Chum Bucket laboratory. Karen speaks with a pronounced Midwestern American accent.
Sandy Cheeks
Sandy Cheeks (voiced by Carolyn Lawrence) is a squirrel from Texas who lives in an air-filled glass dome and wears a diving suit to breathe underwater. Whenever any aquatic creatures enter her home, they must wear helmets of water. Sandy works as a scientist, explorer, and inventor. She is a rodeo champion with a number of athletic interests, such as "sand-boarding" and karate. She speaks with a Southern drawl and uses typical Southern slang words and phrases.
Mrs. Puff
Mrs. Puff (voiced by Mary Jo Catlett) is a paranoid pufferfish who is SpongeBob's teacher at boating school, an underwater driver's education facility where students drive boats like cars. She wears a sailor suit and her school is a lighthouse. SpongeBob is Mrs. Puff's most dedicated student and knows the answer to every question on her written and oral exams, but always panics and crashes when he actually boards a vessel. She puffs up into a ball when she is scared or injured. As a running gag, she is frequently arrested by the police, usually due to her being responsible for SpongeBob when he causes destruction around Bikini Bottom during his boating test.
Pearl Krabs
Pearl Krabs (voiced by Lori Alan) is a teenage sperm whale and Mr. Krabs' daughter. She wants to fit in with her fish peers, but finds this impossible to do because of the large size inherent to her species. She will inherit the Krusty Krab from her father when she grows older, but is still in high school and does not yet have a job at the family business. Pearl's favorite activities are working at the Bikini Bottom Mall, using her father's credit card to buy anything that is in style, and listening to pop music.
Gary the Snail
Gary the Snail (vocal effects provided by Tom Kenny) is SpongeBob's pet sea snail who lives with him in their pineapple home and vocalizes like a cat. Other snails and SpongeBob can understand and talk to him. Depicted as a level-headed character, Gary often serves as a voice of reason and a foil to SpongeBob and solves problems that his owner cannot. He has a pink shell that is impossibly spacious on the inside.
Supporting characters
Patchy the Pirate
Patchy the Pirate (portrayed and voiced by Tom Kenny) is the host of the series' special episodes. He is a live-action pirate and the president of the fictional SpongeBob fan club. He lives in an unnamed suburb of Encino, Los Angeles, and segments hosted by him are often presented in a dual narrative with the animated stories. He made a special guest star appearance on Big Time Rush in the episode "Big Time Beach Party" with Carlos Pena Jr. and Logan Henderson.
Potty the Parrot
Potty the Parrot (voiced by Stephen Hillenburg in seasons 2–3, Paul Tibbitt from seasons 4–8, Mr. Lawrence from seasons 10-present) is Patchy's green pet parrot, depicted as a crudely-made puppet with googly eyes. The character's name is a reference to "Polly wants a cracker," a phrase often used for parrots to vocally mimic. Potty is obnoxious and often annoys or talks back to Patchy while he is trying to host an episode.
French Narrator
The French Narrator (voiced by Tom Kenny, portrayed by Dan Southworth in live-action appearances) is an oceanographer who films SpongeBob's world using a camera. He often introduces episodes from off screen or narrates the intertitles as if the series were a nature documentary about the ocean. He has a thick French accent as a reference to the distinctive speaking style of oceanographer and filmmaker Jacques Cousteau. He is normally only heard, but physically appears three times. In "No Free Rides", after being accidentally hit by SpongeBob during a driving test, his legs, which are wearing scuba diving fins, are visible. In "Feral Friends" and "SpongeBob's Big Birthday Blowout", he is shown in live action as a hard hat diver with his face obscured by his helmet and a red beanie hat on top, referencing the beanie hat Cousteau was widely known for wearing. In "Mimic Madness", SpongeBob impersonates him by imitating his voice and wearing a beanie and beard, once again referencing Cousteau.
Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy
Mermaid Man (voiced by Ernest Borgnine as an old man and a young man in "The Bad Guy Club for Villains", Adam West as a young man in "Back to the Past") and his sidekick Barnacle Boy (voiced by Tim Conway as an old man and a young man in "The Bad Guy Club for Villains", Burt Ward as a young man in "Back to the Past") are two elderly and partially senile superheroes who live in a retirement home and are stars of SpongeBob and Patrick's favorite television show. Mermaid Man is known for completely forgetting things and yelling a prolonged "EVIL!" whenever he hears the word, while Barnacle Boy seems to be the smarter, more sensible, and more irritable of the two. "Mermaid Man Begins" confirms that their given first names are Ernie and Tim, referencing the first names of their respective voice actors. Aquaman artist Ramona Fradon drew the characters' comic book adventures.
Since Borgnine and Conway's deaths in 2012 and 2019, both characters have been limited to cameo appearances without dialogue, as the showrunners chose not to recast their voices.
The Flying Dutchman
The Flying Dutchman (voiced by Brian Doyle-Murray) is an irritable, mischievous pirate ghost who glows green. He is named after the ghost ship of the same name. He haunts the seven seas because his unburied corpse was used as a window display. He collects souls as a Satan-like character and resides in a cavern containing Davy Jones' Locker, a literal locker stuffed with smelly socks that belong to Monkees singer Davy Jones, which within the series is analogous to Hell and occasionally mentioned as a curse word.
King Neptune
King Neptune (voiced by John O'Hurley in the TV series, Paul Tibbitt in "SpongeBob vs. The Patty Gadget") is a powerful, trident-wielding merman god who rules the sea, based on the Roman mythological deity of the same name. In the series, Neptune lives in a palace in Atlantis with his wife Amphitrite and son Triton. He is usually portrayed as arrogant and selfish, showing little sympathy for the sea's fish populace. Neptune has a mostly teal color scheme with a long auburn beard and hair. He wears gold wrist bands and a matching crown decorated with a scallop ornament, plus a gold belt bearing a seahorse emblem. This version was also known as Neptune XIV as seen when his portrait is shown in Squidward's briefly-redecorated room as seen in "Krusty Towers".
A different King Neptune is featured in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, voiced by Jeffrey Tambor. In the film, he resides near Bikini Bottom with his daughter Mindy and resembles a light green-skinned king with a robe, a shorter beard and hair, a domed crown to cover his bald spot, and powers limited to what can be exercised through his trident.
Larry the Lobster
Larry the Lobster (usually voiced by Mr. Lawrence but voiced by Bill Fagerbakke for a line in "MuscleBob BuffPants" and "House Hunting") is a lobster lifeguard, bodybuilder and workout fanatic who lifts weights. He is usually seen at Goo Lagoon alongside Scooter. He first appears in "Ripped Pants" and reappears in the spinoff Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years.
Harold and Margaret SquarePants
Mr. Harold SquarePants (voiced by Tom Kenny) and Mrs. Margaret SquarePants (voiced by Sirena Irwin) are SpongeBob's parents, who more closely resemble round sea sponges than SpongeBob. Harold is brown with glasses and a moustache, while Margaret is dark orange. They seem to live outside of Bikini Bottom, but still take the time to visit their son on occasion. They are proud of SpongeBob but embarrassed that he still does not have a driver's license.
Realistic Fish Head
The Realistic Fish head (voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is an announcer and news anchor fish, resembling a cut-out of a live-action tuna. He appears in the series' opening theme. He has been given various different names throughout the series and tie-in media; it is Mister Fish in SpongeBob's Nicktoon Summer Splash, Elaine in "The Great Patty Caper", Johnny in Battle for Bikini Bottom and Battle for Bikini Bottom – Rehydrated, and "T. McTrout" in Toonz2Nite commercials for Nicktoons UK.
Perch Perkins
Perch Perkins (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a perch who works as a famous field news reporter. While the Realistic Fish Head only reports on television news programs, Perch makes physical appearances reporting about events that occur. He is normally purple with a dark purple coat with a black wig and headphones, although some episodes and Nicktoons MLB show him with an orange color scheme and a red coat.
Bubble Bass
Bubble Bass (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is an overweight green bass that first appeared in season 1. He is a nemesis of SpongeBob and is very picky about his food. Although initially dormant after Season 1, he began to appear far more frequently as a supporting character in Season 9, and he has even had a notable share of episodes focused on him in both protagonist and antagonist roles, such as "Swamp Mates".
Bikini Bottomites
The Bikini Bottomites are multicolored fish and other sea creatures who inhabit Bikini Bottom. They function as the series' background characters. They live in buildings made from metal ship funnels and use "boatmobiles," amalgamations of cars and boats, as a mode of transportation. Although the series uses a set sheet of about 150 designs for incidental characters, the Bikini Bottomites' voices and characterizations vary throughout their appearances. Several of them have been given names and play heightened roles in select episodes.
(voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is a brown fish townsperson who shouts "My leg!" as a running gag whenever there is havoc or destruction. He makes his first appearance in "Reef Blower", but his recurring line is not heard until "Boating School". Fred appears as a major character in the season 11 episode "My Leg!" where it is revealed that he enjoys staying at the hospital as he is in love with a nurse.
(voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a bodybuilding orca and regular attendee at Goo Lagoon. He is normally silent but had speaking parts in "Ink Lemonade" and the game SpongeBob SquarePants: Lights, Camera, Pants!.
(voiced by Mr. Lawrence/Dee Bradley Baker/Clancy Brown) is a blue fish with a shark-like fin and spiked teeth. His character model is often used as an angry or troublemaking townsperson. His name is revealed in both "Have You Seen This Snail?" and in "Roller Cowards". His first appearance is in "Ripped Pants".
Nat (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker/Tom Kenny/Rodger Bumpass) is a male yellow fish who is often seen as a bus driver. His first name is revealed in "Plankton's Regular", in which Karen pays him to become the Chum Bucket's first regular customer.
Officer Nancy (voiced by Sirena Irwin/Jill Talley) and Officer John (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker/Thomas F. Wilson/Mr. Lawrence) are a pair of police officer fish in Bikini Bottom. They are committed to their jobs but often arrest or punish characters for insignificant reasons like littering or having no front license plate.
(voiced by various actors from seasons 1—10 and by John Gegenhuber since season 11) is an elderly townsperson who lives at the Shady Shoals retirement home and is a common patron of the Krusty Krab. His appearance and job changed often throughout the first ten seasons. A country style banjo music usually plays whenever he appears. This music was confirmed as a theme song in the episode 'Friend or Foe' when elementary age Eugene Krabs states, "I'd know that theme song anywhere, it's Old Man Jenkins!" One of his critical appearances is in "The Sponge Who Could Fly" wherein he plays a farmer, a sailor, and finally, a human cannonball. In season 11, the series' staff decided on a finite design for Old Man Jenkins, and the actor John Gegenhuber began to consistently voice him.
(voiced by Tom Kenny) is an elderly fish who is often seen at the Krusty Krab. He was originally one of the many designs of Old Man Jenkins before the skinny green design of the character became the definite version of the character – since then, the production crew had referred to this former version of Old Man Jenkins as "Old Man Walker". At one time, he mistakes SpongeBob for a box of Bran Flakes.
(voiced by Rodger Bumpass in most episodes, Dee Bradley Baker in "The Two Faces of Squidward", Mr. Lawrence in "The Cent of Money", Clancy Brown in "Ride Patrick Ride") is a doctor who works as a physician at the Bikini Bottom Hospital and as a traveling veterinarian for pet snails. He has a calm demeanor and a deep, suave voice. SpongeBob was initially scared of visiting his office in "Suds," but later faces his fears and discovers he likes visiting the doctor. Although he has had many designs, he is often seen as a purple fish in doctor's attire.
(voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is a fish who enjoys surfing and is often seen at Goo Lagoon. He speaks like a stereotypical southern Californian and often calls SpongeBob "dude." He dies after being drowned at Goo Lagoon and becomes an angel in the second-season episode "Bubble Buddy", but returns unharmed for future episodes.
(voiced by Sirena Irwin/Carolyn Lawrence/Jill Talley/Mary Jo Catlett) is a dark grey fish with white hair. She has variously been portrayed as a friend of Pearl and a bank teller.
(voiced by Mr. Lawrence) is a green fish who wears a purple shirt, although he has appeared with other color schemes. He plays a heightened role in the episode "Chocolate with Nuts," in which he goes ballistic and chases SpongeBob and Patrick after they attempt to sell him chocolate bars at his doorstep, since he really wants to buy it all.
Jellyfish
The jellyfish (vocal effects by Tom Kenny) are wild animals who reside in Jellyfish Fields, a meadow in Bikini Bottom, and have a strong affinity for music. Within the series, jellyfish behave like sentient insects, squirt jelly, buzz and swarm like bees, and can sting their enemies with electric shocks that leave painful welts.
Other characters
Recurring and guest characters
(voiced by Dee Snider) is the owner of a snail shell emporium in "Shell Shocked". He initially pretends to have an angry demeanor as a marketing stint for his store's commercials, but becomes truly infuriated when SpongeBob accidentally destroys every shell in his emporium.
(voiced by Betty White) is the owner of Grandma's Apron, the store where Pearl goes to work in "Mall Girl Pearl". An older woman, Beatrice convinces Pearl not to let her teenage friends make fun of her job.
(voiced by Bob Barker) is the director of an animal rescue center where snails escaped from to find SpongeBob in "Sanctuary!" He delivers the "have your pets spayed and neutered" line Barker used to close his game show The Price Is Right.
(voiced by Brad Abrell) is a humanoid bubble created by SpongeBob in "Bubble Buddy". His apparent inanimateness annoys other people of Bikini Bottom, but he is later revealed to be a sentient being before moving out of the town in a taxi-shaped bubble. He later returns in the season 8 episode "Bubble Buddy Returns", having been found to live in Bubbletown, a city made completely out of bubbles.
(voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a seal who is popular among Goo Lagoon beachgoers for his tanned skin and golden caramel brown bones. In "Sun Bleached", he holds parties during the night that only permits those with tanned skin to enter, the highest level of which is bleached skin. He is a parody of George Hamilton.
(voiced by Jeff Garlin) is a giant, bowtie-wearing hamster from the eponymous episode who can only be seen whenever someone ingests a rotten Krabby Patty.
(voiced by Charles Nelson Reilly in his first appearance, Tom Kenny in later appearances) is a villain against Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy. He is a giant brown bubble with a face that is vulnerable to pointy items. The Dirty Bubble was one of the founders of the evil organization E.V.I.L. (short for Every Villain is Lemons). He's a spoof of Batman's foe Joker.
(voiced by Paul Tibbitt) is a drawing created by SpongeBob in his image using a human pencil, which is seemingly able to animate anything it draws. He speaks through unintelligible phrases. He appears in "Frankendoodle". He returned later in "Doodle Dimension", torturing SpongeBob and Patrick in a doodling dimension. He also featured as the main villain to defeat in the Drawn to Life: SpongeBob SquarePants Edition video game. In "Captain Pipsqueak", DoodleBob made a cameo among the villains auditioning to join E.V.I.L.
(voiced by Thomas F. Wilson) is a green flounder who had several silent cameos in various season 1) episodes before appearing as the new student at Mrs. Puff's Boating School in "The Bully". He wants to kick SpongeBob's "butt" for no apparent reason and SpongeBob takes it as if Flats wants to murder him. He also appears during the credits of The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water
(voiced by Gene Shalit) is a food critic who critiques the Krusty Krab in "The Krusty Sponge." He negatively reviews every aspect of the restaurant except for SpongeBob. In response to Scallop's review, Mr. Krabs exploits SpongeBob's newfound popularity by theming the Krusty Krab around SpongeBob. After Mr. Krabs got arrested by the health inspector for what his Spongy Patties did to its consumers, Gene was among the members of the jury at Mr. Krabs' trial where he tells the judge that they find him guilty of all charges. He is modeled and characterized after his voice actor, a real-life book and film critic.
(voiced by Ian McShane) is the leader of a band of Vikings who kidnap SpongeBob and Squidward in "Dear Vikings". Except for himself, all of his crewmen are named "Olaf". In "Captain Pipsqueak", Gordon made a cameo among the villains auditioning to join E.V.I.L.
(voiced by Amy Poehler) is an elderly fish who appears in "Have You Seen This Snail?". She finds snails and force-feeds them so that she can eat them and lock their shells in a closet. She adopts Gary, who was lost in an alley, as her latest victim, but he manages to escape.
(voiced by Johnny Depp) is a legendary human-like surfer who appears in "SpongeBob SquarePants vs. The Big One". He teaches SpongeBob and his friends how to surf so they can go back home and fend off from a legendary tidal wave known as the Big One.
(voiced by Patton Oswalt) is the Krusty Krab's original fry cook, as revealed in "The Original Fry Cook". His cooking is legendary throughout Bikini Bottom, and he is shown to be an even better chef than SpongeBob. Jim left the Krusty Krab after Mr. Krabs declined to provide him with a higher salary.
(voiced by Biz Markie) is a gray tomcat from the eponymous episode who claims he can hold his breath underwater. He is idolized by SpongeBob until it is realized that Kenny requires an oxygen tank to breathe. After the ruse was exposed by Sandy, SpongeBob got him to continue his goals by putting him in one of Sandy's diving suits.
(voiced by David Bowie), also referred to as LRH, is the king of Atlantis in "SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis". He invites SpongeBob and his friends for a visit to Atlantis after they find the lost piece of the coin, but eventually regrets it since they (especially Patrick) end up popping the longest living bubble accidentally with a camera flash.
(voiced by John Rhys-Davies in the first appearance, Bob Joles in later appearances) is a villain against Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy. Man Ray has a man's body and a helmet shaped to look like a manta ray's head, which hides the fact that he does not have a head. He is a spoof of Aquaman's arch enemy, Black Manta. Man Ray retires as a supervillain in his first appearance, however he later goes back to being a villain where he even became a founder of E.V.I.L. (short for Every Villain is Lemons).
(voiced by Pat Morita) is an old karate master who appears in "Karate Island." He is actually a scammer who wants people to invest in his condominium project, disguising it as the "King of Karate" crowning that he presents to SpongeBob.
(voiced by Mark Hamill) is a supervillain moth and an enemy of Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy who appears in "Night Light". Even though he is minuscule, he has the strength to carry both SpongeBob's house and a lighthouse.
(voiced by Alton Brown) is the presenter of the popular lifestyle television show, House Fancy. He is pending on an award for Best Architecture during the episode that features Squilliam's house; he eventually gives it to Squidward due to the "creative" design of his ruined house.
(voiced by Victoria Beckham) is King Neptune's wife and Triton's mother. She is worried by her son's attitude of not wanting to inherit the throne.
(voiced by Sebastian Bach) is the teenage son of King Neptune who appears in "The Clash of Triton". He initially wants to be a normal fish like everyone else, but his father convinces him otherwise.
(voiced by Gilbert Gottfried) is the proprietor of the Slop Pail restaurant seen in "The Hankering". Mr. Krabs frequents the establishment until Sal decides to close it down permanently so he can pursue an acting career.
makes several appearances throughout the series, portrayed in live-action form by series writer Michael Patrick Bell in "Christmas Who?", then in claymation by John Goodman for "It's a SpongeBob Christmas!". Lewis Black took over the role for later seasons, with Santa appearing traditionally animated and for a Kamp Koral episode in CGI. The Lewis Black version is generally annoyed by SpongeBob's antics, referring to him as "a menace".
The (vocal effects provided by Dee Bradley Baker) is a creature that appears in "The Camping Episode". It is depicted as a giant fish with the head of a bear and claws on its fins. SpongeBob and Patrick try to convince Squidward that the Sea Bear exists, but Squidward refuses to believe in the creature until it attacks him repeatedly when he did things that attract a Sea Bear like playing his clarinet badly, wearing a sombrero in a goofy fashion, stomping on the ground (Sea Bears take that as a challenge), waving around a flashlight (flashlights are its natural prey), eating cubed and sliced cheese, and screeching like a chimpanzee. Sea Bears also hate it when someone runs, limps, or crawls away from it. Only an Anti-Sea Bear circle can repel a sea-bear. On a related note, the sound of a Sea Bear attack can attract a Sea Rhinoceros.
(voiced by Gene Simmons) is a lizard-like sea monster who appears in "20,000 Patties Under the Sea". After having slept for 79 years, he demands for SpongeBob and Patrick to sell him food in exchange for giant dollar bills.
(voiced by Robin Sachs) is a strict drill sergeant shark who temporarily replaces Mrs. Puff as the teacher at boating school in "Mrs. Puff, You're Fired". He is said to be the strictest driving instructor in the sea, but even he cannot teach SpongeBob to drive successfully.
(voiced by Henry Winkler), Lonnie (voiced by Michael McKean), Ronnie (voiced by Clancy Brown) and Donnie (voiced by David Lander) are a street gang of sharks who appear in the episode "Sharks vs. Pods", in which SpongeBob joins them. They are actually dancers rather than fighters and are rivals to Squidward's gang, a group of octopuses called the Pods.
is Plankton's pet amoeba, who lives in the Chum Bucket with him and Karen. Spot behaves similarly to a puppy, is a good retriever, and can grow very large when he needs to protect his owner. He first appears in the season 9 episode "Plankton's Pet," and reappears in several episodes from season 11 onward.
(voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is an octopus and Squidward Tentacles' arrogant, wealthy arch-rival, who has succeeded in everything Squidward has only dreamed of doing. He owns a four-story mansion with an expansive garden on the rooftop. He appears in six episodes throughout the first seven seasons. Alternate versions of him appear in "Back to the Past" and "Code Yellow", but he has not made a physical appearance since "Keep Bikini Bottom Beautiful".
The (voiced by Thomas F. Wilson) is a criminal fish who appears in "SpongeBob Meets the Strangler". He is detained for repeatedly strangling someone and promises to strangle SpongeBob when the latter has him arrested. He escapes from jail and pretends to be a bodyguard to get close to SpongeBob, but SpongeBob's behavior annoys him to the point where he would rather be back in prison. In "Captain Pipsqueak", the Tattletale Strangler" made a cameo among the villains auditioning to join E.V.I.L.
The (voiced by R. Lee Ermey) is the head prison warden of the Inferno Island prison, appearing in "The Inmates of Summer". His demeanor is a stereotype of a drill sergeant: strict, demanding, and always speaking in a loud tone. This portrayal is reminiscent of Ermey's performance as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket.
Film characters
(voiced by Scarlett Johansson) is King Neptune's daughter. She is Patrick's love interest. She is a motherly and friendly person and a very good friend of SpongeBob and Patrick. She appears in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. She isn't mentioned in the TV series, but does appear in the special "SpongeBob's Big Birthday Blowout".
(voiced by Alec Baldwin in the film, Clancy Brown in the TV series) is a hitman hired by Plankton to assassinate SpongeBob and Patrick before they are able to retrieve King Neptune's crown from Shell City. Before he manages to do that however he is first stomped by the Cyclops and then hit by a pier. He only appeared in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and made a speaking cameo in "Captain Pipsqueak" where he was the receptionist for E.V.I.L.
(performed by Aaron Hendry, vocal effects provided by Neil Ross) is a marine diver who is always seen wearing an atmospheric diving suit and helmet, even when not underwater, and never talks but only grunts appearing only in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie. He is actually a normal adult man; however, because humans tower virtually all sea life, Mindy describes him as "the worst of all hazards". He is the owner of "Shell City", which is really the name of a seaside gift and souvenir shop.
(portrayed by Antonio Banderas) is a pirate who, upon discovering a book capable of rewriting reality, steals the Krabby Patty formula to open up a fast food drive-in while also changing Bikini Bottom into a wasteland. He appears in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water.
(voiced by Paul Tibbitt (US)/Joe Sugg (UK)/Robert Irwin (Australia)) is an innocent seagull that listens to the stories of Burger-Beard. He appears in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water.
(voiced by Matt Berry in the film, Jeff Bennett in the video game) is a god-like bottlenose dolphin who is the overseer of the universe, watching them from a triangular building in outer space. SpongeBob and Plankton accidentally end up in his audience while using Karen's time machine in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water.
(voiced by Matt Berry) is the ruler of the seven seas who resides in Atlantic City and is much different from King Neptune. He uses snails' slime as face cream to look younger, which is the reason he kidnapped SpongeBob's pet snail Gary once he was all out of snails. He only appeared in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run.
(voiced by Reggie Watts) is King Poseidon's assistant. He appears in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run.
(portrayed by Keanu Reeves) is a tumbleweed with a human face who helps SpongeBob on his quest to save Gary. He appears in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run.
(portrayed by Danny Trejo) is the leader of vampire cowboy zombies whom SpongeBob and Patrick encountered in their dream. He appears in The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run.
Spin-off characters
(voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) and (voiced by Kate Higgins) are characters in the spin-off series Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years. They are a pair of hillbilly narwhals who live in the Kelp Forest. The siblings have crossed over into the main series on two occasions: the episodes "Something Narwhal This Way Comes" and "Upturn Girls".
The (voiced by Brad Garrett impersonating Rodney Dangerfield) is a sea monster in Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years that was seen living in the lake at Kamp Koral where he is shown to have a comedic side. He later crossed over into the main series where he appeared at the end of "Abandon Twits".
(voiced by Thomas F. Wilson) and (voiced by Cree Summer) are Patrick's parents in the spin-off series The Patrick Star Show. Cecil works at the Undersea Space Center while Bunny works from home.
(voiced by Jill Talley) is a purple squid. She was first introduced in "Goons on the Moon" as a teenage friend of Pearl. In the spin-off The Patrick Star Show, she is Patrick's adopted sister and the producer of Patrick's imaginary talk show.
(voiced by Dana Snyder) is Patrick's grandfather and Cecil's father in The Patrick Star Show. He is the smartest member of the Star family.
(vocal effects provided by Tom Kenny) is a sea urchin who is the Star family's pet.
(vocal effects provided by Dee Bradley Baker) is a sentient toilet.
(vocal effects provided by Jill Talley) is a sea bunny. While often shown to be feuding with Ouchie, they get along well when they are with Tinkle.
Families and ancestors
(voiced by John DiMaggio) is SpongeBob's cousin who bullied him during their childhoods. In his lone appearance, Blackjack was imprisoned for littering but has since been released. While he appeared large in flashbacks, Blackjack somehow shrunk by the present day.
(voiced by Christopher Guest) is SpongeBob's cousin who appears solely in the episode "Stanley S. SquarePants". SpongeBob receives Stanley in a package sent by his Uncle Clem, who is relieved to have sent Stanley, since he would destroy anything he touches. True to this, despite SpongeBob trying to teach him, Stanley constantly destroys everything and almost makes SpongeBob lose his job until SpongeBob told the truth to Mr. Krabs. This leads to Mr. Krabs hooking Stanley up with Plankton where he accidentally wrecks The Chum Bucket.
(voiced by Garnett Sailor) is SpongeBob's uncle who only appears in the episode "BlackJack". He is a retired police captain and lives right next to SpongeBob's cousin BlackJack. In the episode, SpongeBob goes to his house to help him stop BlackJack from torturing SpongeBob's parents. However, he can't hear over the lawnmower and thinks SpongeBob wants to help him mow the lawn. It goes on like this for other noisy objects such as a blender, a radio with static, and a phonograph. When he finally hears the news, he drives SpongeBob over to BlackJack's house, but he warns SpongeBob to be careful.
(voiced by Marion Ross) is SpongeBob's paternal grandmother. She spoils SpongeBob whenever he visits her house with cookies, milk, sweaters, and bedtime stories, even though it can embarrass SpongeBob.
and Margie Star are Patrick's parents in the original series. Their identities are temporarily taken by another starfish couple named Marty and Janet in "I'm with Stupid". In "Rule of Dumb", it is revealed that Herb is a brother of Gary's father, Sluggo, making Patrick and Gary first cousins. The characters were later dropped when Cecil Star and Bunny Star were created.
(voiced by Rodger Bumpass in most appearances, Dee Bradley Baker in "Fools in April") is Squidward's elderly mother. In earlier episodes, she only appears as hallucinations tormenting Squidward, but later appears in person in "Krusty Towers". She lives in a moai like Squidward, but with a curly hair-like structure on its roof and earring-like balls hanging from the sides.
(voiced by Tom Kenny) is Squidward's father who was mentioned a lot before appearing in "Kamp Kow".
(voiced by Mary Jo Catlett in "Chum Fricasse", Cree Summer in The Patrick Star Show) is Squidward's paternal grandmother. She was originally mentioned in "Sandy's Rocket" before appearing in person in "Chum Fricasse" where Mr. Krabs tipped her off about Squidward and Plankton misusing her famous chum fricasse recipe by not letting it cook for 24 hours and had the customers wreck the Chum Bucket in retaliation. In The Patrick Star Show, Grandma Tentacles is shown to be the Star family's neighbor.
(voiced by Paul Tibbitt in season 2–3, Sirena Irwin in season 4–6) is Mr. Krabs' overbearing mother who still treats him slightly like a child. She is a friend of Old Man Jenkins. She first appears in "Sailor Mouth" and has been mostly retired from the show, aside from a cameo in "Lame and Fortune." Although her name it is not officially mentioned in the series, she is referred to as "Betsy" in some merchandising.
(voiced by Dennis Quaid) is Mr. Krabs' paternal grandfather who is a pirate. In "Grandpappy the Pirate", he visits his grandson, thinking that the latter is also a pirate instead of the owner of a restaurant. Mr. Krabs tries not to disappoint Redbeard by disguising the Krusty Krab as a pirate ship, pretending Pearl is a sea monster, and dressing his employees as sailors.
(voiced by Laraine Newman) is Plankton's grandmother.
and Primitive Star (voiced by Tom Kenny and Bill Fagerbakke) are the earliest known ancestors of SpongeBob and Patrick, who appear in the episode "SB-129" when Squidward time-travels to the past. Upon seeing the two of them electrocuting themselves with a jellyfish, Squidward inadvertently teaches them the sport of Jellyfishing, which results in Squidward being documented as the inventor of Jellyfishing when he returns to the present. They also seem to strongly dislike Squidward's clarinet music, as they ruthlessly chase down Squidward upon hearing it. The scene where Primitive Sponge and Primitive Star are confronted by Squidward upon noticing them torturing themselves with the jellyfish, particularly, the pose struck by Primitive Sponge, has become an internet meme, referred to as "SpongeGar" (which was actually the name given to another of SpongeBob's primitive ancestors in the episode "Ugh").
, Patar, and Squog (voiced by Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, and Rodger Bumpass) are SpongeBob, Patrick, and Squidward's neolithic ancestors who appear in "Ugh." While still not being able to speak intelligibly, they are more advanced than the primitive ancestors in "SB-129" as they are shown to use stone tools and fire. Also appearing in the episode are Primitive Gary (voiced by Tom Kenny), Gary's gigantic ancestor and SpongeGar's pet, and Primitive Krabs (voiced by Clancy Brown), Mr. Krabs' tiny ancestor who repeatedly chants "money."
and Patron (voiced by Tom Kenny and Bill Fagerbakke) are SpongeBob and Patrick's robotic descendants who appear in "SB-129". SpongeTron has 486 clones, each one named after a letter of the English alphabet from 2,000 years in the future, while Patron has two heads.
, Pecos Patrick, Hopalong Tentacles, William Krabs, Polene Puff, and Dead Eye Plankton (voiced by Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mary Jo Catlett, and Mr. Lawrence) are the main characters' wild west ancestors who appear in "Pest of the West". They lived in the town of Bikini Gulch and frequented an old-fashioned bar version of the Krusty Krab called the Krusty Kantina.
, King Krabs, Princess Pearl, Dark Knight, Planktonamor, and Karen the Crystal Ball (voiced by Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Lori Alan, Carolyn Lawrence, Mr. Lawrence, and Jill Talley) are the medieval counterparts of the main characters who appear in "Dunces and Dragons". The present-day SpongeBob and Patrick are magically transported to their times and help save Princess Pearl from Planktonamor. Planktonamor additionally keeps a pet, the Dragon Jellyfish, who is a giant jellyfish with a mane and a tail.
Reception
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants have been well-received overall. The titular character SpongeBob has become very popular with children and adults.
The character's popularity has spread from Nickelodeon's original demographic of two- to eleven-year-olds, to teenagers and adults. The popularity of SpongeBob translated well into sales figures. In 2002, SpongeBob SquarePants dolls sold at a rate of 75,000 per week, which was faster than Tickle Me Elmo dolls were selling at the time. SpongeBob has gained popularity in Japan, specifically with Japanese women. Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom purposefully targeted marketing at women in the country as a method of building the SpongeBob SquarePants brand. Skeptics initially doubted that SpongeBob could be popular in Japan as the character's design is very different from already popular designs for Hello Kitty and Pikachu. However, the characters have also attracted some negative reception, including SpongeBob himself, who was listed as number four on AskMen's Top 10: Irritating '90s Cartoon Characters. Nevertheless, SpongeBob SquarePants was ranked ninth on TV Guide'''s top 50 cartoon characters.
The show's characters have received recognition from celebrities and well-known figures in media. Barack Obama named SpongeBob his favorite television character in 2007 and admitted that SpongeBob SquarePants was "the show I watch with my daughters." British Prime Minister Gordon Brown has also said he watches the show with his children. Sigourney Weaver and Bruce Willis were reported to be fans of the SpongeBob character in 2008. Film critic A. O. Scott named Squidward, Mrs. Puff, and Sandy his favorite characters on the show in 2004. American singer Pharrell Williams, who says he is a fan of the show, said that "Squidward is my favorite, though. If he was a human, I would hang out with him." Fashion designer Peter Jensen designed a line of sweatshirts inspired by SpongeBob and called Mrs. Puff his "absolute favorite" character in an interview with Women's Wear Daily. Peter Keepnews of The New York Times commended Patrick, calling him "a popular character, and the new episodes illustrate why: He is unfailingly enthusiastic, touchingly loyal and absolutely undeterred by his intellectual limitations. Hilariously voiced by Bill Fagerbakke, he is not just an endearing comic creation but a role model for idiots everywhere."
The show's voice actors have received attention from honorary organizations for the portrayals of their characters. Mary Jo Catlett and Tom Kenny were both nominated at the 29th Annie Awards ceremony in 2001 for their vocal performances as Mrs. Puff and SpongeBob. Kenny received an additional two nominations at the 2008 and 2010 ceremonies, the latter of which he won for voicing SpongeBob in "Truth or Square". In 2012, Rodger Bumpass' performance as Squidward was nominated for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program at the 39th Daytime Emmy Awards. Additionally, Patrick as a character won in the category "Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick" at the 2014 Kids' Choice Awards.
Appearances in other media
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants appeared in the 2004 theatrical film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and its 2015 sequel. Both films feature the regular television cast and blend animated elements with live-action sequences. They have also been featured in a variety of associated merchandise, particularly video games; from 2001 to 2013, the SpongeBob franchise had multiple video games released each year, with the show's voice cast reprising their character roles for many titles. Every main cast member with the exception of Clancy Brown has voiced their respective characters in each game that they appear; Brown's character Mr. Krabs is instead voiced by Joe Whyte in SuperSponge, Operation Krabby Patty, and Battle for Bikini Bottom and by Bob Joles in the Truth or Square game.
The SpongeBob characters have been featured at a variety of theme park attractions. In 2003, Kings Island announced plans to build the first SpongeBob-themed amusement park ride, a dark ride roller coaster titled "Mrs. Puff's Crash Course Boating School". Plans were halted when Kings Island changed ownership, and the first ride featuring SpongeBob theming was instead "SpongeBob's Boatmobiles"—also based on Mrs. Puff's Boating School and opened in 2003—at California's Great America. Amusement rides based on the characters have since been opened at Blackpool Pleasure Beach, Dreamworld, Movie Park Germany, and Nickelodeon Universe. Two 4D films featuring 3-D models of the characters and a motion simulator experience, SpongeBob SquarePants 4-D and The Great Jelly Rescue, were sold to theme parks and aquariums worldwide in 2005 and 2013 respectively.
Mascot costumes of the SpongeBob characters debuted at Nickelodeon Suites Resort in 2005 and have made regular appearances at Nickelodeon events since. Plankton, Karen, and Gary are the only main characters who have never been realized as mascots; at events, they are normally depicted as puppets or statues instead. In December 2011, a parade of SpongeBob mascots and floats titled "SpongeBob ParadePants" opened at Sea World Australia. In November 2017, a Broadway musical based on the show began previews at the Palace Theatre, and opened in December 2017. Unlike previous shows, the characters were not represented with mascot costumes but by actors wearing clothing inspired by the characters' designs.
Popular culture
The characters of SpongeBob SquarePants have appeared throughout popular culture. In 2007, the Amsterdam-based company Boom Chicago created a SpongeBob parody called "SpongeBob SquarePants in China", in which a stereotypically Chinese Patrick refuses to go to work and advocates freedom of speech, rights of leisure, and income. During the same year, production company Camp Chaos created a SpongeBob parody titled SpongeBong HempPants, which features five of the series' characters parodied in the form of various drugs. The show was seen on VH1 and Comedy Central, both owned by Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom. Comedy Central's Drawn Together also features a parody of SpongeBob named "Wooldoor Sockbat" whose theme tune is inspired by SpongeBobs Hawaiian-style background music. Two animated series that former SpongeBob writer Dan Povenmire worked on have incorporated references to the characters; the Phineas and Ferb special "Summer Belongs to You" features a joke in which Phineas Flynn holds up inanimate representations of SpongeBob and Patrick, and the Family Guy episode "Road to Rupert" includes SpongeBob's "Campfire Song Song" from "The Camping Episode". SpongeBob, Patrick, Mr. Krabs, Pearl and Squidward all appear in "Major League of Extraordinary Gentlemen", an episode of the sketch comedy Robot Chicken. A segment of the episode, animated in stop motion with SpongeBob toy figures, features Mr. Krabs using crab legs as the secret ingredient for Krabby Patties. In April 2016, Nintendo's Wii U exclusive Splatoon'' released a splatfest based on the eponymous series by teaming two characters SpongeBob and Patrick, hosted by the pop band Squid Sisters: Callie and Marie, the event began for 24 hours and Team Patrick won.
References
Bibliography
SpongeBob SquarePants
Characters
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4200190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29 | Vulcan (Marvel Comics) | Vulcan (Gabriel Summers) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared in X-Men: Deadly Genesis #1 (January 2006). He is the third Summers brother to be revealed, the younger brother of X-Men characters Cyclops and Havok.
Publication history
Though a third Summers brother was mentioned years before by Sinister during an encounter with Cyclops, Vulcan first appeared in X-Men: Deadly Genesis #1, a story written by Ed Brubaker that ran from January to July 2006. Vulcan then appeared in "The Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire" storyline, also written by Brubaker, in The Uncanny X-Men issues #475 to 486 (September 2006 to July 2007).
After Brubaker left The Uncanny X-Men, Christopher Yost took over as writer beginning with the X-Men: Emperor Vulcan mini-series, which ran from November 2007 to March 2008.
In July, 2008, Marvel.com posted a news article of an alternate cover of Emperor Vulcan featuring the phrase "Who Will Rule?", accompanied by the text "Stay tuned to Marvel.com and get ready for the blockbuster answer at San Diego Comic-Con!" This was all to build up to the "War of Kings" storyline, and Vulcan's part of the story is set up in the Kingbreaker mini-series, written by Yost.
Fictional character biography
Origins
Vulcan's history began on the Shi'ar throneworld, as the unborn child of Christopher Summers (later known as Corsair) and Katherine Summers, parents of Cyclops and Havok. Katherine was pregnant when the Summers were abducted by D'Ken, Majestor of the Shi'ar Imperium. The unborn child was seemingly killed when the mad emperor, in retaliation for an attempt by Corsair to escape, stabbed Katherine and killed her. The fetus was removed from Katherine's lifeless body and placed in an incubation-accelerator, which is used to breed slaves. As a result, the child was aged to the prime of adolescence.
Sent to Earth to become a slave for Erik the Red, the Emperor's hand on Earth, he escaped and was found by Moira MacTaggert with little or no memories of who he was or where he came from. She took him as her ward and instructed him in the use of his nascent powers. He claimed his name was Gabriel, but he chose the code name of Vulcan from a book on Roman mythology, and Charles Xavier recognized his mental imprint as being related to Cyclops and his age suggests he is older. Vulcan became part of a team of X-Men formed by Petra, Darwin, and Sway that attempted to rescue the original X-Men from the sentient island Krakoa. Viewing Vulcan as a menace, Krakoa sent a human-shaped volcano to deal with his team, killing the two women and leaving Darwin and Vulcan for dead.
Deadly Genesis
With the help of his dying teammates, Vulcan was able to survive. Reawakened in modern days by the mutant energies released during M-Day, he returns from his space exile to get revenge against Professor Xavier, killing Banshee in the process, as well as attempting to kill Logan and even kidnapping Rachel Summers and Cyclops.
Vulcan subconsciously uses the absorbed powers of Petra and Sway to manipulate the X-Men, and figures out the truth of the mystery behind the missing team of X-Men that were lost on Krakoa. Vulcan is able to lure Professor Xavier out of hiding, and confronts him in front of the X-Men, wanting the Professor to reveal to them all what really happened to Vulcan and his team. However, Xavier is unable to do so, because, in the wake of M-Day, he is no longer a Mutant. Enraged, Vulcan commands Marvel Girl to link their minds so that everyone can see what transpired. Reluctantly, Rachel does so, and with Xavier as a guide, she is able to not only reveal the truth behind what really happened on Krakoa, but she also detects another consciousness within the mind of Vulcan.
It is revealed that Vulcan and his team rescued Scott from Krakoa (it was previously thought that Krakoa itself released Scott to bring it more victims), and Vulcan was able to hurt the living island, which greatly enraged the creature. Vulcan revealed to Cyclops that they were in fact brothers, and sent Cyclops away on their jet to safety. As the jet took off, Cyclops watched in horror as the living island struck down and seemingly killed Vulcan and his team. Sway was hit first, and severed in two at her torso. Her body released the last of her mutant power to slow time down around them. As Petra was incinerated, she also reacted reflexively and drew them all below the surface into a cave that her power created. There, Vulcan and Darwin lay dying, and Darwin transformed himself into energy and bonded with Vulcan, thus saving them both. They were launched into space along with the Krakoa land mass by Polaris and fell into a state of suspended animation. After the apparent deaths of Vulcan and his team, Cyclops returned to Professor Xavier in a hysterical state, blaming himself for their deaths, and the Professor decided it was best for all involved if he altered their memories to forget about the second team, and spare everyone the agony.
Vulcan thus remained on Krakoa, inert, until the massive backlash of power resulting from M-Day awakened him, whereupon he returned to Earth to confront the X-Men, revealing the truth behind the Krakoa incident to them. With these revelations, Marvel Girl reaches into Vulcan's mind and releases the subconscious inert form of Darwin, which Vulcan expels from his body. Using this opportunity, the X-Men attack him as they deem him too dangerous to be left alone. Vulcan easily repels their attack and flees the planet, renouncing Cyclops as his brother, and heads for space with the vision of D'Ken killing his mother raging in his mind, bent on revenge.
The Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire
While traveling through Shi'ar space, he learns from a crew member whose starship he had destroyed that D'Ken has been comatose for years after his experience in the M'Kraan Crystal and that Lilandra Neramani is the current ruler of the Shi'ar. Undaunted, Vulcan continues on his quest for vengeance by engaging a trio of Shi'ar warships, and destroying two of them, thereby showing his superiority to the crew of the surviving third ship, which Vulcan then commandeers for his own. After reaching the inner territory of the Shi'ar throneworld, Chandilar, the ship is confronted and ordered to surrender by the Imperial Guard. However, the captain of Vulcan's ship had deceived Vulcan as to the Guard's true strength, hoping to use him as a pawn in Vice-Chancellor K'Tor's plan to restore the old Empire; as a result, Vulcan is unprepared for the true power of the Guard, and especially their leader, Gladiator.
Vulcan kills several powerful guardsmen in combat (Neutron, Cosmo, Smasher, and Impulse, among possible others), but is defeated by Gladiator, and taken to a prison moon. He remains a prisoner there until an agent of the Vice-Chancellor frees him from his shackles, and directs him to another cell to free Deathbird.
However, soon afterwards, Deathbird manages to convince him to at least delay his plan for vengeance, after the two become romantically involved. Vulcan then uses his powers to heal D'Ken's injuries. Afterwards, a grateful D'Ken asks Vulcan to marry Deathbird. After his wedding, Vulcan throws Professor Xavier into the M'Kraan Crystal, kills D'Ken, and names himself Emperor of the Shi'ar. Darwin leaps into the Crystal after Xavier, and soon after emerges with him. During the battle Vulcan kills Corsair, claiming he does not have a father and blaming Corsair for letting his mother die. Now with Xavier's lost telepathy restored by the Crystal, he, along with Nightcrawler, Warpath, Darwin, and Hepzibah, are sent back to Earth by Lilandra locking the ship's programming. Meanwhile, Havok, Marvel Girl, Polaris, Ch'od, Raza, and Korvus form a new team of Starjammers bent on defeating Gabriel (Vulcan) once and for all, and salvaging the remains of the crippled Shi'ar Empire.
Emperor Vulcan
The civil war between Vulcan's forces and those loyal to the dethroned Lilandra rages on. Led by Havok and the Starjammers, Lilandra's forces gradually whittle away at Vulcan's forces, which are plagued by defections. The Shi'ar, contrary to Vulcan's expectations, are not happy to have an outsider as their ruler. Vulcan is discouraged by this, but Deathbird convinces him that they will come to accept him.
Warned in advance of a rebel raid on Feather's Edge, Vulcan and his fleet ambush the Starjammers. However, in the middle of the battle, his ship, the Hammer, is destroyed by the Scy'ar Tal (translates as "Death to the Shi'ar"). Vulcan and Gladiator attack the leader of the Scy'ar Tal and are easily defeated, whereupon they retreat deeper into Shi'ar space.
Marvel Girl makes contact with the Eldest Scy'ar Tal and discovers their true origin: the Scy'ar Tal were originally called the M'Kraan. Early in their history, the Shi'ar attacked them, killing many and causing the rest to flee for their lives. Eventually the Shi'ar, taking over the planet, took the M'kraan Crystal as their own, declaring it the sacred gift of the deities Sharra and K'ythri.
The M'Kraan, changing their name to Scy'ar Tal, then devoted their culture and society to the destruction of the Shi'ar Empire. Even though it is later revealed to the reader that the Scy'ar Tal discovered the M'Kraan Crystal some 13,000 years earlier and eradicated the then-inhabiting species on the planet since they considered the planet to be "holy" — the same thing that the Shi'ar have done to them. With their first attack, they destroyed Feather's Edge by transporting a star to obliterate it.
Vulcan makes contact with the Starjammers to call a temporary ceasefire. Under the ceasefire, the Shi'ar and the Starjammers decide to take out the Finality, thus crippling the Scy'ar's biggest threat. Once Havok and Vulcan are in position to destroy Finality, the Eldest Scy'ar tries to stop them, but Vulcan, discovering the source of the Eldest's power, severs the connection between the Eldest and his brothers, rendering the Eldest powerless and the Scy'ar disorganized. The tide of the battle shifts to the Shi'ar, who proceed to attack not only the Scy'ar, but also the Starjammers. Meanwhile, Vulcan blasts Havok into a sun.
Vulcan decides to use Finality to destroy the Scy'ar by using the weapon to place a star in the middle of their fleet. Havok returns, and, having absorbed enough power to burn him, decides to end things with Vulcan. While they battle, Rachael and Korvus attempt but fail to stop the beacon that will initiate the attack by the Shi'ar. The Shi'ar Imperial Guard end Havok's battle with Vulcan by appearing with the Starjammers in captivity, threatening to kill them. Before surrendering, Havok destroys Finality. With Havok and the Starjammers in custody, Vulcan declares that he will return the Shi'ar Empire to its former glory.
Divided We Stand
Vulcan appears on a monitor of Havok's cell on a prison and taunts him by telling him the events of Messiah Complex. He says the baby, and all of mutantkind's hope is lost. Havok destroys the monitor and says that if one baby can be born so can another, that there is always hope.
X-Men: Kingbreaker
Vulcan begins an aggressive war of conquest to expand the Shi'ar Empire, occupying, among other races, the Z'Nox. All the while, he becomes obsessed with making Havok acknowledge his superiority, which Havok refuses to do. The Starjammers escape their prison, nearly killing Vulcan in the process, and severely wounding Deathbird, but being forced to flee to the Kree Imperium.
War of Kings
After learning of the devastation of the Skrull fleet and the takeover of Hala by the Inhumans, Vulcan launches a surprise attack on the Kree, now ruled by Black Bolt and the Inhuman population of Attilan. The Imperial Guard retrieves Lilandra, whom Vulcan plans to execute. However, he is stopped by one of his admirals, stating that doing so will only make her a martyr and incite factions loyal to her to overthrow him around a similar figurehead. He also abducts Adam Warlock and attacks him.
Soon enough, Lilandra is assassinated in an attempt to usurp Vulcan. Immediately, a civil war ignites in the Imperium between factions loyal to her and Vulcan. Though advised by the Fraternity of Raptors and his admirals to sue for peace and return to their planets to restore order, Vulcan refuses to listen and flies off to engage the Inhumans. He finds Black Bolt with his T-Bomb. Believing Black Bolt intends to destroy his empire, Vulcan engages him. They both apparently die in the resulting explosion that tears a hole in the fabric of space and time. Gladiator then takes Vulcan's place as Majestor of the Shi'ar. It is later revealed that Black Bolt did not die but was instead trapped in the fault, while Vulcan's fate remained unknown.
Dawn of X
Sometime later during Dawn of X, Cyclops wrote Vulcan's name as one of several threats the X-Men have to solve, at a time when almost all X-Men disappeared and are presumed dead while trapped in a realm created by Nate Grey, which indicates that Vulcan is in fact alive or simply that Cyclops doesn't know what happened to him during the War of Kings event. Soon afterwards after Xavier used Krakoa's unique abilities to create a new nation for mutants, it is revealed through an infographic that lists off all of the Omega Level mutants known to exist, that Gabriel is indeed alive and mysteriously back on Earth. He is also a loyal citizen of Krakoa and was reunited with his family and his psychotic mind apparently stabilized. Vulcan was accepted with a few acquaintances from the Krakoan mainland who have stretched the acceptable boundaries of decorum. He also appears to have no memory of his time as the mad Emperor of the Shi'ar, although he has the same recurring dream every night of being stuck in the Fault after the War of Kings event, which made him to be prone to heavy drinking. Also, while it wasn't a particularly a trait of his in the past, Vulcan has something of a tendency toward grandiose dialogue and talks incessantly about the fire inside him, which doesn't seem like entirely a stable behavior of his. To complicate matters, a Shi'ar Battle Record of Vulcan's defeat reveals that while the Emperor Vulcan fell into the Fault with Black Bolt, he – like Black Bolt – never died. Later while on the moon, Vulcan finds the Cotati and sees them getting ready to invade Earth. He warns them against invading Krakoa but they capture him and accidentally awaken his fire, allowing him to remember what was done to him in the breach. As it turns out, while in the Fault, Vulcan was plucked to another dimensional plane by a trinity of lovecraftian beings of ancient power and malice known as the Many-Angled-Ones, who plan to use him to conquer the Marvel Universe. They also implied to have tried to captured Black Bolt, but the Midnight King was rescued in time. The alien conclave cast a covetous eye upon Vulcan's power, seeking to turn him into a tool for their own purposes. They tear Vulcan apart on a molecular level to peer into his soul. While assessing his potential for good and for evil, they find a fire within him which they consider "A true power inside a broken and twisted host". Disturbingly, they apparently are only interested in Vulcan's evil side, even considering the potential for good to be a flaw in his existence. They rewrote Vulcan's mind, creating the "good" exterior he has been presenting to the X-Men all this time, a false identity beneath which was subsumed his true persona and returned him back to his universe. Back in the present, Vulcan unleashes his repressed fire and torches all of the Cotati, killing them all. When the rest of the Cotati find out Vulcan has killed their whole battalion, they get ready to invade Krakoa.
Powers and abilities
Vulcan is an Omega-level mutant with the ability to psionically manipulate, control, and absorb vast amounts of energy. In addition to traditional energies of the electromagnetic spectrum, Vulcan has displayed control over exotic energies such as Cyclops' optic blasts and magical energy.
Vulcan has used his powers to produce light, heat, force, and electricity, as well as warp or disable large amounts and different types of existing energy sources, tap into and suppress mutant energies, survive in the vacuum of space, and fly. Outside a planetary atmosphere his flight speed can even reach near the speed of light. He can track energy signatures over vast interstellar distances, as demonstrated when he located a trio of starships. He is able to go without food for long periods by directly absorbing energy, and can generate protective force fields for interstellar travel. He can manipulate electricity within a person's brain and use the powers of others by manipulating their own energy sources, although he needs to be in their presence to achieve this. The exact limits of his power replication abilities are unknown, but he was capable of utilising Marvel Girl's telepathy without her consent. Vulcan also possesses the capability of solidifying energy into solid shapes, in effect simulating telekinesis. When he uses his powers, his eyes glow. He has been confirmed as an Omega level mutant, his powers elevated to said level thanks to absorbing a massive amount of mutant energies from M-Day.
Vulcan is able to use his psionic abilities for a variety of uses. Despite little (if any) formal training in the use of his mental powers, Vulcan has demonstrated feats such as completely resisting mental manipulation/assault by far more experienced telepathic beings, and he was also able to restore former Shi'ar emperor D'Ken from a catatonic state, something the most powerful/skilled telepaths of the entire Shi'ar empire had previously been unable to accomplish. Vulcan does not possess any innate telepathic abilities, but can manipulate the telepathic energies of others (which enables him to shield his mind from outside attacks). In the instance with D'Ken, he used his energy powers to reactivate the electrical connections in the neurons of D'Ken's brain that had been damaged by the M'Krann Crystal.
All three Summers brothers have similar powers, as they are each able to absorb certain kinds of celestial energies and re-channel that energy from their bodies. While his brothers Alex and Scott are known to be immune to each other's powers, they are apparently not immune to Vulcan's; nor is Vulcan immune to Alex's.
Vulcan is capable of absorbing vast amounts of energy in any form. In an engagement, Vulcan forced Adam Warlock to flee after robbing him of most of his power within seconds. Vulcan's absorption abilities, though vast, have limits. He was unable to absorb or deflect a powerful blast from his brother Havok (although at the time Havok was powered beyond his normal levels), leaving Vulcan wounded and at the mercy of his brother. Though high-order energy projection rapidly depletes his reserves, as demonstrated in his fight against Shi'ar warships and later the Imperial Guard, Vulcan's energy manipulation abilities are not based on said energy reserves. He can continue to manipulate external sources of energy even when they are depleted, though he is noticeably weaker when this occurs. Nevertheless, he has been shown to be easily capable of defeating multiple advanced Shi'ar starships when in such a state.
After being swallowed by the soil of Krakoa, he absorbed the powers of his teammates Sway, Darwin, and Petra, giving him their powers of time manipulation, physical adaptation, and earth manipulation respectively. These powers were lost when Rachel Summers was able to give Darwin's psyche the necessary boost to separate himself from Vulcan.
When not in possession of Darwin's powers, Vulcan's body is as vulnerable as any normal human as far as durability is concerned. Blows from Black Bolt were shown to be capable of drawing blood and chipping teeth. When battling the X-Men, Vulcan has been susceptible to physical blows. However, Vulcan can use his energy abilities to create force fields or to rebuild damaged/destroyed portions of his body, the total extent of which is unknown, as Vulcan still required a prosthetic eye after a strike from Gladiator.
According to information from his creator, Ed Brubaker, Vulcan has a "hidden potential" which allows him to fully generate and have control over seven elements (fire, earth, electricity, wind, water, darkness, and light).
Reception
In 2014, Entertainment Weekly ranked Vulcan 77th in their "Let's rank every X-Man ever" list.
Other versions
Age of X
In the Age of X reality, Vulcan is in an induced coma at Barton-Howell research facility.
What If?
What If? Deadly Genesis explores what would have happened if Vulcan and his team had survived their venture on Krakoa. In this reality, Vulcan and his team make their way through the island, surviving its assault. Vulcan becomes separated from the group and finds the captured X-Men. After accidentally killing them all in a panic, Vulcan escapes the temple and, with the rest of his team, the island itself. Krakoa is then jettisoned into deep space, where it remains untouched for years until being discovered by the Silver Surfer. In the intervening time, Vulcan's team of X-Men had become very popular with the general population of Earth, but when the Surfer alerts the X-Men to his discovery, Sway finds a time pocket and uses her powers to replay the events of Vulcan's killings. After confronting Vulcan about the lie and disabling his powers, Professor Xavier forces him to leave Earth, although he announces that he is travelling into space to protect other worlds to protect the reputation of mutants. Vulcan is banished to Krakoa as it resumes drifting through space, and, as punishment, he is forced to replay the transpired murders of the X-Men every time he requires food. However, the issue ends with Vulcan musing that he feels less guilt each time he watches this replay, and wonders how long it will take until he feels nothing at all.
A second story, "What If? Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire", examines what would have happened to the Shi'ar Empire if Vulcan had absorbed the energies of the M'Kraan Crystal instead of Professor Xavier, and become the Phoenix.
Collected editions
Vulcan's stories have been collected into trade paperbacks:
Deadly Genesis (200 pages, hardcover, August 2006, , softcover, January 2007, )
Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire (collects The Uncanny X-Men #475–486, 312 pages, August 2007, hardcover, , softcover, February 2008, )
Emperor Vulcan (120 pages, May 2008, )
Road to War of Kings (collects X-Men: Kingbreaker #1–4, Secret Invasion: War of Kings, and War of Kings Saga, 176 pages, June 2009, )
References
External links
Vulcan (Gabriel Summers) at the Marvel Database Project
Third Summers Brother Article Pre-Vulcan at Uncannyxmen.net
Release Report for Evil Emperor Vulcan
Characters created by Ed Brubaker
Comics characters introduced in 2006
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with earth or stone abilities
Fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities
Fictional characters who can manipulate time
Fictional emperors and empresses
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional patricides
Fictional slaves
Galactic emperors
Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers
Marvel Comics extraterrestrial supervillains
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics mutants
Marvel Comics orphans
Shi'ar
X-Men members |
4200196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomopathogenic%20nematode | Entomopathogenic nematode | Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are a group of nematodes (thread worms), that cause death to insects. The term entomopathogenic has a Greek origin, with entomon, meaning insect, and pathogenic, which means causing disease. They are animals that occupy a bio control middle ground between microbial pathogens and predator/parasitoids. Although many other parasitic thread worms cause diseases in living organisms (sterilizing or otherwise debilitating their host), entomopathogenic nematodes are specific in only infecting insects. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) live parasitically inside the infected insect host, and so they are termed as endoparasitic. They infect many different types of insects living in the soil like the larval forms of moths, butterflies, flies and beetles as well as adult forms of beetles, grasshoppers and crickets. EPNs have been found all over the world in a range of ecologically diverse habitats. They are highly diverse, complex and specialized. The most commonly studied entomopathogenic nematodes are those that can be used in the biological control of harmful insects, the members of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae. They are the only insect-parasitic nematodes possessing an optimal balance of biological control attributes.
Classification
Life cycle
Because of their economic importance, the life cycles of the genera belonging to families Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae are well studied. Although not closely related, phylogenetically, both share similar life histories (Poinar 1993). The cycle begins with an infective juvenile, whose only function is to seek out and infect new hosts. When a host has been located, the nematodes penetrate into the insect body cavity, usually via natural body openings (mouth, anus, spiracles) or areas of thin cuticle. (Shapiro-Ilan, David I., and Randy Gaugler. "Nematodes.") After entering an insect, infective juveniles release an associated mutualistic bacterium from their gut which multiplies rapidly. These bacteria of the genus Xenorhabdus or Photorhabdus, for steinerernematides and heterorhabditids, respectively—cause host mortality within 24–48 hours. The nematodes provide shelter to the bacteria, which, in return, kill the insect host and provide nutrients to the nematode. Without this mutualism no nematode is able to act as an entomoparasite. Together, the nematodes and bacteria feed on the liquefying host, and reproduce for several generations inside the cadaver maturing through the growth stages of J2-J4 into adults. Steinernematids infective juveniles may become males or females, whereas heterorhabditids develop into self-fertilizing hermaphrodites with later generations producing two sexes. When food resources in the host become scarce, the adults produce new infective juveniles adapted to withstand the outside environment. The life cycles of the EPNs are completed within a few days.(Shapiro-Ilan, David I., and Randy Gaugler. "Nematodes.") After about a week, hundreds of thousands of infective juveniles emerge and leave in search of new hosts, carrying with them an inoculation of mutualistic bacteria, received from the internal host environment (Boemare 2002, Gaugler 2006). Their growth and reproduction depends upon conditions established in the host cadaver by the bacterium. The nematodes bacterium contributes anti-immune proteins to assist in overcoming their host defenses (Shapiro-Ilan, David I., and Randy Gaugler. "Nematodes.").
Foraging strategies
The foraging strategies of entomopathogenic nematodes vary between species, influencing their soil depth distributions and host preferences. Infective juveniles use strategies to find hosts that vary from ambush and cruise foraging (Campbell 1997). In order to ambush prey, some Steinernema species nictate, or raise their bodies off the soil surface so they are better poised to attach to passing insects, which are much larger in size (Campbell and Gaugler 1993). Many Steinernema are able to jump by forming a loop with their bodies that creates stored energy which, when released, propels them through the air (Campbell and Kaya 2000). Other species adopt a cruising strategy and rarely nictate. Instead, they roam through the soil searching for potential hosts. These foraging strategies influence which hosts the nematodes infect. For example, ambush predators such as Steinernema carpocapsae infect more insects on the surface, while cruising predators like Heterorhabditis bacteriophora infect insects that live deep in the soil (Campbell and Gaugler 1993).
Population ecology
Competition and coexistence
Inside their insect hosts, EPNs experience both intra and interspecific competition. Intraspecific competition takes place among nematodes of the same species when the number of infective juveniles penetrating a host exceeds the amount of resources available. Interspecific competition occurs when different species compete for resources. In both cases, the individual nematodes compete with each other indirectly by consuming the same resource, which reduces their fitness and may result in the local extinction of one species inside the host (Koppenhofer and Kaya 1996). Interference competition, in which species compete directly, can also occur. For example, a steinernematid species that infects a host first usually excludes a heterorhabditid species. The mechanism for this superiority may be antibiotics produced by Xenorhabdus, the symbiotic bacterium of the steinernematid. These antibiotics prevent the symbiotic bacterium of the heterorhabditid from multiplying (Kaya and Koppenhofer1996). In order to avoid competition, some species of infective juveniles are able to judge the quality of a host before penetration. The infective juveniles of S. carpocapsae are repelled by 24-hour-old infections, likely by the smell of their own species' mutualistic bacteria (Grewal et al. 1997).
Interspecific competition between nematode species can also occur in the soil environment outside of hosts. Millar and Barbercheck (2001) showed that the introduced nematode Steinernema riobrave survived and persisted in the environment for up to a year after its release. S. riobrave significantly depressed detection of the endemic nematode H. bacteriophora, but never completely displaced it, even after two years of continued introductions. S. riobrave had no effect on populations of the native nematode, S. carpocapsae, though, which suggests that coexistence is possible. Niche differentiation appears to limit competition between nematodes. Different foraging strategies allow two species to co-exist in the same habitat. Different foraging strategies separate the nematodes in space and enable them to infect different hosts. EPNs also occur in patchy distributions, which may limit their interactions and further support coexistence (Kaya and Koppenhofer 1996).
Population distribution
Entomopathogenic nematodes are typically found in patchy distributions, which vary in space and time, although the degree of patchiness varies between species (reviewed in Lewis 2002). Factors responsible for this aggregated distribution may include behavior, as well as the spatial and temporal variability of the nematodes natural enemies, like nematode trapping fungus. Nematodes also have limited dispersal ability. Many infective juveniles are produced from a single host which could also produce aggregates. Patchy EPN distributions may also reflect the uneven distribution of host and nutrients in the soil (Lewis et al. 1998; Stuart and Gaugler 1994; Campbell et al. 1997, 1998). EPNs may persist as metapopulations, in which local population fragments are highly vulnerable to extinction, and fluctuate asynchronously (Lewis et al. 1998). The metapopulation as a whole can persist as long as the rate of colonization is greater or equal to the rate of population extinction (Lewis et al. 1998). The founding of new populations and movement between patches may depend on the movement of infective juveniles or the movement of infected hosts (Lewis et al. 1998). Recent studies suggest that EPNs may also use non-host animals, such as isopods and earthworms for transport (Eng et al.2005, Shapiro et al. 1993) or can be scavengers (San-Blas and Gowen, 2008).
Community ecology
Parasites can significantly affect their hosts, as well as the structure of the communities to which they and their hosts belong (Minchella and Scott 1991). Entomopathogenic nematodes have the potential to shape the populations of plants and host insects, as well as the species composition of the surrounding animal soil community.
Entomopathogenic nematodes affect populations of their insect hosts by killing and consuming individuals. When more EPNs are added to a field environment, typically at concentrations of , the population of host insects measurably decreases (Campbell et al. 1998, Strong et al. 1996). Agriculture exploits this finding, and the inundative release of EPNs can effectively control populations of soil insect pests in citrus, cranberries, turfgrass, and tree fruit (Lewis et al. 1998).
If entomopathogenic nematodes suppress the population of insect root herbivores, they indirectly benefit plants by freeing them from grazing pressure. This is an example of a trophic cascade in which consumers at the top of the food web (nematodes) exert an influence on the abundance of resources (plants) at the bottom. The idea that plants can benefit from the application of their herbivore's enemies is the principle behind biological control. Consequently, much of EPN biological research is driven by agricultural applications.
Examples of the top-down effects of entomopathogenic nematodes are not restricted to agricultural systems. Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory examined the strong top-down effects that naturally occurring EPNs can have on their ecosystem (Strong et al. 1996). In a coastal shrubland food chain the native EPN, Heterorhabditis heplialus, parasitized ghost moth caterpillars, and ghost moth caterpillars consumed the roots of bush lupine. The presence H. heplialus correlated with lower caterpillar numbers and healthier plants. In addition, the researchers observed high mortality of bush lupine in the absence of EPNs. Old aerial photographs over the past 40 years indicated that the stands where nematodes were prevalent had little or no mass die-off of lupine. In stands with low nematode prevalence, however, the photos showed repeated lupine die-offs. These results implied that the nematode, as a natural enemy of the ghost moth caterpillar, protected the plant from damage. The authors even suggested that the interaction was strong enough to affect the population dynamics of bush lupine (Strong et al. 1996).
Not only do entomopathogenic nematodes affect their host insects, they can also change the species composition of the soil community. Many familiar animals like earthworms and insect grubs live in the soil, but smaller invertebrates such as mites, collembolans, and nematodes are also common. Aside from EPNs, the soil ecosystem includes predatory, bacteriovorous, fungivorous and plant parasitic nematode species. Since EPNs are applied in agricultural systems at a rate of , the potential for unintended consequences on the soil ecosystem appears large. EPNs have not had an adverse effect on mite and collembolan populations (Georgis et al. 1991), yet there is strong evidence that they affect the species diversity of other nematodes. In a golf course ecosystem, the application of H. bacteriophora, an introduced nematode, significantly reduced the abundance, species richness, maturity, and diversity of the nematode community (Somaseker et al. 2002). EPNs had no effect on free-living nematodes. However, there was a reduction in the number of genera and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes, which often remain enclosed within growths on the plant root. The mechanism by which insect parasitic nematodes have an effect on plant parasitic nematodes remains unknown. Although this effect is considered beneficial for agricultural systems where plant parasitic nematodes cause crop damage, it raises the question of what other effects are possible. Future research on the impacts EPNs have on soil communities will lead to greater understanding of these interactions.
In aboveground communities, EPNs have few side effects on other animals. One study reported that Steinernema felidae and Heterorhabditis megidis, when applied in a range of agricultural and natural habitats, had little impact on non-pest arthropods. Some minimal impacts did occur, however, on non-pest species of beetles and flies (Bathon 1996). Unlike chemical pesticides, EPNs are considered safe for humans and other vertebrates.
Disturbance
Frequent disturbance often perturbs agricultural habitats and the response to disturbance varies among EPN species. In traditional agricultural systems, tilling disturbs the soil ecosystem, affecting biotic and abiotic factors. For example, tilled soils have lower microbial, arthropod, and nematode species diversity (Lupwayi et al. 1998). Tilled soil also has less moisture and higher temperatures. In a study examining the tolerances of different EPN species to tillage, the density of a native nematode, H. bacteriophora, was unaffected by tillage, while the density of an introduced nematode, S. carpocapsae, decreased. The density of a third nematode introduced to the system, Steinernema riobrave, increased with tillage (Millar and Barbercheck 2002). Habitat preferences in temperature and soil depth can partially explain the nematodes' different responses to disturbance. S. carpocapsae prefers to remain near the soil surface and so is more vulnerable to soil disturbance than H. bacteriophora, which forages deeper and can escape the effects of tillage. S. riobrave may have responded well to tillage because it is better at surviving and persisting in hotter and drier conditions created by tillage (Millar and Barbercheck 2002). The data showed that Steinernema sp. found in some Indonesia regions showed high adaptive capability when applied on another region or condition (Anton Muhibuddin, 2008). The response of EPNs to other forms of disturbance is less well defined. Nematodes are not affected by certain pesticides and are able to survive flooding. The effects of natural disturbances such as fire have not been examined.
Applications
Although the biological control industry has acknowledged EPNs since the 1980s, relatively little is understood about their biology in natural and managed ecosystems (Georgis 2002). Nematode-host interactions are poorly understood, and more than half of the natural hosts for recognized Steinernema and Heterorhabditis species remain unknown (Akhurst and Smith 2002). Information is lacking because isolates of naturally infected hosts are rare, so native nematodes are often baited using Galleria mellonella, a lepidopteran that is highly susceptible to parasitic infection. Laboratory studies showing wide host ranges for EPNs were often overestimates, because in a laboratory, contact with a host is assured and environmental conditions are ideal; there are no "ecological barriers" to infection (Kaya and Gaugler 1993, Gaugler et al. 1997). Therefore, the broad host range initially predicted by assay results has not always translated into insecticidal success.
Nematodes are open to mass production and don't require specialized application equipment since they are compatible with standard agrochemical equipment, including various sprayers (i.e. backpack, pressurized, mist, electrostatic, fan and aerial) and irrigation systems (Cranshaw, & Zimmerman 2013).
The lack of knowledge about nematode ecology has resulted in unanticipated failures to control pests in the field. For example, parasitic nematodes were found to be completely ineffective against blackflies and mosquitoes due to their inability to swim (Lewis et al.1998). Efforts to control foliage-feeding pests with EPNs were equally unsuccessful, because nematodes are highly sensitive to UV light and desiccation (Lewis et al.1998). Comparing the life histories of nematodes and target pests can often explain such failures (Gaugler et al. 1997). Each nematode species has a unique array of characteristics, including different environmental tolerances, dispersal tendencies, and foraging behaviors (Lewis et al. 1998). Increased knowledge about the factors that influence EPN populations and the impacts they have in their communities will likely increase their efficacy as biological control agents.
Recently, studies have shown utilizing both EPNs (steinernematids and heterorhabditids) in combination for biological control of plum curculio in orchards in Northeast America have reduced populations by as much as 70–90% in the field, depending on insect stage, treatment timing and field conditions. More studies are being conducted for the efficacy of EPNs utilized as a biological control agent for organic growers as an alternative solution to chemistries that aren't as effective at controlling insect infestations.(Agnello, Jentsch, Shield, Testa, and Keller 2014).
See also
Biological insecticides
Entomopathogenic fungus
References
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Boemare, N. 2002. "Biology, Taxonomy, and Systematics of Photorabdus and Xenorhabdus". p 57–78 in Gaugler I, editor. Entomopathogenic Nematology. CABI Publishing. New Jersey.
Bathon, H. 1996. "Impact of entomopathogenic nematodes on non-target hosts". Biocontrol Science and Technology 6: 421–434.
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Agnello, Art, Peter Jentsch, Elson Shield, Tony Testa, and Melissa Keller. "Evaluation of Persistent Entomopathogenic Nematodes." Evaluation of Persistent Entomopathogenic Nematodes for Biological Control of Plum Curculio 22.1 (Spring 2014): 21–23. Cornell University Dept. of Entomology. Web.
Cranshaw, W.S., and R. Zimmerman. "Insect Parasitic Nematodes." Insect Parasitic Nematodes. Colorado State University Extension, June 2013. Web. 3 July 2015.
External links
Entomopathogenic Nematodes
Nematodes as Biological Control Agents of Insects
Parasitic Nematodes Home Page
Entomopathogenic nematodes on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website.
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Parasitic nematodes of animals
Biological control agents of pest insects
Soil biology |
4200345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport%20in%20Pakistan | Sport in Pakistan | Sport in Pakistan is a significant part of Pakistani culture. Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan, while field hockey, polo, and squash are also popular. Traditional sports like kabaddi and other well-known games are also played.
The Pakistan Sports Board was created in 1962 by the Ministry of Education as a corporate body for the purposes of promoting and developing uniform standards of competition in sports in Pakistan comparable to the standards prevailing internationally, and regulating and controlling sports in Pakistan on a national basis. The Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, now has control over the Pakistan Sports Board. The PSB controls all 39 sporting federations. The Pakistan Sports Board is supported by the Pakistan Sports Trust, which assists hard up players and associations so they can continue participating in sports.
Over recent years there has been an increase in sporting activity in Pakistan, with Pakistani sportsmen and women participating at many national and international events. Also, more international tournaments now take place in Pakistan. The size of the teams Pakistan sends, and the number of events they participate in, such as the Olympic Games, Asian Games, World Games, and Commonwealth Games has increased since the turn of the century.
National participation
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, had a great love for sport and fully realised the vital role it played in the development of nations and inculcation of discipline among the masses. In a meeting with the Organizing Committee of the First Pakistan Olympic Games held at Karachi, Jinnah told the first President of the Pakistan Olympic Association, Ahmed E.H.:
The first National Games were held at Polo Ground, Karachi from 23 to 25 April 1948. Sportsmen and officials from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and all the integrated Provincial units of West Pakistan took part in these games. The total number of athletes was 140. No competitors were, however, invited from any foreign country. Competitions were held in basketball, boxing, cycling, track and field, volleyball, weightlifting, and wrestling.
Over the years, Pakistan has been held back due to the lack of funds placed in sports. Many facilities are substandard, causing Pakistan to fall behind other nations. In its early years the young state had been able to compete with much success, but during the late 1970s, with the government no longer investing in athletics, the country could no longer compete.
However, since the late 1990s, this trend has changed. Money is now being placed into sports, and many of the federations are now managed by people who are trying to push Pakistani sportsmen and -women forward. International tournaments are now hosted in the country, and the nation sends athletes to compete abroad. There has also been restructuring of national tournaments, and new facilities and equipment are being provided. This has seen overall results improve.
On March 3, 2009, 12 militants with guns, grenades, and rocket launchers attacked a bus carrying the Sri Lanka national cricket team to a match at Lahore's Gaddafi Stadium in Pakistan. Six Pakistani policemen escorting the team and two civilians were killed while seven Sri Lankan players and an assistant coach were injured. Since the terrorist attacks, no foreign cricket teams toured Pakistan until 2015 when Zimbabwe toured for an away series. A month after the attack on the Sri Lankan team, the International Cricket Council relieved Pakistan of co-hosting duty for any 2011 Cricket World Cup games. Pakistan has tried to make the best of the situation by offering to host its "home" matches on neutral territory in the United Arab Emirates. However, due to a decrease in terrorism in Pakistan over the past few years, as well as an increase in security, many teams have toured Pakistan since 2015. These teams include Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, West Indies, Bangladesh, South Africa, Australia and an ICC World XI team. In addition, the Pakistan Super League has seen games hosted in Pakistan.
The Pakistan Sports Board is a government institution whereas the Pakistan Olympic Association is working under the shelter of the International Olympic Committee. Due to government interference, the Pakistan Olympic Association is very close to getting a ban from participation in Olympic Games. Due to cold war, Pakistani sport is also suffering but, there is no hope to resolve this problem due to government level dictatorship.
Team sports
Cricket
Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan. Almost all districts and neighbourhoods in Pakistan have a cricket team and people start playing from a young age. Pakistan has won international cricket events, which include the 1992 Cricket World Cup, the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 and the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy besides finishing as runner-up in the 1999 Cricket World Cup, 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and the 2022 T20 World Cup. Pakistan also won the ACC Asia cup in 2000 and 2012 and all three versions of the Austral-Asia Cup.
Pakistan's cricket teams take part in domestic competitions such as the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy, the Patron's Trophy, ABN-AMRO Twenty-20 Cup, and the ABN-AMRO Champions Trophy. Pakistan Cricket Board also organize a franchise based T20 cricket league known as the Pakistan Super League.
International Test and one-day matches are played between the Pakistan national cricket team and foreign opponents regularly. Women's cricket is also very popular, with Kiran Baluch holding the current record of the highest score in a women's test match with her innings of 242. The Pakistan Cricket Board controls both the men's and women's games. The 2020 Pakistan Super League events was hosted entirely by Pakistan.
Notable cricketers from Pakistan include Aaqib Javed, Ramiz Raja, Shoaib Akhtar, Younis Khan, Saqlain Mushtaq, Mushtaq Ahmed, Abdul Qadir, Wasim Akram, Zaheer Abbas, Javed Miandad, Saeed Anwar, Muhammad Yousaf, Inzamam-ul-Haq, Waqar Younis, Shahid Afridi, the Mohammad brothers (Hanif, Mushtaq, Sadiq and Wazir) and Imran Khan. Hanif Mohammad, Imran Khan, Javed Miandad, Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Zaheer Abbas and Abdul Qadir have been named in the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame. Saeed Anwar's 194 runs against India in 1997 remained the record for most runs by a batsman in an ODI for 13 years which was equalled by Zimbabwe's Charles Coventry against Bangladesh in 2009 and then broken by India's Sachin Tendulkar who hit 200* against South Africa in 2010. Shoaib Akhtar holds the record of delivering the fastest delivery in the history of cricket, bowling at a speed of 163km/h (100.2mph) to Nick Knight agianst England at the 2003 World Cup. Shahid Afridi holds numerous records i.e. the 3rd fastest century in ODIs, the highest number of sixes in international cricket. Wasim Akram at the time of his retirement had taken the most wickets in ODIs. Muhammad Yousuf has scored the most Test runs in a calendar year.
Field hockey
The Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) is the national governing body of field hockey in Pakistan. The Pakistan Hockey Federation Women Wing (PHFWW) is the official organisation of women's field hockey in Pakistan.
The Pakistan national field hockey team has won 3 gold medals at the Olympic Games, and lifted the Hockey World Cup 4 times, being the country with most World Cups till the present. It has also won the most Asian gold medals, and is the only Asian team to have won the prestigious Champions Trophy with 3 titles. It used to be consistently ranked among the top teams in the world. However, lately there has been a decline in results, with the national team failing to qualify for both the 2016 and 2020 Olympics. The hockey team also failed to qualify for 2023 World cup. Also, because of the PHF's poor economy, there was a span of two years without any international matches netween 2019 and 2021. PHF secretary lamented over lack of funding could even ban Pakistan hockey team. As of December 2022 the team is ranked 16th in the world. Notable players include World-Record holder Waseem Ahmad, Mohammed Saqlain, and Sohail Abbas.
Football
Pakistan is known as the manufacturer of the official FIFA World Cup ball. Yet, as in most parts of South Asia, football is not especially popular in Pakistan. As on 31 March 2023 Pakistan Men's team is ranked 195 as per FIFA ranking. The Pakistan Football Federation (PFF) is the governing body in Pakistan.
The origin of football in Pakistan can be traced back to mid-nineteenth century when the game was introduced during the British Raj. Initially, games were played between army teams. However, clubs were soon set up around the country. One of the regional federations to organise football on what is now Pakistan Territory was the North-West India Football Association, in which clubs from the city of Lahore and the surrounding region were active. Kohat FC was the first club to be established in 1930, it became the first outstation team to win the North-West India Football Championship 1937 in 1937 defeating Government College Lahore 1–0 in the finals. The first female club to be established was Diya W.F.C. in 2002.
Shortly after the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Pakistan Football Federation (PFF) was created, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah became its first Patron-in-Chief. PFF received recognition from FIFA in early 1948. The annual National Championship was organized shortly after. In 1950, the national team gained their first international experience in Iran and Iraq.
The Pakistan Football Federation Women Organizing Committee (PFFWOC) is responsible for women's football in Pakistan. In 2004, the Pakistan Premier League was established; it is the first division of Pakistani football. The Pakistan National Football Challenge Cup is the national "knockout" cup competition in Pakistani football, run by the Pakistan Football Federation. The Pakistan National Women's Football Championship is the annual women's championship.
Australian Rules Football
Australian rules football was established in Pakistan in 2014 with support from the Australian High Commission. The governing body is the Australian Rules Football Federation of Pakistan.
Teams were established in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Multan and Gujranwala. It is currently strongest in the Swat Valley, where a large competition operates and draws large enthusiastic crowds. A women's team was formed in 2017. A major national tournament was organised in 2018. Australia sent a coach to assist Pakistan in 2019 however the sport's rapid growth in popularity was greatly outpacing local officials ability to support it. 10 of Pakistan's more than 15 clubs contested the 2021 AFL Pakistan National Championships in Islamabad.
Pakistan sent a team to the Asian Championship in 2022, however met some roadblocks to participation due to funding. Despite challenges sending a team, it won the Division 3 title. In 2022 AFL Asia reported that Pakistan was the largest and fastest growing nation for the sport in Asia with over 5,000 players with a 45% annual increase in participation. The Pakistan national side are known as the Dragoons.
Ball hockey
The Pakistan national ball hockey team is primarily composed of Canadian Pakistanis, born in Canada or with links to that nation. The sport is growing in the South Asian community there. Pakistan competed for the first time at the World Championships in 2009. They finished 3rd out of 4 in Group B behind only Bermuda and ice hockey giants Finland, and ahead of Cayman Islands. In the next world championships, they also participated and were champions of their group after defeating France in extra time. The Pakistan national ball hockey team is developing and improving, and in 2013 were awarded Pool A status, competing for gold in St. John's, Newfoundland.
Baseball
In 2006, Pakistan Federation Baseball hosted the 7th Asian Baseball Championship, and again from 2010 through 2017, with the national team winning the tournament from 2010 through 2015.
Basketball
Basketball was introduced to Pakistan around 1900 and is especially popular in Lahore and Karachi. The Pakistan Basketball Federation has been part of FIBA since 1958. Six teams play in the Pakistan first division. The National Women Basketball Championship is the Women's Basketball tournament.
Handball
Handball was first played in 1984 in an exhibition event, and was taken up by the Pakistan Olympic Association. The Pakistan Handball Federation is a member of the Asia Handball Federation. In beach handball, Pakistan is ranked first in Asia.3rd World Beach Handball Championship held from 9 to 13 July 2008 in Cadiz, Spain. Pakistan obtained 5th position and qualified for the World Games. Pakistan Handball team won one Gold medal in the 11th South Asian Games 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Pakistan obtained one silver medal during IHF Challenge Trophy 2010 held in Dhaka. Pakistan also participated in the Beach Handball World Cup in 2008. Pakistan won the gold medal at the first Beach Asian Games in Bali, Indonesia.
Ice hockey
Pakistan has an ice hockey team but it is not part of the IIHF. Pakistan applied for a membership but the congress postponed it until it had a better structure. However, Pakistan has deep roots in ice hockey in the northern parts of Gilgit-Baltistan province.
The first hockey game in Pakistan took place in December 2018 in Naltar between the Pakistan Air Force and Gilgit Scouts. Baltistan Ice Hockey Championship 2022 was held in Skardu on January 25-26, with teams named after glaciers, to raise awareness about climate change.
Rugby union
The Pakistan Rugby Union was formally established in 2000 and gained memberships with the Asian Rugby Football Union in 2000. In 2003, Pakistan fielded a national team for the first time, participating in the Provincial Tournament in Sri Lanka. In November 2004, it participated in the 19th Asian championship in Hong Kong. The Pakistan Rugby Union then became an associate member of the International Rugby Board (IRB).
There are three major clubs in Pakistan, which include Islamabad Rugby Football Club (IRFC) also known as the "JINNS", Lahore Rugby Football Club (LRFC), and Karachi Rugby Football Club (KRFC).
The latest landmark for Pakistan rugby is that universities like Lahore University of Management and Sciences (LUMS) and Bahria University Islamabad have formed teams as well.
Volleyball
Volleyball is a popular sport in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Inter-services games are played regularly, and most players of the Pakistani volleyball team are from the armed forces. This game is also gaining popularity among private school students in Karachi and Islamabad.
Pakistan Volleyball Federation is the governing body of Volleyball in Pakistan.
Equestrian sports
Equestrianism had traditionally been limited to the upper-echelon of Pakistani society up until the end of the 20th century. This resulted in private sponsorship and government funding (PST) for the sport. Pakistan Eventing was launched in July 2005 in partnership with The Equestrian & Tent Pegging Federation of Pakistan with an attempt to qualify Pakistan to its first Olympic equestrian qualification.
Polo
Polo is believed to have originated in Persia, and continues to be an important sport within the country with several large annual competitions.
The annual Shandur Polo Festival at Shandur Top in Chitral District is an international event attended by enthusiasts from all over the world. The Shandur polo ground at Shandur Pass is the world's highest, at approximately . The governing body of polo in Pakistan is the Pakistan Polo Association. There are more than twenty-one polo clubs in Pakistan and over forty polo championships held all over the country every year. Pakistan has qualified for the preliminary rounds of the World Polo Championship three times. Pakistan's Hissam Ali Haider is the highest capped played in the Asian circuit. He has played for Cartier in the St. Moritz Snow Polo World Cup and the Commonwealth team in the Royal Salute Coronation Cup, both of which were won by his team.
Tent pegging
Tent pegging is a popular sport in Pakistan. It is also locally named as neza bazi. The Equestrian & Tent Pegging Federation of Pakistan, formed in 2014, is the highest governing body who organises the sport in Pakistan. There are various clubs across the country who also organise an event as well. The sport is the major event of National Horse & Cattle Show held at Fortress Stadium Lahore. Pakistanis compete in various international events notably the World Cup which commenced in 2014.
Malik Ata Muhammad Khan is one of the founders of International Tent Pegging Federation to address the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI), where he also served as Vice President.
Racquet sports
Badminton
The Pakistan national badminton team represents Pakistan in international badminton team competitions. It is controlled by the Pakistan Badminton Federation, the governing body for badminton in Pakistan. The national team was established in 1953.
In 1979, Pakistan participated in the World Championships organised by the WBF, which was a rival body of the Badminton World Federation that would later ceased its operation on May 26, 1981, and merged with the International Badminton Federation (now known as Badminton World Federation or BWF). They won a bronze and a silver at the event, in men's team and men's singles.
Pakistan had only appeared in the international stage three times as they were eliminated in the group stage in the 1993, 1995 and 1997 edition of the Sudirman Cup.
The nation would make its first badminton debut in the Olympics when national player Mahoor Shahzad represented the country in the women's singles discipline.
The team would later participate in the 2022 Commonwealth Games mixed team event through a bipartite invitation.
Pakistan earned its first Olympic Badminton Qualification after receiving a tripartite invitation for the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics. Thus, Mahoor Shahzad became the first Pakistani badminton player to compete at the Olympic Games.
Squash
Squash is a popular sport that has a large following in Pakistan, with Pakistan dominating the sport for a period of time. The World Open professional championship was inaugurated in 1976 and serves as the main competition today.
Jansher Khan won the World Open eight times, and the British Open six times. From 1990 until 1996, he remained unbeaten in 81 matches for consecutive six years. This longest-winning matches streak in Squash history was recorded by Guinness World Records. Jahangir Khan won the World Open title six times, and the British Open title ten times (1982–1991), and is widely regarded as the greatest squash player of all time, and one of the greatest sportsmen in Pakistan history. From 1981 to 1986, Khan was unbeaten and during that time won 555 consecutive matches – the longest winning streak by any athlete in top-level professional sport as recorded by Guinness World Records.
Combined they have won 14 world opens, making Pakistan the most decorated Squash nation in the world. Pakistani players have won the Squash World Open 17 times, and British Open 12 times, the highest by any nation.
Carla Khan, one of Pakistan's most successful sportswomen, is one of a number of men and women who represent Pakistan. The Pakistan Squash Federation is the governing body in the country. The Pakistan Open tournament is one of the premier events of the sport in the country. Every province of the country holds its own men's and women's championships. Some other notable players from Pakistan include Hashim Khan, Torsam Khan, Mobillah Khan, and Qamar Zaman.
Table tennis
The Pakistan Table Tennis Federation runs the sport in the country. Farjad Saif is the first player in Pakistan Table Tennis history to represent the country in the olympics, participating in the 1988 Seoul Games. He did exceedingly well eventually ending the Olympic games with a ranking of 25th in the world. He also holds a record 13 national titles also being the only individual to win the title 7 times in a row.
The Pakistan women's national table tennis team in 1972, it competed in the inaugural ATTU Asian Table Tennis Championships held in Beijing, China.
Tennis
Tennis is a very popular sport and Pakistanis compete in various international events. The Pakistan Tennis Federation (PTF) organise the game in the country. Khawaja Saeed Hai was the first Pakistani to reach a Grand Slam tournament, playing at Wimbledon, the US Open, and the French Open where he made it to the third round. Haroon Rahim was a very successful player, he was the winner of a number of ATP Singles and Doubles titles. Lately, Aisam-ul-Haq created history in Pakistani tennis, as he reached the finals of 2010 US Open – Men's Doubles and 2010 US Open – Mixed Doubles.
The Pakistan Davis Cup team have previously reached the world group play-offs, with the help of Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi, currently Pakistan's number one, and Aqeel Khan, the number two. Tennis events are very rare in Pakistan and there is hardly an international tennis event, apart from ATP tournaments.
Individual sports
Athletics
The Athletics Federation of Pakistan (AFP) organises athletic tournaments in Pakistan. Pakistani athletes compete in various athletic events. Some Pakistani athletes have excelled in various events in the distant past including Abdul Khaliq, Ghulam Raziq, Mubarak Shah, John Permal, Muhammad Talib, Ahmed Sajjad Cheema, Abid Hussain, Arshad Saleem, Arshad Nadeem, Ali Kamani and Nawaz, Mohammad Alam, and Muhammad Younis are some of the athletes who got prominence at either Asian or International levels, or both, winning gold medals for Pakistan. In the early decades, Pakistanis held many Asian records including the Asian 100 m and 200 m record held by Abdul Khaliq. Pakistani female athletes have also represented Pakistan at international level, such as Shabana Akhtar, who was the first Pakistani female athlete to participate at the Olympics. International events such as the Lahore Marathon take place in the country.
Arshad Nadeem, a Pakistani javelin thrower created a new national and Commonwealth Games record with a throw of 90.18 m and became the first ever athlete from South Asia to breach the 90m mark.
Billiards and snooker
Snooker is one of the rising sports in Pakistan, and it has been taken up by many people. There has been success at the international level; Mohammed Yousuf was the 1994 IBSF World Snooker Champion and the 2006 IBSF World Masters Champion; and Shokat Ali is the Pakistan number one player and an Asian Games Gold medalist. The Pakistan Billiards Snooker Association (PBSA) was formed in 1958.
Bowling
Pakistan Tenpin Bowling Federation is affiliated with Asian Bowling Federation and World Bowling. The Federation is affiliated with Pakistan Sports Board.
Chess
In Pakistan, chess is played throughout the country, mostly in Mughal style which is slightly different from the international style, but the Chess Federation of Pakistan (CFP) organises its tournaments in international style and according to the established rules. The FIDE has awarded the International Master title to Shahzad Mirza and Mahmood Lodhi. Ironically being 5th most populated country, Pakistan so far has 0 grandmasters.
Cycling
The Pakistan Cycling Federation is the governing body of cycling in Pakistan. The Tour de Pakistan International Cycling Race starts from Karachi and ends in Peshawar, with about 150 domestic and international cyclists taking part every year. This race is among the largest of such events in Asia, covering a distance of 1,648 km in eleven stages with four days of rest en route. Teams from WAPDA, Pakistan Army, Pakistan Railways, and Sui Southern Gas Company, along with teams of the four provinces regularly take part in domestic and international cycling tournaments. Women's cycling also takes place in the country. Other events are the Tour of Islamabad and the MTB Tour of the Himalayas.
Gymnastics
The Pakistan Gymnastic Federation has been affiliated with the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) since 1958. Pakistan sends individuals and teams to international events such as the Olympic Games.
Golf
Pakistan has qualified for the Golf World Cup a total of 4 times, in 1975, 1977, 1982, and recently in 2009, when they finished joint 22nd out of the 28 qualifying teams. The Pakistan Golf Federation (PGF) run golf in Pakistan. Karachi Golf Club is one of the oldest in the country and it is where the Pakistan Open takes place. The Pakistan Open was founded in 1967 and became an Asian Tour event in 2006. Chris Rodgers won the Pakistan Open in 2006. The 2007 event was held in January and had an increased prize money purse of $330,000 US. Taimur Hussain has been Pakistan's most successful golfer, as he won the 1998 Myanmar Open, becoming the first Pakistani to win on the Asian Tour.
Roller skating
The Pakistan Federation of Roller Skating (PFRS) is the national governing body of roller sports in Pakistan. The Federation started about 25 years ago in Lahore, Pakistan, founded by Khalid Saeed and his team.
Shooting
Shooting in Pakistan governed by National Rifle Association of Pakistan. Irshad Ali with one silver and two bronzes in the Commonwealth Games being one of the most successful at international level. Ghulam Mustafa Bashir, a 35-year-old shooting master won the bronze medal back at the 2022 International Shooting Sports Federation World Championships in Cairo, Egypt and also earnt direct qualification to Paris 2024 Olympics.
Kishmala Talat won Pakistan's first Asian Games medal in shooting at the 2022 Asian Games, being the first woman to do so.
Skiing
The Ski Federation of Pakistan, created in December 1990, run the sport. Despite being a country with many mountains, the sport has never taken off until the late 1990s. Up until then, it was only done by the Pakistan Army. Now there have been facilities put in place so that the sport can be played, and the Ski Federation of Pakistan now sends out teams to international tournaments.
Muhammad Abbas and Muhammad Karim represented Pakistan at 2010 Winter Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics respectively.
Motorsport
The Motorsport Association of Pakistan (MAP) is a member of the Federation Internationale de L'Automobile FIA. The Pakistan National Karting Championship was the first motor racing curcit competition in Pakistan, and is used to develop rookie drivers. The Freedom Rally is a yearly off-road race which takes place during the Independence celebrations.
Nur B. Ali was the first Pakistani Racing driver and Co-founded the MAP. He drives in the ARCA RE/MAX Series and is a former two-time Southwest Formula Mazda Regional Series champion. Ali was also the driver of the A1GP Team Pakistan in 2006. Syed Ovais Naqvi is the first local and homegrown professional Pakistani Racecar Driver and he is also the first Pakistani to acquire the International B Racing license, he also co-founded the MAP and is the General Secretary of the body. Ovais was also responsible for putting together the Pakistan National Karting Championship. Omer Younas is currently racing in the Formula BMW Pacific and Adnan Sarwar races in Formula Rolon. In 2005, the A1 Team Pakistan was run by Adam Langley-Khan, Khan remained the Team Pakistan driver until 2008. He also drives in the Euroseries 3000.
Mountaineering
With the greatest concentration of the highest peaks of the world many of them very challenging climbs, Pakistan is a prime location for skilled mountain climbers. Five peaks are over 8,000 meters. The Alpine Club of Pakistan (ACP) founded in 1974, is the national mountaineering and climbing federation. Chiltan Adventurers Association Balochistan is the major affiliated unit of ACP founded in 1984. Nazir Sabir, Ashraf Aman, Hayatullah Khan Durrani Lt.Col Abdul Jabbar Bhatti, Col Sher Khan and Meherban Karim are Pakistan's most experienced mountaineers.
Pakistan Alpine Institute is the pioneer of "big wall climbing" in Pakistan. Pakistan's First Big Wall Climbing Expedition has been successfully completed by Imran Junaidi and Usman Tariq in September, 2013.
Samina Baig is the first Pakistani woman and the third Pakistani to climb Mount Everest. She is also the youngest Muslim woman to climb Everest, having done so at the age of 21. Samina is also the first Pakistani woman and the first Muslim to climb the seven summits.
Weightlifting
The Pakistan Weightlifting Federation was formed in 1953. Pakistan has picked up a number of medals over the years in weightlifting. Shuja-Ud-Din Malik won gold in the Men's 85 kg. Combined at the 2006 Commonwealth Games.
Shujauddin Malik won the first gold medal at the 2006 Commonwealth Games, followed by Nooh Dastgir Butt, who won the gold medal at the 2022 Commonwealth Games.
Combat sports
Boxing
The Pakistan Boxing Federation (PBF) organises boxing matches in Pakistan. The Pakistan Amateur Boxing Federation (PABF) organises amateur matches. Pakistan has seen success at amateur level boxing, despite lack of necessary equipment and facilities. The Shaheed Benazir Bhutto International Boxing Tournament took place in the KPT Benazir Sports Complex in Karachi, Pakistan from 1–8 January 2010. Amir Khan, the professional British boxing world champion of Pakistani descent was the guest in the final rounds of tournament.
Pakistan have won medals at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games. Quetta born Haider Ali won gold at the 2002 Commonwealth Games as a Featherweight and went on to become a professional boxer. Asghar Ali Shah is a two-time Olympian with 13 gold and 10 silver medals at international level.
Kabaddi
Kabaddi is a famous sport in Pakistan. The governing body for Kabaddi in Pakistan is Pakistan Kabaddi Federation. Pakistan won the 2020 Kabaddi World Cup (Circle style) at the National Stadium in Lahore, after a close contest against India by 43–41.
Karate
Karate is the regular event of National Games, the federation also organizes National karate championship. The Pakistan Karate Federation is the national governing body to develop and promote the sport of Karate in the Pakistan. Ghulam Ali and Saadi Abbas have won gold medals at the SAF Games.
At the Asian Games held in Jakarta, Indonesia in 2018, Nargis Hameedullah became the first Pakistani woman to win an individual medal (a bronze) at the Asian Games.
Mixed Martial Arts
Mixed Martial Arts Pakistan is the premiere mixed martial arts (MMA) and martial arts promotion based in Pakistan that was created in December 2007 by Bashir Ahmad to promote martial arts (and martial sports such as boxing and wrestling) styles in Pakistan with a particular focus on mixed martial arts competition.
Anita Karim is the first international female Mixed Martial Arts fighter from Pakistan to win multiple national and international-level bouts.
Taekwondo
The Pakistan Taekwondo Federation is the national governing body to develop and promote the sport of Taekwondo in the Pakistan. Taekwondo was introduced in Pakistan by Korean Consulate in Karachi in 1962. The federation was established in 1977 and granted affiliation by World Taekwondo. In 1982, the federation was affiliated with the Pakistan Olympic Association (POA) and Pakistan Sports Board (PSB).
It is regular part of biannual National Games. The federation organize annual National Taekwondo Championship.
Wrestling
Wrestling has always been an important sport in Pakistan, with regular tournaments played locally. Gama Pahalwan was an undefeated World Wrestling Champion from Pakistan. Gama Pahalwan's nephew Bholu Pahalwan also represented Pakistan in wrestling.
The Pakistan Wrestling Federation (PWF) is the national governing body of sport of Wrestling in the Pakistan.
Mohammad Bashir won the bronze medal in freestyle wrestling in the welterweight class (73 kg) at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. becoming Pakistan first wrestling Olympic medalist. Pakistan's most successful event in the Commonwealth Games has been Wrestling, where it has won 42 medals, 21 of which have been Gold. It ranks 3rd overall in Wrestling at the Commonwealth Games.
Aquatic and paddle sports
Canoe Kayak
The Pakistan Canoe and Kayak Federation is the only official governing body of canoe and kayak sports in Pakistan. The headquarters of PCKF is based in the Hayat Durrani Water Sports Academy at Hanna Lake Quetta, one of the major canoe / kayak paddling and Rowing center in Pakistan. PCKF is affiliated on international level with International Canoe Federation International Canoe Federation (ICF) and on Asian level with Asian Canoe Confederation (ACC), and on National level recognised with Pakistan Sports Board. The Kayaking National Champions Mohammad Abubakar Durrani, Mohammad Shoaib Khilji and Farhanullah Kakar belongs to HDWSA and Pakistan Customs Canoe & Kayak team Quetta.
Rowing
Karachi and Quetta are the major centers of rowing in Pakistan. The National Rowing Championship is the major national event of rowing in the country. The Pakistan Rowing Federation was a founding member of the Asian Rowing Federation. Although Pakistani rowers take part in events, it is considered a minority sport. Rowers like Ali Hassan, Maqbool Ali, Zohaib Zia Hashmi, and Muhammad Asad Khan have won medals at international events and in International School Rowing events. Junior Rowers from Balochistan, such as Mehardil Khan Baabai and Mirwaise Khan Baabai won many medals.
Sailing
The Pakistan Sailing Federation is the national body, with Karachi and Balochistan Sailing/Yachting Association's as its major units. Byram Dinshawji Avari represented Pakistan at the 1978 Asian Games in Bangkok, and again at the 1982 Asian Games in New Delhi. He also won a silver medal at the Enterprise World Championship held in Canada in 1978. In 2004, Mohammad Tanveer of Pakistan won silver medal in Mistral Asian Championship held in Bombay. Shazli Tahir won silver and Junaid Ahmed won bronze medal in first CAS International Sailing Championship in April 2008.
Swimming
Up until recently, swimming struggled as a sport in Pakistan. But there has been a surge in interest, particularly with Rubab Raza. She was the youngest Olympic Pakistani competitor in Pakistan's history, aged 13 at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Kiran Khan known as "Golden Girl" also came to attention when she won 7 gold medals, 3 silver medals and 3 bronze medals at 28 National Games in 2001.
Pakistan Swimming Federation is the governing body of swimming in the Pakistan
List of sports leagues
Cricket
Pakistan Super League
Pakistan Junior League
Kashmir Premier League
The Women's League
Football
Pakistan Premier League
National Women Football Championship
Hockey
Pakistan Hockey Super League
Golf
Pakistan Open
Boxing
Super Boxing League
Kabaddi
Super Kabaddi League
National Games
International Participation
Pakistan at the Olympics
Pakistan at the Paralympics
Pakistan at the Commonwealth Games
Pakistan at the World Games
Pakistan at the World Athletics Championships
Pakistan at the Asian Games
Pakistan at the Asian Beach Games
Pakistan at the South Asian Games
Pakistan at the Islamic Solidarity Games
Pakistan at the Military World Games
Pakistan at the Cricket World Cup
Pakistan at the World Beach Games
Pakistan at the Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games
See also
Culture of Pakistan
List of stadiums in Pakistan
Pakistan Olympic Association
National Games of Pakistan
Larkana Bulls
Health in Pakistan
List of sports governing bodies in Pakistan
References
External links
Sports Board Punjab
Pakistan Sports Board
Pakistan's track and field history
Official website of the 31st National Games, Peshawar Pakistan |
4200409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport%20in%20Germany | Sport in Germany | Sport in Germany is an important part of German culture and their society.
In 2006 about 28 million people were members of the more than 87.000 sport clubs in Germany. Almost all sports clubs are represented by the German Olympic Sports Federation.
History
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn known as Turnvater Jahn (father of gymnastics) was born in 1778 and worked as an assistant teacher in Berlin. At Berlin's Hasenheide Friedrich Ludwig Jahn opened the first German gymnastics field ('Turnplatz'), or open-air gymnasium, in spring 1811. His activities were particularly pointed at the youth, with whom he went to the gym field in free afternoons. The German gymnastics, understood by Jahn as a whole of the physical exercises.
Jahn developed well-known gymnastic equipment, invented also new apparatuses. Particularly by his main writing "Die Deutsche Turnkunst" (1816) the apparatus gymnastics developed to an independent kind of sport, and so the gym activities were not only limited to simple physical exercises, which he quoted as following: "Going, running, jumping, throwing, carrying are free exercises, everywhere applicable, as free as fresh air."
With the national gymnastics festivals in Coburg in 1860, in Berlin in 1861 and in Leipzig in 1863, the memory of Jahn's ideas returned into the people's consciousness. The inscription at the gable of his house "Frisch, Fromm, Fröhlich, Frei", translated as 'fresh, pious, cheerful, free", which originated in Jahn's time, became the basic idea of the German gymnastics movement.
In 1934, the Nazi government founded the Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, later the Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, as the official sports governing body of the Third Reich. All other German sport associations gradually lost their freedom and were coopted into it. The organization was disbanded in 1945 by the American military government.
Olympics
In the all-time Olympic Games medal count through 2006 Germany ranks fifth, East Germany seventh and West Germany twenty-first. If all the medals are combined Germany ranks third.
If only winter olympic medals count, from all German states (East, West, united team and united Germany), it is the nation with the most medals.
Germany has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in Berlin in 1936 and in Munich in 1972. Germany hosted the Winter Olympic Games in 1936 when they were staged in the Bavarian twin towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen.
Germany claimed the most, if not, gold medals and the most total medals during the 1992, 1998, 2002 and 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. East Germany claimed the most gold medals at 1984 Winter Olympics.
Association football
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Germany. With a total of 26,000 clubs and 178,000 teams the German football sport is financed by means of state funding and state contributions, voluntary service, private sponsors and membership fees.
Germany's top level football league, known as the Bundesliga, has the highest average attendances of any association football league in the world; among all professional sports leagues, its average attendance is second only to American football's NFL. As of the 2019–20 season, the Bundesliga is placed third in UEFA rankings, which are based on the performance of clubs in the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League.
Football in Germany is (like in most European countries) the number one attended and practiced sport. Besides the national league, the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championship have much attention among its population.
Bayern Munich (German: Bayern München) is the most successful German football club, with 30 national championships, 20 National Cups and 6 European Champions titles (three European Cups and three Champions Leagues) to its credit, as well as several other international titles. Like many other German football clubs, Bayern Munich is a multi-sport club.
The Germany national football team is one of the traditional powers of international football. It won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990 and 2014 and the UEFA European Championship in 1972 and 1980 as West Germany hosted the UEFA Euro 1988 and in 1996 as Germany. The country will also host the upcoming UEFA Euro 2024. They also won the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017. Miroslav Klose is the leading goal scorer for the national team with 71 goals, but his fame is perhaps eclipsed by that of Franz Beckenbauer who is one of the few men in the world who have won the World Cup both as a coach and a player. Germany also hosted the World Cup in 1974 and 2006, finishing third in 2006 after losing a close semi-final contest to eventual cup winners Italy.
The women's national team is also a world power, with its wins of the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2003 and 2007, making Germany the only nation to win both the men's and women's World Cup and European titles.
Handball
Germany together with Denmark is regarded as the birthplace of handball. The first match of the modern era was officially recorded on 29 October 1917 in Berlin, Germany. Carl Schelenz is credited developing most rules of modern handball. Outdoor Handball had its only Olympic Games appearance in the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The first international match recorded was played on 3 September 1925 between Germany and Austria.
Handball is widely regarded to be the second most popular team sport in Germany and when a study conducted by Repucom asked people which sport besides football they preferred a total of 33% voted handball, while basketball came in second with 25% of the votes, ice hockey got 24%, and volleyball got 11%. It is also the second-most played team sport in Germany with approximately 750,000 active registered players around the country as of 2016.
The German men's national team have won the IHF World Men's Handball Championship three times, the very first world cup in 1938, the West Germany team won it in 1978 and the united German team won it at home in 2007. They also have been crowned European champions twice first in 2004 and then in the 2016 rendition of the tournament. In the Olympic Games their efforts have resulted in one gold medal (1936), two silver medals (1984 and 2004) and one Bronze medal (2016).
The German Handball Bundesliga is considered to be the most competitive professional league in the world and several teams have won the EHF Champions League. A total of 19 times have a team from Germany won the Champions League as of 2017 which is the most out of any nation. The most successful team in Germany is by far THW Kiel which have won 20 German titles as well as 3 Champions League titles. They are the only team in German sport history to have managed to go a whole season without losing any points, this feat was achieved during the 2011–2012 season. Traditionally the teams in the league have been situated in smaller cities where the competition from football have not been so tough (Kiel and Flensburg for example), but during the 21st century more teams from larger cities have emerged such as HSV Hamburg, TSV Hannover-Burgdorf, TVB Stuttgart, SC DHfK Leipzig and Füchse Berlin. Uwe Gensheimer is a popular German handball player.
The sport attracts large television viewership; around 16 million TV viewers watched as Germany beat Poland in the 2007 World Cup as well as 13 million during the 2016 European Cup final. During the 2014–15 HBL season the game between the Rhein-Neckar Löwen and HSV Hamburg broke the world record for most spectators in a handball game with 44,189 spectators in the Commerzbank-Arena in Frankfurt beating the previous record of 36,651 spectators during the 2011 Danish league final between AG København and Bjerringbro-Silkeborg.
Ice hockey
Ice hockey is one of Germany's most popular sports, although considering its importance and spectator popularity in the nation it is ranked far behind football. There are many leagues but the top one is the 14 team Deutsche Eishockey Liga. The Germany men's national ice hockey team has featured several prominent current and former NHL players, including Hart Trophy winner Leon Draisaitl, Philipp Grubauer, Tim Stützle, Moritz Seider, Dominik Kahun, Christian Ehrhoff, Jochen Hecht, Dennis Seidenberg, Thomas Greiss, Marcel Goc and Marco Sturm and NHL prospects like Alexander Sulzer, Philip Gogulla, Lukas Reichel and Marcel Müller. The men's national team is currently ranked 8th in the world.
In 2010, Mannheim and Cologne co-hosted the Ice Hockey World Championships. Germany defeated the US in the opening game in front of a record breaking crowd of 77,803 in Gelsenkirchen's Veltins-Arena. Germany finished the tournament in fourth place, the nation's best finish since 1953. German goaltender Dennis Endras was named the tournament's top goaltender by the IIHF directors and the top goaltender and most valuable player by the media.
Basketball
Together with football, ice hockey and handball, basketball in Germany is among the most popular spectator sports.. The Basketball Bundesliga is the highest level league of professional club basketball in Germany.
One of the most popular non-football athletes to come out of Germany is Dirk Nowitzki, who played as power forward for the Dallas Mavericks in his 21-year career in the NBA. He was a 14-time NBA All-star and was a part of 12 All-NBA teams. In , he became the first player trained totally outside the U.S. to be named league MVP, and in 2011 led the Mavericks to their first NBA title and earned a Finals MVP doing so.
The Germany national basketball team's biggest successes are the victory in the European Championship of 1993 at home in Germany, the silver medal in the 2005 European Championships, the bronze medal in the 2002 FIBA World Championship and the gold medal in the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup.
Motorsport
Germany is one of the leading motorsports countries in the world. While countless race winning cars have come from Germany, only Michael Schumacher, Sebastian Vettel and Nico Rosberg have been Formula One world champions (they have won 12 titles combined) and Walter Röhrl being the sole World Rally Champion from Germany (he won two titles). Jochen Rindt, who was F1 world champion in 1970, was born in Germany but raced with an Austrian licence for his whole career. One other German driver came close to winning the title: Wolfgang von Trips. Unfortunately, he died in a crash in the last race of the season at Monza in 1961, giving the championship to his Ferrari teammate Phil Hill.
Schumacher is tied with Lewis Hamilton for the most Formula One Drivers championships with 7. In 2003, Schumacher set a new record for driver's championships when he surpassed Juan Manuel Fangio's total of 5 championships, a record that had stood for 46 years since 1957. He was also the highest paid athlete in sports history, with an annual salary of some U.S. $70 million from the Ferrari team, and an estimated $25–30 million more coming from endorsements. In 2005, he became the world's first billionaire athlete, according to Eurobusiness magazine. He is regarded as one of the greatest drivers of all time; when he first retired at the end of the 2006 season, he held 7 championships and every significant F1 record. He returned to F1 in 2010, celebrated his completion of 20 years in F1 in August 2011, and retired for a second time at the end of the 2012 season.
In 2010, Vettel became the youngest driver ever to win the world championship, he also successfully defended the title in 2011, 2012 and 2013. Before winning his first F1 drivers' championship, Vettel had already been the youngest ever to drive at a Grand Prix meeting, earn F1 world championship points, start from pole position in an F1 race, and finish as runner-up for the drivers' championship.
In 2016, Nico Rosberg became the third German driver to win the Formula One World Championship.
The DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters) is the national touring car series. It is considered one of the best touring car series in the world. Many Formula 1 drivers have made the switch to the series, including, Mika Häkkinen, Jean Alesi and others. From 1995, only German marques of cars are allowed to compete in the series. Currently only Audi, BMW and Mercedes-Benz compete, but Opel and Alfa Romeo have a history in the sport. The races are held mainly in Germany, but some races occur elsewhere in Europe. The races draw monster crowds and television ratings and many celebrities have attended race days.
Situated in Germany is the Nürburgring with its historical Nordschleife course. Since 1970 it is host to the annual 24 Hours Nürburgring endurance race, one of the biggest motorsports events in the world with over 200 participating teams and over 800 drivers, many of them touring car legends and veterans, among hundreds of thousands of live spectators camping along the race track.
In sports car racing, Stefan Bellof and Hans-Joachim Stuck won the World Sportscar Championship in 1984 and 1985, whilst more recently André Lotterer, Timo Bernhard and Marc Lieb won the World Endurance Championship in 2012, 2015 and 2016 respectively.
The 24 Hours of Le Mans is a prestigious annual race held in France. Porsche has won the race 16 times, far more than any other constructor. Second on the list is Audi, who have dominated the race in recent years, scoring 11 wins since their first in the year 2000. Audi driver Frank Biela was one of the most successful drivers in touring and sports cars in the 1990s and 2000s, winning the FIA World Touring Car Cup in 1995 and the Guia Race in 1996, as well as the German, French and British Touring Car titles, before winning the Le Mans 24 Hours five times and the 12 Hours of Sebring four times.
Winter sports
Germany is one of the most successful winter sport nations. Its dominance in sledding disciplines can be attributed to it being the only country in the world to have four bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton tracks. These tracks are located in Altenberg, Königssee, Oberhof, and Winterberg.
Germany has long been dominant in the sport of Bobsledding having won more medals in the Winter Olympics than any other nation except Switzerland. However, if medal wins by East Germany and West Germany from 1949 through 1990 are combined, Germany's medal count is nearly double that of Switzerland. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, André Lange piloted both the two-man and four-man sleds to gold, sweeping the men's bobsledding events.
In luge, Germany is dominant like no other nation, stretching from luge's foundation in the early 20th century with dominance in the European championships to the Winter Olympics. Noted lugers include Georg Hackl, Klaus Bonsack, Margit Schumann, David Möller, Felix Loch, Silke Kraushaar-Pielach, Sylke Otto, Tatjana Hüfner and Natalie Geisenberger. Since the 1964 Olympic Games Germany has won 87 of 153 medals. German athletes even won 38 of 51 Olympic gold medals (75%).
In skeleton, Germany has been dominant with the likes of Kerstin Jürgens and Anja Huber.
Biathlon has become one of the most popular winter sports in Germany in recent years, and enjoys some of the highest TV ratings in Germany for any sport aside from association football. Germany has won 59 Olympic medals in biathlon, more than any other nation, and is the joint most successful nation in terms of Olympic golds won, with Germany and Russia having won 20 golds each. Some of Germany's most successful biathletes include Frank-Peter Roetsch, Michael Greis, Sven Fischer, Ricco Groß and Frank Luck among the men and Uschi Disl, Andrea Henkel, Kati Wilhelm, Magdalena Neuner and Laura Dahlmeier among the women.
Tobias Angerer has enjoyed success in cross-country skiing, winning consecutive overall FIS Cross-Country World Cups in 2005/06 and 2006/07. Other notable cross-country skiers include Peter Schlickenrieder, Axel Teichmann and Jens Filbrich.
Along with biathlon, ski jumping is the most popular winter sport in Germany, with TV broadcasts regularly attracting five million viewers, and the country has produced a number of top jumpers. Jens Weißflog is Germany's most successful ski jumper and was one of the top competitors in the world from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. Other notable athletes include Hans-Georg Aschenbach, Sven Hannawald, Martin Schmitt and Severin Freund. Two of the four rounds of the prestigious Four Hills Tournament are held on German hills, at Oberstdorf and Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
German athletes have been competitive in Nordic combined. Title-winning competitors include Georg Thoma, Ulrich Wehling, Hermann Weinbuch, Ronny Ackermann and Eric Frenzel.
Germany has enjoyed great success in alpine skiing, although the most successful German alpine skiers have tended to be female. One notable male alpine skier was Markus Wasmeier. Felix Neureuther is Germany's most successful male skier in terms of World Cup race wins with 13. Rosi Mittermaier, Katja Seizinger and Maria Höfl-Riesch have won multiple world-level titles on the women's circuit.
In speed skating Germany has been a major power, particularly in women's competition. Four of the five most prolific winners in the women's ISU Speed Skating World Cup are German – Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann, Jenny Wolf, Anni Friesinger-Postma and Monique Garbrecht-Enfeldt. Claudia Pechstein won nine Olympic medals in long track speed skating, more than any other skater, male or female. Successful male German speed skaters have included Erhard Keller and Uwe-Jens Mey. Success in short track speed skating has been harder to come by, however Tyson Heung did win the overall ISU Short Track Speed Skating World Cup in 2006/07.
Germany has a heritage in figure skating extending to the early days of international competition – Oskar Uhlig won the inaugural European Figure Skating Championships in 1891, while the first male and pairs World Champions were Gilbert Fuchs in 1896 and the pairing of Anna Hübler and Heinrich Burger in 1908 (Hübler and Burger were also the first Olympic gold medalists in pairs competition at the 1908 Games). Germany's best-known figure skater is Katarina Witt, a double Olympic gold medalist in the 1980s. Other notable German competitors include Manfred Schnelldorfer, Jan Hoffmann, Gabriele Seyfert, Anett Pötzsch and the pairings of Ria Baran and Paul Falk, Marika Kilius and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler, and Aliona Savchenko and Robin Szolkowy.
Germany has been a regular competitor in Olympic Curling since the sport was reintroduced at the 1998 Winter Olympics. The German men's and women's teams both won World Curling Championships in 1992 and 1994. A related sport, known as Eisstockschiessen or ice stock sport, is played in southern Germany.
While a minor sport in the country, Germany national bandy team has qualified for Division A of the 2017 Bandy World Championship. In terms of licensed athletes, bandy is the second biggest winter sport in the world.
Tennis
The two most successful German tennis players of all time are Steffi Graf and Boris Becker.
Becker became the youngest champion in the history of the men's singles at Wimbledon, won six-time Grand Slam singles titles and an Olympic gold medal together with Michael Stich.
Graf won 22 Grand Slam singles titles, second among male and female players. In 1988, she became the first and only tennis player (male or female) to achieve the Calendar Year Golden Slam by winning all four Grand Slam singles titles and the Olympic gold medal in the same calendar year.
The German Open Hamburg was part of the Grand Prix Super Series from 1978 to 1989, and the ATP Masters Series from 1990 to 2008, whereas the Eurocard Open was part of the ATP Masters Series from 1995 to 2001. The German Open Hamburg is an ATP World Tour 500 since 2009, and the Halle Open was upgraded to that category in 2015. Also, the ATP Tour World Championships and Grand Slam Cup were played in Germany from 1990 to 1999. Meanwhile, the Women's German Open was a Tier I tournament from 1988 to 2008, and the Women's Stuttgart Open is a WTA Tier II / Premier tournament since 1990.
Cycling
Cycling is a popular sport in Germany and one of the greatest riders of recent times Jan Ullrich dominated the Tour de France in 1997. He finished a full 9 minutes in front of second place rider Richard Virenque. Jan was regarded as Lance Armstrong's only consistent rival, finishing second to him several times in the Tour de France. Recently Tony Martin has emerged as one of the top Individual time trial specialists in the world, winning the time trial at the UCI Road World Championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2016. André Greipel has been one of the most prolific winners among road sprinters since his breakthrough in the late 2000s, while fellow sprinters Marcel Kittel and John Degenkolb have also enjoyed major success from the early 2010s. In the three-year period from 2014 to 2016, Germany took more stage wins than any other nation in the Tour de France. Germany also topped the medal table at the 2016 UCI Road World Championships. In 2017 Germany hosted the start of the Tour de France for the fourth time, and for the first time since the race started in West Berlin in 1987, with the first two stages starting in Düsseldorf.
American football
The history of American football in Germany began in 1977, when the Frankfurter Löwen were formed as the first club to play the game in Germany. The German Football League (GFL) is the elite league for American football in Germany and was formed in 1979 and is among the best leagues in Europe. Playing rules are based on those of the American NCAA. In 1999, the league switched its name from American-Football-Bundesliga to German Football League.
European league of football was officially created in November 2020, and kicked off its inaugural season in June 2021. The majority of teams in this league are based in Germany.
Bandy
Bandy was played in Germany in the early 20th century, but the players and audience then turned to football and ice hockey instead. The sport was reintroduced in the 21st century, with the German Bandy Federation being founded in 2013. A national championship has been played every winter since 2014/15.
Beach volleyball
Germany featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CEV Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.
Chess
Chess is a popular sport in Germany. There are about 84 Grandmasters and 242 International Masters in Germany. Emanuel Lasker was a famous German chess player who was World Chess Champion for 27 years.
Boxing
Boxing is among the most watched TV sports in Germany with both male and female fights enjoying regular spots on national television. Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko are among the two most popular boxers in Germany. German television network RTL has listed the Klitschko brothers as their most important asset next to football. In recent years Germany has become a hub for boxing, the Vegas of Europe, and many international fighters travel to fight out of the country. Henry Maske is a successful recent German box champion.
Max Schmeling was heavyweight champion of the world between 1930 and 1932. His two fights with Joe Louis in the late 1930s transcended boxing, and became worldwide social events because of their national associations. He was ranked 55 on Ring Magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time.
Golf
As recently as 2007, Germany hosted three events on golf's European Tour—the Deutsche Bank Players Championship of Europe, the Mercedes-Benz Championship and the BMW International Open. However, since 2010, the only European Tour event in Germany has been the BMW International Open. The Players Championship was scrapped after 2007; the Mercedes-Benz Championship was not held in 2008, resumed in 2009, and dropped again in 2010. In 2015, the European Open was revived as a German tournament.
The Solheim Cup, the women's counterpart to the Ryder Cup, was hosted by Germany in 2015.
Two-time Masters champion Bernhard Langer is the first German to have won a major championship and is a former World No. 1. Since turning 50 in 2007, he has played mainly on the U.S. senior circuit, PGA Tour Champions; he has led that tour in prize money in 10 of his 11 full seasons, and has won a record 10 senior majors in his career (The Tradition in 2016 and 2017; the Senior PGA Championship in 2017; the U.S. Senior Open in 2010; the Senior Players Championship in 2014, 2015, and 2016; and The Senior Open Championship in 2010, 2014, and 2017). Langer is also the only golfer to have won all five of the current senior majors. Martin Kaymer became the second German to win a major championship by winning the 2010 PGA Championship in Wisconsin, and in 2011 rose to World No. 1. In 2014 he also won the U.S. Open Championship at Pinehurst No. 2, North Carolina.
Lacrosse
Lacrosse has been played in Germany since 1992, with roughly 5,000 players registered in the German Lacrosse Association (DLAXV - Deutscher Lacrosse-Verband e.V.). It is growing fast, with youth hotbeds being at the SC 1880 Frankfurt and the Berliner Hockey Club.
Germany has sent national teams to the Under-19 World Lacrosse Championships.
Rugby union
The first German rugby team was formed at Neuenheim College around 1850. Heidelberger Ruderklub von 1872 founded in 1872 is the oldest German rugby club. The German Rugby Federation was set up in 1900. Germany was Olympic silver medallist in rugby union in 1900. Today the Germany national rugby union team competes in the top division of the European Nations Cup.
Rugby league
Rugby league is a minor sport in Germany, having been introduced in August 2004 by Simon Cooper who was born in Halifax, England and whose father is German. Prior to that it had been played informally by expat players associations such as British servicemen and students. The national governing body for the sport, Rugby League Deutschland, is an associate member of the Rugby League European Federation. The country's national team are regular competitors in the European Shield, winning the competition in 2006 and 2011.
Water sports
Water sports like sailing, rowing, swimming, wind- and kitesurfing, wakeboarding, underwater diving, fishing, powerboating water aerobics and yachting are popular in Germany, especially with large annual events such as Kiel Week or Hanse Sail in Rostock.
See also
Baseball in Germany
Bundesjugendspiele
Sports broadcasting contracts in Germany
References
Further reading
Carr, Gerald A. "The involvement of politics in the sporting relationships of East and West Germany, 1945-1972." Journal of Sport History 7.1 (1980): 40-51. online
Ebert, Anne‐Katrin. "Cycling towards the nation: the use of the bicycle in Germany and the Netherlands, 1880–1940." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 11.3 (2004): 347-364.
Frick, Bernd, and Joachim Prinz. "Crisis? What crisis? football in Germany." Journal of Sports Economics 7.1 (2006): 60-75.
Hanssen-Doose, Anke, et al. "Population-based trends in physical fitness of children and adolescents in Germany, 2003–2017." European Journal of Sport Science (2020): 1-11.
Koebel, Michel. "The organisation of sport and sports policies in Germany." in Sport, Welfare and Social Policy in the European Union (Routledge, 2020) pp. 75-85.
Krüger, Michael. "Historiography, Cultures of Remembrance and Tradition in German Sport." International Journal of the History of Sport (2014) 31#12 pp 1425-1443.
Large, David Clay. Nazi games: the Olympics of 1936 (WW Norton & Company, 2007).
McDougall, Alan. "Whose Game Is It Anyway?" Radical History Review (May 2016), Issue 125, p35-54; the history of East German football after 1950.
McDougall, Alan. The People's Game: Football, State and Society in East Germany (Cambridge University Press, 2014).
Meier, Henk Erik, and Cosima von Uechtriz. "The Key Role of Sport Policies for the Popularity of Women’s Sports: A Case Study on Women’s Soccer in Germany." Sociology of Sport Journal 37.4 (2020): 328-345.
Meier, Henk Erik, Borja García, and Mara Konjer. "Resisting the pressures of globalisation: the repeated failure of elite sport reforms in re-united Germany." German Politics (2020): 1-21.
Merkel, Udo. "Football fans and clubs in Germany: conflicts, crises and compromises." Soccer & Society 13.3 (2012): 359-376. online
Schiller, Kay, and Chris Young. The 1972 Munich Olympics and the making of modern Germany (Univ of California Press, 2010).
Schulz, Saskia Sarah, Klaus Lenz, and Karin Büttner-Janz. "Severe back pain in elite athletes: a cross-sectional study on 929 top athletes of Germany." European Spine Journal 25.4 (2016): 1204-1210.
Suckow, Christina. "Literature review on brand equity in professional team sport: a German perspective on ice hockey." International Journal of sport management and marketing 5.1-2 (2009): 211-225.
External links
DOSB site
German Football Association |
4200903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans () was a non-championship 24-hour automobile endurance race held from 18 to 19 June 2005, at the Circuit de la Sarthe near Le Mans, France, for teams of three drivers each entering Le Mans Prototype and Grand Touring cars. It was the 73rd running of the event, as organised by the automotive group, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) since 1923. A test day was held two weeks prior to the race on 5 June. Approximately 230,000 people attended the race.
Jean-Christophe Boullion, Emmanuel Collard and Érik Comas began from pole position in a Pescarolo Sport C60 car after Boullion set the overall fastest lap time in the fourth qualifying session. The car led for the first two hours before a gearbox problem forced it into the garage for repairs, allowing Emanuele Pirro's Champion Racing Audi R8 to take the lead until Pirro crashed after a safety car intervention. JJ Lehto, Tom Kristensen and Marco Werner drove the sister Champion car to victory. It was Werner's first Le Mans victory, Lehto's second, and Kristensen's seventh. Kristensen surpassed Jacky Ickx to become the all-time leader in overall Le Mans victories and Audi claimed its fifth victory since the 2000 race. Pescarolo finished second, two laps behind, and the sister Champion Audi car of Frank Biela, Allan McNish and Pirro finished third.
The Ray Mallock Racing MG-Lola EX264 car of Thomas Erdos, Mike Newton and Warren Hughes won the Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) category after taking the class lead in the race's final hour. Karim Ojjeh, Claude-Yves Gosselin and Adam Sharpe in a Paul Belmondo Racing Courage C65 finished second, five laps behind the MG-Lola, while Didier André, Paul Belmondo and Rick Sutherland's sister No. 37 car was third. Corvette Racing won their fourth class victory since their debut in the 2001 race. Olivier Beretta, Oliver Gavin and Jan Magnussen's No. 64 Chevrolet Corvette C6.R held a two-lap advantage over the No. 63 of Ron Fellows, Max Papis and Johnny O'Connell in the Le Mans Grand Touring 1 (LMGT1) category. Porsches led the Le Mans Grand Touring 2 (LMGT2) class with the No. 71 Alex Job Racing 911 GT3-RSR of Leo Hindery, Marc Lieb and Mike Rockenfeller ahead of the No. 90 White Lighting Racing car of Jörg Bergmeister, Patrick Long and Timo Bernhard.
Background
In September 2004, the dates for the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans were announced. It was the 73rd edition of the race and took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe road racing circuit close by Le Mans, France, from 18 to 19 June. The race was first held in 1923 after the automotive journalist Charles Faroux, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) general secretary Georges Durand and the industrialist Emile Coquile agreed to hold a test of vehicle reliability and durability. The 24 Hours of Le Mans is considered one of the world's most prestigious motor races and is part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.
Regulation and track changes
The Le Mans regulations for the two Grand Touring (GT) categories underwent significant changes for the event. Le Mans Grand Touring Sport became Le Mans Grand Touring 1 (LMGT1), while Le Mans Grand Touring became Le Mans Grand Touring 2 (LMGT2). Both the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile, the world governing body of motor racing, and the ACO required new vehicles in both classes to be homologated. In 2005, cars built to comply with the Le Mans Prototype 900 (LMP900) regulations could compete alongside newer "hybrid" cars built to comply with the updated aerodynamic regulations in the Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) category for the last time. LMP900 cars had to run with a smaller air restrictor to reduce engine performance and they had to weigh more than "hybrid" cars.
The ACO recommended that LMGT1 cars lap the Circuit de la Sarthe in no more than 3 minutes, 55 seconds, and LMGT2 cars in no more than 4 minutes, 8 seconds. Had these rules not been met, the automotive group would immediately intervene to lower the performance of individual cars by altering their aerodynamic efficiency, reducing the size of the air restrictor and the fuel tank for future editions of the Le Mans race. GT2-specification vehicles could compete if at least 100 road-going cars were built by "the big manufacturers" and 25 by "the small manufacturers." The ACO would otherwise suspend homologation for the 2006 race.
The circuit was resurfaced from Mulsanne to Arnage corners from late 2004 to early 2005, and a section of road at the circuit's 89th post was levelled.
Entries
By the deadline for entries on 19 January 2005, the ACO had received 78 applications (37 for the Le Mans Prototype (LMP) classes and 41 for the GT categories). It granted 50 invitations to the race, with entries divided between the LMP1, LMP2, LMGT1, and LMGT2 categories.
Automatic entries
Teams that won their category in the 2004 24 Hours of Le Mans earned automatic entries. Teams that won Le Mans-related series and events such as the 2004 Petit Le Mans, the 2004 Le Mans Endurance Series and the 2004 American Le Mans Series were also invited. Some second-place finishers were also granted automatic entries in certain series, though none were given to the winners and runners-up of the 2004 FIA GT Championship's GT and N-GT categories, as was the case the previous year. Because entries were pre-selected to teams, they were limited to a maximum of two cars and were not permitted to change their vehicles from year to year. Entries were allowed to switch categories as long as they did not change the make of their car and the ACO granted official permission for the switch.
The ACO published its final list of automatic invitations on 18 January 2005. Audi Sport Japan Team Goh, the 2004 winners, and the runners-up Audi Sport UK Team Veloqx were among the teams to decline their automatic entries. Dyson Racing, Prodrive Racing, Barron Connor Racing, ChoroQ Racing Team, JMB Racing and Alex Job Racing also declined their automatic entries. No replacements were found.
1. – Team declined their automatic invitations.
Entry list and reserves
The ACO announced the complete 50-car entry list for Le Mans, plus eight reserves, on 24 March 2005. Several teams withdrew their entries after they were published. Team Nasamax withdrew its two-year-old bio-ethanol-powered DM139-Judd car, citing financial difficulties causing the team to reduce its schedule for the 2005 racing season. This promoted the 91 T2M Motorsport Porsche 911-GT3 RSR LMGT2-class car to the race entry. Four days later, ACEMCO Motorsports withdrew its No. 63 Saleen S7-R due to aerodynamic deficiencies caused by a modification of the height of the car's rear wing at the 2004 Petit Le Mans to comply with ACO regulations. This promoted the reserve No. 76 IMSA Performance LMGT2-class Porsche to the race.
A revised entry list released by the ACO on 27 April confirmed the withdrawal of the Team Nasamax and ACEMCO Motorsports entries as well as the dropping of the Graham Nash Motorsport Saleen S7-R, Thierry Perrier's Porsche 911-GT3 RSR, a second Racing for Holland Dome S101-Judd car, a Ferrari 360 Modena GTC fielded by G.P.C. Sport and a second Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello purchased by Larbre Compétition from the reserve list. Four days before the start of scrutineering, Lucchini Engineering were unable to rectify a gearbox ratio problem in its LMP2/04 and were forced to withdraw the car, reducing the number of entries to 49.
Testing
On June 5, a mandatory two-session pre-Le Mans test day lasting eight hours was held at the circuit, with 50 entries, to work on car setup and driver orientation. Rainfall before the end of the afternoon session made it impossible for teams to lap faster. Emmanuel Collard in the No. 16 C60 Hybrid Judd car set the day's pace for Pescarolo Sport with a 3 minutes, 32.468 seconds lap. The No. 17 Pescarolo of Soheil Ayari was second, and Jonathan Cochet's No. 13 Courage Compétition car came in third. JJ Lehto's No. 3 Champion Racing Audi R8 was fourth with Seiji Ara's No. 5 Jim Gainer International Dome S101 fifth. João Barbosa's lap put the No. 18 Rollcentre Racing Dallara SP1 car in sixth place, while Franck Montagny's Team Oreca Audi was seventh. Sam Hancock led the LMP2 class in the No. 32 Intersport Racing Lola B05/40 vehicle with a time of 3 minutes, 44.426 seconds ahead of Ray Mallock's No. 32 MG-Lola EX264 of Thomas Erdos, the No. 30 Kruse Motorsport Courage C65 of Phil Bennett and Didier André's No. 37 Paul Belmondo Racing cars. Aston Martin, in its first Le Mans works entry since the 1989 event, led the LMGT1 category with a 3 minutes, 50.033 seconds lap from Tomáš Enge's No. 58 DBR9, with David Brabham's No. 59 car second. Christophe Bouchut's No. 61 Cirtek Motorsport Ferrari and Oliver Gavin and Johnny O'Connell's Nos. 64 and 63 Chevrolet Corvette C6.R finished third and fifth in class, respectively. Timo Bernhard's No. 90 White Lighting Racing car helped Porsche lead the LMGT2 category, followed by Robin Liddell's No. 77 Panoz Esperante GT-LM and Romain Dumas' No. 76 IMSA Performance car.
Qualifying
All entrants had eight hours of qualifying, divided into four two-hour sessions on 15 and 16 June. To qualify for the race, all entrants were required to set a time within 115% of the fastest lap set by the fastest vehicle in each of the four categories during the sessions. Rain fell during the first session's start, making the track slippery and decreasing visibility. Some drivers met the required minimum distance to drive in the race. Collard took the lead late in the session with a lap of 4 minutes, 13.526 seconds. Tom Kristensen's lap put Champion's lead Audi in second and Ryo Michigami's Jim Gainer Dome car was third. Andy Wallace was fourth in Creation Autosportif's No. 7 DBA 03S-Judd car, and Michael Krumm was fifth in his Rollcentre Dallara. Ayari's Pescarolo was provisionally sixth and Allan McNish's No. 2 Champion car was seventh. Bouchut drove the Cirtek Ferrari to provisional pole in LMGT1 with a 4 minutes, 23.885 seconds lap, more than 12 seconds ahead of the two Aston Martin cars. Andre's Paul Belmondo Courage took the LMP2 lead with a lap of 4 minutes, 24.832 seconds, and Hancock's Intersport Lola was second. Earlier, Peter Owen's No. 39 Chamberlain-Synergy Motorsport Lola caused the session to be stopped due to a loss of control at the rear while changing gears. Owen was unhurt after crashing at the exit of the second Mulsanne chicane. Mike Rockenfeller's Alex Job Porsche was fastest in LMGT2 with a 4 minutes, 37.574 seconds lap, followed by Jörg Bergmeister's No. 90 White Lighting and Dumas' No. 76 IMSA Performance entries.
When the track dried near the end of the second qualifying session, lap times decreased. Ayari in Pescarolo's No. 17 car improved provisional pole position by more than 12 seconds with a 4 minutes, 1.197 seconds lap just before the session ended, followed by McNish's improved No. 2 Champion Audi and Nicolas Minassian in Creation Autosportif's No. 7 DBA 03S entry. Montagny put the Oreca Audi on provisional pole with half an hour remaining before falling to fourth. Lehto in the second Champion car fell to fifth. Michigami was sixth and Jota's Zytek 04S car of Sam Hignett seventh. A seal on a fuel rig braking during a pit stop caused a flash fire that damaged the Rollcentre Dallara's bodywork. The car's damage forced it to stop running early. Hancock gave the Intersport team provisional pole in the LMP2 class after displacing Andre's Paul Belmondo car, setting a time of 4 minutes, 11.719 seconds, a second faster than Ian James' second-placed No. 34 Miracle Motorsports Courage. In LMGT1, Vincent Vosse led the session with a lap of 4 minutes, 20.688 seconds, displacing the Cirtek Ferrari at the top of the time sheets. Similarly, Dumas set a lap of 4 minutes, 25.598 seconds in the IMSA Performance Porsche to lead the LMGT2 category with 35 minutes remaining.
The weather for the two qualifying sessions on 16 June was humid and dry. For the second consecutive session, Ayari's No. 17 Pescarolo vehicle improved provisional pole position to a 3 minutes, 35.555 seconds lap. Team Oreca's Audi of Montagny was second and McNish was the fastest Champion car in third. Cochet improved the No. 13 Pescarolo's time in the session's final minutes to go into fourth as Minassian's DBA 03S fell to fifth. Michigami's Jim Gainer Dome remained sixth and Barbosa's Rollcentre Dallara was seventh. The No. 16 Pescarolo C60 had its times deleted for Collard touching the car after relieving Jean-Christophe Boullion though the penalty was rescinded 40 minutes later. In LMP2, Warren Hughes' first lap of 3 minutes, 49.845 seconds in the No. 25 Ray Mallock MG-Lola was bettered by James' 3 minutes, 48.819 seconds time in the No. 34 Miracle Courage C65 to lead the category. A crash at the exit to Indianapolis corner by Jean-Bernard Bouvet's No. 23 Gerard Welter WR LMP04 car halted the session after 90 minutes. Pedro Lamy helped Aston Martin to lead in LMGT1 with a 3-minute, 50.311-second lap, followed by Brabham's No. 59 car and Gavin and O'Connell's Corvettes. Rockenfeller greatly improved Alex Job's Porsche lap to maintain the lead in LMGT2 with a time of 4 minutes, 5.326 seconds. Johannes van Overbeek's No. 80 Flying Lizard Motorsports and Bill Auberlen's No. 77 Panoz were second and third in class. Tom Coronel's throttle stuck in the No. 85 Spyker C8 Spyder GT2-R and he crashed in the Porsche Curves. Andrew Kirkcaldy's No. 93 Scuderia Ecosse Ferrari struck a barrier at the Ford Chicane.
As temperatures cooled in the final qualifying session, three-quarters of the field improved their fastest laps, including Collard's No. 16 Pescarolo car, which set a lap of 3 minutes, 34.715 seconds on his first lap and held the place to secure pole position. Ayari was 0.840 seconds slower and joined Collard on the grid's front row. McNish's Champion car was third, Katsumoto Kaneishi improved on the Jim Gainer Dome's lap to start fourth and Montagny's Team Oreca Audi qualified fifth. Shinji Nakano's No. 13 Courage C60 and Minassian's No. 7 DBA 03 vehicles were sixth and seventh. The No. 34 Miracle Courage C65 car of Andy Lally, Hancock, Erdos and Andre shared the lead of the LMP2 category early in the session until Andre's lap of 3 minutes, 42.301 seconds secured pole position for the Paul Belmondo team. In LMGT1 Aston Martin maintained the first two positions as Brabham led until Enge took pole position with ten minutes left with a lap of 3 minutes, 48.576 seconds. Corvette Racing were third with Gavin's No. 64 car, ahead of Alexei Vasiliev's Cirtek Ferrari. Alex Job Racing's Rockenfeller retained first place in LMGT2 ahead of the No. 80 Flying Lizard and No. 77 Panoz cars. A crash for Bergmeister into Tetre Rouge corner ended Flying Lizard's session early.
Post-qualifying
Despite qualifying more than 115 per cent slower than the fastest LMP2 car, the stewards declared force majeure after the team's No. 35 Courage C65 vehicle was heavily damaged in the first qualifying session. The team was granted dispensation to start at the back of the grid.
Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are indicated in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted in gray.
Notes:
– The No. 35 G-Force Racing entry was granted dispensation to start the race after failing to qualify within 115 per cent of the fastest LMP2 car.
Warm-up
The drivers had a 45-minute warm-up session at 09:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) to test car functionality in clear and warm weather. Boullion's No. 16 Pescarolo car was the fastest with a la of 3 minutes, 37.042 seconds. The No. 3 R8 of Kristensen and Frank Biela's No. 2 car were second and third. Sébastien Loeb was fourth in the No. 17 Pescarolo car with Jamie Campbell-Walter fifth in the No. 7 Creation Autosportif DBA vehicle. Liz Halliday's No. 32 Intersport Lola fastest LMP2 lap time was 3 minutes, 49.477 seconds. Bennett was second in class with his No. 30 Kruse Courage car. In LMGT1, Brabham's No. 59 Aston Martin was fastest and Lieb's No. 71 Alex Job Porsche led in LMGT2. The No. 8 Rollcentre Dallara emitted smoke from its left-hand exhaust system and the team changed engines. A major oversteer caused Dumas to lose control of the No. 76 IMSA Performance car and damage its front-right corner against a barrier leaving the Indianapolis turn.
Race
Start and opening hours
The weather at the start was dry and clear with an air temperature of . Approximately 230,000 people attended the race. Martin Winterkorn, Audi's president, waved the French tricolour to start of the race at 16:00 local time. Pole sitter Boullion led the field. There were 49 cars scheduled to start, but Paul Belmondo's Courage, Bouvet's Gerald Welter WR, the Rollcentre Dallara, and the Chamberlain-Synergy Lola vehicles started from the pit lane because of technical issues. Boullion led his teammate Ayari for the first three laps, pulling away from the rest of the field. Michigami's Jim Gainer Dome car passed Emanuele Pirro on the inside for third entering the Dunlop chicane. On the third lap, Auberlen overtook Rockenfeller for the lead of LMGT2. Gear selection problems forced the No. 25 Ray Mallock Lola car to the garage and Michigami lost a lap due to a minor paddle shift issue. Towards the close of the first hour the LMGT1-class-leading No. 59 Aston Martin of Turner incurred two stop-and-go penalties for driving across a white line denoting the track boundaries at the Ford Chicane, dropping the car to third.
Several cars were affected by mechanical attrition in the second hour. Owing to a loose undertray on Liddell's Panoz vehicle, Lieb's Alex Job car took the lead in LMGT2. Gavin's No. 64 Corvette slowed to after a left-rear puncture caused by a lack of pressure on the Mulsanne Straight. He returned to the pit lane for a replacement wheel, falling to third in class after another delay caused by a water leak. Stefan Eriksson's No. 92 Cirtek Ferrari spun just before the Ford Chicanes, causing several drivers to scramble for space to avoid hitting his car. Soon after, Patrick Bourdais was caught off guard when Ayari lapped his No. 78 Panoz car at Arnage corner, resulting in a collision between Bourdais and Ayari. Bourdais spun into a gravel trap, tapping a tyre barrier. Ayari drove the No. 17 Pesarolo into the garage with steering and front bodywork damage. After four minutes of repairs, it dropped to sixth place, with Éric Hélary relieving Ayari.
When Campbell-Walter had a broken mechanical connection between the No. 7 DBA-Judd's paddle shift and gearbox, Enge's No. 58 Aston Martin moved into the top ten. Following high water temperatures that took 25 minutes to correct, the car dropped down the race order. LMP2 was led by Ian Mitchell's Kruse' Courage C65, which passed Hancock's Intersport Lola entry and battled the No. 37 Paul Belmondo car. Later, the Petersen Porsche passed Lieb's Alex Job car to take the lead in LMGT2. Nearing the 2-hour and 30-minute mark, Beretta's No. 64 Corvette suffered a second rear-left puncture and entered the pit lane for another tyre change. Shortly after, Comas's No. 16 Pescarolo ceded the race lead to Pirro's No. 2 Audi as a gear selection fault required a visit to the garage, dropping the car to fifth. It lost further positions as the problem persisted leaving the first Mulsanne chicane with Collard driving.
The Chamberlain-Synergy Lola began leaking oil at the end of the second hour, requiring the ACO to deploy three safety cars for 15 minutes while marshals scattered cement dust to dry the spilled oil. Pirro locked his cold tyres heavily on the run to Arnage corner as the safety cars were recalled, colliding with a tyre barrier with the No. 2 Audi's left-front corner. Marshals recovered the vehicle, and Pirro drove slowly to the pit lane for bodywork repairs. The No. 2 Audi rejoined in fifth place, with Marco Werner taking the lead and Stéphane Ortelli's Team Oreca car moving into second. A left-rear puncture on Hélary No. 16 Pescarolo C60 car midway through the lap necessitated a pit stop to repair bodywork damage. After a ten-minute pit stop, the car rejoined the race in seventh place. Krumm's recovering No. 18 Rollcentre Dallara car, which had a cured misfiring engine, was forced to enter the pit lane to repair a broken power steering pump that needed fluid replenishment.
Night
As night fell, Max Papis' No. 63 Corvette took the lead in LMGT1 as Lamy made a pit stop to give the No. 58 Aston Martin to co-driver Peter Kox. Bruce Jouanny's No. 13 Courage C60H suffered a major rear left puncture on the approach from Mulsanne corner to Indianapolis turn, removing the car's rear wing and bodywork and forcing its retirement in the garage. The incident delayed Ortelli, who drove into a gravel trap at the Dunlop Esses after hitting debris from Jouanny's car, but he avoided hitting the trackside barriers. A suspension problem on Jean-Marc Gounon's Team Oreca Audi dropped it to sixth overall, promoting Biela's No. 2 Champion vehicle to second. Gounon reclaimed fourth place by passing Vanina Ickx's No. 18 Rollcentre Dallara and Jan Lammers' No. 10 Racing for Holland Dome cars. Meanwhile, Alex Job driver Rockenfeller retook the lead of LMGT2 from White Lighting. Ron Fellows' No. 63 Corvette was passed for the lead of the LMGT1 category by Kox's No. 59 Aston Martin entering the first Mulsanne chicane in the seventh hour and Kox began to pull away from the rest of the class field.
Not long after, Donny Crevels' No. 85 Spyker C8 caught fire at its right rear due to a broken oil line spraying oil on its warm exhaust pipe. He retired after a high speed spin into a gravel trap at Indianapolis corner. The safety cars were needed a second time to give marshals 24 minutes to dry the spilled oil with cement dust. During the safety car period, the No. 34 Miracle Courage lost its left rear wheel at the pit lane exit and coasted backwards down a small hill before re-entering the pit lane. Turner was then given a third time penalty for overtaking another car under yellow flag conditions; the gap between Lieb's Alex Job Racing Porsche and Bernhard's White Lighting car in the first two positions in LMGT2 was 14 seconds. At midnight, Ayari's No. 17 Pescarolo C60 and Bobby Verdon-Roe's No. 8 Rollcentre Dallara cars collided at the first Mulsanne chicane, dropping Ayari to 14th while his car was repaired.
Halliday and later Gregor Fisken twice brought the No. 32 Intersport Lola car from the LMP2 lead straight to the pit lane with a fuel injector problem. The team lost 15 minutes and the category lead to Paul Belmondon's No. 37 Courage car. Boullion's No. 16 Pescarolo C60 vehicle took fourth when driver John Bosch entered the pit lane for debris removal from the Racing for Holland Dome's car sidepod and radiator. Fuel injector problems on Andre's LMP2-class leading No. 37 Paul Belmondo Courage forced him into the garage for replacement fuel pump and filters, as the No. 32 Intersport Lola vehicle was retired with a broken engine valve. Andre lost his two-lap lead to Karim Ojjeh's sister No. 36 car and, later, Adam Sharpe. Werner's No. 3 Audi led his Champion teammate McNish by a lap as the race approached half distance after the No. 2 car made an unscheduled stop to replace a slow puncture. Comas returned to fifth when the No. 5 Jim Gainer Dome car's engine control unit was changed and fell to fourth.
Morning to early afternoon
Early in the morning, McNish's quick pace cut Kristensen's overall lead to less than a minute. After missing his braking point, Gounon lost control of the Team Oreca R8 and narrowly avoided hitting Kristensen at the Ford Chicane. Soon after, a tyre delamination sent McNish's Audi into a tyre barrier at Indianapolis, where it was beached in a gravel trap. After marshals recovered the Audi from the gravel, he returned to the track, but McNish drove straight to the garage. It took 18 minutes to repair the Audi's front-right suspension and rear bodywork. Boullion in the No. 17 Pescarolo car was promoted to second as the No. 2 Audi now driven by Biela fell to third place. Xavier Pompidou's No. 91 T2M Motorsport Porsche struck a tree at at Indianapolis corner after its left-rear wheel bearing failed before his braking point, forcing its retirement. Because the brunt of the impact damaged the car's right-hand corner, Pompidou was unharmed; he was transported from the circuit via a medical vehicle for a precautionary check-up. Kristsensen selected a gear too early in the No. 3 Audi and ran wide onto the grass at the second Mulsanne chicane; he kept the overall lead from Boullion's faster Pescarolo. The No. 36 Paul Belmondo Racing Courage car lost its four-lap lead in the LMP2 category to Erdos' No. 25 Ray Mallock Lola car because of an overheating issue.
At the first Mulsanne chicane, Campbell-Walter locked his front-left tyre on gravel and oil strewn across the track and collided with a tyre barrier. He drove the No. 13 Creation Autosportif DBA-Judd car to the garage for a new splitter, bodywork, and brake disc before rejoining the race in 20th after 1 hour and 10 minutes. Loeb brought the No. 16 Pescarolo into the pit lane for a three-minute stop to clear debris from the car's air intakes and bodywork after going off the track onto an escape road at Indianapolis corner. The No. 25 Ray Mallock MG-Lola lost the LMP2 lead to Andre in the No. 37 Paul Belmondo Courage vehicle due to a broken layshaft bearing that forced the car into the garage for 34 minutes, dropping it to third in the category. Soon after, Enge's No. 58 Aston Martin sustained front splitter damage. After a five-minute pit stop to repair the damage, the car lost the LMGT1 lead to Beretta's No. 64 Corvette. Stéphane Sarrazin's No. 59 Aston Martin also passed teammate Enge for second place in the category; despite a left-rear puncture, his pit stop did not lose him second in LMGT1.
In the 19th hour, Ayari, fifth, picked up a rear puncture on a bump at the first Mulsanne chicane. He spun through 90 degrees into a tyre wall, damaging the No. 17 Pescarolo car's rear wing, steering and suspension, as well as loosening its bodywork. Ayari slowed for almost an entire lap to enter the garage. Pescarolo were unable to repair the damage after half an hour and retired the car. The No. 17's retirement elevated John Stack's No. 9 Jota Zytek car to fifth overall. The Zytek car held fifth until Hignett understeered across a gravel trap at Indianapolis corner and collided with a tyre barrier. Marshals freed Hignett from the barrier, and the car returned to the track in eighth overall. The attrition rate among LMP1 cars promoted the LMGT1-leading No. 64 Corvette to fifth overall. Meanwhile, Erdos' No. 25 Ray Mallock MG-Lola car spun into a gravel trap at the Ford Chicane because of a right-rear suspension failure. Erdos was able to drive the car to the pit lane for repairs. With 90 minutes remaining, the No. 59 Aston Martin entered the garage to have a water leak in its radiator repaired, while Enge's No. 58 car retired after running out of fuel on track. After an unscheduled visit to the garage to have debris removed from the radiator, Boullion's No. 16 Pescarolo began to fall off the race pace. The debris was the result of duct grilles being opened to stop the car overheating.
Finish
Unchallenged since the race's third hour, Kristensen won for the No. 3 Audi team in a time of 24:01:30.901 at an average speed of , two laps ahead of Boullion's No. 16 Pescarolo car. A further four laps separated the No. 2 Champion vehicle, which was third overall. Team Oreca, the final Audi vehicle, finished fourth, another two laps behind. It was Werner's first Le Mans victory, Lehto's second and Kristensen's seventh. Kristensen eclipsed Jacky Ickx's all-time record of six overall Le Mans wins, and Werner completed the Triple Crown of Endurance Racing (overall wins in the 24 Hours of Daytona, the 12 Hours of Sebring and the 24 Hours of Le Mans). It was also Audi's fifth overall victory and the last for the R8. The No. 64 Corvette maintained its two-lap advantage at the front of the LMGT1 field over the No. 63 car, earning the team their fourth class win. Aston Martin's No. 59 DBR9 completed the category podium in third. Alex Job won the LMGT2 category, unchallenged since the fifth hour of the race, two minutes ahead of White Lightning's No. 90 Porsche and seven laps ahead of Flying Lizard's No. 80 entry. The race for the LMP2 class victory continued into the final hour, with the Ray Mallock Lola car overtaking the two Paul Belmondo Courage vehicles after they experienced mechanical problems with 45 minutes remaining.
Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification (75 per cent of the overall winning car's race distance) was 277 laps. Class winners are denoted with bold.
References
External links
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans |
4200951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20McNallen | Stephen McNallen | Stephen Anthony McNallen (born October 15, 1948) is an American proponent of Heathenry, a modern Pagan new religious movement, and a white nationalist activist. He founded the Asatru Folk Assembly (AFA), which he led from 1994 until 2016, having previously been the founder of the Viking Brotherhood and the Asatrú Free Assembly.
Born in Breckenridge, Texas, McNallen developed an interest in pre-Christian Scandinavia while in college. In 1969–70 he founded the Viking Brotherhood, through which he printed a newsletter, The Runestone, to promote a form of Heathenry that he called "Asatru". After spending four years in the United States Army, he transformed the Viking Brotherhood into the Asatrú Free Assembly (AFA), through which he promoted Heathenry within the American Pagan community. He espoused the belief, which he named "metagenetics", that religions are connected to genetic inheritance, thus arguing that Heathenry was only suitable for those of Northern European ancestry. A growing membership generated internal conflict within the AFA, resulting in McNallen's decision to expel those with neo-Nazi and racial extremist views from the organisation. Under increasing personal strain, in 1987 he disbanded the Assembly.
Moving to Northern California, McNallen began a career as a school teacher; during the summer vacations he travelled the world as a military journalist, writing articles for Soldier of Fortune magazine. Concerned by what he saw as the growth of liberal, universalist ideas in Heathenry, he returned to active involvement in the Heathen movement in the mid-1990s, establishing the Asatrú Folk Assembly, which was headquartered in Grass Valley, California. In 1997 he was involved in the establishment of the International Asatru/Odinist Alliance alongside Valgard Murray's Ásatrú Alliance and the British Odinic Rite. He brought greater attention to his group after they became involved in the debate surrounding the Kennewick Man, arguing that it constituted evidence for a European presence in prehistoric America. In the 21st century he became more politically active, becoming involved in both environmentalist campaigns and white nationalist groups linked to the alt-right movement.
McNallen is a controversial figure in the Heathen and wider Pagan community. His espousal of right-wing ethnonationalist ideas and his insistence that Heathenry should be reserved for those of Northern European ancestry has resulted in accusations of racism from both Pagans and the mainstream media. Conversely, many on the extreme right of the Heathen movement have accused him of being a race traitor for his opposition to neo-Nazism and refusal to endorse white supremacism.
Biography
Early life: 1948–76
McNallen was born in the rural town of Breckenridge, Texas on October 15, 1948, to a family of practicing Roman Catholics. After high school, he attended Midwestern State University in Wichita Falls, Texas. While there, he began to investigate alternative religions, reading about the modern Pagan religion of Wicca and the writings of the occultist Aleister Crowley. In his freshman year of college he read a novel, The Viking, by Edison Marshall, which generated his interest in the societies of pre-Christian Scandinavia. According to him, upon reading this book he "got hooked on the spirit of the North", being attracted to the Vikings by what he perceived as "their warlike nature, their will to power, and their assertion of self". In 1968 or 1969 he dedicated himself to the worship of the deities found in Norse mythology, and remained a solitary devotee of theirs for about two years. He later noted that on initially becoming a Heathen, he went through "a stridently anti-Christian phase", and that while he later mellowed in his opinion of Christianity and Christians, he still believed the religion to be "a faulty faith, a foreign imposition on European soil" which had eroded "our traditional culture" and "done us great damage".
In 1969–70, McNallen founded the Viking Brotherhood, issuing a "Viking Manifesto" in which he stated that the Brotherhood was "dedicated to preserving, promoting and practicing the Norse religion as it was epitomized during the Viking Age, and to further the moral and ethical values of courage, individualism, and independence which characterized the Viking way of life." While the group placed greater emphasis on promoting what McNallen perceived as the Viking ideals — "courage, honor, and freedom" — rather than on explicitly religious goals, in 1972 they gained tax-exempt status as a religious organization from the Internal Revenue Service. In the winter of 1971–72 he began publishing a newsletter, The Runestone, using a typewriter and mimeograph machine; he gained his first eleven subscribers through an advert that he placed in Fate magazine. He initially used the term "Norse religion" to describe the Heathen religion that he was practicing, before later adopting the term "Odinism" from the work of Danish Heathen Else Christensen. He then changed it once again, this time to "Asatru", which he had discovered in Magnus Magnusson's book, Hammer of the North, and subsequently popularized within the American Heathen community.
During his college years, McNallen had been a cadet in the Reserve Officers Training Corps, and on completion received a degree in political science. After completing his college education he joined the United States Army, remaining with them for four years, volunteering for service in the Vietnam War before being stationed in West Germany. Although frustrated at what he described as the "authoritarian stupidity" of the army, it impacted his views on warrior ethics and warrior ideals. He retained his interest in Heathenry while a member of the army, and circa 1974 adopted the belief that there was an intrinsic connection between the Norse gods and humans of Northern European descent. After his discharge from the Army in 1976, McNallen hitchhiked across the Sahara Desert before returning to Europe and then to the United States. There, he settled in Berkeley, California.
Asatrú Free Assembly and journalistic career: 1976—93
On his return to the United States in 1976 he transformed his Viking Brotherhood into the Asatrú Free Assembly (AFA). The sociologist of religion Jennifer Snook described it as "the first national Heathen organization in the United States", while according to the religious studies scholars Michael F. Strmiska and Baldur A. Sigurvinsson, the AFA "established many of the important organizational and ritual structures that remain operative" in American Heathenry into the 21st century. Initially meeting in the backroom of an insurance agency owned by group member Dick Johnson, the group later established a store-front office in Breckenridge, while through the AFA, McNallen continued publishing Runestone and produced booklets on Asatru. He also began conducting religious ceremonies, or blóts, and lectured at Pagan events across the U.S. He established groups known as guilds within the AFA to focus on particular endeavours, such as the Mead Brewing Guild and the Warrior Guild. The latter published a quarterly, Wolf Age, in which McNallen displayed his fascination for warrior ethics.
In the early 1980s McNallen used The Runestone to promote his theory of "metagenetics"; the idea that spirituality or religion was encoded in genetic material and thus passed down to one's descendants. In formulating this concept he was influenced by his reading of Jungian psychology with its concept of archetypes existing within a collective unconscious. Accordingly, he described "Ásatrú as an expression of the soul of our [Nordic] race", and thought that it was a "real mistake" for anyone not of Northern European ancestry to follow Heathenry. Not everyone in the AFA embraced this theory, with it being rejected for instance by prominent AFA member Robert Stine, although it would later be developed in new directions by the Heathen Edred Thorsson. Academic observers have characterised metagenetics as racist, and as pseudoscience.
One commentator noted that AFA membership at the time was largely a mix of hippies and neo-Nazis. As membership of the AFA grew, there were an increased number of internal conflicts, often along ideological lines. This was exacerbated by the fact that all affiliated groups, known as kindreds, were autonomous, while the AFA promoted an individualistic ethos which allowed for a diversity of opinions. This generated conflicts at the AFA's annual meetings, or Althings, for instance when Michael "Valgard" Murray—one of the neo-Nazis within the AFA—threatened to kill a fellow member of the Assembly because he was gay. McNallen did not share these Nazi sympathies, disapproving of the Nazi ideal of a centralized totalitarian state, which he believed was anathema to the Heathen ideal of freedom; he also wanted to keep his religion apart from become an adjunct to a specifically political movement. Accordingly, he sought to push out the neo-Nazis and other racial extremists from the group. In 1978 he demanded that AFA members be prohibited from wearing Nazi uniforms and insignia at their events. Among those who left the AFA as a result were Wyatt Kaldenberg—who was appalled by what he described as McNallen's "soft stance on race" and "middle of the road" politics—and the neo-Nazi Heathen Jost Turner, who was McNallen's brother-in-law. McNallen nevertheless remained close to Turner and his family after the division. As a result of such changes, by the late 1970s there was a clear division between McNallen's AFA, which emphasized religious over racial political aims, and Christensen's Odinist Fellowship, which placed far greater emphasis on the latter.
While the autonomous nature of different AFA-affiliated individuals and groups meant that McNallen and his wife Maddy Hutter had little power, they bore the brunt of the responsibility of running the Assembly and organizing its Althings. They were also impacted by a downturn in the Texan economy, with McNallen losing his job as a jail guard. Bankrupt and frustrated, McNallen and the other senior figures in the AFA found that they were unable to organise the group's seventh Althing for 1987. Seeking to ensure that it would continue regardless, McNallen assembled a committee of AFA members, the Southern Heathen Leadership Conference, which issued a document declaring that new membership would be frozen, that AFA responsibilities would be divided more widely, and that McNallen and Hutter should take a vacation from their organizational chores. However, in 1987 McNallen shut down The Runestone and dissolved the AFA altogether, relocating to Northern California. However, according to Strmiska and Sigurvinsson, the AFA had "planted seeds that would take strong root". As a replacement for the Assembly, Murray established the Asatru Alliance, which organised the eighth American Althing for Arizona in June 1988.
In 1986–87, McNallen worked as a peace officer in Stephens County Texas sheriff's office jail and Sheila kept books for an oil company. In 1986, he and Sheila moved to the semi-deserted mining town of Forest in the mountains of California, and there he earned teaching credentials before teaching science and mathematics at a junior high school for six years. During his summer vacations he travelled abroad, during which he met with guerrilla groups active in various parts of the world, writing articles about them for magazines like Soldier of Fortune. He later related that this experience convinced him of the need for ethnonationalism and ethnic separatism across the world. McNallen also joined the U.S. National Guard and was called up during the 1992 Los Angeles riots.
Return to Heathenry: 1994–2016
In the mid-1990s, McNallen returned to an active involvement in the U.S. Pagan scene, aided by his new partner, Sheila Edlund. They established their own Heathen group, the Calasa Kindred, which they affiliated to Murray's AA. He was upset by the growth of The Troth, a universalist Heathen group that welcomed members regardless of ethnic or racial background. He later referred to this as "a corrupt faction" that "denied the innate connection of Germanic religions and Germanic people", expressing anger at the increasing domination of Heathenry by "liberals, affirmative-action Asatrúers, black goðar, and New Agers". In response to this, he decided to re-establish the AFA in 1994, this time calling it the Ásatrú Folk Assembly. This group based its headquarters in Grass Valley, and was structurally very similar to the old AFA, reviving McNallen's The Runestone publication, albeit in a yearbook format. The AFA served much the same constituency as the established AA, with religious studies scholar Jeffrey Kaplan believing that its purpose in the Heathen community was therefore largely superfluous. Seeking to promote Heathenry to a wider audience, McNallen also established the Ásatrú Community Church, which held Sunday services twice a month in the community room of the Nevada County Library; he later acknowledged that it was not particularly successful.
During the 1990s, McNallen befriended the prominent Heathen Michael Moynihan, later recommending and selling Moynihan's journal Tyr on the AFA's website. McNallen and the AFA also appear to have cordial relations with the racial extremist Ron McVan, co-founder of Wotansvolk, publishing some of McVan's writings in Runestone. When in the 1990s, Christensen was arrested for drug smuggling, McNallen teamed up with Murray to form a defense fund for her. In September 1997 he was a signatory to the foundation of the International Asatru/Odinist Alliance (IAOA), a global union of folkish Heathen groups, alongside Murray of the AA and Heimgest of the British Odinic Rite; they were later joined by representatives of the French and German branches of the Odinic Rite, before the union terminated several years later. The alliance convened an international meeting, or Althing, every three years. In 1997, McNallen married Sheila Edlund at the seventeenth Althing, held in Utah; the ceremony was officiated by Murray. In 1999, the AFA purchased land in the higher Sierra of Northern California, there establishing a space where Heathen kindreds could meet together to practice their religion.
In keeping with his ethnonationalist beliefs, McNallen endorsed a 1993 Declaration of War Against Exploiters of Lakota Spirituality, expressing the opinion that white people should resurrect the religions of their European ancestors rather than adopting the belief systems of Native Americans. However, he came into conflict with Native American communities over the discovery of Kennewick Man, a prehistoric skeleton unearthed in Washington State; while local Native communities viewed the body as one of their ancestors and sought its repatriation to them, McNallen argued that it was Caucasian. In October 1996 the AFA filed a suit in the U.S. District Court of Portland to prevent Kennewick Man being given to the Native communities under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA); the court ruled that the human remains were not "Native American" within the meaning of NAGPRA. McNallen expressed the view that Native American communities wanted to prevent forensic testing of the Kennewick Man's body because they feared that it would prove that he had been Caucasian, thus establishing that there had been a Caucasian presence in the prehistoric Americas. He believed that Caucasians had entered the Americas via the Bering Strait at around the same time as the ancestors of the Native Americans did, but that the Caucasians were subsequently wiped out; he warned that "that can happen to us too" and thus steps should be taken to preserve the existence of North America's European population. In 2000, the AFA withdrew from its involvement in the Kennewick Man legal case, stating that it had run out of funds to continue. The publicity surrounding the case nevertheless brought the AFA to far greater attention.
During the late 1990s, the AFA began promoting what it termed "tribalism", encouraging Heathens to form networks of extended families to help secure the religion's future. By mid-2001, McNallen and other figures in the leadership felt that they were again overworked and overstretched and so tried to reduce the group's hierarchical structure by abandoning the concept of membership. In the 21st century, the AFA made significant inroads online, establishing a homepage, blog, podcast, online radio, as well as accounts on Facebook and YouTube. Around the same time it began to promote the writings of Nouvelle Droite authors such as Alain de Benoist, selling an English-language translation of the latter's Being a Pagan on its website.
Growing political activity
At the turn of the 21st century, McNallen decided to embark on more specifically political activity, becoming President of the European American Issues Forum, a group devoted to advancing the rights of white Americans of which he had been a longstanding member. The group, a scholar of religion later noted, "rode the dangerous margins of racist politics." However, finding the job stressful and afflicted with colon cancer, he later resigned from the presidency.
In 2009 McNallen was invited to the International Asatru Summer Camp, but this was opposed by many of the groups attending, who argued that he should not be invited because of what they perceived as his racist views; a number of European Heathen groups, such as Norway's Bifrost and the Swedish SAS, threatened to boycott the event as a result of McNallen's invite.
In 2010, he contributed an article to the newly founded webzine AlternativeRight.com, founded by the white nationalist Richard B. Spencer, which was featured alongside articles by other white nationalists like Jared Taylor and Kevin B. MacDonald. Spencer noted that the initial articles for this website represented "the first stage" of the alt-right movement.
In 2011, the AFA sent a contingent to the annual conference of a Spencer's white nationalist organization, the National Policy Institute, in what some figures close to McNallen revealed was an attempt to recruit members. After this incident was publicized it resulted in accusations of racism being levelled against McNallen and the AFA from various parts of the Pagan blogosphere.
In December 2012, McNallen created the Facebook page Green Asatru to promote environmental ideas within Heathenry.
In June 2013 McNallen started the non-profit organization, Forever Elephants, to combat ivory poaching in Africa, using Facebook to promote this cause. In 2014, he retired from his profession as a juvenile corrections officer, where he had been employed for the previous five years. In 2015 he published Asatru: A Native European Spirituality; it was reviewed by the religious studies scholar Jefferson Calico for The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies, in which he noted that the book was "an important moment" for the Heathen movement, being "comprehensive and expansive, touching thoughtfully on numerous important aspects of the faith". Calico also noted that McNallen "clearly has his legacy in view throughout this book, apparent in the self-referential tone that occasionally surfaces."
Retirement: 2016–present
In 2016 McNallen stood down as head of the AFA, and was replaced by Matt Flavel, Allen Turnage, and Patricia Hall. He initially announced his desire to focus on new projects as a writer and religious leader. That year he angered many Universalist Heathens with a Facebook post responding to the sexual assault of white women by Arab men in Germany: "Germany — that is the German people, not sellout traitors like Merkel — deserve our full support... Where are the Freikorps when we need them?" The positive reference to the Freikorps, right-wing paramilitaries who carried out street violence and political assassinations between the World Wars, brought much criticism.
Several months after McNallen's resignation from the AFA leadership, the group posted a message online stating that: "The AFA would like to make it clear that we believe gender is not a social construct, it is a beautiful gift from the holy powers and from our ancestors. The AFA celebrates our feminine ladies, our masculine gentlemen, and, above all, our beautiful white children". The post brought accusations of racism; Heathens who had not commented on the AFA before denounced it. The AFA, in turn, called its critics "social justice warriors". In March 2017, McNallen spoke out on the issue in a YouTube video; here, he claimed allegiance to the white race and to white nationalist politics, also expressing allegiance to the 14 Words, a prominent slogan in white supremacist circles.
In 2018, the Southern Poverty Law Center added the Asatru Folk Assembly to its list of hate groups, describing it as a "Neo-völkisch hate group"
Personality and personal life
Calico described McNallen as having "a highly eclectic personality, fascinated by political, cultural, technological, and occult issues." He characterized him as "a genuinely charismatic man who commands a presence" and who was also "a man of both vision and perseverance". He also noted that when McNallen was writing about himself (using the third person), he betrayed "the sort of narcissistic self-involvement that might characterize the psychology of a charismatic religious leader, the founder of a religious movement."
Views on race and politics
In an online video, McNallen insisted that "race is real. It is not a social construct", and has pointed to writers like Nicholas Wade in defense of this point. McNallen also believes in an integral link connecting one's genetic or racial heritage to one's religion. He thus considers the ancient religion of the Aztecs to be inscribed on the subconscious of contemporary Mexicans, and the ancient religion of the Norse to be inscribed on the subconscious of those descended from ancient North Europeans. He regards Heathenry as belonging to all people descended from ancient northern Europeans and wants to make it as accessible as possible to this demographic, arguing that it is the religion best suited to fill the spiritual yearning of many white Americans. While typically linking Heathenry to peoples descended from ancient Northern Europeans, in some contexts, McNallen has referred to a broader, pan-European identity, stating that "European cultures are all unique — unique that is, as variants on the basic European pattern."
He has sought to provide a theoretical basis for this Folkish Heathen belief, calling it "metagenetics". This is the belief that religious and cultural practices become encoded in DNA and are passed down the generations in this manner. He also ties this idea in with concepts drawn from Jungian psychology, arguing that archetypes are distinct to specific racial groups and are passed down genetically. While initially presenting this idea using scientific language during the 1980s, Calico noted that McNallen's later discussions on the subject appeared more like "race mysticism".
His motivation in devising "metagenetics" was, in part, to make his religion more appealing to a broader range of Americans and to distance his movement from neo-Nazi and other explicitly white supremacist movements who wanted to incorporate it into their ideas of race war. He has expressed the view that his AFA exhibits the "middle ground on racial issues. On the one hand we were proud of our European heritage, and we actively espoused the interests of European-descended peoples. On the other hand we opposed totalitarianism and racial hatred, convinced that decency and honor required us to treat individuals of all racial groups with respect." According to a 1998 Southern Poverty Law Center article, although McNallen has attempted to evade the "Nazi-Odinist identification", he has "expressed sympathy with what he sees as the "legitimate frustrations of white men who are concerned for their kind".
For McNallen, white Americans are essentially Europeans because of their genetic ancestry. He has penned articles on what he fears is the coming extinction of the white race, arguing that in the United States, white people will be largely replaced by Hispanics, with the concomitant demographic shift resulting in a decreased political influence for the country's white population. He claims that a lack of clear ethnic identity has left European-Americans in a socially disadvantaged position, claiming that: "The results are clear for all to see, more of us are dying than are being born, our children look to other peoples and cultures for their models, our heritage and history are steadily displaced. This is the road to marginalization and extinction." According to Snook, McNallen's concerns reflect "white American resentment of a perceived loss of status and privilege in modern, multicultural society in particularly divisive political times." She added that a repeated element of his argument, the presentation of white people as victims, was common throughout white supremacist discourse.
McNallen does not consider himself to be a racist, arguing that "racism" entails expressing a belief in racial superiority, a viewpoint he does not hold. He insists that his support for racial separatism does not necessitate a "dislike, much less hatred" for other racial groups. However, in May 2015, the magazine Vice published an article in which it accused McNallen of being a racist who manipulated ancient Norse beliefs "for his own hateful devices". The "American Heathen collective" Circle Ansuz issued articles in which they described McNallen as "an active participant in the American neo-fascist radical traditionalist movement" and "an unapologetic advocate for white nationalism". Conversely, many in the extreme racialist wing of Heathenry have accused McNallen of being a race traitor because he has not unequivocally endorsed white supremacist and neo-Nazi perspectives; they have commented negatively on his "refusal to work for the survival of the Aryan race" and accused him of promoting "cowardly PC politics".
The religious studies scholar Jeffrey Kaplan stated that McNallen's politics "fit comfortably into the right wing of the political spectrum", although added that in the Heathen community McNallen "suddenly becomes very much the man of the centre – and is thus a legitimate target for both sides." The historian of religion Mattias Gardell characterized McNallen as a libertarian. McNallen rejects the descriptor "conservative", expressing the view that there is little in modern Western society worthy of conserving. McNallen envisions a future stateless American confederacy based on ecologically sustainable, decentralized tribal groups. He has also expressed support for all ethnic separatist movements across the world, including those of the Tibetan, Igbo, Karen, and Afrikaner people. This has attracted criticism from the racial extremist wing of the Heathen community, who have claimed that it detracts from the focus on the white or Aryan struggle against other racial groups. According to Katja Lane, co-founder of the extreme racialist Wotansvolk, McNallen is "promoting everything BUT the Aryan cause." However, in writings and YouTube videos, Stephen McNallen has spoken favorably of Wotanism and the Fourteen Words of David Lane, networking with Red Ice TV, a social media outlet of the alt-right.
Reception and legacy
Calico noted that McNallen represented the "torchbearer" for Folkish Heathenry in the United States. He added that McNallen's was the "one name associated with the birth, growth, and controversy of American Asatru" more than any other. Some U.S. Heathens regard him as the "father" of American Heathenry, although his place in the movement is disputed by many practitioners who reject his Folkish approach to the religion.
Calico thought that "McNallen deserves to be noted as one of many American religious dissenters who, because of strong personal conviction and vision, stood their ground in the face of hardship and opposition."
Bibliography
A bibliography of McNallen's works have been provided on the AFA's website:
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
McNallen's personal blog
1948 births
Alt-right writers
Living people
People from Breckenridge, Texas
Adherents of Germanic neopaganism
Ásatrú in the United States
United States Army officers
American modern pagans
American prison officers
American white nationalists
Founders of modern pagan movements
Modern pagan writers
Activists from California
Alt-right modern pagans |
4201147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Stanley%20Cup%20playoffs | 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs | The 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs for the National Hockey League (NHL) championship began on April 21, 2006, following the 2005–06 regular season. This was the first playoffs since 2004 due to the 2004–05 NHL lockout that cancelled the previously scheduled season. The 16 teams that qualified, seeded one through eight from each conference, played best-of-seven series with re-seeding after the Conference quarterfinals. The conference champions played a best-of-seven series for the Stanley Cup.
The Finals concluded on June 19 with the Carolina Hurricanes winning the Stanley Cup, defeating the Edmonton Oilers in the final series four games to three. Carolina goaltender Cam Ward was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as Most Valuable Player of the playoffs. The Edmonton Oilers would miss the playoffs each year thereafter until 2017. This was also the last time until 2023 that the Pittsburgh Penguins missed the playoffs. This was the first time in history that the Chicago Blackhawks and the St. Louis Blues missed the playoffs in the same season.
While the 2005–06 season introduced a shootout to break ties after five minutes of four-on-four overtime, the Stanley Cup playoffs retained their traditional format of unlimited 20-minute periods of five-on-five sudden-death overtime to break ties.
The Western Conference made history in the first round when all four series were won by the lower-seeded teams (conversely, all four series in the Eastern Conference were won by the higher-seeded teams). The eighth- and lowest-seeded Oilers proceeded to win the Western Conference and participate in the Stanley Cup Finals. Four Canadian teams qualified for the playoffs this year, this total was not equaled again until 2013 and not exceeded until 2015 with five.
Playoff seeds
Eastern Conference
Ottawa Senators, Northeast Division champions, Eastern Conference regular season champions – 113 points
Carolina Hurricanes, Southeast Division champions – 112 points
New Jersey Devils, Atlantic Division champions – 101 points (46 wins)
Buffalo Sabres – 110 points
Philadelphia Flyers – 101 points (45 wins)
New York Rangers – 100 points
Montreal Canadiens – 93 points
Tampa Bay Lightning – 92 points
Western Conference
Detroit Red Wings, Central Division champions, Western Conference regular season champions, Presidents' Trophy winners – 124 points
Dallas Stars, Pacific Division champions – 112 points
Calgary Flames, Northwest Division champions – 103 points
Nashville Predators – 106 points
San Jose Sharks – 99 points
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim – 98 points
Colorado Avalanche – 95 points (43 wins)
Edmonton Oilers – 95 points (41 wins)
Playoff bracket
Conference quarterfinals
Eastern Conference quarterfinals
(1) Ottawa Senators vs. (8) Tampa Bay Lightning
The Ottawa Senators entered the playoffs as the Eastern Conference regular season and Northeast Division champions with 113 points. Tampa Bay qualified as the eighth seed earning 92 points during the regular season. This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Ottawa won all four games during this year's regular season series.
The Senators defeated the Lightning in five games. The Senators used a two-man advantage in the third period of game one to gain the lead as they took the game by a score of 4–1. In game two the Lightning came back from a one-goal deficit by scoring two goals 55 seconds apart as they evened the series with a 4–3 victory. Six Ottawa skaters scored a goal in game three as the Senators won 8–4. Ottawa scored three times in the second-period of game four as they earned a 5–2 win. Martin Havlat scored the series-winning goal for the Senators at 15:02 of the second period as Ottawa closed out the series with a 3–2 victory.
(2) Carolina Hurricanes vs. (7) Montreal Canadiens
The Carolina Hurricanes entered the playoffs as the Southeast Division champions, earning the second seed in the Eastern Conference with 112 points. Montreal qualified as the seventh seed earning 93 points during the regular season. This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams with Montreal winning five of the six previous series. They last met in the 2002 Eastern Conference semifinals where Carolina won in six games. Carolina won all four games during this year's regular season series.
The Hurricanes eliminated the Canadiens in six games. After allowing a goal in the opening minute of game one the Canadiens scored six unanswered goals taking the opening game of the series 6–1. Carolina pulled goaltender Martin Gerber after allowing three goals in the first period of game two and he was replaced by 22-year-old rookie backup Cam Ward. The Hurricanes were able to tie the game with 90 seconds remaining in regulation before losing in double overtime as Michael Ryder scored at 2:32, giving Montreal a 6–5 win. In game three Eric Staal scored the game winner 3:38 into overtime as Carolina won 2–1. Rod Brind'Amour gave the Hurricanes the lead in game four and they hung on to win 3–2. Cam Ward made 30 saves and allowed just one goal against as the Hurricanes took game five 2–1. Hurricanes forward Cory Stillman ended the series at 1:19 of the first overtime as Carolina won game six 2–1.
(3) New Jersey Devils vs. (6) New York Rangers
The New Jersey Devils entered the playoffs as the Atlantic Division champions (winning the tie-breaker with Philadelphia in total wins), earning the third seed in the Eastern Conference with 101 points. New York qualified for the first time since 1997 as the sixth seed earning 100 points during the regular season. This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams with New York winning all three previous series. They last met in the 1997 Eastern Conference semifinals where New York won in five games. The teams split this year's eight game regular season series.
The Devils swept the Rangers in four games. The Devils scored five times on the power play in game one winning 6–1, Devils forward Patrik Elias scored six points in the victory (two goals and four assists). In game two John Madden scored a hat trick for the Devils as they earned a 4–1 victory. Martin Brodeur earned his 21st career playoff shutout with 25 saves as the Devils won game three 3–0. New Jersey took the lead in the second period of game four with two power play goals and they never looked back eliminating the Rangers by a final score of 4–2.
(4) Buffalo Sabres vs. (5) Philadelphia Flyers
The Buffalo Sabres entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference with 110 points. Philadelphia qualified as the fifth seed (losing the tie-breaker with New Jersey in total wins for the Atlantic Division title) earning 101 points during the regular season. This was the eighth playoff meeting between these two teams with Philadelphia winning five of the seven previous series. They last met in the 2001 Eastern Conference quarterfinals where Buffalo won in six games. Buffalo won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Sabres defeated the Flyers in six games. Philadelphia goaltender Robert Esche made 55 saves in a 3–2 Flyers loss; Daniel Briere ended the game with a goal at 7:31 in double-overtime. Buffalo forwards Jean-Pierre Dumont and Jason Pominville each recorded hat-tricks in game two as the Sabres scored three power play goals rolling to an 8–2 victory. Peter Forsberg scored two second period goals in game three to break a 1–1 tie, the Flyers went on to win the game 4–2. In game four R. J. Umberger put the Flyers up for good with his goal at 9:51 in the third period as Philadelphia evened the series with a 5–4 victory. Sabres goaltender Ryan Miller made 24 saves to earn his first career playoff shutout in game five as Buffalo won 3–0. In game six the Sabres jumped to a 5–0 lead on a goal by Maxim Afinogenov as the Flyers pulled Robert Esche from the game, Buffalo went on to a resounding 7–1 series-clinching victory.
Western Conference quarterfinals
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (8) Edmonton Oilers
The Detroit Red Wings entered the playoffs as the Presidents' Trophy winners, the Western Conference regular season and Central Division champions, with 124 points. Edmonton qualified as the eighth seed earning 95 points (losing the tie-breaker with Colorado in total wins) during the regular season. This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams with Edmonton winning both previous series. They last met in the 1988 Clarence Campbell Conference Final where Edmonton won in five games. Detroit won this year's four game regular season series earning six of eight points during the season.
The eighth seeded Oilers upset the Red Wings in six games. Red Wings winger Kirk Maltby scored two goals in game one, including the winner in double overtime as Detroit won 3–2. The Oilers took the lead by scoring twice in 57 seconds in the second period of game two as they hung on to win 4–2. Jarret Stoll provided the game-winner in double overtime in game three giving the Oilers a 4–3 victory. The Red Wings scored three power-play goals in game four earning a 4–2 victory to tie the series. Oilers goaltender Dwayne Roloson made 30 saves as Edmonton hung on to win game five by a score of 3–2. The Oilers overcame a two-goal deficit after two periods of play in game six by scoring four times in third period, Ales Hemsky broke the tie with 1:06 remaining in regulation as Edmonton ended the series with a 4–3 win.
(2) Dallas Stars vs. (7) Colorado Avalanche
The Dallas Stars entered the playoffs as the Pacific Division champions, earning the second seed in the Western Conference with 112 points. Colorado qualified as the seventh seed earning 95 points (winning the tie-breaker with Edmonton in total wins) during the regular season. This was the fourth and 2nd most recent playoff meeting between these two teams, with Dallas winning two of three previous series. They last met in the 2004 Western Conference quarterfinals where Colorado won in five games.
The Avalanche upset the Stars in five games. After trailing by two early in the first period of game one the Avalanche scored five un-answered goals and won by a score of 5–2. Brett Clark tied the game with a short-handed goal at 17:56 of the third period and four and a half minutes into overtime Joe Sakic scored his NHL-record seventh career playoff overtime goal to end the game in a 5–4 Colorado victory. Avalanche forward Andrew Brunette scored with 57 seconds remaining in the third period to tie game three and Alex Tanguay tallied his second goal of the game at 1:09 of the first overtime to give the Avalanche a 4–3 win. Dallas staved off elimination in game four as Niklas Hagman scored two goals in a 4–1 victory. Colorado goaltender Jose Theodore made 50 saves in game five and Andrew Brunette scored the series-clinching goal nearly fourteen minutes into overtime to give the Avalanche a 3–2 win.
(3) Calgary Flames vs. (6) Mighty Ducks of Anaheim
The Calgary Flames entered the playoffs as the Northwest Division champions, earning the third seed in the Western Conference with 103 points. Anaheim qualified as the sixth seed earning 98 points during the regular season. This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. The teams split this year's four game regular season series.
The Mighty Ducks eliminated the Flames in seven games. Flames goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff made 33 saves and Darren McCarty scored 9:45 into the first overtime as Calgary won game one 2–1. In game two Anaheim took a three-goal lead and hung on for a 4–3 victory. The Flames scored three power-play goals as they earned a 5–2 win in game three. Sean O'Donnell scored the overtime winner shortly after a power play expired in game four as Anaheim evened the series with a 3–2 victory. Flames captain Jarome Iginla scored twice as the Calgary held off a late charge by the Mighty Ducks taking a 3–2 victory in game five. In game six, Mighty Ducks captain Scott Niedermayer scored a power-play goal with just over five minutes remaining in regulation time as Anaheim forced a seventh game with their 2–1 win. Anaheim goaltender Ilya Bryzgalov made 22 saves as the Mighty Ducks ended the Flames season with a shutout winning game seven 3–0.
(4) Nashville Predators vs. (5) San Jose Sharks
The Nashville Predators entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Western Conference with 106 points. San Jose qualified as the fifth seed earning 99 points during the regular season. This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Nashville won this year's four game regular season series earning six of eight points during the season.
The Sharks eliminated the Predators in five games. All four of the Predators goals in game one came on the power play as Nashville took the opening game 4–3. In game two San Jose scored three first period power play goals and Vesa Toskala earned a shutout in the Sharks 3–0 victory. San Jose captain Patrick Marleau scored twice in game three as the Sharks won 4–1. Nashville attempted to make a comeback late in game four as the Sharks hung on to win 5–4, Patrick Marleau recorded a hat trick in the victory. San Jose continued to exploit the Predators penalty killing in game five as they scored twice on the power play and ended Nashville's season with a 2–1 victory.
Conference semifinals
Eastern Conference semifinals
(1) Ottawa Senators vs. (4) Buffalo Sabres
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams with Buffalo winning both previous series. They last met in the 1999 Eastern Conference quarterfinals where Buffalo won in four games. Ottawa won five of the eight games during this year's regular season series.
The Sabres eliminated the Senators in five games. Sabres forward Tim Connolly tied game one with just 10.7 seconds left in regulation to tie the game at six and Chris Drury ended the game just 18 seconds into overtime as Buffalo won 7–6. Ryan Miller faced 44 shots and allowed just one goal against as the Sabres won game two 2–1. Overtime was required in game three after Jason Spezza tied the game late in the third period. Jean-Pierre Dumont ended the game with a goal at 5:05 of the first overtime as the Sabres took the game 3–2. In game four Wade Redden scored a power-play goal early in the third period as the Senators earned a 2–1 victory. Sabres rookie forward Jason Pominville became the first player in league history to score a short-handed overtime goal to end a series as he scored just 2:26 into the first overtime as Buffalo won game five 3–2.
(2) Carolina Hurricanes vs. (3) New Jersey Devils
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams with the teams splitting the two previous series. They last met in the 2002 Eastern Conference quarterfinals where Carolina won in six games. Carolina won this year's four game regular season series earning five of eight points during the season.
The Hurricanes defeated New Jersey in five games. Carolina scored five power-play goals in game one as they won 6–0. Scott Gomez gave the Devils a 2–1 lead with just over twenty seconds to go in the third period of game two, however just 18 seconds later Eric Staal scored the game-tying goal with just three seconds left in regulation time to send the game into overtime. Niclas Wallin tallied the game-winner 3:09 into the first overtime. In game three Carolina's Rod Brind'Amour scored the game-winner with 1:01 to play in the second period. New Jersey jumped out to a 5–0 lead and won game four with a final score of 5–1. Cory Stillman scored the series-winning goal at 14:20 of the second period as the Hurricanes held on for a 4–1 victory in game five.
Western Conference semifinals
(5) San Jose Sharks vs. (8) Edmonton Oilers
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Edmonton won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Oilers came back from a two-game deficit to defeat the Sharks in six games. Patrick Marleau recorded a goal and an assist during game one in a 2–1 San Jose victory. The Sharks won game two 2–1 with Joe Thornton scoring the game-winner on the power play in the second period. Sharks goaltender Vesa Toskala made 55 saves in a losing effort in game three as the Oilers won in a triple-overtime on a goal scored by Shawn Horcoff at 2:24 to give Edmonton a 3–2 win. Edmonton came back from an early 3–1 deficit in game four and scored five unanswered goals to win 6–3 and to even the series at two games apiece. After San Jose tied game five early the third period the Oilers scored three unanswered goals as they took another 6–3 victory. Dwayne Roloson posted a 24 save shutout in game six as the Oilers took the game 2–0 with the game-winning goal from Michael Peca to win the series four games to two.
(6) Mighty Ducks of Anaheim vs. (7) Colorado Avalanche
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Colorado won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
Anaheim swept the Avalanche in four games. The Mighty Ducks scored four times in the second period of game one as Anaheim won 5–0, rookie Ilya Bryzgalov recorded his second-straight shutout. In game two Ilya Bryzgalov equalled a rookie record previously set by Frank McCool in 1945 as he recorded his third straight playoff shutout as the Mighty Ducks won 3–0. In game three Dan Hinote ended Ilya Bryzgalov's shutout streak at 249:15 (the second longest in league history) when he scored late in the first period for the Avalanche. Joffrey Lupul scored four goals including the overtime winner as the Mighty Ducks won 4–3. Joe Sakic scored the only goal for the Avalanche in game four as Anaheim finished off the series with a 4–1 victory to advance to their second Conference Final appearance in team history.
Conference finals
Eastern Conference Final
(2) Carolina Hurricanes vs. (4) Buffalo Sabres
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Carolina most recently made it to the conference finals in 2002, defeating Toronto in six games, while the Sabres last made it to the conference finals in 1999, defeating Toronto in five games. Carolina won three of the four games in this year's four game regular season series.
The Hurricanes eliminated the Sabres in seven games. Sabres goaltender Ryan Miller made 29 saves in game one as Buffalo won 3–2. Ray Whitney scored twice in the second period of game two as the Hurricanes evened the series with a 4–3 victory. The Sabres scored four times in just over thirteen minutes in game three as they earned a 4–3 win. Martin Gerber made 22 saves in a shutout victory for the Hurricanes as they took game four by a score of 4–0. Cam Ward replaced Martin Gerber early in the second period of game five as the Hurricanes came back from a two-goal deficit and won the game 4–3 on a power-play goal scored by Cory Stillman at 8:46 of the first overtime period. Daniel Briere forced a seventh game in this series with his game-winning goal at 4:22 of the first overtime as Buffalo won game six 2–1. Hurricanes forward Rod Brind'Amour capitalised on a delay of game penalty to Brian Campbell at 11:22 of the third period in game seven as Carolina advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals with a 4–2 victory.
Western Conference Final
(6) Mighty Ducks of Anaheim vs. (8) Edmonton Oilers
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Anaheim most recently made it to the conference finals in 2003, sweeping the Minnesota Wild in four games, while the Oilers last made it to the conference finals in 1992, losing to Chicago in four games. Edmonton won all four games during this year's regular season series.
The Oilers eliminated Anaheim in five games. Ales Hemsky's power-play goal at 11:35 of the second period gave the Oilers the lead as they took game one 3–1. Oilers goaltender Dwayne Roloson made 33 saves won again by a score of 3–1. Fernando Pisani scored the game-winning goal for the Oilers in game three as the two teams traded eight goals in the third period and Edmonton hung on for a 5–4 victory. Anaheim changed goaltenders before the start of game four as Jean-Sebastien Giguere got the start for the Mighty Ducks. Anaheim took a three-goal lead in the first period and never looked back winning the game 6–3. Dwayne Roloson made 32 saves as the Oilers ended the series with a 2–1 victory in game five. The Oilers became the first eighth-seeded team to reach the Finals under this playoff format (which was introduced in 1994). Anaheim changed their team nickname, uniforms and logo after the season as they became known as the Anaheim Ducks. This was the last time the Oilers made the conference finals until 2022.
Stanley Cup Finals
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Carolina made their second Finals appearance, while Edmonton made their seventh appearance in the Finals. The Hurricanes were defeated in their last appearance in the Finals losing to Detroit in five games in 2002, the Oilers won their last appearance in the Finals defeating Boston in five games in 1990. The teams did not meet during the regular season. This series marked the first time that two former World Hockey Association teams played against each other for the Stanley Cup since they merged with the NHL in 1979. This was the first Stanley Cup Finals to be contested by two teams that had both missed the playoffs the previous season.
Player statistics
Skaters
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/– = Plus/minus; PIM = Penalty minutes
Goaltending
These are the top five goaltenders based on either goals against average or save percentage with at least four games played.
GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; SA = Shots against; GA = Goals against; GAA = Goals against average; TOI = Time On Ice (minutes:seconds); Sv% = Save percentage; SO = Shutouts
References
See also
2005–06 NHL season
List of NHL seasons
playoffs
Stanley Cup playoffs |
4201467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahanweyn | Rahanweyn | The Rahanweyn (Reewin Northern Somali: Raxaweyn, ), also known as the Digil and Mirifle () are a major Somali clan. It is one of the major Somali clans in the Horn of Africa, with a large territory and densely populated fertile valleys of the Jubba and Shebelle rivers and the area between are mainly inhabited by settlers from the Digil and Mirifle lineages.
Etymology
Anthropologists and northern Somalis have helped coin the term Rahanweyn. The name is said to be a combination of Rahan (grindstone) and Weyn (large) which means (large grindstone) suggesting the name's semantic relation to the Reewin economy. Another more interesting term is said to combine the names of Rahan (crowd) and Weyn (large) which means (literally 'crowd-big' or the large crowds) indicating that the Reewin clans are a confederation of diverse Somali clans that migrated elsewhere.
However, all these definitions are based on the Northern Somali dialect rather than the southern Somali dialect therefore these definitions should be deemed inaccurate. The name is correctly pronounced Reewin which can be divided into Ree (family) and Wiin (old) which means (old family). This name is a reference to the Reewin ancient origins which might indicate that they might have been the first Somali group to migrate to modern-day Somalia whilst the rest of the Somali clans slowly began to diverge and develop their own unique distinct dialects. Another theory states that the name Rahanweyn derives from the name of the ancestor of all Rahanweyn clans, one Ma'd or Mohammed Reewin.
Overview
Each of the two subclans of the Rahanweyn comprises a great number of clans and sub-clans. The Digil sub-clan mainly consists of farmers and coastal people, while the Mirifle are predominantly agro-pastoralists.
According to constitutional law, Somalis are linguistically grouped into Mai Terreh and Maxaa Tiri. The vast majority of the Somalis who speak Mai Terreh (also known as Mai-Mai or Af-Maay) are the Rahanweyn who descend from Sab, while the speakers of Maxaa Tiri (i.e. most spoken Somali) belong to other clans (Darod, Dir, Hawiye and Isaaq) who descend from Samaale. Both Sab and Samaale are believed to have been fathered by Hiil (ancestral father of all Somalis).
Rahanweyn clans contain a high number of adopted members, with British anthropologist I. M. Lewis describing the Rahanweyn as a "synthesis of old cultivating stock, and more recent and once nomadic immigrants from the other Somali clans", with almost every Somali lineage having some off-shoot living among them. This practice allows newcomers to integrate into resident clans in a pleasant manner. Furthermore, in riverine places such as Lower Shabelle or the Juba region, it adds to the complexity of lineage identity.
Distribution
The clan resides in rich fertile lands in southern Somalia and lives on the banks of Somalia's two major rivers, the Shebelle and Jubba rivers. The Rahanweyn make up the majority in the southwestern regions of Bay, Bakool, and Lower Shabelle. They are also believed to be the silent majority in Jubbaland specifically in regions such as Gedo, Middle Juba, and Lower Juba. They are the second-largest clan to reside in Mogadishu. They are also found in the Somali Region of Ethiopia and the North Eastern Province of Kenya.
History
Antiquity
Reewin groups were the first Somali/Cushitic group to enter what is the southern part of modern-day Somalia, around the end of the second century B.C
The Rahanweyn clan were mentioned as the people of Reewin who lived in the fertile lands and coastal provinces and were very wealthy and powerful people during the antiquity period in southern Somalia. They were said to be a sub-group of Barbara or Barbaroi people ancestors of the Somali people.
Tunni Sultanate
The Tunni Sultanate (r. 9th century - 13th century) was a Somali Muslim Sultanate located in southwestern Somalia, south of the Shabelle river. It was ruled by the Tunni Rahanweyn people, who spoke the Af-Tunni. The historical Tunni area correspondence to modern-day Lower Shabelle region Barawa founded by a Tunni saint called Aw-Ali and became the new capital for the Tunni Sultanate. The town prospered and became one of the major Islamic centers in the Horn, the Barawaani Ulama, attracting students from all over the region. Muslim scholars of that time, such as Ibn Sa'id, wrote about Barawa as "an Islamic island on the Somali coast." Al-Idrisi also described the construction of the coral houses and noted that Barawa was full of both domestic and foreign commodities. The Ajuran would take over the region and end the Tunni Sultanate.
Ajuran Sultanate
Along with Hawiye, Rahanweyn clan also came under the Ajuran Empire control in the 13th century that governed much of southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia, with its domain extending from Hobyo in the north, to Qelafo in the west, to Kismayo in the south.
Geledi Sultanate
At the end of the 17th century, the Ajuran Sultanate was on its decline, and various vassals were now breaking free or being absorbed by new Somali powers. One of these powers was the Geledi Sultanate which was established by Ibrahim Adeer a former Ajuran general that successfully pushed the imperial Ajuran army out of Afgooye. He subsequently established the Geledi sultanates ruling house, the Gobroon dynasty, after having first defeated the Ajuran vassal state, the Silcis Kingdom.
The Geledi Sultanate was a Rahanweyn Kingdom ruled by the noble Geledi clan which held sway over the Jubba and Shabelle rivers in the interior and the Benadir coast. The Geledi Sultanate dominated the East African trade and had enough power to force the southern Arabians to pay tribute to the noble Geledi Rulers like Sultan Yusuf Mahamud.
Administration and military
The Sultanate of Geledi exerted a strong centralized authority during its existence and possessed all of the organs and trappings of an integrated modern state: a functioning bureaucracy, a hereditary nobility, titled aristocrats, a taxing system, a state flag, as well as a professional army. The great sultanate also maintained written records of their activities, which still exist.
The Geledi Sultanate's main capital was at Afgooye where the rulers resided in the grand palace. The kingdom had a number of castles, forts and other variety of architectures in various areas within its realm, including a fortress at Luuq and a citadel at Bardera.
The Geledi army numbered 20,000 men in times of peace, and could be raised to 50,000 troops in times of war. The supreme commanders of the army were the Sultan and his brother, who in turn had Malaakhs and Garads under them. The military was supplied with rifles and cannons by Somali traders of the coastal regions that controlled the East African arms trade.
Trade
The kingdom maintained a vast trading network, trading with Arabia, Persia, India, Near East, Europe and the Swahili World, dominating the East African trade, and was a regional power.
In the case of the Geledi, wealth accrued to the nobles and to the Sultanate not only from the market cultivation which it had utilized from the Shebelle and Jubba valleys but also trade from their involvement in the slave trade and other enterprises such as ivory, cotton, iron, gold, among many other commodities. Generally, they also raised livestock animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and chicken.
Modern
Italian Protectorate
The Geledi Sultanate was eventually incorporated into Italian Somaliland Protectorate in 1908 by the Geledi ruler: Osman Ahmed who signed multiple treaties with the Italian colonials and the Kingdom ended with the death of Osman Ahmed in 1910.
Hizbi Dhigil & Mirifle
The Hizbi Dhigil & Mirifle (1947–1969) was a Somali political party formed by members of the Rahanweyn clan however Jeilani Sheikh Bin Sheikh was the first to be elected as the leader of (HDMS) and was among the first to call for Federalism in Somalia. It had its roots in the 1920s as the Hizbiya Dastur Mustaqil Al Sumal which was formed as an anti colonial organization that educated the inter riverine peoples and provided health and other charitable motions. Later the Hizbi Dhigil & Mirifle formed in 1947 and would be the main opposition party winning the 2nd most seats in parliament after the Somali Youth League. Its main goals were to advocate for the Digil and Mirifle peoples of Somalia and a true census of the Somali Republic. The party also pushed for improving agricultural and animal husbandry practices.
Political Marginalization and Land Seizures
During the fight for independence, political parties were based on clan interest though these organizations claimed to act in the national interest and were against clan division. Thus, the anti-clan stance was an act in order to promote their clan interest. For example, the non-Rahanweyn, mainly Darod and Hawiye who dominated the Somali administration previously but who had already lived in tranquillity and harmony with Rahanweyn, declared the former pre-colonial loyalty of geeko mariidi (old days). Anti-clan laws were approved at independence that violated traditional land rights allowed the non-Rahanweyn to acquire gains at the expense of Rahanweyn. Under the disguise of nationalism, they promoted Darood and Hawiye interests. When Rahanweyn had political and numerical dominance in the interiverine region there was a petition to divide the region into nine provinces, only two remained in Rahanweyn's political control while the rest was Darood-led. This was supposedly a national development that turned out to be a hegemonic act and was aggravated by the Cooperative Development in 1974 under president Siad Barre when Rahanweyn land's was seized and annexed under an eminent domain law. The state farms thus used the Rahanweyn as labourers, but were managed by Darood and only promoted Darood interest, not the nation's interest.
Historically Jubbaland was Rahanweyn's stronghold and prior to Italian colonization, the region was ruled by Geledi Sultanate. In 1975, Mohammed Siad Barre, a member of the Marehan sub-clan of the Darood, created six different regions called Lower Juba, Middle Juba, Gedo, Bay, Bakool and Lower Shabelle for political reasons to favour the Darod and to weaken the Rahanweyn's political influence in the south. The Marehan were rewarded political powers to lead the Gedo region, Ogaden were rewarded political powers to lead the Middle Juba region, Harti, were rewarded political powers to lead the Lower Juba region, and finally, the Hawiye were rewarded political powers to lead Lower Shabelle. The major Rahanweyn historic towns located on the Jubba River such as Dolow, Luuq, Burdhubo, Bardheere, Saakow, Bu'ale, Jilib, Jamame and Kismayo, thus lost their Rahanweyn identity. The Rahanweyn were only positioned in the landlocked Bay region.
Report of the Nordic fact-finding mission to the Gedo region in Somalia states:
According to Abdirshakar Othawai, extensive settlement by the Marehan clans in the Gedo region had been going on for some considerable time. Back in 1977-1980, the Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia triggered large movements of people, with many Marehan members being transferred from Ethiopia to Luuq and Burdhubo in particular.
The Somali government at the time, headed by Siad Barre, assisted Marehan settlers in Gedo with farm implements, among other facilities, while a Japanese NGO tried to persuade the Rahanweyn clans to accept the new Marehan settlers, arguing in particular that this time was a temporary arrangement. The Marehan settlers were at present living in those areas with the Rahanweyne clans being squeezed out there as a result.
The civil war in Somalia in the 1900s promoted most of the Gabaweyn sub-clan of Rahanweyn to leave the Gedo region and go to live in Kenya and Ethiopia. This enabled the Marehan clans finally to secure political power in the Gedo region. Abdullahi Sheikh Mohamed, of the UNOPS SRP, regarded that seizer of power as the culmination of a long-term strategy by the president at the time, Siad Barre with the Gedo region being established back in 1974 in order to create a regional base for the Marehan clans.
A similar fashion was happening in the Lower and Middle Juba regions where during the Ogaden War a huge number of Ogaden refugees were being resettled in Middle Jubba and during the famine crisis in northeast Somalia, the Harti clans were being resettled in Lower Jubba.
Civil War and South West State
During the civil war, the less aggressive and peaceful Rahanweyn suffered the most out of any clan in Somalia. General Morgan the nephew of Siad Barre unified the Darood factions in Jubbaland and founded the Somali National Front and waged war against the self-declared president Mohamed Farrah Aidid who led the Hawiye militia known as the United Somali Congress. The Darood and Hawiye militia used Rahanweyn lands as their battleground and conducted all kinds of human rights violations against the indigenous population in the interiverine region. In the Bay province, the Marehan militia members targeted women as means of genocide against the Rahanweyn clan. Barre had planned to resettle Darood clans in the area and made secret plans with his son-in-law General Morgan to exterminate the Rahanweyn clan. In fact, this had been a long-term aim as evidence pointed out in the infamous documents "death letter one" and "death letter two" of 1987. In these Morgan proposed the idea for the annihilation of both the Isaaq in the north and the Rahanweyn in the south. Apart from the massacres, general Morgan used other kinds of cruel and barbarous methods such as using starvation as his key tactic by plundering NGO warehouses, raiding convoys, and a host of other schemes to prevent food aid from reaching the Rahanweyn. Given the outcome of the mortality rate, (40% of the population, including 70% of the children) his attempts to prevent food aid, steadily kill the survivors, and colonize the lands with his own clan, could be concluded that there was a deliberate effort to destroy the Rahanweyn. At the same time the self-declared president Mohamed Farrah Aidid and forces loyal to him were the more powerful armed militia occupied Rahanweyn dominated regions such as Bay, Bakool and Lower Shabelle in the guise of liberation against Siad Barre regime forces. The Habar Gidir militia in Lower Shabelle overstayed, began illegally settling by looting properties and farmlands and using the local Digil population as labour similar to Darood clans in Jubbaland.
According to the researcher and analyst, Muuse Yuusuf states:
During the rebellion against General Siad Barre's regime, there were some Rahanweyn rebel groups, such as the SDM. However, they were not strong militarily and their political elite did not have access to the state military arsenal like the high-ranking military leaders of other Hawiye, Darood, and Isaaq factions who looted state arsenal. Rahanweyn elites did not also have an economic power base and a diaspora community to support their movement, factors that helped other factions. They were also divided among themselves, supporting different rebel groups. For example, SDM had to ally itself with the USC's different factions to eject remnants of president Siad Barre's forces from their lands. Indeed, clans elders from these regions asked general Aideed to help them liberate their land from forces loyal to president Siad Barre, which were committing atrocities in the region. As it turned out, General Aideed's USC faction betrayed them politically when its militiamen occupied Rahanweyn regions under the pretext that they had liberated them from the 'fallen' regime.
Therefore, at the collapse of the military dictatorship, Rahanweyn clans and small non-Somali ethnic groups found themselves defenseless and trapped between marauding Hawiye and Darood factions in what became known as the 'triangle of death' in which Baidoa, the capital city of the Bay region, became the city of death. They suffered most when up to 500,000 people starved to death because of the destruction of the farmlands and properties and confiscation of farms by the warring factions. And also because of what was described as 'genocidal policy' under which Hawiye and Darood factions were determined to exterminate Rahanweyns. If you compare Rahanweyn's experience with any other clan's experience, it becomes obvious that they were not only marginalized throughout Somali history but also suffered more than any other clan during the civil war as hundreds of thousands of people died because of the conflict and other war-related causes.
At the beginning of the year 1993, the constant war and communal suffering the Rahanweyn endured, the Rahanweyn community came to the realization that they shared the same history and experience of political marginalization and victimization throughout modern Somali history, had emerged. By March 1993, Somali Democratic movement organized a peacemaking conference to unite the riverine clans which were held in Bonkain town in the Bay province. By 1994. Rahanweyn were successful in establishing their own administrations and Baidoa was no longer considered the city of famine. In 1995, Rahanweyn held a congress in Baidoa to promote their interest by uniting the interiverine communities and demanding an autonomous regional state. The vision was ambitious and consisted of six administrative regions of Bay, Bakool, Lower Shabelle, Middle Juba, Lower Juba, and Gedo under this project the Rahanweyn were regarded as the rightful majority in these regions. However, despite this project sounding good to the interiverine clans, there were still some challenges lying ahead for example the Rahanweyn traditional territories were still being occupied by Darood and Hawiye militias and massive displacement of the indigenous people had disturbed the region's socio-political and local businesses. It wasn't until late 1995 where the Rahanweyn Resistance Army was founded to liberate the Rahanweyn lands and launched a series of military campaigns against Aidid's militiamen. By 1999, RRA forces successfully drove out the Habar Gidir fighters from the Bay, Bakool, and Lower Shabelle regions. The next target was Jubbaland and to expel the illegal settlers that came in the time of the military dictator Siad Barre. However, the plan was halted in 2000 when the transitional national government was established. Both the Hawiye and Darood clans feared Rahanweyn's growing political ambition and complained to the international community to pressure the Rahanweyn to accept the current status quo. Nevertheless, the Rahanweyn communities were finally pleased they managed to establish their own autonomous state in the year 2002 and reaffirmed their autonomy from the hegemonic Darood and Hawiye factions. To them, they ultimately remembered their long-held dream for an autonomous federal state which their ancestors had advocated for in the early 1950s. The creation of the RRA and the declaration of the Southwest State of Somalia was an indicator of the clan's victory over the dominant factions, originating from far away places like the central regions. By establishing their own state and army, the Rahanweyn clan positioned themselves to be a force to be reckoned with. A country that was already split along clan-based states. This historical action was nothing more than a coping mechanism that came about in the civil war just like the Isaaq and Majerteen that formed their own autonomous states.
The Rahanweyn Resistance Army founded the autonomous state known as South West State of Somalia which was able to establish its own government, economy, army and flag. The Southwest state was credited as an important pillar of stability in southern Somalia.
Clan tree
The following listing is taken from the World Bank's Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics from 2005 and the United Kingdom's Home Office publication, Somalia Assessment 2001.
Rahanweyn
Digil
Geledi
Begedi
Dabare
Tunni
Jiddu
Garre
Mirifle
Sagaal
Jilible
Eylo
Gasaargude
Gawaweyn
Geeladle
Luwaay
Hadame
Yantaar
Hubeer
Sideed
Leysan
Hariin
Eelay
Jiroon
Waanjel
Haraw
Maalinweyn
Disow
Eemid
Qoomaal
Yeledle
Qamdi
Garwaale
Reer Dumaal
Helledy
In the south central part of Somalia the World Bank shows the following clan tree:
Rahanweyn
Digil
Geledi
Jiddo
Begedi
Christian Bader lists the principal Digil and Rahanweyn subclans as follows:
Sab
Amarre
Daysame
Digil
Maad
Rahanweyn
Jambaluul
Midhifle
Begedi
Aleemo
Maatay
Irroole
Dabarre
'Ali Jiidu
Dubdheere
Waraasiile
Tikeme
Duubo
Digiine
Iise Tunni
Notable Rahanweyn people
Sheikh Aden Mohamed Noor Madobe, current Speaker of the Federal Parliament of Somalia.
Ibrahim Adeer, first sultan of the Geledi Sultanate
Uways al-Barawi, famous Islamic saint and a religious leader who rebelled the Italians on the Benadir coast.
Abdiqadir Sakhawuddin Sheikh Uweys, Founder of the SYL and grandson of Sheikh Uweys al-Barawi.
Jeilani Sheikh Bin Sheikh leading representative, 1st president of Hisbia Digil Mirifle, Somalia's second largest political party.
Aden Mohamed Noor (Aden Saran-Sor), Former Minister for finance and current MP.
Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden, Former Speaker of Parliament, Minister of Finance and leader of Hisbia Digil Mirifle
Osman Ahmed, fifth and final Geledi sultan and defeated both the Dervish and Ethiopian Empire in battle during his reign
Abdallah Deeroow, former Minister of Constitutional Affairs of the Transitional National Government
Abdiaziz Hassan Mohamed (Laftagareen), current president of Southwest state of Somalia.
Ibrahim Hussein Abdirahman Fuutjeele, Somali social activist and the social positivism union and Somali pressure group founder.
Muhammad Ibrahim Habsade, former rebel and Minister Agriculture in the Transitional Federal Government
Abdihakim Haji-Faqi, former Minister of Defence of Somalia
Mohamed Hamud, Minister of Defence of Somalia
Sharif Hassan, former speaker of Somali Parliament, former deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister, first president of Southwest State of Somalia
Sheikh Mukhtar Mohamed Hussein, former Speaker of Parliament and interim President of Somalia
Mahamud Ibrahim, second sultan of Geledi who militarized the state and successfully repelled an Oromo invasion and Arab pirates
Mohamed Ibrahim, former Minister of the Transitional National Government
Osman Ibrahim, former deputy minister of labor and social affairs and current deputy minister of water and energy
Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, third sultan of the Geledi, presided over the Geledi golden age
Mohamed Jawari, former Speaker of the Federal Parliament of Somalia
Abdi Kusow, professor of Sociology at Iowa State University.
Saredo Mohamed ( Maadker) Abdallah, an influential Member of the Federal Parliament of Somalia.
Sheikh Mukhtar Robow Ali (Abu Mansur), Minister of Religion affairs and former member and spokesman for Al Shabaab (2007-2013).
Mustafa Mohamed Moalim (Mustafa Maxamed Macalin), first fighter pilot in Somalia, Chief of Somali Air Force School and Chief of Somali Air
Mohamed Haji Mukhtar, professor of African and Middle Eastern History at Savannah State University
Abdullahi Haji Hassan Mohamed Nuur, former Foreign Minister of Somalia, and former Minister of Agriculture and Livestock
Hasan Shatigaduud, former chairman of the Rahanweyn Resistance Army, former Finance Minister, first President of Southwestern
Abbas Siraji, former Minister of Public Works and Reconstruction
Mohamud Siraji, Member of Parliament and Chair of the Committee on Budget, Finance, Planning and Oversight of Government Financial institutions
Ahmed Yusuf, fourth Geledi sultan and powerful successor of Yusuf.
Abdikadir Mohamed Noor, Minister of Defense, Somalia.
Abdikadir Sheikh Hassan, former Speaker of Mandera County Assembly and prominent lawyer.
Abdullahi Adan Ahmed (Black), current MP, former Minister of Transportation, Southwest and RRA veteran.
See also
Somali aristocratic and court titles
Geledi Sultanate
South West State of Somalia
Notes
References
Somali clans |
4201515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atholville%2C%20New%20Brunswick | Atholville, New Brunswick | Atholville is a community in Restigouche County, New Brunswick, Canada. It held village status prior to 2023 but is now part of the city of Campbellton.
The first inhabitants of the area were the Mi'kmaq who settled there in the 6th century BC and were then called Tjikog. With 400 people, it was their biggest village and the only one permanently inhabited in the region. The Acadians arrived in 1750. It was at this time that the Mi'kmaq left the area and went to Listuguj in Quebec. The French defeat at the Battle of Restigouche on July 8, 1760, was damaging to the development of the settlement. The Intercolonial Railway, however, was inaugurated in 1876 and Anglophone merchants developed the forestry industry in the early 20th century. The village then experienced significant growth and was incorporated as a municipality in 1966. A shopping centre frequented by people from the whole region was established there from 1974. The forestry industry still plays an important role in the local economy.
History
Prehistory
Covered with ice during the Wisconsin glaciation, the Atholville district was probably released from the glaciers in about 13,000 BC. The Goldthwait Sea subsequently covered the coastal area, then gradually receded until around 8,000 BC. due to Post-glacial rebound.
The village Tjikog has been permanently inhabited since at least the 6th century BC. by the Mi'kmaqs. Tjikog was fortified by a piled wall and also had a cemetery. Tjikog was located in the district of Gespegeoag which included the coastline of Chaleur Bay: it was the only permanently inhabited village in the whole district. Before the arrival of Europeans the village had a population of between 400 and 500, making Tjikog the largest Mi'kmaq village. Mi'kmaq lifestyle was based on hunting seals and birds, fishing with harpoons, and collecting shellfish. The population lived along the river nearly all year. The emblem of Tjikog is the salmon.
The French period
In July 1534 Jacques Cartier entered Chaleur Bay up to the mouth of the Restigouche River. The French founded Acadia in 1604. Father Sebastian, a Recollect, was the first missionary to visit Tjikog in 1619 and he found a cross planted in front of a "hut of prayer". The Capuchins replaced the Recollects in 1624 and the Jesuits followed in the same year then the Recollects returned in 1661. The efforts of missionaries were initially focused on Cape Breton Island - where the capital of the Mi'kmaq was - then moved to Tjikog, which was regarded as the centre of Saint Anne worship in Mi'kmaq and Acadia. In 1642 Father André Richard lived in the village for six months. Chief Nepsuget was baptised in 1644 then 40 others in 1647. Increasingly frequent contacts with Europeans allowed the Mi'kmaqs to acquire things, especially those made from metal, in exchange for furs. However, diseases brought in by Europeans decimated much of the population from the 17th century.
Gespegeoag was first claimed by the Iroquois and then later only by the Mohawks. Oral tradition maintains, however, that in 1639 at the beginning of the Beaver Wars, a group of Mohawks from Kahnawake met Mi'kmaq fishermen in Long Island and, despite the warnings of his father, the son of the Mohawk Chief massacred the Mi'kmaqs sparing none but Chief Tonel. After his recovery Chief Tonel went to Kahnawake. Before executing the leaders of the attack, he exclaimed: Gotj Listo! meaning "disobey your father!". From this the village was renamed Listo Gotj on his return. Nicolas Denys established a store at Listo Gotj in 1647 but had to abandon it in 1650. Richard Denys, the son of Nicolas, obtained control of the land on the departure of his father to France in 1671. The missionary Chrétien Le Clercq lived in Listo Gotj in 1676 where he wrote his main texts on the Mi'kmaqs. Richard found a new occupation at Listo Gotj in 1679 or 1680 fishing and drying fish as well as the fur trade. In 1685 he gave land to the Recollects to open a mission. In 1688 there was a total of 17 Europeans living at Listo Gotj including 8 employees of Richard Denys. The French then maintained a trading post probably on the coast of Canada (New France).
The Denys family did not meet the conditions of their concession and it became crown land. The Lordship of Restigouche, 12 leagues long and 10 leagues wide, was given to Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in 1690. The Recollect concession was also revoked in 1690. Richard Denys bought the lordship in 1691 but died in the same year. Françoise Cailleteau, the widow of Denys, then married Pierre Ray-Gaillard and settled in Quebec. They rented part of the lordship but the area became abandoned and, apart from the Micmacs, there was no more than one Frenchman, one Canadian, and some half-caste children at Listo Gotj in 1724. The United Kingdom obtained control of Acadia in 1713 through the Treaty of Utrecht. The treaty was vague: the French thought they retained the territory now corresponding to New Brunswick while the British believed they had control. The Mi'kmaq left Listo Gotj for Listuguj on the north bank of the river in Quebec. Several sources place this event in 1745 while others mention 1759 and even 1770. The decision by the Mi'kmaq was related to the intrusion of Europeans into the heart of their village and their desire to move the Mi'kmaqs from a Protestant colony to a Catholic colony or rather to ensure that they remained faithful to the King of France.
The Acadians settled in Pointe-aux-Sauvages on the present site of Campbellton between 1750 and 1755 - the year of the start of the Expulsion of the Acadians. In 1753 the daughter of Françoise Cailleteau sold the lordship of Restigouche to one Bonfils from Quebec. In 1759, after the fall of Quebec, the colony begged France to send reinforcements. On 19 April 1760 six ships, under the command of François Chenard de la Giraudais, left Bordeaux carrying 400 men and food. Giraudais, on learning that a British fleet had penetrated into the Saint Lawrence River, decided to take refuge in the Restigouche River and set up batteries on its banks. The Battle of Restigouche took place east of the village from 3 to 8 July 1760. The British fleet outnumbered the French. Without reinforcements, Montreal surrendered on 8 September to the troops of Jeffery Amherst. The French troops at Restigouche surrendered on 23 October and were repatriated to France. The United Kingdom officially took possession of New France in 1763 by signing the Treaty of Paris. In 1764 Bonfils tried to gain recognition of his ownership of the lordship of Restigouche but it was refused under an Act of 1759 canceling all the concessions made under the French regime.
Under British rule until the constitution
After the French and Indian War British traders established pickling plants for salmon. Meanwhile, George Walker, from Bathurst, established a branch of his business in Walker Creek in 1768, on the site of Campbellton. Hugh Baillie obtained the first concession which he sold to Englishman John Shoolbred. Colonization was not, however, a priority and Shoolbred, not having built a school or street, lost his concession to an employee.
The Loyalists arrived in New Brunswick from 1783 but did not get concessions in the county. The Listo Gotj concession was granted to Samuel Lee in 1788 and since then the village became more developed than Campbellton. Samuel Lee also opened a sawmill at Walker Creek which was the first step towards the directing of the economy to logging. The Scotsman Robert Ferguson arrived in the area in 1796 and inherited the business of his brother Alexander. His thriving business contributed to the immigration of other Scots to the region. A chapel was built in 1810 in the old cemetery: it closed its doors in 1834. Around 1812 Robert Ferguson built boats at Listo Gotj. Part of the fleet, which had Ferguson aboard, was captured by American pirates during the War of 1812. After leaving his confinement Robert Ferguson built a store and a house named Athol House from which the village derives its modern name of Atholville. The 1825 Miramichi Fire destroyed much of the New Brunswick forests. The logging industry then moved northward and sawmills and shipyards were opened in Atholville and also in Campbellton from 1828. Meanwhile, in 1826 Atholville and several other places in the area were grouped into Addington Parish in Gloucester County from a portion of Beresford Parish. Restigouche County, comprising the parishes of Addington and Eldon was separated from Gloucester County in 1837.
Robert Ferguson was granted the concession for the territory in 1850. A school was opened at that time on Roseberry Street in Campbellton which served Atholville. This building sparked the development of the urban area towards Atholville in the west. The stocks of quality trees were exhausted in 1855 but fish canning and shingle factories opened. The Intercolonial Railway passed through the village in 1876 which represented a significant economic opportunity. Athol House was used as a weather station but was destroyed in a fire in 1894. The Shives company inaugurated the largest shingle works in the Maritime Provinces in 1901. The Mowatt and WH Miller mills became operational in 1902 and 1905 respectively. The first school was founded in 1905. The post office was founded in 1906. The church opened in 1909 - Atholville was then a mission of Campbellton. The parish of Our Lady of Lourdes was set up in 1913. The construction of the Fraser mill by the Restigouche Company began in 1919. The plant was inaugurated in 1928 and became the third largest paper producer in the north of the province in 1929. Atholville high school opened its doors in 1930. The Daughters of Mary of the Assumption settled in 1934. The credit union was founded in 1938. The local improvement committee was founded in 1947. A waterworks and sewer were inaugurated in 1950. The Versant-Nord school was inaugurated in 1951 in the same year as the fire station. The Brothers of the Sacred Heart settled in the village in 1956. The J. C. Van Horne Bridge was inaugurated in 1961 in Campbellton which enabled faster travel to Quebec and contributed much to the economy. Radio Engineering Products opened a factory around 1963.
From the Constitution to the present day
On 9 November 1966 the Municipality of the County of Restigouche was dissolved and Atholville was incorporated as a village. The rest of Addington Parish became a local service district in 1967. The municipal library opened its doors in the same year. A merger of Atholville with Richardsville and Campbellton was studied in 1971. but only the latter two were merged. Mayor Raymond Lagacé, who was elected in the same year, was one of the main opponents of municipal mergers. The Sugarloaf Provincial Park was opened for winter sports in 1971 and officially opened the following year. The province then saw a "golden age" of tourist development. The Restigouche Centre, a shopping centre, was built in 1974. A Community pool, offered by the Royal Canadian Legion, opened in 1975. Residential development in Saint-Louis street started in 1976. The Royal Canadian Legion got a new hall in 1977. The Fraser factory in Atholville and the NBIP Dalhousie plant each received $30 million in 1980 for modernization works. In total $170 million was invested in Atholville to convert the plant processes from bisulphate to magnesium.
The Northeast Pine company, a furniture manufacturer, closed its plant in the early 1980s and the municipality obtained ownership of the plant in 1987 to create an industrial mall. The paper industry was in crisis in the same year and Fraser separated the Atholville mill into an independent company: Atholville Pulp. The factory achieved profit in subsequent years. In 1988 the Atholville industrial park was the most used in the north of the province. The Atholville Pulp plant however closed in 1991. A pumping station was built in 1993. The Fraser company sold the Atholville Pulp factory to Repap in 1994. Repap wanted to produce methanol but market conditions forced it to abandon its plans and to close the plant in 1996 after producing pulp for only six months. Atholville Manor opened in 1998. The Fils Atlantique textile spinning mill (Atlantic Yarns) opened in the industry mall in the late 1990s.
Miller Brae park was inaugurated in 2000. A new public library was built in 2002. A new reservoir was installed in 2005. Fills Atlantique closed for 10 months in 2008 mainly because of the global recession and large debts. A recovery plan was accepted during the same year but the company finally declared bankruptcy in 2009. The Atholville Credit Union merged with the Campbellton, Balmoral, Val-d'Amour, Charlo, Eel River Crossing, and Kedgwick Credit Unions in 2009 to form the Restigouche Credit Union. From October 2010 to January 2012 the Versant-Nord school has some students from the Roland-Pépin Universal school in Campbellton during some emergency work being done on their school as the structure was dangerous. Mayor Raymond Lagacé retired from municipal politics in 2012 after 43 years, including 41 at the town hall: he was the longest-serving mayor in New Brunswick. The disused textile mill was purchased in 2014 by the Zenabis company to produce medical marijuana.
On 1 January 2023, Atholville became part of the city of Campbellton. The community's name remains in official use.
Toponymy
The village originally had the name Tjikog but the spellings Tjigog Jugugw, Tchigouk, and Tzigog also exist. Tjikog means "a place of superior men" in Mi'kmaq.
According to oral tradition in 1639 the village was renamed Listo Gotj by Chief Tonel. The exact meaning of the place name is unknown although Father Pacifique de Valigny suggested the meaning "disobey your father!". There are many other translations: "a river dividing like a hand", "a fun place in spring", "river of the long war", "small forest", "small tree", "theatre of the great squirrel quarrel", "good river for canoeing", "beautiful river like five fingers", "five branches", or "many branches". In 1642 Barthélemy Vimont was the first to make a written record of the name Restigouche in reference to Chaleur Bay. In 1672 Nicolas Denys was the first to mention the use of the name in connection with the village, in his Geographical and historical description of the coasts of North America, with the natural history of this country. According to Father Pacifique the names Listuguj and Ristigouche or Restigouche derived from Listo Gotj. Moreover, the toponym Restigouche applies, especially in a historical context, to all the settlements along the river.
The village was called Sainte-Anne-de-Restigouche in the 17th century. This name applied to the Listuguj Catholic mission in the early 20th century.
The entrepreneur Robert Ferguson (1768-1851) arrived in the area in 1796 from Logierait near Blair Atholl in Scotland and built a house called Athol House: this was actually one of many Scottish names in the North of the county. Robert Ferguson was nicknamed the "father and founder of Restigouche". There is a village called Blair Athol 18 km by road south-east of Atholville, while Point Ferguson in Atholville is named after him.
At the beginning of the 20th century the village was known under four names at the same time: Soiot Athol, Shives Athol, Athol House, and Ferguson Manor. One post office had Ferguson Manor on its door from 1916 to 1923 and another had Shives Athol from 1907 to 1931. Following a petition the village was officially named Atholville in June 1922. The Ferguson Manor post office was renamed Atholville in the following year.
Geography
Related article: Geography of New Brunswick
Location
Atholville is located four kilometres west of downtown Campbellton. The village is generally considered part of Acadia. Atholville is bordered to the north by the Restigouche River and has an area of 119.60 square kilometres, after an annexation that took place in 2015. Apart from Campbellton, the village is adjacent to Val-d'Amours to the south and Tide Head to the west. The Quebec side extends, from west to east, from Restigouche-Partie-Sud-Est to Pointe-à-la-Croix and Listuguj.
Walker Creek rises in the south-east of the territory. It has a few tributaries in the area with the main one continuing east parallel to Highway 11. Walker Creek flows into the Restigouche River in Campbellton. There are also a few streams flowing directly into the Restigouche River. The site of the stockade (Booming Grounds) is a salt marsh. The Appalachian Mountains cover most of the territory of the municipality. Butte Sugar, with a height of about 200 m, also extends into the territory of Tide Head and lies directly south of the built-up area of the town. South of Butte Sugar there is a valley and another mountain which extends into Val-d'Amours and Tide Head, whose height exceeds 230 metres in the Atholville portion. Only a small part of the west side of Sugarloaf (281 m) is included in the territory of Atholville.
New Brunswick Route 11 passes through the centre of the municipality south of the town from east to west: this road goes from Quebec in the west to Shediac in the southeast. The Val-D'Amour Road (Road 270) provides access from the village to Route 11. The village itself is crossed from east to west by New Brunswick Route 134 which provides access to Tide Head and Campbellton: this road is called Notre-Dame Street in the village. Val-d'Amour Road continues south to Val-d'Amour. The New Brunswick East Coast Railway, the former Intercolonial Railway, passes through the village from east to west, north of Notre-Dame Street. The river is navigable but the nearest port is Dalhousie. Campbellton railway station and Charlo Airport complete the means of transport in the region. There are taxis in Campbellton. The Cormier taxi connects Montreal to the Acadian Peninsula and has a stop in the village.
In 2015, the province of New Brunswick issued regulations that expanded the boundaries of Atholville by annexation of the service district of St. Arthur, the local service district of Val D’Amours, a portion of the Village of Tide Head and a portion of the local service district of Blair Athol. The effective date of the order was July 1, 2015. The land area of the village grew from 10.25 km2 to 119.60 km2, according to census data.
Geology
The geological base of Atholville is composed of several rock types. North of Notre-Dame Street in the lowest area there are Clastic rocks from the Campbellton formation. Between this street and Highway 11 are Felsic rocks from the Dalhousie group. Both types of rocks are Lower Devonian (394 to 418 million years old). South of Highway 11 rather there are carbonates and evaporites from the Chaleur formation dating from the Upper Silurian period (418-424 million years ago).
Environment
The Booming Grounds on the border with Tide Head is an area coming under the Joint Plan of Eastern Habitats. They are home to migratory aquatic birds and breeding grounds for birds such as the Great blue heron, the Osprey, and various mammals. In addition, up to 2,000 snow geese can be observed between mid-April and late May. There are many rare plants growing here including the western waterweed, the jonc délié, and the Sanicula gregaria. Fourteen species of fish have been recorded in the river, the most common being the Atlantic salmon and the Slimy sculpin.
Although considered a threatened species, the wood turtle is common in the region. Despite the imposition of environmental controls, the AV Cell works emitted sulphur dioxide and ash into the atmosphere in 2007 several times for which they were fined in 2009.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Atholville had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Atholville's population is mostly Acadian but there is also a substantial anglophone minority.
Housing
According to Statistics Canada the village had 1,584 private dwellings in 2016 including 1,539 occupied by residents.
Language
Economy
Employment and income
The 2006 Census by Statistics Canada also provided data on the economy. For people over 15 years old the Labour force rate was then 63.1%, the Employment-to-population ratio was 59.0%, and the unemployment rate was 7.1%. For comparison, those for the whole province were respectively 63.7%, 57.3% and 10.0%.
Nearly 1,500 people work in Atholville which is more than the total population of the village.
Evolution of unemployment in Atholville
Sources
Profiles of communities in 1996 - Atholville - Income and Work, Statistics Canada website
Profiles of communities in 2001 - Atholville - Work, Statistics Canada website
Profiles of communities of 2006 - Atholville - Work, Statistics Canada website
Of those aged 15 years and over, 785 people reported profits and 1,085 reported income in 2005. 86.5% also reported hours of unpaid work. The median income then stood at $20,393 before tax and $18,692 after tax compared to the provincial average of $22,000 before tax and $20,063 after tax. Women earned on average $8,330 less than men after tax with an average income of $15,533. On average 72.3% of income came from earnings, 21.1% from government benefits, and 6.4% from other sources. 6.3% of all households were below the Poverty threshold after tax which increased to 7.8% for those under 18 years old.
Among the working population, 2.3% of people worked at home, none worked outside the country, 5.3% had no fixed place of work, and 92.4% had a fixed place of work. Of workers with a fixed place of work, 37.2% worked in the village, 57.9% worked elsewhere in the county, 1.7% worked in another county, and 3.3% worked in another province.
Main economic sectors
1.4% of jobs were in the agricultural, fisheries and other resources sector, 4.3% were in Construction, 10.7% in manufacturing, 1.4% in wholesale, 21.4% in retail, 1.4% in finance and real estate, 17.1% in health and social services, 7.1% in education, 4.3% in trade services, and 30.0% in other services.
The AV Cell Inc. factory, owned by the Aditya Birla Group, produces chemical pulp for Viscose factories in Asia. It has more than 280 employees. The industrial mall houses six industrial companies with a total of one hundred employees in 2011. Atholville has several other large employers, such as manufacturers of playground equipment, tyres, wood panelling, toys, and windows, as well as a bakery.
The Restigouche Centre is the main commercial centre of the region. The village has several other shops including three car dealerships and a grocery store. Many other products and services are available in Campbellton which has, among others, financial institutions and a NB Liquor store. Enterprise Restigouche is responsible for economic development.
Arts and culture
Architecture and monuments
The buildings in the Provincial Park were designed by architect Leon R. Kentridge, from the Marshall Macklin Monaghan Limited firm of Toronto. The coverings and roof are in Shingle with a gentle slope typical of a ski resort.
A War memorial is located east of the Town Hall. The old Athol House Cemetery is the oldest in Restigouche County. There is a monument to the memory of Athol House Chapel. It is located in the river behind the AV Cell factory.
The ruins of the landing stage that allowed the supply of wood for the pulp and paper mill until the 1960s are still visible in to the west of the Village.
Languages
According to the Official Languages Act, Atholville is bilingual as English and French are both spoken by more than 20% of the population. In 2011 Atholville became the third municipality in New Brunswick (after Dieppe and Petit-Rocher) to adopt an ordinance on outdoor advertising language requiring bilingual display in English and French. Until then, most of the signage was in English.
Culture
Atholville is briefly mentioned in several novels including Le Feu du mauvais temps (Fire in bad weather) (1989) by Claude Le Bouthillier. The village is also mentioned in the biographies: Ma's Cow: Growing Up in the Canadian Countryside During the Cold War (2006) by Patrick Flanagan, David Adams Richards of the Miramichi: A Biographical Introduction (2010) by Michael Anthony Tremblay and Tony Tremblay, and Think Good Thoughts (2010) by J.P. (Pat) Lynch.
The history, culture and geography of the region are featured at the Museum of the Restigouche River at Dalhousie. The National Historic site of the Battle of Restigouche at Pointe-à-la-Croix commemorates this battle.
Attractions
The village has several community services and facilities, including Sugarloaf Provincial Park.
Sports
The village has two football fields, a skating rink, a public pool, Miller Brae Millennium Park, and the Sugarloaf Provincial Park. In summer this park offers a camping area, a bicycle park, slopes for mountain biking, cycle touring, 25 kilometres of hiking trails, a picnic site, and tennis courts. The park is also equipped for Geocaching. In winter the park has twelve slopes for downhill skiing and snowboarding, Snowshoe trails, a naturally illuminated skating rink, and a tubular ice slope.
Atholville contributes to the funding of Campbellton Civic Centre with Tide Head. A trail passes through the village towards Tide Head where it joins the International Appalachian Trail. A gazebo was built at the top of the Old Mission. There are several unmarked viewing points such as that at boulevard Beauvista.
Government
The former village is split among Wards 1, 2, and 3 of the city of Campbellton.
The municipality has six to eight employees on average, plus seasonal employees.
Budget and taxation
The annual expenditure of Atholville village amounted to 2,936,943 dollars in 2011. Of this amount:
18.4% was spent on administration,
7.5% on town planning,
7.2% on the police,
6.3% on protection against fire,
7.1% on the distribution of water,
0.2% on emergency services,
0.1% on other protection services,
22.6% on transport,
4.1% on sanitation,
0.0% on public health,
7.2% on management,
12.4% on recreation and culture,
12.7% on debt costs, and
1.7% on signage
Regional services commission
Atholville is part of Region 2, a regional services commission (CSR) which officially started operations on 1 January 2013. Atholville is represented on the council by the Mayor. Mandatory services offered by the CSR are: regional planning, management of solid waste, emergency planning measures, and collaboration on police, planning, and cost sharing of regional infrastructure for sport, recreation and culture. Other services could be added to this list.
Representation and political trends
Related articles: Politics of Canada and Politics of New Brunswick.
In New Brunswick Atholville is part of the provincial electoral district of Campbellton-Restigouche Centre which is represented in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick by Greg Davis of the Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick. He was elected in 2010. For the Canadian Federal Parliament, Atholville is part of the federal electoral district of Madawaska-Restigouche which is represented in the House of Commons of Canada by Bernard Valcourt of the Conservative Party of Canada. He was elected at the 41st general election in 2011.
Atholville is a member of the Union of Municipalities of New Brunswick and the Francophone Association of Municipalities of New Brunswick.
Education
Versant-Nord school teaches children from kindergarten to 8th year. It is a French public school within sub-district 1 of the Francophone Nord-Est School District. Campbellton also has the Community College of New Brunswick (CCNB) of Campbellton which is also French language while the closest English-speaking community college is the New Brunswick Community College (NBCC) at Miramichi. The nearest francophone university campus is that of the Université de Moncton in Edmundston. Fredericton has several English language universities. A library service is also available.
For over 15 years 42.8% of the population had no certificate, diploma or degree, 22.1% had only a diploma of secondary education or equivalent, and 34.7% of them also held a certificate, diploma or a post-secondary degree. By comparison the rates were 29.4%, 26.0% and 44.6% respectively for the province. In the same age group 9.0% had graduated from a short NBCC program or equivalent, 15.8% had graduated from a long program at NBCC or equivalent, 1.8% had a diploma or a university certificate below a bachelor's degree, and 8.1% had a certificate, diploma or higher degree. From the graduates, 6.4% were trained in education, 2.6% in humanities, 3.8% in social sciences or law, 29.5% in commerce, management or administration, 2.6% science and technology, 15.4% in architecture, engineering or related areas, 2.6% in agriculture, natural resources and conservation, 28.2% in health, parks, recreation and fitness, and 10.3% in personal services, protection or transportation. There were no graduates in arts or communications, mathematics or computer science, nor in areas classified as "other". Post-secondary graduates completed their studies outside the country in 5.1% of cases.
Infrastructure
Atholville, Campbellton, and Tide Head cooperate in emergency measures. Atholville bought the 911 emergency service from Campbellton. The nearest detachment of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police is in Campbellton.
Campbellton has the French-speaking Restigouche Hospital Centre and the English-speaking Campbellton Regional Hospital. New Brunswick hospitals are bilingual overall but unilingual in their jurisdictions. Campbellton also has an Ambulance New Brunswick station.
The village is connected to the NB Power network and also has an industrial-sized generator at the Town Hall. Atholville has a water and sewerage network with a sewerage treatment plant. The village of Val-d'Amour is connected to the Atholville water system. Atholville also has an agreement with Campbellton and Tide Head for water supply.
Many publications are available but French-speakers have primarily the daily L'Acadie Nouvelle, published in Caraquet, and the weekly L'Étoile, published in Dieppe. There is also the weekly L'Aviron published in Campbellton. English-speakers in turn have the daily Telegraph-Journal, published in Saint John, and the weekly Campbellton Tribune. There is no television station in the region but Radio-Canada Acadie (CBAFT-DT), Ici RDI, Rogers TV, and CHAU-DT are the main French television networks. The main French radio stations are the Ici Radio-Canada Première and CIMS-FM from Balmoral. English-speakers have CBC Television, CBC News Network, Global Television Network, and CTV Television Network. English radio stations include CBC Radio and CKNB in Campbellton.
Atholville has a post office. The population also has access to the cell phone network and high-speed internet. The main provider is Bell Aliant. The nearest offices of Service New Brunswick and Service Canada are in Campbellton.
Religion
Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes is a Roman Catholic church which is part of the Diocese of Bathurst. The priest is Father Claude Benoit. There is also a gospel chapel. The region is part of the Anglican Diocese of Fredericton and Campbellton has several other places of worship for Protestants. The parish cemetery is located between the church and Saint-Louis street.
Notable people
Lewis Charles Ayles (1927-), lawyer and politician, born in Atholville;
Edmond Blanchard (1954-), politician, born in Atholville;
Joseph Claude (died in 1796), Chief of Listuguj;
Robert Ferguson (Logierait (Scotland) 1768 - Campbellton 1851), businessman, justice, judge, official and militia officer;
Bobby Hachey (1932-2006), artist, born in Atholville;
Samuel Lee (Concord (Massachusetts) 1756 - Shediac 1805), official, judge, businessman and politician.
See also
List of communities in New Brunswick
Bibliography
Irene Doyle, Atholville Photo Album, Campbellton, Irene Doyle, 2006
Étienne Fallu, The Credit Union at Atholville: 1938-1988, Atholville, 1988
Hélène Desrosiers-Godin, The marvelous Mount Sugarloaf: collection of anecdotes and historical facts, Atholville, Anne Gauvin, 2006, 23 p. ()
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Atholville website
Communities in Restigouche County, New Brunswick
Former villages in New Brunswick
Populated places disestablished in New Brunswick in 2023 |
4201521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20websites%20founded%20before%201995 | List of websites founded before 1995 | The first website was created in August 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN, a European nuclear research agency. Berners-Lee's WorldWideWeb browser was made publicly available the same month. The World Wide Web began to enter everyday use in 1993 and 1994, when websites for the general public started to become available. By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors to today's most popular services. Of the thousands of websites founded prior to 1995, those appearing here are listed for one or more of the following reasons:
They still exist (albeit in some cases with different names).
They made contributions to the history of the World Wide Web.
They helped to shape certain modern Web content, such as webcomics and weblogs.
1991
CERN
Snapshot of the CERN site The World Wide Web project, the first website, as of November 1992. The Web was publicly announced (via a posting to the Usenet newsgroup alt.hypertext) on August 6, 1991.
World Wide Web Virtual Library Originally Tim Berners-Lee's web catalog at CERN. Snapshot from November 1992: Subject listing – Information by Subject. http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Paul Kunz from SLAC visited Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in September 1991. He was impressed by the WWW project and brought a copy of the software back to Stanford. SLAC launched the first web server in North America on December 12, 1991. SLAC's first web page: SLACVM Information Service.
1992
Near the end of 1992, there were approximately 50-60 websites, according to a robot web crawl by CWI researcher Guido van Rossum.
Nikhef The Dutch National institute for subatomic physics was originally found at http://nic.nikhef.nl. This site was the third website in the world to come online in February 1992, after CERN and SLAC.
National Center for Supercomputing Applications The National Center for Supercomputing Applications site was an early home to the NCSA Mosaic web browser, as well as documentation on the web and a "What's New?" list which many people used as an early web directory.
Fermilab Second web server in North America, following in the trend of high-energy physics laboratories.
SunSITE Early, comprehensive archiving project. Project as a whole started in 1992 and was quick to move to the web.
Ohio State University Department of Computer and Information Science Early development of gateway programs, and mass conversion of existing documents, including RFCs, TeXinfo, UNIX man pages, and the Usenet FAQs.
IN2P3 The French National institute for nuclear physics and particle physics, originally at Centre de Calcul IN2P3.
HUJI The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Information service – both in Hebrew and English. It was the first RTL website and the 10th to come online in April 1992, at http://www.huji.ac.il.
The Exploratorium One of the first science museums on-line.
youngmonkey (studios)
Initially hosted as a .nb.ca domain, it showcased music/writing projects and DOS and Amiga software. It also included articles, technical information, and other resources for synthesizer enthusiasts, developers, and others. It was home to what was likely the first online store (SalesSite) using dial-up credit card verification; and first web streaming, video distribution, and pay-per-view online video system (StreamSite). Came online at some point between 1991–1992. Moved to its .ca domain (https://www.youngmonkey.ca) in April 1995.
simianpress (a manifestation of youngmonkey)
A showcase for graphic design and publishing projects, and likely offering the first professional website design. The slater mergedline at some point between 1991–1992. It was later merged with youngmonkey's .ca domain in 1995.
CBSS (Consulting Firm)
Came online in late 1992. CBSS Inc. of Houston, Texas quietly offered what was very likely the first commercial Website hosting service. CBSS pioneered Web access via mobile phone through Motorola's proprietary cellular data interface. The Motorola service is no longer maintained, but the Website is still visible today at CBSS, Inc..
KEK The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization. The first web page in Japan was created by Dr. Yohei Morita at the suggestion of Dr. Tim Berners-Lee in September 1992. CERN's web site linked the KEK page on 30 September 1992. Still online at KEK Entry Point.
Cybergrass Bluegrass Music News and Information. Bob Cherry's music web site was launched on September 9, 1992. It became called "Banjo" on September 30, 1992, and later "Cybergrass" in 1995. Its content was bluegrass music and Digital Traditions lyrics & chords. It was hosted on the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center's vax, parcvax.xerox.com. It now resides at www.cybergrass.com. It was the first music-based website on the web.
1993
By the end of 1993, there were 623 websites, according to a study by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) researcher Matthew Gray.
ALIWEB (Archie Like Indexing for the WEB) is considered the first Web search engine. It was announced in November 1993 by its developer Martijn Koster. ALIWEB was presented in May 1994 at the First International Conference at CERN in Geneva.
Bloomberg.com Financial portal with information on markets, currency conversion, news and events, and Bloomberg Terminal subscriptions.
BridesByDeBora.com Wedding and bridal store website launched in 1993 as BridesbyDeBora.com. It was later changed to DeBoraRachelle.com, also known as DeBora Rachelle and PromDressShop.com.
Chabad.org The flagship website of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement. It serves its own members and Jews worldwide.
Corpus of Electronic Texts (formerly CURIA) Peter Flynn from University College Cork (UCC) saw Tim Berners-Lee demonstrating the WWW at a RARE WG3 meeting. The former then requested the latter to install the software at UCC for the CURIA project.
Doctor Fun One of the first webcomics, noted by the NCSA as "a major breakthrough for the Web".
The LANL preprint archive Web access to thousands of papers in physics, mathematics, computer science, and biology; developed out of earlier gopher, File Transfer Protocol (ftp), and e-mail archives at Los Alamos. Now known as ArXiv.
Électricité de France One of the first industrial Web sites in Europe which started as the Web site of the Research and Development (R&D) Division, and was implemented by R&D Engineers Sylvain Langlois, Emmanuel Poiret, and a few months later, Daniel Glazman. They did not have approval for it and had to restart the server by connecting to RENATER through a 155Mb link, every time IT shut it down. Electricité de France's R&D later submitted patches to CERN httpd and was active in Web Standardisation.
Global Network Navigator Example of an early web directory created by O'Reilly Media and one of the Web's first commercial sites; it was hosted at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN).
Haystack Observatory Haystack Observatory's website explained its radio and radar remote sensing mission and provided data access for science users. The content was rolled out on December 13, 1993 by Dr. John Holt of Haystack. The website is still active, and the original web page format is still available online.
The Internet Movie DatabaseFounded in 1990 by participants in the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.movies, the IMDB was rolled out on the web in late 1993, hosted by the computer science department of Cardiff University in Wales.
Internet Underground Music Archive Created by students at the University of California, Santa Cruz to help promote unsigned musical artists. Music was shared using the MP2 format, presaging the later extreme popularity of MP3 sharing and Online music stores.
Joachim Jarre Society
Created by students at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in November 1993 as one of the first websites in Norway.
JumpStation
The world's first Web search engine, created by Jonathon Fletcher on December 12, 1993, and was hosted at the University of Stirling in Scotland. In operation until 1994.
Kent Anthropology
One of the first social science sites (online May 1993).
LSD.com
The Digital Acid Test came online 11-18-1993.
SITOAfter a start as an anonymous ftp-based art gallery and collaborative collective, the OTIS project (later SITO) moved to the web due to SunSITE's hosting.
The TechThe MIT campus newspaper, The Tech, claims to be the first newspaper to deliver content over the Web, beginning in May 1993.
NASA
NexorWeb site set up for Nexor, an early Internet software company, by Martijn Koster.
MTVThe music television network's domain was registered in 1993 by VJ Adam Curry, who personally ran a small unofficial site.
PARC Map ServerArguably the earliest precursor of MapQuest and Google Maps. PARC researcher Steve Putz tied an existing map viewing program to the web. Now defunct.
photo.net An online photography resource and community, designed and founded by Philip Greenspun. Greenspun released the software behind photo.net, the ArsDigita Community System, as a free open-source toolkit for building community websites.
Principia Cybernetica Probably the first complex, collaborative knowledge system, sporting a hierarchical structure, index, map, annotations, search, plenty of hyperlinks, etc. Designed by Francis Heylighen, Cliff Joslyn and Valentin Turchin to develop a cybernetic philosophy.
ExPASyThe first life sciences web site. Still active.
Trojan room coffee potThe first webcam.
Trincoll JournalA multimedia magazine published by students at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut.
Wired.comAn online presence for Wired magazine.
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (a.k.a. NTT) NTT's was the most famous web page in Japan in the mid-1990s. The page was announced in December 1993.
1994
By mid-1994 there were 2,738 websites, according to Gray's statistics; by the end of the year, more than 10,000.
ALIWEBALIWEB (acronym of Archie Like Indexing for the Web) was the first web search engine. It was announced in November 1993 by Martijn Koster and went online during May of 1994.
Allied Artists InternationalThe first corporate web site for Allied Artists Entertainment Group, predecessor to Allied Artists International, present day owner of Allied Artists Film Group & Allied Artists Music Group.
American Marketing Association Professional Association. Created in 1994 by a group of marketing professors, it offered general marketing news for marketers and professors of marketing. Approximately a year later, the site was moved to ama.org where it still remains.
Amnesty International Human rights site. Created in 1994 by the organization's International Secretariat and the Computer Communications Working Group of Amnesty International Canada.
Apple Inc.An early corporate site.
Art.Net"Art on the Net", created by Lile Elam in June 1994 to showcase the artwork of San Francisco Bay Area artists as well as other international artists. It offered free linkage and hosted extensive links to other artists' sites.
Art Crimes The first graffiti art site began to archive photos from around the world, creating an important academic resource as well as a thriving online community.
The Amazing FishCam A webcam pointed at a fishtank located at Netscape headquarters. According to a contemporaneous article by The Economist, "In its audacious uselessness—and that of thousands of ego trips like it—lie the seeds of the Internet revolution."
Automatic Complaint-Letter Generator Created by Scott Pakin in April 1994, the site allows users to specify the name of the individual or company that the complaint is directed toward, as well as the number of paragraphs the complaint will have. After submitting the data, the computer generates sentences that are composed of arbitrary verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Still active.
BBC Online Started in April with some regional information and Open University Production Centre (OUPC) content. By September, the first commercial service was launched, a transcription service via ftp server. At its peak, it had 122 accounts, including FBI bureaus around the world, taking daily updates from 12 feeds. Still active.
Bianca's Smut Shack An early web-based chatroom and online community known for raucous free speech and deviant behavior.
Birmingham City Council Early local government site, initially hosted by the University of Birmingham.
Buzzweb.com The earliest website for alternative music artists and news. Created by A. Joi Brown and Matthew Brown in 1993–1994. Registered with Network Solutions in 1993.
CDNAir.ca The first website for an airline, Canadian Airlines.
Chabad.org The first Ask the rabbi site. Launched by Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Kazen as an outgrowth of earlier discussion groups on FidoNet dating back to 1988.
CitySites The first "City Site" web development company, advertising businesses, and reviewing music and art events in the Bay Area. Started in 1994, CitySites was featured in Interactive Week Magazine in 1997 as numerous other City websites began competing for the business ad market including CitySearch and others. Founder Darrow Boggiano still operates CitySites.
Classical ArchivesAn online digital music store that solely focuses on classical music.
Cool Site of the Day Glenn Davis' daily pick of 'cool' websites.
Cybersell The first commercial advertising service that focused on using spam came online as sell.com. It was set up by Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, notorious for spamming Usenet newsgroups earlier that year.
CORDIS The Community Research & Development Information Service, the European Commission's first permanent website, providing the repository of EU-funded research projects. Launched on ESPRIT day in November 1994 as www.cordis.lu.
Dianne Feinstein's US Senate campaign website Dianne Feinstein was the first US Senate candidate to have established a website.
The Economist The Economist "went live in early 1994" with a website "structured as a portal with various search tools of the day (e.g., Archie, Veronica, Jughead, WAIS and Gopher)." It cost $120, paid for by one of the magazine's correspondents, and by the end of the year "America Online voted it one of the world's top-ten news sites, nosing out Time-Warner's celebrated Pathfinder site—which reputedly cost $120 million to build."
Einet Galaxy Claims to be the first searchable web catalog; originally created at the Einet division of the MCC Research Consortium at the University of Texas, Austin. It passed through several commercial owners and is now run by Logika Corporation.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online
Enterzone The first purely web-based (no gopher!) literary webzine (originally published at enterzone.berkeley.edu).
EPage Classifieds The first Web classified ad site (was originally at ep.com).
First Virtual First "cyber-bank".
FolkBook / An Online Acoustic Music Establishment A fansite dedicated to documenting Folk Music and Folk Musicians. It operated at Ohio State at web.cgrg.ohio-state.edu/folkbook/ from September 1, 1994, until it was taken off-line on March 7, 1998. After that it was redirected to a similar Folk Music site, folkmusic dot org , which still exists, but has not been updated since 2002.
FogCam! World's oldest still operating webcam. Located at San Francisco State University.
Flags of the World
GeneNetworkFirst web site in biomedical research (service initiated in January 1994) and the earliest Uniform Resource Locator (URL) in PubMed. GeneNetwork was initially known as the Portable Dictionary of the Mouse Genome and then as WebQTL. This genetics site has been funded continuously by National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the University of Tennessee-Oak Ridge National Laboratory Governor's Chair to RW Williams.
HM TreasuryWebsite of HM Treasury, the United Kingdom government department.
Home Page Replica
A fansite dedicated to researching the history and music of Captain Beefheart & His Magic Band.
Horror
The earliest website dedicated to horror movie and horror book/comic reviews and news.
HotWiredWebsite of Wired magazine with its own unique and innovative online content. Home of the first banner ads, for Zima and AT&T.
IBMAn early corporate web site.
Innerviews The first online music magazine set up by music journalist Anil Prasad, accessible at: Innerviews: Music Without Borders
Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology University of Oxford. The web version of a previous Gopher server. Set up in early 1994 by David Price at http://rsl.ox.ac.uk/isca/. No version has been archived but announcements giving the URL date from April 1994 on Humanist-l and anthro-l.
The Irish Times First newspaper in the United Kingdom or Ireland to have a website: irish-times. It was founded in 1994. The newspaper moved to ireland.com in 1999 and irishtimes.com in 2008.
Justin Hall's Links from the Underground One of the earliest examples of personal weblogging.
LawinfoEarly legal website. Provides public access to pre-qualified, pre-screened attorneys, and to free legal resources.
Literary KicksEarly literary website about Beat Generation, spoken word poetry and alternative literary scenes, launched by Levi Asher on July 23, 1994.
Lycos Early search engine, originally a university research project by Dr. Michael Mauldin.
Megadeth, ArizonaThe first website for a band, Megadeth.
MicrosoftAn early corporate site.
MIT IHTFP Hack GalleryWebsite dedicated to cataloging Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In continuous operation since 1994, accessible at: IHTFP Hack Gallery: Welcome to the IHTFP Gallery!
Museum of Bad ArtWebsite of a museum "dedicated to the tongue-in-cheek display of poorly conceived or executed examples of Outsider Art in the form of paintings or sculpture."
The Nine Planets"A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System", created by Bill Arnett. One of the first extensively multimedia sites.
Nando.netOne of the first newspaper sites; the online presence of the Raleigh, North Carolina News & Observer.
NetBoyA highly popular early webcomic.
NetrekOne of the first sites dedicated to Internet, multi-user video-game programming; maintained at obsidian.math.Arizona.edu. Defunct.
Onlinetechex.com
Online Technology Exchange, Inc. created the largest worldwide searchable database of electronic components and semiconductor parts.
Pathfinder.com
One of the first Internet portals, created by Time Warner.
Pizza Hut
The pizza chain restaurant started by allowing people in Santa Cruz, California to order pizza over the Web via Pizzanet.
Powells.comThe website of Powell's Books. It started with two employees, and the company's first online order was placed by an Apple employee. It pre-dates Amazon.com.
Purple.comThe first known single-serving site; consists of simply a purple background.
The Radcliffe Science LibraryThe first part of Oxford University to establish a web presence (on 7 Jan 1994) from http://rsl.ox.ac.uk/. The oldest known archive version is on the Wayback Machine from 19.10.1996. The URL is attested on email lists (e.g. Humanist-l) by April 1994.
Radio PragueThe official international broadcasting station of the Czech Republic was an early media entity on the web; they put transcripts of their news broadcasts and other current affairs content in 5 languages on the web. Still active.
Senator Edward Kennedy
The first website for a US senator member of the U.S. Congress was officially announced on June 2, 1994. The site remained active throughout the remainder of the senator's service until his death in 2009.
Saccharomyces Genome DatabaseNIH funded research project on the Web. Still funded by NIH and online. SGD provide curation of all published results on budding yeast (aka. bakers, brewers, and wine yeast) genes and their products. Current URL is yeastgenome.org.
Sex.comSubject of a twelve-year legal battle that established parameters of domain ownership.
Sighting.comSIGHTINGS began in 1994 as the website home for Jeff Rense's award-winning UFO & Paranormal radio program of the same name.
The Skeptic's DictionaryFeatures definitions, arguments, and essays on topics ranging from acupuncture to zombies, and provides a lively, commonsense trove of detailed information on things supernatural, paranormal, and pseudoscientific.
Steelforge.comCommercial website for open die forge facility.
The Simpsons ArchiveThe first fan site for The Simpsons television show.
Sirius ConnectionsThe first internet service provider in the San Francisco Bay Area. The owner – Arman Kahalili, gave novice website creators a great deal of technical assistance to get the new wave of developers started on building sites and expanding code that was used in later versions of Hypertex Markup Language (HTML) and other web technology.
SpinnWebeEarly humor site, called "a window on the weird" by The New Yorker.
Stak Trading (staktrading.co.uk)Computer hardware resale in the UK. The site was created by Stuart Mackintosh who previously provided software and driver downloads through a Wildcat! BBS and price lists to the trade via Faxmaker faxback systems.
Telegraph.co.ukThe Electronic Telegraph, website of the Daily Telegraph.
Traditio.comThe First Traditional Roman Catholic Internet Site, founded September 29, 1994.
Transdat.comThe first site using the internet for a sales medium on a global scale for heavy machinery.
United States Department of StateThe United States Department of State's Bureau of Public Affairs launched a text gopher website via the Federal Depository Library at the University of Illinois Chicago during the fall of 1994. The website was later relaunched in January 1995.
VeloNewsOne of the first sports news sites, initially providing Tour de France news.
Virginia's Legislative Information Systemleg1.state.va.us. The site remains active today as "LIS Classic".
VirtuMallCreated in 1994 by MIT dorm mates, pioneered shopping cart technology, pioneered credit card payments sent via fax to mail order catalogs, created the first pooled-traffic site, and helped foster standards for security. One of the first "tenants" was Hickory Farms.
The WWW Useless PagesPerhaps the first site which showcased bad or eccentric websites rather than 'cool' ones.
WebCrawler An early search engine for the Web, and the first with full text searching, by Brian Pinkerton at the University of Washington, announced in June 1994.
Webmedia A London-based web site design company, founded by Steve Bowbrick and Ivan Pope. The domain name webmedia.com was registered on 27 October 1994 and the web site launched in November.
Whitehouse.govThe official website of the White House.
World-Wide Web WormThe World-Wide Web Worm (WWWW) was one of the first search engines for the World-Wide Web, by Oliver McBryan at the University of Colorado, announced in March 1994.
Yahoo!Originally started as "Jerry's Guide to the World Wide Web"; later renamed Yahoo without the exclamation mark.
See also
History of the World Wide Web
Wayback Machine, a project of the Internet Archive which publicly offers partial archives of many now-defunct sites at various points in time
References
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Websites founded before 1995
Web 1.0 |
4202163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitchfork%20Music%20Festival | Pitchfork Music Festival | The Pitchfork Music Festival is an annual summer music festival organized by Pitchfork Media and held in Union Park in Chicago, Illinois. Starting in 2011, the festival announced a branch staged in Paris at Grande halle de la Villette. The festival, which is normally held over three days (Friday, Saturday and Sunday) in July, focuses primarily on artists and bands from the alternative rock, hip hop, electronic and dance music genres, although it has also ranged into hardcore punk, experimental rock and jazz in its lineups. While it started as a showcase for just the "cutting edge", it later took on a broader depth and vision, keeping the cutting-edge focus but also including important artists and acts that have influenced newer performers and artists. A branch planned for Berlin at Tempodrom in 2020 was cancelled.
In addition to music, the Pitchfork Festival also includes food, beverages, art, and gig posters from local, regional, and national vendors. The Pitchfork Festival also hosts a record fair that is organized and managed by CHIRP Radio, a Chicago community radio station.
Chicago
2023
The 2023 festival was held on July 21–23 at Union Park in Chicago. The headliners were The Smile, Big Thief, and Bon Iver.
2022
The 2022 festival was held on July 15–17 at Union Park in Chicago. The headliners were The National, Mitski and The Roots.
2021
The 2021 festival was held on September 10–12 at Union Park in Chicago. The edition was headlined by Erykah Badu, Phoebe Bridgers and St. Vincent.
2020
The 2020 Pitchfork Festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The artists and bands that were scheduled to perform at the 2020 festival are listed below. The headliners were scheduled to be the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Run the Jewels, and The National.
Friday: Jehnny Beth, Deafheaven, Dehd, Fennesz, Femdot, The Fiery Furnaces, Hop Along, Kaina, Angel Olsen, Sophie, Spellling, Tim Hecker & the Konoyo Ensemble, Waxahatchee, and Yeah Yeah Yeahs
Saturday: BadBadNotGood, Boy Scouts, Danny Brown, Cat Power, Dave, Divino Niño, Ezra Collective, Margaux, Oso Oso, Run the Jewels, Thundercat, Twin Peaks, Sharon Van Etten, Tierra Whack
Sunday: Big Thief, Phoebe Bridgers, DJ Nate, Dogleg, Dustin Laurenzi's Snaketime, Kim Gordon, The Hecks, Mariah the Scientist, Maxo Kream, The National, Caroline Polachek, Rapsody, Faye Webster, Yaeji
2019
The 2019 festival was held July 19–21 at Union Park in Chicago. The headliners were Haim, The Isley Brothers, and Robyn.
2018
The 2018 festival was held July 20–22 at Union Park in Chicago. The headliners were Tame Impala, Fleet Foxes, and Ms. Lauryn Hill.
2017
The 2017 festival was held July 14–16 at Union Park in Chicago. The headliners were LCD Soundsystem, A Tribe Called Quest, and Solange.
2016
The 2016 Pitchfork Music Festival took place on July 15–17 at Union Park in Chicago.
2015
The 2015 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 17–19 at Union Park in Chicago. The event's headliners were Wilco, Sleater-Kinney, and Chance the Rapper.
2014
The 2014 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 18–20 at Union Park in Chicago. The event's headliners were Beck, Neutral Milk Hotel, and Kendrick Lamar. Three-day passes for the festival sold out by the beginning of April.
2013
The 2013 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 19–21 at Union Park in Chicago. The event's headliners were Björk, Belle & Sebastian, and R. Kelly.
2012
The 2012 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 13–15 at Union Park in Chicago. Three day passes went on sale March 9 and sold out by the end of the month. The headliners were Feist, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, and Vampire Weekend.
2011
The 2011 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 15–17 at Union Park. Three-day passes for the event sold out in one day. The festival was headlined by Animal Collective, Fleet Foxes and TV on the Radio.
2010
The fifth annual Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 16–18 at Union Park. Three-day passes for the festival sold out in under a week. 2010 marked the first and only year that the festival included a stand-up comedy stage.
2009
The 2009 Pitchfork Music Festival was held July 17–19, 2009. On Friday night all of the performing bands played sets consisting of songs voted for online by ticket-holders in an event Pitchfork called "Write the Night: Set Lists by Request."
2008
The 2008 Pitchfork Music Festival was held July 18–20, 2008. Three-day passes for the event sold out in May. On Friday night the promotion company All Tomorrow's Parties again collaborated with Pitchfork to present a "Don't Look Back" stage, on which all of the evening's bands performed one of their classic albums in its entirety.
2007
The 2007 Pitchfork Music Festival was held on July 13–15, 2007, again in Union Park. The festival was sold out with 48,000 visitors.
2006
The 2006 Pitchfork Music Festival was the first festival organized and run entirely by Pitchfork Media. This was also the only year that the Pitchfork and Intonation Music Festivals were held in the same year. The 2006 Pitchfork festival drew more than 35,000 visitors to listen to 41 bands on July 29 and 30.
2005 Intonation Music Festival
In 2005 Pitchfork Media was hired by a music promotion company called Skyline Chicago to curate the Intonation Festival at Union Park in Chicago. While this was not technically the "Pitchfork Music Festival," because of Pitchfork Media's prominent role in the event as well as its future success in staging similar festivals at the same location, many Chicagoans and music fans consider the 2005 event to be for all intents and purposes the first Pitchfork festival and refer to it by that name.
The event's featured performers included Tortoise, The Wrens, The Decemberists, The Go! Team, Les Savy Fav, Broken Social Scene, Andrew Bird, and The Hold Steady.
Paris
2022
The 2022 Paris festival was held on 14 to 21 November 2022. The festival was held over fourteen venues around Paris, including Badaboum, Carbone Club, La Boule Noire, La Place, Les Disquaires, Quartier de Bastille, Supersonic Records, Le Café de la Danse, Church of Saint-Eustache, La Gaîté Lyrique, Le Consulat, POPUP! and Supersonic.
Monday, 14 November
Le Café de la Danse: Jordana, MICHELLE, TV Girl
La Gaîté Lyrique: O., DEADLETTER, Black Country, New Road
Tuesday, 15 November
La Gaîté Lyrique: TV Priest, Nation of Language, Porridge Radio
Wednesday, 16 November
La Gaîté Lyrique: NNAMDÏ, Falle Nioke, The Comet Is Coming
La Place: Nemzzz, thaHomey, 8ruki
Thursday, 17 November
La Place: Sadandsolo, Yaya Bey, Knucks
Le Consulat: SUPER!, Sierra mgmt, Le Grenier
Friday, 18 November
Le Café de la Danse: Dréya Mac, Sam Wise, Sudan Archives
POPUP!: Luna Li, piri & tommy, They Hate Change
Supersonic: Regressive Left, L'objectif, The Goa Express
Supersonic Records: Prima Queen, Ethan P. Flynn
Badaboum: John Glacier, Yeule, Nia Archives
Les Disquaires: Sister Ray, Sarah Kinsley, Charlie Hickey
Saturday, 19 November
Le Café de la Danse: Astrønne, Léa Sen, Dua Saleh
POPUP!: Nukuluk, Grove, Yune Pinku
Supersonic: CMAT, Romero, VLURE
Supersonic Records: Johanna Warren, Mandy Indiana
Badaboum: Sans Soucis, Jeshi, Pip Millett
Les Disquaires: flowerovlove, Grace Ives, Gretel Hänlyn
Le Consulat: HSRS, Damlif
Sunday, 20 November
La Boule Noire: Okay Kaya
Le Consulat: JÜDE, Astrønne, NKA
Monday, 21 November
Church of St. Eustache: Arooj Aftab
2021
The 2021 Paris festival was held on 15 to 21 November 2021. The festival was held in ten venues across Paris, including Salle Pleyel, Bataclan, La Gaîté Lyrique, and Church of St. Eustache.
Monday, 15 November
Church of Saint Eustache: Bobby Gillespie & Jehnny Beth
Tuesday, 16 November
La Gaîté Lyrique: Shygirl, Alewya, Denise Chaila
Wednesday, 17 November
La Gaîté Lyrique: Charlotte Adigéry & Bolis Pupul, Amaarae, Hope Tala
Thursday, 18 November
Bataclan: Sons of Kemet, Nubya Garcia, cktrl
Friday, 19 November
Le Café de la Danse: Cassandra Jenkins, Lael Neale, Gabriels
POPUP!: Kai Kwasi, Sloppy Jane, Erika de Casier
Badaboum: KeiyaA, Claud, Godford
Badaboum After Party: Denis Sulta, Sofia Kourtesis, TSHA
Les Disquaires: Miso Extra, Elliott Armen
Supersonic Records: Kynsy, NewDad, TV Priest
Supersonic: Talk Show, Molly Payton, Wet Leg
Saturday, 20 November
Le Café de la Danse: Elliott Armen, Faux Real, En Attendant Ana
POPUP!: ML Buch, Kamal., Berwyn
Badaboum: Kam-BU, L'Rain, ENNY
Badaboum After Party: India Jordan, Josey Rebelle, Marina Trench
Les Disquaires: Kathleen Frances, Fabiana Palladino
Supersonic Records: H. Hawkline, Yard Act
Supersonic: Lime Garden, Choses Sauvages, Katy J Pearson
Sunday, 21 November
Salle Pleyel: Sébastien Tellier, Muddy Monk
2019
The 2019 Paris festival was held on October 31, November 1–2. The headliners are Skepta, The 1975, Chromatics, Belle and Sebastian, Mura Masa, Hamza and Charli XCX.
Grande Halle
Thursday: Ezra Collective, Mura Masa, Hamza, Skepta
Friday: Desire, Primal Scream, Chromatics, Belle and Sebastian
Saturday: Jamila Woods, Charli XCX, The 1975, SebastiAn
Nef
Thursday: Kojaque, slowthai, Flohio, Ateyaba, Zola
Friday: Barrie, Nilüfer Yanya, Weyes Blood, John Talabot
Saturday: Caroline Polachek, Aurora, Agar Agar, 2ManyDj's
Petite Halle
Thursday: sean, Master Peace, Retro X, Yussef Dayes
Friday: Loving, Sons of Raphael, Squid, Sheer Mag, CHAI
Saturday: Mk.gee, Aeris Roves, KadhyaK, Kedr Livanskiy
Studio
Thursday: duendita, Charlotte Dos Santos, Rachel Chinouriri, Kojey Radical, The Comet Is Coming
Friday: Briston Maroney, Nelson Beer, Jackie Mendoza, Orville Peck, Helado Negro
Saturday: Korantemaa, Jessica Pratt, BEA1991, oklou, Ela Minus
2018
The 2018 Paris festival was held on November 1–3. The headliners were Bon Iver, Kaytranada and Mac DeMarco. Pitchfork also hosted Avant-Garde, a block party held on October 30 and 31.
Thursday: New Optimism (Miho Hatori), Cola Boyy, Rolling Blackouts Coastal Fever, Yellow Days, John Maus, Étienne Daho, The Voidz, Mac DeMarco
Friday: Boy Pablo, Tirzah, Dream Wife, Lewis OfMan, Car Seat Headrest, Chromeo, Bagarre, Chvrches, Blood Orange, Kaytranada
Saturday: Michael Rault, Muddy Monk, Snail Mail, Stephen Malkmus and the Jicks, Unknown Mortal Orchestra, Bon Iver, Jeremy Underground, DJ Koze, Peggy Gou, Avalon Emerson, Daniel Avery
Avant-Garde
Cafe de la Danse
Tuesday: Lauren Auder, IDER, Let's Eat Grandma
Wednesday: Naaz, Kelsey Lu, Cautious Clay
Badaboum
Tuesday: Kiran Kai, Rimon, JPEGMafia, Jimothy Lacoste
Wednesday: Etta Bond, Biig Piig, Kojey Radical, Slowthai
Reservoir
Tuesday: Weakened Friends, Holiday Sidewinder, Alaskalaska
Wednesday: Black Midi, Mint Field, Sasami
La Chapelle des Lombards
Tuesday: Sam Evian, Jack Grace, Stella Donnelly
Wednesday: Helena Deland, Gold Star, Honey Harper
Pan Pier
Tuesday: Wicca Phase Springs Eternal, Mellah, Westerman, Apollo Noir
Wednesday: Palm, Anemone, O-Olivier Marguerit, Trevor Powers
Supersonic
Tuesday: Hop Along, Starchild and the new Romantics, Crumb
Wednesday: Madison McFerrin, Hatchie, Yuno
PopUp!
Tuesday: Khadyak, Grand Pax, Jockstrap
Wednesday: Suzi Wu, Buzzy Lee, Anaïs
2017
The 2017 Paris festival was held on November 2–4. The headliners were The National, Jungle and Run the Jewels. Pitchfork also hosted Avant-Garde, a block party held on October 31 and November 1.
Thursday: Ethan Lipton & His Orchestra, Moses Sumney, This Is the Kit, Chassol, Rone, Ride, Kevin Morby, The National
Friday: HMLTD, Cigarettes After Sex, Tommy Genesis, Sylvan Esso, Andy Shauf, Isaac Delusion, Rejjie Snow, Kamasi Washington, Polo & Pan, Jungle
Saturday: Sigrid, Songe, Tom Misch, Loyle Carner, Jacques, BadBadNotGood, Princess Nokia, Run the Jewels, The Blaze, Bicep, The Black Madonna, Talaboman
Avant-Garde
Mécanique Ondulatoire
Tuesday: NOLIFE, Sorry, Bryan's Magic Treats
Wednesday: Bad Nerves, The Pale White, Priests
Café de la Danse
Tuesday: Isaac Gracie, (Sandy) Alex G, Big Thief
Wednesday: Rostam, Nick Hakim, Noga Erez
Badaboum
Tuesday: Mavi Phoenix, Obongjayar, A2, Benny Mails
Wednesday: Sälen, Oklou, Jamila Woods, Hundred Waters
La Loge
Tuesday: Korey Dane, Leif Vollebekk, Julie Byrne
Wednesday: Matt Maltese, Angelo De Augustine, Wovoka Gentle
Pop Up Du Label
Tuesday: K Á R Y Y N, Lido Pimienta, Tennyson
Wednesday: Soleil Vert, Pauli, Oko Ebombo
Pan Piper
Tuesday: Ary, SuperParka, Malca, You Man
Wednesday: Ama Lou, Triplego, Hare Squead, Ray BLK
Supersonic
Tuesday: Puma Blue, Yellow Days, Pinegrove
Wednesday: Silly Boy Blue, Yowl, Vagabon
2016
The 2016 Paris festival was held on October 27–29. The headliners were Nick Murphy FKA Chet Faker, Moderat and M.I.A.
Thursday: Aldous RH, Lucy Dacus, Parquet Courts, Suuns, Floating Points, DJ Shadow, Mount Kimbie, Nick Murphy FKA Chet Faker
Friday: C Duncan, Porches, Brandt Brauer Frick, Flavien Berger, Explosions in the Sky, Bat for Lashes, Todd Terje & the Olsens, Moderat
Saturday: Joey Purp, Bonzai, Whitney, Shame, Minor Victories, Warpaint, Abra, M.I.A., Acid Arab, Motor City Drum Ensemble, Daphni, Tale of Us
Avant-Garde
Café de la Danse
Tuesday: Krrum, Loyle Carner, Frances
Wednesday: Robbing Millions, Adia Victoria, Thom Sonny Green
Badaboum
Tuesday: Nilüfer Yanya, Mabel, Fickle Friends
Wednesday: Skott, Jordan Rakei, Requin Chagrin
Mécanique Ondulatoire
Tuesday: Get Inuit, Hoops, Anteros
Wednesday: Lucy Dacus, Communions, Cherry Glazerr
Supersonic
Tuesday: Klangstof, Smerz, Alex Cameron
Wednesday: Fhin, Dark0, Kenton Slash Demon
Pop-Up du Label
Tuesday: Alfie Connor, Connie Constance, Cleopold
Wednesday: Pi Ja Ma, Beaty Heart, Isaac Gracie
La Loge
Tuesday: Faroe, Cameron A G, Okay Kaya
Wednesday: Alyss, Anna of the North, Kaitlyn Aurelia Smith
Café de la Presse
Tuesday: Manast LL', Kweku Collins, Jones
Wednesday: Salute, Tirzah, Tommy Genesis
Pitchfork & RBMA After Parties
Thursday: Malibu, River Tiber, Jessy Lanza, Clams Casino, Ryan Hemsworth
Friday: Lamusa, Dollkraut DJ, Jacques, Pangaea, Bambounou
2015
The 2015 Paris festival was held on October 29–31. The headliners were Thom Yorke - Tomorrow's Modern Boxes, Beach House and Ratatat.
Thursday: Hælos, Kirin J. Callinan, Destroyer, Ariel Pink, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, Deerhunter, Beach House
Friday: Dornik, Rome Fortune, Health, Rhye, Kurt Vile & The Violators, Battles, Thom Yorke - Tomorrow's Modern Boxes, Four Tet
Saturday: Hinds, Curtis Harding, Nao, Father John Misty, Unknown Mortal Orchestra, Run the Jewels, Spiritualized, Ratatat, Hudson Mohawke, John Talabot b2b Roman Flügel, Laurent Garnier
Opening Night (Tuesday)
Café de la Danse: Børns, Empress Of, LA Priest
Badaboum: SG Lewis, Moses Sumney, Mura Masa, DJ Allie Teilz
Mécanique Ondulatoire: Mild High Club, Bully, Speedy Ortiz
RBMA presents Pitchfork After Party #1 at Trabendo
Thursday: Rustie, Nosaj Thing, two, Gilligan Moss, Jade Statues, John Pope, Keight
Friday: Omar S, Galcher Lustwerk, Andre Bratten, Cosmo, k2k
2014
The 2014 Paris festival was held on October 30–31 and November 1. The headliners were Belle & Sebastian, Caribou and James Blake.
Thursday: Ought, How to Dress Well, The Notwist, The War on Drugs, Mogwai, Jon Hopkins, James Blake
Friday: Perfect Pussy, D.D Dumbo, Son Lux, Future Islands, MØ, Chvrches, St. Vincent, Belle & Sebastian
Saturday: Jessy Lanza, Charlotte OC, Tobias Jesso Jr., Kwamie Liv, Movement, Foxygen, tUnE-yArDs, José González, Jungle, Caribou, Four Tet, Jamie xx, Kaytranada
Opening Party
Wednesday: Kindness, Kelela, All We Are, Shura
After Party
Thursday: Joy Orbison, Martyn, Ryan Elliott, Felix
Friday: Lunice, Fatima Al Qadiri, Sophie, Tourist, Douchka
2013
The 2013 Paris festival was held on October 31 and November 1–2. The headliners were The Knife, Hot Chip and Disclosure.
Thursday: Only Real, Iceage, Blood Orange, No Age, Mac DeMarco, Savages, Mount Kimbie, Darkside, The Haxan Cloak, The Knife
Friday: Petit Fantôme, Deafheaven, Jagwar Ma, Warpaint, Colin Stetson, Junip, Ariel Pink, Connan Mockasin, Danny Brown, Disclosure
Saturday: Empress Of, Pegase, Majical Cloudz, Sky Ferreira, Youth Lagoon, Baths, Omar Souleyman, Yo La Tengo, Panda Bear, Hot Chip, Glass Candy, Todd Terje, A-Trak
Opening Night
Wednesday: Julianna Barwick, The Dodos, Jackson Scott, Forest Swords
After Party
Thursday: John Talabot, Pional, Genius of Time, Evans
Friday: Jon Hopkins, Jacques Greene, Evian Christ, Kuage, Sundae
2012
The 2012 Paris festival was held on November 1–3. The headliners were M83, Animal Collective and Grizzly Bear.
Thursday: How to Dress Well, AlunaGeorge, DIIV, Factory Floor, Japandroids, Chairlift, John Talabot, Sébastien Tellier, James Blake, M83
Friday: Outfit, Ratking, Jessie Ware, Wild Nothing, The Tallest Man on Earth, The Walkmen, Chromatics, Robyn, Fuck Buttons, Animal Collective
Saturday: Isaac Delusion, Cloud Nothings, Purity Ring, Twin Shadow, Liars, Death Grips, Breton, Grizzly Bear, Disclosure, Totally Enormous Extinct Dinosaurs, Rustie, Simian Mobile Disco, Julio Bashmore
2011
The 2011 Paris festival was held on October 28–29. The headliners were Bon Iver and Aphex Twin.
Friday: Team Ghost, Fucked Up, Real Estate, Washed Out, Wild Beasts, Mondkopf, Aphex Twin, Pantha du Prince, Cut Copy, Four Tet, Erol Alkan
Saturday: Rosebuds, Kathleen Edwards, Stornoway, Jens Lekman, Lykke Li, Bon Iver
London
2023
The 2023 edition was announced April 24 with dates set for November 7–13. The initial selection of the lineup announced included Weyes Blood, Yaeji, Sleater-Kinney, Helado Negro, the live debut of Jonny Greenwood and Dudu Tassa's new duo collaboration, U.S. Girls, Mavi, Crumb, Jessy Lanza, Porridge Radio, Sorry, Ryoji Ikeda, Alabaster DePlume, Wednesday, Youth Lagoon, Water from Your Eyes, Just Mustard, Barrie, Fly Anakin, Deeper, Porches, Gurriers, Pearl and the Oysters, Been Stellar, Lutalo, Eee Gee, Fazerdaze, and McKinley Dixon.
2022
The 2022 London festival was held on 9 to 12 November.
Wednesday, 9 November
Fabric: Desire, Club Intl, Glüme
Village Underground: Lil Silva, Ivy Sole, Jeshi, Feux
EartH Theatre: Coby Sey, Moin, bar italia
ICA: Black Country, New Road, O.
Thursday, 10 November
Fabric: George Clanton, Neggy Gemmy, Death's Dynamic Shroud
Oval Space: Injury Reserve, Billy Woods, They Hate Change, Nukuluk
Islington Assembly Hall: Faye Webster, MICHELLE, Jordana
Paper Dress Vintage: M FIELD, Elanor Moss, Clara Mann
Oslo: Julien Chang, EKKSTACY, Hannah Jadagu
Friday, 11 November
EartH Theatre: William Basinski, Jenny Hval, Lyra Pramuk, Lucinda Chua
EartH Hall: Special Interest, Guerilla Toss, NNAMDï, Marina Herlop
St Matthias Church: Indigo Sparke, KAINA, Charlie Hickey, Johanna Warren
Shacklewell Arms: Romero, Sister Ray, Wild Pink, Lala Lala
Saturday, 12 November
EartH Hall: Danny L Harle's Harlecore (Gammer, Cryalot, Torus, Cloudo)
60 Dock Road – Room 1: I. JORDAN B2B LCY
60 Dock Road – Room 2: CHIYU, Melati, DJ Tusap, Lumi, Ar, wardrobefanatic
Colour Factory: Okay Kaya, Yaya Bey, Goya Gumbani
Sunday, 13 November
Roundhouse: Courtney Barnett, Cate Le Bon, DEHD, Samia, Big Joanie, Léa Sen, Fake Fruit, Gretel Hänlyn
The Albany: Kae Tempest
2021
Pitchfork Music Festival London made its debut in 2021 on 10–14 November. The festival was held in twelve venues across London.
Wednesday
Village Underground: Mykki Blanco, Charlotte Adigéry & Bolis Pupul, TYSON
Fabric: Anna Meredith, PVA, Grove
Earth Theatre: Bobby Gillespie & Jehnny Beth, Art School Girlfriend
Thursday
Earth Theatre: Bobby Gillespie & Jehnny Beth, Cassandra Jenkins, Natalie Bergman
Fire: PC Music "Love Goes On" (Hannah Diamond, Namasenda, Caro<3, Felicita, Easyfun, Umru, KKB Soundsystem, Mowalola)
Fabric: Giant Swan, Eartheater, DJ Winggold
Friday
Southbank Centre: Black Midi, Moor Mother
Oslo: Denise Chaila, Lex Amor, Carla Prata
Moth Club: Iceage, deathcrash, The Umlauts
Oval Space: Remi Wolf, Gabriels, Joviale
Saturday
Oval Space / Canvas / Pickle Factory: Tirzah, Koreless, Good Sad Happy Bad, Lucinda Chua, Nabihah Iqbal, Kareem Ali, L'Rain, Harvey Causon, Haich Ber Na, Tiberius B
Hackney Church: Moses Boyd, Nilüfer Yanya, Emma-Jean Thackray, cktrl
Sunday
The Roundhouse: Stereolab, Girl Band, Beak>, Ana Roxanne, Folly Group, Martha Skye Murphy, Kynsy
Berlin
2022
The inaugural edition of Pitchfork Music Festival Berlin was held on 4 to 6 November 2022.
Friday, 4 November
Columbia Theater: Nation of Language, Fake Fruit, Luna Li
silent green / Betonhalle: I. JORDAN, Lyzza, HAWA
Zenner: Desire, Club Intl., Mothermary
Saturday, 5 November
Festsaal Kreuzberg: Squid, Dehd, Okay Kaya
silent green / Betonhalle: Black Midi, Crack Cloud, Guerilla Toss
Sunday, 6 November
Metropol: The Comet Is Coming, Ivy Sole, Loshh
Zenner: Blawan Live A/V featuring Bernhard Holaschke, aya
silent green / Kuppelhalle: yeule, Oli XL
2020
The inaugural edition of Pitchfork Music Festival Berlin was to be held on 8–9 May 2020, but was cancelled. The headliners were going to be Lianne La Havas and Modeselektor.
Friday: Lianne La Havas, Soap&Skin, Brandt Brauer Frick, Nadine Shah, Nick Hakim, Celeste, Ilgen-Nur, Oum Shatt, duendita, Okay Kaya
Saturday: Modeselektor , HVOB , Tim Hecker, John Talabot , Kelly Lee Owens, DJ Spinn B2B RP Boo, rRoxymore , Peaking Lights, BLVTH, Lary
Mexico City
The first edition of Pitchfork Music Festival held in Mexico City was announced on October 16, 2023, with dates set for March 6–9, 2024. The lineup is yet to be announced.
References
External links
(Chicago)
(Paris)
(Berlin)
Cokemachineglow 4-part coverage
Pitchfork TV has many past performances from 2007 and 2008 Pitchfork Music Festivals
Gigposters Gigposter's page of Pitchfork Music Festival's concert posters
Riverfront Times coverage of Pitchfork Music Festival 2008
Music festivals established in 2006
Rock festivals in the United States
Music festivals in Chicago
Electronic music festivals in the United States
2006 establishments in Illinois
Indie rock festivals
Magazine festivals |
4202234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting%20for%20leases%20in%20the%20United%20States | Accounting for leases in the United States | Accounting for leases in the United States is regulated by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) by the Financial Accounting Standards Number 13, now known as Accounting Standards Codification Topic 840 (ASC 840). These standards were effective as of January 1, 1977. The FASB completed in February 2016 a revision of the lease accounting standard, referred to as ASC 842.
Separate standards exist for governments and government agencies. Federal government accounting is overseen by the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board, whose SSFAS 54 for leases takes effect on October 1, 2023. For state and local governments and agencies, accounting is regulated by the Governmental Accounting Standards Board, whose GASB 87 leases standard took effect with the start of fiscal years after June 15, 2021.
Introduction
A lease is a contract calling for the lessee (user) to pay the lessor (owner) for use of an asset for a specified period of time. A rental agreement is a lease in which the asset is tangible property. As there are many ways to view how these contracts affect the balance sheets of both the lessee and lessor, FASB created a standard for US accountants and businesses.
Accounting for leases under FAS 13/ASC 840
The accounting profession recognizes leases as either an operating lease or a capital lease (finance lease). An operating lease records no asset or liability on the financial statements, the amount paid is expensed as incurred. On the other hand, a capital lease is recorded as both an asset and a liability on the financial statements, generally at the present value of the rental payments (but never greater than the asset's fair market value). To distinguish the two, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) provided criteria for when a lease should be capitalized, and if any one of the criteria for capitalization is met, the lease is treated as a capital lease and recorded on the financial statements. The primary standard for lease accounting is Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 13 (FAS 13), which has been amended several times; it is known as topic 840 in the FASB's new Accounting Standards Codification.
The basic criteria for capitalization of a lease by lessee are as follows:
The lessor transfers ownership of the asset to the lessee at the end of the lease term.
A bargain purchase option is given to the lessee. This is an option that allows the lessee, upon termination of the lease, to purchase the leased asset at a price significantly lower than the expected fair market value of the asset.
The life of the lease is equal to or greater than 75% of the economic life of the asset.
The present value of the minimum lease payments (MLP) is equal to or greater than 90% of the fair market value of leased property. To understand and apply this criterion, you need familiarize yourself with what is included in the minimum lease payments and how the present value is calculated. The minimum lease payments include the minimum rental payments minus any executory cost, the guaranteed residual value, the bargain purchase option, and any penalty for failure to renew or extend the lease. The amount calculated is then discounted using the lessee’s incremental borrowing rate. However, if the lessee knows the implicit rate used by the lessor and the rate is less than the lessee’s rate, the lessee should use the lessor’s rate to discount the minimum lease payment.
These are called the 7(a)-7(d) tests, named for the paragraphs of FAS 13 in which they are found.
If any of the above are met, the lease would be considered a capital or financing lease and must be disclosed on the lessee's balance sheet. Conversely, if none of the criteria are met, the contract is an operating lease, and the lessee will have a footnote in its balance sheet to that effect. Both parties (lessor and lessee) must review these criteria at the outset and determine independently the classification as it is possible to classify them differently (it is quite common, in fact, for a single lease to be considered a capital lease by lessors and an operating lease by lessees).
If the term of the lease does not exceed 12 months, the lease may be considered neither of the above criteria. These contracts are "rentals" and do not need to be disclosed in lessee's footnotes.
For a more in depth explanation, see the accounting textbook Intermediate Accounting, 11th ed, Kieso Weygandt Warfield.
Lessee Accounting
Under an operating lease, the lessee records rent expense (debit) over the lease term, and a credit to either cash or rent payable. If an operating lease has scheduled changes in rent, normally the rent must be expensed on a straight-line basis over its life, with a deferred liability or asset reported on the balance sheet for the difference between expense and cash outlay.
Under a capital lease, the lessee does not record rent as an expense. Instead, the rent is reclassified as interest and obligation payments, similarly to a mortgage (with the interest calculated each rental period on the outstanding obligation balance). At the same time, the asset is depreciated. If the lease has an ownership transfer or bargain purchase option, the depreciable life is the asset's economic life; otherwise, the depreciable life is the lease term. Over the life of the lease, the interest and depreciation combined will be equal to the rent payments.
For both capital and operating leases, a separate footnote to the financial statements discloses the future minimum rental commitments, by year for the next five years, then all remaining years as a group.
Other lessee financial accounting issues:
Leasehold Improvements: Improvements made by the lessee. These are permanently affixed to the property, and revert to the lessor at the termination of the lease. The value of the leasehold improvements should be capitalized and depreciated over the lesser of the lease life or the leasehold improvements life. If the life of the leasehold improvement extends past the life of the initial term of the lease and into an option period, normally that option period must be considered part of the life of the lease. If the lessor gives the lessee a cash allowance for improvements, this is treated as a reduction of rent and amortized over the lease term.
Lease Bonus: Prepayment for future expenses. Classified as an asset; amortized using the straight-line method over the life of the lease.
Rent Kicker, or Percentage Rent: Common in retail store leases. This is a premium rent payment that the lessor requires and is treated as a period expense. For example, it may be stated in the contract that if sales are over $1,000,000, any excess over this amount will have 2% taken out as a rent kicker. This is not reported as part of the future minimum rental commitments disclosure, nor in the 7(d) test to determine whether the lease is capital or operating.
Lessor Accounting
Under an operating lease, the lessor records rent revenue (credit) and a corresponding debit to either cash/rent receivable. The asset remains on the lessor's books as an owned asset, and the lessor records depreciation expense over the life of the asset. If the rent changes over the life of the lease, normally the rental income is recognized on a straight-line basis (also known as rent leveling), and the difference between income and cash received is recorded as a deferred asset or liability (mirroring lessee accounting).
Under a capital lease, the lessor credits owned assets and debits a lease receivable account for the present value of the rents (an asset, which is broken out between current and long-term, the latter being the present value of rents due more than 12 months in the future). With each payment, cash is debited, the receivable is credited, and unearned (interest) income is credited. If the cost or carrying amount of the asset being leased is different from its fair value at inception, then the difference is recognized as a profit and the lease is called a sales-type lease. This most commonly applies when a manufacturer is using leasing as a method of selling its product. Other capital lessor leases, where the cost and fair value are the same, are called direct financing leases. A third type of lessor capital lease, called a leveraged lease, is used to recognize leases where the acquisition of the leased asset is substantially financed by debt.
Lease Accounting Revision (ASC 842)
As part of their joint commitment to the “development of high quality, compatible accounting standards that could be used for both domestic and cross-border financial reporting”, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and the FASB agreed in 2006 to priorities and milestones for convergence of lease accounting rules. The project goal, “to insure that investors and other users of financial statements are provided useful, transparent, and complete information about leasing transactions in the financial statements”, reflected investor and regulator concerns that current accounting standards fail to clearly portray the resources and obligations from leases in a complete and transparent manner. The goal of these changes was to increase transparency within the rules and eliminate a loophole that allows for off-balance-sheet financing through leases.
The project commenced in 2006. Critical dates within the project include;
Issuance of a Discussion Paper - Leases: Preliminary Views - on 19 March 2009 with a public comment period open until 17 July 2009
Issuance of joint Exposure Drafts on 17 August 2010 with a public comment period open until 15 December 2010
Issuance of a second joint Exposure Draft on 16 May 2013, with a public comment period open until 13 September 2013
Issuance of International Financial Reporting Standard 16 (IFRS 16), Leases, on 13 January 2016
Issuance of ASC 842, as Accounting Standards Update 2016-02, on 25 February 2016
The Effective Date of the new standard - date at which time all companies must follow the new lease accounting standard when preparing financial statements –is fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018. As originally released, ASC 842 required companies to restate comparable years in their annual reports. Most U.S. companies include two years of comparables in their annual report, so leases would, in 2019, be restated using the new standard effective 2017. In March 2018, however, the FASB announced a transition relief giving companies the option to transition without restating prior years. Privately held companies may delay compliance until the end of fiscal year 2020.
Proposed changes
The Preliminary Views and first Exposure Draft called for eliminating the FAS 13 test which classifies leases as operating leases or capital leases, and treating all leases similarly to current capital leases. All leases would be accounted for as assets and liabilities on the balance sheet – on the asset side as "right-of-use assets" and on the liability side as lease liabilities; on the income statement, depreciation and interest expense would be recognized instead of rent expense. One implication of this is that expenses are "front loaded," because interest expense is higher in the early part of the lease term while the liability is higher. Following substantial protests from both financial statements preparers and users, the second Exposure Draft reinstated two types of lease accounting, with "Type A" leases treated essentially the same as FAS 13 capital leases and "Type B" leases maintaining the single lease expense, straight line over the life of the lease, that characterizes FAS 13 operating leases, but with an asset and liability on the balance sheet. The liability would be the present value of the remaining rents; the asset would be the same as the liability for simple leases, but then adjusted for scheduled changes in rents (which under FAS 13 result in a deferred rent liability or asset) and amortization of initial direct costs and lease incentives. Effective with the second Exposure Draft, the new standard has been given the new Accounting Standards Codification topic number 842 (the topic number for leases was previously 840).
While the first Exposure Draft envisioned including rent judged "more likely than not" to be paid (contingent rents and options to renew) in addition to minimum required rent payments, subsequent decisions by the boards reversed these plans, making the proposed accounting for lessees similar to that of existing capital leases. Lessor accounting was largely reverted to the existing standard. Leases with a maximum term of 12 months or less would be treated in accordance with current operating lease rules.
Following the second Exposure Draft, the IASB decided to require all leases to be treated as finance leases. The FASB decided to maintain the traditional distinction between capital (finance) and operating leases (and reverted to that terminology rather than "Type A/B").
Lessee Accounting
In the final ASC 842 release, capital lease accounting has only minor changes, though they are now called "finance leases," consistent with IFRS terminology. The concept of "executory costs," which were excluded from capitalization under FAS 13, has been replaced by "nonlease components," which are payments due as part of a lease agreement which reflect goods or services separate from the asset. Importantly, passthrough costs paid by the lessor and rebilled to the lessee, such as taxes and insurance, no longer qualify to be excluded from capitalization (either for finance or for operating leases). This can mean a substantial difference in balance sheet impact between a real estate gross lease and net lease.
The tests to distinguish finance and operating leases are essentially unchanged, though written using "principles-based terminology" consistent with IFRS: for instance, a lease is a finance lease if the lease term covers a "major part" of the asset's economic life. The standard states in paragraph 842-10-55-2 that "one reasonable approach" is to use the 75% test of FAS 13, paragraph 7(c) to determine "major part," and the other paragraph 7 tests for the other ASC 842 tests. One additional criterion for finance lease classification is that "The underlying asset is of such a specialized nature that it is expected to have no alternative use to the lessor at the end of the lease term." (However, such a lease would normally have sufficient rent to meet the present value test anyway.)
For an operating lease, a liability and a right-of-use asset are set up at lease inception, at the present value of the rents plus any guaranteed residual. To the asset is added any initial direct costs and subtracted any lease incentives (such as a tenant improvement allowance). The liability is amortized using the interest method (like a mortgage). If the lease has the same rent over its life, the net asset at any point is equal to the liability, plus the unamortized balance of initial direct costs and lease incentives. If the rents change during the lease term, the difference between the cash rent and average rent is added to or subtracted from the asset as well.
A single lease expense is recognized for an operating lease, representing a combination of amortizing the asset and the liability. This is considered an operating expense, just as ASC 840 rent expense is, so there is usually no difference in a company's income statement or statement of cash flows compared to ASC 840.
Sale-leaseback accounting is no longer permitted if the seller-lessee has a continuing right of control, such as an option to purchase back the asset at a fixed price. A failed sale-leaseback transaction is treated as a financing.
Lessor Accounting
Most lessor accounting is not substantially changed between ASC 840 and ASC 842. The change from executory costs to nonlease components, discussed above, applies equally to lessors. Leveraged leasing is discontinued, though leveraged leases entered into before the effective date of ASC 842 can continue to be accounted for under ASC 840 unless they are modified. The distinction between sales-type and direct financing leases has changed: whereas in ASC 840 the test was whether the fair value of the leased asset was different from the lessor's cost or carrying amount (if so, the lease is a sales-type lease), in ASC 842, any lessor lease that meets the lessee finance lease tests (based on rents and guaranteed residuals due from the lessee) is a sales-type lease; direct financing treatment applies if the lease is capital only because a third-party residual guarantee causes the present value test to be met. The primary difference in accounting between a sales-type lease and a direct financing lease is that profit for a sales-type lease is recognized at inception, while profit for a direct financing lease is recognized over the life of the lease.
Impact of New Lease Accounting Rules
The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in 2005 estimated that companies had approximately $1.25 trillion of operating lease commitments. By 2015, estimates had risen to $2 trillion. While the FASB specified that operating lease liabilities should be considered "non-debt liabilities," so that they should not affect debt ratios and most loan covenants, the addition of an equal asset and liability will reduce most companies' quick ratio, while the fact that an operating lease creates a current liability but not a current asset reduces the current ratio. Companies expected to be most affected include retail chains and airlines.
Other Issues
Usually, when a lease is entered into, a security deposit is required. There are two types of security deposits:
Nonrefundable security deposits: Deferred by the lessor as unearned revenue; Capitalized by the lessee as a prepaid rent expense until the lessor considers the deposit earned.
Refundable security deposits: Treated as a receivable by the lessee; Treated as a liability by the lessor until the deposit is refunded to the lessee.
Calculation
How to calculate the lease rate:
[Monthly Lease Payment] x [Term (months)] = [Total amount out of pocket]
[Total amount out of pocket] - [Financed amount] = [Total finance charge]
[Total finance charge] / [Term (years)] = [Finance charge per year]
[Finance charges per year] / [Financed amount] = Annual Lease Rate
See also
FAS 13, Accounting for Leases
Project Update on Topic 840
FASB Topic 840 Documentation
Accounting Standards Update 2016-02: Leases (Topic 842)
References
United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
Leasing |
4202318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20Entertainment%20Corporation | Solar Entertainment Corporation | Solar Entertainment Corporation (simply known as Solar or SEC) is a Filipino media company based in Makati, Philippines. Founded and owned by the brothers, Wilson, William and Willy Tieng. Solar Entertainment operates two digital free-to-air channels and two cable channels. Solar also owns a film distribution company (Solar Pictures) and defunct freemium digital television service (Easy TV Home).
History
Film production and distribution
Solar Entertainment was founded and established by the brothers William Tieng, Wilson Tieng and Willy Tieng in 1976.
Solar Films was then formed in 1988 (one of the first films that distributed by Solar Films is Rambo III of Sylvester Stallone), bringing international films (and later, local films since 2009) to the Philippines. Since 2012, Solar has collaborated with independent film director Brillante Mendoza for a multiple film contract. On March 18, 2015, Solar launched the Sinag Maynila film festival is, which featured five films from a talented group of directors, each with a different vision and approach. The films were shown in select SM Cinemas from March 18 to 24, 2015. The winners were announced at the “Gabi ng Parangal” on March 22.
On April 2, 2004, Solar announced that they distribute films from United International Pictures (UIP, an joint venture of Viacom's Paramount Pictures and Vivendi Universal's Universal Pictures) in the Philippines starting with DreamWorks Animation's Shrek 2 on May 2004, until an temporary restraining order stopping UIP's operations in the country in March 2014.
Cable television
On January 1, 1994, Solar launched on cable television as the Solar Entertainment Channel.
On December 22, 2000, Solar acquired Domestic Satellite Philippines Inc. (DOMSAT) from the Philippine government through Presidential Commission on Good Government after Solar won the bidding for the franchise and assets formerly owned by DOMSAT, making DOMSAT a 100% Solar subsidiary. As a result, DOMSAT’s teleport is being used by Solar to produce, originate, and distribute its various television program services. Its full service digital broadcast teleport features server technology facility located in Barangay Sta. Cruz, Sumulong Highway, Antipolo, Rizal. It is built around two encoder platforms, Scientific Atlanta Power Vu Classic(DVB) and Motorola Digicipher II(MPEG-@). Program origination is done on a SeaChange Media Cluster Server System. The facility includes a 500-square-meter studio and various linear and non-linear production bays. Solar Entertainment first launched its namesake entertainment cable channel in the early 2000s, one devoted to American programs. This channel was later known as Solar USA (the acronym stands for "Ultimate in Suspense and Action"), and then later simply as USA before it was replaced by two separate channels.
In January 17, 2004, Solar launched on cable sports alternative channel as Sports Plus.
On March 1, 2004, Solar Entertainment launched ETC or Entertainment Central, which is positioned as the country’s premier cable female entertainment channel. ETC is a platform that brings its audience closer to their aspirational lifestyle, as embodied by their idols.
On April 5, 2005, it test launched delivering debuting service. Intended for a predominantly male audience, the company launched the country’s leading general entertainment cable channel, Jack TV, in July.
On October 15, 2005, Solar Entertainment launched a crime and action cable channel, Crime/Suspense or C/S.
On December 15, 2005, Solar Entertainment launched a spin-off channel to ETC, ETC 2nd Avenue, a lifestyle and general entertainment channel. Started as a test broadcast on December 15, 2005, and had its full launch in 2006. The channel was later renamed as 2nd Avenue on January 17, 2007.
On October 1, 2006, Sports Plus ceased broadcasting and replaced by the Basketball TV channel formed by Solar, while moving most of Sports Plus programs to Solar Sports.
As a broadcast company
On January 1, 2008, Solar Entertainment Corporation began to lease block airtime with terrestrial TV networks, RPN, SBN and RJTV. The move was a result of SkyCable pulling out C/S, ETC, and 2nd Avenue from the cable company's lineup at their own right. Those three started carrying shows from Solar's, with C/S on RPN, ETC on SBN, and 2nd Avenue on RJTV.
On May 22, 2009, a victory party for Manny "Pacman" Pacquiao, who just became the new IBO (International Boxing Organization) and Ring Magazine Light Welterweight Champion, was held at the Renaissance Hotel in Makati, in partnership with GMA Network Inc. Solar and GMA executives at that time signed for a partnership in TV coverage of Manny Pacquiao's upcoming boxing matches.
The C/S cable channel was later rebranded as C/S Origin in September 2008, while the RPN network later changed its branding to C/S 9 the next month.
On November 29, 2009, Solar rebranded C/S9 as Solar TV at 11:00 am with a slogan It's A Bright New World on RPN. On October 31, 2010, it changed some of its programming content to English/Tagalog with a new slogan Kung Saan Lahat Panalo!.
In mid-2010, GemCom sold all of its 97% equity share in SBN to Solar for Php 368.8 million. Since then, SBN became a fully owned subsidiary of Solar.
On February 11, 2011, SEC partnered with ABS-CBN Corporation to air National Basketball Association (NBA) games over free TV starting February 19, 2011. The games are aired on Studio 23 (now ABS-CBN Sports and Action later known as S+A) and ABS-CBN, but Solar still airs the games daily on BTV.
On March 2, 2011, after SEC acquired 34 percent of RPN's shares from the Philippine government as part of RPN/IBC privatization in 2011, Solar TV finally ventured into news at the end of 2011. On that same day, ETC moved to RPN while TalkTV launched over SBN. TalkTV was formed by then Solar-owned Solar Television Network. The first programs that aired on the channel were Dateline NBC, Today Show, Today's Talk, NBC Nightly News, Inside Edition, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and Late Show with David Letterman.
On April 8, 2011, Solar Entertainment Corporation launched The Game Channel on Destiny Cable. It conducted its initial test broadcast from April 8, 2011, until September 29. It then began airing on BEAM Channel 31 on August 15, 2011, after BEAM and Solar signed an affiliation deal, which gave the latter the use of the former's facilities. Full broadcast started on September 30, 2011.
In May 2011, ETC launched the slogan "Young and Loving It". It also saw new programs such as the reality series The Rachel Zoe Project and Bachelor Pad, drama series Nikita, and The Secret Circle, US reality series The Glee Project, comedy shows like New Girl and 2 Broke Girls, and local lifestyle show Etcetera. In 2012, ETC includes the reality show American Idol, local programs like Project Runway Philippines (season 3), drama series The Lying Game, Emily Owens MD and Beauty and the Beast, and local infotainment show ETC HQ. In 2013, ETC aired comedy-drama series The Carrie Diaries, sitcom series Super Fun Night, supernatural drama series Ravenswood, horror fantasy drama series The Originals and among others.
Solar News, known for its back-to-basics and unbiased journalism, was formed in January 2012 during the coverage of the impeachment trial of former Chief Justice Renato Corona. Post-EDSA revolution ABS-CBN newsmen Pal Marquez, Jing Magsaysay and Pia Hontiveros together with former ANC anchors Claire Celdran, Mai Rodriguez and Nancy Irlanda, known as the pillars of Solar News. Most of its news reporters are from ABS-CBN and ANC, as well as from RPN NewsWatch.
On December 24, 2011, The Game Channel limited its broadcast on daytime sharing with a new programming service called CHASE which takes over the evening block. In February 2012, both services aired a promotion, announcing the split of CHASE and TGC to form themselves as separate channels. On February 15, 2012, The Game Channel finally shuts down on free TV and was relaunched as a cable channel; CHASE was also relaunched as a separate channel, now occupying the entire BEAM broadcast airtime on Free TV.
On April 3, 2012, Solar transferred its former Salcedo Village facilities to their new facility in Worldwide Corporate Center in Mandaluyong. It also featured a newly constructed set for Solar's then-news division, which would become fully functional three months later.
On July 16, 2012, Solar News launched its first local newscast Solar Network News, followed by Solar Nightly News, an hourly Solar News Update, Solar Daybreak, and Solar Newsday.
On September 7, 2012, Jack TV plugged their announcement through CHASE programs bearing the title "Another Jack TV is rising, coming soon on this channel" (BEAM Channel 31). This indicated that CHASE was being replaced; finally, on October 20, 2012, Jack City was then launched, marking October 19 as the end of CHASE's broadcasts. Jack City still does carry some of CHASE's programs however.
In October 2012, it was found out that Solar News would replace the government-controlled RPN News, as a result of RPN's privatization, making Solar TV covering the entire network's airtime. More than 200 RPN employees, particularly those from the labor union and the NewsWatch staff, were retrenched and RPN News was closed down on October 29, effectively axing NewsWatch and NewsCap. Some retrenched government employees were relocated to either People's Television Network (PTV 4) or Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (IBC 13) (both State-run broadcasters).
On October 30, 2012, at 5:45 am, TalkTV was replaced as Solar News Channel on Channel 21 via SBN. The channel saw the relaunch of sports news program Solar Sports Desk (now known as CNN Philippines Sports Desk), as well as the initial telecast of the Solar News and Current affairs block in November 2012 comprising five public affairs programs (Legal HD, MedTalk, News.PH, Opposing Views, Elections 2013 and News Cafe), 60 Minutes, Top Gear, Undercover Boss and the "Stories" documentaries block. In January 2013, Solar News Cebuano (now known as CNN Philippines Cebuano News) made history as the first national newscast delivered in a local dialect. In 2014, it also launched the Kapampangan national newscast, Kapampangan News and the public service program Serbisyo All Access, which is shown in Filipino language.
Prior to the channel's transfer to RPN, SNC's flagship newscast (Solar Network News) simulcasted on RPN 9 (free TV only) from the SNC's launch. The news content for RPN (then affiliated with ETC), however, was switched to Solar Nightly News on January 14, 2013, onwards, to avoid backlash from free TV viewers, particularly Free TV viewers of American Idol (in which the original plan was to replace the 6 pm via satellite broadcast to Free TV viewers by Network News, then airs the AI episodes at the 8 pm rerun in simulcast with cable and satellite viewers). Throughout the American Idol season, as the episodes are repeated at 8 PM on cable, Solar used the separate free TV-only feed, that contains reruns of selected ETC shows (but with advertisements replaced by ETC teasers and promotions) at 8 pm and Nightly News at 9 PM (with additional ETC programs, if necessary) to be used by RPN after each AI via satellite episode before RPN returns to the main ETC feed at 10 PM. This is to retain RPN's news content as it then has no newscast since the axing of NewsWatch.
On January 3, 2013, SEC launched Blink Cinema (later renamed as My Movie Channel) with the full broadcast taking effect later that month.
On April 14, 2013, TV5 Network Inc. and Solar Entertainment Corporation joined to broadcast the 2013 FIBA Asia Championship in Manila on Philippine television on August 1–11. Aside from TV5 and its sister channel (AksyonTV), the games were also broadcast over Solar’s cable channel Basketball TV.
New management
On May 22, 2013, Solar Entertainment Corporation appointed two officers to manage its broadcasting and cable businesses: Manuel “Meckoy” Quiogue as chief commercial officer and Maria Theresa “Mitos” Borromeo as chief operating officer (COO). Quiogue, however, suddenly died on May 31, 2013, prior to assuming his position.
On June 28, 2013, Jack City reduced its free TV broadcast to 18 hours a day on BEAM in compliance with the National Telecommunications Commission's guidelines. However, it still continues to air as a cable channel 24 hours a day.
On November 9, 2013, San Miguel Corporation's president and COO, Ramon Ang, explored the possibility of acquiring a controlling stake in Solar Entertainment Corporation in his personal capacity. However, no further announcements were made after this and Ang subsequently reached an agreement to acquire a minority stake.
Solar News Channel and its partnership moved to RPN 9 on December 1, 2013, while ETC returned to SBN Channel 21 a day before. (ETC was aired on SBN-21 from 2008 to 2011 then to RPN-9 from 2011 to 2013), as well as the launch of Solar's video-on-demand website Blink. As a result of the channel swap (on RPN's part), Network News and Nightly News became newscasts on its own right.
In 2014, Solar Entertainment's Solar One Boracay happened during the Labor Day weekend to showcase its channels (ETC, 2nd Avenue, JackTV, JackCITY, My Movie Channel, The Game Channel, Solar Sports, BTV and NBA Premium TV) through various summer activities all over the island.
On August 20, 2014, Solar Entertainment Corporation chief Wilson Tieng announced that he ceded his entire share on Solar TV Network, Inc., including its 34% majority share on RPN, to Antonio Cabangon Chua, owner of business daily BusinessMirror and Aliw Broadcasting Corporation. Tieng sold Solar TV because they were losing money for operations after purchasing RPN. As a result of this ownership change, STVNI, Solar News Channel and RPN's majority stake were separated from the Tiengs; while ETC, 2nd Avenue, and Jack City reverted to Solar Entertainment's ownership.
On September 1, 2014, Jack City ended its run on free TV due to the preparations being made by BEAM 31 for the incoming transition to ISDB-T digital television, though it continues to be broadcast as a separate cable channel. However, Jack City continued to broadcast on cable networks until March 21, 2015. After Jack City's closure to free TV, BEAM aired under blocktime programs from various local production and religious companies. On November 15, 2014, BEAM began being carried on SkyCable and Destiny Cable subscribers (per compliance with NTC's "must-carry" basis). This move resulted of Jack City in a change of its channel assignment for SkyCable and Destiny Cable subscribers, as well as several pay TV companies.
In 2015, Solar Entertainment Corporation launched the #1stonPHTV brand of Solar channels for ETC, 2nd Avenue, Jack TV, Jack City and My Movie Channel, with the brand implemented on January 6, 2015. Since then, all SEC channels broadcast first-run foreign television programs with the hashtag #1stonPHTV (First on Philippine TV), which was formerly known as "Match Airing" (ETC), "Playing 1st" (Jack TV), "The Newest in the US" and "FastCast" (2nd Avenue) and "See It First" (Jack City).
The Game Channel, after almost three years on broadcasting, selling or ceased on February 28, 2015. The channel space was taken over by My Movie Channel on March 1.
On March 22, 2015, Jack City was replaced by CT, thus becoming independent from its parent network. Upon launch, the channel broadened its programming focus by adding talk shows, sitcoms and men's lifestyle programs to its roster.
On March 26, 2015, Solar Entertainment announced its broadcast of the "Fight Of The Century" between Manny Pacquiao and Floyd Mayweather Jr. on May 3, 2015. As stated in a press conference that day, it was broadcast on May 3 via delayed broadcast in three major television stations in the Philippines, ABS-CBN, TV5, and GMA Network (who waived its exclusive contract with Solar to allow its multi-network coverage, but maintained its exclusive live broadcast on its radio division), with Solar Sports as its main content provider for this historic event in boxing.
On July 1, 2015, My Movie Channel ceased broadcasting. The closure or selling was announced by Solar a day before.
Rebranding of the four flagship networks
On October 16, 2016, Solar relaunched its flagship channels ETC, 2nd Avenue, Basketball TV and Solar Sports. The four networks unveiled their new logos, on-air graphics and station IDs, which took effect on that day. CT, Jack TV, Shop TV and NBA Premium TV on the other hand remains unchanged. Also that day, Solar launched its corporate campaign slogan ...There's More To Come, which evolved in 2017 as We go for More.
In 2017, Solar Entertainment became the official Philippine broadcaster of the 65th edition of the Miss Universe in Manila. This led to another deal with ABS-CBN, TV5 and GMA (the second time that such deal happened between Solar and the Big 3 networks). According to some sources, a directive from President Duterte ordered that the major networks must cover the prestige pageant as it happens live in the Philippines. Alongside the Big Three, Solar Entertainment channels etc, 2nd Avenue, Jack TV and CT aired the pageant simultaneously. It was also in the same year when Solar Entertainment forged a joint venture with the Bermuda-based communications satellite company Asia Broadcast Satellite to launch the first nationwide free-to-air direct-to-home satellite television services using the C-band, which is set to launch on the 3rd quarter of the year.
Carriage disputes
Sky Cable
2008
Solar's channels have ceased airing on Sky Cable, the Philippines' largest cable television provider. An insider claims that these troubles with Sky Cable started when boxer Manny Pacquiao, whose fights Solar Entertainment has the exclusive right to air and distribute to, moved from ABS-CBN, the flagship television network of ABS-CBN Corporation and the primary owner of Sky Cable Corporation, to rival GMA Network. Another insider claims that SkyCable wanted to remove ETC and Jack TV to make room for their own channels, Velvet (now defunct) and Maxxx (now defunct). Sky Cable wanted to retain C/S, 2nd Avenue, Solar Sports and Basketball TV, but Solar made a decision that they would only renew their contract if Sky Cable carried all six channels. Thus, Solar decided to pull out all their channels rather than remove ETC and Jack TV.
However, Solar has signed a deal with local terrestrial channels ABC, RPN, SBN and RJTV for block-time programming. C/S, ETC and 2nd Avenue programming are seen on terrestrial TV channels RPN, SBN and RJTV, respectively, while NBA and WWE programming were seen on TV5, now moved to RPN (WWE programming are currently being broadcast thru TV5, while its terrestrial NBA coverage were moved to ABS-CBN Sports under Solar).
Most of its channels were later returned to Sky Cable, while Jack TV would eventually return to its lineup on October 1, 2010, replacing Maxxx.
Meanwhile, Pacquiao's boxing promotion, Top Rank, signed a non-guaranteed contract with ABS-CBN Sports to exclusively air fights promoted by Top Rank, with the exception of Pacquiao fights which are still signed exclusively through Solar Entertainment.
2017–2019
On April 10, 2017, 3 days before the 2017 NBA Playoffs was scheduled to begin (and coincided with the final day of the 2016–17 NBA regular season), Basketball TV, NBA Premium TV, Solar Sports, Jack TV and CT (now defunct) were removed by Solar from Sky Cable (including Sky Direct, Destiny Cable & Sky On Demand thru video on demand) without any prior announcement from Solar. Initially, both Basketball TV and NBA Premium TV were replaced by airing a simulcast of ABS-CBN Sports and Action with a ticker announcing the unavailability of the channels, with Solar Sports, Jack TV and CT (now defunct) also doing the latter albeit with a black screen. Later, almost all of the pulled-out Solar channels were replaced by an imaging card, initially detailing the unavailability of the channels and then later, announcing that they will discuss with Solar on returning the aforementioned channels; while for BTV and NBA Premium TV, a schedule of the NBA games that will air on ABS-CBN, ABS-CBN Sports and Action and Fox Sports within the week and a loop of an NBA promo. Solar did not comment on the situation for the removal of the channels, but sources and some netizens pointed out a carriage dispute between the two parties for not paying an undisclosed price to continue broadcasting these channels, which was later proven true by an article published by the Philippine Daily Inquirer.
As the dispute continued, some media enthusiasts and netizens raised concerns of whether these Solar channels will return to Sky and/or Destiny. Others pointed that inaction between the two parties could affect the next long-term local broadcast franchise with the NBA, slated to begin at the Association's 2019-2020 regular season. (Solar and Sky's parent, ABS-CBN, would share the airing of NBA games on pay and terrestrial television. Rumours circulated that both networks may bid separately, if they could not reach renewal, and use their respective infrastructure to broadcast adequate NBA coverage. Otherwise, rival networks with a functioning sports department like The 5 Network may also seek their own bidding to take over the 2019 contract from both Solar and ABS-CBN.)
Netizens and viewers were dismayed and frustrated by the removal of the said channels by Sky Cable, most notably for BTV and NBA Premium due to the importance of the Playoffs. Some netizens were angered by the removal of the said channels and asked Sky Cable to return the channels before the scheduled Playoffs would begin, however Sky Cable would respond to angered netizens on social media that they are "fixing the situation with Solar". Other netizens and viewers would otherwise switch providers from Sky Cable to other cable companies that carried these channels or to other satellite providers like Cignal.
On October 16, 2018, Basketball TV and NBA Premium TV returned to Sky Cable, Sky Direct, & Sky On Demand after an 18 month absence; however it was removed on October 28, 2018, for unknown reasons.
The carriage dispute officially ended on January 1, 2019, when all Solar channels: Basketball TV, NBA Premium TV, Solar Sports, and Jack TV were restored on Sky (including Sky On Demand & Sky Direct).
Ironically, MTVph, which is a Solar channel, ended its operations on the same day at that time Sky resumed the affected Solar channels. As of 2019, Sky's sister company Destiny Cable still did not carry all the aforementioned Solar channels despite its aforementioned return on Sky Cable.
During the aforementioned period, Shop TV, ETC and 2nd Avenue (now defunct) were kept on-the-air, due to the "must-carry" rules by the NTC. MTVph was also kept on the air (until it was discontinued on January 1, 2019) since it was carried in a separate programming agreement outside of the affected channels despite its ownership.
Dream Satellite TV
Dream Satellite TV ceased carrying three Solar Channels, namely Solar Sports, ETC (which was at that time a cable channel prior to its move to free TV and cable) and 2nd Avenue (now defunct) (except C/S 9) effective February 1, 2009. Dream's carriage contract with Solar Entertainment, which expired on December 31, 2008, was not renewed by Dream, citing financial constraints as its main reason. The three Solar channels were replaced by A&E's The History Channel, Biography Channel and Crime and Investigation Channel. As of 2017, ETC and 2nd Avenue remained on its lineup due to the "must-carry" rules of the NTC.
Unfortunately, Dream Satellite ended its operations on December 31, 2017, due to bankruptcy and its competition with other satellite providers.
Divisions / Subsidiaries
ETC Productions
Blink
Solar Pictures
Domestic Satellite Philippines, Inc. (DOMSAT)
Southern Broadcasting Network (acquired in 2010 from Lucio Co's Gem Communications Holdings Corporation)
Solar Digital Media Holdings (operator of Solar's digital television service Easy TV Home)
Filmography of Solar Pictures
Notable local films released or distributed by Solar Pictures
Syota ng Bayan (2001)
Batas Militar (2006)
Pacquiao: The Movie (2006) - with Star Cinema
Anak Ng Kumander (2007)
Ang Tanging Pamilya (2009) - with Star Cinema
Kimmy Dora: Kambal sa Kiyeme (2009) - with Star Cinema
Wapakman (2009)
Flames of Love (2012)
Sapi (2013)
Mumbai Love (2014)
Bonifacio: Ang Unang Pangulo (2014)
Kid Kulafu (2015) - with Star Cinema
Ma' Rosa (2016)
Mulat (2016)
Apocalypse Child (2016)
Ang Larawan (2017, 43rd Metro Manila Film Festival's Best Picture)
Siargao (2017, 43rd Metro Manila Film Festival's 2nd Best Picture)
Citizen Jake (2018)
Mary, Marry Me (2018)
Rainbow's Sunset (2018)
Broadcast assets
Terrestrial TV channels
Shop TV (2005–present, digital platform only)
Solar Flix (SBN 21: 2022–present)
Solar Learning (2020–present, digital platform only)
Cable TV channels
Front Row Channel (2020–present, joint venture with Jungo TV)
Scream Flix (2022-present, joint venture with Jungo TV)
Solar All Access (2002–present, formerly Solar Sports PPV)
Solar Sports (1994–present, formerly Solar Entertainment Channel)
Former subsidiary, divisions and broadcast assets
Nine Media Corporation (formerly, Solar Television Network, Inc.; sold to ALC Group of Companies)
Solar News Channel (2012–2014)
Radio Philippines Network (34%)
Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (For NBA, Shop TV & Jai-Alai Games)
Rajah Broadcasting Network
Defunct cable channels and former digital TV distribution
2nd Avenue (Cable TV: 2005–2018, RJTV 29: 2008–2018, formerly ETC 2nd Avenue)
9TV (34%)1
Aniplus Asia (2018–2019)
BTV (2006–2019)
Boo (2018–2019)
C/S Origin (2008–2009)
C/S 9 (Cable TV: 2005–2007, RPN 9: 2008–2009)
CT (2015–2017)
Chase (BEAM TV 31: 2011–2012)
Hallmark Channel/Diva Universal Philippines (2009–2013)2
eGG Network (2020–2022, channel distribution only)
ETC (Cable TV: 2004–2022, SBN 21: 2008–2011, 2013–2022, RPN 9: 2011–2013)
Gone Viral TV (2018–2019)
Jack City (BEAM TV 31: 2012–2014, Cable TV: 2014–2015)
Jack TV (2005–2020, now on web portal)
K-Plus (2018–2019)
Living Asia Channel (2019)
MTV (2018–2019)
MTVph (2017–2018)3
Blink Cinema/My Movie Channel (2013–2015)
NBA League Pass
NBA Premium TV (2010–2019)
Outdoor Channel (2018–2019)
Playboy TV (2001-2005)
Solar News Channel (34%)4
Sports Plus (2004–2006)
Solar TV (RPN 9: 2009–2011)
Solar USA (2001–2005)
Talk TV (SBN 21: 2011–2012)
Telenovela Channel (2019)
TGC (BEAM TV 31: 2011–2012, Cable TV: 2011, 2012–2015)
SciFi/Universal Channel Philippines (2009–2012)2
Zee Sine (2018–2019)
ZooMoo (2018–2019)
See also
Solar Learning
References
External links
Media Ownership Monitor Philippines - Media Companies: A Duopoly Rules by VERA Files and Reporters Without Borders
Mass media companies of the Philippines
Entertainment companies of the Philippines
Philippine radio networks
Television networks in the Philippines
Television production companies of the Philippines
Television in Metro Manila
Mass media companies established in 1976
Mass media companies established in 1988
Mass media companies established in 2008
Television channels and stations established in 2000
Television channels and stations established in 2008
1976 establishments in the Philippines
1988 establishments in the Philippines
2008 establishments in the Philippines
Companies based in Mandaluyong
Privately held companies of the Philippines |
4202615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universidad%20de%20San%20Carlos%20de%20Guatemala | Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala | The Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (USAC, University of San Carlos of Guatemala) is the largest and oldest university of Guatemala; it is also the fourth founded in the Americas. Established in the Kingdom of Guatemala during the Spanish colony, it was the only university in Guatemala until 1954, although it continues to hold distinction as the only public university in the entire country.
The university grew out of the Colegio de Santo Tomás de Aquino (Saint Thomas Aquinas High School), founded in 1562 by Bishop Francisco Marroquín. After a series of major earthquakes in 1773, which destroyed many parts of the city of Santiago de los Caballeros, the crown authorities ordered the evacuation of the city and the relocation of its government, religious and university functions to the new capital La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción, the university's present location. In the early years, from the 16th to 19th centuries, it offered studies in civil and liturgical law, theology, philosophy, medicine and indigenous languages.
History
First era: Royal and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo
The university tradition in Guatemala and Central America goes back to the 17th century, when the University of San Carlos was founded on 31 January 1676 by Royal Decree of Carlos II in the colonial capital of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. The Royal University of San Carlos became the third Royal College founded in Spanish America and it was consecrated by Pope Innocent XI on June 18, 1687.
Colonization by the Spaniards implied a new formation of society, with its brand new civil and ecclesiastical institutions. As time went by, residents demanded a place in the royal institutions for their descendants, in return for the heroics of their ancestors during the battles of conquest. However, there were no schools to teach youth to become public servants.
It was not until the second half of the 16th century that the first initiatives to found schools that covered more than religious indoctrination and reading and writing took place. The first bishop of Guatemala, Francisco Marroquín, requested the approval of the Spanish crown to set up a grammar class, in which Latin was to be taught, as it was the intellectual language of the time. This single fact has been the basis to perpetuate the myth that links bishop Marroquin to the early stages of the University of San Carlos.
Towards the end of his life, in 1562, Marroquin left in his will some funds to set up a school, the Santo Tomás de Aquino, where Grammar, Arts, Philosophy and Theology would be taught. The beneficiaries of this pious enterprise would be the children of poor Spaniards, given that they could not travel to cities (like Mexico) where the Royal Universities were. This will has been also interpreted by scholars as the origin of the University of San Carlos. However, the late priest had a clear idea of the difference between a school (i.e., a home for students, with or without classes) and a university (or General Study) where the students earned degrees. About this, historian John Tate Lanning tells that "his will is so well known that there are some scholars that have not even seen it and have already read a lot of things that are not there at all. Nowhere in his will Marroquín talks about any university, much less talk about his intentions to establish one..." On the other hand, what is documented is that major Pedro Crespo Suárez left in his will twenty thousand pesos to set up the classes for the university that is "in the works with the authorities".
In 1598, the third bishop of Guatemala Gómez Fernández de Córdoba y Santillán, O.S.H., following ecclesiastical directions from the Council of Trent and on the basis of the royal decrees issued after that council, authorized the foundation of the "Nuestra Señora de la Asunción" School and Seminary, which was the first higher educational institution in the Kingdom of Guatemala. The Jesuits, who already had their Colegio de San Borja and wanted to run the seminary themselves, opposed its foundation, as they did not like other regular orders – Mercedarians, Franciscans and Dominicans or the leader of the secular clergy took an initiative in religious and educational matters.
The president of the Real Audiencia authorized that classes should start while they were awaiting the authorization to build the new school for the students; at the time they only had one classroom in the Dominican convent where, in theory, they gave the Arts, Theology and Religion classes. After several decades, discussions and petitions, king Carlos II on 31 January 1676, granted a license to the city of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala to found a university. This would be third royal university in the Spanish Empire in America, and the second in New Spain, after the one in Mexico. After the disputatious process of organization, and five years after the royal decree, the university started officially its lectures of five of the nine classes, on 7 January 1681, with little more of sixty registered students and with its first president, Dr. José de Baños y Soto Mayor, who was in charge of the cathedral, Preacher of the King of Spain and Doctor from the University of Osuna. The university started under the protection of San Carlos Borromeo, with its first directive written by Francisco Saraza y Arce, who copied from those of the University of México which, in turn, were adapted from the Universidad de Salamanca in Spain.
First graduates and science teaching
In 1660 the printer :es:José de Pineda Ibarra arrived at Santiago de los Caballeros. Among all his works he introduced university graduation cards, where it was written what the final exam was going to be about, date and time for the exam, and the names of the university authorities and student sponsors.
On 11 July 1717, thirty years after its papal sanction, the first medicine student graduated; his name was Vicente Ferrer González. The next physician to graduate was Pedro Palacios y Cóbar, who presented his final exam seventeen years later; and forty-seven years after that, the eminent Dr. José Felipe Flores graduated.
The Franciscan friar Juan Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea reformed university education towards the end of the 18th century by introducing science; Chemistry, Physics, Anatomy and Mathematics; and technology studies.
Second era: Science Academy
After Independence, the University of San Carlos lost its Royal status and became simply the "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo" but it was in a precarious position: after the move from Santiago de los Caballeros it had to use a borrowed building to teach, and in 1821 its new one was not finished yet; besides, the political climate of the region was very unstable at the time. In 1825, Dr. Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol was elected as president of the university, and kept the religious curriculum that the institution had had for decades. However, in 1829, the conservative regime of his brother Mariano de Aycinena y Piñol was defeated by the liberal general Francisco Morazán, and the conservatives – mainly the Aycinena family – and the regular clergy were expelled from Central America and the university was suspended. In 1834, when doctor Mariano Gálvez was head of State of Guatemala, he found the Science Academy in the State, which took the position that the Pontifical University had previously occupied; the new university eliminated religious education altogether and implemented classes of Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry and Physics; besides, the institution began to offer studies in engineering. The Academy of Science was open until 1840, because in that year the conservatives regained power in Guatemala under the strong leadership of General Rafael Carrera who reopened the old "Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo"; Dr. Aycinena was once again named as president of the university.
Third era: Pontifical University
The power that the Catholic Church and the Aycinena family – to whom most of Carrera's advisors and secretaries belonged – had during the conservative regime in Guatemala was ratified the Concordat of 1854, in which Guatemala entrusted the education of its people to the regular clergy of the Catholic Church, committed itself to respect all church property -including haciendas, monasteries and sugar mills, authorized mandatory tithing and let the bishops censor all the country's publications; in return, Guatemala obtained indulgences for Army members, was allowed to keep all those properties that had been taken from the orders in 1829 – provided they were now in private hands, received a tax of the church income and had the right to prosecute any priest or bishop under Guatemalan law, if necessary. The concordat was designed by Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol, who was a cabinet member of the government – besides being the university president; then, it was first ratified by Secretary of the Interior, Justice and Ecclesiastical affairs Pedro de Aycinena and finally, approved by president Rafael Carrera, who in 1854 was appointed as Guatemala's president for life.
Fourth era: The university during the Liberal regimes
After the Liberal Revolution in 1871, the conservatives defeat resulted in a complete change of direction in the education in Guatemala: once again the regular clergy was expelled from the country, and all of their properties we confiscated. The education changed from completely religious to agnostic and kept like that until 1954.
The new Liberal regime founded the Polytechnic School -Military Academy- in 1873 to prepare military engineers, topographers and telegraphers, besides military officers. In July 1875, Justo Rufino Barrios closed the Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo and in its place founded the Central College of Law and the Central College of Medicine and Pharmacy which formed the National University of Guatemala. The government decreed that the teaching of Medicine had to be practical – as much as possible – and philosophical, with all the modern scientific theories. In 1877, the government found the Western College of Law in Quetzaltenango and in 1879 founded the National Library.
Finally, in 1879 president Barrios founded the Colleges of Engineering, Philosophy and Literature.
President general Manuel Lisandro Barillas Bercián (1885–1892) founded the Western College of Medicine in Quetzaltenango and granted scholarship to the best students to continue their education abroad, both from Guatemala and Quetzaltenango.
On 21 March 1893, during the government of general José María Reina Barrios, decree #193 of the National Assembly established that all the board of directors members, deans and faculty of the National University colleges would be appointed by the President of Guatemala; thus the colleges lost the autonomy to select their own authorities.
In 1897, after the failure of the Exposición Centroamericana and the deep economic crisis that ensued, Reina Barrios implemented austerity measures that included closing the schools and university colleges. At the end of that year, Salvador Mendieta came back to Guatemala to attend the university, but due to the political stability of the times after the revolts against Reina Barrios both in the Eastern and Western regions of the country once it was known that Reina Barrios had extended his presidential term, and the closing of the university, decided to move to México in early 1898. However, after the assassination of president Reina Barrios on 8 February, the Guatemalan government reopened the educational institutions, claiming that they were the basis for all the Liberal institutions; Mendieta, then, registered to begin that semester in the College of Law of the National University.
Estrada Cabrera presidency
Nicaraguan citizen Salvador Mendieta, who had already been expelled once from the Central National Institute for Boys by the former president José María Reyna Barrios for attempting to form a student association aimed at criticizing the school principal, founded on 18 June 1899 along with other fellow students "El Derecho" student association. The new association had members from the colleges of Law, Engineering and Medicine and an ideology identified with the Central American union. The new society became public on 15 September 1899 when the Guatemala City mayor invited some of its members to ceremonies for the Independence of Central America celebration that took place in the College of Law.
This society had several humanistic and social goals:
gather all the Central American students around the idea of the region unity
tighten social relationships and encourage intellectual sharing
promote the formation of similar societies all across Central America
organize the fight between those who think and those who oppress.
Due to the strong accusations against his presidency, Estrada Cabrera closed "El Derecho" after only a year of its life, and they had Mendieta sent to prison after which he sent the Nicaraguan into exile for promoting rebellion against his government.
In April 1899, the National Assembly submitted Estrada Cabrera a decree declaring the autonomy of the university colleges to elect their own authorities; the president vetoed the decree indicating that "the colleges could not be autonomous given that they were dependent on the State in all senses [...]" Therefore, the different colleges remain as dependencies of the Secretary of Public Education, which submitted a yearly review of their status, and also recommended the president whom to choose as dean and faculty members. Also, by a decree published on 16 June 1900, Estrada Cabrera militarized all the male student centers, including the university colleges, who received military instruction for the six first months of their careers.
By 1907, the colleges were:
College of Law (seventy students)
College of Medicine and Pharmacy (150 students)
Dentistry institute (5 students)
School of midwives (10 students)
School of Engineering (15 students)
Note that in 1907, the school of Engineering was part of the National University. This school, due to budget reasons, was alternatively part of the National University and the military academy; finally in 1908, the school was left as part of the university for good, after president Estrada Cabrera closed the academy following a failed assassination attempt that the cadets had plotted against him.
In 1918, the servility towards the presidents was at its peak and the university was renamed "University of Guatemala, Estrada Cabrera", by decree of the National Assembly on 2 May 1918. Francisco Galvez Portocarrero, close friend of the president, lobbied heavily for the new university given that in a recent trip to Perú], Argentina and Chile, he liked the model the universities followed in those South American countries. Upon returning to Guatemala, Galvez – who was also a National Assembly representative- brought along a complete library about universities and convinced both the president and the Assembly members to create the "University of Guatemala".
Carlos Herrera presidency (1920–1921)
University "Estrada Cabrera", was closed after the falling of the former president. However, one of the first decrees of the new president Carlos Herrera y Luna -appointed president by the National Assembly on 8 April- was to appoint new authorities and faculty for the National University, which now had the following academic departments:
College of Natural Science and Pharmacy
College of Law
College of Medicine
College of engineering
Herrera y Luna, as a token of appreciation of all the efforts of the university students during the last days of Estrada Cabrera regime, gave the different colleges their autonomy to elected their own authorities, although it did not grant them full autonomy. At this time the Student Body Association was founded and included Miguel Ángel Asturias, among a series of other Guatemalan intellectuals, and the second era of "El Derecho" Law student association, which had been closed by Estrada Cabrera in 1899.
Fifth era: the university after the 1944 Revolution
After the revolution against general Ubico's successor, general Federico Ponce Vaides, on 20 October 1944, the new government granted its complete autonomy to the university; Decree #12 on 11 November 1944 granted autonomy and renamed the institution as "Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala" ("University of San Carlos of Guatemala"). The university's new role was to be director of college education in Guatemala, and to cooperated in study and solution of the critical problems that Guatemala faced at the time.
New colleges were created that time:
College of Human Studies: created by then president Dr. Juan José Arévalo on 17 September 1945. Among its founder were Dr. Eduardo García Máynez -professor emeritus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México- as honorary faculty. The college studied: Philosophy, History, Literature, Psychology and Pedagogy.
College of Agriculture
College of Architecture
College of Economics
Likewise, access was granted to both women and to all the society members that had been excluded from the institution in the past.
After 1954 coup d'état
Following its constitutional mandate, the university became involved in the political life of the country, presenting concrete social, economic and political proposals. However, with the beginning of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union -major super powers that split world dominance after their victory in World War II, the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, the Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the influx of students from all over the social spectrum in Guatemala, Marxism became radical in the university. Besides, then archbishop of Guatemala Mariano Rossell y Arellano found out that it was urgent to recover some of the former influence Catholic Church used to have, and that it lost during the liberal regime of Justo Rufino Barrios in 1872, and therefore decided to work with the United Fruit Company to get rid of the Revolutionary governments whom he accused of atheist and communist. On 4 April 1954, Rossell y Arellano issued an open letter in which he denounced Communism advances in the country, and begged Guatemalans to rise in arms and fight against the common enemy of God and the Land. His letter has published all over Guatemala, and even though he kept claiming that the Catholic Church was not seeking privileges in its anticommunist quest, Rossel y Arellano was able that after the 1954 coup, new president colonel Carlos Castillo Armas included the following back in the new Constitution of Guatemala, for the first time since 1872:
that the Catholic Church had the right to own real estate and other properties
that religious education was declared of public interest
that the State supported religious education
that there were independent private universities not connected with University of San Carlos.
This way, the Catholic Church recover some of the former power it held before 1871, when the Liberal Reform confiscated its properties and cancelled its privileges, in a direct attack against it as the main conservative party member of the time.
Nottebohm case and the Dean of the College of Law
Between 1951 and 1955, College of Law dean, Dr. Adolfo Molina Orantes, worked as a legal advisor for the Guatemalan delegation before the International Court of Justice of The Hague for the Nottebohm case (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) [1955]. The case about Mr. Nottebohm, who was born 16 September 16, 1881, in Hamburg, Germany and possessed German citizenship although he lived in Guatemala from 1905 until 1943 because he never became a citizen of Guatemala. On October 9, 1939, Nottebohm applied to become a naturalized citizen of Liechtenstein. The application was approved and he became a citizen of that country. He then returned to Guatemala on his Liechtenstein passport and informed the local government of his change of nationality. When he tried to return to Guatemala once again in 1943 he was refused entry as an enemy alien since the Guatemalan authorities did not recognize his naturalization and regarded him as still German. It has been suggested that the timing of the event was due to the recent entry of the United States and Guatemala into the Second World War. He was later extradited to the United States, where he was held at an internment camp until the end of the war. All his possessions in Guatemala were confiscated. After his release, he lived out the rest of his life in Liechtenstein.
The Government of Liechtenstein granted Nottebohm protection against unjust treatment by the government of Guatemala and petitioned the International Court of Justice. However, the government of Guatemala argued that Nottebohm did not gain Liechtenstein citizenship for the purposes of international law. The court agreed and thus stopped the case from continuing.
The Nottebohm case was subsequently cited in many definitions of nationality. and Dr. Molina Orantes was recognized as an expert in international Law and named permanent consultant of the International Court.
Private universities
As a result of the political climate changes after the coup of 1954, the society elites decided to create their own private universities, which would have very different ideologies from the ones presented in the University of San Carlos. Basically the new institutions would have capitalist and liberal ideologies while the national university chose Marxism. After heavy lobbying, in 1965 the new ISR tax law exonerated potential private universities from any kind of taxation and state contributions, and in 1966 the Law of Private Universities was approved.
Research on Guatemalan history
In 1957 the highly regarded Marxist historian :es:Severo Martínez Peláez return to Guatemala after his exile and joined the university as a faculty member. The College of Economics dean, Rafael Piedrasanta Arandi, and the university president, Edmundo Vásquez Martínez, approved a scholarship for Martinez Pelaez to research the Archivo General de Indias in Sevilla, Spain between 1967 and 1969. From this research comes his main work, La patria del criollo, published in 1970, as well as the program of Economic History of Central America of the College of Economics and the total reform of the School of History in 1978.
In 1979, due to death threats from the general Fernando Romeo Lucas García regime, Martínez Peláez had to go into exile once again with his family and continued with his research and teaching activities in the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla in Mexico, where he was an invited speaker in several seminars and created new curricula for the College of History. Besides, he had important meetings with historians and Guatemalan exiles in Mexico.
Veterinary medicine
The College of Veterinary was created on 27 September 1957, and initially was part of the College of Medicine and was located in the old Medicine Building in Guatemala City Historical Downtown. In 1958 and 1959 it moved into private homes that the university rented in zones 9 and 4 of Guatemala City; it also used the university's Botanic Garden library in zone 4. By 1960, the College of Veterinary moved into its definite home in the main University campus.
On 11 January 1969 the School of Animal Studies, which was independent of the School of Veterinary medicine. and on 27 September 1974 it moved into the new modular buildings on the southwest section of the main campus, next to the Veterinary Medicine Hospital.
Repression and decline
During general Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes presidency, the university started suffering repression due to its position alongside the main labor unions, with three students murdered in front of the College of Law in 1962.
The EXMIBAL Case
During the government of Julio César Méndez Montenegro the possibility of giving the nickel mines in Izabal in concession to a Canadian mining company was brought to the table, but it did not materialized. As soon as the general Carlos Arana Osorio took office on 1 July 1970, he reopened the case and began working in for EXMIBAL to get a concession. However, many social sectors opposed to it, arguing that it would be too costly for the country. One of the main opponents was the commission that the University of San Carlos created to discuss the matter; among the members of the commission was the lawyer Oscar Adolfo Mijangos López, then representative in the Congress, the respected Guatemalan intellectual Alfonso Bauer Paiz -who had been part of the staff of presidents Juan José Arévalo Bermejo and Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, and Julio Carney Herrera Both Camey Herrera and Bauer Paiz were shot in November 1970: Carney died of his wounds while Bauer Paz, severely wounded, had to go into exile.
The commission members had strongly opposed the conditions proposed by the Government to grant the concession EXMIBAL; after the attack against Bauer Paiz and Carney, on 13 February 1971 Mijangos López was assassinated by unknown assailants as he left his office long the 4th Avenue in Zone 1 of the Guatemala City. Mijangos Lopez had been under the fatal impression that the government was not going to assassinate him because he was on a wheelchair since 1958.
On 8 May 1971, Arana Osorio's administration finally granted the concession to EXMIBAL; it covered 385 square kilometers in the area of El Estor, with and initial investment of US$228 million. The mine, built in the mountains of indigenous maya Q'eqchi people, included a residential complex of 700 homes, numerous offices, a hospital, a small shopping center, school, a golf course and a large area for industrial processing.
Laugerud and Lucas García military governments
During the military governments of the seventies, the tension between the government and the university kept growing, until it reached its peak in 1978 during the massive demonstration that occurred to protest rising urban public transportation costs. The Association of University Students (AEU) had a leading role in the protests, but this brought persecution of their leaders and the murder of the secretary general of the association Oliverio Castañeda de León, on 20 October of that year. Just fifteen days after the murder of Castañeda de León, was missing his successor, Antonio Ciani García, and over the next 18 months almost every student leader and university faculty with political connections were threatened (even with the legal parties). Whoever did not paid attention and continued with their protest activities, was simply killed or kidnapped.
In early 1979, the following attacks occurred against renowned members of the university:
On 25 January 1979, Alberto Fuentes Mohr, Doctor of Economics, Congress representative, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) and former minister of Finance and Foreign Affairs during the administration of Julio César Méndez Montenegro, was murdered.
That same day, but a few hours later, was shot and killed the student and union leader Ricardo Martinez Solorzano.
On 14 February, Manuel Lisandro Andrade Roca, general secretary of the university in the tenure of Saúl Osorio Paz as university president -and a student leader during the "Marches of 1962"- was killed.
On 22 March, former Guatemala City mayor Manuel Colom Argueta was killed, in an operation in which his murderers allegedly used a helicopter to direct the operation Colom had been director of Center for Urban and Regional Studies (CEUR) of the University of San Carlos of Guatemala and a political leader of the United Revolutionary Front (FUR). Next to Fuentes Mohr, he was the most prominent members of the legal political opposition and their deaths ended, even more, the political space in Guatemala. These murders and threats against leaders of the FUR and the PSD continued in 1979 and 1980, and in subsequent years against the Guatemalan Christian Democracy party.
At the university, university president Saúl Osorio Paz, after attacks on his colleagues and death threats against him, began to live in presidency, protected by student brigades of the communist FRENTE student party. In an unprecedented case, the president directed the university from underground for almost two years.
The effect of state repression was worse on the student movement: the AEU ended decimated. Despite all this, the association continued to be a belligerent organization during this campaign of terror. To protect themselves, the AEU restructured its organizational form such that their leaders were not so vulnerable, and declined to reveal their names.
In January 1979, a new freshmen generation arrived to the university. Many of them had been members of the CEEM or student associations in the public institutes and had participated in the events of October 1978. It was them who took the leadership of the AEU. But it was much more difficult to replace the fallen or exiled faculty, which resulted in a marked decline in the academic quality of the institution. Later, laws that severely restricted the university autonomy were proposed, and violating the constitutional mandate to give 5% of the national budget to the institution became commonplace for the government.
Burning the Spain Embassy in Guatemala
On 31 January 1980, several students from the University of San Carlos advised a k'iche' peasant group who wanted to let the world know about their precarious situation; when the country's newspapers did not dare to publish their demands, and after all legal avenues to be heard had been exhausted, the group decided to take the premises of the Embassy of Spain and use it as a platform for their demands. The reaction of the government of general Fernando Romeo Lucas García was strong and direct: police surrounded the premises of the embassy and after several hours of siege, the situation ended with the burning of the room where all the people who were inside the embassy had taken refuge, including almost the entire Embassy staff and some random visitors, including former vice president of Guatemala, Eduardo Cáceres Lehnhoff and former Foreign Affairs Minister, Adolfo Molina Orantes. The only two survivors were Ambassador Máximo Cajal López and peasant Gregorio Yuja Xona, who were taken to the Private Hospital Herrera Llerandi. Yuja was kidnapped there and a group tried to kidnap the ambassador, but he was taken from the hospital just in time by the ambassador of Costa Rica in Guatemala; Cajal left the country that night. Yuja, meanwhile, was tortured and his body thrown off the premises of the president mansion at the University of San Carlos. His body was buried in the Heroes and Martyrs Plaza on Central Campus.
1985 civil unrest: military invasion of Central Campus
During the government of general Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, the Mutual Support Group (GAM) -led by Nineth Montenegro- was founded and the High School Student Coordination Group (CEEM) also gained considerable strength. The latter was formed by students from the Central National Institute for Boys, the Central Normal Institute for Young Ladies Belén and Rafael Aqueche which organized mass protests in September 1985 against the rising prices for public transportation. At least ten people died in Guatemala City in the most extensive wave of urban unrest since protests against the government of Fernando Romeo Lucas García in August 1978. The unrest began with demonstrations against rising prices public transportation but then became widespread due to the bad economic situation the country was in at the time. Burning of buses, blockades and massive protests that resulted in destruction of public infrastructure occurred almost every day. The government responded with three thousand Army soldiers, whom supported by light armored forces and the riot squad of the National Police, were deployed in central and peripheral areas of the city. Also, the night of 3 September 1985 the University of San Carlos of Guatemala was occupied by the military who allegedly found an underground shooting range subversive propaganda.
Several hundred people were arrested and General Mejia Víctores addressed the nation through a television and radio address in which he announced measures to address prevailing social unrest. General Mejia announced public schools closure until further notice and the freezing of prices of consumer goods; in the end, as part of the process solution a high school student bonus was granted to both elementary and high schools so they could be transported free in public transportation, plus all the public school students were promoted by decree. Students who graduated by decree in 1985 were received with brutal initiations by the different student bodies through the university.
Constitution of 1985: Election of judges and university representatives before government institutions
After the murder or forced exile of most of its faculty, the stability of the College of Law after the Guatemalan Civil War was recovered with deanship of Cipriano Soto Tobar, who took office in 1988. Soto Tobar took a significant effort on hiring faculty. However, his main goal was to establish political networks to favor political lobbies exploiting the new role that the Constitution assigned to the University of San Carlos: which, enacted in 1985, entrusted the College of Law and the University of San Carlos with the task of naming representatives to the process of election of judges of the highest courts of the land, as well as the Comptroller General of Accounts, and the Chief Public Prosecutor Also, the university was given the power to send a judge to the Constitutionality Court.
These networks took hold and strengthened through the 1990s, with relationships set up between institutions and societal sectors beyond the university. After leaving the deanship, the University Council nominated Soto to the Constitutionality Court, although there were persistent rumors that he was selling diplomas and certificates. However, his application was accepted because his involvement in these felonies could not be proved because no credible evidence was presented. Two of his performances in the Constitutionality Court showed possible political compromise: first, he voted to validate an illegal adoption network and, then he voted in favor of the registration as a presidential candidate of general Efraín Ríos Montt, despite the prohibition of the 1985 Constitution, which does not allowed as a candidate anybody that had been part of a coup d'état. In those years, adoption networks operating in Guatemala could collect up to US$60,000 per child and went from delivering 1200 children in 1997 to more than four thousand in 2004.
Estuardo Galvez, who took that dean office in 2000 and later went on to become university president, was one of the members of the networks established by Soto; realizing the importance of the Bar Association, which was also a participant in the election of judges -and until then controlled by lawyers linked to the traditional capital of the country- Galvez sought from the beginning of his term to favor his post graduate students placing them in public institutions so that they could show their loyalty with favorable votes in the Bar elections. After several elections, and once Galvez was no longer dean, the network that Soto set up beat the traditional capital lawyers in the Bar Association elections by 300 votes; as recorded in the minutes, the majority of his votes were young lawyers -his former students.
Student leaders murders in 1989
In 1987, the president of the Student Association "El Derecho" (AED), Willy Ligorría, was expelled from the Association of University Students (AEU) for embezzling funds from the Huelga de Dolores Committee, for his direct involvement in an embezzlement money of the association and usurpation of functions and for signing as acting as general secretary in various activities and international documents. After his departure, a series of death threats against members of the board of the AEU began: in 1989 there was a steady escalation of threats, some of them signed by death squads as "the Dolorosa", the "Jaguar of Justice" or "Secret Anticommunist-Army". Despite his expulsion, Ligorría, maintained a very high and combative profile, while his close friend, Marco Tulio Montenegro, was still part of AEU.
In 1989, several student body leaders returned to Guatemala from exile intending to achieve a resurgence of student coordination, which was practically dismantled since the seventies. But on August 21, Iván Ernesto Gonzalez was arrested and kidnapped; the next day, Carlos Contreras Conde, leader of the University Student Movement (MEU), was abducted near the university. That same day Hugo Leonel Gramajo was abducted and introduced in a red pick-up with foreign plates. On 23 August, Victor Hugo Rodriguez Jaramillo and Silvia Azurdia Utrera founders of MEU, were kidnapped and taken violently amid two cars that blocked their way. And Mario De León left a press conference that the Student Body held that day at around 19:45 hours and was detained by the National Police and has not been seen again since. Finally, Aaron Ochoa disappeared the next day.
During an emergency meeting in which the response to the government offensive was being discussed, Willy Ligorría called to say that he knew where Hugo Gramajo and Aaron Ochoa were hidden and that he could bring the still free student leaders to them. In September other members of the student movement, Carlos Chutá Carney, Carlos Humberto Cabrera and Carlos Palencia were kidnapped and found dead shortly afterwards.
After the murders of the student leaders, Ligorría spoke at some rallies in college and participated in the demonstrations that took place. On Saturday September 15 at 14:15 hours he left for Panamá along with Marco Tulio Montenegro and Byron Milian Vicente. Montenegro returned to Guatemala on 11 November 1989 to rejoin the AEU, but he was already a suspect, and was killed with knife soon after. Meanwhile, Ligorría was appointed head of research of public prosecutions. On September 12, 1997, the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, which became a political party after the peace accords, formally accused Ligorría for his involvement in the murder of the student leader, claiming that he was a member of military intelligence.
University presidents
"Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Carlos Borromeo" presidents
Dr. José de Baños y Soto Mayor, arcediano de la Catedral, Predicador del Rey de España y Doctor de la Universidad de Osuna
Antonio de Larrazábal y Arrivillaga(1813, 1820–1825)
Dr. Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol (1825–1829)
"Academia de Ciencias" presidents
Dr. Pedro Molina Mazariegos (1836–1840).
"Pontificia Universidad de San Carlos Borromeo" Presidents
Bishop Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol, (1840–1865)
National University presidents
Dr. Agustín Gómez
Dr. Carlos Federico Mora (1944)
University of San Carlos presidents
Dr. Carlos Federico Mora (1944–1945)
Dr. Carlos Martínez Durán
Dr. Mario Dary Rivera
Dr. Edmundo Vásquez Martínez (1966–1970)
Rafael Cuevas
Saúl Osorio Paz (-14 de julio 1980)
Roberto Molina Mejía (14 July 1980 – 31 July 1980)
Dr. Eduardo Meyer Maldonado
Roderico Segura
Alfonso Fuentes Soria
Jafeth Cabrera
Efraín Medina
Dr. Carlos Estuardo Gálvez Barrios
Dr. Carlos Alvarado Cerezo
Ing. Murphy Olimpo Paz Recinos
Pablo Ernesto Oliva Soto
Walter Mazariegos Biolis
Colleges
University of San Carlos colleges are structured as follows:
Board of directors
Each college board of directors is structure with a dean, who runs it, a secretary and five trustees, of whom two are professor representatives, one is a representative of the professional association and two are student representatives.
Dean
The deans are the directors and representative of their colleges and work on four-year terms. To be reelected a dean needs 3/5 parts of the electors, a new dean needs half +1.
Academic units
The university has 40 academic units:
10 colleges;
10 schools;
19 regional centers
1 Technical Institute
Colleges
Schools
Regional Campuses
Sports
The school's football club Universidad de San Carlos (Guatemalan football club) of the Liga Nacional de Fútbol plays at Estadio Revolución located on campus grounds.
Notable alumni
A list of notable faculty and alumni can be found in List of notable students and faculty of University of San Carlos of Guatemala.
Gallery
See also
Guatemala Civil War
History of Guatemala
List of universities in Guatemala
List of colonial universities in Latin America
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
Lanning, John Tate. The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment in the University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Ithaca: University Press Cornell 1958.
External links
Official webpage of the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala
Educational institutions established in the 1670s
1676 establishments in the Spanish Empire
1676 establishments in North America
Guatemalan Revolution
Forestry education
Charles Borromeo |
4202667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Violencia | La Violencia | La Violencia (, The Violence) was a ten-year civil war in Colombia from 1948 to 1958, between the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party, fought mainly in the countryside.
La Violencia is considered to have begun with the assassination on 9 April 1948 of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, a Liberal Party presidential candidate and frontrunner for the 1949 November election. His murder provoked the Bogotazo rioting, which lasted ten hours and resulted in around 5,000 casualties. An alternative historiography proposes the Conservative Party's return to power following the election of 1946 to be the cause. Rural town police and political leaders encouraged Conservative-supporting peasants to seize the agricultural lands of Liberal-supporting peasants, which provoked peasant-to-peasant violence throughout Colombia.
La Violencia is estimated to have cost the lives of at least 200,000 people, almost 2% of the population of the country at the time.
Development
The La Violencia conflict took place between the Military Forces of Colombia and the National Police of Colombia supported by Colombian Conservative Party paramilitary groups on one side, and paramilitary and guerrilla groups aligned with the Colombian Liberal Party and the Colombian Communist Party on the other side.
The conflict caused millions of people to abandon their homes and property. Media and news services failed to cover events accurately for fear of revenge attacks. The lack of public order and civil authority prevented victims from laying charges against perpetrators. Documented evidence from these years is rare and fragmented.
The majority of the population at the time was Catholic. During the conflict there were press reports that Catholic Church authorities supported the Conservative Party. Several priests were accused of openly encouraging the murder of the political opposition during Catholic mass, including the Santa Rosa de Osos Bishop Miguel Ángel Builes, although this is unproven. No formal charges were ever presented and no official statements were made by the Holy See or the Board of Bishops. These events were recounted in the 1950 book Lo que el cielo no perdona ("What heaven doesn't forgive"), written by the secretary to Builes, Father Fidel Blandon Berrio. Eduardo Caballero Calderón also recounted these events in his 1952 book El Cristo de Espaldas ("Backwards Christ"). After releasing his book, Blandon resigned from his position and assumed a false identity as Antonio Gutiérrez. However, he was eventually identified and legally charged and prosecuted for libel by the Conservative Party.
As a result of La Violencia there were no liberal candidates for the presidency, congress, or any public corporations in the 1950 elections. The press accused the government of pogroms against the opposition. Censorship and reprisals were common against journalists, writers, and directors of news services; in consequence many media figures left the country. Jorge Zalamea, director of Critica magazine, fled to Buenos Aires; Luis Vidales to Chile; Antonio Garcia to La Paz, and Gerardo Molina to Paris.
Timeline
Before 1946
Since the 1920s, Conservatives had held the majority of governmental power, a position it would continue to occupy until the 2002 election of Alvaro Uribe. Even when Liberals gained control of the government in the 1930s, there was tension and even violent outbursts between peasants and landowners, as well as workers and industry owners. The number of yearly deaths from conflict, however, were far less than those estimated to have occurred during La Violencia.
1946–1947
In the 1946 election, Mariano Ospina Pérez of the Conservative party won the presidency, largely because the Liberal votes were split between two Liberal candidates.
Mariano Ospina Pérez and the Conservative party Government used the police and army to repress the Liberal party. Their response was to fight back with violent protests. This led to an increasing amount of pressure within political and civil society. Some consider La Violencia having started at this point because the Conservative government began increasing the backlash against Liberal protests and small rebel groups. There were an estimated 14,000 deaths in 1947 due to this violence.
1948
On April 9, 1948, Liberal Party leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was assassinated by Juan Roa Sierra on the street in Bogotá, via three shots from a revolver. Gaitán was a popular candidate and would have been the likely winner of the 1950 election. This began the Bogotazo as angry mobs beat Roa Sierra to death and headed to the presidential palace with the intent of killing President Ospina Pérez. The murder of Gaitán and subsequent rioting sparked other popular uprisings throughout the country. Because of the Liberal nature of these revolts, the police and military, who had been largely neutral before, either defected or became aligned with the Conservative government.
1949–1953
Initially, Liberal leaders in Colombia worked with the Conservative government to stop uprisings and root out Communists. In May 1949, Liberal leaders resigned from their positions within the Ospina Pérez administration, due to the widespread persecution of Liberals throughout the country. Attempting to end La Violencia, the Liberals, who had majority control of Congress, began impeachment proceedings against President Ospina Pérez on November 9, 1949. In response, Ospina Pérez dissolved the Congress, creating a Conservative dictatorship. The Liberal Party decided to stage a military coup, and it was planned for November 25, 1949. However, many of the party members decided it was not a good idea and called it off. One conspirator, Air Force Captain Alfredo Silva, in the city of Villavicencio, had not been notified of the abandonment of the plan and carried it out. After rallying the Villavicencio garrison, he disarmed the police and took control of the city. Silva proceeded to urge others in the region to join the revolt, and Eliseo Velásquez, a peasant guerrilla leader, took Puerto López on December 1, 1949, as well as capturing other villages in the Meta River region. In this time, Silva was caught and arrested by troops from Bogotá coming to take back control of Villavicencio.
In 1950, Laureano Gómez was elected president of Colombia, but it was a largely manipulated election, leading Gómez to become the new Conservative dictator.
After Alfredo Silva's disappearance, Velásquez assumed power of the forces in the Eastern Plains that, by April 1950, included seven rebel zones with hundreds of guerrillas known as the "cowboys". While in command of the forces, Velásquez suffered from a superiority complex, leading him to commit abuses including body mutilation of those killed. Without sufficient arms, during the first major offensive of the Conservative army, the Liberal forces took major losses and confidence in Velásquez was lost. New populist leaders took control of the different groups of rebels and eventually came together to impose a 10% tax on wealthy landowners in the region. This tax created divisions from the wealthy Liberals and the Conservative government used them to recruit counter guerrillas. The Conservative army then increased its offensive attacks; committing atrocities along the way, they burned entire villages, slaughtered animals, and massacred suspected rebels, as well as set up a blockade of the region. The rebels were able to combat the offensive with small, covert, attacks to capture outposts and supplies. By June 1951, the government agreed to a truce with the guerrilla forces and they temporarily lifted the blockade.
A few months after the truce, larger army units were sent to the Eastern Plains to end the Liberal revolt, but they were still unsuccessful. In this time, the Liberal leadership in Bogotá realized the Conservatives were not giving up power any time soon, and they wanted to organize a national revolt. In December 1951 and January 1952, Alfonso López Pumarejo, the former Colombian president and leader of the Liberal Party, made visits to the Eastern Plains to renew his alliance with the "cowboys". When López Pumarejo returned to Bogotá he issued declarations stating that the guerrillas were not criminals but were simply fighting for freedom, and in response the Conservative dictatorship shut down the newspapers and imposed strict censorship. 1952 passed with only small skirmishes and no organized guerrilla leader, but by June 1953, Guadalupe Salcedo had assumed command.
In 1952 the future revolutionary leader Ernesto "Che" Guevara, then an unknown young man traveling through South America, briefly visited Bogotá. In a letter he wrote to his mother on July 6, 1952, later published in "The Motorcycle Diaries", Guevara noted that "There is more repression of individual freedom here than in any country we've been to, the police patrol the streets carrying rifles and demand your papers every few minutes". He went on to describe the atmosphere as "tense" and "suffocating", even hypothesizing that "a revolution may be brewing".
In other parts of Colombia, different rebel groups had formed in throughout 1950; they formed in Antioquia, Tolima, Sumapaz, and the Middle Magdalena Valley. On January 1, 1953, these groups came together to launch an attack against the Palanquero Air Base, with the hope of using the jet planes to bomb Bogotá and force the resignation of the Conservative dictatorship. The attack relied entirely on surprise to be successful, but the rebels were spotted by the sentry posts and were quickly hit with machine gun fire. The attempt was a failure, however it did incite fear into Bogotá elites.
Conclusion
Most of the armed groups (called guerrillas liberales, a pejorative term) were demobilized during the amnesty declared by General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla after he took power on 13 June 1953. The most prominent Guerrilla leaders, Guadalupe Salcedo and Juan de la Cruz Varela, signed the 1953 agreement.
Some of the guerrilleros did not surrender to the government and organized into criminal bands or bandoleros, which caused intense military operations against them in 1954. One of them, the guerrillero leader Tirofijo, had changed his political and ideological inclinations from being a Liberal to supporting the Communists during this period, and eventually he became the founder of the communist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia or FARC.
Rojas was removed from power on 10 May 1957. Civilian rule was restored after moderate Conservatives and Liberals, with the support of dissident sectors of the military, agreed to unite under a bipartisan coalition known as the National Front and the government of Alberto Lleras Camargo and which included a system of alternating the president and power-sharing both in cabinets and public offices.
In 1958, Lleras Camargo ordered the creation of the Commission for the Investigation of the Causes of "La Violencia". The commission was headed by the Bishop Germán Guzmán Campos.
The last bandolero leaders were killed in combat against the army. Jacinto Cruz Usma, alias Sangrenegra (Blackblood), died in April 1964 and Efraín Gonzáles in June 1965.
Impacts
Humanitarian
Due to incomplete or non-existent statistical records, exact measurement of La Violencia'''s humanitarian consequences is impossible. Scholars, however, estimate that between 200,000 and 300,000 people died; 600,000 to 800,000 were injured; and almost one million people were displaced. La Violencia directly or indirectly affected 20 percent of the population.La Violencia did not acquire its name simply because of the number of people it affected; it was the manner in which most of the killings, maimings, and dismemberings were done. Certain death and torture techniques became so commonplace that they were given names—for example, picar para tamal, which involved slowly cutting up a living person's body; or bocachiquiar, where hundreds of small punctures were made until the victim slowly bled to death. Former Senior Director of International Economic Affairs for the United States National Security Council and current President of the Institute for Global Economic Growth, Norman A. Bailey describes the atrocities succinctly: "Ingenious forms of quartering and beheading were invented and given such names as the 'corte de mica', 'corte de corbata' (aka Colombian necktie), and so on. Crucifixions and hangings were commonplace, political 'prisoners' were thrown from airplanes in flight, infants were bayoneted, schoolgirls, some as young as eight years old, were raped en masse, unborn infants were removed by crude Caesarian section and replaced by roosters, ears were cut off, scalps removed, and so on." While scholars, historians, and analysts have all debated the source of this era of unrest, they have yet to formulate a widely accepted explanation for why it escalated to the notable level it did.
Legal
As a result of La Violencia, landowners were allowed to create private armies for their security, which was formally legalized in 1965. Holding private armies was made illegal in 1989, only to be made legal once more in 1994.
Historical interpretations
The death of the bandoleros and the end of the mobs was not the end of all the violence in Colombia. One communist guerrilla movement, the Peasant Student Workers Movement, started its operations in 1959. Later, other organizations such as the FARC and the National Liberation Army emerged, marking the beginning of a guerrilla insurgency.
Credence in conspiracy theories as causes of violence
As was common of 20th-century eliminationist political violence, the rationales for action immediately before La Violencia were founded on conspiracy theories, each of which blamed the other side as traitors beholden to international cabals. The left were painted as participants in a global Judeo-Masonic conspiracy against Christianity, and the right were painted as agents of a Nazi-Falangist plot against democracy and progress.
Anticlerical conspiracy theory
After the death of Gaitán, a conspiracy theory which was circulated by the left, that leading conservatives, militant priests, Nazis and Falangists were involved in a plot to take control of the country and undo the country's moves toward progress, spurred the violence. This conspiracy theory supplied the rationale for Liberal Party radicals to engage in violence, notably the anti-clerical attacks and killings, particularly in the early years of La Violencia. Some propaganda leaflets circulating in Medellín blamed a favorite of anti-Catholic conspiracy theorists, the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), for the murder of Gaitán.
Across the country, militants attacked churches, convents, and monasteries, killing priests and looking for arms, because they believed that the clergy had guns, a rumor which was proven to be false when no serviceable weapons were found during the raids. One priest, Pedro María Ramírez Ramos, was slaughtered with machetes and hauled through the street behind a truck, despite the fact that the militants had previously searched the church grounds and found no weapons.
Despite the circulation of the conspiracy theories and the propaganda after Gaitán was killed, most of the leftists who were involved in the rioting on 9 April learned from their errors, and as a result, they stopped believing that priests had harbored weapons.
The belief in the existence of some sort of conspiracy, a belief which was adhered to by members of both camps, made the political environment toxic, increasing the animosity and the suspicion which existed between both parties.
Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory
The Conservatives were also motivated by their belief in the existence of a supposed international Judeo-Masonic conspiracy. In their view, they would prevent the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy from coming to fruition by eliminating the Liberals who were in their midst. In the two decades prior to La Violencia, Conservative politicians and churchmen adopted from Europe the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory to portray the Liberal Party as involved in an international anti-Christian plot, with many prominent Liberal politicians actually being Freemasons.
Although most of the rhetoric of conspiracy was introduced and circulated by some of the clergy, as well as by Conservative politicians, by 1942, many clerics became critical of the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory. Jesuits outside Colombia had already questioned and published refutations of the authenticity of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', disproving the concept of a global Judeo-Masonic conspiracy. Regarding this same matter, Colombian clergy also came under the increasing influence of U.S. clergy; and Pius XI asked U.S. Jesuit John LaFarge, Jr. to draft an encyclical against anti-Semitism and racism. The belief in the existence of a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy played a prominent role in the politics of Laureano Gómez, who lead the Colombian Conservative Party from 1932 to 1953. More provincial politicians followed suit, and the fact that prominent national and local politicians voiced this conspiracy theory, rather than just a portion of the clergy, gave the idea greater credibility while it gathered momentum among the party's members.
The atrocities that were committed at the outset of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 were seen by both sides as a possible precedent for Colombia, causing both sides to fear that it could also happen in their country; this belief also spurred the credibility of the conspiracies and it also served as a rationale for violence. anticlerical violence in the Republican zones in Spain in the first months of that war when anarchists, left-wing socialists and independent communists burned churches and murdered nearly 7,000 priests, monks, and nuns, and used this to justify their own mass killings of Jews, Masons, and socialists.
See also
Central American crisis
Colombian Civil War
Colombian conflict
History of Colombia
History of FARC
Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America
List of civil wars
List of conflicts in Central America
List of conflicts in South America
Marquetalia Republic
Cali explosion
Notes
References
Further reading
Wirpsa, Leslie. Economics fuels return of La Violencia
Anti-clericalism
Antisemitism in South America
Attacks on religious buildings and structures in South America
Civil wars of the 20th century
Conservatism in Colombia
History of Catholicism in South America
Military history of Colombia
Persecution of Christians
Political repression in Colombia
Rebellions in South America
Revolution-based civil wars
20th-century Catholicism |
4202962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pekudei | Pekudei | Pekudei, Pekude, Pekudey, P'kude, or P'qude (—Hebrew for "amounts of," the second word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 23rd weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. It is the 11th and last in the Book of Exodus. The parashah tells of the setting up of the Tabernacle (, Mishkan).
It constitutes Exodus 38:21–40:38. The parashah is made up of 4,432 Hebrew letters, 1,182 Hebrew words, 92 verses, and 159 lines in a Torah scroll (, Sefer Torah). Jews read it the 22nd or 23rd Sabbath after Simchat Torah, in March. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024, 2027, 2030, 2033, 2038, 2041, 2043, 2046, and 2049), Parashat Pekudei is read separately. In common years (for example, 2026, 2028, 2029, 2031, 2032, 2034, 2036, 2039, 2040, 2042, 2044, 2047, 2048, and 2050), Parashat Pekudei is generally combined with the previous parashah, Vayakhel, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings (although in some non-leap years, such as 2025, 2037, and 2045, they are not combined).
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Exodus 38:21–39:1
In the first reading, at the direction of Moses, Aaron's son Ithamar oversaw the accounts of the Tabernacle, and the text sets forth the amounts of gold, silver, and copper that Bezalel, Oholiab, and their coworkers used. The silver came from the half-shekel a head for each man 20 years old or older who was counted in the census.
Second reading—Exodus 39:2–21
In the second reading, Bezalel, Oholiab, and their coworkers made the priests' vestments, the ephod, and the breastpiece—just as God had commanded Moses.
Third reading—Exodus 39:22–32
In the third reading, Bezalel, Oholiab, and their coworkers made the robe, the tunics of fine linen, and the frontlet inscribed "Holy to the Lord"—just as God had commanded Moses.
Fourth reading—Exodus 39:33–43
In the fourth reading, they brought the Tabernacle and all its furnishings to Moses, and he blessed them.
Fifth reading—Exodus 40:1–16
In the fifth reading, God told Moses to set up the Tabernacle, and Moses did just as God had commanded him.
Sixth reading—Exodus 40:17–27
In the sixth reading, it was the first day of the second year of the Exodus that Moses erected the Tabernacle and its furnishings—just as God had commanded Moses.
Seventh reading—Exodus 40:28–38
In the seventh reading, Moses finished the work, and the cloud covered the Tent of Meeting, and God's Presence filled the Tabernacle. When the cloud lifted from the Tabernacle, the Israelites would set out, and when the cloud did not lift, they would not set out. And God's cloud rested over the Tabernacle by day, and fire would appear in it by night, throughout the Israelites' journeys.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading may read the parashah according to a different schedule.
In inner-Biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Exodus chapters 25–39
This is the pattern of instruction and construction of the Tabernacle and its furnishings:
Exodus chapter 39
2 Chronicles 1:5–6 reports that the bronze altar that Bezalel built, which they brought to Moses in Exodus 39:39, still stood before the Tabernacle in Solomon's time, and Solomon sacrificed a thousand burnt offerings on it.
Exodus chapters 39–40
The Priestly story of the Tabernacle in Exodus 39–40 echoes the Priestly story of creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3. As the creation story unfolds in seven days, the instructions about the Tabernacle unfold in seven speeches. In both creation and Tabernacle accounts, the text notes the completion of the task. In both creation and Tabernacle, the work done is seen to be good. In both creation and Tabernacle, when the work is finished, God takes an action in acknowledgement. In both creation and Tabernacle, when the work is finished, a blessing is invoked. And in both creation and Tabernacle, God declares something "holy."
Jeffrey Tigay noted that the lampstand held seven candles, Aaron wore seven sacral vestments, the account of the building of the Tabernacle alludes to the creation account, and the Tabernacle was completed on New Year's Day. And Carol Meyers noted that Exodus 25:1–9 and 35:4–29 list seven kinds of substances—metals, yarn, skins, wood, oil, spices, and gemstones—signifying the totality of supplies. Martin Buber and others noted that the language used to describe the building of the Tabernacle parallels that used in the story of creation:
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Exodus chapter 38
Josephus taught that when the Israelites brought together the materials with great diligence, Moses set architects over the works by the command of God. And these were the very same people that the people themselves would have chosen, had the election been allowed to them: Bezalel, the son of Uri, of the tribe of Judah, the grandson of Miriam, the sister of Moses, and Oholiab, file son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Exodus chapter 38
The Midrash Tanḥuma taught that God considers studying the sanctuary's structure as equivalent to rebuilding it.
Reading Exodus 38:21, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," Rabbi Tanḥuma cited Proverbs 28:20, "A faithful man shall abound with blessings; but he that makes haste to be rich shall not be unpunished." Rabbi Tanḥuma taught that God always brings blessings through a person of integrity, but one who is not faithful and "makes haste to be rich shall not be unpunished." The Midrash taught that "a faithful man" refers to Moses, who was God's confidant, as Numbers 12:7 reports, "My servant Moses... is trusted in all My house." Thus, Solomon said in Proverbs 28:20, "A faithful man shall abound with blessings," because God blessed everything that Moses oversaw, on account of his trustworthiness. Another explanation of "A faithful man" is that it refers to Moses, who was made treasurer over the work of the Tabernacle. But the Rabbis taught, "One must not appoint fewer than two people to control the finances of a city or community," and the Midrash asked whether Moses was not solely in charge. The Midrash answered that although Moses was the sole treasurer, he called others to audit the accounts. The Midrash noted that Exodus 38:21 says, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," and does not say, "which Moses rendered," but "which were rendered according to the commandment of Moses." Thus the accounts were rendered through Moses but, as Exodus 38:21 reports, "by the hand of Ithamar" (implying that Moses showed all the accounts to Ithamar).
Reading Exodus 38:21, "as they were rendered according to the commandment of Moses," a Midrash taught that the Israelites did everything that they did by the command of Moses. And reading the continuation of Exodus 38:21, "through the service of the Levites, by the hand of Ithamar, the son of Aaron the priest," the Midrash taught that everything that Moses made was done through others. Even though everything was done with witnesses, as soon as the construction of the Tabernacle was completed, Moses wasted no time to promise the people the complete details of all the expenditures involved. Moses then began to expound in Exodus 38:21, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," saying how much he had expended on the Tabernacle. While engaged in this calculation, Moses completely forgot about 1,775 shekalim of silver that he had used for hooks for the pillars, and he became uneasy thinking to himself that the Israelites would find grounds to say that Moses took them for himself. So God opened the eyes of Moses to realize that the silver had been converted into hooks for the pillars. When the Israelites saw that the account now completely tallied, they were completely satisfied with the integrity of the work on the Tabernacle. And thus Exodus 38:21 says, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle," to report that the accounts balanced. The Midrash asked why Moses had to account to the Israelites, seeing as God trusted Moses so implicitly that God said in Numbers 12:7, "My servant Moses is not so; he is trusted in all My house." The Midrash explained that Moses overheard certain Israelites scoffing behind his back, for Exodus 33:8 says, "And they (the Israelites) looked after Moses." The Midrash asked what the people would say about Moses. Rabbi Joḥanan taught that the people blessed his mother, for she never saw him, as he was always speaking with God and always wholly given over to his service. But Rabbi Hama said that they used to remark how fat and prosperous Moses looked. When Moses heard this, he vowed to give an account of everything. And this is why Exodus 38:21 says, "These are the accounts of the Tabernacle."
Rabbi Simeon son of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the term "the Tabernacle of the testimony" in Exodus 38:21 to mean that the Tabernacle was God's testimony to the whole world that God had forgiven Israel for having made the Golden Calf. Rabbi Isaac explained with a parable. A king took a wife whom he dearly loved. He became angry with her and left her, and her neighbors taunted her, saying that he would not return. Then the king sent her a message asking her to prepare the king's palace and make the beds therein, for he was coming back to her on such-and-such a day. On that day, the king returned to her and became reconciled to her, entering her chamber and eating and drinking with her. Her neighbors at first did not believe it, but when they smelled the fragrant spices, they knew that the king had returned. Similarly, God loved Israel, bringing the Israelites to Mount Sinai, and giving them the Torah, but after only 40 days, they sinned with the Golden Calf. The heathen nations then said that God would not be reconciled with the Israelites. But when Moses pleaded for mercy on their behalf, God forgave them, as Numbers 14:20 reports, "And the Lord said: ‘I have pardoned according to your word.'" Moses then told God that even though he personally was quite satisfied that God had forgiven Israel, he asked that God might announce that fact to the nations. God replied that God would cause God's Shechinah to dwell in their midst, and thus Exodus 25:8 says, "And let them make Me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them." And by that sign, God intended that all nations might know that God had forgiven the Israelites. And thus Exodus 38:21 calls it "the Tabernacle of the testimony," because the Tabernacle was a testimony that God had pardoned the Israelites' sins.
Rabbi Tanḥuma taught in the name of Rav Huna that even the things that Bezalel did not hear from Moses he conceived of on his own exactly as they were told to Moses from Sinai. Rabbi Tanḥuma said in the name of Rav Huna that one can deduce this from the words of Exodus 38:22, "And Bezalel the son of Uri, the son of Ḥur, of the tribe of Judah, made all that the Lord commanded Moses." For Exodus 38:22 does not say, "that Moses commanded him," but, "that the Lord commanded Moses." And the Agadat Shir ha-Shirim taught that Bezalel and Oholiab went up Mount Sinai, where the heavenly Sanctuary was shown to them.
A Midrash explained that Israel sinned with fire in making the Golden Calf, as Exodus 32:24 says, "And I cast it into the fire, and there came out this calf." And then Bezalel came and healed the wound (and the construction of the Tabernacle made atonement for the sins of the people in making the Golden Calf). The Midrash likened it to the words of Isaiah 54:16, "Behold, I have created the smith who blows the fire of coals." The Midrash taught that Bezalel was the smith whom God had created to address the fire. And the Midrash likened it to the case of a doctor's disciple who applied a plaster to a wound and healed it. When people began to praise him, his teacher, the doctor, said that they should praise the doctor, for he taught the disciple. Similarly, when everybody said that Bezalel had constructed the Tabernacle through his knowledge and understanding, God said that it was God who created him and taught him, as Isaiah 54:16 says, "Behold, I have created the smith." Thus Moses said in Exodus 35:30, "see, the Lord has called by name Bezalel."
Exodus 35:30 identifies Bezalel's grandfather as Ḥur, whom either Rav or Samuel deduced was the son of Miriam and Caleb. A Midrash explained that Exodus 35:30 mentions Ḥur, because when the Israelites were about to serve the Golden Calf, Ḥur risked his life on God's behalf to prevent them from doing so, and they killed him. Whereupon God assured Ḥur that God would repay him for his sacrifice. The Midrash likened it to the case of a king whose legions rebelled against him, and his field marshal fought against the rebels, questioning how they could dare rebel against the king. In the end, the rebels killed the field marshal. The king reasoned that if the field marshal had given the king money, the king would have had to repay him. So even more so the king had an obligation to repay the field marshal when he gave his life on the king's behalf. The king rewarded the field marshal by ordaining that all his male offspring would become generals and officers. Similarly, when Israel made the Golden Calf, Ḥur gave his life for the glory of God. Thus, God assured Ḥur that God would give all Ḥur's descendants a great name in the world. And thus Exodus 35:30 says, "see, the Lord has called by name Bezalel, the son of Uri, the son of Ḥur."
Rabbi Joḥanan taught that God proclaims three things for God's Self: famine, plenty, and a good leader. 2 Kings 8:1 shows that God proclaims famine, when it says: "The Lord has called for a famine." Ezekiel 36:29 shows that God proclaims plenty, when it says: "I will call for the corn and will increase it." And Exodus 31:1–2 shows that God proclaims a good leader, when it says: "And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, ‘See I have called by name Bezalel, the son of Uri.'" Rabbi Isaac taught that we cannot appoint a leader over a community without first consulting the people, as Exodus 35:30 says: "And Moses said unto the children of Israel: ‘See, the Lord has called by name Bezalel, the son of Uri.'" Rabbi Isaac taught that God asked Moses whether Moses considered Bezalel suitable. Moses replied that if God thought Bezalel suitable, surely Moses must also. God told Moses that, all the same, Moses should go and consult the people. Moses then asked the Israelites whether they considered Bezalel suitable. They replied that if God and Moses considered Bezalel suitable, then surely they had to, as well. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that Bezalel (, whose name can be read , betzel El, "in the shadow of God") was so called because of his wisdom. When God told Moses (in Exodus 31:7) to tell Bezalel to make a tabernacle, an ark, and vessels, Moses reversed the order and told Bezalel to make an ark, vessels, and a tabernacle. Bezalel replied to Moses that as a rule, one first builds a house and then brings vessels into it, but Moses directed to make an ark, vessels, and a tabernacle. Bezalel asked where he would put the vessels. And Bezalel asked whether God had told Moses to make a tabernacle, an ark, and vessels. Moses replied that perhaps Bezalel had been in the shadow of God (, betzel El) and had thus come to know this. Rav Judah taught in the name of Rav that Exodus 35:31 indicated that God endowed Bezalel with the same attribute that God used in creating the universe. Rav Judah said in the name of Rav that Bezalel knew how to combine the letters by which God created the heavens and earth. For Exodus 35:31 says (about Bezalel), "And He has filled him with the spirit of God, in wisdom and in understanding, and in knowledge," and Proverbs 3:19 says (about creation), "The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding He established the heavens," and Proverbs 3:20 says, "By His knowledge the depths were broken up."
Doing the math implied by Exodus 36:4, Exodus 38:22, Joshua 14:7, and 1 Chronicles 2:19–20, the Gemara deduced that in earlier generations, a boy of eight could father children. Exodus 38:22 reports that "Bezalel, son of Uri, son of Ḥur, of the tribe of Judah, made all that the Lord had commanded Moses," when they built the Tabernacle. And 1 Chronicles 2:19–20 reports that Caleb fathered the Ḥur who fathered Uri who fathered Bezalel. Exodus 36:4 reports that "wise men... wrought all the work of the Sanctuary," so Bezalel must have been at least 13 years old to have been a man when he worked on the Tabernacle. A Baraita taught that Moses made the Tabernacle in the first year after the Exodus, and in the second, he erected it and sent out the spies, so the Gemara deduced that Bezalel must have been at least 14 years old when Moses sent out the spies, the year after Bezalel worked on the Tabernacle. And Joshua 14:7 reports that Caleb said that he was 40 years old when Moses sent him to spy out the land. Thus, the Gemara deduced that Caleb was only 26 years older than his great-grandson Bezalel. Deducting two years for the three pregnancies needed to create the three intervening generations, the Gemara concluded that each of Caleb, Ḥur, and Uri must have conceived his son at the age of eight.
Rabbi Judah ben Simon taught that God required each of the Israelites to give a half-shekel (as reported in Exodus 38:26) because (as reported in Genesis 37:28) their ancestors had sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for 20 shekels.
Exodus chapter 39
A Midrash noted that the section recounting the setting up of the Tabernacle in Parashat Pekudei, in which, beginning with Exodus 39:1, nearly every paragraph concludes, "Even as the Lord commanded Moses," is followed by Leviticus 1:1: "And the Lord called to Moses." The Midrash compared this to the case of a king who commanded his servant to build him a palace. On everything the servant built, he wrote the name of the king. The servant wrote the name of the king on the walls, the pillars, and the roof beams. After some time, the king entered the palace, and on everything he saw he found his name. The king thought that the servant had done him all this honor, and yet the servant remained outside. So the king had called that the servant might come right in. So, too, when God directed Moses to make God a Tabernacle, Moses wrote on everything he made "Even as the Lord commanded Moses." God thought that Moses had done God all this honor, and yet Moses remained outside. So God call Moses so that he might enter the innermost part of the Tabernacle. Therefore, Leviticus 1:1 reports, "And the Lord called to Moses." Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥman said in the name of Rabbi Nathan that "as the Lord commanded" is written 18 times in the section recounting the setting up of the Tabernacle in Parashat Pekudei, corresponding to the 18 vertebrae of the spinal column. Likewise, the Sages instituted 18 benedictions of the Amidah prayer, corresponding to the 18 mentions of the Divine Name in the reading of the Shema, and also in Psalm 29. Rabbi Ḥiyya bar Abba taught that the 18 times "command" are counted only from Exodus 38:23, "And with him was Oholiab, the son of Ahisamach of the tribe of Dan," until the end of the Book of Exodus.
Rabbi Judah ben Pazi noted that a similar word appears in both Genesis 1:6—where , rakya, is translated as "firmament"—and Exodus 39:3—where , vayraku, is translated as "and they flattened." He thus deduced from the usage in Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 taught that on the second day of creation, God spread the heavens flat like a cloth. Or Rabbi Judah ben Simon deduced from Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 meant "let a lining be made for the firmament."
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the robe (, me'il) mentioned in Exodus 28:4 was entirely of turquoise (, techelet), as Exodus 39:22 says, "And he made the robe of the ephod of woven work, all of turquoise." They made its hems of turquoise, purple, and crimson wool, twisted together and formed into the shape of pomegranates whose mouths were not yet opened (as overripe pomegranates open slightly) and in the shape of the cones of the helmets on children's heads. Seventy-two bells containing 72 clappers were hung on the robe, 36 on each side (front and behind). Rabbi Dosa (or others say, Judah the Prince) said in the name of Rabbi Judah that there were 36 bells in all, 18 on each side.
A Baraita taught that the High Priest's wore his miter so that hair was visible between the headplate and the miter described in Exodus 39:30–31.
The Pesikta Rabbati taught that when the Israelites continually complained, God asked them to build the Tabernacle, so that they would be too busy to complain. But when, as Exodus 39:32 reports, all the work of the Tabernacle was finished, God exclaimed, "Woe is Me! It is finished!"
Reading Exodus 39:33, "its hooks, its frames, its bars, its pillars, and its bases," Rabbi Yose the son of Rabbi Bun taught that people could see the Tabernacle's hooks from the inside, and they looked like stars in the firmament.
Reading Exodus 39:33, "and they brought the Tabernacle," a Midrash taught that on the day that the Tabernacle was set up, the Israelites rejoiced greatly because God then dwelt in their midst. And the people sang the words of Song of Songs Song 3:11, "Go forth, O you daughters of Zion, and gaze upon King Solomon, even upon the crown wherewith his mother has crowned him in the day of his espousals, and in the day of the gladness of his heart." "O you daughters of Zion" were the children who are distinguished as God's from among the peoples. "And gaze upon King Solomon" meant "gaze upon a King to whom all peace belongs" (reading the name Solomon as a play on the word "His peace")—that is, upon the King of kings, God. "Even upon the crown wherewith his mother has crowned him" referred to the Tabernacle, which was called a crown because just as a crown has beautiful designs, so was the Tabernacle beautifully designed. "In the day of his espousals" referred to Sinai (at the Revelation). "And in the day of the gladness of his heart" referred to Jerusalem (when God caused God's presence to dwell in the Temple in Jerusalem). According to another explanation, "in the day of his espousals" was the day when God was with Israel at the Red Sea, and "in the day of the gladness of his heart" was when God's presence dwelt in the Tent of Meeting. And according to yet another explanation, "in the day of his espousals" was in the Tabernacle, and "in the day of the gladness of his heart" was in the Temple (when they were erected).
In the Tosefta, Rabbi Meir taught that when, as Exodus 39:43 reports, Moses saw all the work of the Tabernacle and the Priestly garments that the Israelites had done, “Moses blessed them” with the blessing of Deuteronomy 1:11, saying, “The Lord, the God of your ancestors, make you a thousand times so many more as you are, and bless you, as God has promised you!”
Exodus chapter 40
A Midrash taught that the priestly garments of which God spoke in Exodus 40:13 were in fact the garments for which Jacob prayed at Bethel in Genesis 28:20. The Midrash taught that Jacob did not ask simply for food and garments, but that God would promise to be with him and build up the world from him. And Jacob would know that God was with him and guarded him when God would raise up from him sons who would be priests, eating of the showbread and clothed in the priestly garments. The Midrash interpreted the words of Genesis 28:20, "bread to eat," to refer to the showbread, and "garments to put on" to refer to the priestly garments, for Exodus 40:13 says: "And you shall put upon Aaron the holy garments."
A Midrash taught that many wise people were there, yet they had to come to Moses, for they could not erect the Tabernacle on their own. Moses excelled them all in skill, as Solomon said in Proverbs 31:29, "Many daughters have done valiantly, but you excel them all." So each of the wise people took a finished piece of work and came to Moses to present him the boards, the bars, and all the parts. As soon as Moses saw the parts, the Holy Spirit settled on him, and he set the Tabernacle up. The Midrash clarified that Moses did not set it up by himself, for miracles were performed with it, and it rose of its own accord, for Exodus 40:17 says (using the passive voice), "The Tabernacle was reared up." And the Midrash taught that Solomon's Temple, too, was built of its own accord. Similarly, noting that Exodus 40:17 reports that "the Tabernacle was reared up"—using the passive voice—another Midrash told that when in Exodus 40:1–2 God told Moses to set up the Tabernacle, Moses protested that he did not know how to set it up. So God told Moses to begin working with his hands and make a show of setting it up, and the Tabernacle would stand up on its own. But God reassured Moses that God would record that Moses set it up, as Exodus 40:18 reports, "Moses reared up the Tabernacle."
Rav Havivi (or others say Rav Assi of Hozna'ah) deduced from the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month," in Exodus 40:17 that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan. With reference to this, a Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation, (2) the first day of the princes' offerings, (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings, (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven, (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel, (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing of Israel, (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places, and (10) the first of the months of the year.
Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi taught that from Exodus 40:18, "And Moses erected the Tabernacle, and he laid its sockets, and set up its boards, and put in its bars, and erected its pillars," one can derive the principle that one does not descend in matters of sanctity. Judah ha-Nasi read the verse to teach that once Moses, who was at a higher level of sanctity than the rest of the people, began the work of erecting the Tabernacle, he alone completed it, as the involvement of any other people would have been considered a step down.
In Deuteronomy 18:15, Moses foretold that "A prophet will the Lord your God raise up for you . . . like me," and Rabbi Joḥanan thus taught that prophets would have to be, like Moses, strong, wealthy, wise, and meek. Strong, for Exodus 40:19 says of Moses, "he spread the tent over the Tabernacle," and a Master taught that Moses himself spread it, and Exodus 26:16 reports, "Ten cubits shall be the length of a board." Similarly, the strength of Moses can be derived from Deuteronomy 9:17, in which Moses reports, "And I took the two tablets, and cast them out of my two hands, and broke them," and it was taught that the tablets were six handbreadths in length, six in breadth, and three in thickness. Wealthy, as Exodus 34:1 reports God's instruction to Moses, "Carve yourself two tablets of stone," and the Rabbis interpreted the verse to teach that the chips would belong to Moses. Wise, for Rav and Samuel both said that 50 gates of understanding were created in the world, and all but one were given to Moses, for Psalm 8:6 said of Moses, "You have made him a little lower than God." Meek, for Numbers 12:3 reports, "Now the man Moses was very meek."
The Mishnah taught that any sacrifice performed by a priest who had not washed his hands and feet at the laver (described in Exodus 40:30–32) was invalid.
Rabbi Jose the son of Rabbi Ḥanina taught that a priest was not permitted to wash in a laver that did not contain enough water to wash four priests, for Exodus 40:31 says, "That Moses and Aaron and his sons might wash their hands and their feet thereat." ("His sons" implies at least two priests, and adding Moses and Aaron makes four.)
The Mishnah reported that the High Priest Ben Katin made 12 spigots for the laver, where there had been two before. Ben Katin also made a machine for the laver, so that its water would not become unfit by remaining overnight.
Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Tent of Meeting was like a cave by the sea that the sea fills when it becomes rough. Though the cave becomes filled, the sea loses nothing. So the glory of the Divine Presence, the Shechinah, filled the Tent of Meeting, and yet the world lost nothing of the Shechinah. And the Shechinah rested on the world on the day when Moses set up the Tabernacle.
A Midrash taught that seven righteous men arose who brought the Shechinah down from the celestial to the terrestrial regions. Abraham brought it down from the seventh region to the sixth, Isaac brought it down from the sixth to the fifth, Jacob brought it down from the fifth to the fourth, Levi brought it down from the fourth to the third, Kohath brought it down from the third to the second, Amram brought it down from the second to the first, and Moses brought it down from the celestial to the terrestrial region. Rabbi Isaac read Psalm 37:29, "The righteous shall inherit the earth, and dwell (, veyishkenu) therein forever," to teach that the wicked caused the Shechinah () to depart from the earth, but the righteous have caused the Shechinah to dwell (, hishkinu) on the earth. And the Shechinah came to rest on the earth on the day when Moses erected the Tabernacle, as Exodus 40:34 reports, "Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of the Lord filled the Tabernacle."
Rabbi Zerika asked about an apparent contradiction of Scriptural passages in the presence of Rabbi Eleazar, or, according to another version, he asked in the name of Rabbi Eleazar. Exodus 40:35 reads: "And Moses was not able to enter into the tent of meeting because the cloud abode thereon," whereas Exodus 24:18 says: "And Moses entered into the midst of the cloud." The Gemara concluded that this teaches us that God took hold of Moses and brought him into the cloud. Alternatively, the school of Rabbi Ishmael taught in a Baraita that in Exodus 24:18, the word for "in the midst" (, be-tokh) appears, and it also appears in Exodus 14:22: "And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea." Just as in Exodus 14:22, the word "in the midst" (, be-tokh) implies a path, as Exodus 14:22 says, "And the waters were a wall unto them," so here too in Exodus 24:18, there was a path (for Moses through the cloud).
Reading the words of Exodus 40:38, "For over the Tabernacle a cloud of God rested by day, and fire would appear in it by night," a Midrash taught that when the Israelites saw the pillar of cloud resting on the Tabernacle, they rejoiced, thinking that God had been reconciled with them. But when night came, the pillar of fire descended and surrounded the Tabernacle. All the Israelites saw it as one flame of fire and began to weep in sorrow, feeling that they had labored (building the Tabernacle) for nothing, as all their work appeared to have been burnt up in a moment. When they arose early the next morning and saw the pillar of cloud encompassing the Tabernacle, they immediately rejoiced with an inordinate joy.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Exodus chapter 38
Bahya ben Asher taught that just as God employed two separate attributes—that of Justice and that of Mercy—when creating the universe, so the Tabernacle was constructed principally by two separate craftsmen—Bezalel and Oholiab, as reported in Exodus 38:22–23. Bezalel was from the Tribe of Judah, representing the attribute of Mercy, and Oholiab was from the Tribe of Dan (), representing the attribute of Justice (, din).
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Exodus chapter 38
Exodus 38:24 reports that Bezalel and Oholiab used roughly a ton of gold in making the Tabernacle. According to one estimate, the metal listed in Exodus 38:24–29 amounted to 2,210 pounds of gold, 7,601 pounds of silver, and 5,350 pounds of copper. By comparison, an inscription from Bubastis reports that the Ancient Egyptian king Osorkon I dedicated more than 391 tons of gold and silver objects to Egyptian temples in the first four years of his reign. This table translates units of weight used in the Bible:
Exodus chapter 39
Noting the juxtaposition of the two terms "Tabernacle" (, Mishkan) and "Tent of Meeting" (, Ohel Mo’ed) in Exodus 39:32, 40; 40:2, 6, 29; Umberto Cassuto wrote that the two synonymous expressions stand in juxtaposition to stress the formal solemnity of the statement of the formal ending of the account of the Tabernacle's construction. Nahum Sarna wrote that the combination of the two distinct terms for the sanctuary together expresses its dual function as the symbol of the indwelling of the Divine Presence in the camp of Israel and as the site of communication between God and Moses. Gunther Plaut concluded that the two terms probably reflect two traditions, one using the term "Tabernacle" (, Mishkan) and the other the term "Tent" (, Ohel). Plaut reported that the school of Julius Wellhausen considered the "Tent" tradition the older and the "Tabernacle" passages as retrojections of the Priestly source and therefore as largely unhistorical. Plaut reported that another theory assigned the Ark and Tabernacle to a northern and the Tent of Meeting to a southern source and held that David, by putting the Ark into the Tent in 2 Samuel 6:17, united the tribes and traditions and that thereafter the term "Tabernacle of the Tent of Meeting"
(, Mishkan Ohel Mo-ed) was coined.
Exodus chapter 40
Moshe Greenberg wrote that one may see the entire Exodus story as “the movement of the fiery manifestation of the divine presence.” Similarly, William Propp identified fire (, esh) as the medium in which God appears on the terrestrial plane—in the Burning Bush of Exodus 3:2, the cloud pillar of Exodus 13:21–22 and 14:24, atop Mount Sinai in Exodus 19:18 and 24:17, and upon the Tabernacle in Exodus 40:38.
Everett Fox noted that “glory” (, kevod) and “stubbornness” (, kaved lev) are leading words throughout the book of Exodus that give it a sense of unity. Similarly, Propp identified the root kvd—connoting heaviness, glory, wealth, and firmness—as a recurring theme in Exodus: Moses suffered from a heavy mouth in Exodus 4:10 and heavy arms in Exodus 17:12; Pharaoh had firmness of heart in Exodus 7:14; 8:11, 28; 9:7, 34; and 10:1; Pharaoh made Israel's labor heavy in Exodus 5:9; God in response sent heavy plagues in Exodus 8:20; 9:3, 18, 24; and 10:14, so that God might be glorified over Pharaoh in Exodus 14:4, 17, and 18; and the book culminates with the descent of God's fiery Glory, described as a “heavy cloud,” first upon Sinai and later upon the Tabernacle in Exodus 19:16; 24:16–17; 29:43; 33:18, 22; and 40:34–38.
Commandments
According to Maimonides and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are no commandments in the parashah.
In the liturgy
A Midrash taught that on the day that Moses completed construction of the Tabernacle (as reported in Exodus 40:33), he composed Psalm 91, which Jews read in the Pesukei D'Zimrah section of the morning Shacharit prayer service.
Haftarah
Generally
The haftarah for the parashah when there is no special Sabbath is:
for Sephardi Jews: 1 Kings 7:40–50
for Ashkenazi Jews: 1 Kings 7:51–8:21
Sephardi—1 Kings 7:40–50
Both the parashah and the haftarah in 1 Kings 7:40–50 report the leader's erection of the holy place—Moses' setting up the Tabernacle in the parashah, and Solomon's building of the Temple in Jerusalem in the haftarah. Both the parashah and the haftarah report that the builders finished the work: "Moses finished the work" (, vayechal Mosheh et ha-melachah) in Exodus 40:33, and "so Hiram made an end of doing all the work" (, vayechal Chiram la'asot et kol ha-melachah) in 1 Kings 7:40.
Ashkenazi—1 Kings 7:51–8:21
Similarly, both the parashah and the haftarah in 1 Kings 7:51–8:21 report the finishing of the leaders' work: "Moses finished the work" (, vayechal Mosheh et ha-melachah) in Exodus 40:33, and "all the work that king Solomon wrought . . . was finished" (, vatishlam kol ha-melachah asher asah ha-melech Shlomoh) in 1 Kings 7:51. And in both the parashah and the haftarah, a cloud and the Presence of the Lord fill the Sanctuary, indicating God's approval.
Parashat Vayakhel–Pekudei
When Parashat Vayakhel is combined with Parashat Pekudei and there is no special Sabbath, the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: 1 Kings 7:51–8:21
for Sephardi Jews: 1 Kings 7:40–50
On Shabbat HaChodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaChodesh ("Sabbath [of] the month," the special Sabbath preceding the Hebrew month of Nissan—as it does in 2025, 2026, 2028, 2031, 2034, 2037, 2040, 2044, 2045, 2047, and 2048), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Ezekiel 45:16–46:18.
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 45:18–46:15.
On Shabbat HaChodesh, Jews read Exodus 12:1–20, in which God commands that "This month (Nissan) shall be the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year," and in which God issued the commandments of Passover. Similarly, the haftarah in Ezekiel 45:21–25 discusses Passover. In both the parashah and the haftarah, God instructs the Israelites to apply blood to doorposts.
On Shabbat Parah
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Parah (the special Sabbath prior to Passover—as it does in 2029, 2032, 2036, 2039, and 2042), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Ezekiel 36:16–38.
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 36:16–36.
On Shabbat Parah, the Sabbath of the red heifer, Jews read Numbers 19:1–22, which describes the rites of purification using the red heifer (, parah adumah). Similarly, the haftarah in Ezekiel 36 also describes purification. In both the special reading and the haftarah in Ezekiel 36, sprinkled water cleansed the Israelites.
On Shabbat Shekalim
When the parashah coincides with the special Sabbath Shabbat Shekalim (as it does in 2035), the haftarah is 2 Kings 12:1–17.
On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh, the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Psalms 78:5 (testimony); 93:5 (God's holy place); and 133:2 (anointing Aaron).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 26:131. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, 287. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:6:1–10:1. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, 85–95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Seder Olam Rabbah, chapter 7. 2nd century CE. In, e.g., Seder Olam: The Rabbinic View of Biblical Chronology. Translated and with commentary by Heinrich W. Guggenheimer, pages 79–87. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, 1998.
Mishnah: Shekalim 5:2; Yoma 3:10; Zevachim 2:1. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 259, 269, 700–01. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Zevachim 1:8; Menachot 7:7–8. Land of Israel, circa 250 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 1310, 1434–35. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 6a; Peah 5a; Kilayim 76a; Shabbat 20b; Shekalim 1a; Sukkah 8a, 27a; Rosh Hashanah 2b, 6a; Taanit 10b; Ketubot 30a; Sanhedrin 12a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1, 3, 5, 13, 20, 22, 24–25, 31, 44. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2020.
Genesis Rabbah 3:9; 4:2; 84:18. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 25, 27; volume 2, page 783. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Midrash Tanḥuma Pekudei. 5th–10th centuries. In, e.g., The Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Shemos II. Translated and annotated by Avrohom Davis; edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, volume 4 (Shemos volume 2), pages 390–457. Monsey, New York: Eastern Book Press, 2004.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 55a; Shabbat 28a, 87b; Yoma 4b, 6a, 12a–b, 32a, 37a, 71b; Sukkah 7b, 21a; Rosh Hashanah 3a; Taanit 29a; Megillah 29b; Yevamot 4b; Nedarim 38a; Sotah 11b, 37a, 38a; Sanhedrin 69b; Zevachim 15b, 19a–b, 22a, 58b, 88b, 119a–b; Menachot 62a, 98a, 99a; Chullin 138a; Bekhorot 5a, 44a; Arakhin 3b. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
Bede. Of the Tabernacle and Its Vessels, and of the Priestly Vestments. Monkwearmouth, England, 720s. In Bede: On the Tabernacle. Translated with notes and introduction by Arthur G. Holder. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994.
Exodus Rabbah 51:1–52:5. 10th Century. 10th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by Simon M. Lehrman, 3:562–81. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Rashi. Commentary. Exodus 38–40. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 2, pages 507–24. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Exodus: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 431–38. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:23. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 162. New York: Schocken Books, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. France, 1153. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Exodus (Shemot). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 2, pages 747–66. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1996.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 29, 96. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 651–55. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 2, pages 609–26. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1973.
Zohar part 2, pages 220a–269a. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar: Pritzker Edition. Translation and commentary by Daniel C. Matt, volume 6, pages 258–415. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1438–62. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Commentary on the Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Shemos/Exodus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger; edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 2, pages 959–83. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 535–44. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 2: Shemos/Exodus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 421–49. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Abraham Saba. Ẓeror ha-Mor (Bundle of Myrrh). Fez, Morocco, circa 1500. In, e.g., Tzror Hamor: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Avraham Sabba. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1229–38. Jerusalem, Lambda Publishers, 2008.
Joseph Garçon. "Sermon on Elleh Fequde." Salonika, 1500. In Marc Saperstein. Jewish Preaching, 1200–1800: An Anthology, pages 199–216. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 486–95. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moses Almosnino. "Sermon on Elleh Fequde." Salonika, 1568. In Marc Saperstein. Jewish Preaching, 1200–1800: An Anthology, pages 217–39. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 615–18. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz. Kli Yakar. Lublin, 1602. In, e.g., Kli Yakar: Shemos. Translated by Elihu Levine, volume 2, pages 372–93. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2007.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 4:44. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, page 643. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 909–23. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
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Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer; edited by Y. Hall, pages 292–98. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Moritz Markus Kalisch. A Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament with a New Translation: Exodus, pages 455–62. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1855. Reprinted, e.g., RareBooksClub.com, 2012.
Samson Raphael Hirsch. The Pentateuch: Exodus. Translated by Isaac Levy, volume 2, pages 694–712. Gateshead: Judaica Press, 2nd edition 1999. Originally published as Der Pentateuch uebersetzt und erklaert. Frankfurt, 1867–1878.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 895–96. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 139–43. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 71–73. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Benno Jacob. The Second Book of the Bible: Exodus. London, 1940. Translated by Walter Jacob, pages 1032–48. Hoboken, New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House, 1992.
Umberto Cassuto. A Commentary on the Book of Exodus. Jerusalem, 1951. Translated by Israel Abrahams, pages 468–85. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1967.
Carol L. Meyers. The Tabernacle Menorah. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976.
Elie Munk. The Call of the Torah: An Anthology of Interpretation and Commentary on the Five Books of Moses. Translated by E.S. Mazer, volume 2, pages 530–51. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. Originally published as La Voix de la Thora. Paris: Fondation Samuel et Odette Levy, 1981.
Victor (Avigdor) Hurowitz. "The Priestly Account of Building the Tabernacle." Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 105 (number 1) (January–March 1985): pages 21–30.
Richard Elliott Friedman. "A Brilliant Mistake" and "The Sacred Tent." In Who Wrote the Bible?, pages 161–87. New York: Summit Books, 1987.
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Gabriel Josipovici. "Building the Tabernacle." In The Book of God: A Response to the Bible, pages 90–107. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Jon D. Levenson. "Cosmos and Microcosm." In Creation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of Divine Omnipotence, pages 78–99. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
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Richard Elliott Friedman. "Tabernacle." in Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman, volume 6, pages 292–300. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Nahum M. Sarna. The JPS Torah Commentary: Exodus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 231–37. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991.
Nehama Leibowitz. New Studies in Shemot (Exodus), volume 2, pages 644–53, 689–709. Jerusalem: Haomanim Press, 1993. Reprinted as New Studies in the Weekly Parasha. Lambda Publishers, 2010.
Walter Brueggemann. "The Book of Exodus." In The New Interpreter's Bible. Edited by Leander E. Keck, volume 1, pages 972–81. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
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Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1454824 "The Form and Fate of the Tabernacle: Reflections on a Recent Proposal." The Jewish Quarterly Review, volume 86 (number 1/2) (July–October 1995): pages 127–51.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 146–48. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 222–31. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
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Exodus to Deuteronomy: A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series). Edited by Athalya Brenner, page 39. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.
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Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. The Particulars of Rapture: Reflections on Exodus, pages 461–98. New York: Doubleday, 2001.
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Jeffrey H. Tigay. "Exodus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 197–202. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 155–60. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
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The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 545–66. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Thomas B. Dozeman. Commentary on Exodus, pages 759–66. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009.
Lisa Edwards and Laurence Edwards. "A Knack for Design: Parashat Pekudei (Exodus 38:21–40:38)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 117–20. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 135–39. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Rebecca G.S. Idestrom. "Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 33 (number 4) (June 2009): pages 489–510. (Motifs from Exodus found in Ezekiel, including the call narrative, divine encounters, captivity, signs, plagues, judgment, redemption, tabernacle/temple, are considered.).
Bruce Wells. "Exodus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 265–67. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Carol Meyers. "Exodus." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 137–40. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Exodus: The Book of Redemption, pages 303–57. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2010.
James W. Watts. "Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 130 (number 3) (fall 2011): pages 417–30.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 244, 246. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "An Easier Way to Achieve Redemption." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 135–40. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Torah MiEtzion: New Readings in Tanach: Shemot. Edited by Ezra Bick and Yaakov Beasley, pages 480–530. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2012.
Michael B. Hundley. Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013.
Pinchas Landau. "One Man's ‘Inequality' Is... : A tax that made everyone an equal partner in the Temple service, irrespective of their sociopolitical class." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24 (number 24) (March 10, 2014): page 47.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 115–19. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Raanan Eichler. "The Poles of the Ark: On the Ins and Outs of a Textual Contradiction." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 135, number 4 (Winter 2016): pages 733–41.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 145–49. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus, pages 217–24. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 71–73. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Leon R. Kass, Founding God's Nation, pages 574–98. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Adar
Weekly Torah readings from Exodus |
4203627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vayikra%20%28parashah%29 | Vayikra (parashah) | Parashat Vayikra, VaYikra, Va-yikra, Wayyiqra, or Wayyiqro (—Hebrew for "and He called," the first word in the parashah) is the 24th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the first in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah lays out the laws of sacrifices (, korbanot). It constitutes Leviticus 1:1–5:26.
The parashah has the most letters and words of any of the weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus (although not the most verses). It is made up of 6,222 Hebrew letters, 1,673 Hebrew words, 111 verses, and 215 lines in a Torah scroll (, Sefer Torah). (Parashat Emor has the most verses of any Torah portion in Leviticus.) Jews read it the 23rd or 24th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in March or early April.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 1:1–13
In the first reading, God called to Moses from the Tabernacle and told him the laws of the sacrifices. Burnt offerings (, olah) could be bulls, rams or male goats, or turtle doves or pigeons, which the priest burned completely on wood on the altar.
Second reading—Leviticus 1:14–2:6
In the second reading, burnt offerings could also be turtle doves or pigeons, which the priest also burned completely on wood on the altar.
Meal offerings (, minchah) were of choice flour with oil, from which priest would remove a token portion to burn on the altar, and the remainder the priests could eat.
Third reading—Leviticus 2:7–16
In the third reading, meal offering could also be cooked in a pan. Meal offerings could not contain leaven or honey, and had to be seasoned with salt. Meal offerings of first fruits had to be new ears parched with fire, grits of the fresh grain.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 3:1–17
In the fourth reading, sacrifices of well-being (, shelamim) could be male or female cattle, sheep, or goats, from which the priest would dash the blood on the sides of the altar and burn the fat around the entrails, the kidneys, and the protuberance on the liver on the altar.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 4:1–26
In the fifth reading, sin offerings (, chatat) for unwitting sin by the High Priest or the community required sacrificing a bull, sprinkling its blood in the Tent of Meeting, burning on the altar the fat around the entrails, the kidneys, and the protuberance on the liver, and burning the rest of the bull on an ash heap outside the camp. Guilt offerings for unwitting sin by a chieftain required sacrificing a male goat, putting some of its blood on the horns of the altar, and burning its fat.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 4:27–5:10
In the sixth reading, guilt offerings for unwitting sin by a lay person required sacrificing a female goat, putting some of its blood on the horns of the altar, and burning its fat. Sin offerings were required for cases when a person:
was able to testify but did not give information,
touched any unclean thing,
touched human uncleanness, or
uttered an oath and forgot.
In such cases, the person had to confess and sacrifice a female sheep or goat; or if the person could not afford a sheep, two turtledoves or two pigeons.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 5:11–26
In the seventh reading, if a person could not afford two turtledoves or pigeons, then the person was to bring flour for a sin offering to the priest, and the priest would take a handful of it and make it smoke on the altar, and thereby make atonement.
Guilt offerings (, asham) were required when a person was unwittingly remiss about any sacred thing. In such cases, the person had to sacrifice a ram and make restitution plus 20 percent to the priest. Similarly, guilt offerings were required when a person dealt deceitfully in the matter of a deposit or a pledge, through robbery, by fraud, or by finding something lost and lying about it. In such cases, the person had to sacrifice a ram and make restitution plus 20 percent to the victim.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-Biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 1–7
In Psalm 50, God clarifies the purpose of sacrifices. God states that correct sacrifice was not the taking of a bull out of the sacrificer's house, nor the taking of a goat out of the sacrificer's fold, to convey to God, for every animal was already God's possession. The sacrificer was not to think of the sacrifice as food for God, for God neither hungers nor eats. Rather, the worshiper was to offer to God the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call upon God in times of trouble, and thus God would deliver the worshiper and the worshiper would honor God.
Psalm 107 enumerates four occasions on which a thank offering (, zivchei todah), as described in Leviticus 7:12–15 (referring to a , zevach todah) would be appropriate: (1) passage through the desert, (2) release from prison, (3) recovery from serious disease, and (4) surviving a storm at sea.
The Hebrew Bible reports several instances of sacrifices before God explicitly called for them in Leviticus 1–7. While Leviticus 1:3–17 and Leviticus 6:1–6 set out the procedure for the burnt offering (, olah), before then, Genesis 8:20 reports that Noah offered burnt offerings (, olot) of every clean beast and bird on an altar after the waters of the Flood subsided. The story of the Binding of Isaac includes three references to the burnt offering (, olah). In Genesis 22:2, God told Abraham to take Isaac and offer him as a burnt offering (, olah). Genesis 22:3 then reports that Abraham rose early in the morning and split the wood for the burnt offering (, olah). And after the angel of the Lord averted Isaac's sacrifice, Genesis 22:13 reports that Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram caught in a thicket, and Abraham then offered the ram as a burnt offering (, olah) instead of his son. Exodus 10:25 reports that Moses pressed Pharaoh for Pharaoh to give the Israelites "sacrifices and burnt offerings" (, zevachim v'olot) to offer to God. And Exodus 18:12 reports that after Jethro heard all that God did to Pharaoh and the Egyptians, Jethro offered a burnt offering and sacrifices (, olah uzevachim) to God.
While Leviticus 2 and 6:7–16 set out the procedure for the meal offering (, minchah), before then, in Genesis 4:3, Cain brought an offering (, minchah) of the fruit of the ground. And then Genesis 4:4–5 reports that God had respect for Abel and his offering (, minchato), but for Cain and his offering (, minchato), God had no respect.
And while Numbers 15:4–9 indicates that one bringing an animal sacrifice needed also to bring a drink offering (, nesech), before then, in Genesis 35:14, Jacob poured out a drink offering (, nesech) at Bethel.
More generally, the Hebrew Bible addressed "sacrifices" (, zevachim) generically in connection with Jacob and Moses. After Jacob and Laban reconciled, Genesis 31:54 reports that Jacob offered a sacrifice (, zevach) on the mountain and shared a meal with his kinsmen. And after Jacob learned that Joseph was still alive in Egypt, Genesis 46:1 reports that Jacob journeyed to Beersheba and offered sacrifices (, zevachim) to the God of his father Isaac. And Moses and Aaron argued repeatedly with Pharaoh over their request to go three days' journey into the wilderness and sacrifice (, venizbechah) to God.
The Hebrew Bible also includes several ambiguous reports in which Abraham or Isaac built or returned to an altar and "called upon the name of the Lord." In these cases, the text implies but does not explicitly state that the Patriarch offered a sacrifice. And at God's request, Abraham conducted an unusual sacrifice at the Covenant between the Pieces () in Genesis 15:9–21.
Leviticus chapter 5
The Rabbis read Leviticus 5:21–26 together with Numbers 5:6–8 as related passages. Leviticus 5:21–26 deals with those who sin and commit a trespass against God by dealing falsely with their neighbors in the matter of a deposit, pledge, robbery, other oppression of their neighbors, or the finding of lost property, and swear to a lie. Leviticus 5:23–24 provides that the offender must immediately restore in full to the victim the property at issue and shall add an additional fifth part. And Leviticus 5:25–26 requires the offender to bring to the priest an unblemished ram for a guilt offering, and the priest shall make atonement for the offender before God, and the offender shall be forgiven. Numbers 5:6–7 directs that when people commit any sin against God, then they shall confess and make restitution in full to the victim and add a fifth part. And Numbers 5:8 provides that if the victim has no heir to whom restitution may be made, the offender must make restitution to the priest, in addition to the ram of atonement.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 1
Leviticus Rabbah reports that Rav Assi said that young children began their Torah studies with Leviticus and not with Genesis because young children are pure, and the sacrifices explained in Leviticus are pure, so the pure studied the pure.
A Midrash noted that the section recounting the setting up of the Tabernacle in Exodus 38:21–40:38, in which, beginning with Exodus 39:1, nearly every paragraph concludes, "Even as the Lord commanded Moses," is followed by Leviticus 1:1: "And the Lord called to Moses." The Midrash compared this to the case of a king who commanded his servant to build him a palace. On everything the servant built, he wrote the name of the king. The servant wrote the name of the king on the walls, the pillars, and the roof beams. After some time the king entered the palace, and on everything he saw he found his name. The king thought that the servant had done him all this honor, and yet the servant remained outside. So the king had called that the servant might come right in. So, too, when God directed Moses to make God a Tabernacle, Moses wrote on everything he made "Even as the Lord commanded Moses." God thought that Moses had done God all this honor, and yet Moses remained outside. So God call Moses so that he might enter the innermost part of the Tabernacle. Therefore, Leviticus 1:1 reports, "And the Lord called to Moses." Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman said in the name of Rabbi Nathan that "as the Lord commanded" is written 18 times in the section recounting the setting up of the Tabernacle in Parashat Pekudei, corresponding to the 18 vertebrae of the spinal column. Likewise, the Sages instituted 18 benedictions of the Amidah prayer, corresponding to the 18 mentions of the Divine Name in the reading of the Shema, and also in Psalm 29. Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba taught that the 18 times "command" are counted only from Exodus 38:23, "And with him was Oholiab, the son of Ahisamach of the tribe of Dan," until the end of the Book of Exodus.
Tractate Zevachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the law of animal sacrifices in Leviticus 1–5. The Mishnah taught that a sacrifice was slaughtered for the sake of six things: (1) for the sake of the sacrifice for which it was consecrated, (2) for the sake of the offerer, (3) for the sake of the Divine Name, (4) for the sake of the altar fires, (5) for the sake of an aroma, and (6) for the sake of pleasing God, and a sin offering and a guilt offering for the sake of sin. Rabbi Jose taught that even if the offerer did not have any of these purposes at heart, the offering was valid, because it was a regulation of the court, since the intention was determined only by the priest who performed the service.
A Midrash taught that if people repent, it is accounted as if they had gone up to Jerusalem, built the Temple and the altars, and offered all the sacrifices ordained in the Torah. Rabbi Aha said in the name of Rabbi Hanina ben Pappa that God accounts studying the sacrifices as equivalent to offering them. Rav Huna taught that God said that engaging in the study of Mishnah is as if one were offering up sacrifices. Samuel taught that God said that engaging in the study of the law is as if one were building the Temple. And the Avot of Rabbi Natan taught that God loves Torah study more than sacrifice.
Rabbi Ammi taught that Abraham asked God if Israel would come to sin, would God punish them as God punished the generation of the Flood and the generation of the Tower of Babel. God answered that God would not. Abraham then asked God in Genesis 15:8: "How shall I know?" God replied in Genesis 15:9: "Take Me a heifer of three years old . . ." (indicating that Israel would obtain forgiveness through sacrifices). Abraham then asked God what Israel would do when the Temple would no longer exist. God replied that whenever Jews read the Biblical text dealing with sacrifices, God would reckon it as if they were bringing an offering, and forgive all their iniquities.
The Gemara taught that when Rav Sheshet fasted, on concluding his prayer, he added a prayer that God knew that when the Temple still stood, if people sinned, they used to bring sacrifices (pursuant to Leviticus 4:27–35 and 7:2–5), and though they offered only the animal's fat and blood, atonement was granted. Rav Sheshet continued that he had fasted and his fat and blood had diminished, so he asked that it be God's will to account Rav Sheshet fat and blood that had been diminished as if he had offered them on the Altar.
Rabbi Isaac declared that prayer is greater than sacrifice.
The Avot of Rabbi Natan taught that as Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai and Rabbi Joshua were leaving Jerusalem, Rabbi Joshua expressed sorrow that the place where the Israelites had atoned for their iniquities had been destroyed. But Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai told him not to grieve, for we have in acts of loving-kindness another atonement as effective as sacrifice at the Temple, as Hosea 6:6 says, "For I desire mercy, and not sacrifice."
Rabbi Leazar ben Menahem taught that the opening words of Leviticus 1:1, "And the Lord called," indicated God's proximity to Moses. Rabbi Leazar taught that the words of Proverbs 15:29, "The Lord is far from the wicked," refer to the prophets of other nations. But the continuation of Proverbs 15:29, "He hears the prayer of the righteous," refers to the prophets of Israel. God appears to nations other that Israel only as one who comes from a distance, as Isaiah 39:3 says, "They came from a far country to me." But in connection with the prophets of Israel, Genesis 18:1 says, "And the Lord appeared," and Leviticus 1:1 says, "And the Lord called," implying from the immediate vicinity. Rabbi Haninah compared the difference between the prophets of Israel and the prophets of other nations to a king who was with his friend in a chamber (separated by a curtain). Whenever the king desired to speak to his friend, he folded up the curtain and spoke to him. (But God speaks to the prophets of other nations without folding back the curtain.) The Rabbis compared it to a king who has a wife and a concubine; to his wife he goes openly, but to his concubine he repairs with stealth. Similarly, God appears to non-Jews only at night, as Numbers 22:20 says, "And God came to Balaam at night," and Genesis 31:24 says, "And God came to Laban the Aramean in a dream of the night."
The Sifra cited Leviticus 1:1 along with Exodus 3:4 for the proposition that whenever God spoke to Moses, God first called out to him. And the Sifra deduced from God's calling "to him" in Leviticus 1:1 that God meant to speak to Moses alone, to the exclusion of even Aaron. Rabbi Judah ben Betera noted that God spoke to Moses and Aaron together in 13 passages, and to Moses alone in 13 passages, teaching that in these latter passages, Moses was then to inform Aaron. And Rabbi Jose the Galilean deduced from the use of "at the tent of meeting" in Leviticus 1:1 that every time that God spoke to Moses at the tent of meeting, God spoke to Moses alone, to the exclusion of Aaron. Rabbi Tanḥum ben Ḥanilai found in God's calling to Moses alone in Leviticus 1:1 proof that a burden that is too heavy for 600,000—hearing the voice of God (see [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy|5:22)—can nonetheless be light for one. And the Sifra also deduced from Leviticus 1:1 that God's voice, perhaps because it was subdued, resonated only within the tent itself.
Rabbi Tanḥuma said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Korchah that Leviticus 1:1 demonstrated that out of the 10 different names that Scripture applied to Moses, God always addressed Moses by his given name.
The Sifra taught that the term "any man" (, adam) in Leviticus 1:2 encompassed converts. But the term "of you" excluded apostates.
Rabbi Judah read Leviticus 1:2, "Speak to the children (, benei) of Israel," to mean that the "sons" (, benei) of Israel could lay hands (, smichah) on a sacrifice before it was offered, but not the “daughters” (, benot) of Israel. Rabbi Jose and Rabbi Simeon, however, disagreed, teaching that women also could lay hands on sacrifices. Abaye taught that a Baraita followed Rabbi Jose and Rabbi Simeon when it taught that both women and children can blow the shofar on Rosh Hashanah.
The Jerusalem Talmud read the apparently superfluous clause "and say to them" in Leviticus 1:2 to teach that the obligation to bring offerings applied to slaves as much as to free persons.
Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai taught that, generally speaking, the Torah required a burnt offering only as expiation for sinful meditation of the heart.
The Mishnah taught that the burnt offering was an offering of the most sacred order. It was consumed in its entirety, with the exception of its hide, by the fire of the altar.
The Mishnah deduced from Leviticus 1:3 that the offerer only effected atonement if the offerer brought the offering voluntarily, but if the offerer pledged to bring a burnt offering, the Mishnah taught that they compelled the offerer to state that the offering was voluntary. The Rabbis in a Baraita read the words "he shall offer it" in Leviticus 1:3 to teach that the congregation needed to compel the offerer to fulfill the offerer's obligation. And the Mishnah taught that the intention of the priest conducting the sacrifice determined whether the offering would prove valid.
A Tanna recited before Rabbi Isaac bar Abba the words of Leviticus 9:16, "And he presented the burnt offering; and offered it according to the ordinance," which refer to the obligatory burnt offering that Leviticus 9:2 required Aaron to bring on the eighth day of his consecration. The Tanna reasoned that by saying "according to the ordinance," Leviticus 9:16 referred to the rules that Leviticus 1:3–9 applied to voluntary burnt offerings, and thus taught that those rules also applied to obligatory burnt offerings. The Tanna concluded that as Leviticus 1:4 required laying on of hands for voluntary burnt offerings, the law also required laying on of hands for obligatory burnt offerings.
The Gemara interpreted the requirement of Leviticus 1:5 that the priest "dash the blood round about against the altar" to teach that the priest threw the blood against two opposing corners of the altar, thus hitting all four sides of the altar and satisfying the requirement to dash the altar "round about."
Rabbi Eliezer (or some say Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob) taught that Nadab and Abihu died in Leviticus 10:2 only because they gave a legal decision interpreting Leviticus 1:7 in the presence of their Master Moses. Even though Leviticus 9:24 reports that "fire came forth from before the Lord and consumed the burnt offering and the fat on the altar," Nadab and Abihu deduced from the command of Leviticus 1:7 that "the sons of Aaron the priest shall put fire upon the altar" that the priests still had a religious duty to bring some ordinary fire to the altar, as well.
The Mishnah noted that Leviticus 1:9; 1:17; and 2:9 each use the same words, "an offering made by fire, of a sweet savor to the Lord," whether to describe the burnt offering of a beast, a bird offering, or even a meal offering. (And Leviticus 5:7; 5:11; 12:8; and 14:21–22 provided that people of lesser means could bring less-expensive offerings.) The Mishnah deduced from this that one who sacrificed much and one who sacrificed little attained equal merit, so long as the donors directed their hearts to Heaven. Rabbi Zera taught that Ecclesiastes 5:11 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much." Rav Adda bar Ahavah taught that Ecclesiastes 5:10 provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "When goods increase, they are increased who eat them; and what advantage is there to the owner thereof." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai taught that Scripture says of a large ox, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; of a small bird, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; and of a meal offering, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai thus taught that Scripture uses the same expression each time to teach that it is the same whether people offered much or little, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. And Rabbi Isaac asked why the meal offering was distinguished in that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) to refer to the donor of a meal offering, instead of the usual "man" (, adam, in Leviticus 1:2, or , ish, in Leviticus 7:8) used in connection with other sacrifices. Rabbi Isaac taught that Leviticus 2:1 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) because God noted that the one who usually brought a meal offering was a poor man, and God accounted it as if the poor man had offered his own soul.
Similarly, Leviticus Rabbah reports that Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that God tried to accommodate the Israelites’ financial condition, as God told them that whoever had become liable to bring a sacrifice should bring from the herd, as Leviticus 1:3 says, "If his offering be a burnt offering of the herd." But if the offerer could not afford a sacrifice from the herd, then the offerer could bring a lamb, as Leviticus 4:32 says, "And if he bring a lamb . . . ." If the offerer could not afford to bring a lamb, then the offerer could bring a goat, as Leviticus 3:12 says, "And if his offering be a goat." If the offerer could not afford to bring a goat, then the offerer could bring a bird, as Leviticus 1:14 says, "And if his offering . . . be . . . of fowls." If the offerer could not afford to bring a bird, then the offerer could bring fine flour, as Leviticus 2:1 says, "fine flour for a meal offering." Other offerings could not be offered in halves, but this one was to be offered in halves, as Leviticus 6:12 says, "half thereof in the morning, and half thereof in the evening." And Scripture accounted one who offered it as if offering a sacrifice from one end of the world to the other, as Malachi 1:11 says, "For from the rising of the sun even to the going down of the same, My name is great among the nations; and in every place offerings are presented to My name, even a pure meal offering."
The Mishnah taught that the priest's obligation in Leviticus 1:9 to offer the fats and other sacrificial pieces persisted until dawn.
The Sifra deduced from Leviticus 1:10 that God occasionally began freestanding statements to Moses so as to allow Moses a pause to collect his thoughts. The Sifra generalized from this example that it was all the more appropriate for ordinary people to speak deliberately in conversation with other people.
Tractate Kinnim in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in Leviticus 1:14, 5:7, 12:6–8, 14:22, and 15:29; and Numbers 6:10.
Leviticus chapter 2
Tractate Menachot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud interpreted the law of meal offerings in Leviticus 2.
Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish) noted that Scripture uses the word "covenant" with regard to salt in Leviticus 2:13, "The salt of the covenant with your God should not be excluded from your meal offering; with all your sacrifices you must offer salt," and with regard to afflictions in Deuteronomy 28:69, “These are the words of the covenant.” Rabbi Shimon taught that just as, in the covenant mentioned with regard to salt, the salt sweetens the taste of the meal and renders it edible, so too in the covenant mentioned with regard to suffering, suffering cleanses a person's transgressions, purifying a person for a more sublime existence.
Leviticus chapter 3
The Gemara deduced from the words "And if his offering be a sacrifice of peace offerings" in Leviticus 3:1 that for an offering to be effective, one needed to slaughter the sacrifice for the sake of its being a peace offering.
Rabbi Judah taught that whoever brought a peace offering brought peace to the world. Rabbi Simeon taught that they are called "peace offerings" because all are at peace, each sharing in them. The blood and the limbs were for the altar, the breast and the thigh for the priests, and the hide and the meat for the owner.
Rabbi Simeon interpreted the term "peace offering" (, shelamim) in Leviticus 3:1 and after to indicate that a person could bring the offering only when "whole" (, shalem), and thus not when one was in the first stage of mourning after the death of a close relative.
Interpreting the words "And he shall . . . kill it at the door of the tent of meeting" in Leviticus 3:2, Rav Judah deduced in the name of Samuel that the priest had to kill the sacrifice when the gate was open, not when the gate was closed, and thus that peace offerings slain before the doors of the Temple were opened were invalid.
The Mishnah taught that because the peace offering was a sacrifice of lesser sanctity, it could be slain in any part of the Temple court. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the Mishnah's rule could be derived from the words "And he shall . . . kill it at the door of the tent of meeting" in Leviticus 3:2, "And he shall . . . kill it before the tent of meeting" in Leviticus 3:8, and "And he shall . . . kill it before the tent of meeting" in Leviticus 3:13. The three verses taken together taught that all sides of the Temple court were fit for performing sacrifices of lesser sanctity.
The Gemara deduced from the words "And the priest shall make it smoke" in Leviticus 3:11 that the priest must not mix portions of one sacrifice with those of another. And the Gemara cited a Baraita to interpret the words "And the priest shall make them smoke" Leviticus 3:16 to teach that the priest had to burn all the sacrificed parts of an offering at the same time.
A Midrash interpreted Psalm 146:7, "The Lord lets loose the prisoners," to read, "The Lord permits the forbidden," and thus to teach that what God forbade in one case, God permitted in another. Thus, God forbade the abdominal fat of cattle in Leviticus 3:3, but permitted it in the case of beasts. God forbade consuming the sciatic nerve in animals (in Genesis 32:33) but permitted it in fowl. God forbade eating meat without ritual slaughter (in Leviticus 17:1–4) but permitted it for fish. Similarly, Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Jonathan in the name of Rabbi Levi taught that God permitted more things than God forbade. For example, God counterbalanced the prohibition of pork (in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8) by permitting mullet (which some say tastes like pork).
Leviticus 3:16–17 reserved for God all animal fat and blood. The Gemara recounted that when Rabbi Sheshet would fast, he would pray: “Master of the Universe, it is revealed before You that when the Temple is standing, one sins and offers a sacrifice. And although only its fat and blood were offered from that sacrifice on the altar, [the offerer’s] transgression is atoned for. And now, I sat in observance of a fast and my fat and blood diminished. May it be Your will that my fat and blood that diminished be considered as if I offered a sacrifice before You on the altar, and may I find favor in Your eyes.”
The Sages taught that one may trust butchers to remove the fat that Leviticus 3:17 and 7:23 forbids.
Leviticus chapter 4
Reading Leviticus 4:3–21, the Mishnah noted that the person who burned the bull (as well as the person who led away the scapegoat pursuant to Leviticus 16:7–10 and 26, the person who burned the bull burned pursuant to Leviticus 16:27, and the person who burned the red cow pursuant to Numbers 19:8) rendered unclean the clothes worn while so doing. But the bull (as well as the scapegoat, the other bull, and the red cow) did not itself render unclean clothes with which it came in contact. The Mishnah imagined the clothing saying to the person: "Those that render you unclean do not render me unclean, but you render me unclean."
Tractate Horayot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the High Priest's bull in Leviticus 4:1–12, the bull for a communal error in Leviticus 4:13–21, the goat of the Nasi (Hebrew title) in Leviticus 4:22–26, and the sin offerings in Leviticus 4:27–5:12, and 5:17–19.
The Rabbis interpreted the words, "If any one shall sin through error," in Leviticus 4:2 to apply to inadvertent transgressions.
The Mishnah taught that 36 transgressions warranted excision ("the soul shall be cut off," , nichretah ha-nefesh) if committed intentionally, and warranted bringing of a sin offering (, chatat), as in Leviticus 4:2, if committed inadvertently: when a man has intercourse with (1) his mother, (2) his father's wife, (3) his daughter-in-law, (4) another man, or (5) an animal; (6) when a woman has intercourse with an animal; when a man has intercourse with (7) a
woman and her daughter, (8) a married woman, (9) his sister, (10) his father's sister, (11) his mother's sister, (12) his wife's sister, (13) his brother's wife, (14) the wife of his father's brother, or (15) a menstruating woman; when one (16) blasphemes, (17) serves idols, (18) dedicates children to Molech, (19) has a familiar spirit, (20) desecrates the Sabbath, (21) eats of sacrificial food while unclean, (22) enters the precincts of the Temple in an unclean state, eats (23) forbidden fat, (24) blood, (25) remnant, or (26) refuse, (27) slaughters or (28) offers up a consecrated animal outside the Temple precincts, (29) eats anything leavened on Passover, (30) eats or (31) works on Yom Kippur, compounds sacred (32) anointing oil or (33) incense, (34) uses sacred anointing oil improperly, or transgresses the laws of (35) the Passover offering or (36) circumcision.
Reading Genesis 15:9, "And He said to him: 'Take me a heifer of three years old (, meshuleshet), a she-goat of three years old (, meshuleshet), and a ram of three years old (, meshulash),'" a Midrash read , meshuleshet, to mean "three-fold" or "three kinds," indicating sacrifices for three different purposes. The Midrash deduced that God thus showed Abraham three kinds of bullocks, three kinds of goats, and three kinds of rams that Abraham's descendants would need to sacrifice. The three kinds of bullocks were: (1) the bullock that Leviticus 16:3–19 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the Day of Atonement (, Yom Kippur), (2) the bullock that Leviticus 4:13–21 would require the Israelites to bring on account of unwitting transgression of the law, and (3) the heifer whose neck Deuteronomy 21:1–9 would require the Israelites to break. The three kinds of goats were: (1) the goats that Numbers 28:16–29:39 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on festivals, (2) the goats that Numbers 28:11–15 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the New Moon (, Rosh Chodesh), and (3) the goat that Leviticus 4:27–31 would require an individual to bring. The three kinds of rams were: (1) the guilt offering of certain obligation that Leviticus 5:25, for example, would require one who committed a trespass to bring, (2) the guilt offering of doubt to which one would be liable when in doubt whether one had committed a transgression, and (3) the lamb to be brought by an individual. Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai said that God showed Abraham all the atoning sacrifices except for the tenth of an ephah of fine meal in Leviticus 5:11. The Rabbis said that God showed Abraham the tenth of an ephah as well, for Genesis 15:10 says "all these (, eleh)," just as Leviticus 2:8 says, "And you shall bring the meal offering that is made of these things (, me-eleh)," and the use of "these" in both verses hints that both verses refer to the same thing. And reading Genesis 15:10, "But the bird divided he not," the Midrash deduced that God intimated to Abraham that the bird burnt offering would be divided, but the bird sin offering (which the dove and young pigeon symbolized) would not be divided.
Reading Leviticus 4:22, "When (, asher) a ruler (, nasi) sins," Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai said, "Happy (, ashrei) is the generation whose leader (, nasi) is strong enough to admit having sinned!"
The Mishnah taught that bringing the sin offering (, chatat) of Leviticus 4:27–35 atoned for sin.
Leviticus chapter 5
Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that Leviticus 5 uses the word "soul" (, nefesh) six times, corresponding to the six days of Creation. God said to the soul that all that God created in the six days of creation God created for the sake of the soul, and then the soul went and sinned! And thus, Leviticus 5:1 begins, "When a soul sins . . . ."
Tractates Nedarim and Shevuot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of vows and oaths in Exodus 20:7, Leviticus 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and Deuteronomy 23:24.
The Mishnah supposed that a witness, after having been cautioned about the grave responsibility of being a witness, would think that the witness should just avoid the trouble of testifying. The Mishnah taught that this is why Leviticus 5:1 says, "And he witnessed or saw or knew, if didn't say anything, he bears the sin." (And thus the witness must testify.)
The Mishnah (following Leviticus 5:7–8) taught that a sin offering of a bird preceded a burnt offering of a bird; and the priest also dedicated them in that order. Rabbi Eliezer taught that wherever an offerer (because of poverty) substituted for an animal sin offering the offering of two birds (one of which was for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering), the priest sacrificed the bird sin offering before the bird burnt offering (as Leviticus 5:7–8 instructs). But in the case of a woman after childbirth discussed in Leviticus 12:8 (where a poor new mother could substitute for an animal burnt offering two birds, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering), the bird burnt offering took precedence over the bird sin offering. Wherever the offering came on account of sin, the sin offering took precedence. But here (in the case of a woman after childbirth, where the sin offering was not on account of sin) the burnt offering took precedence. And wherever both birds came instead of one animal sin offering, the sin offering took precedence. But here (in the case of a woman after childbirth) they did not both come on account of a sin offering (for in poverty she substituted a bird burnt offering for an animal burnt offering, as Leviticus 12:6–7 required her to bring a bird sin offering in any case), the burnt offering took precedence. (The Gemara asked whether this contradicted the Mishnah, which taught that a bird sin offering took precedence over an animal burnt offering, whereas here she brought the animal burnt offering before the bird sin offering.) Rava taught that Leviticus 12:6–7 merely accorded the bird burnt offering precedence in the mentioning. (Thus, some read Rava to teach that Leviticus 12:6–8 lets the reader read first about the burnt offering, but in fact the priest sacrificed the sin offering first. Others read Rava to teach that one first dedicated the animal or bird for the burnt offering and then dedicated the bird for the sin offering, but in fact the priest sacrificed the sin offering first.)
A Midrash deduced from the instructions in Leviticus 5:11–13 for the poor person to bring meal offerings that God valued the poor person's offering.
Chapter 9 of Tractate Bava Kamma in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapters 9 and 10 in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of restitution in Leviticus 5:21–26 together with Numbers 5:6–8.
The Mishnah taught that if one stole from another something worth a perutah (the minimum amount of significant value) and the thief nonetheless swore that the thief did not do so, the thief was obliged to take restitution to the victim even if the thief needed to go as far as Media (in what is now Iran). The thief could not give restitution to the victim's son or agent, but the thief could give it to an agent of the court. If the victim died, the thief had to restore it to the victim's heirs.
The Mishnah taught that if the thief paid back the principal to the victim but did not pay the additional fifth required by Leviticus 5:24; or if the victim excused the thief the principal but not the fifth; or the victim excused the thief both the principal and the fifth, except for something less than the value of a perutah remaining of the principal, then the thief would not have to go after the victim to repay the victim. (The Mishnah did not consider the payment of the fifth as an essential condition of atonement.) If, however, the thief paid the victim the fifth but not the principal; or the victim excused the thief the fifth but not the principal; or even where the victim excused the thief for both, except for something more than the value of a perutah remaining of the principal, then the thief would have to convey it personally to the victim (even as far as Media).
The Mishnah taught that if the thief paid the principal back to the victim and took an oath falsely that the thief had paid the fifth required by Leviticus 5:24, the thief would have to pay the victim an additional fifth of the fifth and so on until the principal of the last fifth about which the thief swore was reduced to less than the value of a perutah.
The Mishnah taught that the rules of restitution also applied to the case of a deposit, as Leviticus 5:21–22 says: “In that which was delivered him to keep, or in fellowship, or in a thing taken away by violence, or has deceived his neighbor, or has found that which was lost and lies concerning it and swears falsely.” The custodian had to pay the principal and the fifth required by Leviticus 5:24 and bring a trespass offering as required by Leviticus 5:25. If the depositor asked where the thing deposited was, and an unpaid custodian replied that it was lost, and the depositor then imposed an oath on the custodian, and the custodian swore that the deposit was lost, if witnesses then testified that the custodian consumed the thing deposited, then the custodian had to repay the principal. If the custodian confessed, the custodian had to pay the principal together with a fifth and bring a trespass offering, as required by Leviticus 5:21–24. If, however, the depositor asked where the thing deposited was, and the custodian replied that it was stolen, and the depositor then imposed an oath on the custodian, and the custodian swore that the someone else took the thing deposited, if witnesses testified that the custodian stole it, then the custodian had to repay double as required by Exodus 22:8. But if the custodian confessed on the custodian's own accord, then the custodian had to repay the principal together with a fifth and bring a trespass offering, as required by Leviticus 5:21–24.
The Mishnah taught that if one stole from one's father and, when charged by the father, denied it on oath, and the father then died before the child confessed to the father's heirs, then the child would have to repay the principal and a fifth to the father's other children or to the father's brothers (the child's uncles) if the child had no siblings. But if the child was unwilling to forfeit the child's share in the payment that child had to make, or if the child had no resources, then the child was to borrow the amount from others and perform the duty of restoration to the heirs, and the creditors could subsequently come and demand to be paid the portion that would by law have belonged to the child as heir.
The Mishnah interpreted the requirements of Numbers 5:8 regarding restitution where the victim died without kin to apply as well to where a proselyte victim died. The wrongdoer would have to pay the priests the principal plus 20 percent and bring a trespass offering to the altar. If the wrongdoer died bringing the money and the offering to Jerusalem, the money was to go to the wrongdoer's heirs, and the offering was to be kept on the pasture until it became blemished, when it was to be sold and the proceeds were to go to the fund for freewill offerings. But if the wrongdoer had already given the money to the priest and then died, the heirs could not retrieve the funds, for Numbers 5:10 provides that "whatever any man gives to the priest shall be his."
The Mishnah taught that an offering that was more sacred than another preceded the other offering. If there was blood of a sin offering and blood of a burnt offering to be presented, the blood of the sin offering preceded the blood of the burnt offering, because it effected atonement for severe transgressions punishable by extirpation. If there were portions of a burnt offering and portions of a sin offering to be burned on the altar, the burning of the portions of the burnt offering preceded the portions of the sin offering, because the burnt offering was entirely burned in the flames on the altar, while only part of the sin offering was burned. Similarly, although both effect atonement, a sin offering preceded a guilt offering, because its blood was placed on the four corners of the altar and the remnants of its blood were poured on the base of the altar, while the blood of the guilt offering was sprinkled on only two corners of the altar. A guilt offering preceded a thank offering and the Nazirite’s ram, as it was an offering of the most sacred order, and the others were offerings of lesser sanctity. A thank offering and a Nazirite’s ram preceded a peace offering, as they were eaten in one day, like offerings of the most sacred order, while a peace offering was eaten for two days, and the thank offering and Nazirite’s ram required loaves to be brought with them. Sacrifice of the peace offering preceded sacrifice of the firstborn offering, as the peace offering required placing the blood on the altar, placing hands on the head of the offering, libations, and the waving of the breast and the thigh by the priest and the owner, none of which was required for the firstborn offering.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapters 1–7
Maimonides and Nachmanides differed about the reason for the sacrificial system. Maimonides wrote that the reason for the offerings was because when the Israelites lived in Egypt and Chaldea, the Egyptians worshipped sheep and the Chaldeans worshipped demons in the form of goats. And people in India never slaughter cattle. Thus, God commanded the Israelites to slaughter cattle, sheep, and goats to God, so that worshipers of the other lands would know that God required the very act that they considered to be the utmost sin, and through that act God would forgive Israel's sins. God thus intended to cure the people of the other nations of false beliefs, which Maimonides characterized as diseases of the soul, for diseases are healed by medicines that are antithetical to the diseases.
Maimonides taught that God instituted the practice of sacrifices as a transitional step to wean the Israelites from the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a mammal is born, it is extremely tender, and cannot eat dry food, so God provided breasts that yield milk to feed the young animal, until it can eat dry food. Similarly, Maimonides taught, God instituted many laws as temporary measures, as it would have been impossible for the Israelites to suddenly discontinue everything to which they had become accustomed. So God sent Moses to make the Israelites (in the words of Exodus 19:6) "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." But the general custom of worship in those days was sacrificing animals in temples that contained idols. So God did not command the Israelites to give up those manners of service, but allowed them to continue. God transferred to God's service what had formerly served as a worship of idols, and commanded the Israelites to serve God in the same manner—namely, to build to a Sanctuary (Exodus 25:8), to erect the altar to God's name (Exodus 20:21), to offer sacrifices to God (Leviticus 1:2), to bow down to God, and to burn incense before God. God forbad doing any of these things to any other being and selected priests for the service in the Temple in Exodus 28:41. By this Divine plan, God blotted out the traces of idolatry, and established the great principle of the Existence and Unity of God. But the sacrificial service, Maimonides taught, was not the primary object of God's commandments about sacrifice; rather, supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object. Thus, God limited sacrifice to only one Temple (see Deuteronomy 12:26) and the priesthood to only the members of a particular family. These restrictions, Maimonides taught, served to limit sacrificial worship, and kept it within such bounds that God did not feel it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But in the Divine plan, prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person, as can be the wearing of tzitzit (Numbers 15:38) and tefillin (Exodus 13:9, 16) and similar kinds of service.
Nachmanides, on the other hand, noted that Leviticus 3:16 mentioned a reason for the offerings—that they are "a fire offering, of a pleasing odor to the Eternal." Nachmanides rejected the argument that the offerings were meant to eliminate the foreigners' foolish ideas, for the sacrifices would not have that effect, as the foreigners' intention was to worship the constellations of the sheep and the ox, and if Jews slaughtered sheep and oxen to God, it would show respect and honor to those constellations. Nachmanides further noted that when Noah came out of the ark, there were as yet no Chaldeans or Egyptians in the world, yet Noah brought an offering that pleased God so much that Genesis 8:21 reports that on its account God said, "I will not again curse the ground anymore for man's sake." Similarly, Abel brought of the first-born of his flock and Genesis 4:4 reports that "the Eternal had regard to Abel and to his offering," but there had not yet been a trace of idol worship in the world. In Numbers 23:4, Balaam said, "I have prepared the seven altars, and I have offered up a bullock and a ram on every altar," but his intent was not to eradicate evil beliefs from Balak's mind, but rather to approach God so that God's communication would reach Balaam. Nachmanides argued that the reason for the offerings was more likely that since people's deeds are accomplished through thought, speech, and action, therefore God commanded that when people sin and bring an offering, they should lay their hands on it in contrast to the evil deed that they committed. Offerers would confess their sin verbally to contrast with their evil speech. They would burn parts of the animal in fire that were seen as the instruments of thought and desire in human beings. The offerers would burn the legs of the animal because they corresponded to the limbs with which the offerer acted. The offerer sprinkled blood on the altar, which is analogous to the blood in the offerer’s body. Nachmanides argued that offerers performed these acts so that the offerers should realize that the offerers had sinned against God with their bodies. And the offerer’s soul and blood should have been spilled and the offerer’s body burned, were it not for God's loving-kindness in taking a substitute and a ransom—the offering—so that the offering's blood should be in place of the offerer’s blood, its life in place of the offerer’s life, and that the limbs of the offering in place of the parts of the offerer’s body.
Leviticus chapter 4
Reading Leviticus 4:22, "When a ruler sins," the Zohar pointed out that the corresponding clauses referring to the High Priest and the congregation begin with the word "if"—"If the anointed priest shall sin . . ." in Leviticus 4:3 and "If the whole congregation of Israel shall err . . ." in Leviticus 4:13. Rabbi Isaac explained that the reason for the differing language was that it was exceptional for the High Priest to sin, since he felt his responsibility to God, Israel, and each individual. Similarly, it was very exceptional for the whole congregation to commit one and the same sin, for if some committed it, others would not. But a ruler heart is uplifted because of the ruler's power, and therefore the ruler is almost bound to sin; hence it says here “when” and not “if.”
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapters 1–7
James Kugel reported that ancient texts offered several explanations for why peoples of the ancient Near East sacrificed animals: to provide the deity food (see Numbers 28:2); to offer the life of the slaughtered animal as a substitute for the offerer’s; to give a costly possession as a sign of fealty or in the hope of receiving still more generous compensation from the deity. Kugel reported that more recent explanations saw the sacrifice as establishing a tangible connection between the offerer and the deity, while others stress the connection of the sacred with violence or see the function of religion as defusing violence that would otherwise be directed at people. Kugel argued that the Israelites conceived of animal sacrifices as the principal channel of communication between the people and God. William Hallo described sacrifice as a sacred-making of the human consumption of animal meat that followed.<ref>William W. Hallo, “Leviticus and Ancient Near Eastern Literature,” in ‘'The Torah: A Modern Commentary, revised edition, edited by W. Gunther Plaut, revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, page 652.</ref>
Jacob Milgrom read the sacrificial system in the parashah to describe the forces of life and death pitted against each other in a cosmic struggle, set loose by people through their obedience to or defiance of God's commandments. Milgrom taught that Leviticus treats impurity as the opposite of holiness, identifying impurity with death and holiness with life. Milgrom interpreted Leviticus to teach that people could drive God out of the sanctuary by polluting it with their moral and ritual sins. But the priests could periodically purge the sanctuary of its impurities and influence the people to atone. The blood of the purification offerings symbolically purged the sanctuary by symbolically absorbing its impurities, in a victory for life over death.
Similarly, Gordon Wenham noted that the sacrificial system regularly associates sacrifices with cleansing and sanctification. Wenham read Leviticus to teach that sacrificial blood was necessary to cleanse and sanctify. Sacrifice could undo the effects of sin and human infirmity. Sin and disease profaned the holy and polluted the clean, whereas sacrifice could reverse this process. Wenham illustrated with the chart at right. Wenham concluded that contact between the holy and the unclean resulted in death. Sacrifice, by cleansing the unclean, made such contact possible. Sacrifice thus allowed the holy God to meet with sinful man.
Mary Douglas wrote that to find the underlying logic of the first chapters of Leviticus about how to make a sacrifice and how to lay out the animal sections on the altar, one needs to look carefully at what Leviticus says about bodies and parts of bodies, what is inner and outer, and what is on top and underneath. Douglas suggested this alignment of the three levels of Mount Sinai, the animal sacrifice, and the Tabernacle:
Douglas argued that the tabernacle ran horizontally toward the most sacred area, Mount Sinai went up vertically to the summit, and the sacrificial pile started with the head underneath and went up to the entrails, and one can interpret each by reference to the others. Douglas noted that in mystical thought, “upper” and “inner” can be equivalent. The pattern is always there throughout creation, with God in the depths or on the heights of everything. Likening the tabernacle to a body, the innards corresponded to the Holy of Holies, for the Bible locates the emotions and thought in the innermost parts of the body; the loins are wrung with remorse or grief; God scrutinizes the innermost part; compassion resides in the bowels. The Tabernacle was associated with creation, and creation with fertility, implying that the innermost part of the Tabernacle was a Divine nuptial chamber, depicting the union between God and Israel. Douglas concluded that the summit of the mountain was the abode of God, below was the cloudy region that only Moses could enter, and the lower slopes were where the priests and congregation waited, and analogously, the order of placing the parts of the animal on the altar marked out three zones on the carcass, the suet set around and below the diaphragm corresponding to the cloud girdling the middle of the mountain.
James Watts argued that the rhetorical purpose of Leviticus 1–7 was to assert the Torah's authority over both religious professionals and laity. No Israelite could claim to be exempt from its provisions. Like royal and oracular texts that their framework evokes, Leviticus 1–7 intended to persuade the Israelites and the priests to perform the offerings correctly, as specified in the text. But Leviticus 1–7 also aimed to reinforce the authority of the Torah over religious performance in the Temple. By publicly stipulating the forms of the Israelite's offerings, Leviticus 1–7 positioned priests and laity to monitor each other's performance, with the text as the arbiter of correct practice. Thus Leviticus 1–7 shifted cultic authority from the priesthood to the book.
Bernard Bamberger noted that while the Rabbis introduced into the synagogue several practices formerly associated with the Temple, they made no provision for "interim" sacrifices, even though they could have found precedents for sacrifice outside Jerusalem. When the Roman Empire destroyed the Jerusalem Temple, the Rabbis did not choose to follow those precedents for sacrifice elsewhere, but instead set up a substitute, declaring the study of the sacrificial laws as acceptable to God as sacrifices. Bamberger suggested that some scholars may have felt that the day of sacrifice had passed.
Leviticus chapter 1
Milgrom noted that Leviticus 1–5, like most of Leviticus, is addressed to all the Israelite people, while only a few laws, in Leviticus 6:1–7:21; 10:8–15; and 16:2–28, are reserved for the Priests alone.
Milgrom taught that the burnt offering in Leviticus 1 was intended for the person who wanted to present to God a sacrificial animal in its entirety either as an expression of loyalty or as a request for expiation.
Leviticus chapter 2
Milgrom believed that the cereal offering, whose description follows in Leviticus 2, was probably intended for the same purposes as the burnt offering, on behalf of the poor who could not afford entire animal offerings. Milgrom saw in the sacrificial texts a recurring theme of concern for the poor: Everyone, regardless of means, was able to bring an acceptable offering to God. Thus Leviticus 1:14–17 added birds to the roster of burnt offerings, and Leviticus 2 on the cereal offering appears immediately after Leviticus 1 on the burnt offering, implying that if a person could not afford birds, then the person could bring a cereal offering instead.
Leviticus chapter 3
Milgrom taught that in the original Priestly source ("P"), an offerer brought the well-being offering in Leviticus 3 solely out of joyous motivations like thanksgiving, vow fulfillment, or spontaneous free will. The offerer shared the meat of the offering with family and friends. Milgrom reasoned that the advent of the Holiness Code ("H") brought another dimension to the sacrifice of the well-being connected with the prohibition of consuming blood. H's ban on nonsacrificial slaughter meant that all meat eaten as food had initially to be sanctified on the altar as a well-being offering.
Leviticus chapter 4
Milgrom taught that the rationale for the sin or purification offering in Leviticus 4:1–5:13 was related to the impurity generated by violations of prohibitive commandments, which, if severe enough, polluted the sanctuary from afar. Milgrom called this pollution the Priestly Picture of Dorian Gray: While sin might not scar the face of the sinner, it did scar the face of the sanctuary. This image illustrated a Priestly version of the doctrine of collective responsibility: When evildoers sinned, they brought the more righteous down with them. Those who perished with the wicked were not entirely blameless, but inadvertent sinners who, by having allowed the wicked to flourish, also contributed to pollution of the sanctuary. The High Priest and the leaders of the people, in particular, brought special sacrifices in Leviticus 4:9 and 23, for their errors caused harm to their people, as reflected in Leviticus 4:3 and 10:6. Thus, in the Priestly scheme, brazen sins (the leaders' rapacity) and inadvertent sins (the silent majority's acquiescence) polluted the sanctuary (and corrupted society), driving God out of the sanctuary and leading to national destruction. In the theology of the purification offering, the sanctuary needed constant purification lest God abandon it because of the people's rebellious and inadvertent sins.
Leviticus chapter 5
Milgrom taught that the guilt or reparation offering in Leviticus 5:14–26 might seem at first glance to be restricted to offenses against God's sanctum or name, but reflected wider theological implications. The Hebrew noun , asham, "reparation, reparation offering," is related to the Hebrew verb , asheim, "feel guilt," which predominates in this offering in Leviticus 5:17, 23, and 26, and in the purification offering, as well, in Leviticus 4:13, 22, and 27; and 5:4–5. Milgrom inferred from this relationship that expiation by sacrifice depended on both the worshiper's remorse and the reparation that the worshiper brought to both God and people to rectify the wrong. Milgrom noted that if a person falsely denied under oath having defrauded another, subsequently felt guilt, and restored the embezzled property and paid a 20 percent fine, the person was then eligible to request of God that a reparation offering expiate the false oath, as reflected in Leviticus 5:20–26. Milgrom saw here Priestly lawmakers in action, bending the sacrificial rules to foster the growth of individual conscience, permitting sacrificial expiation for a deliberate crime against God (knowingly taking a false oath) provided that the person repented before being apprehended. Thus Leviticus 5:20–26 ordains that repentance converted an intentional sin into an unintentional one, making it eligible for sacrificial expiation.
Milgrom concluded that the sin or purification offering taught the "ecology of morality," that the sins of the individual adversely affect society even when committed inadvertently, and the guilt or reparation offering fostered a doctrine of repentance. Milgrom noted that Leviticus 4:1–5:13 did not prescribe the sin or purification offering just for cultic violations but in Leviticus 4:2 extended the meaning of the term "communal" to embrace the broader area of ethical violations. And Milgrom saw in the discussion of the guilt or reparation offering in Leviticus 5:24b–25 that in matters of expiation, one had to rectify one's relationship with other people before seeking to rectify one's relationship with God.
In critical analysis
Scholars who follow the Documentary Hypothesis attribute the parashah to the Priestly source who wrote in the 6th or 5th century BCE.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 11 positive and 5 negative commandments in the parashah:
To carry out the procedure of the burnt offering as prescribed in the Torah
To bring meal offerings as prescribed in the Torah
Not to burn honey or yeast on the altar
Not to omit the salt from sacrifices
To salt all sacrifices
The Sanhedrin must bring an offering when it rules in error.
To bring a sin offering for transgression
Anybody who knows evidence must testify in court.
To bring an offering of greater or lesser value (if the person is wealthy, an animal; if poor, a bird or meal offering)
Not to decapitate a fowl brought as a sin offering
Not to put oil on the meal offerings of wrongdoers
Not to put frankincense on meal offerings
One who profaned property must repay what he profaned plus a fifth and bring a sacrifice.
To bring an offering when uncertain of guilt
To return the robbed object or its value
To bring an offering when guilt is certain
In the liturgy
The list of animals from which the Israelites could bring sacrifices in Leviticus 1:2 provides an application of the fourth of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei d'Zimrah prayer service. The rule provides that when the general precedes the specific, the law applies only to the specific. Leviticus 1:2 says, "you shall bring your offering from the domestic animals, even from the herd or from the flock." Applying the fourth rule teaches that Israelites could bring sacrifices from no domestic animals other than cattle from the herd or sheep or goats from the flock.
During the Torah reading, the gabbai calls for the Kohen to "approach" (, k'rav) to perform the first aliah, or blessing on the Torah reading, recalling the use of the word "approach" (, k'rav) in Leviticus 1:5 to describe the priest's duty to perform the sacrificial service.
Many Jews read excerpts from and allusions to the instructions in the parashah as part of the readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings. Specifically, Jews read the instructions for the priest's sacrifices in Leviticus 1:11, the prohibition on leavening or honey in the incense in Leviticus 2:11, a discussion of the bulls that are completely burned, in reference to the instructions in Leviticus 4:8–12, and a discussion of the guilt offerings referred to in Leviticus 5:14–26.
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For Parashat Vayikra, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Rast, the maqam that shows a beginning or an initiation of something, as with this parashah, Jews begin the book of Leviticus.
Haftarah
Generally
The haftarah for the parashah is Isaiah 43:21–44:23.
Summary
God formed the people of Israel that they might praise God, but they did not call upon God, nor did they bring God their burnt offerings, meal offerings, frankincense, or the fat of their sacrifices. Rather, they burdened God with their sins. God blots out their transgressions for God's own sake. Their first father sinned, and their intercessors transgressed, and so God abandoned the sanctuary and the Israelites to condemnation.
And yet God told the people of Israel not to fear, for God would pour water upon the thirsty land, and God's blessing upon their offspring, and they would spring up like grass. And they would call themselves the Lord's, by the name of Jacob, and by the name of Israel.
God declared that God is the first and the last, and beside God there is no God, no One Who can proclaim what the future will be, no other Rock. Those who fashion graven images shall not profit; they shall be shamed together. The smith makes an ax, and the carpenter forms the figure of a man. He hews down cedars and oaks, and uses the same wood for fuel to warm himself and to make a god to worship. They do not know nor understand that they strive after ashes.
God called on the people of Israel to remember these things, and not forget God who formed them and blotted out their sins. God called on the heaven and earth, mountain and forest to sing, for God had redeemed Israel for God's glory.
Connection to the Parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah address sacrifices to God. Both the parashah and the haftarah address burnt offerings ('''olah), meal offerings (minchah), frankincense (levonah), and witnesses (ed or eday).
On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh (as it does in 2029), the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.
On Shabbat Zachor
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Zachor (the special Sabbath immediately preceding Purim—as it does in 2022, 2024, 2027, and 2030), the haftarah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: 1 Samuel 15:2–34;
for Sephardi Jews: 1 Samuel 15:1–34.
Connection to the Special Sabbath
On Shabbat Zachor, the Sabbath just before Purim, Jews read Deuteronomy 25:17–19, which instructs Jews: "Remember (zachor) what Amalek did" in attacking the Israelites. The haftarah for Shabbat Zachor, 1 Samuel 15:2–34 or 1–34, describes Saul's encounter with Amalek and Saul's and Samuel's tretament of the Amalekite king Agag. Purim, in turn, commemorates the story of Esther and the Jewish people's victory over Haman's plan to kill the Jews, told in the book of Esther. Esther 3:1 identifies Haman as an Agagite, and thus a descendant of Amalek. Numbers 24:7 identifies the Agagites with the Amalekites. Alternatively, a Midrash tells the story that between King Agag's capture by Saul and his killing by Samuel, Agag fathered a child, from whom Haman in turn descended.
See also
Udhiyyah or Qurbani (sacrifice in Islam)
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these classical sources:
Biblical
Exodus 20:7 (vows).
Leviticus 19:12 (vows).
Numbers 30:2–17 (vows).
Deuteronomy 23:22–24 (vows).
Isaiah 56:7 (sacrifices from all people).
Jeremiah 7:22–23 (preferring obedience to sacrifices).
Ezekiel 18:5–7 (the just does not rob).
Hosea 14:3 (the offering of our lips instead of bulls).
Psalm 19:13 (unknowing sin); 20:4 (burnt offerings); 40:7 (sacrifices); 50:3–23 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 51:16–19 (sacrifices); 66:13–15 (burnt offerings); 107:22 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 116:17 (sacrifices of thanksgiving).
Early nonrabbinic
The Wisdom of Ben Sira 50:1–29. Jerusalem, circa 180 BCE.
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 3:48:143–49:144; On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel 36:118; On the Posterity of Cain 35:123; On the Preliminary Studies 30:169; On the Change of Names 41:234; On Dreams 1:14:81, 2:10:71, 44:296; On the Special Laws 1: 37:199, 42:233, 43:236, 53:289; 2: 6:26; 4: 23:119, 123. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 66, 108, 144, 319, 361, 372, 393, 409, 553, 556, 561, 570, 627–28. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:9:1–4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 94–95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Berakhot 1:1; Shekalim 6:6; Nedarim 1:1–11:12; Bava Kamma 9:7; Sanhedrin 4:5; Shevuot 1:1–8:6; Horayot 1:1–3:8; Zevachim 1:1–14:10; Menachot 1:1–13:11; Chullin 1:4, 7:1; Arakhin 5:6; Keritot 1:2, 2:4, 4:3, 6:6–9; Kinnim 1:1–3:6; Parah 1:4. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 3, 261, 406–30, 524, 591, 616, 620–39, 689–766, 779, 817, 837, 839, 845, 849–50, 883–89, 1014. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Peah 3:8; Demai 2:7; Challah 2:7; Bikkurim 2:1; Kippurim (Yoma) 1:5; Nedarim 1:1–7:8; Bava Kamma 7:5; Makkot 5:2–3; Shevuot 1:6–3:8; Horayot 1:1–2:13; Zevachim 1:1–13:20; Menachot 1:1–13:23; Chullin 9:14; Keritot 2:13–15. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 65, 85, 339, 348, 542, 785–805; volume 2, pages 987, 1214, 1219–44, 1295–1369, 1401–02, 1429–30, 1437, 1453, 1562–63 1563. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra 1:1–69:1. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 65–345. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 8a; Terumot 31b, 71b; Challah 7a, 8a, 33a; Shabbat 23a, 77b, 85b, 89b; Pesachim 18a, 36b, 37a, 38a–b, 43a, 78b; Shekalim 8a, 15a, 49a–b; Yoma 2a, 8a, 11a–b, 12b, 14b, 16b–17a, 32a, 37a, 38b, 45b, 47a; Taanit 9a; Megillah 16a, 34b; Yevamot 28a, 63b; Nedarim 1a–42b; Nazir 19a, 20b–21a, 22a, 23b, 26b; Sotah 10a, 14b–15a, 18b, 22b, 44b; Gittin 27b; Kiddushin 3b, 16a; Bava Kamma 3b–4a; Sanhedrin 8a, 10a, 23a–b, 28b; Shevuot 1a–49a; Avodah Zarah 7b, 18b; Horayot 1a–18b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 C.E. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1, 7–8, 11, 13, 15, 18–21, 25–26, 29–30, 33–35, 37, 39–41, 44, 46–49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–20.
Leviticus Rabbah 1:1–7:1; 8:4; 10:3; 22:10. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 1–88, 90, 104, 124, 288. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 2a, 5a, 31b, 37b; Shabbat 2a–3a, 15a, 25a, 26b, 38a, 68b–69a, 70a, 71b, 103a, 108a; Eruvin 2a, 30b, 57a, 63a, 104a; Pesachim 16b, 32b–33a, 36a, 40a, 43b, 57b, 59a, 62a, 63b, 64b–65b, 66b, 73a, 77b, 83a, 89a, 96b; Yoma 4b–5a, 15b, 20a, 21b, 24a–b, 25b, 26b–27a, 36a–37a, 41a, 44a, 45a, 47a–48a, 50a, 53a, 56b–57b, 58b–59a, 62b, 67b–68b, 73a, 74a, 80a, 85b; Sukkah 30a, 48b, 49b, 56a; Beitzah 20a, 25a, 39a; Rosh Hashanah 5b–6a, 28a, 33a; Taanit 22b; Megillah 8a, 9b, 16a, 20b; Moed Katan 17b; Chagigah 2a, 6a–b, 7b, 10a–11a, 16b, 23b; Yevamot 8b–9a, 32b, 34a, 35b, 83b, 87b, 90a, 100a, 101b, 106a; Ketubot 5b, 30b, 42a–b, 45a, 60a, 106a; Nedarim 2a–91b; Nazir 9b, 23a, 24a, 25a, 27b–28a, 29a, 35a, 36a, 38a, 45a, 47b, 62b; Sotah 14a–15a, 23a, 32a, 33a, 37b, 44b, 46b; Gittin 28b, 71a, 74a; Kiddushin 14a, 24b, 36a–b, 37b, 44a, 50a, 52b–53a, 54b–55a, 57b, 81b; Bava Kamma 2a, 3b, 4b, 9b, 12b–13a, 20b, 40b, 56a, 63b, 65a–67a, 71a, 79b, 86b, 91b, 93a, 94b, 98a–b, 101a, 103a–11a, 112a, 117b; Bava Metzia 3b, 36a, 43a–b, 48a, 54b–55b, 58a, 104a, 111a–b; Bava Batra 26b, 74b, 79a, 88b, 120b, 123b; Sanhedrin 2a, 3b–4b, 13b–14a, 18b, 30a, 34b, 37b, 42b, 47a, 52a, 61b–62a, 83a, 84a, 87a, 101a, 107a; Makkot 13a, 16a, 17a–19a; Shevuot 2a–49b; Avodah Zarah 24b, 29b, 42b, 44a; Horayot 2a–14a; Zevachim 2a–120b; Menachot 2a–110a; Chullin 2b, 5a–b, 11a, 13a–b, 17a, 19b–22b, 27a–b, 30b, 37a, 49a, 61a, 70b–71a, 85a, 90a, 93a, 117a, 123b, 132b, 133b; Bekhorot 15b, 41a–42a, 43b, 53b, 61a; Arakhin 2a, 4a, 17b–18a, 20b–21a; Temurah 2a–3b, 6a, 8a, 15a–b, 17b–18b, 19b–20a, 22a, 23b, 28a–29a, 32b; Keritot 2a, 3a, 4a–5a, 7a–b, 9a, 10b, 11b–12b, 18b–19b, 22a–b, 23b, 24b, 25b–28b; Meilah 2b, 8a–b, 9b–10a, 15a, 18a–b, 19b–20a; Tamid 28b, 29b, 31b; Niddah 28b, 41a, 70b. Sasanian Empire, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 1–5. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 1–57. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 11–33. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:60. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 184. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 1–28. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah. Chapter 1, ¶ 1. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 6–7. New York: Moznaim, Publishing, 1990.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 656–78. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 6–58. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar, part 3, pages 2a–26a. Spain, late 13th century.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1463–527. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1019–53. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 778–805. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 544–58. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 15–58. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. And excerpted in, e.g., Abarbanel on the Torah: Selected Themes. Translated by Avner Tomaschoff, pages 360–81. Jerusalem: Jewish Agency for Israel, 2007.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 499–513. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 619–33. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 205–06. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40, 42. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04, 572. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 1–84. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 924–86. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 1–117. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 301–13. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 897–915. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
H. Clay Trumbull. The Salt Covenant. New York, 1899. Reprinted in Kirkwood, Missouri: Impact Christian Books, 1999.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 147–51. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 200, 214. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
George Buchanan Gray. Sacrifice in the Old Testament: Its Theory and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925. Reprinted by Ktav Publishing House, 1971.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 74–77. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Roland De Vaux. Studies in Old Testament Sacrifice. University of Wales Press, 1964.
Anson Rainey. "Sacrifice." In Encyclopaedia Judaica, volume 14, pages 599–607. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1972.
Jacob Milgrom. Cult and Conscience: The Asham and the Priestly Doctrine of Repentance. E.J. Brill, 1976.
Jacob Milgrom. "Sacrifices and Offerings, OT," and "Wave offering." In The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. Supp. volume, pages 763–71, 944–46. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1976.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 47–112. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 105–09. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Mark S. Smith. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, pages 2, 100. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 97–103. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. “Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation.” AJS Review, volume 19, number 2 (1994): pages 213–36.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., "The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1005–42. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Animal Sacrifice." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 233–46. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah, pages 151–55. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 232–43. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 165–71. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, volume 3, pages 129–378. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 165–78. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 1–7).
Shoshana Gelfand. "The Book of Relationships." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 185–90. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. “Leviticus.” In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 146–50. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 286–94. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 147–55. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, pages 108–09. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 547–63. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages xii, 6–62, 70–71, 73–78, 85, 95–96, 99, 117, 126, 138–39, 143–44, 146–47, 151, 157, 162, 168, 170–71, 176, 181, 186, 190, 192, 195, 211, 214, 226–30, 266, 270–71, 291, 323–24, 327, 333. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30, number 2 (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 163–65. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. “Leviticus.” In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 658–85. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "A Priest's Expiation." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 85. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 301–03, 324, 503. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 569–92. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert. "Bodily Perfection in the Sanctuary: Parashat Vayikra (Leviticus 1:1–5:26)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 123–28. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 143–46. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 289–96. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Leigh M. Trevaskis. “On a Recent ‘Existential’ Translation of ḥāṭāʾ.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 59, number 2 (2009): pages 313–19.
Mark Leuchter. “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60, number 3 (2010): pages 345–65.
Jeffrey Stackert. “Leviticus.” In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 143–49. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, pages 188, 244. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. “The Calling.” In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 143–46. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Liel Leibovitz. "Leviticus, the Video Game: A new iPhone game turns the Bible's most detailed book into fast-paced, educational entertainment." Tablet Magazine. (March 8, 2013).
Moshe Waldoks. "Leviticus 1:1–5:26: How Do We Come Closer to God?" The Huffington Post. (March 12, 2013).
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 196–206. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Annette Yoshiko Reed. “From Sacrifice to the Slaughterhouse: Ancient and Modern Approaches to Meat, Animals, and Civilization.” (2015).
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 51–98. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 123–28. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 153–57. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 3–14. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 77–79. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Bill Dauster. "When Leaders Do Wrong." Washington Jewish Week, March 26, 2020, page 35.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah chanted
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Shiur.com
Tanach Study Center
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Adar
Weekly Torah readings in Nisan
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus |
4204211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Vilnius | List of people from Vilnius | The following is a list of notable people from Lithuania's capital city of Vilnius (historically known by the names of Vilna/Wilna/Wilno). It includes people who were born or resided there.
A
Neringa Aidietytė (born 1983), Lithuanian athlete.
Gediminas Akstinas (born 1961), Lithuanian painter.
Frantsishak Alyakhnovich (1883–1944), Belarusian playwright and journalist.
Algirdas (1296–1377), Grand Duke of Lithuania.
Ana Ambrazienė (born 1955), Lithuanian hurdler, former world record holder.
Ieva Andrejevaitė (born 1988), Lithuanian actress.
Michał Elwiro Andriolli (1836–1893), Polish-Lithuanian painter and architect of Italian descent.
Irena Andriukaitienė (born 1948), Lithuanian politician and signature of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Mark Antokolsky (1843–1902), Russian-Jewish sculptor.
Laura Asadauskaitė (born 1984), Lithuanian modern pentathlon athlete.
B
Francišak Bahuševič (1840–1900), Belarusian poet.
Živilė Balčiūnaitė (born 1979), Lithuanian long-distance runner, European champion.
Aidas Bareikis (born 1967), Lithuanian artist.
Liutauras Barila (born 1974), Lithuanian Olympic biathlete.
Jonas Basanavičius (1851–1927), Lithuanian leader of Lithuania's national revival movement.
Ričardas Berankis (born 1990), Lithuanian the top ranked Lithuanian tennis player of all time.
Alexander Berkman (1870–1936), Russian-American leading member of the anarchist movement in the early 20th century.
Mykolas Biržiška (1882–1962), Lithuanian historian of literature, politician, signer of the Act of Independence of Lithuania.
Vaclovas Biržiška (1884–1956), Lithuanian publisher, historian.
Eglė Bogdanienė (born 1962), Lithuanian textile artist.
Kazys Bradūnas (1917–2009), Lithuanian émigré poet and editor.
Lina Braknytė (born 1952), Lithuanian actress.
Algirdas Brazauskas (1932–2010), Lithuanian President and Prime Minister.
Danutė Budreikaitė (born 1953), Lithuanian politician and Member of the European Parliament.
Kanstancyja Bujło (1893–1986), Belarusian poet and playwright.
Teodor Bujnicki (1907–1944), Polish poet.
Vaidas Baumila (1987), Lithuanian singer and actor.
C
Saint Casimir (1458–1484), patron saint of Poland and of the Lithuania.
Dalius Čekuolis (born 1959), Lithuanian politician.
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz (1560–1621), Lithuanian politician and hetman.
César Cui (1835–1918), Russian composer and music critic of French, Polish and Lithuanian descent.
D
Ingeborga Dapkūnaitė (born 1963), Lithuanian actress.
Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864), Lithuanian/Samogitian historian, writer, and ethnographer.
Mikalojus Daukša (1527–1613), publisher of the first printed Lithuanian book in GDL.
Boris Dekanidze (1962–1995), Lithuanian stateless crime boss.
Gintaras Didžiokas (born 1966), Lithuanian politician.
Agnia Ditkovskyte (born 1988), Russian actress of a Lithuanian origin.
Ignacy Domeyko (1802–1889), Polish geologist, mineralogist and engineer.
Raminta Dvariškytė (born 1990), Lithuanian Olympic swimmer.
Dynoro, (born 1999), Lithuanian DJ and musical producer.
Felix Dzerzhinsky (1877–1926), Belarusian founder of the Soviet secret police.
Audrius Dzikaras (born 1957), Lithuanian painter.
F
Viktorija Faith (born 1986), Lithuanian singer, songwriter, producer, actress.
Yechezkel Feivel (1755–1833), Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Maggid.
Eduard Robert Flegel (1855–1886) a German explorer, role in the Scramble for Africa.
Vaclava Fleri (1888–1983), Lithuanian painter.
G
Romain Gary (1914–1980), French writer.
Martynas Gecevičius (born 1988), Lithuanian basketball player.
Gediminas (–1341), Grand Duke of Lithuania, founder of Vilnius city.
Petras Geniušas (born 1961), Lithuanian classical pianist.
Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994), Lithuanian archeologist.
Rolandas Gimbutis (born 1981), Lithuanian swimmer.
Liudas Gira (1884–1946), Lithuanian poet, writer, and literary critic.
Johann Christoph Glaubitz (–1767), German architect.
Kęstutis Glaveckas (1949–2021), Lithuanian politician and signature of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Alexander Goldberg, (1906-1985) Israeli chemical engineer and President of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology.
Judah Leib Gordon (1830–1892), Israeli an important Hebrew poet of the Jewish Enlightenment.
Antoni Gorecki (1787–1861), Polish writer, poet, soldier.
Albertas Goštautas (–1539), Lithuanian Chancellor of Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Mindaugas Griškonis (born 1986), Lithuanian Olympic rower.
Hubertas Grušnys (1961–2006), Lithuanian media proprietor, in 1989 launched the first-ever private radio station in Lithuania and the post-communist Eastern Europe.
Dalia Grybauskaitė (born 1956), Lithuanian politician and President of Lithuania.
Laurynas Gucevičius (1753–1798), Lithuanian architect.
Daina Gudzinevičiūtė (born 1965), Lithuanian shooter, Olympic gold medalist.
Asmik Grigorian (born 1981), Lithuanian operatic soprano, named as the best female singer in International Opera Awards 2019.
Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla (born 1986), Lithuanian conductor, music director of the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra (CBSO) in England.
Stanisław Gudowski (1918–2011) Lithuanian World War II tank commander.
H
Menahem Manesh Hayyut (died 1636), Polish rabbi.
Jascha Heifetz (1901–1987), Lithuanian-American violinist.
Ulrich Hosius (1455–1535), German descent from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
I
Juozas Imbrasas (born 1941), Lithuanian former mayor of Vilnius.
Jurga Ivanauskaitė (1961–2007), Lithuanian writer.
Victor Ivanoff (1909–1990), South African artist, cartoonist and singer.
J
Edgaras Jankauskas (born 1975), first Lithuanian footballer to win the UEFA Champions League in 2004.
Gintaras Januševičius (born 1985), Lithuanian pianist, music educator, event producer, radio presenter, and philanthropist.
Simas Jasaitis (born 1982), Lithuanian basketball player.
Rolandas Jasevičius (born 1982), Lithuanian boxer.
Paweł Jasienica (1909–1970), Polish historian, journalist and soldier.
Jakub Jasiński (1761–1794), Polish general.
Władysław II Jagiełło (–1434), Grand Duke of Lithuania.
Arvydas Juozaitis (born 1956), Lithuanian writer, philosopher, politician, swimmer, Olympic bronze medalist.
Eglė Jurgaitytė (born 1998), Lithuanian singer and radio presenter.
K
Virgilijus Kačinskas (born 1959), Lithuanian architect and politician, signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Lina Kačiušytė (born 1963), Lithuanian swimmer, Olympic gold medalist.
Zebi Hirsch Kaidanover (c. 1650–1712), German rabbi and writer.
Saint Raphael Kalinowski (1835–1907), Polish Discalced Carmelite friar inside the Russian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; teacher, engineer, prisoner of war, royal tutor and priest.
Ihnat Kančeŭski (pen name: Ihnat Abdziralovič), (1896-1923), Belarusian poet, philosopher and publicist.
Rita Karin (1919–1993), Polish-born American actress.
Mieczysław Karłowicz (1876–1909), Polish composer and conductor.
Rimantas Kaukėnas (born 1977), Lithuanian basketball player.
Antanas Kavaliauskas (born 1984), Lithuanian professional basketball player, 2005 FIBA Under-21 World Championship gold medalist.
Nomeda Kazlaus, (born 1974), Lithuanian opera singer appearing internationally, TV Host.
Valdas Kazlauskas (born 1958), Lithuanian athlete and coach.
Dvora Kedar (1924–2023), Israeli actress.
Vytautas Kernagis (1951–2008), Lithuanian singer-songwriter, considered a pioneer of Lithuanian sung poetry.
Rebeka Kim (born 1998), South Korean figure skater.
Gediminas Kirkilas (born 1951), Lithuanian politician former Prime Minister of Lithuania.
Szymon Konarski (1808–1839), Polish radical democratic politician and revolutionary.
Oskaras Koršunovas (born 1969), Lithuanian theatre director.
Simon Kovar (born Kovarski) (1890–1970), Russian-born American bassoonist.
Boris Kowerda (1907–1987), anti-Soviet Belarusian activist convicted of murdering Pyotr Voykov, Soviet ambassador to Poland in Warsaw in 1927.
Saint Maria Faustina Kowalska (1905–1938), Polish Roman Catholic nun and mystic.
Józef Ignacy Kraszewski (1812–1887), Polish writer, historian, journalist, scholar, painter and author.
Andrius Kubilius (born 1956), Lithuanian politician Prime Minister of Lithuania.
Jonas Kubilius (1921–2011), Lithuanian mathematician who works in probability theory and number theory.
Abraomas Kulvietis (–1545), Lithuanian reformer, publicist.
Jolanta Kvašytė (born 1956), Lithuanian ceramic artist.
L
Bernard Ładysz (1922–2020), Polish bass-baritone and actor.
Vytautas Landsbergis (born 1932), politician, contributed to the demise of the Soviet Union.
Joachim Lelewel (1786–1861), Polish historian.
Jacob Liboschütz (1741–1827), physician.
Romas Lileikis (born 1959), poet, musician, film director.
Michalo Lituanus, (ca.1500-ca.1550) unidentified humanist author of the 16th century.
Eduard Lobau (born 1988), Belarusian activist with the nation's democracy movement.
Józef Łukaszewicz (1863–1928), Polish physicist, geologist and mineralogist.
Meilė Lukšienė (1913–2009), cultural historian and activist.
Jolanta Lothe (1942–2022), Polish actress.
M
Józef Mackiewicz (1902–1985), Polish writer.
Hillel Noah Maggid (1829–1903), Russian-Jewish genealogist and historian.
Andrius Mamontovas (born 1967), Lithuanian rock musician.
Maria Malanowicz-Niedzielska (1899–1943), Polish actress.
Gritė Maruškevičiūtė (born 1989), Lithuanian Miss Lithuania 2010.
Vilija Matačiūnaitė (born 1986), Lithuanian singer, actress and songwriter.
Raimundas Mažuolis (born 1972), Lithuanian swimmer, olympic medalist.
Rachel Messerer (1902–1993), Russian silent film and theatre actress.
(born 1954), Lithuanian lawyer.
Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855), Polish poet.
Jeronimas Milius (born 1984), Lithuanian singer.
Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004), Polish poet, Nobel prize in Literature.
Lazar Minor (1855–1942), Russian neurologist.
Vytautas Miškinis (born 1954), Lithuanian music composer, choral conductor and academic teacher.
Joanna Moro (born 1984), Lithuanian-born Polish film and theater actress, singer and TV presenter.
Gediminas Motuza (born 1946), Lithuanian geologist and author of geology textbooks.
Yana Maksimava (born 1989), Lithuanian-Belarusian heptathlete.
Andrius Mamontovas (born 1967), Lithuanian rock musician.
N
Onutė Narbutaitė (born 1956), Lithuanian composer.
Ludwik Narbutt (1832–1863), Lithuanian military commander.
Teodor Narbutt (1784–1864), Polish–Lithuanian romantic historian and military engineer.
Henrikas Natalevičius (born 1953), Lithuanian painter.
Eimuntas Nekrošius (1952–2018), Lithuanian theatre director.
Henryk Niewodniczański (1900–1968), Polish physicist.
O
Nijolė Oželytė-Vaitiekūnienė (born 1954), Lithuanian actress, signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
P
Bohdan Paczyński (1940–2007), Polish astronomer.
Rolandas Paksas (born 1956), Lithuanian politician.
Jerzy Passendorfer (1923–2003), Polish film director.
Artūras Paulauskas (born 1953), Lithuanian politician.
Algirdas Petrulis (1915–2010), Lithuanian painter.
Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935), Polish politician, military commander and Polish head of state.
Emilia Plater (1806–1831), Polish revolutionary and female military commander.
Kazimierz Plater (1915–2004), Polish chess master.
Martynas Pocius (born 1986), Lithuanian professional basketball player, has played for Lithuania.
Karol Podczaszyński (1790–1860), Polish architect.
Romualdas Požerskis (born 1951), Lithuanian photographer.
Daniel Prenn (1904–1991), Russian-born German, Polish, and British world-top-ten tennis player.
Airinė Palšytė (born 1992), Lithuanian high jumper.
R
Antoni Radziwiłł (1775–1833), Polish and Prussian noble, aristocrat, musician and politician.
Barbara Radziwiłł (Barbora Radvilaitė) (1520–1551), Queen of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Clara Rockmore (1911–1998), Lithuanian classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin.
Michał Pius Römer (1880–1945), Lithuanian-Polish rector of Vytautas Magnus University, lawyer.
Michał Józef Römer (1778–1853), Lithuanian-Polish writer and politician.
Helena Romer-Ochenkowska (1875–1947) Polish writer, columnist, theatre critic and activist.
Maria Roszak (1908–2018), Polish nun awarded Righteous Among the Nations.
Audrius Rudys (born 1951), Lithuanian economist, politician, signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Ferdynand Ruszczyc (1870–1936), Polish painter, printmaker, and stage designer.
S
Kristina Sabaliauskaitė (born 1974), Lithuanian writer and art historian.
Kristina Saltanovič (born 1975), Lithuanian athlete.
Lew Sapieha (1557–1633), Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth politician and military commander.
Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595–1640), Polish poet.
Šarūnas Sauka (born 1958), Lithuanian postmodern painter.
Andrew Schally (born 1926), Polish-American endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate.
Kalman Schulman (1819–1899), Jewish writer and translator.
Žydrūnas Savickas (born 1975), Lithuanian Strongman champion.
Lasar Segall (1891–1957), Brazilian Jewish painter, engraver and sculptor.
Esther Shalev-Gerz (born 1948), Jewish contemporary artist.
Kazimierz Siemienowicz (c. 1600 – c. 1651), Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth military commander, engineer, theorist of artillery and pioneer of rocketry.
Deividas Sirvydis (born 2000), Lithuanian basketball player in the NBA.
Konstantinas Sirvydas (1579–1631), Lithuanian lexicographer, writer.
Piotr Skarga (1536–1612), Polish theologian, writer and the first rector of the Wilno Academy.
Francysk Skaryna (c. 1490 – 1552), Belarusian humanist, physician, and translato, publisher of first printed Ruthenian Bible.
Boris Skossyreff (1896–1989), Russian adventurer, international swindler and pretender, King of Andorra.
Mykolas Sleževičius (1882–1939), Lithuanian lawyer, political and cultural figure, and journalist, Prime Minister of Lithuania.
Juliusz Słowacki (1809–1849), Polish poet.
Antanas Smetona (1874–1944), Lithuanian intellectual, journalist and the first publicist, President of Lithuanian Republic.
Elijah ben Solomon, Gaon mi Vilna (1720–1797), Lithuanian Jewish scholar and Kabbalist.
Blessed Michał Sopoćko (1888–1975), Polish Apostle of Divine Mercy.
Jędrzej Śniadecki (1768–1838), Polish writer, physician, chemist, biologist and philosopher.
Audrius Stonys (born 1966), Lithuanian renowned documentary filmmaker.
Vytautas Straižys (1936–2021), Lithuanian astronomer, developer of Vilnius photometric system.
Władysław Syrokomla (1823–1862), Polish poet, writer and translator.
Deividas Šemberas (born 1978), Lithuanian football player.
Algirdas Šemeta (born 1962), Lithuanian economist and the European Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union, Audit and Anti-Fraud.
Stasys Šilingas (1885–1962), Lithuanian lawyer and statesman, a significant figure in the history of Lithuania's independence.
Tadas Šuškevičius (born 1985), Lithuanian athlete.
T
Emanuel Tanay (1928–2014), Polish-American Holocaust survivor and American forensic psychiatrist.
Aurimas Taurantas (born 1956), Lithuanian politician and signature of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.
Yemima Tchernovitz-Avidar (1909–1998), Israeli author.
Vytautas Tomaševičius (born 1972), Lithuanian painter.
Auksė Treinytė (born 1952), Lithuanian former sport shooter.
Eustachy Tyszkiewicz (1814–1873), Polish-Lithuanian historian.
U
Antoni Uniechowski (1903–1976), Polish illustrator.
V
Rimantė Valiukaitė (born 1970), Lithuanian actress.
Moi Ver (1904–1995), Israeli photographer and painter.
Alis Vidūnas (1934–2009), Lithuanian politician.
Jonas Vileišis (1872–1942), Lithuanian lawyer, politician, and diplomat.
Petras Vileišis (1851–1926), Lithuanian millionaire, mecenate, politician, publisher.
Zygmunt Vogel (1764–1826), Polish painter.
Giedrė Voverienė (born 1968), Lithuanian orienteering competitor.
Vytautas the Great (1344–1430), Grand Duke of Lithuania.
W
Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), Russian-born biochemist, Zionist politician and the first president of Israel.
Jan Kazimierz Wilczyński (1806–1885), Polish-Lithuanian archaeologist.
Antoni Wiwulski (1877–1919), Polish-Lithuanian architect and sculptor.
Tadeusz Wróblewski (1858–1925), Polish noble, politician, lawyer, bibliophile and cultural activist.
Y
Dov Yaffe (1928–2017), Polish-born Israeli rabbi, mashgiach, and leader of the Musar movement.
Z
Ludwik Zamenhof (1859–1917), Polish philologist, creator of Esperanto.
Albert Żamett (1821–1876), Polish–Russian landscapes painter.
Tomasz Zan (1796–1855), Polish–Belarusian poet and activist.
Alexander Zass (1888-1962) Russian strongman, professional wrestler, and animal trainer.
Aleksander Zawadzki (1859–1926), Polish political and educational activist, publicist.
Yitzhak Zuckerman (1915–1981), Polish–Israeli one of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.
Robertas Žulpa (born 1960), Lithuanian swimmer, Olympic champion.
Artūras Zuokas (born 1968), mayor of Vilnius city municipality (2000–2007 and 2011–2015), Lithuanian politician.
References
Vilnius
Vilnius
People |
4204320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20Church | Matthias Church | The Church of the Assumption of the Buda Castle (), more commonly known as the Matthias Church (), more rarely the Coronation Church of Buda, is a Roman Catholic church located in the Holy Trinity Square, Budapest, Hungary, in front of the Fisherman's Bastion at the heart of Buda's Castle District. According to church tradition, it was originally built in Romanesque style in 1015, although few references exist. The current building was constructed in the florid late Gothic style in the second half of the 14th century and was extensively restored in the late 19th century. It was the second largest church of medieval Buda and the seventh largest church of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom.
It is a historic building with an important history. Two Kings of Hungary were crowned within its walls: Franz Joseph I of Hungary and Elisabeth, and Charles IV of Hungary and Zita of Bourbon-Parma.
The church was also the location of the "Marian Miracle" of Buda. In 1686, during the siege of Buda city by the Holy League, a wall of the church - used as a mosque by the Ottoman occupiers of the city - collapsed due to cannon fire. It turned out that an old votive Madonna statue was hidden behind the wall. As the sculpture of the Virgin Mary appeared before the praying Muslims, the morale of the Muslim garrison collapsed and the city fell on the same day.
History
According to the tradition, the first church on the site was founded by Saint Stephen, King of Hungary, in 1015: this is based on an inscription erected in 1690 inside the church and burned in 1748, which some previous references seem to confirm.
However, there is no clear evidence of the foundation by St. Stephen. This building was destroyed in 1241 by the Mongols; the current building was constructed in the latter half of the 13th century. Originally named after the Virgin Mary, taking names such as "The Church of Mary" and "The Church of Our Lady," since the 19th century the church has been referred to as Matthias Church, after King Matthias, who ordered the transformation of its original southern tower.
Re-foundation in the 13th Century
King Béla IV of Hungary after the Mongol invasion, between 1255 and 1269, replaced the older, smaller church with a towering three-nave basilica.
During the first phase of construction (1255–1260), a main shrine and auxiliary shrines were built, under the direction of Villard de Honnecourt. The first stage of the construction of the main church of Buda is closest relative to the Lyon Cathedral. The group of masters consisted of the builders of the Cistercian Monastery of Tišnov, Czech Republic, who travelled to Hungary after the Mongol invasion probably at the behest of the cousin of king Béla IV, Agnes of Bohemia. The reasons for its disintegration of this group around 1260 are unknown.
The construction was completed through a second phase, between 1260 and 1269. The work of the second group of masters was already influenced by Northern French religious architecture, mediated by German master builders. Other works of this group are the Franciscan Kecske Church in Sopron, Hungary, and the Monastery of Klosterneuburg, Austria, probably related to the Dominican monastery of Margaret Island, Budapest, which was the home of a daughter of Béla IV, St Margaret of the Árpád House. The king, out of regard for his daughter, granted to the monastery the jus patronatus over the Buda church for a period of time.
The Church of the Assumption of the Buda Castle became the earliest and most complete work of classical Gothic church architecture in Hungary, giving a complete picture of the architectural schools of Béla's era.
14th century: Gothic hall church
In the second half of the 14th century was rebuilt into a Gothic hall church. The whole building was remodeled in a mature Gothic style. In 1370 king Louis I of Hungary began with the construction of the iconic Maria Gate at the southwest. The closest parallel to this representative two-door gate is the portal of St. Lorenz Church in Nuremberg, built fifteen years earlier. During the reign of Louis, a complete redesign of the church basilica space was begun in the spirit of mature Gothic architecture. The arches of the side naves were raised to the height of the main nave, and huge windows with rich stone lattice were placed on the high walls, thus creating a bright, airy hall. During the reign of king Sigismund, the side shrines were extended and provided with an octagonal Gothic closure. In the final phase of the construction, the masters of the Prague Parler workshop also worked on the building. Between 1412 and 1433 they ordered the burial chapel of the aristocratic Garai family beside the north side sanctuary at the request of Nicholas II Garai. The closest relative of the newly formed hall church is the Abbey of Hronský Beňadik, current Slovakia.
15th century: Matthias Church
The church reached its peak in medieval prosperity during the reign of king Matthias Corvinus. The king built the southwest bell tower, one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in Hungary. According to the coat of arms of Matthias, the south tower, which collapsed in 1384, was rebuilt in 1470. Apart from its destroyed helmet, the bell tower still retains its original form, although in the late 19th century a complete replacement of its stone material became inevitable. However, the head of the great arch supporting the choir still preserves its original stone.
Matthias also erected a royal oratory near the southern sanctuary of the church, but it was completely destroyed during the Turkish occupation. At that time, at the end of the 15th century, they began the construction of the northwestern tower, which had already been completed with the exception of the helmet before the Turkish conquest.
16th century: Ottoman invasion
During the first Turkish invasion in 1526, the medieval roof structure and most of its equipment were destroyed. In 1541 the rebuilt Church of the Blessed Virgin was converted into a mosque by the Turks after the final conquest of Buda; in this church the Sultan Suleiman gave thanks to Allah for the victory. Its equipment and altars were discarded and the painted walls were plastered over. While most other churches in Buda were destroyed by the Ottomans, the Church of Mary survived, converted into a mosque and called from this point Büyük (Great), Eski (Old) or Suleiman Han Cami. Of course, destruction could not be completely avoided; the Matthias royal oratory, the north tower, the Garai chapel and the side chapels were demolished to use their stones elsewhere.
17th and 18th centuries: Jesuit church
After Buda was retaken (1686), the church first became the property of the Franciscans, and then of the Jesuit Order, which restored it in Baroque style. Between 1688 and 1702, a huge dormitory was built on its north side and a three-story seminary on its south side. Between 1702 and 1714, the originally free-standing church was made part of a large building complex. Although the scene of great pastoral work, the church lost almost all its medieval ornamentation, rendering its exterior façade insignificant.
In 1690 the Palatine of Hungary Paul I, Prince Esterházy built the new Baroque main altar, and in 1696 built a lobby in front of the main gate. In the same year, Matthias' bell tower was crowned with a Baroque onion dome. The Chapel of Loreto was built in 1707, this received a bell tower in 1719, and soon afterwards its side chapels were erected, and a new sacristy was erected in place of the Bride's Gate.
Baroque transformations were conducted in many medieval elements; only the few windows of the Matthias Bell tower guarded the original character of the church's facade.
After the dissolution of the Jesuit Order in 1773, the council of the city of Buda owned the church.
19th century: Schulek's reconstruction of the church
Under the leadership of the king Franz Joseph I of Austria, between 1874 and 1896, a major rebuilding took place, under the architect Frigyes Schulek, which restored the original image of the building. The stone carving was done by Jakab Kauser, a well-known family of architects from Pest.
The church was restored to its original 13th-century plan, but a number of early original Gothic elements were uncovered. By also adding new motifs of his own (such as the diamond pattern roof tiles and gargoyles laden spire) Schulek ensured that the work, when finished, would be highly controversial.
Schulek freed the church, enclosed in former Jesuit buildings, at the expense of the demolition of adjacent parts, restoring its original, distinctive character.
The vault and walls of the building were demolished to the ground in several places to reconstruct the original architectural solutions. In all the church he removed the Baroque joints and sought to restore the ancient ones, but by completely restoring the damaged parts and surfaces. Thus Sigismund's side sanctuaries were demolished and the original, simpler closures restored; the Maria Gate dating back to Louis I of Hungary was reopened, the Matthias bell tower was renovated – at the same time almost all the original main column capitals were replaced with faithful copies. Wherever he could find no clue, the architect introduced new elements of his own design: he erected a foyer in front of the Maria Gate, he created the new St Stephen's chapel in place of the destroyed Garai chapel, he renovated the Baroque side chapels along the northern nave in a neo-Gothic style; based on old images, he topped the southern tower with the rich neo-Gothic cap and balcony row that we see today. The northern tower was equipped with a late Romanesque style top, a pediment was placed between the two towers. He built the two sacristies and a royal oratory opening to the main apse from the north. The crypt, which had been built in 1780, was also renewed in a free neo-Gothic style.
Bertalan Székely and Károly Lotz directed, together with Schulek, the interior decoration and furnishing,utilising the remains of the medieval wall paintings. They painted the figurative murals themselves, made the designs for the stained glass windows executed by Ede Kratzmann, and for the new sculptural decoration made by Ferenc Mikula. The altarpieces were painted by Mihály Zichy (St Imre's chapel) and Gyula Aggházy (Loreto chapel); the bas-relief on the main gate depicting the Our Lady of the Hungarians is by Lajos Lontay. The benches and the organ cabinet were designed by Schulek.
The church was completed in 1893; by the time of the Millenary celebrations it shone, though not in its original forms but in all of its old splendour.
In 1898 the remains of Béla III of Hungary and his first wife, Agnes of Antioch, found their final burial place in the chapel of the northern nave of the church. They had been unearthed during the excavations carried out on the ruins of the royal basilica in Székesfehérvár in 1848 (basilica destroyed by the Turks).
The Southwest Virgin Mary gate, - which in the tympanum depicts the Virgin Mary falling asleep - is one of the few original medieval remains from the beginning of the 15th century. This is a replica of the 13th century main gate. The Loreto Chapel, of medieval origin, beneath the southern tower preserves a Madonna statue from the end of the 17th century. This work of art was created to replace the original medieval sculpture of the Madonna, which was walled in during the Turkish occupation in the church.
Assessing Schulek's rebuilding, he did not appreciate the historic importance of the church, which was in a very poor condition, but replaced many of its historical stones with careful copies. However, thanks to his scientific depth and precise work of form, we can today see the former state of this church in its facade. Reconstructed faithfully and, to a lesser extent, re-imagined in a worthy way, the church is the highest-quality example of Hungarian neo-Gothic architecture, and its interior decoration, one of the highest achievements of Eastern European Art Nouveau.
20th century
In 1936, on the 250th anniversary of the recapture of the Buda Castle, a Hungarian and Italian inscription commemorating the Baron Michele d'Aste was placed on the right-hand apse wall. Lieutenant-Colonel D'Aste, who died during the battle, contributed greatly to the success of the action. The inscription reads as follows: "Lieutenant Colonel Michele d'Aste, Italian Colonel, on September 2, 1686, was among the first to sacrifice his life for the liberation of Buda"
In 1927 the "Chapel of the Knights of Malta" was created in an oratory in the northern gallery of the church. Around the altar and along the corridor were the shields of the then Hungarian Knights of Malta. A restoration was made in 2005, after which the church authorities and the Hungarian Association of the Order of Malta restored the custom of exposing the coats-of-arms of deceased knights. Around the altar there are five commemorative shields of noteworthy Chaplains of the Order, among them Cardinal Jusztinián György Serédi, and the martyr Bishop Blessed Vilmos Apor. In the foreground one can see the shields of the members from 1925 to 1944, while in the passage from the sacristy to the lower church there are the shields of deceased members after 1945. On All Souls Day each year, after a funeral Mass, the knights place on the wall the coats-of-arms of the members who died during the year.
Before World War II, on the initiative of Pál Teleki, a complete renovation of the church was begun, but the war prevented its completion.
During the 1944–1945 siege of Budapest by the Allies, the building was severely damaged. The crypt was used by the Germans for their camp kitchen, and after the fall of the city, the Soviets used the sanctuary to stable their horses.
War damage was repaired by the Hungarian State between 1950 and 1970. The five-manual organ, which had been severely damaged during the war, was repaired and re-consecrated in 1984.
In 1994, an unidentified terrorist detonated an IED at the gate of the building that opens towards the Fisherman's Bastion, damaging sixteen of the church's windows.
In 1999 the church was—for the first time in its history—handed over to the Catholic Church as parish property. The state financed restoration works from 2005 to 2015.
Historical significance
The new Church of Mary built by Béla IV of Hungary in 1270 soon became a venue for events of national importance. In 1279 had already held a national council here under the leadership of Lieutenant of the Pope Fülöp Fermói and the Archbishop of Esztergom Lodomer, where they were invited by king Ladislaus IV of Hungary.
In the aftermath of the throne after 1301, the Czech king Wenceslaus III and Bavarian king Otto III were nominated as kings of Hungary here, and then in 1309 at another national council, papal legate cardinal Gentile Portino da Montefiore, and Archbishop of Esztergom Tamás crowned here with a new crown to the Anjou king Charles I of Hungary. The same king was found here between his death in Visegrád and his funeral in Székesfehérvár.
In January 1412 King Sigismund for the first time suspended his victory flags on the walls of the church, which had been rebuilt by then, which he captured in the campaign against Republic of Venice. This gesture later created a tradition of John Hunyadi.
In 1424, in the Corpus Christi feast as a guest of the German-Roman Emperor Sigismund and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos turned between its walls. After the death of Sigismund in 1438 the Hungarian king Albert II of Germany and in 1440 the Hungarian king Władysław III of Poland was introduced in the church after their election. In 1444 Władysław III, after his triumphant campaign, here held his solemn thanksgiving with John Hunyadi.
St John of Capistrano held a recruiting speech here to promote his involvement and recruit troops for the Turkish campaign. In 1455 John Hunyadi received the cross here from the papal legacy of Carvajal and started from here to Belgrade.
In 1456 Pope Callixtus III founded a cathedral chapter near the church. This was abolished during the Turkish occupation, but the provost title of "Pest-újhegyi", named after the Virgin Mary, has been bestowed by the Hungarian apostolate and from 1920 to the Archbishop of Esztergom.
When Matthias Corvinus ascended the throne, in 1458 the Holy Crown of Hungary was not in Hungary. Therefore, Matthias, returning from his captivity in Prague, solemnly began his reign in the Church of Mary in the form of a "crown without crown": thanking God and Mary, the Grandmother of Hungary, whose inheritance was honored by her father; before the altar he promised to keep the sacred rights, then went to his palace and sat on his throne and began to deal with the affairs of the country.
Matthias held both of his weddings in this church: in 1463 with Catherine of Poděbrady and in 1476 with Beatrice of Naples. The south gate, which is still called the Bride's Gate, reminds us of this. The parish priest of the church at that time was Marcin Bylica, a friend of Matthias, an excellent astronomer, and Regiomontanus.
In 1526 the treasures of the church were fled to Bratislava. The Palatine of Hungary István Werbőczy proclaimed here the covenant of the king John Zápolya with the French, the Pope, Venice and Florence. A few months later, at the feast of King St Stephen, the "counter-king", Habsburg Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor attended the Mass here.
It was used as the main mosque of Buda by the occupying Turks from 1541 to 1686. Legend has it that Gül Baba, a member of the Bektás Dervish Order in the temple, whose tomb (mausoleum) is still near Margaret Bridge, it is still the northernmost Islamic pilgrimage site in the world.
The victory of the desperate struggle for Buda was attributed by contemporaries to the miracle of the church's statue of Mary, which was not destroyed by the Turks, but simply bricked up. In 1686, before the last attack of the siege of Vladislaus II. The wall drawn in front of a vow sculpture donated by Vladislaus fell down during a major explosion, and the long-forgotten statue of the Our Lady of the Hungarians appeared in front of the Turks praying in the main mosque (current church of Mary). The triumphant statue of Mary was carried on the streets of Buda in a Thanksgiving procession. Remembering this event, the church is still a place of worship for the image.
In 1686 the church was owned by the Jesuit Order and was a very careful landlord in his own way: the 87-year pastoral flower in the history of the church, marked by the Society of Jesus. The spiritually deprived city was cultivated and re-catholicized by their college. The Order (also in the wake of the Counter-Reformation) was strongly attached to the Habsburg Ruler, and there are hardly any Hungarians among their members, as was the newly settled citizenship, as in the Middle Ages, being German. Yet it is thanks to these monks that the cult of the Our Lady of the Hungarians and the idea of the Regnum Marianum (the Kingdom of Mary) and the reverence of the holy kings, which became one of the pillars of Hungarian identity and the spiritual foundation of national independence aspirations.
In front of the church, a plague memorial was erected in 1713, the Holy Trinity Column, which served as a model for many similar works in the country.
In 1867, as culmination of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, cardinal-Archbishop of Esztergom János Simor crowned here as Hungarian king to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I and his wife, Elizabeth with the Holy Crown. The Coronation Mass by Franz Liszt was performed for the first time in this important celebration.
On 30 December 1916, Charles IV and his wife, Queen Zita were crowned here, by the cardinal-Archbishop of Esztergom János Csernoch with the Holy Crown.
In 2000, in the year of the Great Jubilee, remembering the former sending of the crown, the young people of the church made a fresh copy of the Holy Crown of Hungary for Pope John Paul II which him was brought to the Vatican on a walking pilgrimage blessed in Rome and crowned with the statue of Virgin Mary on the main altar at the Assumption of the Pope.
Pulpit
The pulpit of the church was built between 1890 and 1893 during the extensive reconstruction of the building. It was designed by Frigyes Schulek with the help of art historian Béla Czobor who contributed to the draft of the iconographic plan. The statues were carved by Ferenc Mikula, the abat-voix was made by Károly Ruprich.
The pulpit was built of sandstone, and the surfaces are entirely covered with Neo-Romanesque ornamental painting including the statues. There is a wrought-iron rail at the bottom of the steps. The Gothic Revival abat-voix, resembling a medieval tower, was carved of oak and the statue of the Good Shepherd on the top was made of linden. The platform of the pulpit is supported by an outer ring of arches and a massive central pillar. The most interesting part of the structure is the sculptural decoration of the parapet with the statues of the four evangelists and the four Latin doctors of the church standing under the arches of a blind arcade. The sequence of the figures is:
St John with the eagle
St Augustine with the boy
St Luke with the ox
St Ambrose with the beehive
St Mark with the lion
St Gregory the Great with the dove
St Matthew with the angel
St Jerome with the lion
The two bishops and the saintly pope are portrayed in the traditional attire of their office, and Jerome is wearing cardinal robes. The parapet is supported by brackets decorated with grotesque heads in medieval style, and framed by two bands of carved vegetal decoration (vine and acanthus leaves).
Previous pulpits
The first recorded pulpit was erected in 1693 after the reconversion of the building from mosque to church under the ownership of the Jesuits. Nothing is known about its appearance. A new Baroque pulpit was installed in 1769 by Countess Erzsébet Berényi, the owner of the Zichy estate of Óbuda. This was probably made by Károly Bebo, the stewart and sculptor of the estate who made several high-quality Baroque pulpits in the region, including those in the parish church of Óbuda and the Trinitarian church of Kiscell. His work in the Matthias Church was recorded by a lithograph of Gusztáv Zombory (1857) and the only surviving photograph of the interior of the church before its extensive reconstruction.
Bebo's lost work should have been a fine example of Central-European Baroque wood carving. The pulpit itself was decorated with reliefs and two statues of prophets (perhaps Moses and Aaron) and two angels sitting on its ledge. The canopy of the abat-voix was supported by two flying angels. There was a statue of the Risen Christ on the top surrounded with cherubs. The old pulpit was demolished by Frigyes Schulek immediately after the closure of the church in 1876 at the start of the long reconstruction. Only two figures of flying cherubs survived, which were probably parts of the structure, the first one in the Hungarian National Gallery and the other in the collection of the parish church.
Church bells
Today the church has 7 bells. Six of them are located in the bell tower and the last damaged bell hangs in the cavalry tower. Three of the tower's bells are historic bells (from years 1723, 1724 and 1891). The church got four new bells in 2010, then the Szt. Károly bell sound correction took place.
Museum
It is home to the Ecclesiastical Art Museum, which begins in the medieval crypt and leads up to the St. Stephen Chapel. The gallery contains a number of sacred relics and medieval stone carvings, along with replicas of the Hungarian royal crown and coronation jewels.
Honors
Stamps issued by Hungary; on 24 January 1927, on 26 March 1926 and in 1930.
Gallery
See also
List of Jesuit sites
References
Bibliography
József Csemegi: A Budavári Főtemplom (Képzőművészeti Alap Kiadóvállalata, Budapest, 1955)
Dr. István Czagány: A Hunyadi-ház tagjainak eredeti arcképei a budavári főtemplomban. In: Művészettörténeti Értesítő 1976. 2. ISSN 0027-5247
Dr. István Czagány – Gink Károly: A budavári Mátyás-templom (Budapest, 1984)
Géza Entz: A budavári Nagyboldogasszony-templom és a Halászbástya (Corvina, Budapest, 1974)
Dr. János Fábián: A budavári Mátyás-templom (Budapest, é. n.)
M. Marianna Takács: A Budavári Mátyás-templom. A Budapesti M. Kir. Pázmány Péter Tudományegyetem Művészettörténeti és Keresztényrégészeti Intézetének dolgozatai 64. Budapest, 1940
Balázs Mátéffy: A Koronázó Főtemplom (Corvinus Kiadó, Budapest, 2002)
Balázs Mátéffy – György Gadányi: Élő Kövek – az ismeretlen Mátyás-templom (Viva Média-Incoronata, Budapest, 2003.)
Monumenta Ecclesiæ Strigoniensis. Ordine chron. disposuit, dissertationibus et notis illustravit Dr. Ferdinandus Knauz, Strigonii, Tom. I. 1874, II. 1882, III. 1924
Dr. Antal Nemes: A Budavári Koronázó Főtemplom (Budapest, 1893)
Dr. Antal Nemes: Adalékok a Budavári Főtemplom történetéhez (Budapest, 1932)
Lajos Némethy: A Nagyboldogasszonyról nevezett budapestvári főtemplom történelme (Esztergom, 1876)
Frigyes Pogány (szerk.): Budapest Műemlékei I. (Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1955)
External links
Official site
Accommodation next to Church
14th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Hungary
Roman Catholic churches in Budapest
Roman Catholic churches in Hungary
Islam in Hungary
Mosques converted from churches in the Ottoman Empire
Conversion of non-Christian religious buildings and structures into churches
Former mosques in Hungary
Ottoman mosques in Hungary
Gothic architecture in Hungary
Coronation church buildings
Landmarks in Hungary
Buda Castle
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1015 |
4205222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20haplogroups%20of%20historic%20people | List of haplogroups of historic people | This is a list of haplogroups of historic people. Haplogroups can be determined from the remains of historical figures, or derived from genealogical DNA tests of people who trace their direct maternal or paternal ancestry to a noted historical figure. Some contemporary notable figures have made their test results public in the course of news programs or documentaries about this topic; they may be included in this list too.
MtDNA results indicate direct maternal descent while Y-DNA results indicate direct paternal descent; these are only two of many lines of descent. Scientists make inferences of descent as hypotheses which could be disproved or modified by future research.
Ancient samples
These are results from 'ancient' samples, those collected from the remains or reputed remains of the person. Because mtDNA breaks down more slowly than nuclear DNA, it is often possible to obtain mtDNA results where other testing fails.
Birger Magnusson
Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm, the modern capital of Sweden, belonged to Y Haplogroup I-M253, according to Andreas Carlsson at the National Board of Forensic Medicine of Sweden. Birger Magnusson was the ancestor of a line of kings of both Sweden and Norway, starting with his son, Valdemar, King of Sweden.
Gaodang King Korguz (高唐王=趙王 闊裏吉思)
Noble burials of Mongols in the Yuan dynasty in Shuzhuanglou Site (northernmost Hebei, China, 700YBP) were excavated. All three men excavated belong to Y haplogroup Q, with subclade not analysed.
The most principal occupant, Gaodang King Korguz, had mtDNA of haplogroup D4m2. Two others' mtDNA are A
Korguz () was the son of a princess of Kublai Khan and he was the king of the Ongud and a descendant of Gok-Turk. The Ongud claimed descent from the Shatuo, prominent in the era of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. His two wives were all princesses of Yuan Dynasty. It was very important for the Yuan dynasty to maintain marriage-alliance with the Onguds, which had been very important assistant since Genghis Khan. About 16 princesses of Yuan dynasty were married to khans of the Ongud.
Jean-Paul Marat
In 2020, a genetic study showed that the figure of the French Revolution Jean-Paul Marat killed in 1793, had the haplogroup H2 (mtDNA).
Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist is a Christian saint and apostle born on 1st century A.D. in Roman Syria and died in Roman Greece. Remains reputed to have been his had haplogroup H2 (mtDNA).
Louis XVII
Louis XVII was the younger son of King of France Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. His maternal haplogroup is H.
Queen Marie Antoinette
The maternal haplogroup of Marie Antoinette is H.
Mary Magdalene
A lock of hair kept at a reliquary at Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume basilica, France, which local tradition holds belonged to the biblical figure Mary Magdalene, was allegedly assigned to mitochondrial haplogroup K. Ancient DNA sequencing of a capillary bulb bore the K1a1b1a subclade according to the author Gérard Lucotte, who concluded that she was likely of Pharisian maternal origin. Gérard Lucotte, the controversial geneticist in charge of analyzing the hair material, also publicly claimed in France in 2005 to have "discovered" the DNA of Jesus Christ from the Argenteuil Tunic relic.
Mummy Juanita
The mummy "Juanita" of Peru, also called the "Ice Maiden", has been shown to belong to mitochondrial haplogroup A.
Nicholas II of Russia and family
The last tsar of Russia, Nicholas II of Russia, was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup T, based on mutations 16126C, 16169Y, 16294T, 16296T, 73G, 263G, and 315.1C. His results matched those of a cousin, Prince Nikolai Trubetskoy, but showed a heteroplasmy – a mix of two different sequences – indicating a recent mutation. To further confirm the identity, the tsar's brother, Grand Duke George, was exhumed and found to have the same mitochondrial heteroplasmy.
Empress Alexandra of Russia and her children, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexei were identified as belonging to mtDNA haplogroup H (16111T, 16357C, 263G, 315.1C). This identity was confirmed by match to that of her grand-nephew, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
As part of the same analysis, mitochondrial types were determined for four further individuals, thought to have been the Royal Physician and servants.
Nicholas II has been predicted as having a Y-DNA R1b haplotype.
Oseberg ship remains
The remains of the younger of the two women buried with the Oseberg Ship were tested and discovered to have mtDNA of U7.
Petrarch
The purported remains of Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, were tested for DNA in 2003. Another analysis revealed that purported skull of Petrarca belonged to a woman, the DNA from rib belonged to mtDNA haplogroup J2.
Ramesses III
In December 2012, a genetic study conducted by the same researchers who decoded King Tutankhamun's DNA predicted using an STR-predictor that Ramesses III, second pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt and considered to be the last great New Kingdom regent to wield any substantial authority over Egypt, belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup E-M2, alternatively known as haplogroup E1b1a.
Richard III of England
Richard III's mitochondrial haplotype was inferred from living descendants and then the identity of his remains confirmed through a multidisciplinary process including genetic analysis of both his mitochondrial and Y-DNA. In 2004 British historian John Ashdown-Hill traced a British-born woman living in Canada, Joy Ibsen (née Brown), who is a direct maternal line descendant of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, a sister of Richard III of England. Joy Ibsen's mtDNA was tested and belongs to mtDNA haplogroup J. Joy Ibsen died in 2008. On 4 February 2013, University of Leicester researchers announced that there was an mtDNA match between that of a skeleton exhumed in Leicester suspected of belonging to Richard III and that of Joy Ibsen's son, Michael Ibsen, and a second direct maternal line descendant named Wendy Duldig. They share mtDNA haplogroup J1c2c.
The Y haplogroup of Richard III, last king of the House of York and last of the House of Plantagenet, was identified as Y-DNA G-P287, in contrast to the Y haplotypes of the putative modern relatives.
Sweyn II of Denmark
In order to verify whether the body of a woman entombed near Sweyn II of Denmark in Roskilde Cathedral is that of his mother Estrid, mtDNA from pulp of teeth from each of the two bodies was extracted and analysed. The king was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup H and the woman was assigned to mtDNA haplogroup H5a. Based on the observation of two HVR1 sequence differences, it was concluded that it is highly unlikely that the woman was the king's mother.
Yuya
Yuya was Tutankhamun's great grandfather. Predicted Y-DNA haplogroup G2a, based on ancient Y-STR profiles. Yuya served as a key adviser for Amenhotep III, and held posts such as "King’s Lieutenant" and "Master of the Horse"; his title "Father-of-the-god" possibly referred specifically to his being Amenhotep's father-in-law. In his native town of Akhmin, Yuya was a prophet of Min, the chief "god" of the area, and served as this deity's "Superintendent of Cattle".
Tutankhamun
There is controversy regarding Tutankhamun's Y-DNA profile. It was not discussed in a 2010 academic study that included DNA profiling of some of the male mummies of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, and was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association.
The team that analysed the Eighteenth Dynasty mummies disputed a claim later made by the personal genomics company iGENEA regarding Tutankhamun's Y-DNA profile. Staff from iGENEA examined images from news coverage of the above study, that purportedly showed data from Tutankhamun's Y-DNA profile. Based on the unverified images, iGENEA claimed that Tutankhamun belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R1b1a2, a claim that was rejected as "unscientific" by members of the team that had actually analysed the Eighteenth Dynasty mummies. The original researchers also stated they had not been consulted by iGENEA before it published the haplogroup information. However, in a 2020 publication, those same researchers confirmed that the y-haplogroup of Tutankhamun was, indeed, R1b.
Gleb Svyatoslavich
The genetic study "Population genomics of the Viking world" was published September 16, 2020 in Nature, and showed that Gleb Svyatoslavich (sample VK542), an 11th century Rurikid Prince of Tmutarakan and Novgorod in Kievan Rus', was found to belong to Y-DNA haplogroup I2a1a2b1a1a (I-Y3120) and mtDNA haplogroup H5a2a. In YFull's YTree a more detailed position is given for his Y-DNA under I-Y3120's subclades Y4460 > Y3106 > Y91535.
Deduction by testing of descendants or other relatives
Because mtDNA is carried through the direct female line, some researchers have identified the haplotype of historic persons by testing descendants in their direct female line. In the case of males, their mother's direct female lineage descendants are tested. Y-DNA testing may be carried out on male relatives.
Bure kinship from Sweden
The male lineage of the medieval Bure kinship from Sweden has been identified as Y-DNA haplogroup G2a, based on several BigY tests carried out in 2014 on people living today. Descendants of two of the sons of Old Olof (who was born about 1380) were identified as G-Y12970*, and descendants of his alleged brother Fale as G-Y16788. The test result supports genealogical information recorded in about 1610 by Johannes Bureus. The DNA results also disproved a branch that was later added to the family book.
Cao Cao, the Cao Wei State of Ancient China
Chinese warlord Cao Cao, who was posthumously titled Emperor Wu of the state of Cao Wei, belonged to Y-DNA Haplotype O2-M268 according to DNA tests of some documented present-day descendants with lineage records. Ancient DNA analysis of the tooth of Cao Cao's granduncle, Cao Ding, showed that Cao Cao belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup O-M175. A followup publication precisely identified the haplogroup more precisely as a subgroup of O-M175, designated O1b1-F1462(xPK4).
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin belonged to Y haplogroup R1b based on a sample from his great-great-grandson.
Edward IV of England
Edward IV of England and his brother Richard III of England, both sons of Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, would have shared the same mtDNA haplogroup J1c2c.
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein is alleged to belong to Y Haplogroup E. Tested Einsteins from Germany belong to E1b1b1b2* (cluster SNP PF1952, formerly known as the E-Z830-B or "Jewish cluster"). A patrilineal descendant of Naphtali Hirsch Einstein (1733–1799), Albert Einstein's great-grandfather, was tested and belonged to E-M35 (E1b1b1).
Fath Ali Shah Qajar
Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (1772–1834), the second emperor and shah of the Qajar dynasty of Iran belonged to Haplogroup J-M267 with DYS388 = 13 as deduced from testing of descendants of several of his sons.
Benjamin Franklin
Doras Folger, one of Benjamin Franklin's mother Abiah Lee Folger's six sisters, passed on her mtDNA to her 9th-great-granddaughter, Charlene Chambers King, indicating that Franklin belonged to mitochondrial haplogroup V, with the following mutations: T16298C, 315.1C, 309.1C, A263G, and T72C.
Genghis Khan
Several scientists have created their own theories about the Y-chromosomal haplogroup (and therefore the patrilineal ancestry) of Genghis Khan. The proposed candidates include haplogroup C3, haplogroup Q, haplogroup R1b and haplogroup C2.
Y chromosome haplogroup C2c1a1a1-M407 is carried by Mongol descendants of the Northern Yuan ruler from 1474–1517, Dayan Khan, who is a male line descendant of Genghis Khan which was found out after geneticists in Mongolia conducted tests on them. This is a different haplogroup from the infamous widespread C2b1a3a1c2-F5481 clade of C2*-ST which is widespread in Central Asia among Kazakhs, Hazaras and ordinary commoner Mongols since Kazakhs and Hazaras were descended from ordinary Mongol soldiers during the Mongol empire conquests but not from Genghis himself. The Kerey clan of the Kazakhs have a high amount of the C3* star-cluster (C2*-ST) Y chromosome and is very high among Hazaras, Kazakhs and Mongols in general.
Toghan, Genghis Khan's sixth son has claimed descendants who have Y haplogroup C2b1a1b1-F1756 just like the first son of Genesis Khan, Jochi's descendants in the Kazakh Tore clan.
Numerous studies by teams of biochemists led by M. V. Derenko (2007), based on the Y-DNA of people who claim to be modern descendants of Genghis Khan, have indicated that Genghis Khan may have belonged to a subclade of Haplogroup C-M217 (C2) such as C-F4002 (C2b1a3).
However, research published in 2016 analyzed DNA from a Borjigin burial site in Mongolia, and suggested that Genghis Khan may have belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroup R-M343 (R1b) instead of haplogroup C. The remains of the burials were described as having an East Asian appearance, which the authors attributed to their East Eurasian mitochondrial DNA haplogroups.
A 2019 study proposed that the Y lineage of Jochi (Genghis Khan's eldest son) may have been haplogroup C2b1a1b1 (C2), which they identify as a new potential candidate for Genghis Khan's true Y-DNA lineage.
Gia Long
Gia Long, who was the first emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam founded by the Nguyễn-Phuoc family may have belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup O-M95 according to the DNA tests of one documented descendant (if paternity matches genealogy). Given the sample size, however, this result cannot be regarded as conclusive and further testing of other documented descendants is necessary to help confirm or refute this finding.
Adolf Hitler
In 2010, journalist Jean-Paul Mulders and historian Marc Vermeeren publicised analysis of samples taken from 39 patrilineal relatives of Adolf Hitler which revealed that Hitler belonged to Y-DNA Haplogroup E (Y-DNA) (E1b1b) the subclade being undisclosed.
Mulders contradicted interpretations of his research by some media outlets, which claimed that Hitler definitively had Jewish ancestry. Mulders commented:
The accuracy of some of the coverage arising from this study was questioned. Professor Michael Hammer of Family Tree DNA said that "scientific studies as well as records from our own database[,] make it clear that one cannot reach the kind of conclusion featured in the published articles." Citing Family Tree DNA's own data that shows that no more than 9% of the German and Austrian population have the Haplogroups E1b1b, and that about 80% of these are not Jewish, Hammer concluded, "[t]his data clearly shows that just because one person belongs to the branch of the Y-chromosome referred to as haplogroup E1b1b, that does not mean the person is likely to be of Jewish ancestry."
In 2019, Leonard Sax published an article titled "Aus den Gemeinden von Burgenland: Revisiting the question of Adolf Hitler’s paternal grandfather". In this article, Sax states that the methods by which the DNA samples were taken from Hitler's relatives in this study would be disqualified from a reputable journal. Sax commented:
Thomas Jefferson
Direct male-line descendants of a cousin of United States president Thomas Jefferson were genotyped to investigate historical assertions that Jefferson fathered children with his slave Sally Hemings.
An extended 17-marker haplotype was published in 2007, and the company Family Tree DNA has also published results for other markers in its standard first 12-marker panel. Combining these sources gives the consolidated 21-marker haplotype below. The Jeffersons belong to Haplogroup T (M184) (formerly known as K2).
Louis XVI
Analysis of a handkerchief with blood traces said to have been obtained at the execution of Louis XVI of France, suggested that he may have belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup G-M201. However, testing on some of his supposed relatives show he might have belonged to haplogroup R-U106 (a subclade of R1b).
Martin Luther
Tested relatives of Protestant reformer Martin Luther belonged to Haplogroup I2a-Din-N (L147.2+).
Napoleon
Analysis of two beard hairs revealed that Napoleon Bonaparte belonged to Y haplogroup E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*).
Niall of the Nine Hostages
A study conducted at Trinity College, Dublin, found that a striking percentage of men in Ireland (and quite a few in Scotland) share the same Y chromosome. Niall established a royal dynasty which dominated the island for six centuries. Niall belongs to Haplogroup R1b1c7 (M222). Dr. Moore's results examined some different parts of DNA (loci) from the result given here. More recently, however, it has been determined that the emergence of R-M222 predates Niall and may be more than 2,000 years old. Therefore, not all men who belong to this haplogroup are descendants of Niall. A history of the lineage of Irish kings that was compiled by Irish monks, known as "the Annals of the Four Masters" lists "Conn of the Hundred Battles" among the ancestors of Niall. So, it may be that the haplogroup previously attributed to Niall is actually attributable to Conn of the Hundred Battles.
Brian Boru
The Irish King Brian Boru, founder of the O'Brien Dynasty is associated with the Dalcassian haplogroup R1B-L226.
Nurhaci
Y Haplogroup C3b2b1* (C-M401*, (xF5483) has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro (who were founders of the Qing dynasty) and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.
Asano Soichiro
's Y-DNA is D1a2a1a2b1a1a8a (D-CTS4093). He was a Japanese businessman responsible for founding a number of companies, including what became today's Sapporo Breweries, Toa Construction Corporation, Oki Electric Industry, JFE Group and Taiheiyo Cement (formerly Asano Cement).
Somerled
In 2003 Oxford University researchers traced the Y-chromosome signature of Somerled of Argyll, one of Scotland's greatest warriors, who is credited with driving out the Vikings. He was also paternal grandfather of the founder of Clan Donald. Through clan genealogies, the genetic relation was mapped out. Somerled belongs to haplogroup R1a1.
In 2005 a study by Professor of Human Genetics Bryan Sykes of Oxford University led to the conclusion that Somerled has possibly 500,000 living descendants. Sykes deduced that despite Somerled's reputation for having driven out the Vikings from Scotland, Somerled's own Y-DNA closely matched that of the Vikings he fought.
Emanuel Swedenborg
Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), the 18th century scientist and mystic from Sweden likely belonged to the haplogroup I1-BY229, a haplogroup with a common ancestor about 1500 years ago who lived somewhere in central Scandinavia.
Nikola Tesla
The testing of actual relatives’ Serb scientist and inventor Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), published on the Serbian DNA Project at Poreklo, showed that his Y-DNA line was R1a-M458 (L1029 subclade).
Rothschild Family
Men of the Jewish Rothschild family, who established an international banking business, acquired the largest fortune in modern world history and established a true dynasty in the 19th century, apparently belong to haplogroup J2a1-L210.
Haplogroup J2 is commonly found within Asia Minor, Persia, Central Asia and the Caucasus Mountains and is frequent in modern and historical inhabitants of the Levant and Fertile Crescent especially among Jews and in Lebanon. Subclade J2a is very common amongst Ingush, and has been found in West Eurasian corpses discovered in the Altai mountains.
Queen Victoria
mtDNA Haplogroup H (16111T, 16357C, 263G, 315.1C):
Empress Alexandra of Russia's identity was confirmed by matching her mtDNA with that of her grand-nephew, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Their common maternal ancestor, Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, and her mother, Queen Victoria, must therefore have shared this haplotype. Genealogies show that Charles II of England had the same matrilineal ancestress as Queen Victoria, namely Anne of Bohemia and Hungary. Catherine the Great is 11-knee relation of Queen Victoria on this lineage.
Alexander Hamilton
He is one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. His Y-DNA Haplogroup was I1a.
John Adams
He was the first Vice President and second President of the U.S. His Y-DNA Haplogroup was R1b1.
John Quincy Adams
He was the sixth President of the U.S. His Y-DNA Haplogroup was R1b1.
See also
Ancient DNA
Genealogical DNA testing
Paleogenetics
References
External links
Evidence of the Past: A Map and Status of U.S. Ancient Remains
Royal DNA of Europe
List of ancient DNA
List of haplogroups of famous Japanese people
DNA
Genetic genealogy
Haplogroups |
4205520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Conference%20against%20Racism%202001 | World Conference against Racism 2001 | The 2001 World Conference against Racism (WCAR), also known as Durban I, was held at the Durban International Convention Centre in Durban, South Africa, under UN auspices, from 31 August to 8 September 2001.
The conference covered several controversial issues, including redress for transatlantic slavery and the second-class citizenry issue in Palestine-Israel. The language of the final Declaration and Programme of Action produced by the conference was strongly disputed in these areas, both in the preparatory meetings in the months that preceded the conference and during the conference itself.
Two delegations, the United States and Israel, withdrew from the conference over objections to a draft document equating Zionism with racism. The final Declaration and Programme of Action did not contain the text that the U.S. and Israel had objected to, that text having been voted out by delegates in the days after the U.S. and Israel withdrew.
In parallel to the conference, a separately held NGO Forum also produced a Declaration and Programme of its own, that was not an official Conference document, which contained language relating to Israel that the WCAR had voted to exclude from its Declaration, and which was criticized by then United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson and many others.
The NGO Forum ended in discord. Mary Robinson lost the support of the United States in her office of High Commissioner, and many of the potential political aftereffects of the conference were annulled by the September 11, 2001 attacks. The attacks took place just three days after the conference ended, entirely eclipsing it in the news, and significantly affecting international relations and politics. The conference was followed by the 2009 Durban II conference in Geneva, which was boycotted by ten Western countries. A commemorative Durban III conference in September 2011 in New York has also drawn significant criticism and was boycotted by 14 Western countries.
Preparations
The conference was authorized by United Nations General Assembly Resolution #52/111. Prior to the conference various preparatory meetings (PrepComs) were held in order to identify conference themes and to create initial drafts of the Declaration and Programme of Action. These PrepComs encountered difficulties from the start.
The first problem was the question of what the conference theme was to be. The Western European states, along with the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, all wanted the conference objectives to be those given in the authorizing resolution. The Africa Group, the Latin American states, and the Caribbean states wanted the conference objectives to go beyond what was in the resolution, and include items dealing with regional, national, and international measures for compensation for colonialism and slavery.
Prior to the conference, there were also four Regional Conferences, in Strasbourg, Santiago, Dakar, and Tehran.
The Durban Declaration and Programme of Action
The Durban Declaration and Programme of Action were adopted by the governmental delegates attending the Conference at the International Convention Centre.
Compensation for colonialism and slavery
The issue of compensation for colonialism and slavery is addressed in ¶ 13, ¶ 14, ¶ 15, and ¶ 29 of the Declaration. It was one of the most controversial issues debated at the conference, one that had the potential to derail the entire conference. It was dealt with cleverly in the Declaration, containing rhetoric that satisfied the African bloc, without applying retroactively against the descendants of colonizers the principle of crimes against humanity and without establishing a clear responsibility for reparations on the parts of former colonial states.
The wording of the Declaration struck a delicate balance. Whilst acknowledging historical and contemporary practices of slavery and the slave trade as morally outrageous, and something that would be a crime against humanity today, it did not apply that legal principle to an era before the principle actually existed. The Durban Declaration provides that states recognize "that these historical injustices [slavery, colonialism, genocide, apartheid] have undeniably contributed to the poverty, underdevelopment, marginalization, social exclusion, economic disparities, instability and insecurity that affect many people in different parts of the world, in particular in developing countries." (Article 158)
One of the contentious points at the conference related to the issue was that of apartheid. During the preparatory processes of the conference, South Africa stressed that it did not want to link compensation to apartheid. At the Tehran Regional Conference, a paragraph making such a link was inserted by Asian governments. This was deleted at the request of the South African delegation. Linking compensation to apartheid had the potential to polarize South African society, and produce the same effects as had the controversial land reform programmes in Zimbabwe. Domestic political pressures, and the aim of the South African government to foster reconciliation within the country, made South Africa's position difficult.
The issue of compensation was thus a complex one, that was exacerbated by the President of Senegal, Abdoulaye Wade, calling campaigns to demand compensation for colonialism and slavery "childish".
The earliest point at which the issue of compensation caused problems was during preparations in May 2001, when delegations came to the decision of where to place it on the agenda. At the time, the fourth item on the agenda, out of five items, was "Provision of effective remedies, recourses, redress, compensatory, and other measures, at the national, regional, and international levels". The European Union, represented by Portugal, wanted to place the entire language in brackets. The United States just wanted to place the word "compensatory" in brackets. The African Group, Armenia, and Cuba strongly objected to both proposals, with the African Group stating that if the topic were placed in brackets, they would move for the entire text to be placed in brackets also. In the end, the U.S. proposal was adopted, with the addition of a statement in the report indicating the different perspectives on the exact meaning of those brackets. Western European states discussed informally amongst themselves, outside of the formal preparatory proceedings, what measures and levels of non-cöoperation they might adopt if the issue of compensation gained momentum at Durban itself.
Before the conference, the debate over compensation was seen as dealing with the transatlantic slave trade, and the colonization of Africa by Europeans, thus pitting Western European states (including the former colonial powers of Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom) and the United States against the African Group. The African Group was supported by Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
Prior to the conference, on 3 August 2001, the African Group circulated a Non-Paper on the "Injustices of the Past", containing strong language but a generally moderate position. To this paper the E.U. responded, on 8 August 2001, with a Non-Paper of its own that addressed most but not all, of the issues in the African Group's paper. The United States circulated a Non-Paper as well, but this turned out to be less helpful than the E.U. one.
The African Group circulated a second Non-Paper on 3 September 2001 that was substantially stronger than its earlier one, with language shifts from "debt cancellation" to "immediate and unconditional cancellation of debt", emphasis upon crimes against humanity, and calls for reparation (something that the earlier paper had not included in part because of a U.S. demand, made at a preparatory meeting in Geneva, that such language be excluded from the text).
Several members of the African Group openly opposed calling for reparations. President Wade stated "We still suffer the effects of slavery and colonialism, and that cannot be evaluated in monetary terms. I find that not only absurd, but insulting." Similarly, South Africa was more interested in devoting time and effort to more pragmatic ends, such as Western aid for the Millennium Africa Recovery Programme, which would be more palatable to the U.S. and the E.U.
A consensus on the reparations issue was reached by late August 2001. On 24 August, President of the United States George W. Bush announced in a press conference that "the reparations issue has been solved — at least the last information I had was that the issue has … looks like it has been resolved", albeit that news media at the time failed to realize the significance of the comment. The U.S. walked out of the conference a few weeks later.
Zionism
Draft text prior to the conference
During preparatory meetings in Geneva, text that linked Zionism to racism was placed in brackets, with the expectation that it would be replaced by text that referred to violations of the rights of Palestinians. The U.S. had already threatened to boycott the conference should the conference draft documents include text that could be in any way interpreted as linking Zionism to racism. Mary Robinson had also said that regional political conflicts should not be imposed upon the agenda of the conference. The Australian, the Canadian, and some European delegations shared the U.S. view.
The Arab position was stated by the Secretary-General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa: "Israel's racist actions against the Palestinian people have to be dealt with in an international conference that aims to eradicate racism. Arab countries are not expecting the Durban conference to be a venue for dealing with the Arab- Israeli peace process, but they certainly expect that the Israeli racist practices against the Palestinian people will not be overlooked."
The Arab delegates were not insistent upon language that specifically equated Zionism with racism. It had been suggested that they were trying to revive United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 (issued 1975, annulled 1991) which stated that "Zionism is a form of racism.". Their position was that they were, rather, trying to underline that the actions being committed by Israel against Palestinians were racist.
This stance was in part influenced by the U.S. threat of boycott, which would have made it impractical to insist upon harsh language condemning Israel or equating the suffering of the Palestinians with that of Holocaust victims. According to one Arab diplomat, no Arab state except for Syria had insisted upon any language linking Israel to racist practices.
At the start of the Geneva meeting, the text had been presented that comprised six bracketed paragraphs dealing with "Zionist racist practices", including an appeal for Israel "to revise its legislation based on racial or religious discrimination such as the law of return and all the policies of an occupying power which prevent the Palestinian refugees and displaced persons from returning to their homes and properties", and a suggestion for the need "to bring the foreign occupation of Jerusalem by Israel together with all its racist practices to an end".
By the end of the meeting, all of this text had either been removed or toned down. One such phrase removed was a mention of "holocausts" suffered by other peoples, which had been seen as an affront to the memory of the Jewish victims of the Nazi holocaust. South African diplomats had already told Arab and Muslim countries that they would have to offer text that could describe the current situation without using such language as "ethnic cleansing practices against Palestinians".
Nonetheless, the United States, objecting to the remaining text, decided to send a low-level delegation, headed by Ambassador Michael Southwick, to the Conference, rather than have United States Secretary of State Colin Powell attend himself. German officials criticized this decision, and the United States Congressional Black Caucus urged him to attend. The Anti-Defamation League urged him to stay away.
Withdrawal by U.S. and Israel
On 3 September 2001, after four days of deadlocked negotiations that did not reach agreement on language, the United States and Israeli delegations withdrew from the conference. Both United States Secretary of State Colin Powell and Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel Shimon Peres stated that this was done with regret.
The low-level U.S. delegation had kept a low profile throughout conference proceedings until that point, with delegates working quietly in sub-committee meetings, without (unlike in earlier conferences) giving news briefings or off the record statements to journalists, to change the text of the draft declaration, to make it less forceful and less specific against Israel, and to bring it into line with U.S. foreign policy goals with respect to the International Criminal Court (see United States and the International Criminal Court) by removing language that strengthened the ICC.
The draft documents had stated "deep concern" at the "increase of racist practices of Zionism and anti-Semitism" and talked of the emergence of "movements based on racism and discriminatory ideas, in particular the Zionist movement, which is based on racial superiority". Alternative proposals, which the U.S. had supported, from Norway, acting as a mediator, and Canada were rejected by Israel.
Despite Colin Powell's denunciation of the "hateful language" that "singles out only one country in the world, Israel, for censure and abuse" in the draft text and U.S. delegate Tom Lantos's statement that the conference had been "wrecked by Arab and Islamic extremists", some saw the U.S. delegation's withdrawal as not being entirely related to the language on Israel, but attributed it also, in part, to a reluctance on the part of the U.S. to address the issue of slavery.
The withdrawal of the U.S. and Israel was taken as a warning by many delegates that there was a strong possibility of Canada and the E.U. states withdrawing as well if no compromise was reached. Several reports had the Europeans staying on solely in order to help South Africa salvage the Conference. After the withdrawal, senior conference officials became highly involved in the rewriting of the Declaration — something that critics maintained they should have also been doing before that point.
Final text and subsequent reaction
In the end, the Conference delegates voted to reject the language that implicitly accused Israel of racism, and the document actually published contained no such language.
Several countries were unhappy with the final text's approach to the subject, but all for different reasons. Syria and Iran were unhappy because their demands for the language about racism and Israel had been rejected by the Conference, the latter continuing its insistence that Israel was a racist state. Australia was unhappy with the process, observing that "far too much of the time at the conference [had been] consumed by bitter divisive exchanges on issues which have done nothing to advance the cause of combating racism". Canada was also unhappy.
The language of the final text was carefully drafted for balance. The word "diaspora" is used four times, and solely to refer to the African Diaspora. The document is at pains to maintain a cohesive identity for everyone of African heritage as a victim of slavery, even including those who may have more European than African ancestors. The "victim" or "victims" of racism and slavery (the two words occurring 90 times in the document) are defined in only the most general geographic terms. The word "Jewish" is only used once, alongside "Muslim" and "Arab", and "anti-Semitism" is only used twice, once alongside its assumed counterpart of "Islamophobia" and once alongside "anti-Arabism". The difficulty that this generates is that it is politically impossible to act when the 219 calls for action in the Programme are couched in such generalities that only the "countless human beings" that the document explicitly talks of can be identified.
The NGO Forum Declaration
The NGO Forum ran separately from the main conference in the nearby Kingsmead Stadium in Durban, from 28 August to 1 September. It consisted 3,000 NGOs, attended by 8,000 representatives. The declaration adopted by the NGO Forum wan't an official document of the conference.
The Forum's proceedings were highly disorganized, with several NGO delegates walking out of the Forum, to the jeers of other delegates, and ended in discord. The NGO Forum's declaration described Israel as a "racist, apartheid state" that was guilty of "racist crimes including war crimes, acts of genocide and ethnic cleansing". The document was not intended to be presented to the Conference, although a copy of it was intended to be handed over, as a symbolic gesture, to the Conference secretary-general, Mary Robinson, at the conclusion of the Forum. Robinson refused to accept the document, citing concerns over its language. In a later interview she said of the whole conference that "there was horrible anti-Semitism present — particularly in some of the NGO discussions. A number people said they've never been so hurt or so harassed or been so blatantly faced with an anti-Semitism."
Critics described the description of Israel as apartheid as the "Durban Strategy". They claim that this comparison was made with the intention of causing and encouraging divestment from and boycott of Israel.
The NGO Forum was attended by U.S. NGOs, with financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation, and the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. The Ford Foundation provided USD10 million in support to the WCAR and the NGO Forum. These NGOs provided research assistance at the Forum and helped to develop declarations and resolutions that dealt with the issue of compensation for slavery.
The resolutions adopted by the Forum dealing with reparations for slavery dealt only with the transatlantic slave trade and did not mention the traffic in African slaves to Islamic lands in the Middle East. The Forum also called upon the United States to ratify all major human rights treaties that had already been ratified.
One such treaty was the UN Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), which the U.S. had ratified in 1994, but (per the Supremacy Clause of Article Six of the United States Constitution, which does not permit treaties to override the Constitution) had attached a reservation that its ratification did not accept treaty requirements that were incompatible with the Constitution of the United States. The NGOs, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, demanded that U.S. drop its reservations and "comply" with the treaty. The U.S. Department of State had noted specifically that CERD's restrictions on freedom of speech and freedom of assembly were incompatible with the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. The United States was far from the only such country to do so, however. Incompatibility of the treaty with national constitutions, including the freedoms of assembly and speech guaranteed by those constitutions, is also noted by Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, France, Guyana, Jamaica, Japan, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Switzerland, and Thailand. Several, including France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Malta, Monaco, Nepal, the United Kingdom, note that they consider the provisions of the treaty to be restricted by and subject to the freedoms of speech and assembly set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
According to John Font, in order to comply with the interpretation of CERD created by the NGOs at the Forum, the United States would have to "turn its political and economic system, together with their underlying principles, upside down — abandoning the free speech guarantees of the Constitution, bypassing federalism, and ignoring the very concept of majority rule since practically nothing in the NGO agenda is supported by the [U.S.] electorate".
Tom Lantos assigns the blame for the withdrawal of the U.S. in part to the radicalism of many of the NGOs at the NGO Forum, to an inadequate response thereto by U.S.-based NGOs, and to the reluctance of the U.S.'s European allies to take a strong stand.
Aftermath
The Conference was largely overshadowed in the news and in international affairs by the September 11, 2001 attacks, which occurred 3 days after the Conference ended.
Mary Robinson's tenure as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
As a consequence of the Conference, the United States did not support the continuation of Mary Robinson as United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, where once U.S. President Bill Clinton had called her a "splendid choice" for the post and the U.S. had considered her its favorite candidate for the job. She stepped down from the post in September 2002.
Many faults were attributed to Ms. Robinson, with a cumulative effect on the U.S. position. Some people stated that she lacked mediation and bureaucratic experience, and thus was unable to resolve sensitive issues at the Conference. News reports attributed her differences with the U.S. to four things: First, her views on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict differed from U.S. policy. Second, the U.S. did not approve of the detached way in which she acted as secretary-general to the Conference. Third, she had openly criticized the U.S. on various matters including the treatment of prisoners at Camp X-Ray, the "unsigning" of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court by the U.S., and the administration of capital punishment in the United States. Fourth, she had opposed U.S. calls to reform the election process of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
Tom Lantos himself did not assign sole or even primary blame to Robinson for the breakdown of U.S. relations with the conference. That he assigned to the NGOs, as aforementioned, and to the member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. Moreover, several people have defended Robinson's secretary-generalship of the conference.
NGO repudiations of the NGO Forum's Declaration
Several NGOs, including Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, disassociated themselves from the language of the NGO Forum's Declaration that dealt with Israel and with Jews.
Followups
It seems unlikely to analysts that the United States will support another WCAR. However, the Declaration and Programme of Action did make provision for follow-up mechanisms. Mary Robinson stated in her closing address that the Conference was intended to be a beginning, not an end. Dr. Manning Marable, of Columbia University in New York, pointed out that one of the objectives of the Conference was to increase coordination in human rights activities, and to strengthen networks amongst those combating racism; and as such the actions of governments in response to the Conference are not the sole intended outcomes — actions by civil society and non-governmental agencies are also required.
One such follow-up provision is for national governments to provide the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights with reports on their actions towards implementing the recommendations in the Programme of Action. Another is for the Secretary General of the United Nations to appoint an expert body with the remit of following up on implementation. A third is a call for the establishment of a database of practical means for addressing racism, racial discrimination, and related intolerance.
A Permanent Memorial Trust Fund has also been established for the creation of a memorial at the New York United Nations site. The sculpture, to be titled the Permanent Memorial to the Victims of Slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade, or the UN Slavery Memorial, is set to be completed in 2012.
By resolution #2002/68 of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights an Intergovernmental Working Group on the Effective Implementation of the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action was established, which held its first meeting in January 2003 and which meets on an annual basis.
In resolution #61/149 of the United Nations General Assembly, passed in 2006, a Durban Review Conference was called. The conference took place in 2009, however, a number of countries expressed concern as a result of the 2001 conference. Some countries, including Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, and the United States, boycotted the conference. The Czech Republic discontinued its attendance on the first day, and twenty-three other European Union countries sent low-level delegations. In an 18 April 2009 speech, President Barack Obama announced the United States' boycott of the 2009 Durban Review Conference, reaffirming the country's opposition to language perceived as anti-Israel and anti-Western.
The United Kingdom and other European countries remain undecided. On 17 February 2009, Foreign Office Minister Lord Malloch-Brown said: "If we can’t go forward now, we will withdraw. I was at the first conference. I have never seen such a disgraceful event in quite a long international life."
Influence
The Institute for Global Jewish Affairs was founded, in part, as a response to the perceived antisemitism of the Durban conference.
Bernard-Henri Lévy credits the conference with being one of the inspirations for his book, Left in Dark Times: A Stand Against the New Barbarism.
See also
Israel and apartheid
Notes and references
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Conference and Forum texts and papers
— the text of the Declaration produced by the governments at the WCAR itself
— the text of the Declaration produced by the NGOs at the NGO Forum
Analyses and greater detail
— an analysis of the NGO Forum by the Executive Director of NGO Monitor
— discussion of other preparatory committee work
— a personal and detailed account of the proceedings of the NGO Forum in the Kingsmead stadium by David Matas, who represented B'nai B'rith Canada there
— an informational paper for NGOs about the Conference and the NGO Forum, circulated prior to the meetings
Anti-racism
New antisemitism
Anti-Zionism
Antisemitism in South Africa
Human rights
UNESCO
United Nations conferences
Reparations for slavery
Diplomatic conferences in South Africa
21st-century diplomatic conferences (Global)
2001 in international relations
History of Durban
August 2001 events in South Africa
September 2001 events in South Africa
2001 conferences
2001 in South Africa
South Africa and the United Nations
Transitional justice
Events in Durban |
4205705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisa%20Hawkins%20Canby | Louisa Hawkins Canby | Louisa Hawkins Canby (December 25, 1818 – 1889) was nicknamed the "Angel of Santa Fe" in 1862 for her compassion toward sick, wounded, and freezing Confederate soldiers at Santa Fe, New Mexico. Mrs. Canby was the wife of Union Brig. Gen. Edward Richard Sprigg Canby whose order to destroy or hide not only weapons and ammunition but all food, equipment, and blankets prior to any retreat was largely responsible for the Confederates' misery. Taking pity on her husband's enemies, Mrs. Canby not only organized other officers' wives to nurse the sick and wounded among the occupying Confederate forces, but also showed Col. William Read Scurry where fleeing Union forces had hidden blankets and food. Mrs. Canby, said one rebel, "captured more hearts of Confederate soldier [sic] than the old general ever captured Confederate bodies."
Early life of a military wife
Louisa Hawkins was born December 25, 1818, at Paris, Kentucky, to John and Elizabeth (Waller) Hawkins. Relatives and close friends usually called her "Lou." Like the family of Louisa's future husband, the Hawkinses moved from Kentucky to Indiana. After graduating from Georgetown Female College in Georgetown, Kentucky, Louisa married Lt. E.R.S. Canby at Crawfordsville, Indiana on August 1, 1839. The Hawkins family apparently had a strong attraction to the military. Louisa's younger brother, John Parker Hawkins, was a West Point graduate, served during the Civil War, and retired a brigadier general in 1894. At least two of Louisa's three sisters also married military officers (who happened to be brothers).
A Methodist, Louisa was very religious but also ecumenical: she once helped a Protestant marry a Catholic in spite of the controversy stirred up by the union. At her husband's funeral service in Portland, Oregon, she arranged to have clergymen representing three Protestant denominations share in the service. (A fourth clergyman, feeling less ecumenical, bowed out.) At the final funeral service in Indianapolis, Indiana, a Baptist and a Methodist shared duties.
During E.R.S. Canby's military career, Louisa joined him on assignments with the almost sole exception of the Mexican–American War. In his memoirs, William Tecumseh Sherman recalls the arrival of the Canbys at Monterey, California, in early 1849 where then-Major Canby succeeded Sherman as adjutant-general of the military Department of California. The Canbys, with their six-year-old daughter, Mary (who died in childhood), took up residence in Monterey which was then the military headquarters for California. (Benicia, California was soon added as the headquarters for the Pacific.) About this time, Louisa met Lt. Col. Henry Stanton Burton, who became involved in controversy when he proposed marriage to Maria Amparo Ruiz, the granddaughter of the former Mexican governor of Baja California. (She was a remarkable woman in her own right: widely admired for her beauty and aristocratic carriage, she later became a successful novelist.) The announcement of their engagement set off a firestorm as the Roman Catholic Bishop of California condemned the union (Burton was a Protestant), and the governor declared that "all the authorities of California are not to authorize any marriage when either of the parties is a Catholic." Louisa offered the couple the use of the Canby home where their marriage took place on July 7, 1849. Major Canby, who had begun a tour of northern California on July 2 and did not return to Monterey until August 9, was forced to explain that he had taken no part in the affaire and that his wife, a civilian, had acted alone.
During the two years the Canbys were in the territory, California applied for statehood. Both Canbys contributed to this effort unofficially, Mrs. Canby by copying documents for the statehood convention and Major Canby by arranging and partially indexing territorial records.
Almost a decade later, in 1859, while Colonel Canby was commander of Fort Bridger, Utah Territory (now in the state of Wyoming), the Canbys spent an enjoyable Christmas with Captain Henry Hopkins Sibley a charming but volatile Louisianan who had graduated from West Point a year ahead of Canby. It is not certain whether Louisa had met Sibley previously although many rumors ranging from the outlandish (that Louisa was Sibley's sister) to the plausible (that her husband could have been best man at Sibley's 1840 wedding) would circulate on the Union side during 1862. Canby and Sibley certainly had crossed paths previously: Canby served on a court-martial panel that exonerated Sibley in 1858, and he subsequently endorsed Sibley's invention, the Sibley tent, which would be widely used during the Civil War. (The two men could have known each other earlier since both were at West Point and served in Florida and Mexico at about the same times, but it is uncertain whether they knew each other before the late 1850s.)
Civil War nurse behind enemy lines
When in January 1862 the newly minted Brig. Gen. Sibley led a Confederate brigade into New Mexico Territory and began marching up the Rio Grande toward Colorado, Colonel Canby (subsequently promoted to brigadier general in March of that year) was in charge of the defense of the entire territory, which included what is today the states of Arizona and New Mexico as well as the southern tip of Nevada. He assigned to himself the command of Fort Craig, which, at that point, was the southernmost fort in the Confederates' line of march that had not yet been captured. While her husband fought Sibley in the pitched Battle of Valverde, Louisa awaited the outcome of the campaign at Santa Fe, the territorial capital. On March 2, the Confederates captured Albuquerque and eight days later took Santa Fe. The Federal army and territorial government had evacuated the capital, burning or hiding any supplies they were unable to carry with them to Fort Union, which was northeast of Santa Fe.
Louisa, along with the wives and families of other Union officers chose to remain behind. They soon had misgivings, not for fear of the approaching rebel army so much as because the evacuation of territorial authorities had encouraged looters and other criminal elements. The Confederates who entered Santa Fe on March 10, 1862, were thus surprised to find a welcoming committee consisting of the wives of Union officers led by the wife of Colonel Canby. As expected, the Confederates established martial law and then conducted a mostly fruitlessly search for hidden supplies. On March 29, 1862, Confederate forces returned to Santa Fe from a Pyrrhic victory at Glorieta Pass. On their way to attack Fort Union, the Confederates had met a force made up predominantly of inexperienced Colorado volunteers. While the Confederates had won a technical victory, a unit of about 500 Coloradans had gone behind Confederate lines and destroyed more than 70 wagons loaded with Confederate food and gear. Without sufficient provisions to lay siege to Fort Union, the rebels had no alternative but to retreat.
It was late winter and snow still fell in the region. Without even enough blankets to keep their sick and wounded warm, the bedraggled Confederates who returned to Santa Fe must have made a pitiable sight. Louisa went to visit their wounded and was so moved by their suffering that she revealed hidden stores of blankets and turned her home into a field hospital; she personally led a hastily organized company of nurses to care for the sick and dying men and made trips to outlying encampments to bring her patients into Santa Fe or, failing that, to treat in situ those soldiers who could not be brought into the city. It was not until April 1 or 2 that General Sibley, who had been at Albuquerque most of this time, arrived at Santa Fe and personally met with Louisa. It is not known what transpired between them, but it can be presumed that he thanked her for caring for his men and reminisced about their earlier encounters when he and her husband had been on the same side.
Controversy
Historians are surprisingly mum about whether or not there were any negative consequences for Louisa Canby's actions, especially because these could have been interpreted as giving aid and comfort to the enemy. Her husband's biographer, Max Heyman, says that the Santa Fe Gazette described her actions as "praiseworthy," but the same paper declared that Colonel Canby had "given more general satisfaction than any other Department Commander" and "we have seen nothing to condemn" in his record. Just as the Gazette'''s favorable view of Canby did not mean that he was universally praised, so the paper's assessment of Mrs. Canby's actions may not have been shared by all. In understanding what consequences did occur, it is necessary to examine the context of her behavior. In comparison to other campaigns of the Civil War, and especially in light of the ill-treatment of prisoners of war at Andersonville by the Confederates and at Camp Douglas by the Federals, the conduct of the New Mexico Campaign was generally chivalrous. Truces were honored after each of the campaign's two major battles and prisoners of war were usually freed or "paroled" after brief captivity. General Canby personally set a high standard. After interviewing several former P.O.W.s, Confederate Sgt. Albert Peticolas concluded that all who had fallen into Canby's hands had been well treated. In this context, Louisa's compassion can be seen as consistent with her husband's policies.
Others in the territory, including Governor Henry Connolly, were not satisfied with General Canby's strategy of minimal engagement combined with drawing the Confederates further and further from their sources of support in southernmost New Mexico and Texas. The governor and others wanted to see more pitched battles with the invaders. The battle at Glorietta would never have taken place had Col. John Slough followed Canby's order to remain inside Fort Union. No doubt, Slough had gone forth with the blessing of the governor; yet, although the ultimate outcome of the battle favored the Union, Slough resigned his commission before Canby had the opportunity to demand it. (Though another interpretation is that he resigned in protest because Canby ordered him not to pursue the rebels.) Subsequently, Canby nearly engaged the retreating Confederates in a battle near Peralta, New Mexico, but halted preliminary skirmishing when a sandstorm arose. While Canby's decision was probably prudent in view of the bad weather and the fact that the Confederates were already defeated, many of his critics began to make up stories such as that Canby and Sibley "had an understanding" not to engage each other and that Louisa Canby was either Sibley's sister or Mrs. Sibley's cousin. (Mrs. Sibley was Charlotte Kendall, a New Yorker whose father was from Massachusetts and mother was from New York; there is no evidence that she and Louisa were related.) Many of these stories were seriously entertained by later historians, although Martin Hall and Heyman were among the first to realize that there was no basis for these rumors. In this context, it seems likely that Louisa's kindness toward the Confederate wounded played into the whispering campaign or even provided the germ of the rumor that the Kentucky-born officer's wife was actually the Louisiana general's sister; however, no one seems to have recorded any explicit charges against her, either officially or unofficially. This may have been because Louisa had her defenders (as evidenced by the April 26, 1862, article in the influential Gazette), but, finally, the fact of the Confederates' ultimate retreat from the territory rendered the issue moot.
General's wife
Soon after the defeat of the Confederates in New Mexico, General and Mrs. Canby were reassigned back East where Canby spent more than a year in bureaucratic service in Pennsylvania, New York, and Washington, D.C. sometimes as an unofficial administrative assistant to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. It was not until 1864 that Canby was allowed out from behind a desk, and he and Mrs. Canby were sent to the Trans-Mississippi region, eventually finding a home in New Orleans where Louisa stayed while her husband supported the Union's impending defeat of Confederate forces, which happened to include the remnants of Sibley's brigade; although, by this time, Sibley himself had been court-martialed for dereliction of duty during the Battle of Bisland. (Relieved of his command, he had gone to Richmond, Virginia.)
Shortly before his forty-seventh birthday, General Canby was shot by a sniper while on an inspection tour up the Mississippi and White rivers. His wound was a painful but "through-and-through" gunshot to the pelvis. He arrived home the day after his birthday, and Louisa immediately put him to bed and nursed him back to health during the next month.
Following the war, General Canby was retained by the army as one of only ten brigadier generals and served as military commander of various districts throughout the South. In an 1873 newspaper article, Mrs. Lew Wallace (née Susan Arnold Elston) would recall that Louisa practiced charity, tending to give things away to the needy wherever she went in the South, endearing herself to the local populace, but at some cost to her household. "I can hardly keep anything, there is so much suffering about us," Louisa wrote Wallace from New Orleans. She sometimes pleaded the case of someone in need to her husband if she thought he might help. Mrs. Wallace also said that Louisa was far more sociable than her husband and that she, rather than he, would arranged for any gatherings at the Canby residence.
The Canbys next moved to Portland, Oregon where the general became commander of the Department of Columbia. This Pacific Northwest command encompassed Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. In 1872 the Modoc War broke out, involving both Oregon and northern California. On April 11, 1873, Modoc leader Kintpuash (also known as Captain Jack) killed the unarmed Canby and several members of his party during peace talks. Canby had written frankly to Louisa about his misapprehensions over the negotiations with the Modocs. A chief concern (which proved to be prophetic) was that Captain Jack so feared treachery that he might be capable of committing treachery preemptively. On the day of his death Canby received a letter from his wife in Portland. She had written, "I think over all sorts of Modoc treachery till I am becoming a nervous, hysterical woman and will have to get away from Oregon to get over it." Louisa found her husband's death so unbearable that she spent a week in bed. His body was shuttled from place to place for more than a month before it reached Indianapolis, Indiana, and was finally buried at Crown Hill Cemetery. With the support of her brother, Colonel John Hawkins, Louisa devoted the last sixteen years of her life to promoting the memory of her husband.
Death and remembrance
The people of Portland, Oregon, upon learning the size of the pension that a general's widow could expect ($30 a month, which was increased to $50 by a special act of Congress a year later), raised and presented to her $5,000. Although this was meant as a gift, Mrs. Canby treated it as an interest-free loan, instead. She supplemented her income with the interest from the $5,000 but willed that the principal be returned to the people of Portland upon her death.
Louisa Hawkins Canby was buried beside her husband June 27, 1889. Nearly four years later, R. O. Fairs, a Confederate veteran organizing a reunion of the Sibley Brigade, wrote to the War Department asking for help in locating Louisa Canby. Not realizing that she was deceased, Fairs explained: "I wish to show her we still entertain kind remembrance and esteem for her, by inviting her to our reunion."
References
Books
Don Alberts, ed. Rebels on the Rio Grande: The Civil War Journals of Albert Peticolas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984.
Donald S. Frazier. Blood and Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1995.
Martin H. Hall. Sibley's New Mexico Campaign. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1960.
Max L. Heyman, Jr. Prudent Soldier: A Biography of Major General ERS Canby, 1817-1873, Frontier Military Series III. Glendale, CA: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1959.
Robert L. Kirby. The Confederate Invasion of New Mexico and Arizona 1861-1862 [Westernlore Great West and Indian Series XIII]. Tucson: Westernlore Press, 1981 [second printing; first printing 1958].
Jerry Thompson. Henry Hopkins Sibley: Confederate General of the West. Natchitoches, Louisiana: Northwestern State University, 1987.
Books online
William T. Sherman. Memoirs of William T. Sherman, Vol. I, Part 1 https://web.archive.org/web/20060628065121/http://civilwartalk.com/cwt_alt/resources/e-texts/mem_sherman/03.htm
The Road to Glorietta Readers Companion: Edward Richard Sprigg Canby, [additional information not included in The Road to Glorietta: A Confederate Army Marches Through New Mexico by Donald W. Healy] https://web.archive.org/web/20041209122419/http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~donh/page12.html (and following to /page20.html)
Journals online
Journal of San Diego History'' (Summer 1984, Volume 30, Number 3), "María Amparo Ruiz Burton: The General's Lady" by Kathleen Crawford. http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/84summer/burton.htm
Catalogues online
Filson Historical Society Library: MS #118. "Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg, 1819[sic]-1873. Papers, 1837-1873." A\C214. .33 cu. ft. Miscellaneous papers, 1844, 1862. C\C. 2 items." https://web.archive.org/web/20060816065719/http://www.filsonhistorical.org/guide2.html [The papers in this collection were consulted in writing this articles.]
External links
1818 births
1889 deaths
People from Paris, Kentucky
People of New Mexico in the American Civil War
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
American Civil War nurses
American women nurses |
4206576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20Princess | Disney Princess | Disney Princess, also called the Princess Line, is a media franchise and toy line owned by the Walt Disney Company. Created by Disney Consumer Products chairman Andy Mooney, the franchise features a lineup of female protagonists who have appeared in various Disney franchises.
The franchise does not include all princess characters from the whole of Disney-owned media, but rather refers to select specific characters from the company's animated films, including only protagonists of animated films from Walt Disney Pictures, with twelve characters from the Walt Disney Animation Studios films and one character from a Pixar film. The thirteen characters in the franchise consist of Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Mulan, Tiana, Rapunzel, Merida, Moana, and Raya.
The franchise has released dolls, sing-along videos, apparel, beauty products, home decor, toys, and a variety of other products featuring some of the Disney Princesses. Licensees for the franchise include Glidden (wall paint), Stride Rite (sparkly shoes), Fisher-Price (plastic figurines), Lego (Lego sets), Hasbro and Mattel (games and dolls).
History
Conception
Former Nike, Inc. executive Andy Mooney was appointed president of The Walt Disney Company's Disney Consumer Products division in December 1999. While attending his first Disney on Ice show, Mooney noticed that several young girls attending the show were dressed in princess attire—though not authentic Disney merchandise. "They were generic princess products they'd appended to a Halloween costume," Mooney told The New York Times. Concerned by this, Mooney addressed the company the following morning and encouraged them to commence work on a legitimate Disney Princess franchise in January 2000. Walt's nephew, Roy E. Disney, objected to the creation of the line, as the company has long "avoided mingling characters from its classic fairy tales in other narratives, worrying that it would weaken the individual mythologies."
The original line-up consisted of princesses Snow White, Cinderella, Tinker Bell, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Esmeralda, and Mulan. Tinker Bell was removed soon after; she would go on to headline the sister franchise Disney Fairies. Esmeralda was also removed. This was the first time the characters would be marketed in a separate franchise to their original films. Mooney decided that, when featured on marketing advertisements such as posters, the princesses should never make eye contact with each other in an attempt to keep their individual "mythologies" intact. "[Each] stares off in a slightly different direction as if unaware of the others' presence."
In an unconventional manner, Mooney and his team launched the Disney Princess line without utilizing any focus groups and with minimal marketing. By 2001, Disney Consumer Products (DCP) had generated about $300 million, but by 2012, the division had increased revenue to $3 billion, making it the top seller of consumer entertainment products globally. DCP issued princess product licenses to Hasbro for games, Mattel for dolls, and Fisher-Price for plastic figurines in 2000, allowing the franchise to meet the $1 billion mark in revenue in three years.
Expansions
Inductions and coronations
Tiana became the first additional character to the Disney Princess franchise officially on March 14, 2010, taking Tinker Bell's short-lived place as the ninth member. Her "coronation" took place at the Lotte New York Palace Hotel in Midtown Manhattan. Tinker Bell was already heading up another franchise, Disney Fairies, starting in 2005.
Rapunzel was crowned and inducted into the franchise as the tenth member on October 2, 2011, during "Rapunzel's Royal Celebration", a special event in London. Also attended by the other Princesses plus the Fairy Godmother and Flynn Rider, it included a procession through Hyde Park concluding with a ceremony at Kensington Palace in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, a residence used by the Royal Family since the 17th century and whose residents included Diana, Princess of Wales. Disney hosted the event in cooperation with Historic Royal Palaces, a British nonprofit organization that maintains the State Rooms.
On May 11, 2013, Merida became the first Pixar character as well as the eleventh member to the franchise in a coronation ceremony in front of Cinderella Castle at the Magic Kingdom Park at Walt Disney World.
In March 2019, Moana was added to the line-up as the twelfth member in the franchise without having a coronation ceremony, but rather being included in future merchandise.
In August 2022, it was announced that Raya from Raya and the Last Dragon would be inducted as the thirteenth member in the franchise during World Princess Week at Disneyland Paris. In January 2023, she was included in some Disney Princess products and has been later added in August that year among the other princesses on their official website.
Redesigns, merchandise and other events
A line of Disney Fairy Tale Wedding gowns were designed by Kirstie Kelly, based on the Princesses, and were available in January 2008.
In 2012, the princesses were given modern redesigns. While some like Tiana and Rapunzel just had added glitter on their outfits, others like Belle, Ariel, and Jasmine received new hairstyles or modified outfits. The most drastic of these was Cinderella, who was given side-swept bangs and an outfit with sheer sleeves.
With Target Corporation as its marketing partner, Disney held the first National Princess Week the week of April 23, 2012. During the week, there was the release of The Princess Diaries on Blu-ray and The Very Fairy Princess book. Harrods, already having a Disney Store within, followed with their Christmas theme being Disney Princess by having Oscar de la Renta designed dress for the Princess on display. In August, the dress were on display at D23 Expo before being auctioned on November 13 to benefit Great Ormond Street Hospital Children's Charity.
Mattel added a Barbie princess-themed line in late 2010 and the fairy tale based Ever After High in 2013. With these competing lines and an expiration of the brand license at the end of 2015, Disney offered Hasbro a chance to gain the license given their work on Star Wars, which led to a Descendants license. DCP was also attempting to evolve the brand by marketing them less as damsels and more as heroines. In September 2014, Disney announced that Hasbro would be the licensed doll maker for the Disney Princess line starting on January 1, 2016.
The June 2013 release of the Disney Princess Palace Pets app from Disney Publishing, led DCP to turn Palace Pets into a Disney Princess franchise extension, with the release of the Palace Pets toy-line in August from licensee Blip Toys. The line was also selected by TimetoPlayMag.com for its Most Wanted List Holiday 2013. In 2015, Disney Publishing released animated shorts series Whisker Haven Tales with the Palace Pets. The shorts journey to a magical world of Whisker Haven, a secret realm deep in a fairy tale land between the Disney Princess kingdoms.
Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media launched the Princess Comics line, which was started with Princess Comics graphic novels by Joe Book, in August 2018 at Target with Hasbro figures and Hybrid Promotions apparel. This expansion featured Belle, Jasmine, Ariel, Rapunzel, and Pocahontas.
On April 27, 2021, Disney launched the Ultimate Princess Celebration. This year-long event brought back the princesses' classic designs and included many special events, products, and performances. Despite not being official, Anna and Elsa from the Frozen franchise were included in parts of the celebration; they were removed from their temporary inclusion in the collection at the end of August 2022. When the celebration launched in South Africa on April 29, 2021, Sofia from Sofia the First and Elena from Elena of Avalor were also included for its territory, though in a lesser capacity than the other princesses.
In January 2022, Mattel regained the license to produce lines of toys and dolls for the brand.
Official canon of Disney Princesses
The official canon of Disney Princesses consists of the female protagonists, most of whom have royal ties within their fictional universes, from thirteen selected Disney films. They were given an official number in the franchise line-up based on the chronological order in which their films were released, starting with Snow White as the first and original Disney Princess, with Cinderella being the second, followed by Aurora and so on.
Snow White – Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)
Cinderella – Cinderella (1950)
Aurora – Sleeping Beauty (1959)
Ariel – The Little Mermaid (1989)
Belle – Beauty and the Beast (1991)
Jasmine – Aladdin (1992)
Pocahontas – Pocahontas (1995)
Mulan – Mulan (1998)
Tiana – The Princess and the Frog (2009)
Rapunzel – Tangled (2010)
Merida – Brave (2012)
Moana – Moana (2016)
Raya – Raya and the Last Dragon (2021)
Former Princesses
Tinker Bell – Peter Pan (1953)
Esmeralda – The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996)
Disney Parks & Resorts live experiences
1 Current as of August 4th, 2023.
2 Denotes an experience yet to resume following the COVID-19 pandemic.
Does not include shows or parades featuring characters across the Disney franchises/IPs.
Disneyland
Currently, all the princesses are available for meet-and-greets at Disneyland Resort in California. Additionally, in 2006, as part of the "Year of Million Dreams" celebration, the Fantasyland Theater began hosting the Disneyland Princess Fantasy Faire, a show featuring Lords and Ladies that taught young boys and girls the proper etiquette to be a Prince or Princess and featured appearances from the Disney Princesses. In 2010, Rapunzel was given a Tangled meet-and-greet location. The Carnation Plaza Gardens bandstand, adjacent to Sleeping Beauty Castle, was closed to be replaced by a new Fantasy Faire area in the Spring of 2013.
Fantasy Faire
The Fantasy Faire area at Disneyland officially opened on March 12, 2013, as the permanent home for the Disney Princesses; consisting of a Royal Hall, a Royal Theatre, Maurice's Treats food cart, and a Fairytale Treasures gift shop. The theater features two small shows based on Beauty and the Beast and Tangled. The hall is used for meet and greets with the princesses, which have a rotation schedule with three princesses scheduled to appear at a time.
Character Dining
The current Princess character dining offering at Disneyland is the "Disney Princess Breakfast Adventure" at Napa Rose at Disney's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa.
Walt Disney World
At Walt Disney World, the Princesses are available for meet-and-greets in more specific locations. Character dining for multiple Princesses is located at Cinderella's Royal Table at Cinderella Castle at the Magic Kingdom and at Akershus Royal Banquet Hall, which is named after Akershus Fortress in Oslo and is set inside a partial recreation of the fortress/castle at the Norway Pavilion at Epcot. Snow White and her friends can also be met at "Story Book Dining at Artist Point with Snow White" at Artist Point at Disney's Wilderness Lodge. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Ariel and Rapunzel along with Prince Eric and Flynn Rider could also be met at the "Bon Voyage Adventure Breakfast" at Trattoria al Forno at Disney's BoardWalk Resort, but it is yet to resume. Similarly, the Perfectly Princess Tea party at the Garden View Tea Room at Disney's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa featuring Aurora is also yet to resume following the pandemic., as is "Cinderella's Happily Ever After Dinner" (formerly known as the "Cinderella's Gala Feast Dinner") at 1900 Park Fare at the same result featuring Cinderella and her friends.
Several Princesses are also found in their respective pavilions around the Epcot World Showcase, such as Snow White in Germany, Mulan in China, and Belle and Aurora in France. On September 18, 2013, a new meet-and-greet attraction called Princess Fairytale Hall opened in Fantasyland at the Magic Kingdom behind Cinderella Castle.
Disneyland Paris
A meet-and-greet location for a single Disney Princess is located at the Princess Pavilion near It's a Small World. In addition, Paris' Disneyland Park also hosts a Disney Princess character restaurant, L'Auberge de Cendrillon (Cinderella's Inn), beside Le Château de la Belle au Bois Dormant (Sleeping Beauty's Castle) in a building similar to a classic French inn and resembling Cinderella's Castle from the film.
Shanghai Disneyland
A Disney Princess meet-and-greet location called Storybook Court is operational and is located at Enchanted Storybook Castle.
Hong Kong Disneyland
Hong Kong Disneyland's Castle of Magical Dreams has a meet-and-greet location being The Royal Reception Hall for the Disney Princesses.
Aulani
The Aulani Disney Vacation Club resort at the Ko Olina Resort in Hawaii also hosts Kakamoro Chaos with Moana at Aunty's Beach House, its kids club. The experience includes traditional Hawaiian children's games as well as the Kakamoro Relay from her homeland of Motonui.
Media
Films and television
Princess Party Palace (formerly known as The Princess Power Hour) was a programming block on Toon Disney from 2000 until 2007, where it used to air episodes of The Little Mermaid and Aladdin.
The Disney Princesses' television appearances were compiled into the Disney Princess Collection, a series of compilation VHS cassettes containing episodes from Aladdin and The Little Mermaid as well as two Beauty and the Beast specials. A later DVD series was released, entitled Disney Princess Stories, featuring content similar to the previous release.
Belle had her own live-action television series titled Sing Me a Story with Belle. The first eight Disney Princesses also made appearances on the animated TV series House of Mouse. Cinderella, Belle, and Snow White also made cameo appearances in the TV animated series Mickey Mouse. The television special The Little Mermaid Live! starred Auliʻi Cravalho as Ariel. The 2022 TV special Beauty and the Beast: A 30th Celebration starred H.E.R. as Belle.
In early 2007, Disney announced Disney Princess Enchanted Tales, a new series of direct-to-video features that feature new stories for the Disney Princesses. The first film in the series entitled Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, was released on September 4, 2007. It is a musical film featuring a new tale about Princess Jasmine and the first new tale about Princess Aurora since the original Sleeping Beauty. Originally, Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: A Kingdom of Kindness was announced as the first film in the series, which contained a different Princess Aurora story, and had a Belle story rather than a Princess Jasmine story. Disney made this change without any sort of notice. The series was cancelled and only Follow Your Dreams exists.
The TV series Once Upon a Time, which aired on the Disney-owned ABC, featured live-action versions of Snow White, Cinderella, Belle, Aurora, Mulan, Ariel, Rapunzel, Merida, Jasmine, and Tiana. Snow White and Belle are main characters, while the rest made recurring and/or guest appearances. Beginning in season 7, Cinderella, Tiana, and Rapunzel are main characters. Many of these characters are patterned after the Disney versions, but a few draw inspiration from older stories.
The TV series Sofia the First premiered on January 11, 2013, on Disney Junior. Cinderella appeared in the first film, Once Upon A Princess. Jasmine, Belle, Aurora, Snow White, Mulan, Tiana, and Merida have appeared on the show, and Ariel and Rapunzel appeared in the TV specials The Floating Palace and The Curse of Princess Ivy, respectively. However, Sofia is a minor princess and not in the royal court. She is voiced by Modern Family star Ariel Winter. In 2017, the TV series Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure debuted with the television film Tangled: Before Ever After serving as the pilot. In December 2020, it was announced that Tiana and Moana would have spin-off TV shows debuting on Disney+ in 2024.
In the films Maleficent (2014) and Maleficent: Mistress of Evil (2019), Elle Fanning plays Aurora. Lily James portrays Cinderella in the eponymous 2015 film. Emma Watson is seen as Belle in the 2017 film Beauty and the Beast. Naomi Scott stars as Jasmine in the 2019 film Aladdin. Liu Yifei appears as Mulan in the eponymous 2020 film. Halle Bailey plays Ariel in the 2023 film The Little Mermaid. Rachel Zegler has been cast to portray the title character in the upcoming 2025 film Snow White.
The Princesses, along with Anna and Elsa (and Moana, who was not included in the franchise until the following year), make guest appearances in the 2018 film Ralph Breaks the Internet. This film marks the first direct interaction between the characters in an animated Disney feature. Rich Moore and Phil Johnston, the directors of Ralph Breaks the Internet, said that a film focusing on the Disney Princesses could be made depending on the audience's response and "if there's a good story to be told."
In 2021, Disney Channel began to air shorts in the Chibi Tiny Tales series, a loose follow up to Big Chibi 6 The Shorts, based on the Disney Princess franchise. The first episode, "Moana As Told By Chibi", was released on August 27, 2021.
An animated Lego special, Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest, was released on Disney+ on August 18, 2023. The special stars Snow White, Ariel, Tiana, Rapunzel, and Moana, in an adventure to stop the evil plans of Gaston (main antagonist of Beauty and the Beast).
The Princesses, excluding Merida, appeared in the short film Once Upon a Studio (2023) in celebration of Disney 100 anniversary.
Literature
Disney Princess Chapter Books
Ariel: The Birthday Surprise
Belle: The Mysterious Message
Cinderella: The Great Mouse Mistake
Tiana: The Grand Opening
Jasmine: The Missing Coin
Aurora: The Perfect Party
Rapunzel: A Day to Remember
A Jewel Story
Ariel: The Shimmering Star Necklace
Cinderella: The Lost Tiara
Belle: The Charming Gift
Jasmine: The Jewel Orchard
Tiana: The Stolen Jewel
Merida: Legend of the Emeralds
Comic adaptation
In Kilala Princess, a Japanese fantasy/romance manga produced by Kodansha that debuted on Nakayoshi in April 2005, a girl named Kilala and her adventures to find her kidnapped friend with the help of the first six Disney Princesses (Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, and Jasmine). However, Kilala herself is not considered part of the franchise.
On February 24, 2016, a Disney Princesses anthology ongoing comic book's first issue hit the stands. The series is published by Joe Books. Joe Books expanded Disney Princess to a graphic novel line as an exclusive for Target along with a Hasbro figure line and a Hybrid Promotions apparel line.
Video games
Disney Princesses have appeared in various other media, such as video games, including Disney Princess: Enchanted Journey, Disney Princess: Magical Jewels, and Disney Princess: My Fairytale Adventure.
Rapunzel can be found as a character in the 2013 game Disney Infinity. Disney Infinity 2.0 has the addition of Merida and Jasmine. However, Merida is also included with Stitch in the Toy Box Starter Pack. Disney Infinity 3.0 has the addition of Mulan.
All Disney Princesses are also playable characters in the mobile game Disney Magic Kingdoms, with Cinderella, Aurora, Pocahontas, and Rapunzel being part of the main storyline, while the rest are limited time characters.
Kingdom Hearts
In the Kingdom Hearts game series, the seven "Princesses of Heart", are young ladies with entirely pure hearts who would open the way to Kingdom Hearts if gathered together. Five of these maidens include the Disney Princesses being Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Belle, and Jasmine. The remaining Princesses of Heart are Alice from Alice in Wonderland and game series' heroine, Kairi. While both Ariel and Mulan are not Princesses of Heart, they are instead party members of their respective worlds. The Disney Princesses make various appearances throughout the series:
While Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Alice, and Kairi all appear in the first game, only Ariel, Belle, and Jasmine reappeared in Kingdom Hearts II with Kairi, though the others are mentioned. Mulan, however, makes her first appearance as the player visits her world. She serves as a tradeable character in the party similarly to how Ariel was in the first Kingdom Hearts.
Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Alice, and Kairi appear in Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories as figments of Sora or Riku's memory, but their roles as Princesses of Heart are not brought up.
Belle and Jasmine reappear in Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days when they each meet Roxas. Wonderland reappears as well, but without Alice.
Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, and a young Kairi appear in the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep, as the game's playable characters Terra, Aqua, and Ventus assume prominent positions in the princesses' original stories.
Digital versions of Alice and Jasmine appear in Kingdom Hearts Coded.
Kingdom Hearts III introduces the "New Seven Hearts", which is a new set of princesses inheriting the roles from the previous princesses, with Kairi being the only princess from the original seven retaining her role. Rapunzel is the only Disney Princess currently known to be among the New Seven Hearts, while non-members Anna and Elsa from Frozen are also known to be members. Ariel also appears in a minor role, as one of the characters that can be summoned by Sora in battle.
As of present, Pocahontas, Tiana, Merida, Moana and Raya all have yet to appear in the series.
Awards and recognition
As of , five Disney Princess films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant":
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937; added in 1989)
Beauty and the Beast (1991; added in 2002)
Cinderella (1950; added in 2018)
Sleeping Beauty (1959; added in 2019)
The Little Mermaid (1989; added in 2022)
References
External links
Disney Princess
Mass media franchises introduced in 2000
Doll brands
Disneyland
Magic Kingdom
Shanghai Disneyland
Hong Kong Disneyland
Disney Consumer Products franchises |
4206597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20Ears%20Provincial%20Park | Golden Ears Provincial Park | Golden Ears Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia, Canada. It is named after the prominent twin peaks, which are commonly referred to as Golden Ears (Mount Blanshard) (elevation: ). The park was originally part of Garibaldi Provincial Park (established 1927) but was split off as a separate park in 1967. The area was logged extensively in the 1920s by the Lougheed and Abernathy Logging Company. Many recreational attractions are found within the park. Golden Ears Provincial Park is a protected area that contains many endangered species of flora and fauna.
First Nations territory
The area encompassed by Golden Ears Provincial Park sits within the traditional territory of the Coast Salish people. The following is a list of First Nations whose traditional territories include all or part of Golden Ears Provincial Park.
Katzie First Nation
Kwantlen First Nation
Matsqui First Nation
Sts'Ailes people
Tsawwassen First Nation
Stó꞉lō Nation
In-SHUCK-ch Nation
St’at’imc/Lillooet Tribal Council
Traditional use
Historically, the area enclosed by the boundaries of Golden Ears Provincial Park provided an important source of sustenance and resources for the local First Nations. The Katzie First Nation traditionally used the areas in what are now the southern and western sections of the park for hunting and fishing. Several sites of cultural importance to the Katzie First Nation are also enclosed within the boundaries of the park. The St’at’imc/Lillooet people traditionally used the northern area of what is now Golden Ears Park as a trade corridor. The Kwantlen First Nation traditionally used what is now the southeastern portion of the park for hunting and trapping.
Some examples of animals that were traditionally hunted by the local First Nations include mule deer, Roosevelt elk, mountain goat, black bear, North American beaver, and American marten. Archeological studies of the area indicate that fishing around Alouette Lake has been taking place for several thousand years. Fish that were historically harvested in Alouette Lake and Alouette River include five different species of Pacific salmon, steelhead, sturgeon, and trout. Many species of plants were historically gathered in the area, including but not limited to cedar bark, Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia), cranberries, and other types of berries.
Current use
The local First Nations whose territory is included within the park have retained their rights to gather resources within the park boundaries. Hunting and trapping are only permitted for individuals who belong to one of the local Nations. The Katzie Cultural Education Society provides some educational programs at the Outdoor Learning Centre in the park.
First Nations involvement in management decisions
The Order in Council that created Golden Ears Provincial Park as a separate entity from Garibaldi Park makes no mention of First Nations involvement in this decision. BC Parks has made a commitment to include First Nations voices in the decision-making processes for management of Golden Ears Provincial Park. One core ideal outlined in the Golden Ears Park Management Plan is that the park must allow for the local First Nations to continue their traditional practices, such as hunting and gathering. Opportunities for park visitors to learn about First Nations culture relevant to the park area are also part of the core ideals of the Golden Ears Park Management Plan.
The Katzie First Nation has done significant work to ensure that their traditional territories are being managed according to their principles. The Katzie First Nation has been involved in efforts to bring spawning salmon to Alouette Lake, which was blocked by the creation of a dam on Alouette River in 1928; these efforts have been made in partnership with BC Hydro and the Alouette River Management Society. The Katzie First Nation has also been involved in a study of plant diversity and abundance in the Alouette Lake riparian zone.
Industrial history
In 1897 a copper mine was developed along the east side Pitt Lake in Golden Ears Park. The mine title changed hands many times prior to closure during the Great Depression. Pitt Lake's lost gold mine is a legend of an Indigenous man named Slumach who was aware of a large gold deposit in the park. The History Channel produced a show, Deadman's Curse, which aired in July 2022 documenting the search for the gold and research into Slumach.
Timber harvest in the 1920s by the Lougheed and Abernathy Logging Company was extensive and at one point the largest in North America. In 1929, a large forest fire consumed 60,000 hectares of forest and halted logging in the area. Most of the old growth cedar and hemlock was either logged or lost in the wildfire.
In 1926, BC Hydro constructed the Alouette Dam on Allouette Lake for power generation. The Alouette reservoir is connected to Stave Lake via a diversion tunnel.
History and creation of Golden Ears Provincial Park
The Golden Ears Provincial Park was named after the twin peaks of Mount Blanshard. In 1933, the area that is now Golden Ears Park was incorporated into Garibaldi Provincial Park because of the scenic and recreational value of the area. Golden Ears Provincial Park is 62,539 hectares of protected area designated as separate from Garibaldi Provincial Park in 1967 primarily for the appreciation of the barrier between Golden Ears and Garibaldi areas. The creation of Golden Ears Provincial Park allowed more focus to be placed on the recreational elements available in the region surrounding Alouette Lake. The park is often used for hiking, horseback riding, and boating. The expansion of highways increased the accessibility of Golden Ears Provincial Park, which led to the rise in popularity of camping in the area.
Golden Ears Park management plan
Purpose and objectives
Golden Ears Park is one of the largest and most popular parks in British Columbia, attracting an average of 610,000 visitors every year. Following the park's heightened popularity and continued increase in foot traffic, the province of British Columbia enacted the official Golden Ears Park Management Plan in November of 2013, to preserve the natural beauty and ecological components of the park. The plan highlights the park's unique features and significant amenities, including its cultural, natural, and recreational values.
Protecting and maintaining wildlife populations
Ecological conservation initiatives have been put in place to preserve the park’s natural ecosystem and protect the wildlife that inhabit Golden Ears from the impacts of repeated recreational activity. Erosion is a common issue that the management plan addresses: erosion from hiking trails due to heavy foot traffic, and shoreline erosion caused by water sports and recreational boating. The province plans to collaborate with regulatory agencies to mitigate erosion concerns. There are also research plans in place to develop a deeper understanding of the park's wildlife populations, and supporting recovery initiatives for endangered species.
Species at risk
Over 85 BC Red listed species have been documented in Golden Ears Park. Some Red listed species that may be found in Golden Ears Park are Actaea elata, spotted owl, monarch butterfly, and the sage thrasher. The aforementioned species are registered as endangered in Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Many other BC Red listed species can also be found in the park. The Government of British Columbia has documented 1824 Blue listed species in Golden Ears Park, such as grizzly bears. Western population grizzly bears are registered as a species of special concern in Schedule 1 of SARA.
Vegetation in the park
Golden Ears Park is home to three eco-sections within its borders, Eastern Pacific Ranges, Southern Pacific Ranges, and the Fraser Lowlands. Within the three eco-sections lies a large diversity of plants, including ferns, trees, and wildflowers. Ferns often observed include the Western sword fern, leathery grape fern, American parsley fern, and the common bracken. Douglas fir are present in the higher elevations of Golden Ears Park. Other plant species that are often observed include the Himalayan blackberry, salmonberry, snow bramble, skunk cabbage, and knotweed.
Invasive species
The Himalayan blackberry and the knotweed family are both non-native species to British Columbia. Himalayan blackberry are known to grow over top of low-growing plants, and become very dense to the point of limiting the movement of other animals in the area. The Golden Ears Management Plan was to outline a vision for the future use(s) of the park, and explains in detail goals that BC Parks has for managing of the spread and preventing the introductions of invasive species in the 56,000-hectare park.
Endemic species
With the multitude of ecology management plans currently underway and efforts being made by many sectors of the public, native species of plants found in British Columbia are able to live, grow and regain previously strained population numbers within the protected areas of BC Parks such as Golden Ears. Golden Ears Provincial Park lends itself to being a protected area for many endemic species of trees in Canada. Sitka spruce, western white pine, Douglas fir, and mountain hemlock trees are all considered to be endemic to the Pacific Northwest, and are protected within the park boundary in order to preserve the habitat that these red and blue listed species live in.
Aside from the tree populations found within the park, there are many endangered plant species that are native to British Columbia that can be found thriving in Golden Ears Provincial Park, species such as coastal wood ferns, Menzies' Burnet, and snow bramble.
Camping
There are three main campgrounds at Golden Ears Park, with a total capacity of 409 vehicle accessible campsites. There are also backcountry campsites available at the park, also known as "Walk-In/Wilderness Camping". These Campsites are available at Alder Flats on the West Canyon Trail and Panorama Ridge on the Golden Ears Trail, but no facilities are provided. Finally, there are three group campgrounds available for reservation, by any group booking a minimum of 15 adults, with a maximum total of 50 persons.
Alouette Campground
The Alouette campground is the largest of the three main campgrounds in the park, with 206 campsites on it. During the summer season, park operators host security patrols. Only during the summer months the park provides drinking water that is regularly monitored, water is not available during the winter or fall season. The summer season is considered to be between June 19 - September 7, and reservations can be made between June 19 - September 6. There are 83 reserveable campsites in Alouette. In the campground, there are amenities such as:
Visitor parking (1)
Pit toilets (7)
Flush toilets (4)
Self guided trails (1)
Playgrounds (1)
Shower buildings (2)
Drinking water taps (23)
Gold Creek Campground
Gold Creek campground is the second largest of the three main campgrounds in the park, with 148 campsites on it. During the summer season, park operators host security patrols. Only during the summer months the park provides drinking water that is regularly monitored, water is not available during the winter or fall season. Gold Creek is the only campground of the three that is open year-round, however like the other campgrounds, amenities are restricted during the winter months. The summer season is considered to be between April 1 - October 12, and reservations can be made between May 8 - September 6. There are 74 reserveable campsites in Gold Creek. The winter months are considered to be between October 12 - March 31. In the campground, there are amenities such as:
Visitor parking (1)
Pit toilets (8)
Self guided trails (1)
Shower buildings (2)
Drinking water taps (15)
North Beach Campground
North Beach campground is the smallest of the three main campgrounds in the park, with 55 campsites on it. During the summer season, park operators host security patrols.The summer season is considered to be between June 19 - September 7, and reservations can be made between June 19 - September 6. There are 53 reserveable campsites in North Beach. In the campground, there are amenities such as:
Visitor parking (1)
Pit toilets (8)
Walk-in/wilderness camping
Wilderness/walk-in camping is permitted at Alder Flats on the West Canyon Trail and Panorama Ridge on the Golden Ears Trail, with pit toilets at both sites. The distance from parking to the walk-in sites at Alder Flats is approximately five kilometres; and to Panorama Ridge is approximately nine kilometres. Camping is on individual gravel pads in wooded area at Alder Flats and in an undeveloped wooded area on Panorama Ridge. There are no campfires are allowed in Wilderness/walk-in camping, only portable camp stoves are permitted. In addition, you must pack out what you pack in, as there are no garbage removal services. Because of the very remote location of these campsites, park operators are not able to provide current information on the sites.
Rustic Marine Campsites
Rustic marine campsites are located on Alouette Lake at Moyer Creek, The Narrows and Alouette River (north end of the lake). There are no campfires are allowed in Wilderness/walk-in camping, only portable camp stoves are permitted. In addition, you must pack out what you pack in, as there are no garbage removal services. Because of the very remote location of these campsites, park operators are not able to provide current information on the sites.
Hiking
There is an extensive network of hiking trails in the park ranging from short walks to strenuous backcountry trips.
Golden Ears Trail
This trail takes you to the Northern summit of the Golden Ears massif. The trail is approximately 12 km one-way from the west canyon parking lot with an elevation gain of 1,500 metres. This is mostly a wilderness trail after the Alder Flats campsite, which is located a few kilometres from the parking lot. There are plenty of great camping spots along the ridge, however there is no permanent source of water. In 2017 Parks BC build six tent platforms near the summit of Golden Ears. Depending on the season, water can be melted from the snow fields that remain in the northern shadow of the peak and there is often freshwater flowing from a creek near the top. Views from the top are panoramic, overlooking the Fraser Valley to the south and surrounding peaks.
Canoeing
Canoeing is very popular on Alouette Lake. Canoe/kayak/pedal boat rentals are available for rent in the Alouette (South Beach) day-use area on weekends only from May long weekend to late June and daily from late June to Labour Day (weather permitting).
Climbing
There are no recommended technical climbing opportunities in Golden Ears Park. There are two mountains accessible by official trails that require intermediate skills to reach the peaks. Both are long strenuous hikes requiring proper equipment and experience.
Horseback riding
There is an extensive network of over of gravel/dirt horse trails in the park. Check the park map for horse specific trails. Horses are not permitted on trails other than those designated on the park map. A permit is only required for commercial use of the horse trails.
No camping with horses is allowed in park front-country (parking lots, day-use areas, or any area less than from a park road), or in the vehicle accessible campgrounds. Day-use stopover is permitted at the South Beach corral area, but horses must remain within the corral or on a designated horse trail.
Camping with horses is permitted in the designated camping area on the East Canyon Trail, approximately north of Gold Creek parking lot.
This park provides trails only; horseback riding lesson/rentals, stables etc. are not available within the park.
Incidents
Some incidents have resulted in the injury to or death of park patrons.
For example, in July 2018, police received a call from BC Ambulance that a 21 year old man had been swept away by the current from Gold Creek in Golden Ears Provincial Park. A second man tried to help, and both were carried over the falls. The second man was found downstream with non-life-threatening injuries and was transported to hospital. Ridge Meadows Search and Rescue (RMSAR) was deployed, and though an initial search did not find the first man, when the search continued the following morning, a body was found and recovered.
The previous year, in April 2017, emergency services were called to Golden Ears Provincial Park after receiving a report of a man being swept away by swift water in Gold Creek.
In September 2015, Ridge Meadows RCMP were called to Alouette Lake in Golden Ears Provincial Park after a boat capsized on the lake. Four friends had experienced engine troubles with their 15-foot craft, and after pulling in to North Beach to check it out, were later swamped by a large wave. The boat took on water and sunk. Two of the boaters made it to shore and found campers at Gold Creek, while a third made it to shore and headed into the Alouette campground. The three survivors were treated for hypothermia, and released from a hospital a day later. Members of the Maple Ridge Fire Department, Ridge Meadows RCMP, British Columbia Ambulance Service, Ridge Meadows SAR, RCMP Air 1, British Columbia Ambulance Service's Air Ambulance searched for the fourth missing boater. The woman was never found and presumed deceased.
In July 2013, a 21-year-old man drowned in what appeared to have been a swimming accident in the park.
Filming location
The 2022 series Deadman's Curse
The 2022 movie The Adam Project
The 2014 movie Dawn of the Planet of the Apes credits being shot in Golden Ears Provincial Park.
The 2014 movie Godzilla shot a scene on North Beach in the park.
The 2010 movie The Lightning Thief shot scenes in the park.
The 2008 movie Twilight (starring Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart) shot some of its outdoor forest scenes in the park.
The 1982 movie First Blood (starring Sylvester Stallone as Rambo) was shot in Golden Ears Provincial Park.
Annanna & Kristina's Grocery Bag, a documentary shot a scene in the park.
See also
Golden Ears Bridge, a 6 laned bridge across the Fraser River, completed and open to traffic in June 2009.
References
External links
short film clip of Alouette Lake in 1959
Gold Creek Falls hiking information.
Lower Mainland
Provincial parks of British Columbia
1967 establishments in British Columbia
Protected areas established in 1967 |
4206616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute%20for%20Defense%20Analyses | Institute for Defense Analyses | The Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) is an American non-profit corporation that administers three federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) – the Systems and Analyses Center (SAC), the Science and Technology Policy Institute (STPI), and the Center for Communications and Computing (C&C) – to assist the United States government in addressing national security issues, particularly those requiring scientific and technical expertise. It is headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia.
History
Two ideas critical to the birth of the Institute for Defense Analyses, also known as IDA, emerged from World War II. The first was the necessity for unifying the several services into a single, coordinated department. The second was the realization of the strength of the relationship between science—and scientists—and national security.
The first reached fruition when President Harry Truman signed the National Security Acts of 1947 and 1949, creating the Department of Defense. (In 1947 the Department of War and the Department of the Navy had been combined to create the National Military Establishment. From it the present Defense Department was created in 1949.)
To give the nascent Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) the technical expertise and analytic resources to hold its own and to help make unification a reality, James Forrestal, the department's first secretary, established the Weapons Systems Evaluation Group (WSEG) in 1948 to assist OSD and the Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by:
Bringing scientific and technical as well as operational military expertise to bear in evaluating weapons systems;
Employing advanced techniques of scientific analysis and operations research in the process; and
Approaching its tasks from an impartial, supra-Service perspective.
The demands on WSEG were more than its small staff of military and civilian analysts could satisfy, and by the early years of the Dwight Eisenhower administration, there were calls for change. The several options gradually coalesced into one and, in 1955, the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff asked James R. Killian, Jr., then president of MIT, to help form a civilian, nonprofit research institute. The Institute would operate under the auspices of a university consortium to attract highly qualified scientists to assist WSEG in addressing the nation's most challenging security problems. And so, in April 1956, IDA was incorporated as a non-profit organization. In 1958, at the request of the Secretary of Defense, IDA established a division to support the newly created Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), later renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Shortly after its creation, the mandate of this division was broadened to include scientific and technical studies for all offices of the Director of Defense, Research and Engineering (DDR&E).
Universities overseeing IDA expanded from the five initial members in 1956 — Caltech, Case Western Reserve, MIT, Stanford and Tulane — to twelve by 1964 with the addition of California, Chicago, Columbia, Illinois, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Princeton. University oversight of IDA ended in 1968 in the aftermath of Vietnam War-related demonstrations at Princeton, Columbia, and other member universities.
Subsequent divisions were established under what became IDA's largest research center, the Studies and Analyses Center (now the Systems and Analyses Center), to provide cost analyses, computer software and engineering, strategy and force assessments, and operational test and evaluation. IDA created the Simulation Center in the early 1990s to focus on advanced distributed simulation, and most recently, established the Joint Advanced Warfighting Program to develop new operational concepts.
IDA's support of the National Security Agency began at its request in 1959, when it established the Center for Communications Research in Princeton, New Jersey. Additional requests from NSA in 1984 and 1989 led respectively to what is now called the Center for Computing Sciences in Bowie, Maryland and to a second Center for Communications Research in La Jolla, California. These groups, which conduct research in cryptology and information operations, make up IDA's Communications and Computing FFRDC.
In 2003, IDA assumed responsibility for the Science and Technology Policy Institute, a separate FFRDC providing technical and analytic support to the Office of Science and Technology Policy and other executive branch organizations.
Throughout its history, IDA also has assisted other federal agencies. Recent work includes research performed in support of the Department of Homeland Security, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Director of National Intelligence, and others.
Leadership
The following have served as president of IDA:
James McCormack, 1956–1959
Garrison Norton, 1959–1962
Richard M. Bissell Jr., 1962–1964
Jack Ruina, 1964–1966
Maxwell D. Taylor, 1966–1969
Alexander H. Flax, 1969–1983
Andrew Goodpaster, 1983–1985
William Y. Smith, 1985–1990
Larry D. Welch, 1990–2003
Dennis C. Blair, 2003–2006
Larry D. Welch, 2006–2009
David S. C. Chu, 2009–2020
Norton A. Schwartz, 2020–present
Sponsors
IDA's Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs), work with governmental sponsors and do not work for commercial enterprises or for-profit organizations.
The Systems and Analyses Center's primary sponsor is the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics. SAC assists the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Unified Combatant Commands, and U.S. Department of Defense agencies in addressing national security issues, particularly those requiring scientific and technical expertise. With concurrence from the USD(AT&L), SAC also supports other sponsors – including the Veterans Administration Veteran's Administration; the Intelligence Community; U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Department of Commerce, and U.S. Department of Energy.
The Science and Technology Policy Institute provides analyses for the National Science Foundation as STPI's primary sponsor and the Office of Science and Technology Policy as its primary customer. STPI also provides analysis for the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency, and other science-performing Federal agencies.
The Center for Communications and Computing supports the National Security Agency.
IDA's FFRDCs
Systems and Analyses Center
The Systems and Analyses Center (SAC) is the largest of IDA's three FFRDCs and is co-located with the IDA headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. SAC assists the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Staff, the Combatant Commands, and Defense Agencies in addressing important national security issues, focusing particularly on those requiring scientific and technical expertise. It includes the following divisions:
Cost Analysis and Research Division (CARD) helps guide the Department of Defense and other federal agencies in the decisions, policies, and processes of resource – both people and money – allocation. Specifically, CARD analysts engage in:
Evaluating costs for pending government acquisition or retention
Examining resource allocation policies to guide sponsors’ decision
Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of our sponsors’ resource allocation processes
CARD also supports the Department of Homeland Security efforts to assess and validate new anti-terrorism systems as mandated by the Support Anti-Terrorism by Fostering Effective Technologies Act. Similar to the support to DoD, analysts provide the technical evaluation ensuring that proposed technologies are safe and effective.
Information Technology and Systems Division (ITSD) focuses on cybersecurity and other cyberspace challenges of national and global importance. ITSD researchers address all aspects of cyber from the perspectives of cyberspace operations, technology, and policy/law, and where these perspectives intersect. In particular, ITSD concentrates on these areas:
Providing expertise on critical cyber technology procurements via in-depth knowledge of the technology and modern methods for timely acquisition of technology that matters.
Assessing advanced concepts in rapidly changing cyber technologies while identifying and analyzing cyber risks.
Analyzing the workforce to determine if they are ready for cyber challenges and developing training and education programs to ensure we are ready for future cyber challenges.
Applying world-class talent in content understanding by analyzing Big Data to bring clarity to a world drowning in data
ITSD researchers have performed assessments of existing DoD cyberspace organizational constructs, developed alternative technology strategies, and advised leaders on the most effective options to enhance cyberspace operations. Analysts also assist DoD and other governmental agencies in addressing problems related to real-world operations.
Intelligence Analyses Division (IAD) provides the United States Department of Defense, the Intelligence Community, and other cabinet departments research and analyses across a wide array of intelligence issues and disciplines. Specific examples of support to our national security include research in the following vital areas:
Countering terrorism, including how terrorist organizations are financed; examining issues unique to Asian counterterrorism; and following developments in improvised explosive devices worldwide
New technology, such as the use of tagging, tracking, and locating (TTL) systems, including the ability to defeat such systems, and measurement and signals intelligence (MASINT) applications, which deal with metric, angle, spatial, wavelength, time dependence, modulation, plasma, and hydromagnetic data
Surprise technology – unanticipated technologies that might be employed against the U.S. by adversaries as the result of either scientific breakthroughs or novel applications of existing technologies.
Cyberspace operations – tracking, analyzing, and countering digital security threats and identifying and tracking those developing, selling, and using cyber weapons on a global basis.
Joint Advanced Warfighting Division (JAWD) focuses on the needs of the joint force commander and, in particular, the future joint force commander. Provides analytic support to post-war programmatic decisions. As DoD reviews capabilities, JAWD provides an independent analytic review of the capabilities built during the war and which ones to maintain to support the joint concept. Specifically, the division is engaged in the following:
Linking new concepts and new technologies to a military context
Moving from concept to reality in the military environment
Exploring military options through structured analysis.
Operational Evaluation Division (OED) provides technical analytical support to the DoD’s Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) and its mission to conduct independent assessments of the military services’ test and evaluation of new weapons systems. OED’s analytical support functions focus on:
Conducting good tests of military systems in a realistic operational environment
Evaluating those systems from an objective, disinterested, factually based perspective in terms of effectiveness and suitability
OED also supports the Department of Homeland Security efforts to assess and validate new anti-terrorism systems as mandated by the Support Anti-Terrorism by Fostering Effective Technologies Act. Similar to the support to DoD, analysts provide the technical evaluation that proposed technologies are safe and effective.
Science and Technology Division (STD) provides analyses of science and technology issues related to national security. STD’s core strengths, which include:
Electromagnetics
Energy analysis
Chemical, nuclear, biological detection
Advanced optics
Countering IEDs and mines
Vehicle blast enhancements
Materials and armor
Training and human factors
Robotic systems
STD also manages DoD’s Defense Science Studies Group to strengthen connections between the federal government and relevant science and technology communities in academia. The DSSG introduces leading, recently tenured faculty to security challenges and related technology problems.
Strategy, Forces and Resources Division (SFRD) conducts comprehensive integrated, interdisciplinary studies of broad defense policy and long-range planning related to national strategy, organization, and management process issues. SFRD researchers and analysts conduct studies in several key areas:
Analyzing Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) defenses
Conducting organizational effectiveness and human capital management studies
Improving defense resource management
Investigating international arms markets
Researching international collaboration scenarios
Evaluating force structure and capabilities as well as strategy and risk.
System Evaluation Division (SED) provides independent system evaluations, analyses of alternatives, assessments of technology integration, and special system studies for DoD, typically assisting our sponsors in the following tasks:
Formulating and investigating new operational concepts and system architectures
Examining force- and mission-level effectiveness
Assessing the risks, costs, and benefits of new technology insertion
Improving the developmental test and evaluation of major military systems
Science and Technology Policy Institute
The Science and Technology Policy Institute (STPI), is located in Washington, D.C. It provides objective analysis of science and technology (S&T) policy issues for the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) and other offices and councils within the executive branch of the U.S. government and federal agencies. Since IDA began operating it in 2003, STPI has provided support to OSTP on topics spanning the spectrum from the ethical, legal, and societal implications of nanotechnology research to aeronautics research and development; and from understanding the effects of U.S. visa policies to efforts that facilitate international research collaboration. In carrying out its work, STPI researchers consult widely with representatives from private industry, academia, and nonprofit organizations. STPI's key functions are to:
Analyze the effect of current and proposed S&T policies on the long-term vitality of the United States
Provide timely and authoritative information regarding significant S&T developments and trends in the United States and abroad, with particular attention to the federal S&T portfolio
Advise OSTP and federal agencies on the implementation and evaluation of research and development programs
Provide technical support and analysis to the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) and to committees and panels of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), under the direction of OSTP
Center for Communications and Computing
In 1959, IDA's Center for Communications and Computing was formed (as the Communications Research Division) as a private think tank dedicated to helping the National Security Agency solve advanced cryptology problems. It was headed by Cornell professor of mathematics J. Barkley Rosser (1958–61); University of Chicago mathematics chairman Abraham Adrian Albert (1961–1962); Yale University professor of mathematics Gustav A. Hedlund (1962-1963); University of Illinois/Sandia Corporation mathematician Richard A. Leibler (1963–1977); and Princeton mathematician Lee Paul Neuwirth (1977-unknown).
More recently, the Centers, which now consist of a Center for Computing Sciences in Bowie, Maryland, and two Centers for Communications Research with offices in Princeton, New Jersey, and La Jolla, California, have also worked on network security issues.
Within those broad areas, the research portfolio particularly focuses on the creation and analysis of sophisticated encryption methods, high-speed computing technologies, the development of advanced algorithms and their applications, algorithmic and mathematical foundations of cryptology, computer network technologies supporting communications security, information processing technologies supporting cyber security, and analytical applications for large data sets.
Although the Centers in Princeton and La Jolla were founded to focus on the mathematics of cryptology, and the center in Bowie was founded to focus on computational science, all three have developed distinctive areas of expertise. Nonetheless, they work closely with each other and share many overlapping research teams.
Center for Communications Research, Princeton and Center for Communications Research, La Jolla. One Center was founded in 1959 in Princeton, New Jersey (originally called the Communications Research Division). In 1989, a second Center was opened in La Jolla, California. The two Centers employ more than 70 Ph.D. mathematicians and computer scientists, working on problems in cryptography, cryptanalysis, algorithms, high-performance computing, information processing, signal processing, and network security, as well as related areas of pure and applied mathematics. A surprisingly broad array of branches of the mathematical sciences have proved to be useful in this work, and this is reflected in the variety of backgrounds of the researchers at these Centers. The day-to-day work is aimed at providing practical solutions to important real-world problems faced by NSA, and this can range from deep mathematical investigations to writing advanced computer programs to sophisticated statistical analyses of data. The research environment is distinctive in encouraging close collaboration, multidisciplinary teams, tight coupling between theory and practice, and strong connections with the other Centers.
Center for Computing Sciences (CCS) was founded in 1985 in Bowie, Maryland. CCS focuses the skills of some of the country’s best computer scientists, engineers, and mathematicians on solving intelligence-related problems of importance to national security, and also on tackling problem sets of interest to the entire computational science world. CCS's original mission, the development and use of high-end computing, has expanded over the years to reflect global political and technological changes. In addition to high-performance computing for cryptography, it now includes cryptography itself, extensive projects in network security and related cyber issues, signal processing, and emerging algorithmic and mathematical techniques for analyzing extremely complex data sets. CCS works closely with National Security Agency and with US industry on the development of high-performance computing platforms – an effort that senior technology policymakers believe will require government research and development support. These platforms, aimed at meeting the specialized requirements of the most demanding national-security-related computations, will have to far exceed the capabilities of even the most sophisticated computers today. The Center is uniquely qualified to provide significant insight into this challenge, given its depth of experience in NSA’s most advanced computing problems; history of sustained and vigorous dialog with many of the nation's leading high-end computer makers; and active collaborations with the united States Department of Energy’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Notable people associated with the Center for Communications and Computing
Abraham Adrian Albert, CRD director (1961–1962)
Leonard E. Baum
Joe P. Buhler, CCR La Jolla director
Don Coppersmith
Alfred W. Hales, CCR La Jolla director
Gustav A. Hedlund, CRD director
Donald Knuth, 1968-1969
Richard Leibler, CRD director
Jill P. Mesirov
Victor S. Miller, co-inventor of Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Nick Patterson
Eric M. Rains
Coke Reed, CCR Princeton and CCS staff member
Mary Lynn Reed
David P. Robbins, CCR Princeton staff member (1980-2003)
J. Barkley Rosser, CRD director (1958–1961)
Jim Simons, CRD staff member (1964-1968)
Lloyd R. Welch
Malcolm J. Williamson, inventor of Diffie-Hellman key exchange
Staff
IDA employs approximately 1,500 research, professional, adjunct, and support staff. Many have attended the nation's military service academies or served in the military. Approximately 56% hold doctoral degrees; 36% hold master's degrees; and 8% hold bachelor's degrees. The staff specializes in the following research disciplines:
References
External links
Science and Technology Policy Institute
Think tanks based in Washington, D.C.
Non-profit organizations based in Alexandria, Virginia
Federally Funded Research and Development Centers
Research institutes established in 1956
1956 establishments in Virginia
Research institutes in Virginia |
4206694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian%20education%20system | Prussian education system | The Prussian education system refers to the system of education established in Prussia as a result of educational reforms in the late 18th and early 19th century, which has had widespread influence since. The Prussian education system was introduced as a basic concept in the late 18th century and was significantly enhanced after Prussia's defeat in the early stages of the Napoleonic Wars. The Prussian educational reforms inspired similar changes in other countries, and remain an important consideration in accounting for modern nation-building projects and their consequences.
The term itself is not used in German literature, which refers to the primary aspects of the Humboldtian education ideal respectively as the Prussian reforms; however, the basic concept has led to various debates and controversies. Twenty-first century primary and secondary education in Germany and beyond still embodies the legacy of the Prussian education system.
Origin
The basic foundations of a generic Prussian primary education system were laid out by Frederick the Great with his Generallandschulreglement, a decree of 1763 which was written by Johann Julius Hecker. Hecker had already before (in 1748) founded the first teacher's seminary in Prussia. His concept of providing teachers with the means to cultivate mulberries for homespun silk, which was one of Frederick's favorite projects, found the King's favour. It expanded the existing schooling system significantly and required that all young citizens, both girls and boys, be educated by mainly municipality-funded schools from the age of 5 to 13 or 14. Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. In comparison, in France and Great Britain, compulsory schooling was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.
The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing world (such as reading and writing), but also music (singing) and religious (Christian) education in close cooperation with the churches and tried to impose a strict ethos of duty, sobriety and discipline. Mathematics and calculus were not compulsory at the start, and taking such courses required additional payment by parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, the Realschule and as the highest stage the gymnasium (state-funded secondary school), which served as a university-preparatory school.
Construction of schools received some state support, but they were often built on private initiative. Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow, a member of the local gentry and former cavalry officer in Reckahn, Brandenburg, installed such a school. Von Rochow cooperated with Heinrich Julius Bruns (1746–1794), a talented teacher of modest background. The two installed a model school for rural education that attracted more than 1,200 notable visitors between 1777 and 1794.
The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers, national testing for all students (both female and male students), a prescribed national curriculum for each grade and mandatory kindergarten. Training of teachers was increasingly organized via private seminaries. Hecker had already in 1748 founded the first "Lehrerseminar", but the density and impact of the seminary system improving significantly until the end of the 18th century. In 1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching. The final examination, Abitur, was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812 and extended to all of Germany in 1871. Passing the Abitur was a prerequisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of the civil service. The state-controlled Abitur remains in place in modern Germany.
The Prussian system had by the 1830s attained the following characteristics:
Free primary schooling, at least for poor citizens
Professional teachers trained in specialized colleges
A basic salary for teachers and recognition of teaching as a profession
An extended school year to better involve children of farmers
Funding to build schools
Supervision at national and classroom level to ensure quality instruction
Curriculum inculcating a strong national identity, involvement of science and technology
Secular instruction (but with religion as a topic included in the curriculum)
The German states in the 19th century were world leaders in prestigious education and Prussia set the pace. For boys free public education was widely available, and the gymnasium system for elite students was highly professionalized. The modern university system emerged from the 19th century German universities, especially Friedrich Wilhelm University (now named Humboldt University of Berlin). It pioneered the model of the research university with well-defined career tracks for professors. The United States, for example, paid close attention to German models. Families focused on educating their sons. The traditional schooling for girls was generally provided by mothers and governesses. Elite families increasingly favoured Catholic convent boarding schools for their daughters. Prussia's Kulturkampf laws in the 1870s limited Catholic schools thus providing an opening for a large number of new private schools for girls.
Outreach
The overall system was soon widely admired for its efficiency and reduction of illiteracy, and inspired education leaders in other German states and a number of other countries, including Japan and the United States.
The underlying Humboldtian educational ideal of brothers Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt was about much more than primary education; it strived for academic freedom and the education of both cosmopolitan-minded and loyal citizens from the earliest levels. The Prussian system had strong backing in the traditional German admiration and respect for Bildung as an individual's drive to cultivate oneself from within.
Drivers and hindrances
Major drivers for improved education in Prussia since the 18th century had a background in the middle and upper middle strata of society and were pioneered by the Bildungsbürgertum. The concept as such faced strong resistance both from the top, as major players in the ruling nobility feared increasing literacy among peasants and workers would raise unrest, and from the very poor, who preferred to use their children as early as possible for rural or industrial labor.
The system's proponents overcame such resistance with the help of foreign pressure and internal failures, after the defeat of Prussia in the early stages of the Napoleonic Wars. After the military blunder of Prussian drill and line formation against the levée en masse of the French revolutionary army in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, reformers and German nationalists urged for major improvements in education. In 1809 Wilhelm von Humboldt, having been appointed minister of education, promoted his idea of a generic education based on a neohumanist ideal of broad general knowledge, in full academic freedom without any determination or restriction by status, profession or wealth. Humboldt's was one of the earliest white papers to lay out a reform of a country's educational system as a whole. Humboldt's concept still forms the foundation of the contemporary German education system. The Prussian system provided compulsory and basic schooling for everyone, but the significantly higher fees for attending gymnasium or a university imposed a high barrier between upper social strata and middle and lower social strata.
Interaction with the German national movement
In 1807 Johann Gottlieb Fichte had urged a new form of education in his Addresses to the German Nation. While Prussian (military) drill in the times before had been about obedience to orders without any leeway, Fichte asked for shaping of the personality of students: "The citizens should be made able and willing to use their own minds to achieve higher goals in the framework of a future unified German nation state." Fichte and other philosophers, such as the Brothers Grimm, tried to circumvent the nobility's resistance to a common German nation state via proposing the concept of a Kulturnation, nationhood without needing a state but based on a common language, musical compositions and songs, shared fairy tales and legends and a common ethos and educational canon.
Various German national movement leaders engaged themselves in educational reform. For example, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852), dubbed the Turnvater, was the father of German gymnastics and a student fraternity leader and nationalist but failed in his nationalist efforts; between 1820 and 1842 Jahn's gymnastics movement was forbidden because of his proto-Nazi politics. Later on, Jahn and others were successful in integrating physical education and sports into Prussian and overall German curricula and popular culture.
By 1870, the Prussian system began to privilege High German as an official language against various ethnic groups (such as Poles, Sorbs and Danes) living in Prussia and other German states. Previous attempts to establish "Utraquism" schools (bilingual education) in the east of Prussia had been identified with high illiteracy rates there.
Interaction with religion
Pietism, a reformist group within Lutheranism, forged a political alliance with the King of Prussia based on a mutual interest in breaking the dominance of the Lutheran state church. The Prussian Kings, Calvinists among Lutherans, feared the influence of the Lutheran state church and its close connections with the provincial nobility, while Pietists suffered from persecution by the Lutheran orthodoxy.
Bolstered by royal patronage, Pietism replaced the Lutheran church as the effective state religion by the 1760s. Pietist theology stressed the need for "inner spirituality" (), to be found through the reading of Scripture. Consequently, Pietists helped form the principles of the modern public school system, including the stress on literacy, while more Calvinism-based educational reformers (English and Swiss) asked for externally oriented, utilitarian approaches and were critical of internally soul searching idealism.
Prussia was able to leverage the Protestant Church as a partner and ally in the setup of its educational system. Prussian ministers, particularly Karl Abraham Freiherr von Zedlitz, sought to introduce a more centralized, uniform system administered by the state during the 18th century. The implementation of the Prussian General Land Law of 1794 was a major step toward this goal. However, there remains in Germany to the present a complicated system of burden sharing between municipalities and state administration for primary and secondary education. The various confessions still have a strong say, contribute religious instruction as a regular topic in schools and receive state funding to allow them to provide preschool education and kindergarten.
In comparison, the French and Austrian education systems faced major setbacks due to ongoing conflicts with the Catholic Church and its educational role. The introduction of compulsory schooling in France was delayed till the 1880s.
Political and cultural role of teachers
Generations of Prussian and also German teachers, who in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning often were untrained former petty officers, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important role in various protest and reform movements throughout the 19th and into the 20th century. Namely, the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states and the protests of 1968 saw a strong involvement of (future) teachers. There is a long tradition of parody and ridicule, where teachers were being depicted in a janus-faced manner as either authoritarian drill masters or, on the other hand, poor wretches which were suffering the constant spite of pranking pupils, negligent parents and spiteful local authorities.
A 2010 book title like "Germany, your teachers; why the future of our children is being decided in the classroom" shows the 18th and 19th century Enlightenment ideals of teachers educating the nation about its most sacred and important issues. The notion of Biedermeier, a petty bourgeois image of the age between 1830 and 1848, was coined on Samuel Friedrich Sauter, a school master and poet which had written the famous German song "Das arme Dorfschulmeisterlein" (The poor little schoolmaster). Actually the 18th primary teachers income was a third of a parish priest and teachers were being described as being as uppity as proverbially poor. However German notion of homeschooling was less than favorable, Germans deemed the school system as being necessary. E.g. Heinrich Spoerls 1933 "escapist masterpiece" novel (and movie) Die Feuerzangenbowle tells the (till the present) popular story of a writer going undercover as a student at a small town school after his friends in Berlin tell him that he missed out on the best part of growing up by being homeschooled.
Spread to other countries
State-oriented mass educational systems were instituted in the 19th century in the rest of Europe. They have become an indispensable component of modern nation-states. Public education was widely institutionalized throughout the world and its development has a close link with nation-building, which often occurred in parallel. Such systems were put in place when the idea of mass education was not yet taken for granted.
Examples
In Austria, Empress Maria Theresa had already made use of Prussian pedagogical methods in 1774 as a means to strengthen her hold over Austria. The introduction of compulsory primary schooling in Austria based on the Prussian model had a powerful role, in establishing this and others modern nation states shape and formation.
The Prussian reforms in education spread quickly through Europe, particularly after the French Revolution. The Napoleonic Wars first allowed the system to be enhanced after the 1806 crushing defeat of Prussia itself and then to spread in parallel with the rise and territorial gains of Prussia after the Vienna Congress. Heinrich Spoerl's son Alexander Spoerl's Memoiren eines mittelmäßigen Schülers (Memories of a Mediocre Student) describes and satirises the role of the formational systems in the Prussian Rhine Province during the early 20th century, in a famous novel of 1950, dedicated to Libertas Schulze-Boysen.
While the Russian Empire was among the most reactionary regimes with regard to common education, the German ruling class in Estonia and Latvia managed to introduce the system there under Russian rule. The Prussian principles were adopted by the governments in Norway and Sweden to create the basis of the primary (grundskola) and secondary (gymnasium) schools across Scandinavia. Unlike in Prussia, the Swedish system aimed to expand even secondary schooling to the peasants and workers. As well in Finland, then a Russian grand duchy with a strong Swedish elite, the system was adopted. Education and the propagation of the national epic, the Kalevala, was crucial for the Finnish nationalist Fennoman movement. The Finnish language achieved equal legal status with Swedish in 1892.
France and the UK failed until the 1880s to introduce compulsory education, France due to conflicts between a radical secular state and the Catholic Church. In Scotland, local church-controlled schools were replaced by a state system in 1872. In England and Wales, the government started to subsidise schooling in 1833, various measures followed till a local School Boards were set up under the Forster Act of 1870, local School Boards providing free (taxpayer financed) and compulsory schooling were made universal in England and Wales by the Act of 1891, schooling having been made compulsory by the Act of 1880. However, both private schools and education by means other than schooling remained legal in the United Kingdom.
United States
Early 19th-century American educators were also fascinated by German educational trends. In 1818, John Griscom gave a favorable report of Prussian education. English translations were made of French philosopher Victor Cousin's work, Report on the State of Public Education in Prussia. Calvin E. Stowe, Henry Barnard, Horace Mann, George Bancroft and Joseph Cogswell all had a vigorous interest in German education. The Prussian approach was used for example in the Michigan Constitution of 1835, which fully embraced the Prussian system by introducing a range of primary schools, secondary schools, and the University of Michigan itself, all administered by the state and supported with tax-based funding. However, the concepts in the Prussian reforms of primordial education, Bildung and its close interaction of education, society and nation-building are in conflict with some aspects of American state-skeptical libertarian thinking.
In 1843, Mann traveled to Germany to investigate how the educational process worked. Upon his return to the United States, he incorporated his experiences in his advocacy for the common school movement in Massachusetts. Mann persuaded his fellow modernizers, especially those in his Whig Party, to legislate tax-supported elementary public education in their states. New York state soon set up the same method in 12 different schools on a trial basis. Most northern states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers..
Policy borrowing and exchange
The basic concept of a state-oriented and administered mass educational system is still not granted in the English-speaking world, where either the role of the state as such or the role of state control specifically in education faces still (respectively again) considerable skepticism. The actual process of "policy borrowing" between different educational systems has been rather complex and differentiated. Mann himself had stressed in 1844 that the US should copy the positive aspects of the Prussian system but not adopt Prussia's obedience to the authorities. One of the important differences is that in the German tradition, there is stronger reference to the state as an important principle, as introduced for example by Hegel's philosophy of the state, which is in opposition to the Anglo-American contract-based idea of the state.
Drill and serfdom
Early Prussian reformers took major steps to abandon both serfdom and the line formation as early as 1807 and introduced mission-type tactics in the Prussian military in the same year. The latter enlarged freedom in execution of overall military strategies and had a major influence in the German and Prussian industrial culture, which profited from the Prussian reformers' introduction of greater economic freedom. The mission-type concept, which was kept by later German armed forces, required a high level of understanding, literacy (and intense training and education) at all levels and actively invited involvement and independent decision making by the lower ranks. Its intense interaction with the Prussian education system has led to the proverbial statement, "The battles of Königgrätz (1866) and Sedan (1870) have been decided by the Prussian primary teacher".
Legacy of the Prussian system after the end of the monarchy
In 1918, the Kingdom of Prussia became a republic. Socialist Konrad Haenisch, the first education minister (Kultusminister), denounced what he called the "demons of morbid subservience, mistrust, and lies" in secondary schools. However, Haenisch's and other radical left approaches were rather short-lived. They failed to introduce an Einheitsschule, a one-size-fits-all unified secular comprehensive school, throughout Germany.
The (Weimar educational compromise) of 1919 confirmed the tripartite Prussian system, ongoing church influence on education, and religion as a regular topic, and it allowed for peculiarities and individual influence of the German states, widely frustrating the ambitions of radical leftist educational reformers. Still, Prussian educational expert (1887–1976) provided various studies (with titles such as "School of Democracy") of the US education system for the Prussian government in the 1920s.
The Nazi government's 1933 Gleichschaltung did away with state's rights, church influence and democracy and tried to impose a unified totalitarian education system and a Nazi version of the Einheitsschule, with strong premilitary and antisemitic aspects.
Legacy of the Prussian System after 1945
After 1945, the Weimar educational compromise again set the tone for the reconstruction of the state-specific educational system as laid out in the Prussian model. In 1946 the US occupation forces failed completely in their attempt to install comprehensive and secular schooling in the US Occupation Zone. This approach had been endorsed by High Commissioner John J. McCloy and was led by the high-ranking progressive education reformer Richard Thomas Alexander, but it faced determined German resistance.
The fiercest defender of the originally Prussian tripartite concept and humanist educational tradition was archconservative Alois Hundhammer, a former Bavarian monarchist, devout Catholic enemy of the Nazis and (with regard to the individual statehood of Bavaria) firebrand anti-Prussian coauthor of the 1946 Constitution of Bavaria. Hundhammer, as soon as he was appointed Bavarian minister of Culture and Education, was quick to use the newly granted freedoms, attacking Alexander in radio speeches and raising rumors about Alexander's secularism, which led to parents' and teachers' associations expressing fears about a reduction in the quality of education. Hundhammer involved Michael von Faulhaber, Archbishop of Munich, to contact New York Cardinal Francis J. Spellman, who intervened with the US forces; the reform attempts were abolished as soon as 1948.
Current debates referring to the Prussian legacy
The Prussian legacy of a mainly tripartite system of education with less comprehensive schooling and selection of children as early as the fourth grade has led to controversies that persist to the present. It has been deemed to reflect 19th-century thinking along class lines. One of the basic tenets of the specific Prussian system is expressed in the fact that education in Germany is, against the aim of the 19th-century national movement, not directed by the federal government. The individual states maintain Kulturhoheit (cultural predominance) on educational matters.
The Humboldt approach, a central pillar of the Prussian system and of German education to the present day, is still influential and being used in various discussions. The present German universities charge no or moderate tuition fees. The perceived lack of universities on the cutting edge in both research and education has been recently countered via the German Universities Excellence Initiative, which is mainly driven and funded at the federal level.
Germany still focuses on a broad Allgemeinbildung (both 'generic knowledge' and 'knowledge for the common people') and provides an internationally recognized in-depth dual-track vocational education system, but leaves educational responsibility to individual states. The country faces ongoing controversies about the Prussian legacy of a stratified tripartite educational system versus Comprehensive schooling and with regard to the interpretation of the PISA studies. Some German PISA critics opposed its utilitarian "value-for-money" competence approach, as being in conflict with teaching freedom, while German proponents of the PISA assessment referred to the practical usability of Humboldt's approach and the Prussian educational system derived from it.
See also
Schulpflicht
References
Further reading
Albisetti, James C. "The Reform of Female Education in Prussia, 1899-1908: A Study in Compromise and Containment." German studies review 8.1 (1985): 11–41.
Ash, Mitchell G. "Bachelor of What, Master of Whom? The Humboldt Myth and Historical Transformations of Higher Education in German‐Speaking Europe and the U.S." European Journal of Education 41.2 (2006): 245-267 online.
Becker, Sascha O., and Ludger Woessmann. "Luther and the girls: Religious denomination and the female education gap in nineteenth‐century Prussia." Scandinavian Journal of Economics 110.4 (2008): 777-805.
Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online
Herbst, Jurgen. "Nineteenth‐Century Schools between Community and State: The Cases of Prussia and the United States." History of Education Quarterly 42.3 (2002): 317–341.
McClelland, Charles E. State, society, and university in Germany: 1700-1914 (1980)
McClelland, Charles E. Berlin, the Mother of All Research Universities: 1860–1918 (2016)
Müller, Detlef, Fritz Ringer, and Brian Simon, eds. The rise of the modern educational system: structural change and social reproduction 1870–1920 (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Phillips, David. "Beyond travellers' tales: some nineteenth-century British commentators on education in Germany." Oxford Review of Education 26.1 (2000): 49–62.
Ramsay, Paul. "Toiling together for social cohesion: International influences on the development of teacher education in the United States," Paedagogica Historica (2014) 50#1 pp 109–122.
Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain
Sagarra, Eda. A Social History of Germany, 1648–1914 (1977) online
Schleunes, Karl A. "Enlightenment, reform, reaction: the schooling revolution in Prussia." Central European History 12.4 (1979): 315-342 online
Soysal, Yasemin Nuhoglu, and David Strang. "Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-Century Europe," Sociology of Education (1989) 62#4 pp. 277–288 in JSTOR
Turner, R. Steven. "The growth of professorial research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848-causes and context." Historical studies in the physical sciences 3 (1971): 137–182.
Van Horn Melton, James. Absolutism and the eighteenth-century origins of compulsory schooling in Prussia and Austria (Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Primary sources
Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson ed. Readings in the History of Education: A Collection of Sources and Readings to Illustrate the Development of Educational Practice, Theory, and Organization (1920) online pp 455–89, 634ff, 669ff
Education in Germany
History of Prussia
History of education in Germany |
4206730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20figure%20skating | International figure skating | Figure skating is a sport with participants across the world. Originally based in North America and Europe, the sport has experienced a major expansion in the countries of East Asia. The international governing body of the sport is the International Skating Union (ISU). Only those nations which are members of the International Skating Union are allowed to compete in the figure skating events in the Olympic Games.
Africa (3)
Americas (9)
Asia (21)
Europe (48)
Some countries within Asia are listed here, as they may compete at the European Championships.
Oceania (2)
History
In Armenia
Armenia hosts the ISU Junior Grand Prix, an international figure skating competition, organized by the Figure Skating Federation of Armenia. Medals may be awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating, and ice dancing.
In Australia
Brisbane hosted the World Junior Championships in 1988 and 1996. Stephanie Zhang (ladies' bronze, 2000) and Ekaterina Alexandrovskaya / Harley Windsor (pairs gold in 2016) have won ISU Junior Grand Prix medals for Australia. Alexandrovskaya/Windsor also won Australia's first gold medal at an ISU Championship, at the 2017 World Junior Figure Skating Championships.
Team Evolution from Brisbane were awarded a gold medal in synchronized skating at the 2020 Zagreb Snowflakes Trophy.
In Austria
In 1897, Gustav Hügel became the first Austrian to win a World title in figure skating. In 1922, Herma Szabo won Austria's first World ladies' title. She would go on to win the next four World Championships.
Willy Böckl won four consecutive World titles (1925–28). In the 1930s, Karl Schäfer (1930–36) and Felix Kaspar (1937–38) produced a nine-year streak of World men's titles for Austria. Following World War II, Austrian competitors were initially barred from international events. They returned to the World Championships in 1948.
In the 1960s, Austria experienced a resurgence led by Emmerich Danzer, a three-time World champion (1966–68), and Wolfgang Schwarz, the 1968 Olympic champion.
Vienna (1907, 1913, 1923, 1925, 1937, 1955, 1967, 1979) is the only city within the modern borders of Austria to host the World Championships.
In Azerbaijan
In 1990, an ice rink opened at Baku's Heydar Aliyev Sports and Concert Complex but within a few years it was unable to maintain the ice surface due to a poor-quality cooling system. A 2019 report stated that Azerbaijan still had no functioning ice rink. As a result, the country is represented by foreign skaters. Ekaterina Ryabova and Vladimir Litvintsev — both skaters born and based in Russia — have finished in the top ten at the European Championships for Azerbaijan.
In Belarus
Minsk hosted the World Junior Championships in 2012.
In Belgium
Antwerp hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, where figure skating made its second Olympic appearance.
In 1947, Micheline Lannoy / Pierre Baugniet became the first Belgians to win the World title in pair skating.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sarajevo hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics and three World Junior Championships (1983, 1986, 1989).
In Bulgaria
Ice dancers Albena Denkova / Maxim Staviski were the first skaters to win a World title for Bulgaria, winning gold in 2006 and 2007.
Sofia has hosted the European Championships (1991, 1996) and World Junior Championships (2001, 2008, 2009, 2014).
In Canada
The first ISU Championships held in Canada were the 1932 World Championships in Montreal.
In 1947, Barbara Ann Scott became the first Canadian woman to win a World figure skating title. She successfully defended her title the following year. Frances Dafoe / Norris Bowden won Canada's first World pair skating title, in 1954, and repeated the following year. Barbara Wagner / Robert Paul won four consecutive World pairs' titles for Canada, from 1957 to 1960.
In 1957, Geraldine Fenton / William McLachlan became the first Canadian ice dancers to finish on the World podium, taking the silver medal. In 1962, Donald Jackson became the first Canadian to win the World men's title.
Donald McPherson (1963), Petra Burka (1965), and Karen Magnussen (1973) also won World titles for Canada. Kurt Browning became a four-time World champion (1989–91, 1993).
In 2003, Shae-Lynn Bourne / Victor Kraatz won Canada's first World ice dancing title. Tessa Virtue / Scott Moir would be the first Canadian ice dancers to win the Olympics, in 2010.
Montreal (1932), Vancouver (1960, 2001), Calgary (1972, 2006), Ottawa (1978, 1984), Halifax, Nova Scotia (1990), Edmonton (1996), and London, Ontario (2013) have hosted the World Championships. Halifax (1999), Hamilton, Ontario (2004), and Vancouver (2009) have hosted Four Continents. London, Ontario (1981), Kitchener, Ontario (1987, 2005), Hull, Quebec (1992), and Saint John, New Brunswick (1998) have hosted Junior Worlds. Calgary (1988) and Vancouver (2010) have also organized the Winter Olympics.
In China
In 1995, Chen Lu became the first Chinese woman to win a World title. In 2002, Shen Xue / Zhao Hongbo became the first pair from China to become World champions and the first pair to win an Olympic medal. In 2010, they became China's first Olympic champions in any figure skating category.
Shanghai was the first city in China to host the World Championships, in 2015. Beijing will organize the 2022 Winter Olympics.
Chinese skaters most commonly train in Beijing or Harbin.
In Chinese Taipei
The city of Taipei hosted the Four Continents Championships in 2011, 2014, and 2016. It will host the World Junior Championships in 2017.
In Croatia
Croatian skaters represented Yugoslavia until the end of the 1990–91 season. Sanda Dubravčić was the first Croatian woman to stand on an ISU Championship podium, winning silver at the 1981 European Championships. In 1992, Tomislav Čižmešija and Željka Čižmešija became the first skaters to represent Croatia at the Olympics and World Championships.
Zagreb hosted the European Championships in 1974, 1979, 2008, and 2013.
In the Czech Republic
The first ISU Championships held in the territory that would become the Czech Republic were the 1908 Worlds and 1928 Europeans. Both took place in Opava, which was known as Troppau in 1908. Some Czech skaters may have represented Austria until World War I, following which they could compete for Czechoslovakia.
Josef Slíva was the first Czech skater to compete at the Olympics, placing fourth in 1924 (Chamonix). Alena Vrzáňová was the first Czech woman to medal at the European Championships (taking bronze in 1948), to become a World champion (1949), and to become European champion (1950). Eva Romanová / Pavel Roman were the first Czech ice dancers to stand on a World podium, winning four consecutive gold medals (1962–65). Czech skaters represented Czechoslovakia until the end of the 1992–93 season.
In March 1995, pair skaters Radka Kovaříková / René Novotný won gold at the World Championships in Birmingham, England. In January 2008, Tomáš Verner was awarded gold at the European Championships in Zagreb, Croatia. In February 2009, Michal Březina won silver in men's singles at the 2009 World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria. He won bronze at the 2013 European Championships in Zagreb, Croatia. In March 2016, Anna Dušková / Martin Bidař became the Czech Republic's first World Junior champions in figure skating, taking gold in the pairs event in Debrecen, Hungary.
Two Czech skaters have won Grand Prix events – Verner, at the 2010 Cup of Russia, and Březina, at the 2011 Skate America.
Opava (1908) and Prague (1964, 1993) have hosted the World Championships. Opava (1928), Prague (1934, 1937, 1948, 1988, 1999), and Ostrava (2017) have been selected to host the European Championships.
In Denmark
Copenhagen is the only Danish city to host the European Championships (1975, 1986, 1994) or World Championships (1982).
In Estonia
Estonia began holding national championships in 1917 and was represented at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, it was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. Although it continued to be recognized as a sovereign state by most western governments, Estonian skaters could no longer represent their native country, until the 1990s. During the occupation, many Russians settled in Estonia and some remained after 1991. Some elite Estonian skaters have come from the Russian community.
Tallinn hosted the 2010 European Championships, 2015 World Junior Championships, and the ISU Junior Grand Prix in Estonia six times.
In Finland
The first ISU Championships held in Finland were the 1914 World Championships in Helsinki, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire.
In 1933, Marcus Nikkanen became the first Finn to medal in men's singles at the World Championships, winning bronze.
Helsinki is the only Finnish city to host the World Championships (1914, 1983, 1999, 2017). It hosted the European Championships in 1977, 1993, and 2009. 2023 European Championships were held in Espoo.
In France
Chamonix, France hosted the Figure skating at the 1924 Winter Olympics, where figure skating made its third Olympic appearance. In 1926, Andreé Joly-Brunet / Pierre Brunet won France's first World title in pair skating. They would win three more World titles as a pair.
The first ISU Championships held in France were the 1932 European and 1936 World Championships, both in Paris.
In 1952, Jacqueline du Bief became the first French skater to win the World ladies' title. In 1960, Alain Giletti won the first World men's title for France. Alain Calmat was the next World men's champion from France, in 1965.
In 1991, Isabelle Duchesnay / Paul Duchesnay won France's first World title in ice dancing. Marina Anissina / Gwendal Peizerat and Gabriella Papadakis / Guillaume Cizeron won Olympic gold medals in ice dancing for France, in 2002 and 2022, respectively.
In February 2022, France Info reported that the country possessed insufficient infrastructure, counting about a hundred ice rinks conforming to regulations and fifty other rinks, shared by twelve ice sports. The number of licensed ice skaters was approximately 22,000.
Paris (1932, 1956, 1997), Grenoble (1964), Strasbourg (1978), and Lyon (1982, 2006) have hosted the European Championships. Paris (1936, 1949, 1952, 1958, 1989), Lyon (1971), Nice (2000, 2012) have organized the World Championships. Megève (1976, 1977, 1978, and 1980) has hosted the World Junior Championships. Chamonix (1924), Grenoble (1968), and Albertville (1992) have organized the Olympics.
In Germany
The first European Championships were held in 1891 in Hamburg. In 1908, representing the German Empire, Anna Hübler / Heinrich Burger became the first-ever World champions in pair skating.
Following World War II, German competitors were barred from international events for several years. West Germany debuted at Worlds in 1951 and East Germany in 1962. In 1954, Gundi Busch (West Germany) became the first German to win a World ladies' title. East German ladies would grow more successful – Gabriele Seyfert, Christine Errath, Anett Pötzsch, and Katarina Witt won a total of nine World titles.
Aliona Savchenko / Robin Szolkowy won five World pairs' titles for Germany.
Berlin (1904, 1911, 1926, 1928, 1931, 1938), Munich (1906, 1974, 1991), Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1956), and Dortmund (1964, 1980, 2004) have hosted the World Championships.
In Hungary
The first ISU Championships held in Hungary were the 1895 European Championships in Budapest.
In 1908, Lily Kronberger became Hungary's first World figure skating champion. Hungarian skaters would win seven consecutive World ladies' titles – Kronberger in 1908–11, Opika von Méray Horváth in 1912–1914.
In the first half of the 20th century, Hungary had several World bronze medalist in men's singles – Andor Szende (1910, 1912–13), Dénes Pataky (1935), and Elemér Terták (1937). Ede Király won bronze in 1948 and then two consecutive silver medals.
In 1931, Emília Rotter / László Szollás won Hungary's first pair skating World title. Krisztina Regőczy / András Sallay were the first Hungarians to become World champions in ice dancing, winning the 1980 World Championships in Dortmund.
In February 2004, Júlia Sebestyén became the first Hungarian to win a European title in ladies' figure skating.
Budapest (1935, 1939, 1988) is the only city in Hungary to host the World Championships.
In India
As of 2011, India had four major indoor ice rinks, with plans for ten more to be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years. Gujarat's first indoor rink opened in 2015. The secretary of the Ice Skating Association of India stated that lack of government assistance and a scarcity of international standard rinks continued to hinder the development of its athletes.
In Israel
In January 2016, Oleksii Bychenko won silver at the European Championships in Bratislava; it was Israel's first European figure skating medal. In March 2016, Daniel Samohin was awarded gold at the World Junior Championships in Debrecen, becoming the first Israeli skater to stand on a World Junior podium and the first to win gold at an ISU Championship.
The number of young skaters training regularly in Israel expanded from twenty to over 350 after the 2013 opening of a rink in Holon but growth remained limited due to a "lack of funding and insufficient facilities".
In Italy
The first ISU Championships held in Italy were the 1949 European and 1951 World Championships, both in Milan. In 1953, Carlo Fassi won Italy's first World medal (bronze) in men's singles. Cortina d'Ampezzo hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics, where figure skating made its ninth Olympic appearance.
Rita Trapanese was the first Italian woman to stand on the European podium, winning bronze in 1971 and silver in 1972.
In March 2001, ice dancers Barbara Fusar-Poli / Maurizio Margaglio became the first Italians to win a World title in any figure skating discipline. In March 2012, Carolina Kostner became Italy's first World champion in ladies' singles. In March 2014, Anna Cappellini / Luca Lanotte won Italy's third World figure skating title.
Milan (1949, 1998), Bolzano (1954), and Turin (2005) have hosted the European Championships. Milan (1951), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1963), and Turin (2010) have hosted the World Championships. Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956) and Turin (2006) have organized the Olympics.
In Japan
By 1932, Japan began sending skaters to the World Championships and Olympics. Following World War II, Japanese competitors were barred from international events for several years and returned to the World Championships in 1951. Sapporo was the first Japanese city to host the Winter Olympics, in 1972, while Tokyo was the first Japanese city to host the World Championships, in 1977.
At the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Midori Ito became the first woman to land seven triple jumps in one segment. In March 1989, she won Japan's first World title in figure skating. In February 1992, she became the first Japanese skater to stand on an Olympic podium, winning silver at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France. She is the first woman to land a triple-triple jump combination and a triple Axel in competition.
In February 2006, Shizuka Arakawa became the first Japanese skater to be awarded an Olympic gold medal.
Narumi Takahashi / Mervin Tran won Japan's first World medal in pair skating, taking bronze at the 2012 World Championships in Nice, France.
In February 2014, Yuzuru Hanyu won Japan's first Olympic title in men's figure skating. Mao Asada is her country's most successful ladies' figure skater at the World Championships, winning three titles.
Tokyo (1977, 1985, 2007), Chiba, Chiba (1994), Nagano (2002), Saitama, Saitama (2014) have hosted the World Championships, while Osaka (2000, 2013) has hosted Four Continents. Sapporo also hosted the 1984 World Junior Championships. Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998) have organized the Winter Olympics.
In Kazakhstan
In March 2013, Denis Ten was awarded the silver medal at the World Championships; it was Kazakhstan's first World medal in figure skating. In February 2014, he became his country's first Olympic medalist in figure skating, winning bronze in Sochi. In February 2015, he became the first skater from Kazakhstan to stand on the podium at a Four Continents Championships, receiving the gold medal.
Elizabet Tursynbayeva is Kazakhstan's first female skater to step on an ISU Championship podium. She won silver at both the 2019 Four Continents and 2019 World Championships.
In Latvia
Latvia had representatives in all three disciplines at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, it was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. Although it continued to be recognized as a sovereign state by most western governments, Latvian skaters could no longer represent their native country, until the 1990s. During the occupation, many Russians settled in Latvia and some remained after 1991. Some elite Latvian skaters have come from the Russian community.
Konstantin Kostin (in 1993) and Angelīna Kučvaļska (in 2016) have finished as high as fourth at the European Championships.
In Lithuania
Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. Although it continued to be recognized as a sovereign state by most western governments, Lithuanian skaters could not represent their native country prior to the 1990s. Compared to the other Baltic states, fewer elite Lithuanian skaters have come from the Russian community due to the smaller scale of Russian immigration during the occupation. Margarita Drobiazko / Povilas Vanagas are the most successful Lithuanian skaters, having won bronze medals at the World Championships, European Championships, and Grand Prix Final.
In Malaysia
In March 2018, Julian Yee became the first Malaysian figure skater to compete at an Olympic Games.
Malaysia's Sports Commissioner de-registered the Ice Skating Association of Malaysia (ISAM) after ISAM failed to produce financial reports for multiple years. The Malaysia Ice Skating Federation (MISF) was formed in December 2018 to replace ISAM.
In the Netherlands
The Dutch added edges to ice skates in the 13th or 14th century. Skating was used as a means of transportation because the waterways which connected Dutch towns sometimes froze for months on end, hampering the economy.
In 1962, Sjoukje Dijkstra became the first World ladies' champion from the Netherlands. She would win three consecutive World titles.
In Norway
The first ISU Championships held in Norway were the 1898 European Championships in Trondheim.
Sonja Henie was the first Norwegian woman to become a World figure skating champion and the most successful ladies' singles skater in history. She won three consecutive Olympics (1928, 1932, 1936), ten consecutive World Championships (1927–36), and six consecutive European Championships (1931–36).
Oslo (1952) and Lillehammer (1994) have organized the Winter Olympics. Oslo has hosted the World Championships (1954). Trondheim (1898) and Oslo (1913, 1923, 1950) have hosted the European Championships.
In Poland
Due to the Partitions of Poland, Polish skaters initially lacked the option of representing their native country. Some may have competed for Austria, Germany or the Russian Empire until Poland regained its independence following World War I.
The first ISU Championships held in Poland were the 1908 European Championships in Warsaw, then under the Russian Empire. Zofia Bilorówna / Tadeusz Kowalski were Poland's first European medalists, winning bronze at the 1934 European Championships.
Grzegorz Filipowski won two European medals – bronze in 1985 and silver in 1989 – and bronze at the 1989 World Championships.
No Polish city has ever hosted the World Championships. Warsaw hosted the European Championships in 1908 and 2007.
In Russia
In 1896, the Russian Empire hosted the first World Figure Skating Championships, in Saint Petersburg. In October 1908, Nikolai Panin became Russia's first Olympic champion, winning gold in special figures at the Summer Olympics in London.
Following the Russian Civil War, Russian skaters represented the Soviet Union. Until the late 1950s, they were rarely sent to international competitions. Ludmila Belousova / Oleg Protopopov began the forty-year Soviet/Russian gold medal streak in pair skating, the longest in Olympic sports history, from 1964 to 2006. Irina Rodnina won ten consecutive World titles (1969–78) and three successive Olympic gold medals (1972, 1976, 1980). She and Artur Dmitriev are the only pair skaters to win the Olympics with two partners.
In 1969, Lyudmila Pakhomova / Aleksandr Gorshkov became the first Russian ice dancers to stand on a World podium, winning the silver medal. From 1970 to 1979, Moscow natives were awarded ten consecutive World ice dancing titles, beginning with Pakhomova/Gorshkov, who won five.
Russian skaters competed for the Soviet Union through the first half of the 1991–92 season. In the second half, they represented the Commonwealth of Independent States (at the 1992 Europeans and 1992 Worlds), and the Unified Team (at the 1992 Winter Olympics). By the start of the 1992–93 season, they were competing under the Russian flag.
Russian skaters won four consecutive Olympics in men's singles – Alexei Urmanov in 1994, Ilia Kulik in 1998, Alexei Yagudin in 2002, and Evgeni Plushenko in 2006. Yagudin also won four World titles (1998–2000, 2002) and three European titles, while Plushenko won three World titles (2001, 2003–04) and seven European titles. Ice dancers Oksana Grishuk / Evgeni Platov won two consecutive Olympic titles for Russia.
In March 1999, Maria Butyrskaya became the first Russian to win the World ladies' title.
The most common training locations for elite skaters are Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Perm, Yekaterinburg, and Kirov, Kirov Oblast have produced successful skaters. In the 21st century, Sochi grew in popularity as a training location. Saint Petersburg (1896, 1903) and Moscow (2005, 2011) have hosted the World Championships.
In March 2016, Russia had over 400 rinks with artificial ice.
In Slovakia
Some Slovak skaters may have represented Austria until World War I, following which they could compete for Czechoslovakia. The first ISU Championships held in Slovakia were the 1958 European Championships in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.
Karol Divín, who trained in Bratislava, won the 1960 Olympic silver medal, two European titles (1958–59), and two World medals (silver in 1962, bronze in 1964). Ondrej Nepela was the first Slovak to become the World men's champion (1971–73) and the first to win the Olympics (1972). Jozef Sabovčík won the 1984 Olympic bronze medal and two European titles (1985 and 1986). Slovak skaters represented Czechoslovakia until the end of the 1992–93 season.
Bratislava (1973) is the only Slovak city to host the World Championships. It hosted the European Championships in 1958, 1966, 2001, and 2016.
In Slovenia
Ljubljana is the only Slovenian city to host the European Championships (1967) or World Championships (1970).
In South Korea
In February 2010, Yuna Kim became the first Olympic figure skating champion from South Korea.
Jeonju (2002, 2010), Gangneung (2005, 2017), Goyang (2008), and Seoul (2015, 2020) have been selected to host the Four Continents Championships. Seoul (1993, 1997) and Gangneung (2011) have also hosted the World Junior Championships. Pyeongchang will host the 2018 Winter Olympics.
In Spain
In January 2013, Javier Fernández became the first Spanish skater to win the European title. At the time, Spain had just 14 indoor rinks and 600 registered figure skaters. In March 2015, Fernández won Spain's first World title in figure skating. When he repeated in 2016, Spain had 17 ice rinks, compared to a hundred in Toronto, and 300 licensed skaters, compared to about 15,000 in France.
No ISU Championships have been held in Spain but the country has twice hosted the combined Grand Prix Final and Junior Grand Prix Final, in 2014 and 2015.
In Sweden
The first ISU Championships held in Sweden were the 1897 World Championships in Stockholm. Ulrich Salchow won ten World figure skating titles for Sweden (1901–05 and 1907–11).
Stockholm (1897, 1901, 1905, 1909, 1922, 1934, 1947) and Gothenburg (1976, 2008) have hosted the World Championships. Stockholm (1912, 2015), Västerås (1968), Gothenburg (1972, 1980, 1985), Malmö (2003) have hosted the European Championships.
In Switzerland
The first ISU Championships held in Switzerland were the 1899 Europeans and 1899 Worlds, both in Davos. Saint Moritz hosted the 1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics, where figure skating made its fourth and seventh Olympic appearances, respectively.
In 1947, Hans Gerschwiler won Switzerland's first World men's title. Stéphane Lambiel became a two-time World champion (2005–06).
Davos (1899, 1900, 1910, 1927, 1948, 1953, 1966), Zurich (1933), Geneva (1968, 1986), and Lausanne (1997) have hosted the World Championships. St. Moritz hosted the Olympics in 1928 and 1948.
In Ukraine
Ukrainian skaters competed for the Soviet Union for much of the 20th century. This ended after the December 1991 referendum, in which every oblast approved Ukraine's declaration of independence. In the second half of the 1991–92 season, Ukrainian skaters represented the Commonwealth of Independent States (at the 1992 Europeans and 1992 Worlds), and the Unified Team (at the 1992 Winter Olympics). By the start of the 1992–93 season, they were competing under the Ukrainian flag.
Viktor Petrenko won the 1992 Olympic title representing the Unified Team. Oksana Baiul won the 1993 World Championships and 1994 Olympics competing for Ukraine. Dmytro Dmytrenko won gold at the 1993 European Championships and Viacheslav Zagorodniuk took bronze at the 1994 World Championships.
Ukraine has never hosted a major international figure skating competition. It has organized four ISU Junior Grand Prix events, from 1997 to 2004. It was scheduled to host its first ISU Challenger Series event in November 2016 but the competition was cancelled. In 2010, Tatiana Volosozhar and Stanislav Morozov stated that conditions for skaters in Ukraine were poor, with only one good rink remaining. Most of Ukraine's figure skaters have come from Kyiv, Dnipro, Kharkiv, and Odesa. Western oblasts have developed few competitors due to limited ice rinks. In 2016, Uzhhorod began construction of an Olympic-sized ice rink.
In the United Kingdom
The first ISU Championships held in the United Kingdom were the 1898 World Championships in London. London was also the location of figure skating's Olympic debut, which occurred at the Summer Olympics in October 1908.
In February 1899, Edgar Syers became the first British skater to win a World medal, taking the bronze medal. In 1902, Madge Syers won the World silver medal competing against men. In 1906, following the creation of a separate category for women, she became the first-ever World ladies' champion. In 1909, Phyllis Johnson / James H. Johnson became the first British pair to win the World title.
Jean Westwood / Lawrence Demmy won the first-ever World ice dancing title, in 1952, and went on to become four-time World champions. British ice dancers won nine consecutive World titles from 1952 to 1960. Jayne Torvill / Christopher Dean won the 1984 Winter Olympics.
London (1898, 1902, 1929, 1950), Manchester (1912, 1924), and Birmingham (1995) have hosted the World Championships.
In August 2000, Sport England decided that the National Ice Skating Association would no longer receive £400,000 annually from lottery funds, citing poor performance.
In the United States
In 1924, Beatrix Loughran became the first U.S. skater to stand on the World ladies' podium, winning the bronze medal. She also won silver at the 1924 Winter Olympics. The first ISU Championships held in the United States were the 1930 World Championships in New York City. Lake Placid, New York hosted the 1932 Winter Olympics, where figure skating made its fifth Olympic appearance.
Figure skating grew in the U.S. following World War II. In 1948, Dick Button became the first American men's skater to win the Olympics, and the first to become World champion. In 1950, Karol Kennedy / Peter Kennedy won the United States' first World pair skating title. In 1953, Tenley Albright became the first American woman to win the World title.
From 1948 through 1959, the United States won twelve consecutive World men's titles – Button won five (1948–52), Hayes Alan Jenkins won four (1953–56), and David Jenkins won three (1957–59). From 1953 to 1960, American women won seven World titles – Albright (1953, 1955) and Carol Heiss (1956–60).
In 1952, Carol Ann Peters / Daniel Ryan won bronze at the first-ever World ice dancing competition. In 1961, 18 American skaters heading to the World Championships were killed in the Sabena Flight 548 crash.
In 1966, Peggy Flemming won the first of three consecutive World titles. In 1979, Tai Babilonia / Randy Gardner became the second American pair to become World champions.
Between 1996 and 2003, Michelle Kwan won five World titles. In February 2014, Meryl Davis / Charlie White became the first American ice dancers to become Olympic champions.
New York City (1930), Colorado Springs, Colorado (1957, 1959, 1965, 1969, 1975), Hartford, Connecticut (1981), Cincinnati (1987), Oakland, California (1992), Minneapolis (1998), Washington, D.C. (2003), Los Angeles (2009), and Boston (2016) have hosted the World Championships. Lake Placid, New York (1932, 1980), Squaw Valley, California (1960), and Salt Lake City, Utah (2002) have organized the Olympics. Salt Lake City (2001), Colorado Springs (2006, 2007, 2012) have hosted Four Continents. Colorado Springs (1985, 1990, 1994) has hosted the World Junior Championships.
See also
List of member federations of the International Skating Union
References
External links
ISU member federations
International Skating Union
Figure skating |
4207293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20All-Ireland%20Fleadh%20champions | List of All-Ireland Fleadh champions | This page lists those who have won the senior title at Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann title since its foundation in 1951 by Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann. There were no competitions in 2020 and 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Once you win a senior title, you are automatically placed into the All Ireland competition the following year giving you a chance to defend the title. Whilst the majority do not return, some have defended their title on multiple occasions.
There are competitions for soloists, duos, trios, and various types of ensembles, many of which are divided into separate competitions by age group. A list of the categories is found here.
Fiddle (Fidil)
1951, Pat Kelly, County Tyrone
1952, Bobby Casey, County Clare
1953, Paddy Canny, County Clare
1954, Aggie Whyte, County Galway
1955, Seán Ryan, County Tipperary
1956, Seán Ryan, County Tipperary
1957, Jimmy McHugh, Glasgow, Scotland
1958, Seán McLoughlan, County Antrim
1959, John Gallagher, County Donegal
1960, Cáit Ní Chuis, County Limerick
1961, Séamus Connolly, County Clare
1962, Brendan McGlinchey, County Armagh
1963, Séamus Connolly, County Clare
1964, Gus Tierney, County Clare
1965, Gerry Forde, County Wexford
1966, Kathleen Collins, New York City
1967, Maura Connolly, County Laois
1968, Bobby Casey, County Clare
1969, Joe Ryan, County Clare
1970, Máirtín Byrnes, County Galway
1971, Antóin Mac Gabhann, County Cavan
1972, Antóin Mac Gabhann, County Cavan
1973, Paddy Glackin, County Dublin
1974, Vincent Griffin, County Clare
1975, Liz Carroll, Chicago, USA
1976, Jim McKillop, County Antrim
1977, Maurice Lennon, County Leitrim
1978, Seán Nugent, County Fermanagh
1979, Frank Kelly, County Donegal
1980, Eileen O'Brien, County Tipperary
1981, Martin Hayes, County Clare
1982, Martin Hayes, County Clare
1983, Jimmy McBride, County Donegal
1984, Eileen Ivers, New York City
1985, Cathal Hayden, County Tyrone
1986, Brian Conway, New York City
1987, Brendan Larrissey, County Louth
1988, Bríd Harper, County Donegal
1989, Áine O'Connor, County Limerick
1990, Brian Lavery, County Londonderry
1991, Thomas Morrow, County Leitrim
1992, Mac Dara Ó Raghallaigh, County Meath
1993, Áine McGrath, County Kildare
1994, Andrew Dinan, Manchester, England
1995, Liz Kane, County Galway
1996, Kevin Madden, Manchester, England
1997, Ursula Byrne, County Down
1998, Mark Lavery, County Londonderry
1999, Oisín Mac Diarmada, County Sligo
2000, Ita Cunningham, County Galway
2001, Zoe Conway, County Louth
2002, Fergal Scahill, County Galway
2003, Aisling Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
2004, Michael O Rourke, County Clare
2005, Michael Harrison, County Tipperary
2006, Aidan O’Neill, County Tyrone
2007, Laura Beagon, County Monaghan
2008, Rónán Mac Grianna, County Mayo
2009, Johnny Canning, Glasgow, Scotland
2010, Lisa Ward, County Leitrim
2011, Tara Breen, County Clare
2012, Niall Murphy, County Armagh
2013, Lydia Warnock, County Leitrim
2014, Dylan Foley, New York, USA
2015, Aoife Cunningham, County Cavan
2016, Darragh Curtin, County Kerry
2017, Roisín Anne Hughes, Glasgow, Scotland
2018, Caoimhe Kearins, County Sligo
2019, Dylan Carlos, County Roscommon
2022, Sarah O'Gorman, County Waterford
Button Accordion (Bosca Cheoil)
1951, Joe Boland, County Offaly
1952, Frank Gavigan, County Westmeath
1953, Paddy O'Brien, County Tipperary
1954, Kieran Kelly, County Offaly
1955, Kieran Kelly, County Offaly
1956, George Ross, County Wexford
1957, Michael Mullins, County Offaly
1958, Danny Coughlan, County Offaly
1959, Joe Burke, County Galway
1960, Joe Burke, County Galway
1961, Brendan Mulhair, County Galway
1962, Martin McMahon, County Clare
1963, John Bowe, County Offaly
1964, Tommy McGuire. County Offaly
1965, Paddy Ryan, County Tipperary
1966, Tom Ferris, County Wexford
1967, Ellen Flanagan Comerford, County Offaly
1968, Dick Sherlock, County Sligo
1969, Pat Barton, County Offaly
1970, John Regan, County Sligo
1971, Paddy Gavin, County Dublin
1972, Seán Gavin, County Galway
1973, P. J. Hernon, County Galway
1974, Jackie Daly, County Cork
1975, Paddy O'Brien, County Offaly
1976, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
1977, Gerry Hanley, County Galway
1978, Martin Connolly, County Clare
1979, John Lucid, County Kerry
1980, Séamus Walshe, County Clare
1981, Tom O'Connell, County Limerick
1982, John Nolan, New York City, USA
1983, John Whelan, Luton, England / New Jersey, USA
1984, John Connolly, County Tipperary
1985, Willie Fogarty, County Tipperary
1986, Billy McComiskey, Brooklyn, New York / Baltimore, Maryland, USA
1987, Michael Sexton, County Clare
1988, Paddy Clancy, County Limerick
1989, John Bass, County Wexford
1990, John Bass, County Wexford
1991, Michael O'Connell, London
1992, Ned Kelly, County Tipperary
1993, Colin Nea, County Westmeath
1994, Colin Nea, County Westmeath
1995, Pádraig Kinsella, County Offaly
1996, Danny O'Mahony, County Kerry
1997, Alan Costello, County Tipperary
1998, Maurice Egan, County Kerry
1999, James Kinsella, County Offaly
2000, Nuala Hehir, County Clare
2001, T. P. McNamara, County Kerry
2002, Fiachna Ó Mongain, County Mayo
2003, Oliver Diviney, County Galway
2004, Marie Walsh, County Galway
2005, Damien Mullane, West London, England
2006, Pádraig Ó Foghlú (Patrick Foley), County Limerick
2007, Damien Mullane, West London, England
2008, Darren Breslin, County Fermanagh/East London, England
2009, Padraig King, County Limerick
2010, Conor Moriarty, County Kerry
2011, Vanessa Millar, County Clare
2012, Martin O'Connell, County Kerry/Laois
2013, Christopher Maguire, County Fermanagh
2014, Michael Curran, County Tyrone
2015, Daithí Gormley, County Sligo
2016, Uinseann Ó Murchú, County Wexford
2017, Colm Slattery, County Tipperary
2018, John McCann, County Fermanagh
2019, Seamus Tiernan, County Mayo
2022, Keelan McGrath, County Tipperary
2023, Aaron Glancy, County Sligo
Flute (Feadóg Mhór)
1951, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
1952, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
1953, Vincent Broderick, County Galway
1954, Ned Coleman, County Galway and Vincent Broderick, County Galway (tie)
1955, Peter Broderick, County Galway
1956, Peadar O'Loughlin, County Clare
1957, Peadar O'Loughlin, County Clare
1958, P. J. Maloney, County Tipperary
1959, Michael Falsey, County Clare
1960, Paddy Carty, County Galway
1961, Paddy Carty, County Galway
1962, Cathal McConnell, County Fermanagh
1963, Paddy Carty, County Galway
1964, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
1965, Séamus Tansey, County Sligo
1966, Matt Molloy, County Roscommon
1967, John Brady, County Offaly
1968, Mícheál Ó Halmhain, County Dublin
1969, Mícheál Ó Halmhain, County Dublin
1970, Billy Clifford, London
1971, P. O. Ceannabhain, County Galway
1972, Patsy Hanly, County Roscommon
1973, Eugene Nolan, County Laois
1974, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
1975, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
1976, Peig McGrath Needham, County Roscommon
1977, Pat "Patsy" Moloney, County Limerick/Birmingham, England
1978, Tommy Guihan, County Roscommon
1979, Marcus Hernon, County Galway, and Leon Agnew, County Antrim (tie)
1980, Marcus Hernon, County Galway
1981, Michael Harty, County Tipperary
1982, Noel Sweeney, County Longford
1983, Paul Gallagher, Luton/London
1984, Siobhán O'Donnell, London
1985, Claire Burke, County Offaly
1986, Sharon McDermott, County Tyrone
1987, Pat Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
1988, Garry Shannon, County Clare
1989, Attracta Brady, County Offaly
1990, Thomas McElvogue, Leeds
1991, Sharon Burke, London
1992, Martin Glynn, County Clare
1993, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
1994, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
1995, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
1996, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
1997, Sandra Deegan, County Carlow
1998, June McCormack, County Sligo
1999, Tom O'Connor, County Kerry
2000, Sarah-Jane Woods, County Dublin
2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
2003, Aoife Ní Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
2004, Michael Mac Conraí, County Limerick
2005, Siobhán Hogan, County Clare
2006, James Mahon, County Dublin
2007, Cian Kearins, County Sligo
2008, Stiofan Ó Dochartaigh (Stephen Doherty), County Mayo
2009, Cathy Jones, County Kilkenny
2010, Paraic Stapleton, County Tipperary
2011, Orlaith McAullife, London
2012, Tommy Fitzharris, County Laois
2013, Jillian Ní Mháille (O'Malley), County Mayo
2014, Siobhán Ní Uirc (Joanne Quirke), County Cork
2015, Cein Sweeney, County Cavan
2016, Séamus Tierney, County Cavan
2017, Tiernan Courell, County Sligo
2018, Tom Gavin, County Sligo
2019, Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare
2022, Barry Conaty, County Cavan
2023, Shauna Cullen, County Sligo
Tin Whistle (Feadóg Stain)
1951, H. McGee, County Westmeath
1953, E. Maloney, County Galway
1954, T. Sheridan, County Cavan
1955, T. Sheridan, County Cavan
1956, S. O hAodha, County Clare
1957, M. O'Cleirig, County Clare and Matthew Lynch, County Cavan (Joint Result)
1958, M. MacEil, County Roscommon
1959, Martin Talty, County Clare
1960, Michael Falsey, County Clare
1961, Michael Falsey, County Clare
1962, Cathal McConnell, County Fermanagh
1964, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
1965, Michael O'Dwyer, London England / County Cork
1966, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
1967, Anne Sheehy, County Kerry
1968, Michael Graham, County Kildare
1969, Joe McKevitt, County Louth
1970, Mary Bergin, County Dublin
1971, Roy Galvin, County Dublin
1972, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
1973, Micho Russell, County Clare
1974, Michael Gavin, County Dublin
1975, S. O’Riain, (Seán Ryan) County Tipperary.
1976, Father Charlie Coen, New York City
1977, Diarmuid O’Cionnaith, County Dublin
1978, , County Galway
1979, Peter McAlinden, London, England
1980, Damhnait Nic Suibhne, County Donegal
1981, Liz King - Cassidy, County Wexford
1982, Maire. Ní Mhaonacgh, County Limerick
1983, Sean Smyth, County Mayo
1984, Joanie Madden, New York
1985, Padraig Donlon, County Longford
1986, Sharon McDermott, County Tyrone
1987, Sion Ní hAllmhuráin, County Clare
1988, Attracta Ní Bhradaigh, County Offaly
1989, Mary Jo Campbell, County Kildare
1990, Martina Bree, County Sligo
1991, Eleanor Carmody, County Kerry
1992, Colm O'Donnell, County Sligo
1993, Grace Kelly, Manchester, England
1994, Laurence Nugent, County Fermanagh
1995, Laurence Nugent, County Fermanagh
1996, Tríona Flavin, County Limerick
1997, Sandra Deegan, County Carlow
1998, Róisín Nic Dhonnacha, County Galway
1999, Emma O'Leary, County Kerry
2000, Mikie Smyth, County Dublin
2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
2003, Emer Burke (Eimear De Burca), County Mayo
2004, Aidan O'Neill, County Tyrone
2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
2006, Aisling McPhillips, County Fermanagh
2007, Cian Kearins, County Sligo
2008, Siobhan Ní Ógain (Siobhan Hogan), County Clare
2009, Yvonne Ward, County Leitrim
2010, Siobhán Ní Uirc (Joanne Quirke) County Cork
2011, Orlaith McAuliffe, London, England
2012, Seán Céitinn, County Cork
2013, Jillian Ní Mháille, County Mayo
2014, Yasmin Lynch, County Donegal
2015, James McCaffrey, County Tyrone
2016, Máire De Barra, County Mayo
2017, Seamus Ó Flatharta, County Galway
2018, Liam Ó Neadán, County Sligo
2019, Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare
2022, Máire Ní Bhraonáin, County Offaly
2023, Cathal Ó hEachthairn, County Dublin
Piano Accordion (Cáirdín Piano)
1953, Margaret Kane, County Carlow
1964, Frank Kelly, County Roscommon
1965, Liam Gaul, Wexford
1966, K.Lawrie, Birmingham
1967, Liam Clarke, Dun Dealgon
1968, Mick Foster, Rathconrath
1969 K.Lawrie, Birmingham
1970, Mick Foster, Rathconrath
1971, Pat McCabe, Clones
1972, John Ferguson, Leeds
1973, John Ferguson, Leeds
1974, John Ferguson, Leeds
1975, Ann Morris, Boyle
1976, John Henry, County Londonderry
1977, Jimmy Keane, Chicago, USA
1978, Jimmy Keane, Chicago, USA
1979, John Gibney, Derby
1980, Mary Finn, Sligo
1981, Seamus Meehan, County Dublin
1982, Karen Tweed, Northampton
1983, Liam Roberts, County Dublin
1984, Noreen McQuaid, Monaghan
1985, Elaine McDermott, County Tyrone
1986, Collette O'Leary, Dublin
1987, Gearoid Ó hArgain (Ferard Horgan), County Cork
1988, Michael McDonagh, Luton
1989, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow
1990, Ger Maloney, Limerick
1991, Declan Payne, Sligo
1992, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
1993, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
1994, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
1995, Mirella Murray, Galway
1996, Andreas O Murchu, County Cork
1997, Marie Clarke, County Donegal
1998, Michelle O Leary, Manchester
1999, Michelle O Leary, Manchester
2000, Gearóid Mac Eogáin, County Monaghan
2001, Ann Mc Laughlin, County Donegal
2002, Colin McGill, County Laois
2003, Shane Ó hUaithne, County Galway
2004, David Nealon, County Galway
2005, Dean Warner, Leeds
2006, Amanda Ní Eochaidh, County Wexford
2007, Sinéad Healy, County Mayo
2008, Edel Mc Laughlin, County Donegal
2009, Caitríona Ní Choileáin, County Cork
2010, Seán Gavaghan, Leeds, Britain
2011, Seán Gavaghan, Leeds, Britain
2012, Adam Dyer, County Dublin
2013, Dónal Ó Coileáin, County Cork
2014, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
2015, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
2016, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
2017, Ryan Hackett, County Tyrone
2018, Rhianne Kelly, County Galway
2019, Fergal Bradley, County Donegal
2022, Shauneen Maguire, County Fermanagh
2023, Thomas Palmer, County Cork
Concertina (Consairtín)
1954, Paddy Murphy, County Clare
1955, Paddy Murphy, County Clare
1956, Chris Droney, County Clare
1957, Paddy Murphy, County Clare
1958, Paddy Murphy, County Clare
1959, Chris Droney, County Clare
1960, Chris Droney, County Clare
1961, Chris Droney, County Clare
1962, Chris Droney, County Clare
1963, Chris Droney, County Clare
1964, Chris Droney, County Clare
1965, Chris Droney, County Clare
1966, Chris Droney, County Clare
1967, Chris Droney, County Clare
1968, Theresa White, County Waterford
1969, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
1970, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
1971, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
1975, Gerald Haugh, County Clare
1976, Father Charlie Coen, New York
1977, Father Charlie Coen, New York
1978, Paddy Hayes, London
1979, Mary MacNamara, County Clare
1980, Paddy Hayes, London
1981, D. Buckley, County Cork
1982 Gearóid Ó hAllmhuráin, County Clare
1983, Ciaran Burns, County Down
1984, Méabh Ní Lochlainn, Baile Átha Cliath
1985, Francis Droney, County Clare
1987, Paul Quinn, Camlough, Co. Armagh
1988, Elaine O'Sullivan, Coventry
1989, Johnny Williams, Chicago
1990, Micheal O'Raghallaigh, County Meath
199X, Michael Rooney, County Monaghan
199X, Maura Walsh, County Kerry
1994, Grainne Hambly, County Mayo
1996, Antóin O Conaill, County Limerick
1997, Ernestine Ni Ealal, County Mayo
1998, Maedhbh Scahill, County Galway
1999, Séamus Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
2000, Triona Ní Aodha, County Kerry
2001, Triona Ní Aodha, County Kerry
2002, Hugh Healy, County Clare
2003, Holly NicOireachtaigh, County Mayo
2004, Aidan O'Neill, County Tyrone
2005, Alan Egan, County Kerry
2006, Máiréad Ní Uirthuile, County Sligo
2007, Rory McMahon, County Clare
2008, Aoife Ní Uaithne, County Galway
2009, Tomás Fitzharris, County Laois
2010, Breda Shannon, County Roscommon
2011, Aoibheann Murphy, County Cork
2012, Niamh Ní Shúilleabháin, County Dublin
2013, Róisín Ní Bhrudair, County Galway
2014, Ciaran Hanna, County Tyrone
2015, Paul Clesham, County Mayo
2016, Sinéad Mulqueen, County Clare
2017, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare
2018, Sarán Mulligan, County Louth
2019, Aileen de Búrca, County Mayo
2022, Aidan Quigney, County Clare
2023, Colm Browne, County Clare
Uilleann Pipes (Píb Uilleann)
1951, Willie Clancy, County Clare
1952, Willie Reynolds, County Westmeath and John McAloon, County Fermanagh (tie)
1953, Willie Clancy, Co. Dublin
1954, Michael Padian, County Monaghan
1955, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
1956, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
1957, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
1958, Pat McNulty, Glasgow, Scotland (formerly of County Donegal)
1959, Thomas Kearney, County Waterford
1965, Michael Falsey, County Clare
1964, Liam O'Flynn Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann Clones
1966, Finbar Furey
196?, Tomás Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
1973, Tom Walsh, Preston, Lancashire
1974, Gabriel McKeon, County Dublin
1975, Finbar McLaughlin, City of Derry
1976, Trevor Stewart, County Antrim
1977, Joseph McHugh, City of Derry
1979, Brian Stafford, City of Derry
1981, D. Buckley
1980, Mattie Connolly, County Monaghan/New York
1982, Seamus Meehan, Dublin
1983, Michael Cooney, County Tipperary
1984, Fergus Finnegan, County Dublin
1985, Fergus Finnegan, County Dublin
1986, Eamonn Walsh, Ballina, County Mayo
1987, Martin Frain, Sheffield, UK
1990, Brendan Ring, London
1991, Tiarnán Ó Duinchinn, County Monaghan
1992, David Power, County Waterford
1993, Brian Mac Aodha, County Leitrim.
1996, Brian Krause, County Galway
1997, Flaithrí Neff, County Cork
1998, David Kinsella, County Offaly
1999, Audrey Cunningham, County Wicklow
2000, Mikie Smyth, County Dublin
2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
2003, Martin Crossin, County Donegal
2004, Richard Murray, County Galway
2005, James Mahon, County Dublin
2006, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Meath
2007, Seán McCarthy, County Cork
2008, Fiachra Ó Riagáin, County Galway
2009, Martino Vacca, County Limerick
2010, Richard Neylon, County Galway
2011, Éanna Ó Chróinín, County Meath
2012, Seán Céitinn, County Cork
2013, Conor Mallon, County Armagh
2014, Cathal Ó Crócaigh, County Dublin
2015, Tara Howley, County Clare
2016, Fionn Morrison, County Dublin
2017, Eoin Orr, County Donegal
2018, Timmy Flaherty, CCÉ, Ballylongford / Tarbert, Ciarraí
2019, Ruairí Howell, County Down
2022, Peter McKenna, County Tyrone
2023, Micheál Fitzgibbon, County Limerick
Harp (Cruit)
1959, Philomena O'Keeffe, Co. Cork
1974, Deirdre Danaher, New York City, USA
1975, Maire Ni Chathasaigh, County Cork
1976, Maire Ni Chathasaigh, County Cork
1977, Maire Ni Chathasaigh, County Cork
1979, Patricia Daly, County Armagh
1980, Sylvia Woods, California, USA
1981, Janet Harbison, County Dublin
1982, Mairéad Ní Chathasaigh, County Cork
1983, Celia Joyce, Preston, Lancashire, England
1984, Shawna Culotta, California, USA
1985, Kathleen Guilday, Boston, USA
1986, Martha Clancy, Philadelphia, USA
1987, Eimear Ní Bhroin, County Cork
1989, Tracey Fleming, County Roscommon
1990, Cormac de Barra, County Dublin
1992, Laoise Ní Cheallaigh (Laoise Kelly), County Mayo
1993, Michael Rooney, County Monaghan
1994, Gráinne Hambly, County Mayo
1996, Padraigín Caesar, County Carlow
1997, Áine Heneghan, County Mayo
1998, Barbra Doyle, County Kildare
1999, Freda Nic Ghiolla Chathain, County Westmeath
2000, Eileen Gannon, St. Louis
2001, Holly Nic Oireachtaigh, County Mayo
2002, Nicola Ní Chathail, County Galway
2003, Fionnuala Ní Ruanaidh, County Monaghan
2004, Méabh de Buitléir, County Clare
2005, Seana Ní Dhaithí, County Meath
2006, Lucy Kerr, City of Derry
2007, Aedin Martin, County Dublin
2008, Lisa Ní Cheannaigh (Lisa Canny), County Mayo
2009, Oisín Morrison. County Dublin
2010, AnnaLee Foster, Oregon, USA
2011, Aoife Ní Argáin, County Dublin
2012, Alisha McMahon, County Clare
2013, Áine Ní Shiocháin, County Limerick
2014, Eimear Coughlan, County Clare
2015, Gráinne Nic Ghiobúin, County Limerick
2016, Niamh McGloin, County Sligo
2017, Seamus Ó Flatharta, County Galway
2018, Síofra Hanley, County Sligo
2019, Fionnuala Donlon, County Louth
2022, Emma Benson, County Roscommon
2023, Hamish O'Carroll, County Kerry
Mouth Organ (Orgán Béil)
1959, P. O'Dolphin, Athlone
1966, Thomas McGovern, County Leitrim
1967, Dick O'Neill, County Wexford
1969, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
1970, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
1971, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
1972, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1973, John Murphy, County Wexford
1974, Mary Brogan, County Wexford
1975, Rick Epping, USA
1976, Gerard Danaher, County Sligo
1977, Mary Brogan, County Wexford
1979, Kieran McHugh, County Antrim
198?, Pip Murphy, County Wexford (twice)
1981, P. J. Gannon, St. Louis, USA
1983, Mick Furlong, County Wexford
1984, Nicky Furlong, Wexford
1985, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
1986, Pip Murphy, County Wexford
1987, Don Meade, New York, USA
1993, Brendan Power, New Zealand
1994 Alan O'Dwyer, County Wexford
1995 Alan O'Dwyer, County Wexford
1996, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
1997, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
1998, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
1999, Tomás Ó Tuathail, County Mayo
2000, Paul Moran, County Galway
2001, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
2002, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
2003, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
2004, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
2006, Pauline Callinan, County Clare
2007, Nollaig Mac Concatha, County Meath
2008, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
2009, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
2010, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
2011, Orla Ward, County Leitrim
2012, Poilín Ní Ghabháin (Pauline Callinan), County Clare
2013, John Horkan, County Mayo
2014, John Horkan, County Mayo
2015, Denis Nolan, County Wexford
2016, John Horkan, County Mayo
2017, Pat Fulton, County Offaly
2018, John Horkan, County Mayo
2019, Arlene O'Sullivan, County Clare
2022, Liam MacThómais, County Tipperary
2023, Michael Kelliher, County Kerry
Banjo (Bainseo)
1971, Mick O'Connor, London
1974, Owen Hackett, County Meath
1975, S. O’Hagen, County Tyrone
1976, Tony "Sully" Sullivan, Manchester
1977, Kieran Hanrahan, County Clare
1978, James (Kevin) Shanahan, London
1979, Willie Kavanagh, County Longford
1981, John Hogan, Arklow County Wicklow, (Gorey CCE)
1982, John Carty, London
1983, Cathal Hayden, County Tyrone
1984, Cathal Hayden, County Tyrone
1985, Noel Birmingham, County Clare
1987, Tomas Ó Maoilean, County Galway
1988, Pat Bass, County Wexford
1990, Lorraine Ely, Luton
1991, Pat Bass, County Wexford
1992, Pat Bass, County Wexford
1993, Joe Molloy, Birmingham
1994, John Morrow, County Leitrim
1995, Theresa O'Grady, Luton
1996, Paul Meehan, County Armagh
1997, Brian Fitzgerald, County Limerick
1998, Colm O hUaithnin, County Tipperary
1999, Brian Kelly, Birmingham
2000, Kerri Ní Oireachtaigh, County Sligo
2001, Alan Byrne, County Dublin
2002, Kieran Fletcher, County Armagh
2003, Clíodhna Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
2004, Aisling Neville, County Kerry
2005, Éamonn Ó Murchú, County Cork
2006, Michael Gaughan, CCÉ, West London
2007, Gearóid Céitinn, County Limerick
2008, Steven Madden, County Clare
2009, Eoin O'Sullivan, County Limerick
2010, Eimear Howley, County Clare
2011, Dermot Mulholland, City of Derry
2012, Con Mahon, County Offaly
2013, Tomas Quinn, County Tyrone
2014, Elaine Reilly, County Longford
2015, George McAdam, County Monaghan
2016, Gearoid Curtin, County Kerry
2017, Brian Scannell, County Limerick
2018, Dean Ó Gríofa, County Kerry
2019, Shane Scanlon, County Cork
2022, Thomas Ahern, County Waterford
2023, Ademar O'Connor, County Offaly
Mandolin (Maindilín)
1979, Séamus Egan, Pennsylvania
1980, Stephen Daly, Dublin
1989, Stephen Daly, Dublin
1990, Terence Matthews, Co. Kerry
1991, Pat Bass, Co. Wexford
1992, Pat Bass, Co. Wexford
1994, John Morrow, County Leitrim
1995, Sean Marshall, County Longford
1996, Brian Carolan, County Meath
1997, Brian Kelly, London
1998, Colm O hUaithnin, County Tipperary
1999, Kate Marquis, County Monaghan
2000, Kate Marquis, County Monaghan
2001, Daithí Ó Cearnaigh, County Kerry
2002, Shane Mulchrone, County Mayo
2003, Piaras MacEochagáin, County Kerry
2004, Alan Tierney, County Galway
2005, Aaron Mc Sorley, County Tyrone
2006, Frances Donahue, County Cork
2007, Michael Gaughan, West London
2008, Eimear Ní hAmhlaigh, County Clare
2009, Ryan McCourt, County Antrim
2010, Gavin Strappe, County Tipperary
2011, Sandra Walsh, County Cork
2012, Séamus Ó Ciarba, County Clare
2013, Danny Collins, County Cork
2014, Elaine Reilly, County Longford
2015, George McAdam, County Monaghan
2016, Richie Delahunty, County Tipperary
2017, Darragh Carey Kennedy, County Tipperary
2018, Oisin Murphy, County Monaghan
2019, Shane Scanlon, County Cork
2022, Tiarnán O'Connell, County Dublin
2023, Graeme Sargent, County Tipperary
Piano
1960, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
1961, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
1962, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
1969, Declan Foley, County Waterford
1972, James McCorry, County Armagh
1974, Liam Reilly, County Louth
1975, K.Taylor, London, Britain
1976, Mary Corcoran, County Dublin
1977, Geraldine Cotter, County Clare
1979, Mary McNamara, County Clare
1980, Seamus O'Sullivan, Glasgow, Scotland
1983, Carol Talty, County Clare
1984, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow
1985, Brendan Moran, Leigh, Greater Manchester, UK
1986, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow, Scotland
1987, Nora Byrne, County Wexford
1989, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow, Scotland
1990, Seamus O'Sullivan, Glasgow, Scotland
1991, Caroline Ní Mhurchú, County Cork
1995, Adrian Scahill, County Galway
1996, Aindreas O Murchú, County Cork
1997, Caitriona Cullivan, County Cavan
1998, Padraig O Reilly, County Clare
1999, Caitriona Cullivan, County Cavan
2000, Ita Cunningham, County Galway
2001, Paul Ryan, County Tipperary
2002, Mary McMahon, County Galway
2003, Adele Farrell, Manchester
2004, David Nealon, County Galway
2005, Caitríona Cullivan, County Cavan
2005, David Nealon, County Galway
2006, Aidan O’Neill, County Tyrone
2007, Amanda Nic Eochaidh, County Wexford
2008, Amanda Nic Eochaidh, County Wexford
2009, Déirdre O Reilly, County Cavan
2010, Gearóid Mac Giollarnáth, County Galway
2011, Adam Dyer, County Dublin
2012, Tadhg Ó Meachair, County Dublin
2013, Edel McLaughlin, County Donegal
2014, Connor Kiernan, County Cavan
2015, Mark Mac Criostail, County Tyrone
2016, David Browne, Glasgow, Scotland
2017, Rebecca McCarthy Kent, County Waterford
2018, James Hogan, County Offaly
2019, Hannah Collins, County Cork
2022, Barry Conaty, County Cavan
2023, Calum McGregor, Glasgow, Scotland
Melodeon (Mileoideon)
1981, Sean Norman, Co Offaly
1982, Johnny Bass, Co. Wexford
1983, Brendan Begley, County Dublin
1984, Johnny Bass, Co. Wexford
1985, Padraig O Coill, County Wexford
1986, Caroline Judge, St. Albans
1987, Diarmuid Ó Cathain, County Kerry
1988, John Bass, Co. Wexford
1989, John Bass, Co. Wexford
1991, Bill O'Toole, Co. Galway
1993, Martin Hickey, County Offaly
1995, Oliver Diviney, County Galway
1996, Oliver Diviney, County Galway
1997, Peadar Mac Eli, County Mayo
1998, Oliver Diviney, County Galway
1999, John Bass, County Wexford
2000, Sharon Carroll, County Offaly
2001, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
2002, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
2003, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
2004, Niamh Brett, County Roscommon
2005, Damien Mullane, West London, England
2006, Daire Mulhern, County Clare
2007, Noel Clancy, County Waterford
2008, Christopher Maguire, County Fermanagh
2009, Connor Moriarty, County Kerry
2010, Damien McGuiness, County Sligo
2011, Seán Ó Maoilmhíchíl, County Limerick
2012, Aonghus Ó Maicín, County Mayo
2013, Dónal Ó Linneacháin, County Cork
2014, Caoimhe Millar, County Clare
2016, Diarmuid O' Meachair, County Cork
2017, Seamus Tiernan, County Mayo
2018, Colm Slattery, County Tipperary
2019, Steven O Leary, County Kerry
2022, Liam Browne, County Clare
2023, Joseph Mannion, County Waterford
Miscellaneous (Rogha Ghleas)
1957, Willie Joe Power, County Wexford
1965, Tim Flood, County Wexford
1971, Mike O'Connor, UK;
1975, S. Epping, County Xxxxx
1976, Joe Noonan, County Limerick
1977, Tomas O’Cinneide, County Tipperary
1979, Seamus Logan, County Antrim
1983, Jim Egan, County Tipperary
1984, David Mc Nevin, Dublin
1985, Colman Nugent, County Waterford
1987, Karen Tweed, London
1989, David James, South Bend, Indiana, USA
1992, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
1993, Brendan Power, New Zealand
1994, John Morrow, County Leitrim
1995, Dawn Doherty, County Mayo
1996, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
1997, Trudy O Donnell, County Donegal
1998, Caitriona Ni Chlochassaigh, County Limerick
1999, Seán Ó Murchú, County Mayo
2000, Séan Bass, County Wexford
2001, Aishling McPhillips, County Fermanagh
2002, David James, South Bend, Indiana
2003, Pat O’Donnell, County Limerick
2004, Fionnbarra Mac Riabhaigh, County Roscommon
2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
2006, Pádraig Mac Giolla Phádraig, County Wexford
2007, Billy Dowling, County Offaly
2008, Eimear Ní hAmhlaigh, County Clare
2009, Tara Breen, County Clare
2010, Gavin Strappe, County Tipperary
2011, Arthur O'Connor, County Offaly
2012, Jens Kommnick, Germany
2013, Eimer Arkins, County Clare
2014, Alan Finn, County Cork
2015, Daniel Delaney, County Kilkenny
2016, Richie Delahunty, County Tipperary
2017, Tadhg Mulligan, County Louth
2018, Claire Ann Kearns, County Offaly
2019, Darragh Carey Kennedy, County Tipperary
2022, Sarah O'Gorman, County Waterford
Accompaniment (Tionlacán)
1994, Adrian Scahill, County Galway
1995, Michael Rooney, County Monaghan
1996, Verena Commins, Leeds CCE
1997, Kevin Brehony, County Sligo
1998, Annmarie Acosta, United States
1999, Aisling Ní Choisdealbha, Tipperary
2000, Séan Farrell, County Limerick
2001, Marta Cook, Chicago, USA
2002, Michael O'Rourke, County Clare
2003, Marie Walsh, County Galway
2004, Johnny Berrill, County Galway
2005, Paul McMahon, County Louth
2006, Stiofán Ó Marchaim, County Limerick
2007, Caruilín Ní Shúilleabháin, County Wexford
2008, Cathy Potter, County Antrim
2009, Joshua Dukes, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
2010, Ronan Warnock, County Tyrone
2011, Elvie Miller, County Clare
2012, Jens Kommnick, Germany
2013, Catherine McHugh, County Galway
2014, Marc Mac Criostail, County Tyrone
2015, Paul Clesham, County Mayo
2016, Sinead Mulqueen, County Clare
2017, David Browne, Glasgow, Scotland
2018, Jack Warnock, City of Derry
2019, Eddie Kiely, County Cork
2022, Ryan Ward, New York, USA
2023, Rory McEvoy, County Down
Bodhran (Bodhrán)
1973, John O'Dwyer, Leeds
1975, Johnny McDonagh, County Galway
1976, Tommy Hayes, County Limerick
1977, Gerry Enright, County Limerick
1979, Vincent Short, Lancashire
1981 Michael Lawler, County Wexford
1982, Padhraic Egan, County Dublin
1983, Michael Lawler, County Wexford
1984, Michael Lawler County Wexford
1985, Maurice Griffin, County Tipperary
1986, Fabian Ó Murchu, County Cork
1987, Fabian Ó Murchu, County Cork
1988 Máirtín Mac Aodha, (Glasgow)
1989, Fabian Ó Murphy, County Cork
1990 Martin Meehan (12-15), County Armagh
1992 Máirtín Mac Aodha, (Glasgow)
1994 Martin Saunders, County Carlow
1995, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
1996, Junior Davey, County Sligo
1997, Junior Davey, County Sligo
1998, Peter O Brien, London
1999, Aindrias Mac Dáibhí, County Sligo
2000, Séan Ó Dulaing, County Kilkenny
2001, Ciarán Leahy, County Cork
2002, Martin O'Neill, Glasgow
2003, Paul Phillips, County Down
2004, Serena Curley, County Galway
2005, Siobhan O’ Donnell, County Sligo
2006, Séan O’Neill, County Down
2007, Sinead Curley, County Galway
2008, Robbie Walsh, County Dublin
2009, Máirtín Mac Aodha. County Offaly
2010, Niall Preston, County Dublin
2011, Kieran Leonard, County Fermanagh
2012, Paul McClure, County Donegal
2013, Conor Mairtin, County Meath
2014, Dale McKay, County Laois
2015, Danny Collins, County Cork
2016, Sean O' Neill, County Down
2017, James O’Connor, County Limerick
2018, Niamh Fennell, County Waterford
2019, James O'Connor, County Limerick
2022, Daire Smith, County Cavan
2023, Ciaran Maguire, County Monaghan
Céilí Band Drummer (Drumaí Céilí)
1969, Mick Kavanagh, County Wexford
1970, Mick Kavanagh, County Wexford
1973, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
1974, Gerarde Dawe, County Louth
1975, A. Vaughan, County Clare
1976, Donal O’Connor, County Sligo
1977, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
1979, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
1982, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
1983, Micheal Heir, County Clare
1985, Debbie Conneely, Manchester
1987, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
1993, Jimmy Kavanagh, County Wexford
1995, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
1996, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
1997, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
1998, Darragh Kelly, County Sligo
1999, Aidan Flood, County Longford
2000, Brian Breathnach, County Monaghan
2001, Aidan Flood, County Longford
2002, Kevin O'Neill, Glasgow
2003, Aidan Flood, County Longford
2004, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
2005, Martin Murphy, County Longford
2006, Darragh Kelly, County Sligo
2007, Seán Ó Broin, County Waterford
2008, Charline Brady, County Fermanagh
2009, Charline Brady, County Fermanagh
2010, Pádraig Ó Maolcathaigh, County Limerick
2011, Kieran Leonard, County Fermanagh
2012, Damien McGuinness, County Sligo
2013, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
2014, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
2015, Jason McGuinness, County Sligo
2016, Eoghan Mac Giollachroist, County Longford
2017, Michael Sheridan, County Sligo
2018, Conor Moore, County Wexford
2019, Conor Hartnett, County Tipperary
2022, Mark Vesey, County Laois
2023, Amy Cullen, County Sligo
War Pipes (Piob Mhór)
1953 P. Ó Gregain, County Dublin
1955 Francis Vaughan, County Clare
1973 Denis Nagle, County Kerry
1974, Michael O’Malley, London
1975, Michael O’Malley, London
1976, Michael O’Malley, London
1977, Br. Vincent, County Sligo
1979, James Finnegan, London
1981 Pat Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
1983, Rory Somers, County Mayo
1984, Larry O Dowd, Sligo
1985, Sarah Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
1987, Denis O'Reilly, County Kerry
1993, Shane O'Neill, County Tyrone
1996, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
1997, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
1998, Martin McAndrew, Chicago
1999, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
2000, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
2001, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
2002, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
2004, Greg Robbin, London
2005, Conal McNamara, County Galway
2006, Rachel Corr, County Tyrone
2007, No Competitors
2008, Lisa Farber, New Jersey, USA
2009, Lisa Farber, New Jersey, USA
2010, David Stone, County Waterford
Fiddle - Slow Airs (Fidil/Veidhlín - Foinn Mhalla)
1971, Tony Lineen, County Wexford
1975, P. Ó Coill, County Xxxxx
1974, Tony Lineen, County Wexford
1976, Ann O'Brien, County Antrim
1977, Nollaig Ní Chathasaigh, County Cork
1979, John O'Sullivan, County Kilkenny
1981. Tommy McGoldrick, County Antrim
1983, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
1984, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
1985, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
1986, Timmy O'Shea, County Kerry
1987, Michael Ó hÉineacháin, County Mayo
1988, Colm Crummey, County Antrim
1992, Brenda McCann, County Fermanagh
1993, Joseph Toolan, County Dublin
1994, Alice Wickham, County Wexford
1995, Maria Gleeson, County Limerick
1996, Kieran Convery, County Antrim
1997, Breda Keville, Leeds, UK
1998, Lisa Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
1999, Emma O' Leary, County Kerry
2000, Tomás Mac Aogáin, County Wexford
2001, Cathal Ó Clochasaigh, County Limerick
2002, Eleanor Keane, Glasgow, Scotland
2003, Kira Jewett, New Jersey, USA
2004, Clár Ní Chuinn, County Tipperary
2005, Marion Collins, County Cork
2006, Pádraig Creedon, County Kerry
2007, Niall McClean, County Down
2008, Áine Sinéad Ní Riain (Anna Jane Ryan), County Limerick
2009, Tara Breen, County Clare
2010, Courtney Cullen, County Wicklow
2011, Lydia Warnock, County Leitrim
2012, Clár Breathnach, County Dublin
2013, Caitríona Ní Luasa, County Cork
2014, Donál Ó Beoláin, County Westmeath
2015, Lucia Mac Partlin, County Tipperary
2016, Éadaoin Ní Mhaicín, County Mayo
2017, Jake James, New York, USA
2018, Jason McGuinness, County Sligo
2019, Sarah O'Gorman, County Waterford
2022, Una McGlinchey, County Tyrone
Uilleann Pipes - Slow Airs (Píb Uilleann - Foinn Mhalla)
1985, Eamonn Walsh, County Mayo
1973, Seamus MacMathuna, County Wexford
1975, Seamus Casey, London
1976, Seamus Casey, London
1977, (only 1 competitor)
1979, Gearóid Ó hAllmhuráin, County Clare
1983, Brian McComb, Blackburn, Lancashire, England
1984, Eamonn Walsh, Dublin
1985, Brian McNamara, County Leitrim
1986, Andrew Murphy, Poulton-le-fylde, Lancashire, England
1987, Mark Donnelly (Deceased), County Armagh
1991, Tommy Martin, County Dublin
1992, Patrick Hutchinson, USA
1993, Brian Mac Aodha, Co. Leitrim.
1995, Padraig Sinnott, County Wexford
1996, Máire de Cogáin, County Cork
1997, Flaithrí Neff, County Cork
1998, Sean Ryan, USA
1999, Audrey Cunningham, County Wicklow
2000, Mikie Smyth, County Dublin
2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
2003, Sinéad O'Shiel Flemming, County Laois
2004, Richard Murray, County Galway
2005, James Mahon, County Dublin
2006, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Galway
2007, Seán McCarthy, County Cork
2008, Fiachra Ó Riagáin, County Galway
2009, Martino Vacca, County Limerick
2010, Richard Neylon, County Galway
2011, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Meath
2012, Seán Céitinn, County Cork
2013, Torrin Ryan, Massachusetts, USA
2014, Patrick Hutchinson, Massachusetts, USA
2015, Tara Howley, County Clare
2016, Siobhán Hogan, County Galway
2017, Conall Duffy, County Louth
2018, Conor Murphy, County Dublin
2019, Eoin Orr, County Donegal
2022, Alain Ó Cearúil, County Laois
Flute - Slow Airs (Feadóg Mhór - Foinn Mhalla)
1975, John Lewis, County Galway
1976, Ann O’Brien, County Antrim??
1977, Des Leech, County Dublin
1979, Páraic Ó Lochlainn, County Dublin
1980, Damhnait Nic Suibhne, County Donegal
1981 Neansaí Ní Choisdealbha, County Galway
1983, Meadhbh Ní Lochlainn, County Dublin
1984, Tom Hanafin, County Kerry
1985, Julia Nicholas, St. Helens, Merseyside, UK
1987, Kathleen Ford, County Donegal
1988, Michael Griffin, County Wexford
1991, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
1995, Maureen Shannon, USA
1996, Fiona Butler, County Kilkenny
1997, Catriona Ni Chlochasaigh, County Limerick
1998, Aoife Ni Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
1999, Ciaran McGuinness, County Longford
2000, Attracta Brady, County Offaly
2001, Áine Ní Dhé, County Kerry
2002, Seacailín Ní Ealaithe, County Limerick
2003, Maidhc Ó hÉanaigh, Co. na Gaillimhe
2004, Frances Donahue, County Galway
2005, Richard Neylon, County Galway
2006, Sinéad Fahey, County Waterford
2007, Christina Dolphin, County Dublin
2008, Audrey Ní Murchú, County Westmeath
2009, Matthew Dean, Villa Real, Castellan, Spain
2010, Breda Shannon, County Roscommon
2011, Eibhlís Ní Shúilleabháin, County Cork
2012, Órlaith McAuliffe, London, England
2013, Jillian Ní Mháille, County Mayo
2014, Máiréad Ní Chiaraigh, County Cork
2015, Maura O'Brien, County Tipperary
2016, Cailín O'Shea, County Kerry
2017, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare.
2018, Claire Fennell, County Waterford
2019, Conor Maheady, County Mayo
2022, Donnchadh Mac Aodha, County Louth
2023, Karl Doherty, County Donegal
Tin Whistle - Slow Airs (Feadóg Stain - Foinn MhaIla)
1974, Kevin Whitty, County Wexford
1975, Willis Patton, County Antrim
1976, Carmel Gunning, County Sligo
1977, Kevin Whitty, County Wexford
1979, Chalmers Brown, County Down
1983, Mairéad Ní Chathasaigh, County Cork
1984, Tom Hanafin, County Kerry
1985, Michel Sikiotakis, Paris, France
1993, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
1994, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
1995, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
1996, Fiona Butler, County Kilkenny
1997, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
1998, Róisín Nic Dhonnacha, County Galway
1989, Lorraine Mc Mahon, County Louth
1999, Emma O'Leary, County Kerry
2000, Caitríona Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh, County Limerick
2001, Noreen Ní Mhurchú, County Cork
2002, Sacra Ní Fhuardha, County Galway
2003, Linda Ní Bheirn, County Roscommon
2004, Sinéad Fahy, County Waterford
2005, Julie Ann McCafferty, County Fermanagh
2006, Fiachra Ó Riagáin, County Galway
2007, Pól Ó Rúis, County Roscommon
2008, Edel McLaughlin, County Donegal
2009, Audrey Murphy, County Westmeath
2010, Audrey Murphy, County Westmeath
2011, Siobhan Ni Uirc (Joanne Quirke) County Cork
2012, Audrey Ní Mhurcú, County Westmeath
2013, Yasmin Lynch, County Donegal
2014, Maura Ní Bhriain, County Tipperary
2015, Siobhán Ní Chonchuirr, County Donegal
2016, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare
2017, Cárl Ó' Dochartaigh, (Karl Doherty), County Donegal
2018, Brendan Rowan, County Meath
2019, Padraig Enright, County Kerry
2022, Grainne Ní Mhuineog, County Offaly
Harp - Slow Airs (Cruit - Foinn Mhalla)
2011, Déirdre Ní Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
2012, Fiana Ní Chonaill, County Limerick
2013, Emily Gaine, County Sligo
2014, Eimear Coughlan, County Clare
2015, Siobhán Ní Bhuachalla, County Cork
2016, Kerri Ní Mhaoláin, (Kerri Mullan) City of Derry
2017, Seamus O Flatharta, County Galway
2018, Una Ní Fhlannagáin, County Galway
2019, Siofra Thornton, County Tipperary
2022, Éilís Ní Néadáin, County Sligo
2023, Sal Heneghan, County Mayo
Duets (Ceol Beirte)
1952, Michael Brophy and Joseph Ryan, County Dublin
1953, Paddy O'Brien and Bridie Lafferty
1955, James Rooney & Sean McAloon, County Fermanagh
1956, Seán Ryan & P. J. Moloney, County Tipperary
1959, Peter O'Loughlin & Paddy Murphy, County Clare
1962, Joe Burke & Aggie Whyte, County Galway
1963, Charlie Lennon & Sean Murphy , Liverpool
1965, Gerry Forde & Tim Flood, County Wexford
1968, Gerry Forde & Tim Flood, County Wexford
1977, Sean McGlynn & Brendan Mulvihill, Washington D.C.
1975, Jimmy Keane & Liz Carroll, Chicago
1976, John and Eileen Brady, County Offaly
1977, Billy McComiskey & Brendan Mulvihill, New York
1979, Martin Hayes & Mary McNamara, County Clare
1982, Pat Flood & Pat Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
1983, Sean & Breda Smyth, County Mayo
1984, Rose Daly & Sean O Dalaigh Offaly & Dublin
1985, E. Minogue & M. Cooney, County Tipperary
1986, Rose Daly & Sean o Dalaigh Offaly & Dublin
1987, Joanie Madden & Kathy McGinty, New York
1988, Michael & Chris McDonagh, Luton, UK
1989, PJ Hernon & Philip Duffy, County Sligo
1990, Elizabeth Gaughan & Michael Tennyson, Leeds
1991, Micheal & MacDara O'Reily, Meath
1992, Micheal & MacDara O'Reily, Meath
1993, Paul McGlinchey & Barry McLaughlin, Tyrone
1994, Anthony Quigney & Aiden McMahon, Clare
1995, Mirella Murray & Liz Kane, County Galway
1996, Ursula & Clare Byrne, County Down
1997, Aisling & Alan O Choisdeabha, County Tipperary
1998, Antoin O Connaill & Diarmuid O Brien, County Limerick
1999, Cathal & C. Ní Chlochasaigh, County Limerick
2000, Loretto Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh & Thomas Slattery, County Tipperary
2001, Nuala Hehir & Liz Gaughan, County Clare
2002, Sharon Carroll & Attracta Brady, County Offaly
2003, Seana & Lorna Ní Dhaithí, County Meath
2004, Úna Devlin & Paul Quinn, County Armagh
2005, Mairéad McManus & Katie Boyle, Glasgow
2006, Aisling Neville & Alan Egan, County Kerry
2007, Tara Breen & Cathal Mac an Rí, County Clare
2008, Sean & Gearoid Ó Cathain, County Kildare
2009, Daragh & Micheál Ó hÉalaí, County Mayo
2010, Alan Finn & Rory McMahon, County Cork
2011, Lottie & Courtney Cullen, County Wicklow
2012, Seacailín & Eibhlín Ní Éalaithe, County Limerick
2013, Rory Healy & John Bass, County Wicklow
2014, Orlaith McAuliffe & Brogan McAuliffe, London, England
2015, Patricia McArdle & Róisín Anne Hughes, Glasgow, Scotland
2016, Anne Marie Bell & Megan Duffy, County Sligo
2017, Tadhg & Saran Mulligan, County Louth
2018, Áine & Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare
2019, Jason & Damien McGuinness, County Sligo
2022, Ellen O'Gorman & Joseph Mannion, County Waterford
2023, Aine Murphy & Ciara Tighe, County Clare
Trios (Ceol Trír)
1952, Paddy Brophy, Mick Brophy and Joe Ryan, County Dublin
1960, Larry Redican, Jack Coen, Paddy O'Brien
1967, Joe Burke, Kathleen Collins & Carl Hession, County Galway
1974, Eugene Nolan, Denis Ryan & Ellen Flanagan, County Kildare
1975, Eugene Nolan, Denis Ryan & Ellen Flanagan, County Kildare
1976, Collis Trio, County Sligo
1977, O’Brien, Fogarty & Harty Trio, County Tipperary
1979, M. Harty, E.O'Brien & W. Fogarty, County Tipperary
1980, S. Rattigan, L. Gaul, D. Robinson, County Wexford
1983, M. Nugent, J Nugent & M. Carroll, County Clare
1985, Cathrine, Anne & Fiona McEnroe, County Cavan
1987, J. Lawlor, J. & E. Kennedy, Luton, UK
1988, Mary O'Connell, Michael & Christopher McDonagh, Luton, UK
1989, Michael Hurley, P. J. Hernon & Philip Duffy, County Sligo,
1991, Thomas, John & Robert Morrow, County Leitrim
1992, Michael, MacDara, & Felim O'Reily, Meath
1994, Michael Tennyson, Liz Gaughan & Maureen Ferguson, Leeds
1995, Claire Griffin, Anthony Quigney & Aiden McMahon, Co. Clare
1996, Seán, Mairín & Caitríona O Clochasaigh, County Limerick
1997, Darragh Pattwell, Alan & Aisling Coisdealbha, County Tipperary
1998, John & Jacinta McEvoy, Patsy Moloney, Birmingham
1999, Tomás Keegan, Pat Bass & John Bass, County Wexford
2000, Cathal, Mairín & Cáit Clohessey, County Limerick
2001, Nuala Hehir, Liz Gaughan & Brendan Quinn, County Clare
2002, Carmel Doohan, Clive Earley, Ciara O'Sullivan, County Clare
2003, Fionnuala Ní Ruanaidh, Thomas Johnson, Laura Ní Bheagain, County Monaghan
2004, John Burke, Carmel Burke & Siobhán Ní Chonaráin, Birmingham
2005, Ciara Ní Chondúin, Aidan Hill & Michael Harrison, County Tipperary
2006, Danielle O’Riordan, John Neville & Katie Lucey, County Kerry
2007, Sean & Gearóid Keane & Cormac Murphy, County Kildare
2008, Alan Egan, Michael Mac Conraoí & Gearóidín Ní Cheallacháin, County Limerick
2009, Cian & Caoimhe Ní Chiaráin and Seán Farrell, County Sligo
2010, Máiréad & Aisling Ní Mhocháin & Seán Céitinn, County Cork
2012, Tanya Murphy, Darina Gleeson and Stephanie Carthy. County Wexford
2013, Alan Finn, Rory Mc Mahon & Eoin O' Sullivan, County Cork
2014, Eimear Coughlan, Francis Cunningham & Marian Curtin, An Tulach/Croisín/Laichtín Naofa
2015, Daithí Gormley, Cian & Caoimhe Kearins, County Sligo
2016, Áine Nic Gearailt (FitzGerald), Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald) & Cormac Mac Aodhagán, County Kildare
2017, Tomás Quinn, Michael Kerr, Christopher Maguire, County Tyrone
2018, Aileen De Burca, Deirdre De Barra & Eibhlin De Barra, County Mayo
2019, Jack Boyle, Orlaith McAuliffe & Christopher Maguire, London
2022, Aoibhin Morgan, Lucia Morgan & Oisin Bradley, County Down
Céilí Band (Buíon Cheoil Chéilí)
1951, Athlone 'B' Band, County Westmeath
1952, Williamstown Girls' Ceili Band, County Roscommon
1953, Aughrim Slopes Céilí Band, County Galway
1954, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare, Athlone Céilí Band, County Westmeath, and Mayglass Céilí Band, County Wexford (tie)
1955, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1956, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1957, Tulla Céilí Band, County Clare
1958, Kincora Céilí Band, County Dublin
1959, Leitrim Céilí Band, County Galway
1960, Tulla Céilí Band, County Clare
1961, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1962, Leitrim Céilí Band, County Galway
1963, Liverpool Céilí Band, Liverpool
1964, Liverpool Céilí Band, Liverpool
1965, Castle Céilí Band, County Dublin
1966, Glenside Céilí Band, London
1967, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
1968, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
1969, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
1970, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1971, Green Linnet Céilí Band, County Dublin
1972, Brosna Céilí Band, County Kerry;
1973, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1974, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1975, Pipers Club Céilí Band, County Dublin
1976, Pipers Club Céilí Band, County Dublin
1977, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
1978, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
1979, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
1980, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
1981, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
1982, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
1983, Pride of Erin Céilí Band, County Fermanagh
1984, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
1985, Pride of Erin Céilí Band, County Fermanagh
1986, The Thatch Céilí Band, London, England
1987, The Thatch Céilí Band, London, England
1988, St. Colmcille's Céilí Band, St. Albans, Hertfordshire, England
1989, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
1990, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
1991, St. Colmcille's Céilí Band, St. Albans
1992, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1993, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1994, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1995, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
1996, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1997, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
1998, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
1999, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
2000, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
2001, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
2002, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
2003, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
2004, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
2005, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
2006, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
2007, Allow Céilí Band, County Cork
2008, Innisfree Céilí Band, County Sligo
2009, Dartry Céilí Band, County Sligo
2010, Teampall An Ghleanntáin Céilí Band, County Limerick
2011, Shannonvale Céilí Band, County Kerry
2012, Awbeg Céilí Band, County Cork
2013, Moylurg Céilí band, County Roscommon
2014, Knockmore Ceili Band, County Fermanagh
2015, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
2016, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
2017, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
2018, Blackwater Céilí Band, County Tyrone
2019, Cnoc na Gaoithe Céilí Band, County Clare
2022, Taobh na Mara Céilí Band, County Waterford
2023, Pipers Cross Céilí Band, Contae Maighe Eo
Instrumental Groups (Grúpaí Ceoil)
1979, Armagh Pipers Club, County Armagh
1980, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
1981, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
1982, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
1983, Ryan Family Group, County Tipperary
1984, Shamrock, Paris, France
1985, St. Alban's Group, Herts., UK
1986, St. James Gate, San Antonio, Texas
1987, Ballishall, County Wicklow
1989, Loughmore Senior Grúpa Ceoil
1990, Corrib Traditional Group, County Galway
1991, Ma Rua/Ceapach Mór, County Limerick
1992, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
1993, Urlan Grúpa Cheoil, County Clare
1994, Cois Locha, Portglenone, County Antrim
1995, Tara, Manchester
1996, St. Michael's, County Limerick
1997, Craobh Naithi CCE, County Dublin
1998, Grupa Cheoil Cholmain Naofa Clar Choinne Mhuiris, County Mayo
1999, Ballydonoghue / Lisselton CCÉ, County Kerry
2000, St. Michael's, County Limerick
2001, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
2002, Éamon Ó Muirí CCÉ, County Monaghan
2003, South Birmingham CCÉ, Birmingham
2004, St. Louis Irish Arts Grúpa Cheoil, St. Louis
2005, Ceoltóirí Craobh na Coradh, County Clare
2006, Ceoltóirí Mhuscraí, County Cork
2007, St. Rochs, Irish Minstrels Branch, Glasgow, Scotland
2008, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
2009, CCÉ, Fred Finn, County Sligo
2010, CCÉ, Teampall An Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
2011, CCÉ, Edenderry, County Offaly
2012, Ceoltóirí Coillte, Illinois, USA
2013, CCÉ, Guaire Baile Ghearóid, County Wexford
2014, Ceoltóirí Cois Féile, County Kerry
2016, Ceoltóirí Knockfennell, CCÉ Caisleán Uí Chonaill/Atháin/Baile Iobaird, County Limerick
2017, St Roch's, Glasgow, Scotland
2018, Tairseach, CCÉ Cill Shléibhe/Tulach Sheasta, County Tipperary
2019, Ceoltóirí Tireragh, County Sligo
2022, Tigh na Coille, County Clare
2023, Lios Árd, Lackagh CCÉ, Co. Galway
Accordion Bands (Buíon Cheoil Cáirdin)
1984, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
1985, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, County Down
1987, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, County Donegal
1988, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
1989, St Marys Accordion Band, Convoy, Co, Donegal
1990, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
1991, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, Drumkein, County Donegal
1992, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
1993, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
1994, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
1995, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
1996, Fanad Accordion Band, County Donegal
1997, Fanad Accordion Band, County Donegal
1998, St. Miguels Band, Downpatrick, County Down
1999, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
2000, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
2001, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
2002, K & S Accordion Band, County Meath
2003, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
2004, Saint Enda Accordion Band, County Monaghan
2005, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2006, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
2007, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2008, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2009, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2010, Holy Cross Accordion Band, Atticall, County Down
2011, Holy Cross Accordion Band, Atticall, County Down
2012, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2013, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2014, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
2015, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
2016, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
2017, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
2018, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
2019, No Competitors
2022, No Competitors
2023, Kentstown and Senchelstown Marching Band, County Meath
Flute Bands (Buíon Cheoil Feadóg Mhór)
1984, Harry Hickey Flute band, Atha Cliath
1985, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
1986, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
1987, Droma Mor Rann na Feirste, County Donegal
1988, Clooney Flute Bcand, County Antrim
1989, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
1990, Droma Mor Rann Na Feirste, Co Donegal
1991, Droma Mor Rann Na Feirste, Co Donegal
1992, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1993, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
1994, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1995, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1996, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1997, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1998, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
1999, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2000, Droma Mor Rann na Feirste, County Donegal
2001, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2002, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2003, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
2004, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
2005, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
2006, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2007, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2008, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2009, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2010, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2011, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2012, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2013, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2014, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2015, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2016, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2017, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2018, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2019, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2022, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
2023, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
Miscellaneous Marching Bands (Buíon Rogha Gléas)
1975, Acres National School Band, Burtonport, County Donegal
1976, Killeshill Youth Band, County Tyrone
1977, Claremorris Marching Band, County Mayo
1983, Convent of Mercy Marching Band, County Mayo
1984, St. Cecilia's Youth Band, Lisnaskea, County Fermanagh (Junior)
1985, St. Crona's Accordion Band, Dungloe, County Donegal
1985, St. Cecilia's Youth Band, Lisnaskea, County Fermanagh (Senior)
1986, Clochaneely Marching Band, County Donegal
1987, St. Macartan's Band, County Fermanagh
1989, Cloughaneely Marching Band, County Donegal
1979, St. Patricks Accordion Band, County Tyrone
1991, St. Crona's Accordion Band, Dungloe, Co. Donegal
1993, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
1994, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
1995, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
1996, St. Columba's Band, County Donegal
1999, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
2000, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
2001, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
2002, Buíon Cheoil Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
2003, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
2004, St. Crona's Band, Dungloe, County Donegal
2005, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
2006, Donaghmoyne Band, County Monaghan
2007, St. Mary's, Castleblayney Band, County Monaghan
2008, St. Mary's, Castleblayney Band, County Monaghan
2009, Banna Ceoil, Ramelton, County Donegal
2010, Ramelton, Ráth Mealton, County Donegal
2011, Buncrana, County Donegal
2012, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
2013, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
2014, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
2017, Buion Cheoil Sinsear Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
2018, Buion Cheoil Sinsear Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
2019, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
2022, Mullingar Town Band, County Westmeath
2023, Buion Cheoil Sinsear Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
Pipe Bands (Buíon Cheoil Phíob)
Note that the All-Ireland Fleadh Championships are unrelated to the All-Ireland Pipe Band Championships organised jointly by the Irish Pipe Band Association (IPBA) and the Northern Ireland Branch of the Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association (RSPBANI).
1985, O'Neill Pipe Band, County Armagh
1987, O'Neill Pipe Band, County Armagh
1991, Annsborough Pipe Band, County Down
1992, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
1993, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
1994, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
1996, Aghagallon Pipe Band, County Armagh
2001, Buíon Cheoil Phíb Mhór Cloghfin, County Tyrone
2002, Aughnamullen Pipe Band, County Monaghan
2003, Achill Schools, County Mayo
2004, St. Joseph's Pipe Band, County Down
2005, St. Joseph's Pipe Band, County Down
2006, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyron
2007, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyrone
2008, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyrone
2010, Buíon Cheoil Phíb Mhór Cloghfin, County Tyrone
2011, St Josephs Pipe Band, Longstone, County Down
2012, Crimlin Batafada Pipe Band, County Mayo
2013, Corduff Pipe Band, County Monaghan
2014, Corduff Pipe Band, County Monaghan
2016, Achill Pipe Band, County Mayo
2017, Achill Pipe Band, County Mayo
2018, St Josephs Pipe Band, Longstone, County Down
2022, No Competitors
2023, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, County Tyrone
Irish Singing - Ladies (Amhrán Gaeilge - Mná)
1957, Rós Máire Ní Giollarnath, County Galway
1975, Lena Bn. Uí Shé, County Xxxxx
1976, Nora McDonagh, Chicago
1977, Mary Cooley, Chicago
1979, Eibhlín Briscoe, County Tipperary
1983, Máiréad Ní Oistín, County Dublin
1985, Karen Breathnach, County Kerry
1987, Nóra Ní Dhonnacha, County Galway
1996, Mary Gallagher, County Cork
1998 Mairéad Ní Fhlatharta, County Galway
1999, Caitríona Ní Laoire, County Meath
2000, Karen Ní Thrinsigh, County Kerry
2001, Karen Ní Thrinsigh, County Kerry
2002, Treasa Bn. Uí Chonaill, County Galway
2003, Astrid Ní Mhongáin, County Mayo
2004, Bairbre Uí Theighneáin, Clonaslee, Co. Laois
2005, Máire Ní Choilm, County Donegal
2006, Nollaig Nic Andriú, County Mayo
2007, Rachel Ní Ghairbheith, County Roscommon
2008, Nollaig Ní Laiore, County Meath
2009, Gobnait Ní Chrualaoi, County Cork
2010, Róisín Ní Riain, County Kerry
2011, Gobnait Ní Chrualaoí, County Cork
2012, Muireann Ní Luasa, County Cork
2013, Clár Nic Ruairi, City of Derry
2014, Sailí Ní Dhroighneáin, County Galway
2015, Paula Ní Chualáin, County Galway
2016, Eimear Arkins, Missouri, USA
2017, Gráinne Ní Fhatharta, County Galway
2018, Danielle Ní Chéilleachair, County Cork
2019, Kathryn Ní Mhaolán, City of Derry
2022, Clíona Ní Ghallachóir, County Donegal
Irish Singing - Men (Amhrán Gaeilge - Fir)
1956, Sean Quinn, County Clare
1975, T. O’Duinnon, County Xxxxx
1976, Clement Mac Suibhne, County Donegal
1977, Seosamh Mac Donnacha, County Galway
1979, Maithiún Ó Caoimh, County Tipperary
1982, Martin Joyce, Leeds
1983, Seán Ó Cróinín, County Cork
1984, John Flanagan, County Galway
1985, Martin Joyce, Leeds
1986, Seán Mac Craith, County Waterford
1987, Dara Bán Mac Dhonnacha, County Galway
1988, Risteard Ó hEidhín
1989, Philip Enright, County Limerick
1991, Patrick Connolly
1992, Diarmuid Ó Cathasaigh, County Cork
1993, Patrick Connolly
1994, Padraic McNulty, County Mayo
1995, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
1996, Bartlae Breathnach, County Galway
1997, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
1998, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
1999, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
2000, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
2001, Ciarán Ó Coincheanainn, County Galway
2002, Eoghan Warner, County Kerry
2003, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
2004, Tadhg Ó Meachair, County Tipperary
2005, Coireall Mac Curtain, County Limerick
2006, Colm McDonagh, County Galway
2007, Liam Ó Cróinín, County Cork
2008, Breandán Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
2009, Breandán Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
2010, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
2011, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
2012, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
2013, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
2014, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
2015, Conchubhar Ó Luasa, County Cork
2016, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
2017, Ciarán Ó Donnabháin, County Cork
2018, Lughaidh Mac an Iascaire, County Dublin
2019, Proinnsias O Cathasaigh, County Kerry
2022, Piaras Ó Lorcáin, County Armagh
English Singing - Ladies (Amhrán Béarla - Mná)
19??, Rita Gallagher, County Donegal; (three times winner - years unknown)
1969, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
1970, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
1971, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
1972, Anne Brolly, City of Derry
1974, Mary Brogan, County Wexford
1975, M. O’Reilly, County Xxxxx
1976, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
1977, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
1978, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
1979, Rita Gallager, County Donegal
1983, Siobhan O'Donnell, London, England
1985, Rose Daly, County Offaly
1986, Rose Daly, County Offaly
1987, Rose Daly, County Offaly
1991, Karen Walsh, County Kerry
1995, Catherine Mc Laughlin (née Nugent), County Fermanagh
1996, Christina Pierce, County Roscommon
1997, Fionnuala O' Reilly, County Leitrim
1999, Máire Ní Chéilleachair, County Cork
2000, Astrid Ní Mhongáin, County Mayo
2001, Deirdre Scanlon, County Limerick
2002, Sharon Buckley, County Kerry
2003, Ann Marie Kavanagh, County Tipperary
2004, Christina Pierce, County Roscommon
2005, Brigid Delaney, County Kildare
2006, Brigid Delaney, County Kildare
2007, Kate Ford, County Donegal
2008, Amelia Ní Mhurchú, County Monaghan
2009, Shauna McGarrigle, County Offaly
2010, Denise Whelan, County Clare
2011, Eibhlín Máire Ní Dhuibhir, County Limerick
2012, Eibhlín Ní Bhrúdair, County Limerick
2013, Eimear Arkins, County Clare
2014, Cáit Ní Bhrúdair Uí Mhurchú, County Limerick
2015, Kathryn Nea, County Westmeath
2019, Julie-Ann McCaffrey, County Fermanagh
2022, Cáit Ní Bhaoghill, County Monaghan
English Singing - Men (Amhrán Béarla - Fir)
1970, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
1971, Len Graham, County Louth
1972, Oliver Mulligan, County Monaghan
1973, Frank Harte, County Dublin
1975, Peter Nolan, County Offaly
1976, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
1977, Vincent Crowley, Bantry, County Cork
1979, John Cronin, Drinagh, County Cork
1983, Vincent Crowley, Bantry, County Cork
1985, John Furlong, County Wexford
1986, Seán Ó Dálaigh Contae Átha Cliath
1987, Gerard McQuaid, County Monaghan
1989, Phil Berry, County Wexford
1996, John Power, County Waterford
1997, John Power, County Waterford
1998, Maurice Foley, County Cork
1999, John Furlong, County Wexford
2000, Séamus Brogan, St. Albans, England
2001, Jon Jon Williams, County Londonderry
2002, Brian Hart, St. Louis, USA
2003, Cathal Lynch, County Tyrone
2004, Donal Bowe, County Tipperary
2005, Dónal Ó Liatháin, County Limerick
2006, Seán Breen, County Kerry
2007, Niall Wall (Niall de Bhál), County Wexford
2008, Padraic Keena (Padhraic Ó Cionnaith), County Westmeath
2009, Tadhg Maher (Tadhg Ó Meachair), County Tipperary
2010, Cian Ó Ciaráin, County Sligo
2011, Cathal O'Neill, County Tyrone
2012, Peadar Sherry, County Monaghan
2013, Daoirí Farrell, County Dublin
2014, Micheál O'Shea, County Kerry
2019, Kevin Elam, Washington DC, USA
2022, Vincent Crowley, County Cork
Whistling (Feadaíl)
1956, Sean White, County Wexford
1958, Sean White, County Wexford
1959, John Brady, County Offaly
1961, Liam White, County Wexford
1966, Tom McHale, County Roscommon
1967, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1968, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1969, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1970, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1974, Joe Harris, County Kildare
1975, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
1976, Seamus O'Donnell, County Sligo
1977, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
1979, Michael Creavers, County Galway
1980, Liam Gaul, County Wexford
1983, Walter O'Hara, County Wexford
1985, Paddy O'Donnell, County Galway
1986, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
1987, Padraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
1988, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
1991, Alan O'Dwyer, County Wexford
1996, Michael Ryan, County Tipperary
1990, John O'Connell, County Antrim
1998, Síle Áine de Barra, County Cork
1999, Sean White, County Wexford
2000, Frances Donahue, County Galway
2001, Séan Seosamh Mac Domhnaill, County Mayo
2002, Séan Seosamh Mac Domhnaill, County Mayo
2003, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
2004, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
2005, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
2006, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
2007, Máiréad Ní Chorradáin, County Kerry (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
2008, Tony Connolly, County Galway
2009, Claire McNicholl, City of Derry
2010, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
2011, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
2012, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
2013, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
2014, Séamus Ó hAirtnéide, County Limerick
2018, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCE Teampall a' Ghleanntáin)
2019, Liam Jones, County Clare
2022, Liam Jones, County Clare
2023, Liam Jones, County Clare
Lilting (Portaireacht)
1954, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh (inaugural year for lilting)
1955, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh
1956, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh
1959, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
1960, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
1961, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
1963, Micheal O'Rourke, Co. Leitrim
1964, Micky McCann, Co. Tyrone
1967, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
1968, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1969, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
1972, Leo Carthy, County Wexford
1975, Joseph Harris, County Kildare
1976, Joseph Harris, County Kildare
1977, Vincent Crowley, County Cork
1978, Michael Rafferty, County Galway
1979, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
1980, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
1981, Oliver Kearney, County Kildare
1982, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
1983, Michael Craven, County Galway
1985, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
1987, Padraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
1996, Caitrona Cullivan, County Cavan
1999, Bernadette Collins, County Cork
2000, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
2001, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
2002, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
2003, Tadhg Maher, County Tipperary
2004, Tommy Stone, County Offaly
2005, Seán Breen, County Kerry
2006, Séan Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
2007, Seán Breen, County Kerry
2008, Cian Kearns (Cian Ó Ciaráin), County Sligo
2009, Seán Breen, County Kerry
2010, Paul O'Reilly (Pól Ó Raghallaigh), County Wexford
2011, Caoimhe Ní Chiaráin,(Caoimhe Kearins) County Sligo
2012, Eibhlín Ní Bhrúdair, County Limerick
2013, Aoife Colféir, County Wexford
2014, Donal Tydings, County Kerry
2019, Donagh McElligott, County Kerry
2022, Liam Jones, County Clare
2023, Liam Jones, County Clare
Irish Singing - Newly Composed Songs (Amhrán Nuacheaptha Gaeilge)
1975, M. McGinley, County Donegal
1976, M. McGinley, County Donegal
1977, Máire Ní Bhaoil, County Monaghan
1979, M.J. O' Reilly, County Wexford
1982, M.J. O' Reilly, County Wexford
1983, Seán Ó Cathasaigh, County Cork
1985, Colm Mac Confhaola, County Wexford
1987, Jack McCutcheon, County Wexford
1996, Frances Donahue, County Galway
1999, Ciarán Ó Concheanainn, County Galway
2000, Matthew Gormally, County Galway
2001, Brenda O'Sullivan, County Dublin
2002, Brenda O'Sullivan, County Dublin
2003, Sarah Stone, County Offaly
2004, Dick Beamish, County Cork
2005, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2006, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2007, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2008, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2009, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2010, Eilís Ní Shúilleabháin, County Cork
2011, Seán Ó Múimhneacháin, County Cork
2012, Diarmaid Ó hEachthigheirn, County Cork
2013, Liam Ó Riain, County Waterford
2014, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2016, Nodlaig Ní Bhrollaigh, County Londonderry
2019, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2022, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
English Singing - Newly Composed Songs (Amhrán Nuacheaptha, Bearla)
1975, John Cronin, Drinagh, County Cork
1976, Barbara Juppe, New York
1977, John Flanagan, County Clare
1979, Joseph Mulhern, City of Derry
1983, Tony Waldron, County Galway
1984, Seán Ó Dálaigh,
1985, Paddy Blake, County Wicklow
1986, Seán Ó Dalaigh,
1987, Pádraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
1996, Dan Keane, County Kerry
1996, Dan Keane, County Kerry
1999, Dan Keane, County Kerry
2000, Colm O'Donnell, County Sligo
2001, Dan Keane, County Kerry
2002, Niall Wall, County Wexford
2003, Pete McAleer, Newport, Wales
2004, Bruce Scott, Liverpool
2005, Séan Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
2006, Bruce Scott, Liverpool
2007, Mary Ryan, County Kildare
2008, Étaoin Rowe, West London
2009, Terry Cowan, County Down
2010, Muiris Mac Giolla Choda, County Cork
2011, Muiris Mac Giolla Choda, County Cork
2012, Padhraig Ó Tuathail, County Mayo
2013, Shauna McGarrigle, County Offaly
2014, Etaoin Rowe, London, England
2015, Julie-Ann McCaffrey, County Fermanagh
2019, Joe Kelly, County Westmeath
2022, Terry Cowan, County Down
Newly Composed Tunes (Píosaí Ceoil Nuaceaptha)
2011, Marie Walsh, County Galway
2012, Nóirín Ní Shúilleabháin, County Galway
2013, Keelan Mac Craith, County Tipperary
2014, Donagh McElligott, County Kerry
2015, Blaithín Kennedy, County Tipperary
2016, Jody Moran, Victoria, Australia
2017, Jody Moran, Victoria, Australia
2018, Joanne O'Connor, County Limerick
2019, Meibh Ní Dhubhlaioch, County Offaly
2022, Laoise Ní Chinnéide, County Tipperary
8-Hand Céilí Dancing, Ladies (Rince Céilí Ochtair, Mná)
2011, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
2012, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
2013, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
2014, Caisleán Nua, County Tipperary
2022, Fioreann Sarah, County Offaly
8-Hand Céilí Dancing, Mixed (Rince Céilí Ochtair, Measctha)
2011, Foireann Rince Mhuineacháin, Emyvale, County Monaghan
2012, Emyvale CCÉ, County Monaghan
2013, Craobh Bheartla Uí Fhlatharta, CCÉ, County Kildare
2014, Emyvale CCÉ, County Monaghan
2022, CCÉ, Ardacha/Carraigchiarraí, County Limerick
4-Hand Céilí Dancing, Ladies (Rince Céilí Ceathrair, Mná)
2011, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
2012, Gleann Fleisce CCÉ, County Kerry
2013, Gleann Fleisce A, CCÉ, County Kerry
2014, Gleann Fleisce A, County Kerry
2022, Mullingar CCÉ, County Westmeath
4-Hand Céilí Dancing, Mixed (Rince Céilí Ceathrair, Measctha)
2011, Foireann Rince Mhuineacháin, Emyvale, County Monaghan
2012, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
2013, Naomh Chiaráin, CCÉ, County Kerry
2014, Ballyduff/Ballinvella/Ballysaggart, County Waterford
2022, CCÉ, Ardacha/Carraigchiarraí, County Limerick
Set Dancing - Full Set, Ladies (Rince Seit, Mná)
1987, Gael Colmcille, County Meath
1988, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
1989, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
1990, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
1996, Carrickcruppen Set
1998, Elphin County Roscommon
1999, Kilcummin Set, County Kerry
2000, Galbally/Ballyhogue, County Wexford
2001, Kilcummin, County Kerry
2002, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
2003, Gleneagle, County Kerry
2004, Gleneagle, County Kerry
2005, Glenflesk, County Kerry
2006, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
2008, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
2009, St. Ciara's, County Clare
2010, Cill Áirne, County Kerry
2011, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
2012, Caisleán Nua, County Tipperary
2013, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
2014, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
2018, Rithim an Chláir, CCÉ, Laichtín Naofa, County Clare
2022, CCÉ, Cill Áirne, County Kerry
Set Dancing - Full Set, Mixed (Rince Seit, Measctha)
1990, The Banner Set, County Clare
1995, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
1996, Elphin set, County Roscommon
1997, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
1998, Tulla Set, County Clare
1999, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
2000, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
2001, Gleneagle, County Kerry
2002, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
2003, Gleneagle, County Kerry
2004, Gleneagle, County Kerry
2005, Knockcroghery, County Roscommon
2006, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
2008, Kincora, County Clare
2009, Diabhlaíocht na hÓige, County Clare
2010, Rhythm of the Banner, County Clare
2011, Drithle an Iarthair, County Clare
2012, Kilcummin, County Kerry - Rehabs
2013, Céimeanna - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
2014, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
2015, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
2016, Rithim an Clair, County Clare
2017, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
2018, Kilcummin, County Kerry
2022, Craobh an Choisdellibhe/Róisín Bn Uí Cheallaigh, County Mayo
Set Dancing - Half Set, Mixed (Rince Leathsheit, Measctha)
2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
2008, Cuilmore, County Mayo
2009, CCÉ, Cill Chuimín, County Kerry
2010, Ballyroan, County Laois
2011, Ballyduff/Ballinvella/Ballysaggart, CCÉ, County Waterford
2012, Kilcummin, County Kerry
2013, Ballyroan, County Laois
2014, Átha 'n Caoire, County Cork
2022, CCÉ, Kilcummin, County Kerry
Full Set, Mixed, Over 35 (Rince Seit Measctha, Os cionn 35)
2011, Ruagairí an Chláir, County Clare
2012, Ballyduff/Ballinvella/Ballysaggart, County Waterford
2013, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
2014, Kilcummin CCÉ, County Kerry
2022, Bunbrosna, County Westmeath
Old Style Dancing (Rince ar an Sean Nós)
2011, Una Ní Fhlatharta, County Kildare
2012, Sharleen McCaffrey, County Westmeath
2013, Siobhán Ní Ghionntaigh, County Mayo
2014, John Joyce, County Galway
2015, John Joyce, County Galway
2016, John Joyce, County Galway
2022, Eoin Killeen, County Clare
See also
Traditional Irish Singers
Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann
Irish Traditional Music
References
Irish music-related lists
All-Ireland Fleadh champions
Irish set dance |
4207921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konna%20Koi%20no%20Hanashi | Konna Koi no Hanashi | is a Japanese television drama starring Hiroyuki Sanada and Nanako Matsushima. It aired during the summer of 1997 in Japan and in 2001 on KONG-TV in the United States. The original 12 episodes were split into 14 for the U.S. showing. A Story of Love dealt with social issues including poverty in first world countries and class barriers in Tokyo.
Plot outline
Shuichiro Harashima (Hiroyuki Sanada), an upper-class and work-driven businessman, falls in love with Kaori Fujimura (Nanako Matsushima), a lower-class downtown sweetheart, and fights to save the doomed building in which she lives. Rumored to be cold-hearted and cruel, his love for Kaori and his growing friendship with her brother-in-law, Konosuke Shimodaira (Koji Tamaki), change him into a kind and caring person.
Extended plot
Shuichiro Harashima is a cold-hearted businessman, whose only goal in life is to work hard and make money. After his father died when he was a child, he inherited the Harashima Conglomerate, a large company with new plans to knock down homes in the poorer parts of Tokyo to build new ones for richer people. He is powerful, cruel, merciless, and corrupted in his dealings at work, leaving him extremely lonely in his personal life. His plans for the future are cut short when he discovers he has an advanced case of stomach cancer and will be dead within six months. While at the doctor's office, he meets Konosuke Shimodaira, a local do-gooder whose big heart normally causes more trouble than it helps. When Harashima lends Konosuke 50 yen to pay his doctor's bill, Konosuke insists on paying it back straight away. He takes him to a bar where Harashima meets Konosuke's friends Nakahata, who has a habit of lying and gambling, "Sensei", who is trying to get into law school, and Yosaku, who has very bad manners.
After drinking too much, Konosuke takes Harashima home and puts him up for the night. The next day, after leaving, Harashima realizes he's left the watch his father dropped when he died. But before he can go back and get it, he gets a phone call from the company. Harashima becomes ruthless and hard in dealing with the problem with the rival companies who had blackened his name in the press. He carries on with his daily routine, including visiting the main Harashima store, where his father had started out. He stays after everyone has gone home, thinking about his father and. as he leaves, he is mistaken for a worker at the store by a gardener dropping off a plant for the main display.
By a strange twist of fate, he bumps into Kaori Fujimura, a poor, loving young woman who lives and works in the world ruled by Harashima. She mistakes him for the gardener, despite his smart dress, and presumes he's getting ready for a date. When Kaori notices Harashima's jacket gets dusty, she insists on cleaning it for him. He sits and listens to how she feels about her work and the Harashima store. She explains that though the store is becoming less popular and she dislikes the owner (Harashima), she doesn't want the store to fold. This makes Harashima curious and he is already bewitched by Kaori's beauty and her sunny, optimistic nature. Though he is unaware at first, he realizes on their second meeting that he has fallen head-over-heels in love with her.
With the events that occur, Harashima begins to realize what the values of friendship, loyalty, and love mean—but will he be able to reverse the fate of Kaori and Konosuke's doomed homes before his fate catches up with him?
Cast
Hiroyuki Sanada as Shuichiro Harashima
Koji Tamaki as Konosuke Shimodaira
Nanako Matsushima as Kaori Fujimura
Naho Toda as Mayako Mizukoshi
Saya Takagi as Misao Fujimura
Yoko Saito as Hirano
Yoshimasa Kondo as Norihiko Nakahata
Hozumi Gōda as Dept. Chief Igarashi
Yuuichi Haba as Dept. Chief Domoto
Bsaku Satoh as Sensei
Kenta Satoi as Director Ninagawa
Yosuke Mikami as Shinpei Shimpaira
Main characters
Shuichiro Harashima
He inherited Harashima Enterprises from his father when he was only nine. Harashima is 35 years old. Originally they just had a main store and small chain stores, but Harashima expanded it thought Japan and other parts of Asia. His father died telling him that love was just in the mind, leaving Harashima cruel, cold-hearted and selfish. Though he agreed to marry Mayako, daughter of a powerful politician, he wishes for it to improve his company's standing not for love. Harashima finds out he is going to die in just six months and wishes to finish his work and seal the company safely before his death. However, upon meeting Kaori, he falls in love with her and is unable to stop thinking about her. Though he discourages Konosuke's attempts to become friends with him, he starts to (slowly) begins to care about others and not just his company. He was born on December 4, 1961.
Kaori Fujimura
Kaori is everything the other women in Harashima's life are not. She's modest, selfless and poor, which makes her very attractive to him. Despite her rough start in life, she has come through and tried her best to make something of herself. She finds that she can relate well to Harashima because of how much they have in common, e.g., they are both orphans. When Kaori was quite young, she was in love with a man who she was going to marry, but he has cheated on her leaving her heartbroken. Kaori took a job at the Harashima main store because it brought her so much joy as a child; looking at the beautiful displays made her want to create them when she grew up so she could bring the same amount of joy to other poor children. Her over-protective sister, who always reminds Kaori of her habit of trusting people to easily, scolds Kaori often. Kaori falls deeply in love with Harashima, as he does with her but they find it hard to be accepted by their friends and families as they belong to different classes in society. She's twenty-three-years old and lives with her elder sister, Misao. Although she only live with her sister, Kaori and her sister Misao had a close relationship with Konosuke and his son Shinpei and at somepoint Kaori acted as Shinpei surrogate sister, such as going out together with Shinpei to amusement park, helping Shinpei doing his homework and even sharing each other about their feelings and thought.
Konosuke Shimodaira
Konosuke is the exact opposite of Harashima and yet they share similar histories. His father died with a smile on his face, telling him that he should respect and care for his friends, that love is a wonderful feeling that should be acted on and treated carefully, and that being good to others will always win the day. Most of the time, this theory backfires on him, but then again, so does Harashima's theory. Nonetheless, he argues to Harashima that he has lived a happier life than he has without money and with just his friends and family. Konosuke has feelings for Kaori's sister, but due to his selfless attitude to life he doesn't realise it nor does he realise that Misao feels the same about him.
Mayako Mizukoshi
She is twenty-five-years old, Harashima's fiancée and daughter of a big-time politician. All her life she had dreamt of marrying someone she truly loved and she is upset at the fact Harashima doesn't love her. Troubled by the fact that Harashima seems to have fallen in love with Kaori, she at first attempts to stop him from seeing her. She doesn't hold it against her and is moved by Kaori's generosity and kindness. Despite the fact she loves Harashima, too, she thinks that if she allows Harashima to see Kaori, he'll become tired of her. However, after they promise not see each other again and Mayako finds them together. In the end, her engagement to Harashima is broken off and she goes to Europe to study art, inspired by Kaori.
Misao Fujimura
Misao is thirty years old and takes her responsibility of being Kaori's guardian very seriously despite the fact Kaori has grown up. When their parents died, Misao raised and looked after Kaori with the help of Konosuke and his family. She works at the factory with Konosuke and the others, and tends to call everyone "Idiot" if they do something to displease her. She has feelings for Konosuke but never has a chance to tell him as he is too wrapped up in Harashima and Kaori's affair.
Secondary characters
Hirano
Harashima's outstanding secretary who is the only person who Harashima trusts, even though he doesn't realise it. She is a loyal and devoted servant to Harashima. She has many contacts which in able her to help Harashima with many cases. At one point, she helps Konosuke find Harashima when he disappears.
Dept. Chief Igarashi
Igarashi is another top executive of Harashima Enterprises. Unlike Domoto who is greedy, merciless and thirst of power, Igarashi still have his humanitarian feeling in him and more prefer in emphasizing a Harashima Enterprises project which would give more benefit to the society. This can be seen by Igarashi proposal of the new town project that will be built in an area where Konosuke and Kaori Apartment are located, but will also suited with the existing society who already live in the area and gave more benefit to them, without using any cruel method such as demolizing and ousted the existing society who already live there which Domoto more prefer method. The proposal at first being rejected, but later-on was approved by Harashima who already gained his humanitarian feeling and was accepted. However, when Domoto ousted Harashima, Igarashi proposal was rejected and Igarashi was demouted. However Igarashi later-on work along together with Harashima and Hirano to oust Domoto and unveil his dirty business practice.
Dept. Chief Domoto
Merciless and cruel, Domoto has is eye of reaching the top of Harashima Enterprises. He often attempts to overthrow Harashima but is normally backed into a corner by Harashima's talent at being one step ahead of everyone. Domoto in described by others as a less attractive and less tolerable version of Harashima, who copies everything about Harashima, right down to his walk.
Mizukoshi
Mayako's father and a wealthy politician who cares only for money. He is selfish, bitter toward those who have little money and knows little about love. He uses Mayako as a way to get Harashima's money. He feels that anything can be solved with money. Upon finding that Kaori is Harashima's lover, he sends his secretary to give Kaori a "pay-off" in Harashima's name, without his knowledge. When Kaori sends the money back, the only reason he can imagine why she refused it was because it wasn't enough.
Norihiko Nakahata
Konosuke's friend who has a terrible gambling problem. As his debts rose he was forced the ask illegal dealers for a loan, who later came back to haunt him and blamed Konosuke who had agreed to be the guarantor. He tries to sell Harashima's father's watch to pay the debts, but it turned out be worthless. However, Harashima paid off his debts for him. Nakahata has a sick mother and Konosuke paid the fare for him to go and see her.
"Sensei"
Another one of Konosuke's friends, his real name is Sakai. Hoping to graduate law school and become a lawyer, the others rely on him to give them law advice. He is constantly turning to look in his law book to see if actions people make is legal. He takes over the factory after the president dies and even considers taking Harashima's offer of saving 10 of the workers. However, he decides to go down fighting with the other workers.
Yusaku
He's in his late twenties. He is one of the famous three who hang around with Konosuke, and he has a very bad temper. He's been in love with Kaori ever since high school, but she has never shown interest in him. When he finds out Kaori is Harashima's lover, he becomes terribly rude and says hurtful things to her. This is the only way he can deal with his rejection of her and his jealousy of Harashima.
Shinpei
Konosuke's nine-year-old son who regrets his poor life but loves his father very much. His mother tries to gain complete custody of him but he decides to stay with his father. Shinpei had a very close relation with Kaori and at somepoint Kaori acted as Shinpei's surrogate sister, such as helping Shinpei doing his homework, going together to amusement park and even sharing each other about their feelings and thought.
Zenkichi
Zenkichi owns the restaurant where Konosuke and the others live. He is very kind as he lend his money to his friends and the many causes they make. When Yusaku insults and has hostile feelings toward Kaori over her relationship with Harashima, he throws him out for not knowing how to treat a friend. His nature is similar to Konosuke's.
Episode summaries
There were 12 episodes in the original Japanese airing. They were expanded into 14 episodes for the US release.
Episode 1
Harashima finds out he has an incurable diseases and has little time left. Konosuke and the others face unemployment by the Harashima group. Meanwhile, Kaori meets an unknown stranger while working late at night. Later, Harashima returns to Konosuke in search of his watch only to discover that Nakahata has run away taking all the wages from the factory. Meanwhile, the unknown stranger comes to ask Kaori for a date. Elsewhere, Harashima finds out one of his workers has betrayed the company to one of their rivals.
Episode 2
Nakahata went back to the Zenkichi restaurant where Konosuke and his friends use to hangout and Harashima, while his identity are still unknown to Konosuke and his friends, was at a presence too. However while in there a group of debt collector confronted Nakahata and ask to repay the 2.5 Million Yen he borrowed from them and telling Nakahata the watch, which actually belong to Harashima and was stolen by Nakahata, given to them to repay the debt wasn't even worth the amount of money Nakahata owe to them. However to their dismay, Harashima suddenly came up with a bank cheque book and written them a cheque which amount 2.5 Million Yen or equivalent with the amount Nakahata owe to them. Much to their surprise, Nakahata then apologized and ask for forgiveness to The Stranger for stealing his watch and thanks him for paying off his debt. Harashima then told Nakahata that sometimes if people get blinded by money, they may do things that could gone out of control. Konosuke and his friends then decide to collect some amount of money to repay it back to Harashima as a courtesy for paying off Nakahata debt and ask Kaori to return it to Harashima. Later that night Kaori accompanied Shinpei due to Konosuke who fell ill. Much to their joyness, both Kaori and Shinpei now bound an elder sister and younger brother relationship, thus making Kaori as a surrogate sister figure for Shinpei.
Episode 3
Shinpei goes missing and everyone rushes out of work to find him. The man from Harashima Enterprises is there! Kaori while meeting The Stranger, then notified by Konosuke that Shinpei is missing, but has no idea where Shinpei is where about. However Kaori then realize that while playing together with Shinpei on the previous night, Shinpei then ask Kaori about a ride in amusement park such as screw coaster and carpet ride. Realize that Shinpei might have gone to an amusement park, The stranger and Kaori join in the search and indeed find Shinpai at a park near the amusement park. Shinpei then told Kaori that he was bullied by his classmate because Shinpei never go into amusement park. Saddened by the stories that Shinpei told, Kaori then took Shinpei to the amusement park and promise Shinpei to have a fun and joy in the amusement park. However once they arrived in the amusement park, the park has already closed, but later on to their surprise the amusement park then reopen again and the guard said that Kaori and Shinpei were given special service to the amusement park, along with The stranger. Both Shinpei, Kaori and The stranger spend much of fun and joy in the amusement park. However while everything is going so well in the amusement park, Kaori finds out that the stranger turns out to be Harashima, who actually own the amusement park and the one who order the amusement park to be reopen and given them special service. Learning that the Stranger is Harashima, Kaori runs off with Shinpei in humiliation.
Episode 4
The man from Harashima Enterprises try to use the reason that Konosuke along with other factory worker rushes out of work to find Shinpei as an excuse to fire them all in order to go through the process for closing the factory, however after listening the excuse, instead of agree with the man's idea and suggestion, Harashima gone furious and berated the man for being inhumanity. However much of the factory employees are still refuse with the closing plan of the factory by Harashima group, including The President of the factory which later-on confronted Harashima. The president of the factory dies after meeting the wrath of Harashima. As a result, Konosuke goes to see him and finds out who Harashima really is. Meanwhile, in Harashima's other life, he is overjoyed to see Kaori and even more thrilled that she has forgiven him. Mayako witnesses this and starts to worry that Harashima is having an affair.
Episode 5
Misao catches on to Kaori and Harashima's secret "affair" and confides in Konosuke her concerns. Meanwhile, "Sensei" confides in Harashima that people from Harashima Enterprises had approached him with an offer to save 10 of the workers at the factory. Konosuke realises Harashima's will never change and he tells him he must never go near Kaori again.
Episode 6
Kaori meets Mayako and is surprised when she claims to not mind if Harashima is seeing her. Misao finds out who Harashima and forbids Kaori from seeing him but Kaori runs away. When hearing this, Harashima rushes out into the night to find her — leaving Mayako cold.
Episode 7
News gets out that Kaori spent the night with a wealthy man as Konosuke and Misao try to make sense of Kaori's feelings for Harashima. Mizukoshi finds out about Harashima's affair with Kaori, and Kaori's love is nearly dashed when a man claiming to be Harashima's servant offers her money in return for her silence. Kaori refuse the money and Konosuke who learn about it, later confront Harashima whom he thought to be the one responsible in ordering the servant to offer Kaori the silence money and Konosuke also told Harashima how Kaori are still deep in-love with him. Later-on in the night, Harashima came by to Konosuke's apartment to see Kaori to explain to him what really happened. However Harashima suddenly collapsed and was brought to Hospital by Konosuke, there Konosuke learn that Harashima is terminally ill and only have three months left to live. Saddened by what he heard, Konosuke then embrace Harashima and told him that he was very sorry for being mistaken about him this whole time.
Episode 8
Kaori learn that Harashima visited her apartment and was brought to the hospital due to collapsed, when Kaori got into the hospital, Harashima already left. Later-on the next day, Shinpei asked Kaori to help him with his homework and while helping Shinpei doing his Homework, Kaori asked Shinpei why did Harashima came by to her apartment last night. Shinpei then tell Kaori that Harashima was actually intend to meet Kaori to tell her something while she's not there. Later-on while in the factory, Norihiko admit to Konosuke that his mother is terminally ill and that was the reason he is in a hugh debt. Under the advice of Konosuke, Norihiko then left Tokyo to go back to his hometown in-order to accompany his terminally ill mother. Meanwhile, a fire occurs on the department store and turns-out the fire came from Kaori display. Taking the blame for the fire, Kaori then offer her resignation and accept responsibility for it. However Harashima order for re-investigation of the cause of the fire at the Department Store which turns-out it was not came from Kaori Display. The head of the Department Store then apologized to Kaori and Kaori resume her work. Few days later while working at the Department Store, Mayako came by to see Kaori and the two going for lunch together. There Mayako admit that it was actually her father who send the servant to give Kaori the silence money and not Harashima.
Episode 9
Shinpei asked Konosuke permission to go to the swimming pool. However turns-out Shinpei go visit his mother instead of going to swimming pool. Harashima who took notice of Shinpei going with someone instead of Konosuke then try to find-out what's going on. Shinpei's mother and Konosuke ex-wife convince Shinpei to leave Konosuke and live with her, especially due to Konosuke poor economic condition. Shinpei who's now confuse whether he should stay with his Father or go with his Mother, later-on ask both Kaori and Harashima for advice. Shinpei then decided to live with his mother and Harashima, over the request of Konosuke who can't take seeing Shinpei left him, agree to drive Shinpei to his mother. However at the last minute Shinpei change his mind and decided to stay living with Konosuke. Later at night, Kaori went out together with Shinpei to cheer him up, while the two eat together at a fast-food restaurant, Kaori then asked Shinpei why he suddenly changed his mind and decided to live with Konosuke, instead of with his mother. Shinpei told Kaori that not only he doesn't want to leave his father and his father's friend whom he already consider as his genuine family and much to Kaori's surprise that most of all Shinpei did not want to leave Kaori whom he admit that he already consider her as not only his sister, but also Kaori as his sibling like figure for Shinpei and he's been so thankful for Kaori's gracious to Shinpei this whole time, from Playing together with Shinpei, helping him doing his homework, going to amusement park together, spending time together and most of all accompanied Shinpei this whole time while he's alone. Kaori who was very touched by what Shinpei said, then embraced Shinpei in happiness and Kaori promise to Shinpei that she will not leave him alone and will be there for him every time he feels alone and in need of a company.
Episode 10
Harashima who's know getting along very well with Konosuke, Kaori and their entourage, finally change his mind regarding the development project for the area where the factory and apartment where Konosuke, Kaori and their entourage live located. Harashima then decided to meet with the people around the apartment neighborhood. To their surprise, Konosuke entourage, from Norihiko, Yusaku, Sensei and Zenkichi, shocked to learn that The Stranger who already helped payoff Norihiko debt and done so many good things towards them is actually Harashima. However Harashima told all the people in the neighborhood that he has change his mind regarding the project and will give allowances for those who decided to move from the area and for those who decided to stay in the area will be given special privilege in-order for them to continue to live in the neighborhood. To their surprise Harashima decision shocked not only the people in the neighborhood, but also other Harashima employee including Dept. Chief Domoto who's expecting to take as many profit as he can from the project.
Episode 11
Kaori learns after overhearing Konosuke and Misao conversation that Harashima is terminally ill and only had three months to live. Saddened by what she overheard, Kaori then went to Harashima House and told him that she is indeed love him very much no matter what happened, even if he's only had three months to live. Meanwhile, the board in Harashima Enterprise grew furious over Harashima decision to change the project and decided to take any means necessary to kick Harashima from the chairman position. Meanwhile, Dept. Chief Domoto finds-out about Harashima terminal illness and decide to use it as a reason to kick Harashima from chairman position.
Episode 12
Harashima is kick out of his position as Chairman of Harashima Enterprise by after the board was convince by Dept. Chief Domoto. The event reminds him of what his late father said that "Love" and "Friendship" is just a temporary illusion. However, after being accompanied by Kaori and Konosuke along with Harashima secretary Hirano and his old friend Igarashi, Harashima realize that he is not alone and still have people around him who cares towards him.
Episode 13
Harashima with the help of Hirano and Igarashi engineer a plan to take down Domoto who turns-out working with Mayako's father, Mizukoshi in-order to get rid of Harashima, to bring them down and expose their dirt. Harashima and Kaori also grew their relationship and reconcile. The two then spending their time together and Harashima ask Kaori to stay by his side no matter what happen which Kaori without a doubt agree. However Domoto's who is now in-charge of Harashima Enterprise then rush to demolish the apartment and using thugs to evict the Apartment, including Kaori and Misao room. While protecting Misao from Domoto's thugs, Konosuke accidentally injured one of the thugs and was arrested by police. Konosuke who is now imprison, leaving Shinpei alone but was taking under the care of Kaori and Misao. However Harashima later bail Konosuke out of prison and admit to Konosuke and his entourage that after spending time with Konosuke, Kaori and their entourage, Harashima realize something meaningful in this life and in-return will make an amend, by giving something that will benefit them.
Episode 14
Harashima with the help of Hirano and Igarashi and Mayako finally managed to retrieve the file which contain all the dirt of his company which implicate Domoto and Mayako's father, Mizukoshi, about the corruption practice between people within Harashima Enterprise, which include Harashima himself and Domoto, and Mizukoshi. Harashima, Domoto and Mizukoshi later-on arrested by the authority. However Harashima was released early after agree to cooperate with the authority in-order to expose the corruption scheme. After being release from Prison, Harashima was waited by non other then, Kaori, Konosuke, Misao, Hirano, Igarashi and along with all of Konosuke friend who's now change their perception towards Harashima and apologize for misjudging Harashima. Harashima also learn that he is now not alone and although he only had three months to live, he still had friend who is willing to stay by his side, even when he is in trouble.
Epilogue
Konosuke finally agreed to propose Misao and the two decided to get married. Harashima offer Konosuke to held the wedding at his Villa and ask Konosuke, Kaori, Misao, Shinpei and all of their friends to spend their time together in his Villa in-order to get some more happiness and joyness in-which Konosuke undoubtedly agreed. They all having so much fun and joyness at Konosuke's wedding that was held in Harashima's Villa. There Kaori also admit to Harashima that she never regret no matter what happen for getting to know Harashima and fall-in love with him which Harashima also express the same feeling towards Kaori. In the climax it is revealed that Harashima finally succumb to his illness and a year has passed since Harashima passed away, Kaori, Konosuke, Misao, Shinpei, now also accompany by Mayako and all of Konosuke's friend spending their time again in Harashima Villa which turns out was inherited to Kaori and Konosuke and was use by all of them for once a year gathering in the date where Harashima passed away.
Issues in A Story of Love
Poverty in developed countries
Class barriers in Tokyo
Homelessness
Debts and money problems
Illegal dealings with money
Death/loss
Cancer/premature death
Unemployment
Arranged marriage
Inter-class marriage/romance/affairs
External links
Fan Site (Taiwanese)
Jdorama
English Fan site
Japanese drama television series
1997 Japanese television series debuts
1997 Japanese television series endings
Fuji TV dramas |
4208015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Raj | British Raj | The British Raj ( ; from Hindi , 'kingdom', 'realm', 'state', or 'empire') was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; it is also called Crown rule in India,
or Direct rule in India, and lasted from 1858 to 1947. The region under British control was commonly called India in contemporaneous usage and included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom, which were collectively called British India, and areas ruled by indigenous rulers, but under British paramountcy, called the princely states. The region was sometimes called the Indian Empire, though not officially.
As India, it was a founding member of the League of Nations, a participating nation in the Summer Olympics in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936, and a founding member of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945.
This system of governance was instituted on 28 June 1858, when, after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who, in 1876, was proclaimed Empress of India). It lasted until 1947, when the British Raj was partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: Union of India (later the Republic of India) and Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan). Later, the People's Republic of Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan. At the inception of the Raj in 1858, Lower Burma was already a part of British India; Upper Burma was added in 1886, and the resulting union, Burma, was administered as an autonomous province until 1937, when it became a separate British colony, gaining its own independence in 1948. It was renamed Myanmar in 1989. The Chief Commissioner's Province of Aden was also at the inception of the British Raj, part of British India. It also became a separate colony known as Aden Colony in 1937.
Geographical extent
The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, except for small holdings by other European nations such as Goa and Pondicherry. This area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar Desert. In addition, at various times, it included Aden (from 1858 to 1937), Lower Burma (from 1858 to 1937), Upper Burma (from 1886 to 1937), British Somaliland (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and the Straits Settlements (briefly from 1858 to 1867). Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf and the other states under the Persian Gulf Residency were theoretically princely states as well as presidencies and provinces of British India until 1947 and used the rupee as their unit of currency.
Among other countries in the region, Ceylon, which was referred to coastal regions and northern part of the island at that time (now Sri Lanka) was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. These coastal regions were temporarily administered under Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, but for later periods the British governors reported to London, and it was not part of the Raj. The kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861; however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, but not part of British India.
History
1858–1868: rebellion aftermath, critiques, and responses
Although the Indian Rebellion of 1857 had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. Until 1857, the British, especially under Lord Dalhousie, had been hurriedly building an India which they envisaged to be on par with Britain itself in the quality and strength of its economic and social institutions. After the rebellion, they became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion and three main lessons were drawn. First, at a practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians—not just between British army officers and their Indian staff but in civilian life as well. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded. New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on, the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947. The 1861 Census had revealed that the English population in India was 125,945. Of these only about 41,862 were civilians as compared with about 84,083 European officers and men of the Army. In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 Natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.
Second, it was also felt that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words, "breakwaters in a storm". They too were rewarded in the new British Raj by being integrated into the British-Indian political system and having their territories guaranteed. At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh).
Third, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until the rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on sati by Lord William Bentinck. It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion, even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows). This was exemplified further in Queen Victoria's Proclamation released immediately after the rebellion. The proclamation stated that 'We disclaim alike our Right and Desire to impose Our Convictions on any of Our Subjects'; demonstrating official British commitment to abstaining from social intervention in India.
1858–1880: railways, canals, Famine Code
In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw the rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India, and telegraph links were equally rapidly established so that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland, could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England. Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. Unlike Britain, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million. Despite these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with the fourth largest railway network in the world and a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the Indian Railways were held by Indians.
The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets. Many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders. The latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale famines in India. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying, and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations. There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption. The railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry. After, the Great Famine of 1876–1878, The Indian Famine Commission report was issued in 1880, and the Indian Famine Codes, the earliest famine scales and programmes for famine prevention, were instituted. In one form or other, they would be implemented worldwide by the United Nations and the Food and Agricultural Organisation well into the 1970s.
1880s–1890s: middle class, Indian National Congress
By 1880, a new middle class had arisen in India and spread thinly across the country. Moreover, there was a growing solidarity among its members, created by the "joint stimuli of encouragement and irritation". The encouragement felt by this class came from its success in education and its ability to avail itself of the benefits of that education such as employment in the Indian Civil Service. It came too from Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858 in which she had declared, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects." Indians were especially encouraged when Canada was granted dominion status in 1867 and established an autonomous democratic constitution. Lastly, the encouragement came from the work of contemporaneous Oriental scholars like Monier Monier-Williams and Max Müller, who in their works had been presenting ancient India as a great civilisation. Irritation, on the other hand, came not just from incidents of racial discrimination at the hands of the British in India, but also from governmental actions like the use of Indian troops in imperial campaigns (e.g. in the Second Anglo-Afghan War) and the attempts to control the vernacular press (e.g. in the Vernacular Press Act of 1878).
It was, however, Viceroy Lord Ripon's partial reversal of the Ilbert Bill (1883), a legislative measure that had proposed putting Indian judges in the Bengal Presidency on equal footing with British ones, that transformed the discontent into political action. On 28 December 1885, professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class—many educated at the new British-founded universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers, especially the utilitarians assembled in Bombay. The seventy men founded the Indian National Congress; Womesh Chunder Bonerjee was elected the first president. The membership comprised a westernised elite and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base.
During its first twenty years, the Congress primarily debated British policy toward India; however, its debates created a new Indian outlook that held Great Britain responsible for draining India of its wealth. Britain did this, the nationalists claimed, by unfair trade, by the restraint on indigenous Indian industry, and by the use of Indian taxes to pay the high salaries of the British civil servants in India.
Thomas Baring served as Viceroy of India 1872–1876. Baring's major accomplishments came as an energetic reformer who was dedicated to upgrading the quality of government in the British Raj. He began large scale famine relief, reduced taxes, and overcame bureaucratic obstacles in an effort to reduce both starvation and widespread social unrest. Although appointed by a Liberal government, his policies were much the same as viceroys appointed by Conservative governments.
Social reform was in the air by the 1880s. For example, Pandita Ramabai, poet, Sanskrit scholar, and a champion of the emancipation of Indian women, took up the cause of widow remarriage, especially of Brahmin widows, later converted to Christianity. By 1900 reform movements had taken root within the Indian National Congress. Congress member Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society, which lobbied for legislative reform (for example, for a law to permit the remarriage of Hindu child widows), and whose members took vows of poverty, and worked among the untouchable community.
By 1905, a deep gulf opened between the moderates, led by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new "extremists" who not only advocated agitation, but also regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Prominent among the extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who attempted to mobilise Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity, displayed, for example, in the annual public Ganapati festivals that he inaugurated in western India.
1905–1911: Partition of Bengal, Swadeshi, violence
The viceroy, Lord Curzon (1899–1905), was unusually energetic in pursuit of efficiency and reform. His agenda included the creation of the North-West Frontier Province; small changes in the civil services; speeding up the operations of the secretariat; setting up a gold standard to ensure a stable currency; creation of a Railway Board; irrigation reform; reduction of peasant debts; lowering the cost of telegrams; archaeological research and the preservation of antiquities; improvements in the universities; police reforms; upgrading the roles of the Native States; a new Commerce and Industry Department; promotion of industry; revised land revenue policies; lowering taxes; setting up agricultural banks; creating an Agricultural Department; sponsoring agricultural research; establishing an Imperial Library; creating an Imperial Cadet Corps; new famine codes; and, indeed, reducing the smoke nuisance in Calcutta.
Trouble emerged for Curzon when he divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the Bengal Province, into the Muslim-majority province of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the Hindu-majority province of West Bengal (present-day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha). Curzon's act, the Partition of Bengal, had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, but was never acted upon. Though some considered it administratively felicitous, it was communally charged. It sowed the seeds of division among Indians in Bengal, transforming nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly.
Following the Partition of Bengal, which was a strategy set out by Lord Curzon to weaken the nationalist movement, Tilak encouraged the Swadeshi movement and the Boycott movement. The movement consisted of the boycott of foreign goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Bal Gangadhar Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin. The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (the Bhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi ("buy Indian") campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, and involved boycott of British goods.
The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram ("Hail to the Mother"), which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess Kali. Sri Aurobindo never went beyond the law when he edited the Bande Mataram magazine; it preached independence but within the bounds of peace as far as possible. Its goal was Passive Resistance. The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when students returned home to their villages and towns. Some joined local political youth clubs emerging in Bengal at the time, some engaged in robberies to fund arms, and even attempted to take the lives of Raj officials. However, the conspiracies generally failed in the face of intense police work. The Swadeshi boycott movement cut imports of British textiles by 25%. The swadeshi cloth, although more expensive and somewhat less comfortable than its Lancashire competitor, was worn as a mark of national pride by people all over India.
1870s–1906: Muslim social movements, Muslim League
The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear in its wake of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, led the Muslim elite in India to meet with the new viceroy, Lord Minto
in 1906 and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca. Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the revelations of the Census of British India in 1871, which had for the first time estimated the populations in regions of the Muslim majority (for his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census—and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the 1857 Mutiny and the Second Anglo-Afghan War—about Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown). In the three decades since, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. The Arya Samaj, for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation, but also—distraught at the 1871 Census's Muslim numbers—organized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around the symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram", had first appeared in the novel Anand Math in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors. Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it Dacca Nawab, Khwaja Salimullah, who hosted the League's first meeting in his mansion in Shahbag, was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.
The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members.
The Indian Councils Act 1909, known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Minto was viceroy)—gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures. Upper-class Indians, rich landowners and businessmen were favoured. The Muslim community was made a separate electorate and granted double representation. The goals were quite conservative but they did advance the elective principle.
The partition of Bengal was rescinded in 1911 and announced at the Delhi Durbar at which King George V came in person and was crowned Emperor of India. He announced the capital would be moved from Calcutta to Delhi. This period saw an increase in the activities of revolutionary groups, which included Bengal's Anushilan Samiti and the Punjab's Ghadar Party. However, the British authorities were able to crush violent rebels swiftly, partly because the mainstream of educated Indian politicians opposed violent revolution.
1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact, Home Rule leagues
The First World War would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Shortly before the outbreak of war, the Government of India had indicated that they could furnish two divisions plus a cavalry brigade, with a further division in case of emergency. Some 1.4million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army took part in the war, primarily in Iraq and the Middle East. Their participation had a wider cultural fallout as news spread of how bravely soldiers fought and died alongside British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia. India's international profile rose during the 1920s, as it became a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participated, under the name "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, the war led to calls for greater self-government for Indians.
At the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia, had led the previous viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops". Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently, in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act 1915, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process, and added to the power it already had—under the 1910 Press Act—both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press. It was under the Defence of India act that the Ali brothers were imprisoned in 1916, and Annie Besant, a European woman, and ordinarily more problematic to imprison, was arrested in 1917. Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and, simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists, and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime.
After the 1906 split between the moderates and the extremists in the Indian National Congress, organised political activity by the Congress had remained fragmented until 1914, when Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison and began to sound out other Congress leaders about possible reunification. That, however, had to wait until the demise of Tilak's principal moderate opponents, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta, in 1915, whereupon an agreement was reached for Tilak's ousted group to re-enter the Congress. In the 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress, Tilak's supporters were able to push through a more radical resolution which asked for the British to declare that it was their "aim and intention ... to confer self-government on India at an early date". Soon, other such rumblings began to appear in public pronouncements: in 1917, in the Imperial Legislative Council, Madan Mohan Malaviya spoke of the expectations the war had generated in India, "I venture to say that the war has put the clock ... fifty years forward ... (The) reforms after the war will have to be such, ... as will satisfy the aspirations of her (India's) people to take their legitimate part in the administration of their own country."
The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims. In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800members and did not yet have the wider following among Indian Muslims that it enjoyed in later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause; however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal; nonetheless, at the time, the "Lucknow Pact" was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen as such by the British.
During 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were founded within the Indian National Congress by Tilak and Annie Besant, respectively, to promote Home Rule among Indians, and also to elevate the stature of the founders within the Congress itself. Besant, for her part, was also keen to demonstrate the superiority of this new form of organised agitation, which had achieved some success in the Irish home rule movement, over the political violence that had intermittently plagued the subcontinent during the years 1907–1914. The two Leagues focused their attention on complementary geographical regions: Tilak's in western India, in the southern Bombay presidency, and Besant's in the rest of the country, but especially in the Madras Presidency and in regions like Sind and Gujarat that had hitherto been considered politically dormant by the Congress. Both leagues rapidly acquired new members—approximately thirtythousand each in a little over a year—and began to publish inexpensive newspapers. Their propaganda also turned to posters, pamphlets, and political-religious songs, and later to mass meetings, which not only attracted greater numbers than in earlier Congress sessions, but also entirely new social groups such as non-Brahmins, traders, farmers, students, and lower-level government workers. Although they did not achieve the magnitude or character of a nationwide mass movement, the Home Rule leagues both deepened and widened organised political agitation for self-rule in India. The British authorities reacted by imposing restrictions on the Leagues, including shutting out students from meetings and banning the two leaders from travelling to certain provinces.
1915–1918: return of Gandhi
The year 1915 also saw the return of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to India. Already known in India as a result of his civil liberties protests on behalf of the Indians in South Africa, Gandhi followed the advice of his mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale and chose not to make any public pronouncements during the first year of his return, but instead spent the year travelling, observing the country at first hand, and writing. Earlier, during his South Africa sojourn, Gandhi, a lawyer by profession, had represented an Indian community, which, although small, was sufficiently diverse to be a microcosm of India itself. In tackling the challenge of holding this community together and simultaneously confronting the colonial authority, he had created a technique of non-violent resistance, which he labelled Satyagraha (or Striving for Truth). For Gandhi, Satyagraha was different from "passive resistance", by then a familiar technique of social protest, which he regarded as a practical strategy adopted by the weak in the face of superior force; Satyagraha, on the other hand, was for him the "last resort of those strong enough in their commitment to truth to undergo suffering in its cause". Ahimsa or "non-violence", which formed the underpinning of Satyagraha, came to represent the twin pillar, with Truth, of Gandhi's unorthodox religious outlook on life. During the years 1907–1914, Gandhi tested the technique of Satyagraha in a number of protests on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa against the unjust racial laws.
Also, during his time in South Africa, in his essay, Hind Swaraj, (1909), Gandhi formulated his vision of Swaraj, or "self-rule" for India based on three vital ingredients: solidarity between Indians of different faiths, but most of all between Hindus and Muslims; the removal of untouchability from Indian society; and the exercise of swadeshi—the boycott of manufactured foreign goods and the revival of Indian cottage industry. The first two, he felt, were essential for India to be an egalitarian and tolerant society, one befitting the principles of Truth and Ahimsa, while the last, by making Indians more self-reliant, would break the cycle of dependence that was perpetuating not only the direction and tenor of the British rule in India, but also the British commitment to it. At least until 1920, the British presence itself was not a stumbling block in Gandhi's conception of swaraj; rather, it was the inability of Indians to create a modern society.
Gandhi made his political debut in India in 1917 in Champaran district in Bihar, near the Nepal border, where he was invited by a group of disgruntled tenant farmers who, for many years, had been forced into planting indigo (for dyes) on a portion of their land and then selling it at below-market prices to the British planters who had leased them the land. Upon his arrival in the district, Gandhi was joined by other agitators, including a young Congress leader, Rajendra Prasad, from Bihar, who would become a loyal supporter of Gandhi and go on to play a prominent role in the Indian independence movement. When Gandhi was ordered to leave by the local British authorities, he refused on moral grounds, setting up his refusal as a form of individual Satyagraha. Soon, under pressure from the Viceroy in Delhi who was anxious to maintain domestic peace during wartime, the provincial government rescinded Gandhi's expulsion order, and later agreed to an official enquiry into the case. Although the British planters eventually gave in, they were not won over to the farmers' cause, and thereby did not produce the optimal outcome of a Satyagraha that Gandhi had hoped for; similarly, the farmers themselves, although pleased at the resolution, responded less than enthusiastically to the concurrent projects of rural empowerment and education that Gandhi had inaugurated in keeping with his ideal of swaraj. The following year Gandhi launched two more Satyagrahas—both in his native Gujarat—one in the rural Kaira district where land-owning farmers were protesting increased land-revenue and the other in the city of Ahmedabad, where workers in an Indian-owned textile mill were distressed about their low wages. The satyagraha in Ahmedabad took the form of Gandhi fasting and supporting the workers in a strike, which eventually led to a settlement. In Kaira, in contrast, although the farmers' cause received publicity from Gandhi's presence, the satyagraha itself, which consisted of the farmers' collective decision to withhold payment, was not immediately successful, as the British authorities refused to back down. The agitation in Kaira gained for Gandhi another lifelong lieutenant in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who had organised the farmers, and who too would go on to play a leadership role in the Indian independence movement.
1916–1919: Montagu–Chelmsford reforms
In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realisation, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith—in light of the Indian war role—through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but, most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal secretary of state for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire". Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces—with India emphatically within the British Empire—it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.
Montagu and Chelmsford presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter. After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes. Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces. The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new diarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil services and the army officer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of the Minto–Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. Its scope was unsatisfactory to the Indian political leadership, famously expressed by Annie Besant as something "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept".
1917–1919: Rowlatt Act
In 1917, as Montagu and Chelmsford were compiling their report, a committee chaired by a British judge, Sidney Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating "revolutionary conspiracies", with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers. The Rowlatt Committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab. To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects, and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.
With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By the end of 1919, 1.5million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146million in revenue for the war. The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920. Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis, and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces, a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes, and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.
To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills. Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peacetime to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary." In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was, nevertheless, able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919. However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements", dropping entirely the second bill involving modification the Indian Penal Code. Even so, when it was passed, the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India, and brought Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.
1919–1939: Jallianwala, non-cooperation, GOI Act 1935
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or "Amritsar massacre", took place in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of Amritsar. After days of unrest Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men, women, and children without warning. Casualty estimates vary widely, with the Government of India reporting 379dead, with 1,100wounded. The Indian National Congress estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj. Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India.
In 1920, after the British government refused to back down, Gandhi began his campaign of non-cooperation, prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours, to resign from the civil services, and to again boycott British goods. In addition, Gandhi reorganised the Congress, transforming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to even the poorest Indians. Although Gandhi halted the non-cooperation movement in 1922 after the violent incident at Chauri Chaura, the movement revived again, in the mid-1920s.
The visit, in 1928, of the British Simon Commission, charged with instituting constitutional reform in India, resulted in widespread protests throughout the country. Earlier, in 1925, non-violent protests of the Congress had resumed too, this time in Gujarat, and led by Patel, who organised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes; the success of this protest, the Bardoli Satyagraha, brought Gandhi back into the fold of active politics.
At its annual session in Lahore, the Indian National Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, issued a demand for Purna Swaraj (Hindustani language: "complete independence"), or Purna Swarajya. The declaration was drafted by the Congress Working Committee, which included Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. Gandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil disobedience, culminating in 1930 with the Salt Satyagraha, in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt, by marching to the sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Although, many, including Gandhi, were arrested, the British government eventually gave in, and in 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the Round Table Conferences.
In local terms, British control rested on the Indian Civil Service (ICS), but it faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and the continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was divided loyalty between the Empire and independence. The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.
In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1935, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future Constitution of independent India was based on this act. However, it divided the electorate into 19 religious and social categories, e.g., Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, Landholders, Commerce and Industry, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, etc., each of which was given separate representation in the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category.
The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from 473,000 in 1935 to 4.5million in 1939.
In the 1937 elections Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India. Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. The widespread voter support for the Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body. The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as a ploy to exclude Burmese from any further Indian reforms.
1939–1945: World War II
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces, Bengal, Sind and the Punjab.
While the Muslim League had been a small elite group in 1927 with only 1300members, it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses, reaching 500,000members in Bengal in 1944, 200,000 in Punjab, and hundreds of thousands elsewhere. Jinnah now was well positioned to negotiate with the British from a position of power. Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. On 24 March 1940 in Lahore, the League passed the "Lahore Resolution", demanding that, "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Ab'ul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A. K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Fazl-i-Hussain of the landlord-dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd al-Ghaffar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmatgar (popularly, "red shirts") in the North West Frontier Province, the British, over the next six years, were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.
The Congress was secular and strongly opposed to having any religious state. It insisted there was a natural unity to India, and repeatedly blamed the British for "divide and rule" tactics based on prompting Muslims to think of themselves as alien from Hindus. Jinnah rejected the notion of a united India, and emphasised that religious communities were more basic than an artificial nationalism. He proclaimed the Two-Nation Theory, stating at Lahore on 23 March 1940:
While the regular Indian army in 1939 included about 220,000native troops, it expanded tenfold during the war, and small naval and air force units were created. Over twomillion Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army. They played a major role in numerous campaigns, especially in the Middle East and North Africa. Casualties were moderate (in terms of the world war), with 24,000killed; 64,000 wounded; 12,000missing (probably dead), and 60,000captured at Singapore in 1942.
London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army, which had the effect of erasing India's national debt; it ended the war with a surplus of £1,300million. In addition, heavy British spending on munitions produced in India (such as uniforms, rifles, machine-guns, field artillery, and ammunition) led to a rapid expansion of industrial output, such as textiles (up 16%), steel (up 18%), and chemicals (up 30%). Small warships were built, and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. The railway system, with 700,000 employees, was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared.
The British government sent the Cripps mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended. Top officials in Britain, most notably Prime Minister Winston Churchill, did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.
Congress launched the Quit India Movement in July 1942 demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national, provincial and local Congress leaders, holding tens of thousands of them until 1945. The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. The large wartime British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks; nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal. In other parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive; however, it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943.
Earlier, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the Indian National Congress in the late 1920s and 1930s, had risen to become Congress President from 1938 to 1939. However, he was ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the high command, and subsequently placed under house arrest by the British before escaping from India in early 1941. He turned to Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan for help in gaining India's independence by force. With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese in the Battle of Singapore. As the war turned against them, the Japanese came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, and in addition, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind, presided by Bose.
Bose's effort, however, was short-lived. In mid-1944 the British Army first halted and then reversed the Japanese U-Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose's Indian National Army largely disintegrated during the subsequent fighting in Burma, with its remaining elements surrendering with the recapture of Singapore in September 1945. Bose died in August from third degree burns received after attempting to escape in an overloaded Japanese plane which crashed in Taiwan, which many Indians believe did not happen. Although Bose was unsuccessful, he roused patriotic feelings in India.
1946–1947: Independence, Partition
In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the secretary of state for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.
Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers. The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences, created positive propaganda for the Congress, which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout British India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.
Later that year, the British Exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, and the Labour government conscious that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. With the partition of India, the end of the British rule in India in August 1947 saw the creation of two separate states of India and Pakistan.
On 15 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan (later Islamic Republic of Pakistan), with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as the governor-general; and the Dominion of India, (later Republic of India) with Jawaharlal Nehru as the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first governor-general came into being; with official ceremonies taking place in Karachi on 14 August and New Delhi on 15 August. This was done so that Mountbatten could attend both ceremonies.
The great majority of Indians remained in place with independence, but in border areas millions of people (Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu) relocated across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders, among both the refugee and resident populations of the three faiths, died in the violence.
Timeline of major events, legislation, and public works
British India and the princely states
India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: British India and the Native States (or Princely States). In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions in Section 18:
In general, the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) to refer also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also been used to refer to the "British in India".
The terms "Indian Empire" and "Empire of India" (like the term "British Empire") were not used in legislation. The monarch was officially known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victoria's Queen's Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. In addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878.
Suzerainty over 175 princely states, some of the largest and most important, was exercised (in the name of the British Crown) by the central government of British India under the viceroy; the remaining approximately 500 states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner (as the case might have been). A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.
Major provinces
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eightprovinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor.
During the partition of Bengal (1905–1913), the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Minor provinces
In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a chief commissioner:
Princely states
A Princely State, also called a Native State or an Indian State, was a British vassal state in India with an indigenous nominal Indian ruler, subject to a subsidiary alliance. There were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India (i.e. the presidencies and provinces), as they were not directly under British rule. The larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had; in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control. The British also exercised a general influence over the states' internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the great majority were very small and contracted out the business of government to the British. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than . The last vestige of the Mughal Empire in Delhi which was under Company authority prior to the advent of British Raj was finally abolished and seized by the Crown in the aftermath of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 for its support to the rebellion.
The princely states were grouped into agencies and residencies.
Organisation
Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (usually called the Indian Mutiny by the British), the Government of India Act 1858 made changes in the governance of India at three levels:
in the imperial government in London,
in the central government in Calcutta, and
in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces).
In London, it provided for a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India and a fifteen-member Council of India, whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before. Although the secretary of state formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. However, the secretary of state also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated. From 1858 until 1947, twenty-seven individuals served as Secretary of State for India and directed the India Office; these included: Sir Charles Wood (1859–1866), the Marquess of Salisbury (1874–1878; later British prime minister), John Morley (1905–1910; initiator of the Minto–Morley Reforms), E. S. Montagu (1917–1922; an architect of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms), and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence (1945–1947; head of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India). The size of the Advisory Council was reduced over the next half-century, but its powers remained unchanged. In 1907, for the first time, two Indians were appointed to the Council. They were K.G. Gupta and Syed Hussain Bilgrami.
In Calcutta, the governor-general remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states; he was, however, now responsible to the secretary of state in London and through him to Parliament. A system of "double government" had already been in place during the Company's rule in India from the time of Pitt's India Act of 1784. The governor-general in the capital, Calcutta, and the governor in a subordinate presidency (Madras or Bombay) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (i.e. the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). The Company's system of "double government" had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been intermittent feuding between the governor-general and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance. However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead, so he requested the "portfolio system" of an Executive Council in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single council member. Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, but important decisions required the consent of the governor-general and, in the absence of such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the Indian Councils Act 1861.
If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed official) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed non-official) and serving only in an advisory capacity. All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the secretary of state in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second secretary of state, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home". Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by Sayyid Ahmad Khan, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative. Even so, the "... tiny advances in the practice of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion, which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion". Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British Parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.
With the promulgation of the Government of India Act 1935, the Council of India was abolished with effect from 1 April 1937 and a modified system of government enacted. The secretary of state for India represented the Government of India in the UK. He was assisted by a body of advisers numbering from 8–12 individuals, at least half of whom were required to have held office in India for a minimum of 10 years, and had not relinquished office earlier than two years prior to their appointment as advisers to the secretary of state.
The viceroy and governor-general of India, a Crown appointee, typically held office for five years though there was no fixed tenure, and received an annual salary of Rs. (£18,810 p.a.). He headed the Viceroy's Executive Council, each member of which had responsibility for a department of the central administration. From 1 April 1937, the position of Governor-General in Council, which the viceroy and governor-general concurrently held in the capacity of representing the Crown in relations with the Indian princely states, was replaced by the designation of "HM Representative for the Exercise of the Functions of the Crown in its Relations with the Indian States", or the "Crown Representative". The Executive Council was greatly expanded during the Second World War, and in 1947 comprised 14members (secretaries), each of whom earned a salary of Rs. 66,000 p.a. (£4,950 p.a.). The portfolios in 1946–1947 were:
External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations
Home and Information and Broadcasting
Food and transportation
Transport and Railways
Labour
Industries and Supplies
Works, Mines and Power
Education
Defence
Finance
Commerce
Communications
Health
Law
Until 1946, the viceroy held the portfolio for External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, as well as heading the Political Department in his capacity as the Crown representative. Each department was headed by a secretary excepting the Railway Department, which was headed by a Chief Commissioner of Railways under a secretary.
The viceroy and governor-general was also the head of the bicameral Indian Legislature, consisting of an upper house (the Council of State) and a lower house (the Legislative Assembly). The viceroy was the head of the Council of State, while the Legislative Assembly, which was first opened in 1921, was headed by an elected president (appointed by the Viceroy from 1921 to 1925). The Council of State consisted of 58members (32elected, 26nominated), while the Legislative Assembly comprised 141members (26nominated officials, 13others nominated and 102elected). The Council of State existed in five-year periods and the Legislative Assembly for three-year periods, though either could be dissolved earlier or later by the Viceroy. The Indian Legislature was empowered to make laws for all persons resident in British India including all British subjects resident in India, and for all British Indian subjects residing outside India. With the assent of the King-Emperor and after copies of a proposed enactment had been submitted to both houses of the British Parliament, the Viceroy could overrule the legislature and directly enact any measures in the perceived interests of British India or its residents if the need arose.
Effective from 1 April 1936, the Government of India Act created the new provinces of Sind (separated from the Bombay Presidency) and Orissa (separated from the Province of Bihar and Orissa). Burma and Aden became separate Crown Colonies under the Act from 1 April 1937, thereby ceasing to be part of the Indian Empire. From 1937 onwards, British India was divided into 17 administrations: the three Presidencies of Madras, Bombay and Bengal, and the 14 provinces of the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Orissa, Sind, British Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Panth Piploda. The Presidencies and the first eight provinces were each under a governor, while the latter six provinces were each under a chief commissioner. The viceroy directly governed the chief commissioner provinces through each respective chief commissioner, while the Presidencies and the provinces under governors were allowed greater autonomy under the Government of India Act. Each Presidency or province headed by a governor had either a provincial bicameral legislature (in the Presidencies, the United Provinces, Bihar and Assam) or a unicameral legislature (in the Punjab, Central Provinces and Berar, NWFP, Orissa and Sind). The governor of each presidency or province represented the Crown in his capacity, and was assisted by a ministers appointed from the members of each provincial legislature. Each provincial legislature had a life of five years, barring any special circumstances such as wartime conditions. All bills passed by the provincial legislature were either signed or rejected by the governor, who could also issue proclamations or promulgate ordinances while the legislature was in recess, as the need arose.
Each province or presidency comprised a number of divisions, each headed by a commissioner and subdivided into districts, which were the basic administrative units and each headed by a district magistrate, collector or deputy commissioner; in 1947, British India comprised 230 districts.
Legal system
Singha argues that after 1857 the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. New legislation merged the Crown and the old East India Company courts and introduced a new penal code as well as new codes of civil and criminal procedure, based largely on English law. In the 1860s–1880s the Raj set up compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages, as well as adoptions, property deeds, and wills. The goal was to create a stable, usable public record and verifiable identities. However, there was opposition from both Muslim and Hindu elements who complained that the new procedures for census-taking and registration threatened to uncover female privacy. Purdah rules prohibited women from saying their husband's name or having their photograph taken. An all-India census was conducted between 1868 and 1871, often using total numbers of females in a household rather than individual names. Select groups which the Raj reformers wanted to monitor statistically included those reputed to practice female infanticide, prostitutes, lepers, and eunuchs.
Murshid argues that women were in some ways more restricted by the modernisation of the laws. They remained tied to the strictures of their religion, caste, and customs, but now with an overlay of British Victorian attitudes. Their inheritance rights to own and manage property were curtailed; the new English laws were somewhat harsher. Court rulings restricted the rights of second wives and their children regarding inheritance. A woman had to belong to either a father or a husband to have any rights.
Economy
Economic trends
All three sectors of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and services—accelerated in the postcolonial India. In agriculture a huge increase in production took place in the 1870s. The most important difference between colonial and postcolonial India was the use of land surplus with productivity-led growth by using high-yielding variety seeds, chemical fertilizers and more intensive application of water. All these three inputs were subsidised by the state. The result was, on average, no long-term change in per capita income levels, though cost of living had grown higher. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw materials for Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee and tea. India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than 5% in the colonial period. Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school (following Nehru) arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.
Mike Davis writes that much of the economic activity in British India was for the benefit of the British economy and was carried out relentlessly through repressive British imperial policies and with negative repercussions for the Indian population. This is reified in India's large exports of wheat to Britain: despite a major famine that claimed between 6 and 10million lives in the late 1870s, these exports remained unchecked. A colonial government committed to laissez-faire economics refused to interfere with these exports or provide any relief.
Industry
With the end of the state-granted monopoly of the East India Trading Company in 1813, the importation into India of British manufactured goods, including finished textiles, increased dramatically, from approximately 1 million yards of cotton cloth in 1814 to 13 million in 1820, 995 million in 1870, to 2050 million by 1890. The British imposed "free trade" on India, while continental Europe and the United States erected stiff tariff barriers ranging from 30% to 70% on the importation of cotton yarn or prohibited it entirely. As a result of the less expensive imports from more industrialized Britain, India's most significant industrial sector, textile production, shrank, such that by 1870–1880 Indian producers were manufacturing only 25%–45% of local consumption. Deindustrialization of India's iron industry was even more extensive during this period.
The entrepreneur Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.
In the 1890s, he launched plans to move into heavy industry using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but, aware of Britain's declining position against the US and Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India. It promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), now headed by his son Dorabji Tata (1859–1932), began constructing its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908, using American technology, not British. According to The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, TISCO became the leading iron and steel producer in India, and "a symbol of Indian technical skill, managerial competence, and entrepreneurial flair". The Tata family, like most of India's big businessmen, were Indian nationalists but did not trust the Congress because it seemed too aggressively hostile to the Raj, too socialist, and too supportive of trade unions.
Railways
British India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century, which was the fourth largest in the world. At first the railways were privately owned and operated. They were run by British administrators, engineers and craftsmen. At first, only the unskilled workers were Indians.
The East India Company (and later the colonial government) encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to 5% during the initial years of operation. The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the government having the option to buy them earlier. Two new railway companies, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) and the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) began to construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta in 1853–54. The first passenger railway line in North India, between Allahabad and Kanpur, opened in 1859. Eventually, five British companies came to own all railway business in India, and operated under a profit maximization scheme. Further, there was no government regulation of these companies.
In 1854, Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees, investment flowed in and a series of new rail companies was established, leading to rapid expansion of the rail system in India. Soon several large princely states built their own rail systems and the network spread to the regions that became the modern-day states of Assam, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The route mileage of this network increased from between 1860 and 1890, mostly radiating inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
After the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, and subsequent Crown rule over India, the railways were seen as a strategic defense of the European population, allowing the military to move quickly to subdue native unrest and protect Britons. The railway thus served as a tool of the colonial government to control India as they were "an essential strategic, defensive, subjugators and administrative 'tool'" for the Imperial Project.
Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers. The system was heavily built, using a broad gauge, sturdy tracks and strong bridges. By 1900 India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, metre and narrow gauge networks. In 1900, the government took over the GIPR network, while the company continued to manage it. During the First World War, the railways were used to transport troops and grain to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, Mesopotamia, and East Africa. With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became much more difficult; critical workers entered the army; workshops were converted to making munitions; the locomotives, rolling stock, and track of some entire lines were shipped to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the increased demand. By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated for lack of maintenance and were not profitable. In 1923, both GIPR and EIR were nationalised.
Headrick shows that until the 1930s, both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive engineers. The hard physical labor was left to the Indians. The colonial government was chiefly concerned with the welfare of European workers, and any Indian deaths were "either ignored or merely mentioned as a cold statistical figure." The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms. The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives.
After independence in 1947, forty-two separate railway systems, including thirty-two lines owned by the former Indian princely states, were amalgamated to form a single nationalised unit named the Indian Railways.
India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well-built system designed for military purposes (after the Rebellion of 1857), in the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and too expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. Christensen (1996), who looked at colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests, concluded that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the current needs of the railways or of their passengers.
Irrigation
The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems. The Ganges Canal reached from Haridwar to Cawnpore (now Kanpur), and supplied thousands of kilometres of distribution canals. By 1900 the Raj had the largest irrigation system in the world. One success story was Assam, a jungle in 1840 that by 1900 had under cultivation, especially in tea plantations. In all, the amount of irrigated land rose eightfold. Historian David Gilmour says:
Policies
In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British Crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown rule of India) had already begun before the Rebellion. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological revolution underway in Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established so that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England. Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back, just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. Massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government railway jobs and pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil services for the first time. The Indian Civil Service was prestigious and paid well. It remained politically neutral. Imports of British cotton cloth captured more than half the Indian market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Industrial production as it developed in European factories was unknown until the 1850s when the first cotton mills were opened in Bombay, posing a challenge to the cottage-based home production system based on family labour.
Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most of India's population; with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national income during Mughal times compared with 1% at the end of the colonial period. The percentage of national income for the village economy increased from 44% during Mughal times to 54% by the end of colonial period. India's per capita GDP decreased from 1990 Int'l$550 in 1700 to $520 by 1857, although it later increased to $618, by 1947.
Economic impact of the Raj
Historians continue to debate whether the long-term intention of British rule was to accelerate the economic development of India, or to distort and delay it. In 1780, the conservative British politician Edmund Burke raised the issue of India's position: he vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder" and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of the Mughal Empire. Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and of imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible Bengal famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.
P. J. Marshall shows that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy. He argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past, which largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation.
The East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the produce of Indian cultivators. Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Marshall presents the interpretation (supported by many scholars in India and the West) that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent co-operation with Indian elites. Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still highly controversial among many historians.
Demography
The population of the territory that became the British Raj was 100million by 1600 and remained nearly stationary until the 19th century. The population of the Raj reached 255million according to the first census taken in 1881 of India.
Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, growth rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of amillion, and the three cities with populations over eightmillion: Delhi, Greater Bombay, and Calcutta.
Mortality rates fell in the 1920–1945 era, primarily due to biological immunisation. Other factors included rising incomes and better living conditions, improved nutrition, a safer and cleaner environment, and better official health policies and medical care.
Severe overcrowding in the cities caused major public health problems, as noted in an official report from 1938:
In the urban and industrial areas ... cramped sites, the high values of land and the necessity for the worker to live in the vicinity of his work ... all tend to intensify congestion and overcrowding. In the busiest centres houses are built close together, eave touching eave, and frequently back to back .... Space is so valuable that, in place of streets and roads, winding lanes provide the only approach to the houses. Neglect of sanitation is often evidenced by heaps of rotting garbage and pools of sewage, whilst the absence of latrines enhance the general pollution of air and soil.
Religion
Famines, epidemics, and public health
During the British Raj, India experienced some of the worst famines ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–1878, in which 6.1 million to 10.39 million Indians perished and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million Indians perished. Recent research, including work by Mike Davis and Amartya Sen, argue that famines in India were made more severe by British policies in India.
The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Tenthousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Estimated deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917. The Third plague pandemic which started in China in the middle of the 19th century, eventually spread to all inhabited continents and killed 10 million Indians in India alone. Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, became the first microbiologist to develop and deploy vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the Haffkine Institute.
Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century. Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta, finally proved in 1898 that mosquitoes transmit malaria, while on assignment in the Deccan at Secunderabad, where the Centre for Tropical and Communicable Diseases is now named in his honour.
In 1881 there were around 120,000 leprosy patients. The central government passed the Lepers Act of 1898, which provided legal provision for forcible confinement of people with leprosy in India. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination. Mass vaccination in India resulted in a major decline in smallpox mortality by the end of the 19th century. In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox. Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from smallpox.
Sir Robert Grant directed his attention to establishing a systematic institution in Bombay for imparting medical knowledge to the natives. In 1860, Grant Medical College became one of the four recognised colleges for teaching courses leading to degrees (alongside Elphinstone College, Deccan College and Government Law College, Mumbai).
Education
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800–1859) presented his Whiggish interpretation of English history as an upward progression always leading to more liberty and more progress. Macaulay simultaneously was a leading reformer involved in transforming the educational system of India. He would base it on the English language so that India could join the mother country in a steady upward progress. Macaulay took Burke's emphasis on moral rule and implemented it in actual school reforms, giving the British Empire a profound moral mission to "civilise the natives".
Yale professor Karuna Mantena has argued that the civilising mission did not last long, for she says that benevolent reformers were the losers in key debates, such as those following the 1857 rebellion in India, and the scandal of Edward Eyre's brutal repression of the Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica in 1865. The rhetoric continued but it became an alibi for British misrule and racism. No longer was it believed that the natives could truly make progress, instead, they had to be ruled by heavy hand, with democratic opportunities postponed indefinitely. As a result:
English historian Peter Cain, has challenged Mantena, arguing that the imperialists truly believed that British rule would bring to the subjects the benefits of 'ordered liberty', thereby Britain could fulfil its moral duty and achieve its own greatness. Much of the debate took place in Britain itself, and the imperialists worked hard to convince the general population that the civilising mission was well under-way. This campaign served to strengthen imperial support at home, and thus, says Cain, to bolster the moral authority of the gentlemanly elites who ran the Empire.
Universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established in 1857, just before the Rebellion. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil services appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top-level civil services positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree. The government, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186universities and colleges of higher education by 1911; they enrolled 36,000 students (over 90% men). By 1939 the number of institutions had doubled and enrolment reached 145,000. The curriculum followed classical British standards of the sort set by Oxford and Cambridge and stressed English literature and European history. Nevertheless, by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism.
Missionary work
In 1889, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury stated, "It is not only our duty but is in our interest to promote the diffusion of Christianity as far as possible throughout the length and breadth of India".
The growth of the British Indian Army led to the arrival of many Anglican chaplains in India. Following the arrival of the Church of England's Church Mission Society in 1814, the Diocese of Calcutta of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC) was erected, with its St. Paul's Cathedral being built in 1847. By 1930, the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon had fourteen dioceses across the Indian Empire.
Missionaries from other Christian denominations came to British India as well; Lutheran missionaries, for example, arrived in Calcutta in 1836 and by "the year 1880 there were over 31,200 Lutheran Christians spread out in 1,052 villages". Methodists began arriving in India in 1783 and established missions with a focus on "education, health ministry, and evangelism". In the 1790s, Christians from the London Missionary Society and Baptist Missionary Society, began doing missionary work in the Indian Empire. In Neyoor, the London Missionary Society Hospital "pioneered improvements in the public health system for the treatment of diseases even before organised attempts were made by the colonial Madras Presidency, reducing the death rate substantially".
Christ Church College (1866) and St. Stephen's College (1881) are two examples of prominent church-affiliated educational institutions founded during the British Raj. Within educational institutions established during the British Raj, Christian texts, especially the Bible, were a part of the curricula. During the British Raj, Christian missionaries developed writing systems for Indian languages that previously did not have one. Christian missionaries in India also worked to increase literacy and also engaged in social activism, such as fighting against prostitution, championing the right of widowed women to remarry, and trying to stop early marriages for women. Among British women, zenana missions became a popular method to win converts to Christianity.
Legacy
The old consensus among historians held that British imperial authority was quite secure from 1858 to World War II. Recently, however, this interpretation has been challenged. For example, Mark Condos and Jon Wilson argue that imperial authority was chronically insecure. Indeed, the anxiety of generations of officials produced a chaotic administration with minimal coherence. Instead of a confident state capable of acting as it chose, these historians find a psychologically embattled one incapable of acting except in the abstract, small scale, or short term. Meanwhile, Durba Ghosh offers an alternative approach.
Ideological impact
At independence and after the independence of India, the country has maintained such central British institutions as parliamentary government, one-person, one-vote and the rule of law through nonpartisan courts. It retained as well the institutional arrangements of the Raj such as the civil services, administration of sub-divisions, universities and stock exchanges. One major change was the rejection of its former separate princely states. Metcalf shows that over the course of two centuries, British intellectuals and Indian specialists made the highest priority bringing peace, unity and good government to India. They offered many competing methods to reach the goal. For example, Cornwallis recommended turning Bengali Zamindar into the sort of English landlords that controlled local affairs in England. Munro proposed to deal directly with the peasants. Sir William Jones and the Orientalists promoted Sanskrit, while Macaulay promoted the English language. Zinkin argues that in the long-run, what matters most about the legacy of the Raj is the British political ideologies which the Indians took over after 1947, especially the belief in unity, democracy, the rule of law and a certain equality beyond caste and creed. Zinkin sees this not just in the Congress party but also among Hindu nationalists in the Bharatiya Janata Party, which specifically emphasises Hindu traditions.
Cultural impact
The British colonisation of India influenced Indian culture noticeably. The most noticeable influence is the English language which emerged as the administrative and lingua franca of India and Pakistan followed by the blend of native and gothic/sarcenic architecture. Similarly, the influence of the languages of India and culture can be seen on Britain, too; for example, many Indian words entering the English language, and also the adoption of Indian cuisine.
British sports (particularly hockey early on, but then largely replaced by cricket in recent decades, with football also popular in certain regions of the subcontinent) were cemented as part of South Asian culture during the British Raj, with the traditional games of India largely having been diminished in the process. During the Raj, soldiers would play British sports as a way of maintaining fitness, since the mortality rate for foreigners in India was high at the time, as well as to maintain a sense of Britishness; in the words of an anonymous writer, playing British sports was a way for soldiers to "defend themselves from the magic of the land". Though the British had generally excluded Indians from their play during the time of Company rule, over time they began to see the inculcation of British sports among the native populace as a way of spreading British values. At the same time, some of the Indian elite began to move towards British sports as a way of adapting to British culture and thus helping themselves to rise up the ranks; later on, more Indians began to play British sports in an effort to beat the British at their own sports, as a way of proving that the Indians were equal to their colonisers.
See also
Colonial India
Direct colonial rule
Glossary of the British Raj (Hindi-Urdu words)
Historiography of the British Empire
Legislatures of British India
List of governors-general of India
Subsidiary alliance, the status of princely states
Notes
References
Bibliography
Surveys
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Bandhu, Deep Chand. History of Indian National Congress (2003), 405 pp.
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Gilmour, David. The British in India: A Social History of the Raj(2018); expanded edition of The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (2007) Excerpt and text search
Herbertson, A.J. and O.J.R. Howarth. eds. The Oxford Survey of the British Empire (6 vol 1914) online vol 2 on Asia pp. 1–328 on India
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Louis, William Roger, and Judith M. Brown, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire (5 vol 1999–2001), with numerous articles on the Raj
Majumdar, R. C. ed. (1970). British paramountcy and Indian renaissance. (The History and Culture of the Indian People) Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopaedia
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Moon, Penderel. The British Conquest and Dominion of India (2 vol. 1989) 1235pp; the fullest scholarly history of political and military events from a British top-down perspective;
Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
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Riddick, John F. The history of British India: a chronology (2006) excerpt and text search, covers 1599–1947
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998), covers 1599–1947
Smith, Vincent A. (1958) The Oxford History of India (3rd ed.) the Raj section was written by Percival Spear
Somervell, D.C. The Reign of King George V, (1936) covers Raj 1910–35 pp. 80–84, 282–91, 455–64 online free
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Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search
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Wolpert, Stanley, ed. Encyclopedia of India (4 vol. 2005) comprehensive coverage by scholars
Specialised topics
Bayly, Christopher Alan. Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World 1780–1830. (Routledge, 2016).
Bosma, Ulbe (2011), Emigration: Colonial circuits between Europe and Asia in the 19th and early 20th century, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: 25 March 2021 (pdf).
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Dewey, Clive. Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service (2003)
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Gilmour, David. Curzon: Imperial Statesman (2006) excerpt and text search
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Kumar, Deepak. Science and the Raj: A Study of British India (2006)
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Raghavan, Srinath. India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (2016). wide-ranging scholarly survey excerpt
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Economic and social history
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Ballhatchet, Kenneth. Race, Sex, and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and Their Critics, 1793–1905 (1980).
Chaudhary, Latika, et al. eds. A New Economic History of Colonial India (2015)
Chaudhuri, Nupur. "Imperialism and Gender." in Encyclopedia of European Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1, 2001), pp. 515–521. online emphasis on Raj.
Dutt, Romesh C. The Economic History of India under early British Rule (1901); The Economic History of India in the Victorian Age (1906) online
Gupta, Charu, ed. Gendering Colonial India: Reforms, Print, Caste and Communalism (2012)
Hyam, Ronald. Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience (1990).
Lockwood, David. The Indian Bourgeoisie: A Political History of the Indian Capitalist Class in the Early Twentieth Century (I.B. Tauris, 2012) 315 pages; focus on Indian entrepreneurs who benefited from the Raj, but ultimately sided with the Indian National Congress.
Sarkar, J. (2013, reprint). Economics of British India ... Third edition. Enlarged and partly rewritten. Calcutta: M.C. Sarkar & Sons.
Sinha, Mrinalini. Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth Century (1995).
Strobel, Margaret. European Women and the Second British Empire (1991).
Historiography and memory
Durant, Will (2011, reprint). The case for India. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Mantena, Rama Sundari. The Origins of Modern Historiography in India: Antiquarianism and Philology (2012).
Moor-Gilbert, Bart. Writing India, 1757–1990: The Literature of British India (1996) on fiction written in English.
Mukherjee, Soumyen. "Origins of Indian Nationalism: Some Questions on the Historiography of Modern India". Sydney Studies in Society and Culture 13 (2014). online.
Nawaz, Rafida, and Syed Hussain Murtaza. "Impact of Imperial Discourses on Changing Subjectivities in Core and Periphery: A Study of British India and British Nigeria". Perennial Journal of History 2.2 (2021): 114–130. online.
Nayak, Bhabani Shankar. "Colonial world of postcolonial historians: reification, theoreticism, and the neoliberal reinvention of tribal identity in India". Journal of Asian and African Studies 56.3 (2021): 511–532. online.
Parkash, Jai. "Major trends of historiography of revolutionary movement in India – Phase II". (PhD dissertation, Maharshi Dayanand University, 2013). online.
Philips, Cyril H. ed. Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon (1961), reviews the older scholarship.
Stern, Philip J. "Early Eighteenth-Century British India: Antimeridian or antemeridiem?". Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 21.2 (2020), pp. 1–26, focus on C.A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian online.
Winks, Robin, ed. Historiography (1999), vol. 5 in William Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire.
Winks, Robin W. The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966).
Young, Richard Fox, ed. (2009). Indian Christian Historiography from Below, from Above, and in Between India and the Indianness of Christianity: Essays on Understanding – Historical, Theological, and Bibliographical – in Honor of Robert Eric Frykenberg.
Further reading
Judd, Denis. The lion and the tiger: the rise and fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947 (Oxford University Press, 2005). online
Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 55–79.
Simon Report (1930) vol 1, wide-ranging survey of conditions
Editors, Charles Rivers (2016). The British Raj: The History and Legacy of Great Britain's Imperialism in India and the Indian subcontinent.
, major primary source
Year books and statistical records
Indian Year-book for 1862: A review of social, intellectual, and religious progress in India and Ceylon (1863), ed. by John Murdoch online edition 1861 edition
The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. online edition
Statistical abstract relating to British India, from 1895 to 1896 to 1904–05 (London, 1906) full text online,
The Cyclopedia of India: biographical, historical, administrative, commercial (1908) business history, biographies, illustrations
The Indian Year Book: 1914 (1914)
The Indian Annual Register: A digest of public affairs of India regarding the nation's activities in the matters, political, economic, industrial, educational, etc. during the period 1919–1947 online
1930 edition
1921 edition
1919–1947 editions
British India
Bangladesh and the Commonwealth of Nations
Raj
India and the Commonwealth of Nations
Pakistan and the Commonwealth of Nations
States and territories disestablished in 1947
States and territories established in 1858
Empires and kingdoms of India |
4208256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma%20Legislature | Oklahoma Legislature | The Legislature of the State of Oklahoma is the state legislative branch of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The Oklahoma House of Representatives and Oklahoma Senate are the two houses that make up the bicameral state legislature. There are 101 state representatives, each serving a two-year term, and 48 state senators, who serve four-year terms that are staggered so only half of the Oklahoma Senate districts are eligible in each election cycle. Legislators are elected directly by the people from single member districts of equal population. The Oklahoma Legislature meets annually in the Oklahoma State Capitol in Oklahoma City.
The Oklahoma Constitution vests all legislative powers of the state government in the state legislature, which exercises legislative power by enacting Oklahoma law. The legislature may legislate on any subject and has certain "necessary and proper" powers as may be required for carrying into effect the provisions of the Oklahoma Constitution. The powers of the legislature are only limited by the powers reserved to the people, namely initiative and referendum.
The Oklahoma Senate and the Oklahoma House of Representatives are co-equal houses, but each chamber has exclusive powers. The Oklahoma Senate's advice and consent is required for gubernatorial appointments to high-level executive positions. Bills for raising revenue may only originate in the Oklahoma House of Representatives. Bills approved by the legislature must be sent to the Governor of Oklahoma for approval.
History
Early years
Prior to 1907 statehood, Oklahoma Territory had the Oklahoma Territorial Legislature that met in Guthrie, Oklahoma. Upon statehood, the Oklahoma Constitution established the Oklahoma Legislature. The 1st Oklahoma Legislature met in the Guthrie City Hall Building and elected William H. Murray as the first Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. The first three staff members appointed by Murray were a Union veteran, a Confederate veteran, and an African-American man, Jim Noble. The 2nd Oklahoma Legislature included Oklahoma's first black member, A. C. Hamlin, but passed legislation that made it nearly impossible for African-Americans to seek elective office, which limited him to one term.
The meeting place of the Oklahoma Legislature was moved to Oklahoma City in 1910. The Democratic Party held the majority of seats in the legislature until the Ninth Legislature from 1921–1922, when a Republican Party majority took over.
The 1921 session was also notable because it included Oklahoma's first female state legislators, Representative Bessie McColgin and Senator Lamar Loomey. This occurred shortly after women earned the right to vote in Oklahoma in 1918 through a constitutional amendment approved by voters.
Legislators voted in 1923 to impeach Governor Jack C. Walton for trying to block the legislature from holding special session and administrative practices that included payroll padding, pardons, removal of college administrators, and a large increase in the governor's salary.
Governor Henry S. Johnston became the second governor to be impeached by legislators, with members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives voting eleven articles of impeachment against him, which ultimately led to his expulsion from office.
1930s-Present
In the 1930s, traditionally Republican counties shifted heavily towards Democrats, giving Democrats a large majority in the Legislature. Bipartisan opposition to deficit spending in the late 1930s led to a 1941 constitutional amendment requiring legislators to pass a balanced budget.
In 1964, three black men, Archibald Hill, E. Melvin Porter, and Curtis Lawson, were elected to the Oklahoma Legislature, the first since A. C. Hamlin left office in 1910.
In 1966, voters approved a ballot question that set up annual 90-day legislative sessions. In 1989 another ballot question further limited session by designating the sine die adjournment day, or last day of session, as the last Friday in May. Combined with the 90-day requirement, this moved the session start day to February, leaving the original start day in January as an organizational day.
Beginning in the 1960s, the Republican party made gains in voter registration and state legislative seats. By 1990, the party counted about a third of voters by registration and had similar representation in the Legislature.
In 2010, Republicans gained a large majority of 32 seats in the Oklahoma Senate and 70 seats in the Oklahoma House of Representatives.
Currently, Republicans have a supermajority in both chambers (72 of 101 seats in the House and 40 of 48 seats in the Senate).
Qualifications
To serve in the Oklahoma Senate, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, and to serve in the Oklahoma House of Representatives, an individual must be at least 21 years of age. State legislators must also be qualified electors and residents in the district they represent during their time in office. To file as a candidate for legislative office, a person must have been a registered voter and a resident residing within the district for at least six months immediately preceding the filing period prescribed by law.
Restrictions
The Oklahoma Constitution prohibits state legislators from also serving as another officer of the United States or Oklahoma state government. A felony conviction also disqualifies election to the Oklahoma Legislature.
A constitutional amendment approved by voters implemented a 12-year term limit, restricting legislators to a total of 12 years in the Oklahoma Legislature. The 12-year term limit is a cumulative term limit of service in either chamber, consecutive or non-consecutive. The 12-year limit does not include any service prior to adoption of the amendment. In addition, the limit does not include those years of an unexpired term served by a member elected or appointed to fill a vacancy in office, but no member who has completed 12 years in office is thereafter eligible to serve an unexpired term.
The Oklahoma Legislature is constitutionally required to enact laws barring conflicts of interest for its members. The Oklahoma Ethics Commission currently makes recommendations to state legislators regarding ethical restrictions.
In the event of a vacancy in the state legislature, the governor issues writs of election to fill such vacancies.
Membership
The House of Representatives consists of 101 members, representing single-member districts that are drawn to reflect equal populations.
Until the U.S. Supreme Court's 1964 ruling in the case of Reynolds v. Sims, each of Oklahoma's 77 counties was guaranteed at least one seat in the State House of Representatives. Now though, the less-populated rural counties form multi-county districts. House District 61, for example, includes the entirety of Cimarron, Texas, Beaver and Harper counties as well as parts of the counties of Ellis and Woodward.
The Senate consists of 48 members, representing single-member districts that are drawn to reflect equal populations.
Current party composition
Senate
House
Officers
House officers
The political party with a majority of seats in the Oklahoma House of Representatives is known as the majority party; the next-largest party is the minority party. The Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives is elected by a majority of members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives and is the nominee elected by the majority party caucus, unless a coalition of members of both political parties chooses a coalition candidate. Members of the minority party elect a caucus leader known as the minority leader. The speaker appoints committee chairs and other leadership roles; the minority leader appoints corresponding minority party roles such as "ranking members" of committees.
The Oklahoma Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. They are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the house. Under Section 6 of Article VI of the Oklahoma Constitution, the speaker is third in line behind the lieutenant governor and president pro tempore of the state senate to succeed the governor.
The speaker has a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of the majority party. They are the presiding officer of the House, but may appoint another member to serve as the presiding officer in their absence. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless they have first been recognized by the presiding officer. The presiding officer may rule on any "point of order" (a member's objection that a rule has been breached), but the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
The speaker is the chair of their party's steering committee, which chooses the chairperson of standing committees. The speaker determines which committees consider bills and appoints members of committees. The speaker is also an ex officio voting member on committees. Under the speaker is a speaker pro tempore who assumes the duties of the speaker in their absence. The speaker and the speaker pro tempore are also ex officio voting members on committees.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the majority leader or minority leader. While the minority leader is the full leader of their party, the same is not true of the majority leader. Instead, the speaker is the head of the majority party; the majority leader is only the second-highest official. Each party also elect whips, who works to ensure that their party's members vote as the party leadership desires.
Senate officers
The political party with a majority of seats is known as the majority party; if two or more parties in opposition are tied, the lieutenant governor's affiliation determines which is the majority party in the Oklahoma Senate. The next-largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tem, floor leader and committee chairs represent the majority party; they have counterparts in the minority party: the minority leader and ranking members of committees.
The Oklahoma Constitution provides that the lieutenant governor serves as the President of the Senate and holds a vote which can only be cast to break a tie. By convention, the lieutenant governor only attends important ceremonial occasions like the swearing-in of new senators or when his vote is needed to break a tie. The constitution also authorizes state senators to elect a President Pro Tempore of the Oklahoma Senate to preside in the lieutenant governor's absence. The president pro tempore is second in line behind the lieutenant governor to succeed the governor. The president pro tempore is the leader of the senate and serves as leader of the majority party. The president pro tempore is an ex officio voting member of state senate committees.
The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Oklahoma Senate chamber. The presiding officer acts as the Oklahoma Senate's mouthpiece, performs duties such as announcing the results of vote, and controls debates by calling on members to speak. The rules of the Senate requires the presiding officer to recognize the first state senator who rises. The presiding officer may rule on any "point of order" (a senator's objection that a rule has been breached), but the decision is subject to appeal to the full membership.
Each party elects a senator to serve as floor leader. The majority floor leader is an ex officio voting member of state senate committees and sets the schedule of what bills will be heard on the chamber floor. Each party also elect whips to assist the leader.
Powers
Section 1 of Article V of the Oklahoma Constitution sets forth the powers of the Legislature. The state's legislative authority is vested within the state legislature as well as other powers. The most important among these powers are the powers to levy and collect taxes, borrow money, and to raise and maintain the militia of the state. The Oklahoma Legislature is authorized to pass laws as they are necessary for carrying into effect the Oklahoma Constitution. The legislature's power to legislate is broad, except where the constitution limits that authority or reserves it to the people of Oklahoma.
The returns of every election for elective state officers go to the Secretary of State and then to the Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. Immediately after the organization of the House, he must open and publish the information in the presence of a majority of each branch of the Legislature, who for that purpose assemble in House chamber. The individuals with the highest number of votes for each seat are then declared duly elected. In the event of a tie, the legislature holds the power to break deadlocks. If two or more candidates have an equal number of votes, the legislature may elect one of them to office by means of a joint ballot.
The non-legislative functions of the Oklahoma Legislature include the power to establish a state printing plant and provide for the election or appointment of a state printer; the power to establish a State Geological and Economic Survey; and the power to create a Board of Health, Board of Dentistry, Board of Pharmacy, and Pure Food Commission.
The Legislature must every 10 years, beginning in 1907 (the date of Oklahoma entrance to the Union), make, revise, digest, and announce the laws of Oklahoma. The Legislature shall define what is an unlawful combination, monopoly, trust, act, or agreement, in restraint of trade, and enact laws to punish persons engaged in any unlawful combination, monopoly, trust, act, or agreement, in restraint of trade.
Section 46 through 53 of Article V of the Oklahoma Constitution places certain limits on the authority and powers of the Legislature. For instance, the Legislature may not meddle in the affairs of local government in the realm of day-to-day business, such as street lay out or school districts. Legislators may not appropriate public money for a Bureau of Immigration in Oklahoma, nor exempt property in Oklahoma from taxation except as granted by the state constitution. The Legislature may not pass laws granting exclusive rights, privileges, or immunities.
Legislative procedure
Term
Legislatures are identified by consecutive numbers and correspond with the election of the members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. Terms have two sessions; the first takes place in the year immediately following the election and the second takes place the next year.
Under the Oklahoma Constitution, legislative sessions must begin at noon on the first Monday in February of every odd-numbered year, cannot exceed one hundred and sixty days, and must be finally adjourned by no later than five o'clock p.m. on the last Friday in May of each year. The first session cannot exceed 160 days. In odd numbered years following an election, the legislature must meet on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January for the sole purpose of determining the outcome of the statewide elections. This meeting must begin at noon and must be adjourned by five o'clock p.m. on the same day.
At the beginning of each new term, the entire House of Representatives and one-half of the Senate (those who were chosen in the previous election) are sworn in. The House of Representatives also elects a Speaker to preside over debates. The President pro tempore of the Senate, by contrast, holds office continuously; normally, a new President pro tempore is only elected if the previous one retires, or if there is a change in the majority party.
The Oklahoma Constitution forbids either house adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The Constitution prevents the Legislature from meeting any place outside the Oklahoma Capitol. However, the governor is empowered to convoke the legislature at or adjourn it to another place, when, in his opinion, the public safety or welfare, or the safety or health of the members require it. However, such a change or adjournment requires consent by a two-thirds vote of all the members elected to each branch.
The Legislature may be called into special session by a written call for such purposes as may be specifically set out in the call, signed by two-thirds of the members of the Senate and two-thirds of the members of the House of Representatives when it is filed with the President Pro Tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, who shall issue jointly an order for the convening of the special session. However, the Legislature may not prevent the calling of a special session by the governor.
In cases of a disagreement between the two houses of the Legislature, at a regular or special session, with respect to the time of adjournment, the governor may adjourn them to such time as deemed proper, not beyond the day of the next stated meeting of the Legislature. The consent of both bodies is required for the Legislature's final adjournment, or sine die, at the end of each legislative session. If the two houses cannot agree on a date, the state constitution permits the governor to settle the dispute.
Bills and resolutions
A proposal may be introduced in the legislature as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Legislative proposals are introduced as bills or joint resolutions. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment. Concurrent resolutions passed by both houses and simple resolutions passed by only one house do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of the Legislature, or either house thereof, or to regulate procedure.
Bills and other proposals may be introduced by members of either house. The exception is "bills for raising Revenue" that must originate in the Oklahoma House of Representatives, per Article V, Section 33A of the Oklahoma Constitution. The Oklahoma Senate, though, retains the power to amend or reject them.
Bills go through multiple stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a standing committee, which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as agriculture or appropriations. The number of committees, their subject areas, their chairs and membership, and the bills assigned to them are designated by the Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives in the House and the President Pro Tempore of the Oklahoma Senate in the Senate. Alternatively, bills may be sent to select committees. Each standing and select committee is led by a chairman (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house.
A decision not to report a bill amounts to a rejection of the proposal. Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but the practice is uncommon. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. In order for the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives. In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added un-requested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions.
After passage by both houses, a bill is submitted to the Governor of Oklahoma who may choose to sign the bill, thereby making it law, or veto it, returning it to the Legislature with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of the Legislature votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the Governor may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after five days (excluding Sundays). However, if the Legislature adjourns (ends a legislative session) during the five-day period, then the bill does not become law. Thus, the Governor may veto legislation passed at the end of a legislative session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Legislature. No bill may become a law after the final adjournment of the Legislature unless approved by the governor within fifteen days after such adjournment.
Quorum and voting
The Oklahoma Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Thus, if no quorum call is requested, debates continue even if a majority is not present.
Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye" or "no", and the presiding officer announces the result. The Oklahoma Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one-fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when his name is announced. The House reserves roll call votes for the most formal matters; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Oklahoma Senate, the lieutenant governor may cast the tiebreaking vote.
Privileges
State legislators enjoy the privilege of being free from arrest for criminal charges, except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace. This immunity applies to members "during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same." The term "arrest" has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House very strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on his own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, on the other hand, are less strict, and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they see fit.
As of 2006 rank and file state legislators received a salary of $38,400. The President Pro Tempore of the State Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives are paid an additional $17,932 annually. The appropriations committee chairmen, majority floor leaders and the minority floor leaders of each house are paid an additional $12,364 per year.
Board of Legislative Compensation
The Board of Legislative Compensation decides the amount of compensation paid to state legislators. The board is composed of five members appointed by the Governor of Oklahoma, two members appointed by the President pro tempore of the Oklahoma Senate, and two members appointed by the Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. The members appointed by the governor must be from religious organizations, communications media, nonstate-supported educational institutions, labor organizations, and retail business. The members appointed by the president pro tempore must be from agricultural and civic organization backgrounds and the members appointed by the speaker must have manufacturing or professional backgrounds.
State legislators are prohibited from serving on the board. In addition to the nine voting members, the chair of the Oklahoma Tax Commission and the director of the Oklahoma Office of State Finance serve as ex officio nonvoting members of the board. The chair of the board is designated by the governor. The members of the board serve without compensation, but do receive travel and subsistence expense reimbursements.
Every two years, the board reviews the compensation paid to state legislators and is empowered to change the compensation. Such a change becomes effective on the fifteenth day following the succeeding general election.
Notable past members
Mary Fallin, 27th Governor of Oklahoma, former U.S. Congresswoman
Ken A. Miller, former Oklahoma treasurer
Glen D. Johnson Jr., current Chancellor of Higher Education
Brad Henry, 26th Governor of Oklahoma
Frank Keating, 25th governor of Oklahoma
Henry Bellmon, 18th and 23rd governor of Oklahoma
George Nigh, 17th and 22nd governor of Oklahoma
David L. Boren, 21st governor of Oklahoma and former U.S. senator
Dan Boren, former U.S. Congressman
Ernest Istook, former U.S. Congressman
Jari Askins, 15th Oklahoma lieutenant governor
John Jarman, former Congressman
Clem McSpadden, former Congressman
James C. Nance, Oklahoma community newspaper chain publisher and former Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Oklahoma Senate and member Uniform Law Commission
Raymond D. Gary, 15th Governor of Oklahoma
Leon C. Phillips, 11th governor of Oklahoma
William H. Murray, 9th governor of Oklahoma
William J. Holloway, 8th Governor of Oklahoma
Henry S. Johnston, 7th Governor of Oklahoma
John Newbold Camp, former U.S. Congressman
Victor Wickersham, former U.S. Congressman
Glen D. Johnson, former U.S. Congressman
A. C. Hamlin, first African-American in Oklahoma Legislature
References
External links
Oklahoma Legislature
Oklahoma House of Representatives
Oklahoma Senate
Government of Oklahoma
Bicameral legislatures |
4208705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexey%20Brodovitch | Alexey Brodovitch | Alexey Vyacheslavovich Brodovitch (also Brodovich; , ; 1898 – April 15, 1971) was a Russian-born American photographer, designer and instructor who is most famous for his art direction of fashion magazine Harper's Bazaar from 1934 to 1958.
Early life in Russia
Alexey Brodovitch was born in , Russian Empire (now Belarus) to a wealthy family in 1898. His father, Cheslau or Vyacheslav Brodovitch, was a respected physician, psychiatrist and huntsman. His mother was an amateur painter. During the Russo-Japanese War, his family moved to Moscow, where his father worked in a hospital for Japanese prisoners. Alexey was sent to study at the Prince Tenisheff School, a prestigious institution in Saint Petersburg, with the intentions of eventually enrolling in the Imperial Art Academy. He had no formal training in art through his childhood, but often sketched noble profiles in the audience at concerts in the city.
Military career
At the start of World War I at the young age of 16, Brodovitch abandoned his dream of entering the Imperial Art Academy and ran away from home to join the Russian army. Not long after, his father had him brought home and hired a private tutor to help Alexey finish school. Upon graduating, Brodovitch ran away again on several occasions. He recalls:
After a week or so I ran away to the front line to kill Germans. But my father, now a military general at the head of a Red Cross hospital train, had plenty of influence, and I was soon brought back to him. On the train back I was employed as a nurses' aid. In East Prussia I ran away again and joined a nearby regiment. Once again I was caught, and this time I was sent to an officers' school, the Corps de Pages.
During the Russian Civil War, Brodovitch served with the White Army. While fighting against the Bolsheviks in Odessa, he was badly wounded and was hospitalized for a time in Kislovodsk, in the Caucasus. In 1918, the town was surrounded by the Bolsheviks, forcing Brodovitch into exile. It was during this retreat to the south through Caucasus and Turkey that he met his future wife, Nina.
By good fortune, Alexey's brother Nicolas turned out to be one of the soldiers guarding the refugees in Novorossiysk. Not long after, their father, who had been imprisoned in Saint Petersburg by the Bolsheviks, managed to flee to Novorossiysk in hopes of finding his family. The three were once again together, and arranged for Brodovitch's mother and other relations to join them in Constantinople. Finally reunited, the Brodovitchs made their way to France.
Influential years in Paris
An émigré
Upon arriving in Paris, Brodovitch wanted to be a painter. A Russian white émigré in Paris, Brodovitch found himself poor and having to work for the first time in his life. He took a job painting houses, while his wife Nina worked as a seamstress. They lived in a cheap, small apartment in the area of Montparnasse, among Russian artists who had settled in Paris at the end of the 19th century. This group of artists, including Archipenko, Chagall, and Nathan Altman, would meet at the inexpensive Académie Vassilieff, which offered painting and sculpting classes without an instructor. His connections with these young Russian artists led to more artistic work as a painter of backdrops for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes.
Paris was a cosmopolitan city through which many artists and art movements passed. Brodovitch was exposed to everything from Dadaism from Zurich and Berlin, Suprematism and Constructivism from Moscow, Bauhaus design from Germany, Futurism from Italy, De Stijl from the Netherlands, and the native strains of Cubism, Fauvism, Purism and Surrealism. Among these various artistic influences, Brodovitch found his beginnings as a designer.
Move to graphic arts
On nights and weekends away from the Ballets Russes, Brodovitch began sketching designs for textiles, china, and jewelry. By the time his work for the ballet had finished, he had already compiled an extensive portfolio of these side projects and was selling his designs to fashionable shops. He worked part-time doing layouts for Cahiers d'Art, an important art journal, and Arts et Métiers Graphiques, an influential design magazine. While working on layouts, Brodovitch was responsible for fitting together type, photographs, and illustrations on the pages of the magazines. He had the rare opportunity of having influence over the look of the magazine as there was no art director.
He gained public recognition for his work in the commercial arts by winning first prize in a poster competition for an artists' soiree called Le Bal Banal on March 24, 1924. The poster was exhibited on walls all over Montparnasse along with a drawing by Picasso, who took second place. Brodovitch remained proud of this poster throughout his career, always keeping a copy of it pinned to his studio wall. The graphic, light-to-dark inversion of its mask shape, type, and background suggest not only the process of photography, but also represents the process of trading one's identity for another when wearing a mask. It is the oldest surviving work by Brodovitch. He continued to gain recognition as an applied artist due to his success at the Paris International Exhibit of the Decorative Arts in 1925. He received five medals: three gold medals for kiosk design and jewelry, two silver medals for fabrics, and the top award for the Beck Fils pavilion "Amour de l'Art."
After these wins, Brodovitch's career as an applied artist took off. In 1928 he was hired by Athélia, the design studio of the Parisian department store Aux Trois Quartiers, to design and illustrate catalogues and advertisements for their luxury men's boutique, Madelios. Brodovitch was aware that many of the customers were fairly traditional in their tastes, so he balanced out his modern designs with classical Greek references.
Although employed full-time by Athélia, Brodovitch offered his service as a freelance designer on the side. He started his own studio, L'Atelier A.B., where he produced posters for various clients, including Union Radio Paris and the Cunard shipping company. He was also commissioned by the Parisian publishing house La Pléiade to illustrate three books: Nouvelles by Alexander Pushkin, Contes Fantastiques by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Monsieur de Bougrelon by Jean Lorrain.
Brodovitch embraced technical developments from the spheres of industrial design, photography, and contemporary painting. His broad curiosity began to assimilate the most interesting aspects of all these fields into his work, eventually making them his own. He later instilled this same curiosity in his students, encouraging them to use new techniques like the airbrush, industrial lacquers, flexible steel needles, and surgical knives.
By the age of 32, Brodovitch had dabbled in producing posters, china, jewelry, textiles, advertisements, and paintings. Eventually specializing in advertising and graphic design, he had become one of the most respected designers of commercial art in Paris. By 1930, however, Paris had lost its luster for Brodovitch. The once-flourishing spirit of adventure and experimentation was fading away. Although he was offered many design positions, Brodovitch turned them down, presumably looking for new locales to advance his designs.
Brodovitch as instructor
A new approach to teaching
While still living in Paris, Brodovitch was offered a job by John Story Jenks, the father of a young girl Brodovitch had shown around the arts scene in Paris. Jenks, a trustee of the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art (currently the University of the Arts), was overwhelmed by Brodovitch's talents and asked him to head the school's Advertising Design Department. In September 1930, Brodovitch moved to Philadelphia with his wife and son to take the job. Brodovitch began teaching advertising design, creating a special department devoted to the subject.
Brodovitch's task was to bring American advertising design up to the level of Europe's, which was thought to have a far more modern spirit. Before his arrival, advertising students were simply copying the magazine styles of N. C. Wyeth and Howard Pyle. The illustrations were beautiful, but had evolved from the tradition of 19th-century romantic realism, a thing of the past. Brodovitch's teaching technique, on the other hand, was unlike any other the students had been exposed to. He would always teach with a visual aid. Brodovitch would bring into class French and German magazines to examine the pages with his students, explaining the artist's work or technique. He would raise questions like, "Could this line be better? Could it be like, for example, Cocteau?" When not in the classroom, Brodovitch would take the class on outings around Philadelphia to see factories, laboratories, shopping centers, housing projects, dumps, and the zoo. The students were then told to make a "graphic impression" of what they had seen, whether a photographic interpretation, a drawing, or an abstraction. Brodovitch did not teach in the conventional sense, but rather compelled his students to discover one's inner, creative resources.
Design laboratory
In 1933, Brodovitch added the Design Laboratory to the classes he offered. It was meant to be a workshop for his advanced students who wanted to experiment with all aspects of design. Brodovitch shared the Bauhaus belief that you needed to educate the whole individual by directing his or her attention to a variety of modern solutions in their graphic projects. His course description for the Design Laboratory read:
The aim of the course is to help the student to discover his individuality, crystallize his taste, and develop his feeling for the contemporary trend by stimulating his sense of invention and perfecting his technical ability. The course is conducted as an experimental laboratory, inspired by the ever-changing tempo of life, discovery of new techniques, new fields of operation ... in close contact with current problems of leading magazines, department stores, advertising agencies and manufactures. Subjects include design, layout, type, poster, reportage, illustration, magazine make-up, package and product design, display, styling, art directing.
The lab was split into two sections per week, one for design and one for photography. The workshops were immensely popular, and it was not unusual for more than sixty people to show up to his class on the first night. Among the photographers who attended his classes were Diane Arbus, Eve Arnold, David Attie, Richard Avedon, Harvey Lloyd, Hiro, Lisette Model, Garry Winogrand, Joel Meyerowitz and Tony Ray-Jones.
Students on Brodovitch
"Brodovitch said "astonish me" many times, and he said we must enter the future and constantly change the old and seek the new. My own BREAKING THE LIGHT images reinvent the art of photography for the digital age, just as he urged all his students and all who worked with him to do. He despised imitation of the past and said long ago that we must be like the Russian Astronaut Gagarin and rocked into the future with daring and passion. He was a giant ahead of his time and he planted seeds of creativity that like the dragon seeds sprung up fully armored, and ready to astonish him." [ Harvey Lloyd. Post abstract expressionist photographer and artist]
"He taught me to be intolerant of mediocrity. He taught me to worship the unknown." – Art Kane, fashion and music photographer
"I learned from him that if, when you look in your camera, you see an image you have ever seen before, don't click the shutter." – Hiro, fashion photographer
"The Alexey Brodovitch course ... really changed the direction of my life. It was not anything that Brodovitch taught specifically, it was an ambiance that he created, a connection that he would make with particular students. He'd try to get them to move in directions that they were already discovering." – David Attie, fine art and commercial photographer
Notable students
Graduates of these early courses went on to prominent careers in the field. Brodovitch's department came to be known as a 'prep school' for agencies and magazines around the country.
David Attie
Richard Avedon
Jerry Schatzberg
Irving Penn of Vogue Magazine
Otto Storch
Marvin Israel
Lillian Bassman
Ryszard Horowitz
Hiro
Robert Frank
Garry Winogrand
Ed Feingersh, photojournalist
Allan Porter, later editor in chief of Camera magazine
Ted Croner
Hans Namuth
Harper's Bazaar
In spring of 1934, the Art Directors Club of New York asked Brodovitch to design their "13th Annual Art Directors Exhibition" at the Rockefeller Center, New York. It was there that Carmel Snow, the recently appointed editor-in-chief of Harper's Bazaar, saw Brodovitch's work for the first time. She knew right away that Brodovitch would be the one to transform the magazine into a real revival of Vogue, where she had started her career.
I saw a fresh, new conception of layout technique that struck me like a revelation: pages that "bled" beautifully cropped photographs, typography and design that were bold and arresting. Within ten minutes I had asked Brodovitch to have cocktails with me, and that evening I signed him to a provisional contract as art director.
The offer was, of course, dependent on the approval of the owner of Harper's Bazaar, William Randolph Hearst. Brodovitch eagerly returned to Philadelphia and assigned his students apprenticing at his Van Pelt Street studio to make two dummy issues of the magazine. He insisted that each page have a "shock value" of its own to set the magazine apart, "cutting paper dolls out of patterned paper, or illustration perfume bottles to look like high key photography – whatever was unlike other fashion magazines was tried." Although preferring more conservative design, Hearst put his trust in Carmel Snow and allowed her to take on Brodovitch as art director where he remained for 24 years.
The new look of Harper's Bazaar emphasized culture for its own sake. Taking advantage of Brodovitch's contacts in Europe and his wide knowledge of photography, the magazine introduced the work of many artists and photographers to its American audience. Before starting at Harper's Bazaar, Brodovitch organized a return trip to France, hoping to convince old friends to work with him at the magazine. Each summer he would return to offer commissions to artists and photographers until 1939 when the start of World War II made it impossible. By continually bringing in creative forces from overseas, he kept the magazine permanently fresh and cutting-edge. Among the artists that worked for Bazaar were Jean Cocteau, Raoul Dufy, Leonor Fini, Marc Chagall, Man Ray and A. M. Cassandre, the most eminent poster artist in France at the time, replacing the former cover favorite, Erté.
The style of Harper's
To those who worked with him at Bazaar, the pinnacle of Brodovitch's career as a designer was the unfailing elegance of his pages. This elegance, combined with an element of innovation was the ideal mix for a fashion magazine. The quality that guaranteed his success was his devotion to the new, unending surprise and vitality. Frances MacFadden, Bazaar'''s managing editor for much of Brodovitch's tenure, explained his working method:
It was a pleasure to watch him work. He was so swift and sure. In emergencies, like the time the Clipper bearing the report of the Paris Collections was held up in Bermuda, his speed was dazzling. A quick splash or two on the cutting board, a minute's juggling of the photostats, a slather of art gum, and the sixteen pages were complete. His layouts, of course, were the despair of copywriters whose cherished tone poems on girdles or minks had to be sacrificed to his sacred white space. Just before we went to press, all the layouts were laid out in sequence on Carmel Snow's floor, and there, under his eye, re-arranged until the rhythm of the magazine suited him.
Typically, Brodovitch would begin his layouts by designing the layouts as illustrations by hand. His assistant would receive these sketches to look over, but the photographers and freelance writers were often given little or no direction at all besides to come up with something new and unusual. When the photographs for the issue arrived, he would pick the most visually interesting and have a variety of sizes of reproductions made on a photostat machine. From these, each spread would be made one at a time, then arranged among the others to create a well-paced magazine.
His style for the magazine was radically different than any of its contemporaries. Brodovitch wanted his spreads to be innovative and fresh. While other fashion magazines thought it important to show the whole garment, Brodovitch would crop images unexpectedly or off-center to bring a new dynamism to the layout. He used forms in the photographs or illustrations as a cue for how to handle the shape of the text. In his earlier layouts, he would arrange photographs like playing cards, splayed out on the page or in the shape of a fan. Later in his career, however, he abandoned this technique in favor of using only one or two images to a page. Surrealism found its way onto the pages of the magazines in various experimental forms. For example, Brodovitch once used fashion photographs sent via radio from Paris to New York in blurry forms to communicate this new way of sharing information. Designs also included torn edges on photographs, or pages made to look as they had been torn through with a woman's figure stepping out of them. The motif of isolated body parts, another common Surrealist theme, could be seen on the covers and spreads of Harper's in the form of lips, hands, and eyes.
Brodovitch was sensitive to the fact that color was relatively new in magazines, with laborious preparation and high costs. By using process or second color inventively, Brodovitch was able to give the magazine an added sense of currency and luxury. He applied color to his layouts expressively, often choosing to use colors bolder than might be seen in the real world. Even after full-color reproduction became standard practice, he still used broad swaths of single colors for bold emphasis.
In terms of photography, Brodovitch had a distinct feel for what the magazine needed. He favored on-location fashion photography as opposed to the studio shots normally used in other fashion publications. He urged his photographers to look for jarring juxtapositions in their images. One such spread features a woman in a full-length Dior gown posed between two circus elephants. The cinematic effect, a trademark characteristic of his layouts, involved using photographs as if they were stills from a film. He would repeat a pose or a dress several times across a spread to give a narrative, temporal feeling. At times, Brodovitch would arbitrarily take a series of photographs and adopt a story line to go with them, as though recapping a movie. He was known to push this idea even further by adding film sprocket borders to photographs at times. Brodovitch also often emphasized spatial illusions, using type and photographs to create multiple perspectives within a space. The notion of mirroring and doubling also interested him, as can be seen in how he paired similar pictures on a spread or dividing halves of one image across the gutter of the page.
With this goal of story-telling, Harper's Bazaar can be seen as an example of a mediascape, in that Brodovitch was trying to construct a reality for the imaginations of the readers. He would create versions of small movie stills or spreads in which women were supposed to see themselves rather than the model. For example, he would often use a model's silhouette rather than her whole form, or keep her face in shadow, so that any reader could place themselves in those fashions, leading a charmed life. The result would be a magazine of images "out of which scripts can be formed of imagined lives."
One of his assistants at the magazine was future Rolling Stone art director Tony Lane.
Other works
Typeface
Brodovitch designed his own typeface in 1949. "Al-Bro", an abbreviation of his name, has broad and narrow strokes inspired by the symbols of musical notation. A layout showcasing the typeface was included in Portfolio #1, winter 1950.
Portfolio
In 1949, Brodovitch collaborated in the production of the revolutionary publication Portfolio. It has been widely acknowledged as perhaps the definitive graphic design magazine of the twentieth century. The idea for the publication came from art director Frank Zachary. He wanted to put out a magazine that focused solely on art and design, but was at the same time an outstanding example of design itself. Brodovitch was intrigued by the concept. Although he enjoyed his work at Harper's Bazaar, the limitations of space and subject matter often cramped his creative style. Portfolio freed him from the practical and aesthetic restraints to which he had grown accustomed. The pages of the publication were space for his graphic imagination to run wild. George S. Rosenthal, whose family owned a printing company dedicated to mass-market pictorial paperbacks, signed on too.Grundberg, p. 86.
With such great capital spent on publicity, Zachary and Rosenthal decided Portfolio would have to include advertising. Upon seeing the advertisements, however, they could not bear to ruin the look and feel of the publication by running them. It was decided that Portfolio would run without the aesthetic burden of advertising, freeing up more space for the overall design. Brodovitch was responsible for sorting through the articles and illustrations to create the spreads. Zachary described watching Brodovitch in action:
He'd go through the stuff fast, really fast, and pick out always the right thing, you know, and then he would mark it up [for copying], an inch, inch and a half, two and a half inches ... But anyhow, I'd go back to see him, he'd have these dam[n] 'stats all over the floor, ankle deep in them, and he would look around, pick one up, until there were six or eight or ten and then he'd lay them out and it worked ... that was the magic of it, you know?
Inside Portfolio, Brodovitch promoted features devoted to respected artists and designers, contributed articles on vernacular design, and made wildly imaginative layouts. The magazine encompassed an array of subject matter and design styles. Works of great French poets were interspersed with off-beat articles about graffiti by hobos. It was a beautifully composed mix-up of all things art. Unfortunately, the publication lasted only three issues. The no-expense-spared ethos of the magazine, paired with the lack of advertising, caused the magazine to quickly fold.Purcell, p. 239.
Ballet
Between 1935 and 1937, Brodovitch photographed several ballet companies, including the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, during their visits to New York on world tours. Although at the time he claimed the photos were only meant to be souvenirs, they evolved into something greater. The style in which Brodovitch photographed deviated from the sharp, straight photography popular at the time. According to one colleague, his images "spat in the face of technique and pointed out a new way in which photographers could work."
Brodovitch released a book of these photographs in 1945, titled simply Ballet, through a small New York publisher. The book contains 104 photographs of several ballets and is divided into eleven segments, one for each ballet performance. On the contents page, Brodovitch introduces each chapter in a typographic style that emulates the feel of the dance it is describing. He photographed with a Contax 35mm camera, no flash, and with a slow film speed. The blurred figures of the dancers allow the viewer to not only feel the music, but also to follow the line of the dancer's limbs mid-step. The images beautifully capture the atmosphere on-stage, the frenzied behind-the-scenes action backstage, and the magical moments of the ballet. By bleeding the blurred, grainy pictures off the pages and into the gutters, he communicated the emotional impact of the dance without words.
Unpublished Work on Breakfast at Tiffany's
While it has never been published or seen, Brodovitch did the design work for what would have been the very first publication of Truman Capote's novella Breakfast at Tiffany's in Harper's Bazaar. The novella was to appear in the July, 1958 issue. It was to be illustrated with a series of photo montages by David Attie, who had been a student of Brodovitch's the previous year and was offered the job on the final night of the class. Alice Morris, the fiction editor of Harper's, recalled that "Brodovitch ... had these wonderful photos taken that had nothing to do with the Breakfast story, but with Holly Golightly's cat. A cat in a window, mysterious-looking, slightly shady and misty." However, after the publication was scheduled, longtime Harper's editor Carmel Snow, who had wielded considerable influence, was ousted by the magazine's publisher, the Hearst Corporation, and replaced with her niece. Hearst executives then began asking for changes to the novella's tart language. By this time, Attie's montages and Brodovitch's design work had been completed, and Morris recounted that while Capote initially refused to make any changes, he relented "partly because I showed him the layouts. We had about six pages with beautiful, atmospheric photographs." Yet despite Capote's changes, Hearst ordered Harper's not to run the novella anyway. Its language and subject matter were still deemed "not suitable," and there was concern that Tiffany's, a major advertiser, would react negatively.Wise, Kelly, ed. (1981) Portrait: Theory, Lustrum Press, p. 7. An outraged Capote soon took the work to Esquire, and it appeared in the November 1958 issue with only a single full-page photo of Attie's, despite Capote's urging that more of the work be used.
Observations
Brodovitch's work as a book designer can be seen in Observations, a collection of photographs by Richard Avedon and commentary by Truman Capote, both regular contributors to Harper's Bazaar. In Observations, each spread shifts between pages of silhouetted images and pages of rectangular blocks of images and text, framed by ample stretches of white space. Although simple and elegant, the layout of the book has an enormous amount of visual variety.
Writing in America
Brodovitch collaborated again with David Attie on a still-renowned special section of Harper's than ran in October 1959, "Writing in America," which was edited by future New York Review of Books editor Robert B. Silvers and used Attie’s evocative images and Brodovitch's innovative layouts to illustrate essays by Budd Schulberg, Kingsley Amis, Archibald MacLeish and others; it has been republished in book form, most recently in 2018.
Saloon Society
Another strong example of Brodovitch's book design is Village Voice columnist Bill Manville's 1960 memoir Saloon Society, The Diary of a Year Beyond Aspirin, which artfully weaves a series of photo collages by David Attie into and around the text of the book itself. Some of Attie's original, unpublished photo montages for Breakfast at Tiffany's were used in this book, which is still available with its original Attie photos and Brodovitch design in a Kindle edition.
Declining health
Already suffering ill health, Brodovitch was plunged into an acute state of depression over the death of his wife, Nina. Over the next two years, Brodovitch was sent to various hospitals on numerous occasions to cure his worsening depression and alcoholism. Throughout these hospital stays, however, Brodovitch had an incessant desire to start new projects. At one point, he began compiling an autobiography, but it was never put together. Brodovitch received a small Minox camera from an old student, Ben Rose, visiting him at Manhattan State Hospital. He slipped the camera in an old box of Pall Mall cigarettes and discreetly began to photograph his fellow patients. Brodovitch would often decide to discharge himself before the treatments had run course. He was so ill, however, that he would be back before the end of the day.
With no pension or regular salary from Harper's Bazaar, Brodovitch was faced with mounting hospital bills. He often lost the little freelance work he was able to scrounge up due to his unwillingness to compromise with the clients. Poor health left him unable to show up to the Design Laboratory workshops on a regular basis.
Harvey Lloyd, artist/photographer, wrote: "I took personal care of Alexey Brodovitch and managed his Design Laboratory Workshops during his last six years in NYC to provide him with income to live on. He moved into my building at Union Square in New York with his son Nikita. I saw him every day, worked with him and watched over his deteriorating health. He drank too much and ate little food. Brodovitch came to virtually every Design Laboratory workshop session and invited many of the famous in the fields of design and photography. I recorded him and his well known visitors talking during those many sessions. These recordings are now available to hear at R.I.T. library in Rhode Island. His mind remained sharp and true to his beliefs during those last years in New York City. It was the greatest privilege to do this for him and to learn from him. He loved New York and I had to make him leave to go to his brother in France, as he was wasting away. There will never be another Brodovitch."
When Brodovitch stopped coming altogether, a few students halfheartedly tried to keep the class going in his honor. Without its creator, though, the Lab came to an end.
In 1966, Brodovitch fell and broke his hip. Physically and financially in a poor state, he moved back to France with his son Nikita to be closer to his many relatives. Two years later, he relocated to Le Thor, a small village even closer to his family in Avignon. He died three years later at age 73.
After death
In 1971 the Doctor of Fine Arts Degree was conferred posthumously on Brodovitch by the Philadelphia College of Art. In 1972 the Philadelphia College of Art held the exhibition "Alexey Brodovitch and His Influence" and he was inducted into the Art Directors Club Hall of Fame in New York. In 1982 the exhibition "Hommage à Alexey Brodovitch" was held at Grand-Palais, Paris. In 2002 Phaidon Press published the book Alexey Brodovitch by Kerry William Purcell.
Bibliography
Brodovitch, Alexey. "Aphorisms." Popular Photography, 49; December, 1961, p92.
Brodovitch, Alexey. "Brodovitch on Photography." Popular Photography, 49; December, 1961, p82-83.
Brodovitch, Alexey, and Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, Pa.). Graphic arts section. New Poster; International Exposition of Design in Outdoor Advertising, the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Nineteen-Thirty-Seven. Philadelphia: Beck engraving company, 1937.
Brodovitch, Alexey, and Galeries nationales du Grand Palais (France). Alexey, Brodovitch : [Exposition, Grand-Palais, Paris, 27 Octobre-29 Novembre 1982]. Paris: Ministère de la culture, 1982
Brodovitch, Alexey. "Libres de miseria." Art and Industry, 39; September, 1945, p69.
Brodovitch, Alexey. "What Pleases the Modern Man." Commercial Art, 9; August, 1930, p60-70.
See also
List of AIGA medalists
References
Sources
Further reading
Coyne, Jean A. "Pioneers: Henry Wolf." Communication arts 48.8 (2007): 86.
Coyne, Patrick. "Alexey Brodovitch." Communication Arts, 44.8 (2003): 102–105.
Morris, Holly. "Photo Finish." U.S.news world report 133.17 (2002): 52.
Rowlands, Penelope, ("A Dash of Daring: Carmel Snow and Her Life in Fashion, Art, and Letters." Publishers Weekly'', 252.38 (2005).
Rogers, Michael. "Penn, Irving. Irving Penn: A Career in Photography." Library Journal, 132.4 (2007): p125.
Sherin, Aaris. "Style Book." Print, 60.2 (2006): 48–55.
Tomkins, Calvin. "The World of Carmel Snow." New Yorker, 70.36 (1994): 148–158.
External links
Biography on Brodovitch at Iconofgraphics.com
Biography on Brodovitch at AIGA website
Alexey Brodovitch at biographer Kerry William Purcell's website
1898 births
1971 deaths
AIGA medalists
Graphic designers from the Russian Empire
American graphic designers
Art directors from the Russian Empire
Artists from the Russian Empire
Harper's Bazaar
White Russian emigrants to the United States
Expatriates from the Russian Empire in France |
4208947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Council%20of%20Ephesus | Second Council of Ephesus | The Second Council of Ephesus was a Christological church synod in 449 AD convened by Emperor Theodosius II under the presidency of Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria. It was intended to be an ecumenical council, and it is accepted as such by the miaphysite churches but was rejected by Chalcedonian Christians. It was explicitly repudiated by the next council, the Council of Chalcedon of 451, recognised as the fourth ecumenical council by Chalcedonian Christians, and it was named the Latrocinium ("Robber Synod") by Pope Leo I; the Chalcedonian churches, particularly the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions, continue to accept this designation, while the Oriental Orthodox repudiate it.
Both this council and that at Chalcedon dealt primarily with Christology, the study of the nature of Christ. Both councils affirmed the doctrine of the hypostatic union and upheld the orthodox Christian doctrine that Jesus Christ is both fully God and fully man. The Second Council of Ephesus decreed the formula of Cyril of Alexandria, stating that Christ is one incarnate nature [mia physis] (a qualitative description of the union of divinity and humanity), fully human and fully God, united without separation, without confusion, without mixture and without alteration. The Council of Chalcedon decreed that in Christ two natures exist, "a divine nature [physis] and a human nature [physis], united in one person [hypostasis], with neither division nor confusion".
Those who do not accept the decrees of Chalcedon nor later ecumenical councils are variously named monophysites, miaphysites, or non-Chalcedonians, and comprise what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy, a communion of six autocephalous ecclesial communions: Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, and the Armenian Apostolic Church. Those who accepted the teaching of Chalcedon but resided in areas dominated by Oriental Orthodox bishops were called by the non-Chalcedonians Melkites ("King's men"), as the Emperors were usually Chalcedonians. The Antiochian Orthodox Church historically descends from these people. Shortly after the Council of Chalcedon, the miaphysite party appointed a Pope of Alexandria in opposition to the Chalcedonian Pope of Alexandria. Over the next few centuries, various popes usually held to either one side or the other although some accepting the Henotikon. Eventually, two separate papacies were established, each claiming sole legitimacy.
Background
Nestorius was Archbishop of Constantinople. His opponents charged him with detaching Christ's divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body, thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation. It is not clear whether Nestorius actually taught that. A combination of politics and personalities contributed to Nestorius being judged a heretic and deposed at the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD. John Anthony McGuckin sees an "innate rivalry" between the Sees of Alexandria and Constantinople.
Eutyches was an archmandrite in Constantinople. In his opposition to Nestorianism, he seemed to take an equally extreme, although opposite view. In 448, Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople held a synod at which Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylaeum, brought a charge of heresy against Eutyches. Eutyches was summoned to appear and clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Finding his response unsatisfactory, the synod condemned and exiled Eutyches, who sent an appeal to Pope Leo I. When Leo had received the Acts of the council, he concluded that Eutyches was a foolish old man who had erred through ignorance, and might be restored if he repented. Dioscurus of Alexandria, imitating his predecessors in assuming a primacy over Constantinople, simply annulled the sentence of Flavian, and absolved Eutyches. Dioscurus and Eutyches had obtained the convocation by the Emperor of an ecumenical council to meet at Ephesus in August, 449.
First session
The Acts by the Second Council of Ephesus are known through a Syriac translation by a monk, that was published by the British Museum (MS. Addit. 14,530) and written in 535. The first session is missing.
Attending signatories
There was insufficient time for Western bishops to attend except a certain Julius, Bishop of Puteoli, who, together with a Roman priest, Renatus (who died on the way), and the deacon Hilarius (who later became Pope himself), represented Pope Leo I. The emperor gave Dioscorus of Alexandria the presidency: (Greek). The legate Julius is mentioned next, but when his name was read at Chalcedon, the bishops cried: "He was cast out; no one represented Leo". Next in order is Juvenal of Jerusalem, above both the Patriarch Domnus II of Antioch and Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople.
There were 127 bishops present at the council, with eight representatives of absent bishops, and lastly the deacon Hilarius with his notary, Dulcitius. The question before the council, by order of the emperor, was whether Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople, in a synod held by him at Constantinople beginning November 8, 448 AD, had justly deposed and excommunicated Archimandrite Eutyches for refusing to admit two natures in Christ. Consequently, Flavian and six other bishops, who had been present at his synod, were not allowed to sit as judges in the council.
Opening proceeding
The brief of convocation by Theodosius II was read. Then the legates to the Pope of the Church of Rome explained that although it would have been contrary to custom for their Pope to be present in person, the Pope of the Church of Rome had sent a letter with the legates to be read at the council. In the letter, Leo I referred to his dogmatic letter to Flavian, the Tome of Leo, which he intended the council to accept as a ruling of faith.
However, the head notary declared that the emperor's letter should be read first, and Bishop Juvenal of Jerusalem commanded for the letter of the emperor to be presented. It ordered the presence at the council of the anti-Nestorian monk Barsumas. The question of faith was next on the proceedings. Pope (Patriarch of Alexandria) Dioscorus declared that it was not a matter for inquiry but that they had to consider only recent activity, as all present had acknowledged that they strictly adhered to the faith. He was acclaimed as a guardian and the Champion of Oriental Orthodoxy.
Eutyches was then introduced, and he declared that he held the Nicene Creed to which nothing could be added and from which nothing could be taken away. He claimed that he had been condemned by Flavian for a mere slip of the tongue even though he had declared that he held the faith of Nicaea and Ephesus, and he had appealed to the present council. His life had been put in danger and he now asked for judgment against the calumnies that had been brought against him.
Eutyches' accuser, Bishop Eusebius of Dorylaeum, was not allowed to be heard. The bishops agreed that the acts of the condemnation of Eutyches, at the 448 Constantinople council, should be read, but the legates of Rome asked that Leo's letter might be heard first. Eutyches interrupted with the complaint that he did not trust the legates. They had been to dine with Flavian and had received much courtesy. Pope Dioscorus decided that the acts of the trial should have precedence and so the letter of Leo I was not read.
The acts were then read in full and also the account of an inquiry made on April 13, 449, into the allegation of Eutyches that the synodal acts had been incorrectly noted down, and then the account of another inquiry on April 27, 449, into the accusation made by Eutyches that Flavian had drawn up the sentence against him beforehand. While the trial was being related, cries arose from those present, declaring a belief in one nature, that two natures meant Nestorianism, and of "Burn Eusebius", and so forth. Flavian rose to complain that no opportunity was given to him to defend himself.
The Acts of the Second Council of Ephesus now give a list of 114 votes in the form of short speeches absolving Eutyches; three of his former judges also absolved him but by the emperor's order they were not allowed to vote. Lastly, Barsumas added his voice. A petition was read from Eutyches' monastery which had been excommunicated by Flavian. The monks asserted that they agreed in all things with Eutyches and with the Holy Fathers, and therefore the synod absolved them.
An extract from the acts of the first session of the First Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was read next. Many of the bishops and also the deacon Hilarus expressed their assent, some adding that nothing beyond that faith could be allowed.
Dioscorus then spoke, declaring that it followed that Flavian and Eusebius must be deposed, as if an anathema was passed unjustly, and he who passed it was to be judged by the same. Flavian and Eusebius had previously interposed an appeal to the Roman Pope and to a synod held by him.
Evidence given at the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon contradicts the account in the acts of the final scene of the session. It was reported at Chalcedon that secretaries of the bishops had been violently prevented from taking notes and it was declared that both Barsumas and Dioscorus struck Flavian. It was further reported that many bishops threw themselves on their knees to beg Dioscorus for mercy to Flavian and also Alexandrine Parabolani, that some signed a blank paper, and that others did not sign at all, the names being afterwards filled in of all who were actually present.
The allegation of the blank papers has no proof at all. No one mentioned it for two years after the council (449-451), even after the passing of Emperor Theodosius II in 450 AD. In the opening of the first session of Chalcedon (451), many allegations against Dioscorus were listed; none of which was the blank papers.
The papal legate Hilarius uttered a single word in Latin, "Contradicitur", annulling the sentence in Leo's name. He then escaped with difficulty. Flavian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum appealed to the pope, and their letters, only lately discovered, were probably taken by Hilarus to Rome, which he reached by a devious route.
It was said Dioscorus had previously gathered 1000 monks, telling them to wait outside the church during the council and to come when he called them. When Dioscorus began to read the sentence of condemnation against Flavian and Eusebius, some bishops went up to Dioscorus, asking him not to. Dioscorus called the guards, and the 1000 monks who were waiting outside with some soldiers came in and charged at Flavian and his followers. Flavian ran to the altar and grabbed hold of it for his life. The soldiers and monks forcefully took him from the altar beating him, kicking him and then whipping him.
Flavian was deported into exile and died from his wounds a few days later in Lydia. His body was buried in obscurity. It was not until Flavius Marcianus called the Council of Chalcedon that Flavian's body was buried with honour in Constantinople. No more of the Acts were read at Chalcedon. However, Theodoret, Evagrius and others note that the Council voted to depose Theodoret himself, Domnus, and Ibas, Bishop of Edessa, Mesopotamia.
Subsequent sessions
Attitude of schism
The Syriac Acts take up the history where the Chalcedonian Acts break off. Of the first session, only the formal documents, letters of the emperor, and petitions of Eutyches are known to be preserved in Syriac though not within the same manuscript. It is evident that the non-Chalcedonian editor disapproved of the first session and purposely omitted it, not because of the high-handed proceedings of Dioscorus but because the later Miaphysites generally condemned Eutyches as a heretic and did not wish to remember his rehabilitation by a council that they considered to be ecumenical but the rest of Christianity scorned.
Attendance
In the next session, according to the Syriac Acts, 113 people were present, including Barsumas. Nine new names appeared. The legates did not appear and were sent for, but only the notary Dulcitius could be found and he was unwell. It was an uncanonical charge against Dioscorus at the Council of Chalcedon that he "had held an (ecumenical) council without the Roman See, which was never allowed". That manifestly refers to his having continued at the council after the departure of the legates.
Double jeopardy
The first case was that of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa. The famous champion of the Antiochian party, he had been accused of crimes before by Domnus, Bishop of Antioch, and had been acquitted soon after Easter 448. His accusers had gone to Constantinople and been granted a new trial by the emperor. Bishops Photius of Tyre, Eustathius of Berytus and Uranius of Imeria were to examine the matter. The bishops met at Tyre, removed to Berytus, and returned to Tyre. Eventually, in February 449, they acquitted Ibas once more, together with his fellow accused: Daniel, Bishop of Harran and John of Theodosianopolis.
Cheroeas, Governor of Osrhoene l, was then ordered to go to Edessa to start a new inquiry. He was received by the people of Edessa on April 12, 449, with shouts in honour of the emperor, the governor, and the late Bishop Rabbula and against Nestorius and Ibas. The detailed summary of the reception takes up some two or three pages of the report that Cheroeas sent, along with two letters of his own, to Constantinople. The report gave details of the accusations against Ibas, and led to the emperor's ordering for a new bishop to be chosen.
The report, which provided a history of the whole affair, was read at length by the order of Dioscorus. When the famous letter of Ibas to Bishop Maris was read, cries arose such as: "These things pollute our ears. ...Cyril is immortal. ...Let Ibas be burnt in the midst of the city of Antioch. ...Exile is of no use. Nestorius and Ibas should be burnt together!"
A final indictment was made in a speech by a priest of Edessa named Eulogius. Sentence was finally given against Ibas of deposition and excommunication, without any suggestion that he ought to be called to speak in his own defence.
In the next case, that of Ibas's nephew, Daniel of Harran, it was declared that they had clearly seen his guilt at Tyre and had acquitted him only because of his voluntary resignation. He was quickly deposed by the agreement of all the council. He, too, was not present and could not defend himself.
Next was the turn of Irenaeus, who, as an influential layman at the first Council of Ephesus, had been known to favour Nestorius. He had later become Bishop of Tyre, but the emperor had deposed him in 448 under charges of bigamy and blasphemy, and Photius had succeeded him. The synod ratified the deposition of Irenaeus.
Aquilinus, Bishop of Byblus, had been consecrated by Irenaeus and was his friend. He was the next to be deposed. Sophronius, Bishop of Tella, was a cousin of Ibas. He was, therefore, accused of magic, and his case was reserved for the judgment of the new Bishop of Edessa, a surprisingly-mild decision.
Condemnation of Theodoret
Theodoret, an opponent of Dioscorus and a personal supporter of Nestorius, had been confined within his own diocese by the emperor in the preceding year to prevent him from preaching at Antioch. Theodoret had been a friend of Nestorius, and for more than three years (431-434 AD) he was a prominent antagonist of Cyril of Alexandria. However, despite the fact the two great theologians had come to terms and had celebrated their agreement, Theodoret was rejected with scorn. Theodosius had twice written to prevent him from coming to the council at Ephesus, and the council found a reason to depose him in his absence.
A monk from Antioch produced a volume of extracts from the works of Theodoret. First was read Theodoret's letter to the monks of the East (see Mansi, V, 1023), then some extracts from a lost Apology for Diodorus and Theodore. The very name of the work was sufficient, in the view of the council, to condemn Theodoret, and Dioscorus pronounced the sentence of deposition and excommunication.
When Theodoret, in his remote diocese, heard of the sentence pronounced in his absence, he at once appealed to Leo in a letter (Ep. cxiii). He also wrote to the legate Renatus (Ep. cxvi), being unaware that he was dead.
Condemnation of Domnus
The council had a yet-bolder task before it. Domnus of Antioch is said to have agreed in the first session to the acquittal of Eutyches, but he refused, on the plea of sickness, to appear at the later sessions of the council. He seems to have been disgusted or terrified or both at the leadership of Pope Dioscorus. The council had sent him an account of their actions, and he replied, according to the Acts, that he agreed to all the sentences that had been given and regretted that his health made his attendance impossible.
Immediately after receiving this message, the council proceeded to hear a number of petitions from monks and priests against Domnus. Domnus was accused of friendship with Theodoret and Flavian, of Nestorianism, of altering the form of the Sacrament of Baptism, of intruding an immoral bishop into Emessa, of having been uncanonically appointed himself and of being an enemy of Dioscorus. Several pages of the manuscripts are missing, but it does not seem that the patriarch was asked to appear or given a chance to defend himself. The bishops shouted that he was worse than Ibas. He was deposed by a vote of the council, and with that final act, the Acts come to an end.
Reception
The council wrote the customary letter to the emperor (see Perry, trans., p. 431), who confirmed it with his own letter (Mansi, VII, 495, and Perry, p. 364). Dioscorus sent an encyclical to the bishops of the East with a form of adhesion to the council that they were to sign (Perry, p. 375). He also went to Constantinople and appointed his secretary Anatolius as bishop of that see.
Juvenal of Jerusalem was loyal to Dioscorus. He had deposed the Patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople, but one powerful adversary yet remained. He halted at Nicaea and with ten bishops (probably the same ten Egyptian metropolitans whom he had brought to Ephesus) "in addition to all his other crimes he extended his madness against him who had been entrusted with the guardianship of the Vine by the Saviour", in the words of the bishops at Chalcedon, "and excommunicated the Pope himself".
Meanwhile, Leo I had received the appeals of Theodoret and Flavian (of whose death he was unaware) and had written to them and to the Emperor and Empress, nullifying all of the Acts of the council. He eventually excommunicated all who had taken part in it and absolved all whom it had condemned (including Theodoret), with the exception of Domnus of Antioch, who seems to have had no wish to resume his see and retired into the monastic life that he had left many years earlier with regret.
The Council of Chalcedon gave rise to what has been called the Monophysite Schism between those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon and those who rejected it: many Byzantine emperors over the next several hundred years attempted to reconcile the opposed parties, in the process giving rise to several other schisms and teachings later condemned as heresy, such as monoenergism and monotheletism, which were devised as attempted compromises between the Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian parties (cf. the Henotikon and the Three Chapters – the latter itself leading to another schism lasting over a century, the Schism of the Three Chapters).
References
Sources
Edward Walford, translator, The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, .
External links
Second section.
440s in the Byzantine Empire
Ephesus
History of Oriental Orthodoxy
Ephesus
449
Theodosius II |
4209088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatinate%20Forest | Palatinate Forest | The Palatinate Forest ( ), sometimes also called the Palatine Forest, is a low-mountain region in southwestern Germany, located in the Palatinate in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The forest is a designated nature park () covering 1,771 km2 and its highest elevation is the Kalmit (672.6 m).
Together with the northern part of the adjacent Vosges Mountains in France it forms the UNESCO-designated Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve.
Geography
Topography
The Palatinate Forest, together with the Vosges south of the French border, from which it has no morphological separation, is part of a single central upland region of about 8,000 km2 in area, that runs from the Börrstadt Basin (a line from Winnweiler via Börrstadt and Göllheim) to the Burgundian Gate (on the line Belfort–Ronchamp–Lure) and which forms the western boundary of the Upper Rhine Plain. This landscape forms, in turn, the eastern part of the very extensive eastern scarplands of France, which, on German soil, take in large parts of the Palatinate and the Saarland, with older (e.g. on the Donnersberg) and younger strata (muschelkalk, e.g. the Westrich Plateau).
Boundaries
While the boundaries of the Palatinate Forest are comparatively clearly defined to the north and east, the transition to neighbouring landscapes to the west and south is less sharp.
To the north, the Palatinate Forest is adjoined by the North Palatine Uplands, including the Donnersberg (). This is where the bunter sandstone formations typical of the Palatinate Forest end, being replaced by other types of rock such as those of the Rotliegendes. This results in a clear geomorphological separation of the two landscape areas, which runs approximately along a line from Eisenberg via Göllheim and Börrstadt to Otterberg near Kaiserslautern.
The hill country between the Haardt and the Upper Rhine Plain, where Palatine wines are grown, is known as the Weinstrasse. The German Wine Route runs through this zone of hills.
The St. Ingbert-Kaiserslauten Depression runs up to the northwestern Palatinate Forest from west-southwest to east-northeast into which the Forest descends in a clear escarpment, especially into the boggy lowland of the Landstuhl Bruch west of Kaiserslautern.
To the west of the Großer Hausberg, the Westrich Plateau separates from the Palatinate Forest at the sharp southern boundary of the Landstuhler Bruch in a comparatively smooth transition. It reaches comparable heights in the transition area, but as a muschelkalk plateau it has a significantly different relief and is no longer fully forested. It not only stretches around the western edge of the Palatinate Forest, but also further south around the Vosges. From the area of Lemberg in Lorraine, it also forms the watershed between the Moselle and the Upper Rhine; the southern part of the region being drained completely via the Moder system to the Upper Rhine.
To the south, the narrow Zaberner Steige forms a border between the Palatinate Forest, which continues into France as the North Vosges (Vosges du Nord or Nordvogesen) and the "actual" Vosges. Geomorphologically and geologically, this dividing line is less pronounced than is the case on the right bank of the Rhine, where the Odenwald and Black Forest are clearly separated from each other by the lowland of the Kraichgau. Only the Burgundian Gate beyond the Vosges forms an orographically clear border on the left bank of the Rhine.
Structure
The Palatinate Forest can be divided into three areas.
The Northern Palatinate Forest, bounded by the extensive northern Palatine hill landscape and reaching southwards to a line from Kaiserslautern to Bad Duerkheim
The Middle Palatinate Forest from the stream Isenach and the line Kaiserslautern - Bad Duerkheim to the Queich stream and the line from Pirmasens to Landau
The Southern Palatinate Forest, the so-called Wasgau, from the Queich stream and the line from Pirmasens to Landau to the French borderline in the south.
Subdivisions
The Palatinate Forest is a major (3rd level) natural region within the Palatine-Saarland Scarplands (a 2nd order major region) and runs south as far as the Col de Saverne, i.e. far into French territory, where it continues as the Vosges ridge. This often goes unrecognized as a result of the French border; hence the French southern part of the natural region is often, wrongly, counted as part of the North Vosges.
The important subdivisions of these bunter sandstone mountains were drawn up in the 1950s and 1960s in the Handbook of the Natural Region Divisions of Germany and 1:200,000 map sheets by the German Federal Institute for Regional Studies. Despite that, some deviation in the names used by the handbook has prevailed.
The most important subordinate landscapes are listed with the aid of a map; the map only showing the names of well-known landscapes and only the more significant landscape boundaries.
Palatinate Forest
Lower Palatinate Forest (Northern Palatinate Forest)
Otterberg Forest (up to around 380 m)
(Sembach Plateax)
Stumpfwald (only over 400 m near the southern boundary)
Queitersberg (Quaidersberg, Quaitersberg; 394 m); eastern outskirts of Kaiserslautern
Central Palatinate Forest (only significantly separate landscape subdivisions shown)
Diemerstein Forest (up to around 450 m)
Leininger Sporn (up to 516 m)
High Palatinate Forest (main plateau of the Frankenweide; up to 610 m)
Haardt (up to 673 m)
Wasgau
Western Wasgau (up to 513 m)
Bitche Forest Lowland
Dahn-Annweiler Felsenland
Stürzelbronn-Schönau Felsenland (up to 581 m)
Dahner Felsenland (up to 577 m)
Dahner Felsenland in the narrower sense
Annweiler Felsenland
Annweiler-Albersweiler Outskirts ("Trifelsland")
Eastern Wasgau
Upper Mundat Forest (up to 562 m)
Hochwald (up to 529 m)
Lembach Graben
Southern Wasgau (up to 526 m; drains into the Moder)
History
Name
The name Pfälzerwald was first used in 1843 - when the Palatinate was part of the Kingdom of Bavaria - by foresters in the centrally-located municipality of Johanniskreuz, who used it to refer to the woods of the bunter sandstone region of the Palatinate. Its use was extended when, in 1902, the Palatinate Forest Club (Pfälzerwald-Verein or PWV) was founded, Fritz Claus, one of the pioneers of the PWV, in particular, strove to promote the name. A more precise, scientifically-based definition of the Palatinate Forest as an independent natural region was introduced in 1911 by Daniel Häberle, a Palatine geographer and local historian.
Prior to 1850, there was no overall name for the Palatine's bunter sandstone mountains Historical territorial factors, rather than geographical ones, governed perceptions at the time. By contrast, the Celts and Romans viewed the entire mountain range west of the Rhine as a single unit, making no distinction between different parts of the region that, today, is the Palatinate Forest and the Vosges. The range was named after the Celtic forest god Vosegus and is recorded in many Roman manuscripts as "silva vosegus" or "mons vosegus". It was from this linguistic root that, during the Middle Ages, the name Vosges emerged in the French-speaking area and Wasgen or Wasigenwald, later also Wasgau, in the German-speaking region.
So while the term Wasgen continued, for a long time, to refer to the entire range on the west bank of the Rhine, at the beginning of the 20th century, it gradually became restricted to the Alsatian part of the sandstone mountains, whilst the term Pfälzerwald ("Palatinate Forest") became increasingly used to refer to the Palatine part. This led to the Palatinate Forest and Vosges being defined as separate and distinct landscapes. However, in recent decades, in the context of European integration (the Schengen Agreement), there has been an increasing trend to regard the entire mountain complex as a single geographical entity again. Evidence of this changed attitude can be seen, for example, in the establishment in 1998 of the first cross-border biosphere reserve, the Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.
History of settlement
Traces of activity (to the 10th century)
Whilst there are traces of human activities in the more habitable regions of what is now the Palatinate, taking place since the Neolithic period (5,500-4,500 BC), and especially in Celtic (800 to 10 BC) and Roman (10 BC to 450 AD) times, the mountains on the west bank of the Rhine were practically uninhabited and covered by dense, ancient forest until the end of the Migration Period (about 600 AD).
Abbeys, colonisation and development (7th to 13th centuries)
After the Frankish conquests in the Early Middle Ages (7th to 10th century) took them to the edges of today's Palatinate Forest, there was increasing population pressure in the Middle Ages (10th to 13th century), especially through the initiatives of the nobility and the church, e.g. through the establishment of monasteries such as the Cistercian abbeys of Otterberg (1144) and Eußerthal (1148), the colonization and development of the mountains. Areas that could be used for agriculture were cleared and settled permanently. This development reached its peak in the region during the era of the Salian (10th-12th centuries) and Hohenstaufen (12th and 13th century) emperors, with the construction of Trifels Castle and other castles in the surrounding area that, for a time, made it the centre of power of the empire.
Abandoned villages, over-exploitation and depletion (14th-18th centuries)
This development took place in the Late Middle Ages (13th to 15th centuries) and Early Modern Period (16th to 18th century), because disease (e.g. The Plague) and famine led to a significant decline in population and the total number of settlements fell sharply (leaving abandoned villages), as a result of wars and economic circumstances. Thus, during the colonization of the mountains, areas were often cleared that, because of the nutrient-poor sandy soils, were unsuitable for farming and had to be abandoned after a short period because of overuse and overexploitation. Also, the use of the forest to obtain firewood and timber did not follow the principles of sustainability. On the one hand, the production of straw (foliage as bedding for cattle) and wood pasture damaged the soils and forests; on the other hand the manufacture of iron, glass and potash, which needed a lot of wood, led for centuries to the overuse and destruction of the forest and thus to the further impoverishment of the population. Occupations that the forest itself supported, such as lumberjacks, charcoal burners, rafters, resin burners (pitch boilers) and ash burners, supported only a meagre existence.
Immigration, re-impoverishment, first commuters (late 18th to early 20th century)
After large population losses during the Thirty Years' War, the population was initially restored and stabilized in the late 17th century, initially as a result of settler migration from the Tyrol and Swabia and the settlement of Huguenot and Mennonite religious refugees from Switzerland, France and the Netherlands. From then to the end of the 18th century, the population expanded as a result of the better design of farms (such as the Frankish house) and the expansion of villages (clustered village or Haufendörfer). This development, however, meant that the resources of the mountains were rapidly exhausted and over-population and poverty, in particular in the 19th century, led to increased emigration to the New World. Apart from the modest level of iron extraction and processing, work in the forests and the operation of paper mills, the shoemaking industry in the region Pirmasens was the only real source of income. This meant that the railway in the second half of the 19th century (the Ludwig Railway and Landau–Zweibrücken line) brought some improvement in the situation, because it became possible to commute to towns outside the Palatinate Forest and seek employment in one of the emerging industries (e.g. BASF at Ludwigshafen) outside the region.
Deindustrialisation and tourism (20th and 21st centuries)
In the 20th century, the general economic structural changes in Germany also affected the region of the Palatinate Forest, which was increasingly integrated into the overall economic and transport systems. Secluded forest farming villages became municipalities with a service character through the building of infrastructure (e.g. public transport), and, in many cases, the villagers now no longer worked locally, but in more distant regional centres, such as Ludwigshafen and Kaiserslautern.
By contrast local industries in the mountains became rarer or were closed, as can be seen in the example of the footwear industry. Since its heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, globalization has seen the relocation of shoe production abroad, resulting in the almost total collapse of the industry, reinforced especially in the 1980s and 1990s by increasing unemployment and induced migration trends. In addition, the far-reaching demographic changes of the last few decades have caused further structural problems, especially affecting remote communities in sparsely populated areas through population decline, aging and migration.
At the same time, the forested highlands has gained increasing importance in the second half of the twentieth century as a place for recreation and leisure activities of special ecological status. This is reflected in various touristic concepts and activities to offer the native population additional work and income opportunities and to assist in counteracting the structural changes described above.
Nature Park and Biosphere Reserve
Whereas the Palatinate Forest was earlier seen mainly as a source of raw materials and energy supply, today, in addition to its recreation and leisure function, its ecological importance as a "special protected landscape" has come to the forefront. This change in attitude found visible expression, inter alia, through the establishment of the Palatinate Forest Nature Park and, later the Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve.
Nature park
The Palatinate Forest Nature Park was created in 1958 as the third nature park in Germany. In accordance with the requirements of the originator of the nature park concept, Alfred Toepfer, the Palatinate Forest was to be a place of recreation and exercise for the stressed office workers of the cities in the Rhine valley which were then suffering badly from air pollution. The nature park expansion programme envisaged 95 car parks, 13 camp sites, seven observation towers and five open-air pools.
In fact, 62 woodland car parks were created in the first seven years as well as 530 benches and as many waste bins. A total of 370 km of walking routes were added or created and 45 signed circular walks laid out. The management of the nature park took over the Palatinate Forest Club (PWV). The 20 open shelters, built for walkers in log house style, were named "Fischer Huts" after the Managing Director of the Palatinate Forest Club, Ludwig Fischer.
In the mid-1960s, the PWV came to the conclusion that the work required could not be done by volunteers and handed the management of the nature park to the Palatinate provincial government. By 1974, 3.7 million euros had been spent on improving recreational opportunities.
Around 1975 the expansion of recreational facilities was viewed as complete and attention switched to the care of biotopes and the landscape in the centre. Increasingly there was also a desire to replace the many coniferous monocultures, planted as a result of war, wartime reparations and times of crisis, with species rich site-specific mixed forests.
On 20 July 1982 the Palatinate Forest Nature Park Association (Verein Naturpark Pfälzerwald) was founded as a support organization. The members of the association are those counties and independent towns whose territories are covered by the nature park as well as the Palatinate regional association, various rambling and sports clubs and environmental organizations. Many social organisations are involved in the work of the nature park, ensuring the independence of academic and regional individual interests. The association's goal is to develop the nature park and its eponymous biosphere reserve equally and to maintain its uniqueness and beauty as well as its national recreational value. Since 1997, the head office of the association has been in Lambrecht.
Biosphere reserve
The Palatinate Forest Nature Park was recognized in 1992 by UNESCO as a biosphere reserve. In 1998 it became the German part of the first cross-border UNESCO biosphere reserve, namely the Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve. It thus became the 12th of (as at 2009) 15 German biosphere reserves. These are areas that have a special significance for the global conservation of biological diversity and in which the ecological aspects, sustainable economic management, environmental education and environmental research are best linked together.
In 2007, the state of Rhineland -Palatinate issued an ordinance by which the UNESCO guidelines for the design of biosphere reserves would be implemented specifically for the Palatinate Forest Nature Park. This laid down a zoning scheme as its main focus, which envisaged three zones with different objectives and protection functions:
Core areas
Securely protected sites for conserving biological diversity where there is a "least possible influence on the course of natural processes", i.e. complete protection of typical ecosystems is ensured.
Buffer zones
The buffer zones are used for "ecologically sound farming practices" that conserve landscape character. They are intended to complement and link the core areas.
Transition areas
The main focus is on the promotion of "model projects for sustainability" that, for example, may include the development of sustainable tourism concepts or the environmentally friendly production of regional products.
The "quiet zones" (Stillezonen) also covered in the law are intended to ensure a "recreation in the stillness", but are not part of the UNESCO guidelines for biosphere reserves. The concept originates rather from the old protected area regulation for the Palatinate Forest Nature Park (1984) and therefore overlaps with the other three zones.
Core, buffer and transition zones are representatively distributed over the area of the biosphere reserve. As part of this, some 16 core zones were defined, together covering about 2.3 percent of the area. The source region of the Wieslauter (2,296 ha) being the largest of the core area in the biosphere reserve, with its mixed stands of primeval beech, oak and pine.
Geology
The Palatinate Forest is primarily characterised by a block of bunter sandstone and its underlying formations of Zechstein. The tectonically formed bedding of these rock types and their subsequent erosion led to the topography of this low mountain range that we see today.
Development history
Formation of the bunter sandstone
In the Permian geological period (about 296-251 million years ago) the first sandstone formations, some 100 metres thick, were deposited in the area of today's Palatinate Forest; in particular, the rock units of the Rotliegendes and the Zechstein (about 256-251 million years ago) are important. At the beginning of the Germanic Triassic, i.e. from the Lower to the beginning of the Middle Triassic, there was (about 251-243 million years ago) a desert-like climate, so that as a result of further depositions of sand, rock layers of up to 500 metres thickness were formed. This led inter alia, through the addition of iron oxide, to a variable colouration of the rock strata - hence the name "bunter" sandstone (bunter being German for "coloured") - and, depending on the type and binding of the material, (clay-bound sandstone as opposed to silicified quartz sandstone) to the formation of rock layers of different hardness. This resulted in the subgroups of lower, middle and upper bunter sandstone. These bunter sandstone formations were buried by various types of sediments in the adjacent sections of muschelkalk (243-235 million years ago) and keuper (234-200 million years ago), and also during the Jurassic (200-142 million years ago) and Cretaceous (142-66 million years ago).
Laying down of the bunter sandstone
At the beginning of the Palaeogene period of the Cenozoic era (66 to 23.8 million years ago) the formation of the Alps led to considerable tensions in the Earth's crust, which, in their forelands to the north of the Alps, caused a bulge in the mantle and crust. At the apex of the arch so formed, there were considerable tensile stresses, so that the rock layers were stretched and about 35 million years ago, deep cracks and depressions in the Earth's crust occurred (passive rifting). At the same time the sides of the newly created lowlands were uplifted, in the case of the Palatinate Forest, to a height of about 1000 metres.
These processes, which continue today, have had four important implications for the present landscape of the low mountain region:
The removal of approximately 800 metres of surface rock (dogger, lias, keuper and muschelkalk), thus exposing the bunter sandstone
The tilting of the sandstone layers
the formation of swells and troughs
The breaking the bunter sandstone into individual fault blocks and the formation of faults
Shaping of today's landscape
In the later Paleogene (34 to 23.8 million years ago) and Neogene (23.8 to 2.8 million years ago) and also in the Quaternary period (2.8 - 0.01 million years ago) erosion processes once more dominated. In particular, it was the weathering and removal processes that occurred during the various cold and warm periods that determined the final topographical shape of the Palatinate Forest. Characteristic of this is a system of deeply incised valleys, especially in the north and centre, diverse mountain shapes and bizarre rock formations.
Structure
Bedrock
Gneisses and slates form the bedrock of the Palatinate Forest today, but they are generally covered by younger rock formations, cropping out only in a few places on the eastern edge of the mountains.
Rotliegendes and Zechstein formations
These rock strata cover the bedrock and consist, in addition to sandstone, of shale and marl. They generally have a softer consistency and therefore form broad valleys and erosion surfaces in the northern Palatinate Forest (the Stumpfwald) as well as in the southeast. The southern Palatinate sandstone formations of the Zechstein are divided into four strata having a total thickness of about 80 to 100 metres.
Bunter sandstone beds
The rock unit of bunter sandstone is divided into three strata:
Lower Bunter
The Lower Bunter is the typical rock of the Palatine Forest and covers large areas of the low mountain range to a depth of 280 to 380 metres. The sandstones contain much quartz and little feldspar and mica, so that they weather into sandy soils, poor in nutrients that are scarcely used for agricultural purposes. In all there are three subdivisions - the Trifels, Rehberg and Schlossberg beds - in which several rock zones of differing thickness are combined.
Middle Bunter
In the Middle Bunter, too, various rock zones with thicknesses of about 80 to 100 metres may be identified. The most striking are the Karlstal beds, which mainly occur at the surface as silicified blocks of rock, and the upper rock zone and the primary conglomerate, which also consist of silicifie coarse sandstones and scree. At the top of this formation is the "violet boundary layer" (violette Grenzschicht), which mainly consists of fine, mica-rich sediments.
Upper Bunter
Intermediate beds and Voltzien sandstone together form the Upper Bunter with a thickness of about a hundred metres. Unlike the Lower and Middle Bunter beds, these strata contain more mica, carbonates and clay minerals and thus weather down to soils rich in nutrients, that are used for agriculture in island clearings in the western Palatine Forest (the Holzland).
Geomorphology
Landscape character
Weathering and erosion of the different rock strata of the Palatine Forest with their variable hardness have resulted in a low mountain landscape with a dense, deeply incised system of valleys and wide variety of hill shapes. The hard and resistant rocks of the Lower and Middle Bunter have produced a scarpland relief, whose cuestas characterize the landscape, especially in the north and east, whilst the southeastern part of the Palatinate Forest is dominated by rather isolated types of hill separated by erosion surfaces.
Mountains, hills and rock formations
General features
In the bunter sandstone mountains a wide variety of hill shapes may be observed, depending on the various rock strata of which they are composed. Typical of the northern and central Palatinate Forest are prominent hill "blocks" (Bergklötze) and elongated trapezium-shaped ridges, frequently with rocky summit areas (e. g. the Kesselberg, 661.8 m) whilst, in the western part of the range, plateau-like hill formations with clearings predominate. In the southeastern Palatinate Forest, by contrast, the sediments of the Rotliegendes and Zechstein (erosion surfaces), and especially resistant Trifels and Rehberg beds (conical hills) influence the appearance of the countryside.
Over the millennia, the weathering and erosion of the sandstone, with its varying degrees of hardness, have produced bizarre rock formations, e. g. rock pinnacles, rock faces, rock walls and rock blocks. In addition, the small-scale weathering of strata of differing hardness has produced caves, natural arches and table rocks (Devil's Table). On the almost two-kilometre-long rock terrace of the Altschlossfelsen, fractures, overhangs and honeycomb weathering can also be observed. By contrast, felsenmeers and blockfields tend to be found more in the central Palatine Forest.
Detailed topographic description
The highest points in this low mountain range occur in the central Palatinate Forest, and mainly in the east.<ref>[http://www.lvermgeo.rlp.de/shop/ 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 topographic map series by the Rhineland-Palatinate State Office for Survey and Geobasis Information (Landesamt für Vermessung und Geobasisinformation Rheinland-Pfalz)], official website. Retrieved 1 April 2011.</ref>
Here, in a single, contiguous ridge is a series of peaks exceeding the 600 metre mark, of which the Great Kalmit, at 672.6 m, is also the highest point of the entire Palatinate Forest. The ridge begins at the Steigerkopf (also called the Schänzel) (about 500 m) and heads westwards to the Frankenweide region around the Eschkopf (609.9 m) and Weißenberg (609.9 m). This massif extends from the town of Hochspeyer via Johanniskreuz to Hauenstein. Its central area between Johanniskreuz and Hermersbergerhof rather resembles a plateau bounded by deeply incised valleys. This plateau also runs towards the west at a height of about 500 m before descending gradually to 400 m. It is bisected by the Schwarzbach and Moosalb rivers. To the southwest other ridges separate the valleys of the Merzalbe and the headstreams of the Wieslauter. It is therefore possible to walk from Neustadt an der Weinstraße to Leimen or Kaiserslautern-Mölschbach without dropping below the 450 metre contour line.
North of the line from Hochspeyerbach to Speyerbach the highest points are the 570.8 m high Drachenfels and the Hoher Stoppelkopf (Stoppelkopf; 566.2 m). In the triangle formed by the Isenach to the north and German Wine Route to the east are other hills over 500 metres in height. The most prominent are Neustadt's northern local hill (Hausberg), the Weinbiet (554.0 m), and the Eckkopf (516.0 m) near Deidesheim.
North of the Isenach only the Rahnfels (516.5 m) breaks through the 500 metre contour. In its continuation to the north its descends from 400 to 300 metres above sea level.
South of the Queich the countryside changes due to the somewhat different geological situation (see Landscape character). Here larger erosion surfaces and rather isolated hillforms (conical hills), which on average reach heights of 450 metres, characterize the landscape. The highest points on the German side of the Wasgau are the Rehberg (576.8 m) near Annweiler, the castle hill of the ruins of Wegelnburg (570.9 m) near Nothweiler, followed by the Hohe Derst (560.5 m) west of Bad Bergzabern and the Großer Eyberg (513.0 m) southwest of Dahn. The Hohe List (475.8 m) and Erlenkopf (472.1 m) near Eppenbrunn are the highest points in the southwest.
Tabular overview
The category structure of the list is based on the concept for the natural region division of the Palatine Forest. The important summits of the range are annotated with their corresponding landscape subdivision and arranged according to their height in metres (m) above sea level (NHN). The nearest settlement is given for lesser known hills or those for which there is no Wikipedia article.
Valleys and streams
General features
Characteristic of the Lower and Middle Bunter are V-shaped valleys, with narrow floors and steep sides, cutting deeply into the bedrock. They are the typical valley forms in the central Palatinate Forest, whilst in the southern and northern parts, U-shaped valleys with wider floors predominate. In the southwestern part of the Forest are the so-called woog valleys, in which the valley floor is wide and they are therefore especially well suited for the construction of ponds, or woogs, reservoirs and small lakes (see below).
Hydrological balance
A typical feature of the Palatinate Forest is its abundance of water, that has led to a highly developed system of streams, rivers and wetlands (see below). The sandy soils caused by erosion are very very permeable to water, so that rainwater quickly seeps into the ground and is then stored in the different rock zones as groundwater that can be channeled by the joints and fissure ("fissure flow"). This groundwater feeds into various rock zones, especially in the Trifels beds of the Lower Bunter and in a rock zone of the Karlstal beds (Middle Bunter). Beds of clay-bonded sandstone form spring horizons, where it is discharged at the surface again e.g. in contact springs. Since the sandstone is very low in minerals and the groundwater, therefore, only has only low levels of dissolved contents, the water is in the low hardness range ("soft") and is slightly acidic (low pH).
Lakes and reservoirs
The conditions described above have also led to the formation of a great number of wetlands, that are frequently linked to spring horizons and into which groundwater reaches the surface again. As a result, bogs, bog lakes and other small lakes, the so-called woogs are typical of the Palatine Forest, albeit the majority of woogs do not have a natural origin. They were more often artificially laid out by the impoundment of streams and were used as stages and reservoirs for timber rafting. However, the area covered by all the lakes and woogs in the Palatine Forest is not significant. The best known are the Gelterswoog on the northwestern edge, the Clausensee in the southwest and the Eiswoog in the northeast.
Rivers
The Palatinate Forest is drained by four great catchment systems and also by smaller catchments or individual streams. The four large systems are the Speyerbach, the Queich, the Lauter (or Wieslauter in its upper reaches) and the Schwarzbach. Whilst the first three flow directly into the Rhine, the waters of the Schwarzbach make their way indirectly via the Blies, Saar and Moselle rivers. Smaller drainage systems are e. g. the Saarbach or the Isenach, which only have tributaries within a small area. The majority of small streams that drain the Forest directly into the Rhine Plain flow over extensive ditch systems to the nearest river to the north. For example, the Speyerbach picks up the waters of the Hainbach, the Modenbach and the Krebsbach.
The following river systems drain the Palatine Forest. They are listed in clockwise direction, beginning in the west (in brackets the overall catchment area):
Schwarzbach (1151.5 km2)
Rodalb (116.2 km2)
Schwarzbach
Moosalb (188.2 km2)
(Wald-)Lauter (275.6 km2)
Alsenz (327.7 km2)
Pfrimm (246.4 km2)
Eisbach/Eckbach
Eisbach („Altbach“, 130.2 km2)
Eckbach (217.8 km2)
Isenach (294.9 km2)
Speyerbach (595.8 km2)
Hochspeyerbach (119.3 km2)
Speyerbach
Modenbach (84.1 km2)
Queich (271.2 km2)
Wellbach (59.3 km2)
Queich
Eisbach (49.8 km2)
Michelsbach/Otterbach
Klingbach (130.2 km2)
Erlenbach (109.1 km2)
Otterbach (119.2 km2)
Lauter (382.3 km2)
Wieslauter
Salzbach (Lauter) (52.4 km2)
Saarbach (805.5 km2)
(Moder (1720 km2) – catchment area goes to immediately on the state border)
The river system of the Schwarzbach is the only one in the forest that drains into the river Moselle. The Waldlauter and Alsenz drain into the Nahe (the Lauter via the Glan), all the other systems, arranged from north to south, drain directly into the Rhine.
The Palatine Watershed, the drainage divide between the Rhine (Upper Rhine) and Moselle (Middle Rhine) comes from the Sickingen Heights in the west and reaches the northern Palatine Forest immediately west and south of the city of Kaiserslautern where it turns southeast. From Johanniskreuz it runs initially southwards – passing the Eschkopf and Mosisberg to the west – and then bends southwest in the area of the Hortenkopf; in this direction it continues via Gräfenstein Castle, Lemberg and forester's lodge, Forsthaus Hohe List, before finally leaving German soil at the Erlenkopf southeast of Eppenbrunn (see map). It follows various ridges that are interconnected and separate the river system of the Schwarzbach from all the other drainage systems mentioned here.
Features
Haardt sandstone
On the eastern edge of the mountains, a light yellow, bleached sandstone may be found in several places. This used to be quarried near Bad Bergzabern, Frankweiler and Hambach in large quarries and is still being quarried today near Leistadt and Haardt. The reddish iron oxide was released by hot fluids that rose up through the fault zone between the Palatine Forest and the Rhine Graben, and so bleached the sandstone.
Former volcanic activity at the Pechsteinkopf
53 million years ago tensions in the earth's crust and mantle (see Laying down of the bunter sandstone), so that magma was able to rise and break out onto the surface along the fractures. During an initial explosive phase an explosive funnel (Sprengtrichter) formed which filled with loose volcanic material. This was followed, during a second phase, by more magma rising to the surface in a less active and effusive (non-explosive) form, so that, in the pipe of the volcano, dark, vertical or inclined basalt columns were formed. These rock deposits may be clearly seen today on the site of an old Hartstein quarry.
Biology
Vegetation
Woodland is the dominant landscape element of the Palatine Forest as its name suggests, making up 82 percent of its total area and as much as 90 percent in the central region.Geo-Portal: Artenvielfalt im Pfälzerwald. Retrieved 18 August 2013
Forest history
At the end of the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago, the region of the Palatine Forest was covered with tundra-like vegetation, amongst which, initially, undemanding tree species such as pine and birch were able to spread as the climate gradually warmed up (the "pine-birch" period). As climatic conditions improved these species were followed by hazel, oak and lime (the "hazel and oak period"). From the 3rd millennium a more Atlantic-influenced climate evolved, which was cooler and wetter, so that now beech characterised the forest scenery. The oak and beech mixed woods, typical of the current period, emerged, the pines being forced back into those areas that were either less favourable, very wet or very dry places, but remained part of the natural woodland.
This ecological balance was permanently destroyed, however, by the colonization and clearing of woodland that took place during the Middle Ages. Clearance by burning, the use of land for the production of straw and the unrestricted exploitation of the forest for raw materials and fuel led, little by little, to the devastation of wide areas of woodland, something that reached its peak in the 17th and 18th centuries (see Settlement history). This situation made the introduction of properly regulated forest management pressingly urgent - management that not only put a priority on controlled exploitation, but above all on care and sustainability. So in the 18th and 19th centuries, cleared land was reforested, mainly with undemanding, rapid-growing pines, which were followed in the 19th century by other non-native coniferous species such as spruce, larch, Weymouth pine and Douglas fir. In the Palatine Forest, this regulated management produced mixed woodland, in which coniferous trees formed around two-thirds of the total stock in areas that had historically comprised mainly oak and beech. Not until recent decades were there increasing attempts to turn larger areas of the forest into near-natural mixed woodland with a better ratio of deciduous to coniferous trees of around 50% (see adjacent table).
Current situation
The beech is not only the most abundant tree species in the Palatinate Forest historically, but also today, with a current share of 35 percent. With the exception of the eastern mountain edge (the Haardt range), it is widely distributed on the acidic environment of the bunter sandstone soils and prefers shady slopes, high elevations and hollows. Often it forms varied mixed stands of trees together with softwoods, especially pine, but it is also found as stands in its own right (in so-called woodrush-beech woods), particularly in the central Palatinate Forest. Here it grows in large "beech cathedrals", which are seen by many visitors as an impressive feature of the Palatinate Forest.
In addition to beech, the oak is another characteristic tree of the Palatinate Forest, albeit botanically speaking they are mainly sessile oak rather than English oak. It is the main tree species of larger, sometimes centuries-old, stands in the regions around Johanniskreuz, Eschkopf and Weißenberg and may also be found further south between Fischbach and Eppenbrunn, where, as well as the plateaus of the central Palatinate Forest, it prefers sunnier slopes (west to south-east facing slopes). But in the rest of Palatinate Forest, it is on the increase and usually forms, together with beech, often very natural, primeval, mixed forest (natural forest), which enjoys special protection as a core zone of the Palatine Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve (see biosphere reserve). In addition, from a forestry point of view the oaks of the Palatinate Forest are a particularly high priority because the wood veneer produced from them is recognized worldwide as being of unique quality.
Despite the decline in its share of the total tree population from 44 to 34 percent in 2008, the pine continues to be a dominant species of the low mountain range. This is due to the historical background, especially in the Haardt area, where they once heavily dominated the scene with 60 to 70 percent share of the forest. It is traditionally planted on dry, sunny, south-facing slopes. Like oak and beech it is an autochthonous member of the forest community, although for the purposes of reforesting devastated areas (see forest history) pine species from other regions have been introduced and mixed with indigenous species. In Waldleiningen in the mid-Palatinate Forest and on the peaty soils at Bitche in the French part of the biosphere reserve "relict" pine forests have survived, in which the character of the original pine forest can be vividly seen.
The silver fir also plays a special role in this context. Although, it only covers about 1 percent in the Palatinate Forest as a whole, it is much more common in the south where it comprises some 7 percent of the woodland. It occurs in many stands alongside beech, pine and other species in mixed woodland and often dominates the appearance of the forest. Because it forms the northernmost element of the great beech-fir forests typical of the Vosges Mountains, the moisture-loving silver fir is counted as one of the indigenous tree species of the Palatinate Forest. Waterside ash woodland and the rarer alder woodland, which are found mainly in valleys and wetlands, are also typical vegetation for the Atlantic-influenced climate of the Palatinate Forest (see Climate) as well as being representative of the original forest.
By contrast, spruce, Douglas fir, larch, and Weymouth pine are not native to the forested mountain range. Spruce prefer cool, shady locations and are therefore often found in valleys, hollows and on the lower slopes of hills, while the Douglas fir is found in widely differing locations due to its high adaptability. The sweet chestnut was not originally an indigenous tree species, but was naturalized by the Romans in the area of the present-day Palatinate. Since it prefers a mild climate (see temperature) like the grape vine it is found on the eastern edge of the Palatinate Forest, the Haardt, in pure or nearly monocultures and represents about 4 percent of the forest area there.
Other vegetation
In the species-poor oak, beech and pine woods the ground flora mainly consists of acid-soil loving (acidophilic) species. Examples are great wood-rush, white wood-rush, pill sedge and wavy hair-grass. Also characteristic are various species of fern such as deer fern, lemon-scented fern and royal fern, which prefer shady, temperate, wet locations. Another feature of the bunter sandstone mountains are its rich mushroom and berry communities. Blueberries cover large areas and, in suitable places, cowberries.
Heather grows on dry, sandy soils alongside paths and in clearings as do plants such as German greenweed and broom, and the rare lance-shaped bellflower, whilst by the many brooks and wet meadows acid-loving marsh plants such as bog arum, marsh cinquefoil, bog bean and bog pondweed may be seen, all of which are rare in other regions of Germany. In addition reeds, marsh willowherb, marsh marigold and meadowsweet and, in dryer places also grey willow, eared willow and alder buckthorn, illustrate the variety that may be found in the marsh meadows alongside streams and brooks.
Fauna
The large mixed forests of the mountain range with their various plant communities form an ecological framework in which a large and varied range of animals was able to develop. Particularly striking are the larger mammals which, as in other mountainous regions, are represented by cloven-hoofed animals like the roe deer, red deer and wild boar. Fox, badger, polecat, weasel and threatened mammal species such as bats, pine marten, European wildcat and Eurasian lynx are also found in the Palatinate Forest.
This is also true for a number of rare birds, including the hoopoe, kingfisher, wheatear, black woodpecker, whinchat and stonechat. Whilst the strictly protected peregrine falcon has been resident in the rock country of the Wasgau for several decades, hazel grouse and capercaillie appear to have died out in the Palatine Forest region. Typical autumn and winter species include the brambling and chaffinch, which overwinter here and occupy the woods in large flocks. They used to be hunted with blowpipes at night during the so-called Böhämmer Hunt (Böhämmer-Jagd), until this sport was ended by the 1936 Conservation Act.
The forest is home to a sizeable population of amphibians and reptiles, as well as a host of beetles, butterflies and other insects. A common sight are great anthills, the nests of wood ants, of which there are several species in the region. The Wasgau and the area of the Hermersberger Hof are two of the few places in Germany where colonies of narrow-headed ant have survived. And the highly endangered great and spotted antlions may often be seen in the sands of the bunter sandstone (Rehberg beds). Their larvae build funnel traps in the sand and feed on ants and other animals that fall into it using their pincer-like mandibles.
Thanks to the sparse population of the forest and the filter action of bunter sandstone, many springs and streams in the hills have retained their natural water quality, so that they remain healthy habitats for many species of fish. These include brown trout and brook lamprey and, in calmer waters, minnow, spined loach and stone loach. In larger meadow streams grayling, perch, pike, burbot und various other minnow-like species may be found. Dragonflies, such as the golden-ringed dragonfly and the otherwise rare northern damselfly, may often be seen by streams and ponds.
Sights
Although the Palatinate Forest is still sparsely populated and has many unspoilt regions, it still has a rich, regional, historical and cultural heritage, that is reflected in a great number of sights of which only a small selection can be covered here.
Castles
The Palatinate Forest has a large number of castles and stately houses. Worthy of mention is the imperial castle of Trifels near Annweiler, where, at the end of the 12th century, the English king, Richard the Lionheart, was held prisoner; in the wake of which the Blondel legend arose.
Today it is where replicas of the Imperial Regalia (Reichskleinodien) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation can be viewed, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the Palatinate.
On the eastern edge of the Palatinate Forest, in the borough of Neustadt an der Weinstraße above the village of the same, is Hambach Castle, which was the scene of the Hambach Festival in 1832 and has since been seen as a symbol of democracy. Several kilometres further south, near Edenkoben, is the Villa Ludwigshöhe, built in the mid-19th century and used as a summer residence of the Bavarian king Ludwig I.
Berwartstein Castle, near Erlenbach in the southern part of the Palatinate Forest, once belonged to the knight, Hans von Trotha, known in local legends as Hans Trapp, and is the only castle in the Palatinate that is still occupied. The castle has been rebuilt and is open to visitors. Of many other castles, like Wegelnburg, only ruins are left. Other rock castles include Drachenfels near Busenberg, which partly belonged to rebel knight, Francis of Sickingen, Falkenburg and the Wilgartaburg near Wilgartswiesen.
The lords of the House of Leiningen ruled over the northeastern Palatine Forest; the significant buildings there of this aristocratic family were the castles of Altleiningen and Neuleiningen near Grünstadt and the castle of Hardenburg near Bad Dürkheim. Other castles in the region that belonged to the Leiningens were Gräfenstein near Merzalben in the western part of the range and Erfenstein in the Elmstein valley.
One unusual group of castles are the castles of Dahn near the eponymous town. This group comprises the castles of Altdahn, Grafendahn and Tanstein, which were built at different times, but erected immediately one after another on a rocky ridge.
The castle information centre at Lemberg Castle not only informs visitors about the multi-faceted, detail of the history, architecture and life in a medieval castle, but also gives a comprehensive overview of the other rock castles in the present-day border region with France.
Natural monuments
The Karlstal valley, through which run the upper reaches of the Moosalb river near the town of Trippstadt, stands out as a result of its natural, virgin scenery. The Trippstadt village of Johanniskreuz is the centre point of the Palatine Forest and used to be a spa. The 200‑ to 300‑year‑old oak and beech mixed woods, which surround the little hamlet and give it an autochthonous character, are renowned (see Flora). They have long been managed sustainably, following sustainability principles and are especially well known for their valuable stands of furniture-quality oak. It is therefore not surprising that the House of Sustainability was established
in Johanniskreuz in 2005 (viz. Information centres/Museums)
Other ancient forest-like cells of natural woodland may be found in the source region of the (Wies)-Lauter below the Weißenberg in one of the core zones of the biosphere reserve as well as the border area between Eppenbrunn, Stürzelbronn, Fischbach and Obersteinbach.
Characteristic of the highly diverse landscape of the southern Palatinate Forest are over 200 rock formations of all shapes and sizes (see also Geology and Geomorphology), which not only give visitors a good insight into the geology of the region, but also the surprising adaptability of sandstone rock vegetation, especially the heathers, the undemanding grasses and the deformed Scots pine trees. Another feature of this biotope are peregrine falcons, which nest in the rocks and are under strict conservation measures (including access restrictions for climbers and walkers).
Well-known rock formations in the Dahner Felsenland ("Dahn Rock Country") are the Devil's Table near Hinterweidenthal, the Jungfernsprung, the Hochstein and the two pinnacles of the Bride and Groom, which all lie in the area around the little town of Dahn. The region around Annweiler and Gossersweiler has formations like the Asselstein, the Luger Friedrichsfels, the Hundsfels and the Rödelstein near Vorderweidenthal. Another important natural monument is the Altschlossfelsen on the Brechenberg near Eppenbrunn in the southwestern corner of the Palatine Forest near the Franco-German border. This is a roughly two kilometre long rock terrace, the largest of its kind in the forest and on which there is clear evidence of the erosion and weathering processes typical of bunter sandstone (e. g. honeycomb weathering).
In order to open up this rock landscape to walkers, in recent years a range of themed trails has been established, of which the Rodalb Rock Trail (Rodalber Felsenweg), the Dahn Rock Path (Dahner Felsenpfad), the Busenberg Clog Path (Busenberger Holzschuhpfad), and the Hauenstein Cobblers' Path (Hauensteiner Schusterpfad) should be mentioned (see Walking). Whilst most rocks are only really accessible to climbers, certain rock terraces may also be reached on foot (e. g. the Buhlsteine, Heidenpfeiler and Rötzenstein) or with the aid of ladders provided care is taken (e. g. the Hühnerstein near Hauenstein).
Information centres and museums
Information centres
The biosphere reserve has three information centres with different emphases, in which the visitor can learn about the geology, climate, fauna and flora, history and culture of the bunter sandstone mountains with the aid of exhibitions as well as events of all kinds. Ecological considerations are given primacy. On the German side, these include the House of Sustainability in Johanniskreuz (see also Natural monuments) and the Palatine Forest / North Vosges Biosphere House near Fischbach in the Wasgau. The latter, in addition to a multimedia exhibition, also has a treetop trail, and water and biosphere experience walks.
In La Petite-Pierre (German: Lützelstein) in a castle-like building, which was built on the ruins of Luetzelstein Castle, is the administrative centre of the regional nature park of North Vosges (French: Parc naturel régional des Vosges du Nord), in which the visitor can learn, in ways similar to those at the German centres, about the natural world of the Vosges sandstone mountains; in addition, there is also an emphasis on the social and cultural aspects of the region.
Museums
Only a small selection can be mentioned here of the many museums with a direct link to the Palatine Forest that may be found in the Palatinate alone (see detailed coverage by the Rhineland-Palatinate Museum Association, Museumsverband Rheinland-Pfalz).
The Palatine Museum of Natural History (Pfalzmuseum für Naturkunde) or POLLICHIA Museum in Bad Dürkheim, has various permanent exhibitions and collections on the subjects of geology, flora and fauna of the Palatinate (e. g. animals of the forest, local mushrooms, minerals etc.) and other special conservation themes, with ecological considerations as a priority. In this connexion the visitor is also introduced to the Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve in a comprehensive permanent exhibition with vivid displays of the particular features of these bunter sandstone mountains.
The History Museum of the Palatinate (Historisches Museum der Pfalz) in Speyer, because of its broader scope, does not cover the region of today's Palatinate Forest as a separate exhibition topic; nevertheless the specific Palatine focus of the museum means almost inevitably that there are historical links through which the political and socio-historic changes of the mountain region are illustrated time and again. Examples are the Salian exhibition of 2011 (Trifels was the centre of the Salian Empire), the wine museum with its cultural history of wine and the family-friendly, hands-on exhibition of Drachenfels Castle, in which life on a medieval rock fortress in Wasgau can be relived.
The Dynamikum in Pirmasens is the first science museum or science centre in Rhineland-Palatinate. In April 2008, an interactive museum was founded in the building of the old Rheinberger shoe factory. Under the theme of "movement", 150 interactive experimental stations demonstrate fundamental physical, mathematical and biological laws. The museum is particularly aimed at younger visitors to help make them aware of scientific principles.
The Max Slevogt Art Gallery in Villa Ludwigshöhe contains, inter alia, paintings by Impressionist masters that reflect the rich colours of the southern Palatinate countryside, which may be experienced, for example, at Slevogthof Neukastel above Leinsweiler. A particularly good overview of the rocks and rock castles of Palatine and Alsace Wasgau is conveyed by the "impressions" of artist, Emil Knöringer, who seeks to emphasise the richness of the red sandstone landscapes through the medium of art.
Industrial heritage
Examples of industrial heritage include the Stumpfwald Railway at Ramsen, a heritage Feldbahn since 1996, as well as the Little Cuckoo Railway (see Transport), which has been worked by historic steam trains since 1984 and operates services from March to October at weekends between Neustadt and Elmstein. In addition, there is a good overview of nearly 150 years of Palatine railway history at the German Railway Museum in Neustadt which has numerous exhibits.
The German Shoe Museum in Hauenstein documents the manufacture of shoes, in earlier times a very common activity in the Pirmasens area, and set it within the larger industrial and socio-historical context. In the building of a former shoe factory, old shoe-making machinery and other manufacturing technology may be viewed and the changes in shoe production experienced vividly (see the history of settlement)
Interesting insights into the sorts of old trades and crafts that used to be found in the Palatinate Forest, are provided by several museums, including the Brushmakers' Museum (Bürstenbindermuseum) in Ramberg; this uses a variety of exhibits to illustrate the industrial and social development that has taken over the past few centuries in the Ramberg valley.
In the ore mine of St. Anne's Gallery in Nothweiler visitors can join a guided tour of important mining activities and so witness the extremely tough working conditions of past centuries. This insight may then be enhanced in the Information Centre of the visitor mine.
Wildlife parks
Over 400 wild animals of 15 European species may be found on the extensive terrain of the Südliche Weinstraße Wildlife Park, and there are also various children-oriented activities. A comparable attraction is the Kurpfalz Park near Wachenheim in the northern Palatine Forest.
Aerial cableways
The Rietburgbahn, a chairlift up the Rietburg hill near Edenkoben, from where there is a good view of the Rhine Plain, and the Bad Dürkheim Gondola Lift, which from 1973 to 1981 went up the Teufelsstein and which is planned to re-open are two aerial cableways on the eastern edge of the Palatinate Forest.
Outdoor recreation
The Palatinate Forest is an attractive region for hiking, offering an extensive network of trails.
In 2005, the Palatine Forest Mountain Bike Park, a route network for mountainbiking, was developed in the centre of the region.
Climbers appreciate the red sandstone rocks in the Dahner Felsenland.
Walking
Since the beginning of the last century, the Palatine Forest has developed into a very popular walking region, thanks to its natural landscape attractions, its cultural heritage and good infrastructure, primarily created by the Palatine Forest Club. It offers over 100 managed walking huts and similar facilitiesKarte bewirtschafteter Unterkünfte run by volunteers of the Palatine Forest Club and the Friends of Nature. The walking support centres are often only accessible on foot and mainly open at weekends.
Walking routes
The mountain range is criss-crossed by a dense network of signed trails, over 12,000 kilometres in overall length, most of which were established by volunteers of the Palatine Forest Club, who continue to maintain them. These include several important international and national long-distance paths that link the forest to the European and national networks of long-distance trails.
Well known examples include the Palatine St. James Way (waymark: scallop on blue field), the Pirmasens – Belfort long-distance path (waymark: yellow bar) or the Franconia-Hesse-Palatinate (Franken – Hessen – Kurpfalz) long-distance path (waymark: red cross). These main walking routes are complemented by a multitude of regional footpaths of varying length (both linear and circular trails), which include themed walks (e. g. forest educational trails), rock trails (e. g. the Rodalber Felsenweg), river and lakeside trails (e. g. the Brunnenweg near Heltersberg etc.) and the so-called "premium" or "predicate" trails initiated by the Palatine Tourist Board (e. g. Pfälzer Waldsteig or Felsenland Sagenweg etc.). Cross-border hikes are also easily possible in the bunter sandstone hills, because the Palatine Forest Club and its French counterpart the Vosges Club (French: Club Vosgien'') have developed almost identical waymarking systems since their foundation over 100 years (e. g. dots, bars, crosses and diamonds of different colours) and in the border region have developed a dense common network of footpaths. In doing so, both clubs have been careful to ensure that, where possible, the routes do not follow "forest motorways" but use narrow footpaths and mountain paths.
Viewing points
Thanks to its rich tapestry of countryside the Palatine Forest has a large number of very varied viewing points:
Viewing towers
In the northeastern part of the range the following destinations are worth mentioning: the Eckkopf Tower (near Deidesheim), Bismarck Tower (near Bad Dürkheim) and the observation tower on the Weinbiet. The visitor has a good all-round view, especially to the north and east that reaches as far as the Odenwald.
In the central and southern part of the range, examples of good viewing towers include the Schänzel on the Steigerkopf, the Rehberg and its tower near Annweiler and the Stäffelsberg Tower near Dörrenbach. The summit pyramid of the Rehberg is especially well known for its panoramic views (see the image in the section above). Representative of the central Palatine Forest are the tower on the Schindhübel near Iggelbach, the one on the Eschkopf and especially the Luitpold Tower near Hermersbergerhof, which offers the most extensive panoramic view of the Palatine Forest by far. According to precise geometric research by Lang over 350 hill and mountain tops may be seen from this point.
Rock formations
The best known rock formations are the Drachenfels ("Dragon Rock") between the Isenach and Speyerbach valleys and especially the Orensfels near Albersweiler, from which there is an outstanding view over the southeast Wasgau and the county of Südliche Weinstraße. On the Kirschfelsen ("Cherry Rock", near Annweiler Forsthaus) seating has been installed from which the visitor can enjoy a "natural opera" as if in an open-air theatre. The Buhlsteine rocks near Busenberg have an alpine feel, as does the Hühnerstein near Hauenstein, which has been made accessible with ladders and railings and may be climbed with appropriate care.
Castles
Whilst the Rietburg above Rhodt offers an "observation platform" over the Rhine plain, the rock castles of the Wasgau, e. g. the castle trinity of Trifels, Anebos and Scharfenberg near Annweiler and Lindelbrunn near Vorderweidenthal, enable the variety of the Palatine bunter sandstone hills to be experienced. A 360° panorama of the German and French Wasgau is offered by the Wegelnburg, the highest castle ruins in the Palatinate, near Schönau, and from Gräfenstein Castle near Merzalben the visitor has a good view of the core zone of the biosphere reserve in the western Palatine Forest (see the Castles section).
See also
Südliche Weinstraße Wildlife Park
References
External links
Biosphere Reserve Palatinate Forest - Vosges du Nord
Protected areas of Rhineland-Palatinate
Forests and woodlands of Rhineland-Palatinate
Regions of Rhineland-Palatinate
Mountain ranges of Rhineland-Palatinate
Biosphere reserves of Germany
Natural regions of the South German Scarplands |
4209093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial%20cell%20structure | Bacterial cell structure | The bacterium, despite its simplicity, contains a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for some of its unique biological structures and pathogenicity. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes. Because of the simplicity of bacteria relative to larger organisms and the ease with which they can be manipulated experimentally, the cell structure of bacteria has been well studied, revealing many biochemical principles that have been subsequently applied to other organisms.
Cell morphology
Perhaps the most elemental structural property of bacteria is their morphology (shape). Typical examples include:
coccus (circle or spherical)
bacillus (rod-like)
coccobacillus (between a sphere and a rod)
spiral (corkscrew-like)
filamentous (elongated)
Cell shape is generally characteristic of a given bacterial species, but can vary depending on growth conditions. Some bacteria have complex life cycles involving the production of stalks and appendages (e.g. Caulobacter) and some produce elaborate structures bearing reproductive spores (e.g. Myxococcus, Streptomyces). Bacteria generally form distinctive cell morphologies when examined by light microscopy and distinct colony morphologies when grown on Petri plates.
Perhaps the most obvious structural characteristic of bacteria is (with some exceptions) their small size. For example, Escherichia coli cells, an "average" sized bacterium, are about 2 µm (micrometres) long and 0.5 µm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6–0.7 μm3. This corresponds to a wet mass of about 1 picogram (pg), assuming that the cell consists mostly of water. The dry mass of a single cell can be estimated as 23% of the wet mass, amounting to 0.2 pg. About half of the dry mass of a bacterial cell consists of carbon, and also about half of it can be attributed to proteins. Therefore, a typical fully grown 1-liter culture of Escherichia coli (at an optical density of 1.0, corresponding to c. 109 cells/ml) yields about 1 g wet cell mass. Small size is extremely important because it allows for a large surface area-to-volume ratio which allows for rapid uptake and intracellular distribution of nutrients and excretion of wastes. At low surface area-to-volume ratios the diffusion of nutrients and waste products across the bacterial cell membrane limits the rate at which microbial metabolism can occur, making the cell less evolutionarily fit. The reason for the existence of large cells is unknown, although it is speculated that the increased cell volume is used primarily for storage of excess nutrients.
Comparison of a typical bacterial cell and a typical human cell (assuming both cells are spheres) :
Cell wall
The cell envelope is composed of the cell membrane and the cell wall. As in other organisms, the bacterial cell wall provides structural integrity to the cell. In prokaryotes, the primary function of the cell wall is to protect the cell from internal turgor pressure caused by the much higher concentrations of proteins, and other molecules inside the cell compared to its external environment. The bacterial cell wall differs from that of all other organisms by the presence of peptidoglycan which is located immediately outside of the cell membrane. Peptidoglycan is made up of a polysaccharide backbone consisting of alternating N-Acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) residues in equal amounts. Peptidoglycan is responsible for the rigidity of the bacterial cell wall, and for the determination of cell shape. It is relatively porous and is not considered to be a permeability barrier for small substrates. While all bacterial cell walls (with a few exceptions such as extracellular parasites such as Mycoplasma) contain peptidoglycan, not all cell walls have the same overall structures. Since the cell wall is required for bacterial survival, but is absent in some eukaryotes, several antibiotics (notably the penicillins and cephalosporins) stop bacterial infections by interfering with cell wall synthesis, while having no effects on human cells which have no cell wall, only a cell membrane. There are two main types of bacterial cell walls, those of gram-positive bacteria and those of gram-negative bacteria, which are differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics. For both these types of bacteria, particles of approximately 2 nm can pass through the peptidoglycan. If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed, it is called a protoplast while if it's partially removed, it is called a spheroplast. Beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall. The enzyme lysozyme, found in human tears, also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body's main defense against eye infections.
The gram-positive cell wall
Gram-positive cell walls are thick and the peptidoglycan (also known as murein) layer constitutes almost 95% of the cell wall in some gram-positive bacteria and as little as 5-10% of the cell wall in gram-negative bacteria. The gram-positive bacteria take up the crystal violet dye and are stained purple. The cell wall of some gram-positive bacteria can be completely dissolved by lysozymes which attacks the bonds between N-acetylmuramic acid and N-acetylglucosamine. In other gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, the walls are resistant to the action of lysozymes. They have O-acetyl groups on carbon-6 of some muramic acid residues.
The matrix substances in the walls of gram-positive bacteria may be polysaccharides or teichoic acids. The latter are very widespread, but have been found only in gram-positive bacteria. There are two main types of teichoic acid: ribitol teichoic acids and glycerol teichoic acids. The latter one is more widespread. These acids are polymers of ribitol phosphate and glycerol phosphate, respectively, and only located on the surface of many gram-positive bacteria. However, the exact function of teichoic acid is debated and not fully understood. A major component of the gram-positive cell wall is lipoteichoic acid. One of its purposes is providing an antigenic function. The lipid element is to be found in the membrane where its adhesive properties assist in its anchoring to the membrane.
The gram-negative cell wall
Gram-negative cell walls are much thinner than the gram-positive cell walls, and they contain a second plasma membrane superficial to their thin peptidoglycan layer, in turn adjacent to the cytoplasmic membrane. Gram-negative bacteria are stained as pink colour. The chemical structure of the outer membrane's lipopolysaccharide is often unique to specific bacterial sub-species and is responsible for many of the antigenic properties of these strains.
Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane or bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and thus has all of the general functions of a cell membrane such as acting as a permeability barrier for most molecules and serving as the location for the transport of molecules into the cell. In addition to these functions, prokaryotic membranes also function in energy conservation as the location about which a proton motive force is generated. Unlike eukaryotes, bacterial membranes (with some exceptions e.g. Mycoplasma and methanotrophs) generally do not contain sterols. However, many microbes do contain structurally related compounds called hopanoids which likely fulfill the same function. Unlike eukaryotes, bacteria can have a wide variety of fatty acids within their membranes. Along with typical saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, bacteria can contain fatty acids with additional methyl, hydroxy or even cyclic groups. The relative proportions of these fatty acids can be modulated by the bacterium to maintain the optimum fluidity of the membrane (e.g. following temperature change).
Gram-negative and mycobacteria have an inner and outer bacteria membrane. As a phospholipid bilayer, the lipid portion of the bacterial outer membrane is impermeable to charged molecules. However, channels called porins are present in the outer membrane that allow for passive transport of many ions, sugars and amino acids across the outer membrane. These molecules are therefore present in the periplasm, the region between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes. The periplasm contains the peptidoglycan layer and many proteins responsible for substrate binding or hydrolysis and reception of extracellular signals. The periplasm is thought to exist in a gel-like state rather than a liquid due to the high concentration of proteins and peptidoglycan found within it. Because of its location between the cytoplasmic and outer membranes, signals received and substrates bound are available to be transported across the cytoplasmic membrane using transport and signaling proteins imbedded there.
Extracellular (external) structures
Fimbriae and pili
Fimbriae (sometimes called "attachment pili") are protein tubes that extend out from the outer membrane in many members of the Pseudomonadota. They are generally short in length and present in high numbers about the entire bacterial cell surface. Fimbriae usually function to facilitate the attachment of a bacterium to a surface (e.g. to form a biofilm) or to other cells (e.g. animal cells during pathogenesis). A few organisms (e.g. Myxococcus) use fimbriae for motility to facilitate the assembly of multicellular structures such as fruiting bodies. Pili are similar in structure to fimbriae but are much longer and present on the bacterial cell in low numbers. Pili are involved in the process of bacterial conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or "sex pili". Type IV pili (non-sex pili) also aid bacteria in gripping surfaces.
S-layers
An S-layer (surface layer) is a cell surface protein layer found in many different bacteria and in some archaea, where it serves as the cell wall. All S-layers are made up of a two-dimensional array of proteins and have a crystalline appearance, the symmetry of which differs between species. The exact function of S-layers is unknown, but it has been suggested that they act as a partial permeability barrier for large substrates. For example, an S-layer could conceivably keep extracellular proteins near the cell membrane by preventing their diffusion away from the cell. In some pathogenic species, an S-layer may help to facilitate survival within the host by conferring protection against host defence mechanisms.
Glycocalyx
Many bacteria secrete extracellular polymers outside of their cell walls called glycocalyx. These polymers are usually composed of polysaccharides and sometimes protein. Capsules are relatively impermeable structures that cannot be stained with dyes such as India ink. They are structures that help protect bacteria from phagocytosis and desiccation. Slime layer is involved in attachment of bacteria to other cells or inanimate surfaces to form biofilms. Slime layers can also be used as a food reserve for the cell.
Flagella
Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell structures are flagella. Flagella are whip-like structures protruding from the bacterial cell wall and are responsible for bacterial motility (movement). The arrangement of flagella about the bacterial cell is unique to the species observed. Common forms include:
Monotrichous – Single flagellum
Lophotrichous – A tuft of flagella found at one of the cell poles
Amphitrichous – Single flagellum found at each of two opposite poles
Peritrichous – Multiple flagella found at several locations about the cell
The bacterial flagellum consists of three basic components: a whip-like filament, a motor complex, and a hook that connects them. The filament is approximately 20 nm in diameter and consists of several protofilaments, each made up of thousands of flagellin subunits. The bundle is held together by a cap and may or may not be encapsulated. The motor complex consists of a series of rings anchoring the flagellum in the inner and outer membranes, followed by a proton-driven motor that drives rotational movement in the filament.
Intracellular (internal) structures
In comparison to eukaryotes, the intracellular features of the bacterial cell are extremely simple. Bacteria do not contain organelles in the same sense as eukaryotes. Instead, the chromosome and perhaps ribosomes are the only easily observable intracellular structures found in all bacteria. There do exist, however, specialized groups of bacteria that contain more complex intracellular structures, some of which are discussed below.
The bacterial DNA and plasmids
Unlike eukaryotes, the bacterial DNA is not enclosed inside of a membrane-bound nucleus but instead resides inside the bacterial cytoplasm. This means that the transfer of cellular information through the processes of translation, transcription and DNA replication all occur within the same compartment and can interact with other cytoplasmic structures, most notably ribosomes. Bacterial DNA can be located in two places:
Bacterial chromosome, located in the irregularly shaped region known as the nucleoid
Extrachromosomal DNA, located outside of the nucleoid region as circular or linear plasmids
The bacterial DNA is not packaged using histones to form chromatin as in eukaryotes but instead exists as a highly compact supercoiled structure, the precise nature of which remains unclear. Most bacterial chromosomes are circular although some examples of linear DNA exist (e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi). Usually a single bacterial chromosome is present, although some species with multiple chromosomes have been described.
Along with chromosomal DNA, most bacteria also contain small independent pieces of DNA called plasmids that often encode advantageous traits but not essential to their bacterial host. Plasmids can be easily gained or lost by a bacterium and can be transferred between bacteria as a form of horizontal gene transfer. So plasmids can be described as extrachromosomal DNA in a bacterial cell.
Ribosomes and other multiprotein complexes
In most bacteria the most numerous intracellular structure is the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis in all living organisms. All prokaryotes have 70S (where S=Svedberg units) ribosomes while eukaryotes contain larger 80S ribosomes in their cytosol. The 70S ribosome is made up of a 50S and 30S subunits. The 50S subunit contains the 23S and 5S rRNA while the 30S subunit contains the 16S rRNA. These rRNA molecules differ in size in eukaryotes and are complexed with a large number of ribosomal proteins, the number and type of which can vary slightly between organisms. While the ribosome is the most commonly observed intracellular multiprotein complex in bacteria other large complexes do occur and can sometimes be seen using microscopy.
Intracellular membranes
While not typical of all bacteria some microbes contain intracellular membranes in addition to (or as extensions of) their cytoplasmic membranes. An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy. Examples of bacteria containing intracellular membranes are phototrophs, nitrifying bacteria and methane-oxidising bacteria. Intracellular membranes are also found in bacteria belonging to the poorly studied Planctomycetota group, although these membranes more closely resemble organellar membranes in eukaryotes and are currently of unknown function. Chromatophores are intracellular membranes found in phototrophic bacteria. Used primarily for photosynthesis, they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids.
Cytoskeleton
The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons, but advances in imaging technology and structure determination have shown the presence of filaments in these cells. Homologues for all major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes have been found in prokaryotes. Cytoskeletal elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and polarity determination in various prokaryotes.
Nutrient storage structures
Most bacteria do not live in environments that contain large amounts of nutrients at all times. To accommodate these transient levels of nutrients bacteria contain several different methods of nutrient storage in times of plenty for use in times of want. For example, many bacteria store excess carbon in the form of polyhydroxyalkanoates or glycogen. Some microbes store soluble nutrients such as nitrate in vacuoles. Sulfur is most often stored as elemental (S0) granules which can be deposited either intra- or extracellularly. Sulfur granules are especially common in bacteria that use hydrogen sulfide as an electron source. Most of the above-mentioned examples can be viewed using a microscope and are surrounded by a thin nonunit membrane to separate them from the cytoplasm.
Inclusions
Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments. Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate. These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue.
Gas vacuoles
Gas vacuoles are membrane-bound, spindle-shaped vesicles, found in some planktonic bacteria and Cyanobacteria, that provides buoyancy to these cells by decreasing their overall cell density. Positive buoyancy is needed to keep the cells in the upper reaches of the water column, so that they can continue to perform photosynthesis. They are made up of a shell of protein that has a highly hydrophobic inner surface, making it impermeable to water (and stopping water vapour from condensing inside) but permeable to most gases. Because the gas vesicle is a hollow cylinder, it is liable to collapse when the surrounding pressure increases. Natural selection has fine tuned the structure of the gas vesicle to maximise its resistance to buckling, including an external strengthening protein, GvpC, rather like the green thread in a braided hosepipe. There is a simple relationship between the diameter of the gas vesicle and pressure at which it will collapse – the wider the gas vesicle the weaker it becomes. However, wider gas vesicles are more efficient, providing more buoyancy per unit of protein than narrow gas vesicles. Different species produce gas vesicle of different diameter, allowing them to colonise different depths of the water column (fast growing, highly competitive species with wide gas vesicles in the top most layers; slow growing, dark-adapted, species with strong narrow gas vesicles in the deeper layers). The diameter of the gas vesicle will also help determine which species survive in different bodies of water. Deep lakes that experience winter mixing expose the cells to the hydrostatic pressure generated by the full water column. This will select for species with narrower, stronger gas vesicles.
The cell achieves its height in the water column by synthesising gas vesicles. As the cell rises up, it is able to increase its carbohydrate load through increased photosynthesis. Too high and the cell will suffer photobleaching and possible death, however, the carbohydrate produced during photosynthesis increases the cell's density, causing it to sink. The daily cycle of carbohydrate build-up from photosynthesis and carbohydrate catabolism during dark hours is enough to fine-tune the cell's position in the water column, bring it up toward the surface when its carbohydrate levels are low and it needs to photosynthesis, and allowing it to sink away from the harmful UV radiation when the cell's carbohydrate levels have been replenished. An extreme excess of carbohydrate causes a significant change in the internal pressure of the cell, which causes the gas vesicles to buckle and collapse and the cell to sink out.
Microcompartments
Bacterial microcompartments are widespread, membrane-bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes. provide a further level of organization; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells, rather than by lipid membranes. These "polyhedral organelles" localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism, a function performed by the membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.
Carboxysomes
Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments found in many autotrophic bacteria such as Cyanobacteria, Knallgasbacteria, Nitroso- and Nitrobacteria. They are proteinaceous structures resembling phage heads in their morphology and contain the enzymes of carbon dioxide fixation in these organisms (especially ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, RuBisCO, and carbonic anhydrase). It is thought that the high local concentration of the enzymes along with the fast conversion of bicarbonate to carbon dioxide by carbonic anhydrase allows faster and more efficient carbon dioxide fixation than possible inside the cytoplasm. Similar structures are known to harbor the coenzyme B12-containing glycerol dehydratase, the key enzyme of glycerol fermentation to 1,3-propanediol, in some Enterobacteriaceae (e. g. Salmonella).
Magnetosomes
Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments found in magnetotactic bacteria that allow them to sense and align themselves along a magnetic field (magnetotaxis). The ecological role of magnetotaxis is unknown but is thought to be involved in the determination of optimal oxygen concentrations. Magnetosomes are composed of the mineral magnetite or greigite and are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. The morphology of magnetosomes is species-specific.
Endospores
Perhaps the best known bacterial adaptation to stress is the formation of endospores. Endospores are bacterial survival structures that are highly resistant to many different types of chemical and environmental stresses and therefore enable the survival of bacteria in environments that would be lethal for these cells in their normal vegetative form. It has been proposed that endospore formation has allowed for the survival of some bacteria for hundreds of millions of years (e.g. in salt crystals) although these publications have been questioned. Endospore formation is limited to several genera of gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It differs from reproductive spores in that only one spore is formed per cell resulting in no net gain in cell number upon endospore germination. The location of an endospore within a cell is species-specific and can be used to determine the identity of a bacterium. Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound which composes 5% to 15% of the dry weight of bacterial spores and is implicated in being responsible for the heat resistance of endospores. Archaeologists have found viable endospores taken from the intestines of Egyptian mummies as well as from lake sediments in Northern Sweden estimated to be many thousands of years old.
References
Further reading
Cell Structure and Organization
External links
Animated guide to bacterial cell structure.
Bacteria
Bacteriology |
4209225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Musselman | Eric Musselman | Eric Musselman (born November 19, 1964) is an American college basketball coach who is the current head men's basketball coach at the University of Arkansas. He is the former head coach of the Sacramento Kings and Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Between head coaching stints at Golden State and Sacramento, Musselman served as an assistant for the Memphis Grizzlies under Mike Fratello. He moved to the college coaching ranks in 2012 as an assistant at Arizona State. From 2014–19, he was the head coach for the Nevada Wolf Pack. The son of former NBA head coach Bill Musselman, Eric Musselman was a head coach in the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) before becoming an assistant coach with the Minnesota Timberwolves, Orlando Magic (under Chuck Daly and Doc Rivers), and Atlanta Hawks (under Lon Kruger).
Early life
High school
Musselman grew up in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and San Diego, California, before moving to suburban Cleveland, Ohio, where he attended Brecksville-Broadview Heights High School in Brecksville, a suburb about 15 miles south of Cleveland. There, he played on the same high school basketball team as former NBA player Scott Roth and former NFL Pro Bowl punter/quarterback Tom Tupa.
College playing career
Musselman graduated from the University of San Diego, where he played basketball for Jim Brovelli and Hank Egan, both of whom would later work as NBA assistants. While Musselman was at USD (1983–87), the Toreros compiled a 77–36 record. He was a member of the 1986–87 team that compiled a 24–6 record, the best in school history. The Toreros lost to Auburn University in the first round of the NCAA tournament, 62–61. Among Musselman's teammates at USD were Scott Thompson, a 7-foot center who was drafted in the fourth round by the Washington Bullets in the 1987 NBA draft, and Mike Whitmarsh, who won a silver medal in beach volleyball at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta.
Musselman was a fifth-round CBA draft choice of the Albany Patroons in 1987.
Coaching career
Early coaching career (1989–1997)
In the CBA, Musselman posted a 270–122 record (.688), marking the second highest winning percentage in league history behind George Karl, who coached for five seasons in the CBA.
Musselman began his CBA career in 1988 as the general manager of the Rapid City Thrillers, a franchise his father Bill had coached to three consecutive CBA titles during the 1980s. His first week on the job, he hired Flip Saunders as the team's head coach. Saunders, who was recruited by Bill Musselman when Bill was the head coach at the University of Minnesota during the early 1970s, would go on to be one of the winningest coaches in CBA history before moving to the NBA as coach of the Minnesota Timberwolves.
In the 1989–90 season, at age 24, Musselman became the Thrillers head coach. The following season, Musselman joined his father Bill's staff on the NBA's Minnesota Timberwolves as assistant coach making him the youngest front-bench assistant coach in NBA history. Prior to joining the Thrillers, Musselman worked for the NBA's Los Angeles Clippers as an assistant to General Manager Elgin Baylor and Barry Hecker, the team's director of scouting.
From 1990–1997, Musselman had 24 players called up to the NBA, the highest number in the league during that span. He holds the distinction of being the only person in CBA history to coach in five league All-Star Games (1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1997) and was the first coach in professional basketball history to win 100 games by the age of 28. When he was 23, Musselman became the youngest coach in CBA history.
Musselman also served as head coach of the Florida Sharks of the United States Basketball League (USBL). In the summers of 1995 and 1996, he coached the Sharks to a combined 53–3 record (.946, including playoffs) and back-to-back USBL Championships. Musselman was selected as USBL Coach of the Year in 1996. He holds the highest winning percentage in league history.
Orlando Magic, Atlanta Hawks assistant (1998–2002)
Musselman was an assistant coach for the Orlando Magic from 1998 to 2000 under Chuck Daly and Doc Rivers who would go on to be named NBA Coach of the Year in the 1999-00 season, then also for the Atlanta Hawks from 2000 to 2002 under Lon Kruger.
Golden State Warriors (2002–2004)
In 2002, Musselman was named the head coach of the Golden State Warriors, a position he held for two years. He finished as runner-up to San Antonio's Gregg Popovich in NBA Coach of the Year Award voting in 2002–2003 with 231 points, including 26 first-place votes. That season, under Musselman's guidance, the Warriors, for the first time in nearly a decade, reached the .500 mark late in the season, holding a record of 30–30 on March 4, 2003. In Musselman's rookie season, his club finished 38–44, the most wins in more than 10 years.
Despite numerous injuries and the loss of the team's top two players in Gilbert Arenas (signed with Washington) and Antawn Jamison (traded to Dallas), the team still finished 37–45 under his direction during the 2003–2004 season. In two seasons as head coach in Golden State, Musselman compiled a 75–89 record. Nevertheless, he was let go after the 2004 season ended when Chris Mullin took over as the team's general manager.
Musselman's .457 winning percentage with Golden State ranks 10th all-time among Warriors coaches, behind Steve Kerr (.709 through 2019–2020), Neil Johnson (.617), Frank McGuire (.613), George Senesky (.551), Bill Sharman (.534), Al Attles (.518), Don Nelson (.487), Mark Jackson (.473) and George Lee (.470).
Memphis Grizzlies assistant (2004–2006)
After his two seasons as head coach of the Golden State Warriors, Musselman was an assistant coach for the Memphis Grizzlies under Mike Fratello from 2004 to 2006.
Sacramento Kings (2006–2007)
On June 2, 2006, Musselman was named head coach of the Sacramento Kings, replacing Rick Adelman. Four months into the job, on October 21, 2006, Musselman was cited for DUI in Sacramento. At the time, Musselman said, "Alcohol has never been a big part of my life. I don't allow it in my house. My sons have never seen me take a sip of anything." According to , a sports columnist for The Sacramento Bee, "[Musselman] drinks so infrequently, in fact, that he can count the number of beers he consumes per month."
In the first month of the season (November 2006) with Musselman at the helm, the Kings went 8–5. But the team slumped in December and January, posting a 10–21 record before going 7–6 in February 2007. The Kings finished 33–49 on the season.
Musselman was fired by Sacramento President of Basketball Operations Geoff Petrie on April 20, 2007.
Musselman's .402 winning percentage with Sacramento ranks fourth all-time among Kings coaches, behind Rick Adelman (.633), Reggie Theus (.415) and Garry St. Jean (.403).
NBA D-League (2010–2012)
On August 11, 2010, Musselman was named head coach of the NBA Development League's Reno Bighorns. Under his watch, several players, including Marcus Landry, Jeremy Lin, Courtney Fortson, Donald Sloan and Hassan Whiteside were called up to the NBA and the Bighorns finished 34–16 and first in the D-League Western Conference.
Musselman was named head coach of the Los Angeles D-Fenders on August 18, 2011. Sports Illustrated called Musselman one of the "best teachers" in the D-League. During the 2011–12 season, he guided the team to a 38–12 record, the best mark in league history. The D-Fenders, who finished with the best defensive FG percentage in the league, advanced to the D-League finals before losing to the Austin Toros, in a three-game series. In April 2012, Musselman was named the 2011–12 D-League Coach of the Year. A month later, in May 2012, the D-Fenders were named the 2011–12 NBA D-League Development Champion, which recognizes "the team that best embodies the NBA D-League's goals of developing NBA basketball talent via call-ups and assignments."
Arizona State assistant (2012–2014)
Under Herb Sendek, Musselman was assistant coach at Arizona State in the 2012–13 season, then was promoted to associate head coach in 2013. In two seasons with the Sun Devils, Musselman helped ASU to the NIT Tournament in 2013 and the NCAA tournament in 2014. The team went 21–12 in both seasons.
LSU assistant (2014–2015)
In June 2014, Musselman became associate head coach at LSU under Johnny Jones. In Musselman's one season with the Tigers, LSU went 22–10 and reached the NCAA tournament, losing to North Carolina State, 66–65, in the first round.
Nevada (2015–19)
On March 25, 2015, the University of Nevada, Reno hired Musselman as head coach for the Nevada Wolf Pack team.
In early March 2016, Bleacher Report named Musselman the Mountain West Coach of the Year after guiding the Wolf Pack to an 18–12 record, a 9-win improvement over the previous season. The team's winning percentage jumped from 31 to 60, which ranked as the 11th best improvement nationally.
Following the 2015–16 season, UNR was invited to play in the College Basketball Invitational (CBI), winning its first three games to improve its season record to 21–12 and advance to the CBI championship series vs Morehead State. According to Chris Murray, a reporter who covered the team for the Reno Gazette-Journal, "No coach in Nevada basketball history has done a better job of getting everything out of the talent on the roster. It might be the best coaching job in Wolf Pack hoops history."
Nevada's 2016 recruiting class was ranked as the 35th best in the nation by 247Sports.
Musselman's 2016–17 Wolf Pack team went 14–4 in conference play to win the Mountain West regular season title. The team also won the 2017 MWC postseason tournament championship to earn a bid in the NCAA men's basketball tournament. Nevada, Reno finished 28–7 overall for the season, tied for the second-most wins in school history.
In December 2017, Musselman's Nevada team was ranked in the top 25, the first time since 2007 that the Wolf Pack had ranked among the top 25 teams nationally. Musselman was named 2017–18 Mountain West Coach of the Year after guiding the Wolf Pack to a 15–3 conference record and the MWC regular season title. He was also named the Coach of the Year for District 17 by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. The team set a school record for most wins in a season.
In March 2018, Nevada, Reno was announced as an at-large selection for the NCAA men's basketball tournament as a seventh seed. In their first round game, the Wolf Pack came back from 14 points down to defeat Texas, 87–83. In Round 2, Nevada rallied from a 22-point deficit to upset second-seeded Cincinnati, 75–73, propelling the Wolf Pack to its second Sweet 16 appearance in school history.
During the 2017–18 season, Nevada, Reno finished 12–3 in true road games. Those 12 victories were a single-season school record and tied for most in the country.
In May 2018 Musselman and staff signed ESPN's 31st ranked recruit in the 2018 class Jordan Brown. Brown became the highest-ranked recruit to commit to Nevada since Reno native Luke Babbitt pledged to play for his local school in 2008.
On September 5, 2018, the Nevada, Reno athletics department announced that season tickets for the upcoming men's basketball season were officially sold out.
To start the 2018–19 season, Nevada, Reno was ranked #7 in the preseason Associated Press poll and #9 in the USA Today Coaches Poll. It is the highest ranking in school history for the Wolf Pack. The previous top ranking was #9 on Feb. 26, 2007. Additionally, the #7 ranking was the highest preseason ranking in Mountain West Conference history. The Nevada, Reno Wolf Pack finished the year ranked in the Associated Press Top 25 all 20 weeks of the college basketball season, with the highest ranking in school history coming in week 4 with a #5 AP ranking.
On November 6, Nevada, Reno opened the season with an 86–70 victory over BYU. Caroline scored a game-high 25 points, with 21 coming in the second half. Nevada, Reno opened the season with the only starting lineup in college basketball consisting of all fifth-year seniors.
On November 27, the wolf pack avenge their Sweet 16 loss in March to Loyola-Chicago by defeating Loyola, 79–65, in Chicago. The Pack, now ranked No. 5 in the country, was led by Caleb Martin (21 points) and Cody Martin (20 points).
A week later, Nevada, Reno rallied in the 2nd half to defeat #20 Arizona State 72–66 in the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. In front of the 12th-largest crowd in Lawlor Events Center History, the Wolf Pack honored its Seniors beating San Diego State 81–53, and earning its third straight Mountain West Conference regular season title.
The Pack became the third team in Mountain West Conference history to win three straight regular season conference titles.
Nevada, Reno's 2018–19 season shattered the all-time attendance record at Lawlor Events Center. The season total of 163,169 broke the former record set in 2005-06 of 150,674, and doing it in 3 less games. Additionally, the average home game attendance of 10,878, broke the record set previous year (2017–18), of 9,048.
Musselman joined Mark Few (Gonzaga), Dave Rose (BYU), Steve Fisher (SDSU), Steve Alford (New Mexico), and Shaka Smart (VCU), as recent mid-major coaches with four-year spans of 25+ wins per season, 3+ tournament appearances, 2+ tournament wins, and at least one week in AP Top 10.
After finishing the year with an overall record of 29–5, Musselman received one vote for AP Coach of the Year (tied 11th).
Arkansas Razorbacks (2019 - present)
Musselman was named Arkansas head coach on April 7, 2019.
His team got off to an 8-0 start heading into December, the school's best start to a season since the 1997–98 season. The Razorbacks went 11–1 in non-conference play going in to their conference schedule. They headed into SEC play with a 71–64 win on the road at Indiana University. Arkansas defeated TCU 78–67 at home in the mid season SEC vs Big 12 Challenge. Arkansas at that point had gone 3–3 in SEC play with wins over Vandy and Texas A&M at home, and Ole Miss on the road. Losses were to LSU and MSU on the road, and a loss at home to Kentucky. Arkansas was 16–5 (4–4) when they lost their 2nd leading scorer for a five game stretch, where they posted a 0–5 record. At full strength over the final six games, the Razorbacks finished the season 4–2. Musselman, in his first year at Arkansas recruited the fifth and sixth-ranked recruiting class in the nation according to ESPN.com and 247sports.com respectively.
The season was cut short after a Wednesday victory at the 2020 SEC tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic concerns. The Razorbacks ended their season with a 20–12 record overall marking Musselman's fifth straight season with 20 or more wins.
Following the 2019–20 season, Musselman and staff reeled in the No. 3 ranked transfer recruiting class after three top 25 ranked graduate transfers signed with the Razorbacks.
Late in the 2020–21 season, his Razorbacks cracked the Top 25 for the first time since January 2018 and then hosted No. 6 Alabama as the No. 20 ranked team, the first matchup of ranked teams inside Bud Walton Arena since February 1998. On March 8, 2021, the Razorbacks entered the top 10 of the AP poll for the first time since February 1995, checking in at No. 8 heading into the postseason. Musselman was named one of 10 semifinalists for the 2021 Werner Ladder Naismith Men's Coach of the Year. Musselman entered the 2021 NCAA tournament as a #3 Seed, the highest seed for Arkansas since the 1995 Runner-Up team. On March 21, 2021, Musselman led Arkansas to its first Sweet 16 since 1996 in a 2-point win over 6-seed Texas Tech. Musselman ended the Cinderella run of 15-seed Oral Roberts on March 27, 2021, to advance Arkansas to its first Elite 8 since 1995. The Razorbacks finished the season ranked #10 in the final AP Men's Basketball Poll and #6 in the USA Today Coaches Poll.
On February 8, 2022, his team knocked off No. 1 Auburn in front of a Bud Walton Arena record 20,327 in attendance. As Arkansas had not beaten a number 1 team at BWA, the students rushed the court, resulting in Arkansas paying a $250,000 fine. Arkansas entered the 2022 NCAA tournament as #4 seed. Arkansas beat New Mexico State to be the only SEC program to advance to the Sweet 16 of the 2022 NCAA tournament. Musselman followed that by knocking off #1 overall ranked Gonzaga to advance to the Elite 8, making the first time an Arkansas coach took the Razorbacks to back-to-back Elite 8 appearances since Nolan Richardson in 1994 and 1995. The Razorbacks would fall in the Elite 8 to Duke in head coach Mike Krzyzewski's 43rd and final season. Arkansas finished ranked #17 in the final AP Poll and #8 in the final USA Today Coaches Poll. His coaching career at Arkansas was further propelled into success with his 2022 recruiting class, which featured several five-star recruits like Anthony Black (basketball), Nick Smith Jr., and Jordan Walsh.
On March 18, 2023, Musselman's 8th-seeded Razorbacks knocked off No. 1 overall seed and defending national champion Kansas in the Round of 32 to advance to the Sweet 16 for a third consecutive season. They would lose to eventual national champion UConn in the regional semifinals in Las Vegas.
Head coaching record
NBA
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Golden State
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||38||44|||| style="text-align:center;"|6th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Golden State
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||37||45|||| style="text-align:center;"|5th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|Sacramento
| style="text-align:left;"|
|82||33||49|||| style="text-align:center;"|5th in Pacific||—||—||—||—
| style="text-align:center;"|Missed playoffs
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
|246||108||138|||| ||—||—||—||—
College
Others
Coaching style
On his blog, Musselman wrote about the importance of matching an offense to the "team's make up." Depending on the roster, a half-court offense might make more sense. In other cases, a team may be better suited for an "open offense." According to Musselman, the idea is to allow players to "play to their strengths."
As head coach of the Golden State Warriors, Musselman would often use "three-guard rotations to create mismatches and fast-break opportunities for his club." As head coach of the Venezuela National Team, Musselman said his team's identity was that of a "fast-paced, up-tempo team."
According to former NBA coach Jeff Van Gundy, Musselman is "as competitive of a guy as I've ever coached against. He's a brilliant offensive mind."
According to University of Kentucky head coach John Calipari, "Eric is one of the best in our sport. Extremely driven and knowledgeable. I've watched and coached against him in the NBA and FIBA games. He has an uncanny feel for the game, and ability to read where the game is at. More importantly, is his ability to motivate and teach his players what it takes to improve and win. He is as good as it gets."
Developing players
In an August 2011 interview on NBA.com, Musselman said that, as a coach, "you have to continually figure out a way to get your players better." According to Gerald Green, who played for Musselman with the D-League's Los Angeles D-Fenders in 2012, Musselman "did a hell of a job really motivating me, really pushing me every day in practice when I was with L.A. I have to give him credit [for improving my game]." Green said that Musselman "rode me about staying focused. Don’t take even a second off of any play. Don’t take any plays off. Don’t take practice for granted."
Like Green, Jeremy Lin has also credited Musselman with aiding his development. In February 2012, Lin said that when he played for Musselman in the D-League, "he gave me the opportunity to play through mistakes."
Gregory Echenique, who played for Musselman on the Venezuela National Team in 2011, said Musselman "had the most energy of any coach I've ever been around. He had a problem with his Achilles, and he would throw his crutches down and literally crawl to get after you. From the first day we met him to when we left him, his intensity never changed. It didn't matter who you were — he was in your face if he needed to be. At the same time, he was so positive. He always believed we could win. He was the guy that put the fire into us."
Kevin Martin, who played for Musselman with the Sacramento Kings in 2006–07, told NBA.com that Musselman helped him learn how to draw more fouls. According to Martin, Musselman "saw how teams were playing me and how they got up into me and told me to start absorbing that contact. He said I could score a lot more points in this league if I got to the free throw line. He put an emphasis on me night in night out with that part of the game. He was always pounding it into me and it paid off."
In a May 9, 2013, article by CBSSports.com college basketball writer Gary Parrish, Arizona State guard Jahii Carson credited Musselman with helping him develop as a player. "Coach Muss is a great guy with a lot of knowledge because he's coached a lot of great players", said Carson. "He's given me a lot of great advice … about what NBA people are looking for, about how NBA guys don't take days off, how they're always in the gym doing conditioning or something, always trying to better their games. A guy like me? I didn't know anything like that having never been around the NBA game. So, he's somebody who has helped me."
During the 2013–14 season, Musselman worked with Arizona State center Jordan Bachynski, helping the 7-foot-2 senior with his footwork. After the season, Bachynski earned Pac-12 Defensive Player of the Year honors.
Move to the college ranks
In October 2007, ESPN reported that Musselman had a desire to coach at the collegiate level. According to Andy Katz, senior college basketball writer for ESPN.com, "Musselman wants to coach in college and is starting the process of getting his name out among search committees so that he's a viable candidate in March."
In late December 2007, FOX Sports reported that Musselman was a likely candidate to replace 71-year-old Eddie Sutton at the University of San Francisco after this season. In January 2008, his name surfaced in press reports surrounding the head coaching position at Oregon State. In March 2008, Musselman's name surfaced in published reports about the California and Loyola Marymount head coaching positions.
On August 30, 2012, Andy Katz reported on ESPN.com's College Basketball Nation Blog that Arizona State University was in talks to hire Musselman as an assistant coach on Herb Sendek's staff. On September 2, 2012, Katz confirmed Musselman's hiring, describing it as a "bold move" and a "coup" for Sendek.
Former NBA coach Jeff Van Gundy predicted that Musselman will be an excellent recruiter "because of his competitive nature and what he has to sell. This is a guy who can tell kids exactly what it takes to play in the NBA."
Fifteen games into Arizona State's 2012–13 season, ESPN's Andy Katz wrote that "It's hard to ignore the difference [guard Jahii] Carson and assistant coach Eric Musselman are making at Arizona State." According to Katz, "The Sun Devils were painful to watch last season. Now, ASU has multiple options and while it still grinds out wins (see OT game in the 50s to beat Utah), the Sun Devils are 2-0 in the Pac-12 and 13-2 heading to the Oregon schools." On January 9, 2013, ESPN's Jason King wrote that "adding former NBA head coach Eric Musselman...to his staff has also been a huge plus for Sendek and his players." Quoted in King's story, Arizona State center Jordan Bachynski said, "When [Musselman and Greer] speak, guys listen, just because they have that credibility from being in the league. The way they approach the game … it's no BS. They say, 'This is how it's done. If you don't like it, you're not going to play.'"
In a radio interview after the 2012–13 season, Arizona State athletic director Steve Patterson said, "I think Eric's going to have opportunities to look at head coaching jobs. He's a very qualified coach. He did a great job, I think, teaching and working here."
In a March 26, 2013, post on the ESPN Los Angeles UCLA blog, Peter Yoon described Musselman as one of the "best under-the-radar candidates out there."
In May 2013, he was promoted to associate head coach. Musselman resigned from Sendek's staff in April 2014.
Following the 2013–14 season, Musselman was a candidate for the head coaching position at the University of California, Berkeley, the University of South Florida and Oregon State University.
International coaching
In July 2009, Musselman reportedly turned down an offer to coach Spartak St. Petersburg in Russia. On May 19, 2010, Musselman was named head coach of the Dominican Republic national basketball team.
At the 2010 Men's Centro Basketball Championship in July 2010, FIBA Americas' top regional tournament, Musselman guided the Dominican Republic team to the gold medal game, losing to Puerto Rico, 89–80, the team's only loss of the tournament (5–1). By finishing second at the Centro Basketball Championship, the Dominican Republic qualifies for the 2011 FIBA Americas Championship, a qualifying tournament for the FIBA World Championships and the Olympic Games.
In August 2010, Musselman coached the U.S. 2011 team to the gold medal at the Adidas Global Experience in Chicago. The 2011 team is composed of the top high school seniors in the U.S. The tournament featured the world's top 18-and-under players from five regions of the world: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the United States. Musselman was the head coach of Team China at the 2009 Adidas Nations camp/tournament in Beijing, China.
In May 2011, the FIBA World Championship website reported that Musselman had interviewed for the head coaching position of the Puerto Rico men's national basketball team. Earlier that month, he was mentioned as a candidate for the Venezuela national basketball team. On June 15, 2011, Musselman was named head coach of the Venezuela national basketball team.
Under Musselman, Venezuela qualified for the 2012 World Pre-Olympic Qualifier by going 4–4 at the FIBA Americas 2011 Pre-Olympic Qualifier in Mar del Plata, Argentina. Venezuela was the top-scoring team in the tournament, averaging 94.8 points per game, 9 points more than the second highest-scoring team. Venezuela went 8–5 in international exhibition games ("friendlies") leading up to the tournament.
Musselman guided Venezuela to a runner-up (silver) finish at the 2012 FIBA Men's South American Championship, posting a 3–2 record. With the second-place finish, Venezuela advanced to the 2013 FIBA Americas Championship, qualifier to the 2014 FIBA World Championship. The team went 1–1 in the 2012 FIBA Olympic qualifying tournament, defeating the Nigeria national team, the team that ultimately advanced to the 2012 Summer Olympics. Venezuela was also 3–1 in friendly games and won the 2012 Super 4 in Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela.
Sports broadcasting career
From 2008 to 2010, he served as an NBA analyst for FOX Sports Radio and Clear Channel Radio, and as a color commentator for college basketball games on the regional sports network Comcast SportsNet California and for NBA Development League games on Versus. He's also worked as a basketball analyst for ESPN.
Blog
In November 2007, Musselman launched a blog called "Eric Musselman's Basketball Notebook." It features more than 1,200 posts about coaching and leadership. His last post was on March 20, 2009. Several of the posts from Musselman's blog were reposted on The Fifth Down, the New York Times' NFL blog.
Personal life
Musselman and his wife Danyelle Sargent, a former on-air personality and anchor for ESPN, FOX Sports, and the NFL Network, have a daughter together. Musselman has two sons from a previous marriage. Michael currently serves as the Director of Recruiting for University of Arkansas' Men's Basketball team. Matthew attends the University of San Diego. They live in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Musselman's sister, Nicole, is a fashion designer in Dallas, Texas.
References
External links
BasketballReference.com: Eric Musselman
Eric Musselman blog: Eric Musselman
1964 births
Living people
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
Arizona State Sun Devils men's basketball coaches
Arkansas Razorbacks men's basketball coaches
Atlanta Hawks assistant coaches
Basketball coaches from Ohio
Basketball players from Ohio
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Continental Basketball Association coaches
Continental Basketball Association executives
Golden State Warriors head coaches
Los Angeles D-Fenders coaches
LSU Tigers men's basketball coaches
Memphis Grizzlies assistant coaches
Minnesota Timberwolves assistant coaches
Nevada Wolf Pack men's basketball coaches
Orlando Magic assistant coaches
People from Ashland, Ohio
Reno Bighorns coaches
Sacramento Kings head coaches
San Diego Toreros men's basketball players
United States Basketball League coaches |
4209692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Monica%20neighborhoods | Santa Monica neighborhoods | The western border of Santa Monica, California, is the 3-mile (4.8 km) stretch of Santa Monica Bay. On its other sides, the city is bordered by various districts of Los Angeles: the northwestern border is Pacific Palisades, the eastern border is Brentwood north of Wilshire Boulevard and West Los Angeles south of Wilshire, the northeastern border is generally San Vicente Boulevard up to the Riviera Country Club, the southwestern border is Venice Beach and the southern border is with West Los Angeles and Mar Vista.
Santa Monica Canyon
Part of the Santa Monica Post Office code 90402 but outside the municipal boundaries, Santa Monica Canyon is an adjacent neighborhood is named for the historic land grant Rancho Boca de Santa Monica. The boundary between Santa Monica and Pacific Palisades in this area is Adelaide Drive.
La Mesa Drive / North of San Vicente
San Vicente Boulevard is the northernmost major street in Santa Monica. The streets north of San Vicente are generally considered a subsection of the North of Montana neighborhood, but distinguished because of La Mesa Drive. North of San Vicente the streets are La Mesa Drive, La Mesa Way, Gale Place (developed by one of the area's prolific post-depression contractors, Cecil Gale), Woodacres Road, Esparta Way, Ermont Place, Foxtail Drive, Larkin Place, Winnett Place and Adelaide Place. This is part of the "North of Montana" 90402 zip code.
North of Montana Avenue
South of San Vicente and north of Montana Avenue consist of larger family homes of varying styles and age on larger lots. It is one of the most expensive areas in the Westside of Los Angeles. The streets in this portion of Santa Monica are San Vicente Boulevard, Georgina Avenue, Marguerita Avenue, Alta Avenue, Carlyle Avenue, Brentwood Terrace, Ocean Avenue, and the "numbered streets" 4th Street, 7th Street, Lincoln Boulevard (where 8th Street would have been), 9th Street, 10th Street, 11th Street, 12th Street, Euclid Street (which is where 13th Street would have been), 14th Street, 15th Street (the dividing line for Franklin versus Roosevelt Elementary schools), 16th Street, 17th Street (which is where Gillette's Regent Square tract begins) 18th Street, 19th Street, 20th Street, 21st Street, 21st Place (this is Gillette's cleaver extra street created by eliminating five alleys and narrowing streets, where the Gillette Regent Square tract ends and where 21st and a Half Street would have been), 22nd Street, 23rd Street, 24th Street, 25th Street and 26th Street. Most of the lot sizes are on 50' X 150' lots. The South of San Vicente, North of Montana streets provide an understated conventional walkable play-in-street feel. Among the streets south of San Vicente, the streets west of 7th Street are coveted for their proximity to Palisades Park on the bluffs overlooking the Pacific Ocean and wide streets with stately homes on deep 100' foot wide lots. The Gillette's Regent Square tract, developed by King Gillette - the razor blade manufacturer, are 9,000 square feet on 60' x 150' lots. The Gillette Regent Square section is coveted by potential home buyers for the larger homes allowed under the very restrictive zoning laws, wider lots and mature street trees.
San Vicente Boulevard is the northernmost major street in Santa Monica. The streets North of San Vicente are generally considered a subsection of the North of Montana neighborhood, but distinguished because of La Mesa Drive. Homes on La Mesa Drive are among the most expensive in Los Angeles County and often contain views of the Riviera Country Club with peeks of the Pacific Ocean or picturesque Santa Monica Canyon. La Mesa Drive is one of the least known in the city. It's planted with a dense canopy of rare Moreton Bay fig trees, making the street a picturesque walking location. Twenty blocks closer to the ocean, the Santa Monica Steps at 4th Street are a popular set of 189 very steep steps that lead down into the canyon. Rather than being used as a convenient direct route from Canyon Charter School to Adelaide Drive, they are more often utilized for intense workouts and are an excellent place for spotting sweating celebrities. Streets north of San Vicente are usually short and contain gated estates. North of San Vicente the streets are La Mesa Drive, La Mesa Way, Gale Place (developed by one of the area's prolific post-Depression contractors, Cecil Gale), Woodacres Road, Esparta Way, Ermont Place, Foxtail Drive, Larkin Place, Winnett Place and Adelaide Drive. This is part of the "North of Montana" 90402 zip code.
West of 7th and East of Ocean Avenue is the neighborhood noted by 100' x 220' foot lots, some of which have been subdivided into 50 X 220. Many of Santa Monica's historically significant land-marked homes are located here, and a few are designated as such in the National Registry.
North of Montana is served by two highly regarded public elementary schools - Franklin School for the residents on 15th through the west side of 26th, and Roosevelt for the families on 14th Street down to Ocean Avenue.
During Halloween, the streets near 16th Street and Georgina Avenue are packed with trick-or-treaters, partiers and gawkers because residents go all-out in decorating their homes for the holiday. North of Montana is the only Santa Monica neighborhood with a privately funded 24-hour-a-day patrol service managed by the Santa Monica Protective Association. The neighborhood is not represented by an association, but there is an active organized no-growth group.
North of Montana (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.) is also the title of the first book in the FBI Special Agent Ana Grey mystery series, written by Santa Monica resident, April Smith. Continuously in print since 1994, North of Montana became notorious for being a fast-paced thriller that also examines complex relationships between upper-class white women and the Hispanic caretakers of their children.
Montana Avenue
Montana Avenue is home to two elementary schools, a public library, and a mile of about 150 upscale stores, banks, real estate offices and restaurants. There are several independently owned cafes and coffee shop as well as nationally known brands here. The businesses on this street are generally boutiques, along with two national markets. Montana Avenue is also honored with the 1939 landmark Aero Theater, built by Donald Douglas Company as a continuous around-the-clock movie theater. This is now a repertory theater operated by The American Cinematheque. Every December and June the Montana Avenue Association hosts a neighborhood-wide sale and festival where stores give holiday discounts, give free samples of food, or have clearance sales to make room for a new season of clothing. Montana Avenue is home to Balloon Celebrations, a place for modern party decor & Luxe Balloon Bouquets. Montana Avenue is served by the 18 line of the Big Blue Bus.
Northeast Neighbors
North of Wilshire, but South of Montana Avenue, is a primarily residential neighborhood. Laid out on a consistent grid of numbered streets, there are many mid-sized homes and condominiums. On its westernmost end this neighborhood includes a number of well-preserved Victorian duplex houses otherwise unique in the city. Smaller Craftsman era bungalows line the east-west avenues like Idaho, Washington, and California. At the corner of Washington Avenue and 22nd is the original Gehry House, a deconstructionist masterpiece that signaled a dramatic shift in Frank Gehry's architectural style. Real estate is exceptionally expensive in this neighborhood, albeit slightly less expensive than the more stately properties north of Montana. The neighborhood is represented by the Northeast Neighbors neighborhood association. www.neneighbors.org
Ocean Avenue
Ocean Avenue is a major thoroughfare in Santa Monica that runs along Palisades Park, with a view of the Pacific Ocean. Ocean Avenue real estate is highly prized, as all residences have a full view of the beach and Pacific Ocean, some from Palos Verdes all the way to Malibu.
South of California Ave are several luxury hotels such as Shore Hotel, Ocean View Hotel, Shutters, Casa del Mar, The Shangri-La, The Georgian Hotel, The Huntley, The Fairmont Miramar, Hotel Oceana, The Viceroy and Loews, restaurants, businesses, and homes. The Santa Monica Pier is located at Ocean Avenue and Colorado Avenue.
Downtown Santa Monica
Downtown Santa Monica is located south of Wilshire Blvd. The streets that make up downtown Santa Monica are Wilshire Boulevard, Arizona Avenue, Santa Monica Boulevard, Broadway, and Colorado Avenue from 2nd street to 14th street. The Third Street Promenade and Santa Monica Place are located in the heart of downtown. Many restaurants, tourist sites and hotels are in downtown Santa Monica.
Midtown Santa Monica
Comprising most of the 90404 zip code Midtown Santa Monica stretches from 14th street to Centinela at its westernmost and easternmost extremities, and Wilshire Boulevard to Olympic Boulevard in its north and south. Alternating between major thoroughfares and quieter residential lanes, Midtown is less congested than many other parts of the city. Planned on a regular grid, Midtown Santa Monica was once home to a number of picturesque Craftsman houses and brightly painted Victorians, though only occasional examples of these can still be found. In the early 1940s the first wave of suburbanization overtook this part of the city and many preexisting structures were razed and replaced with tiny square California Bungalows with green lawns and small, private backyards. In the 1960s a large number of these increasingly dilapidated structures were demolished in favor of four and five unit condominium complexes and apartments. The easternmost edge of Midtown Santa Monica, often referred to as the "college streets" where Princeton, Harvard, Yale, Stanford, and Berkeley intersect with Wilshire Boulevard, represents one of the city's primary gateways. Commemorating the spot where the cities of Santa Monica and Los Angeles (Brentwood neighborhood) share a border is the "Wave" a sculpture by Tony De Lap arching over Wilshire Boulevard near Franklin.
Pico District
Before the 1960s, the neighborhood was much larger and was an important African-American enclave on the Westside, but when the Santa Monica Freeway opened in the 1960s, it resulted in the destruction of many residences and the relocation of a large number of families. Its boundaries are Lincoln Blvd to the west, Centinela Ave to the east, Olympic Ave to the north and Pico Blvd to the south. The Santa Monica Freeway runs through the area with access near both Lincoln Boulevard and Olympic Blvd. Santa Monica High School and Santa Monica College are both on Pico. Pico Blvd in Santa Monica has traffic lights at nearly every block, as well as local and middle class businesses.
During the era of segregation, Pico was one of the only neighborhoods in Santa Monica where nonwhite residents were permitted to live and own property. This is the most ethnically diverse area of Santa Monica, but this diversity is under threat as the area is rapidly becoming gentrified. However, due to Santa Monica's unusually strong rent control laws, many long-term renters have been able to stay despite rising market prices. While the city of Santa Monica has a very low crime rate compared to surrounding communities, the Pico neighborhood has higher crime rates than the rest of the city. The City of Santa Monica has been accused of ignoring the Pico District in the past, particularly when it came to issues regarding crime and gang activity.
Ocean Park neighborhood
Located in the southwest corner of Santa Monica, from the beach to Lincoln Boulevard and between Pico Boulevard and the southern city limits, is the Ocean Park neighborhood, also known, together with the northern portion of Venice, as Dogtown. One of the oldest parts of the city, it is home to many styles of buildings typical of the early 20th century, such as craftsman and Victorian style houses and apartment buildings, as well as many midcentury apartment complexes and newer, higher-end homes. The area has a beachy, artsy feel similar in manner to its neighbor Venice Beach. Like Venice, it has a history of being predominantly working and middle class, but has become much wealthier and more expensive since the 1990s.
Ocean Park was originally founded as an independent city with the involvement of Abbot Kinney, and was developed along similar lines. It was originally home to an oceanfront boardwalk and pleasure pier, later developed into Pacific Ocean Park. In the 1950s through the 1970s the entire pier, boardwalk area, and all of the densely developed residential blocks between Neilson Way and the beach were demolished as part of an urban renewal program. Two high-rise apartment towers, along with a few low-rise condominium complexes and a public park, were built in their place.
Many Santa Monica residents come to shop/browse on Main Street, home of many boutiques, bars, and restaurants. Main Street also hosts a weekly farmer's market on Sundays. SMASH (an alternative school) and John Muir elementary schools are located in the neighborhood. Olympic High, an alternative high school, is also located in the area. The neighborhood association is Ocean Park Association.
Sunset Park Neighborhood
Sunset Park is a residential neighborhood located between Pico Boulevard and the southern city limits and Lincoln Boulevard and eastern city limits. It is composed primarily of single-family housing. Most of the homes are small one-story houses built in the 1940s for workers at the Douglas Aircraft Factory. Remodeled or rebuilt homes are upscale.
Sunset Park is part of the Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District. Will Rogers and Grant elementary schools and John Adams Middle School are located in the neighborhood. Santa Monica College, a two-year community college, is also located in Sunset Park.
Santa Monica Airport, one of the busiest single-runway airports in the nation, is located along the southern borders of the neighborhood. The airport will close at the end of 2028.
Clover Park is a large park in the area with recreation facilities. The neighborhood is represented by the Friends of Sunset Park association.
Thoroughfares
Major east/west thoroughfares in Santa Monica are San Vicente Boulevard, Wilshire Boulevard, Santa Monica Boulevard, Olympic Boulevard, Pico Boulevard, and Ocean Park Boulevard. All of these streets are four lanes in width; however, about half of Ocean Park was recently reduced to two lanes in order to accommodate left-turn lanes. Wilshire Blvd and Santa Monica Blvd contain the most traffic. It is fairly easy to travel east/west in Santa Monica.
Traveling north/south in Santa Monica is considerably slower and more difficult. Most north/south streets in Santa Monica end relatively quickly or fail to yield traffic lights at intersections, making travel difficult during rush hour. The major streets are Ocean Avenue and Lincoln Boulevard which goes to Los Angeles International Airport. These two streets are mostly four lanes and considered major thoroughfares. In particular, Lincoln Blvd becomes congested since it is a main route that leads to the Santa Monica Freeway, Venice, Marina del Rey, and the Los Angeles International Airport. A number of smaller residential streets allow north/south travel through Santa Monica. These streets are: 7th Street from Olympic Blvd to the Pacific Coast Highway, 11th Street from San Vicente Blvd to Dewey Street on the border of Venice, 14th Street and 20th Street from San Vicente Blvd to Ocean Park Blvd, and 26th Street from San Vicente Blvd to Olympic Blvd, where most traffic diverts to Cloverfield Blvd. 17th Street runs from San Vicente Blvd to the entrance of Santa Monica College on Pico Blvd. All of these streets are only two lanes (with the exception of a brief portion of 20th Street). However, all of these streets encounter traffic lights at all intersections, making travel plausible. One alternate route to reach the Santa Monica Freeway going eastbound is to take Cloverfield Blvd, a short four lane street that begins off Santa Monica Boulevard.
"Envisioning Lincoln" - a short (8.5 minute) documentary on Lincoln Blvd. in Santa Monica can be found on YouTube.
References
External links
Neighborhood associations
Wilshire Montana Neighborhood Coalition, or Wilmont
Friends of Sunset Park
North of Montana Ave Association
Ocean Park Association
Santa Monica Mid City Neighbors
Santa Monica Canyon Civic Association
List of Santa Monica Neighborhood Associations
Santa Monica, California
Neighborhoods in Los Angeles County, California |
4209781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-level%20governance | Multi-level governance | Multi-level (or multilevel) governance is a term used to describe the way power is spread vertically between many levels of government and horizontally across multiple quasi-government and non-governmental organizations and actors. This situation develops because many countries have multiple levels of government including local, regional, state, national or federal, and many other organisations with interests in policy decisions and outcomes. International governance also operates based on multi-level governance principles. Multi-level governance can be distinguished from multi-level government which is when different levels of government share or transfer responsibility amongst each other. Whereas multi-level governance analyses the relationship of different state levels and interaction with different types of actors.'
Origins and significance of the concept of Multi-level governance
Multi-level governance is an approach in political science and public administration theory that originated from studies on European integration. Political scientists Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks developed the concept of multi-level governance in the early 1990s and have continuously been contributing to the research program in a series of articles (see Bibliography). Their theory resulted from the study of the new structures that were put in place by the EU (Maastricht Treaty) in 1992. Multi-level governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emergent global political economy. It "illuminates the intimate entanglement between the domestic and international levels of authority".
Multi-level governance' is a recent concept, having first entered the lexicon of political science around fifteen years ago as comparativists became re-acquainted with European integration and discovered that authority was shifting not only from central states up to Europe, but also down to subnational authorities. The first efforts to understand this were descriptive, spawning concepts that have generated an extensive literature. Multi-level, polycentric, and multi-layered governance emphasize the dispersion of decision making from the local to the global level. In recent years these concepts have cross-pollinated subfields of political science including European studies and decentralization, federalism and international organization, public policy (e.g. environmental policy, health policy) and public-private governance, local governance and transnational governance.
The authors of a recent survey of the literature on the structure of government conclude that 'We attribute many of the recent "cutting-edge" theoretical contributions in political science to studies of "multi-level governance"’ and they note that although students of federalism 'considered the current subject matter of their field to be based on well-defined, well rooted and broadly accepted ideas, they were nevertheless open to a new flowering of federal theory as a result of fertilization by these new MLG theoretical developments'. However, there is nothing entirely new under the sun. Though scarcely recognized at the time, this research revives a rich tradition in political science represented by Karl Deutsch (1966) on the effect of societal transactions on government structure, Robert Dahl (1973) on the virtues and vices of multilevel democracy, and Stein Rokkan (1983) on identity and territorial politics.
Application of the concept
Multi-level governance and the European Union
The study of the European Union has been characterized by two different theoretical phases. The first phase was dominated by studies from the field of international relations; in the second phase these studies were revised and insights from among others, public policy were added. The most straightforward way of understanding this theoretical shift is to see it as a move away from treating the EU as an international organisation similar to others (e.g. NATO) to seeing it as something unique among international organisations. The uniqueness of the EU relates both to the nature and to the extent of its development. This means that in some areas of activity the EU displays more properties related to national political systems than to those of international organisations.
The theory of multi-level governance belongs to the second phase. Multi-level governance characterizes the changing relationships between actors situated at different territorial levels, both from the public and the private sectors. The multi-level governance theory crosses the traditionally separate domains of domestic and international politics and highlights the increasingly fading distinction between these domains in the context of European integration.
Multi-level governance was first developed from a study of EU policy and then applied to EU decision-making more generally. An early explanation referred to multi-level governance as a system of continuous negotiation among nested governments at several territorial tiers and described how supranational, national, regional, and local governments are enmeshed in territorially overarching policy networks. The theory emphasized both the increasingly frequent and complex interactions between governmental actors and the increasingly important dimension of non-state actors that are mobilized in cohesion policy-making and in the EU policy more generally. As such, multi-level governance raised new and important questions about the role, power and authority of states.
The European Union can be characterised by a mixture of intergovernmental cooperation between sovereign states codified through a succession of major Treaties, negotiated, agreed upon and signed by member states. These treaties are the primary legal basis giving rise to the much wider reaching process of supranational integration as they contain within them the provisions for their implementation. These legislative-legal instruments: Regulations, Directives, Decisions, Recommendations and Opinions constitute the mechanisms through which the principles of integration stipulated in the treaties are, in practice and over time, applied, disputed and enforced.
Multi-level governance within the EU is understood as respecting competences, sharing responsibilities and cooperating between the various levels of governance: the EU, the Member States and the regional and local authorities. In this context, it refers to the principle of subsidiarity, which places decisions as close as possible to the citizens and ensures that that action at Union level is justified in light of the possibilities available at national, regional or local level. In practice Multilevel Governance within the EU is about participation and coordination between all levels of government both in the decision-making process and in the implementation or evaluation of European policies.
The combination of communal decision-making with the wide area of policy areas results in a deep entanglement of the member states' national policy levels with the European policy level. This entanglement is one of the basic principles of the multi-level governance theory. The multi-level governance theory describes the European Union as a political system with interconnected institutions that exist at multiple levels and that have unique policy features. The European Union is a political system with a European layer (European Commission, European Council and European Parliament), a national layer and a regional layer. These layers interact with each other in two ways: first, across different levels of government (vertical dimension) and second, with other relevant actors within the same level (horizontal dimension).
Concerning with the changes of the institutional design of the European Union, the current model governance has been shaped as a setup of constraints upon political margin of discretion, applying the central tenet of ordoliberalism with the aim to use strong rules in order to reduce the discretionary exercise of powers by institutions so as to avoid an arbitrary use of them. This principle has achieved an extreme effect at the European level, that one not to avoid arbitrary use of political powers but to keep political responsibility and participation out of the decision-making process. As Laruffa concludes:
"It is quite clear that such a model of governance, which is made only by rules without any role for a democratic policy-making process, imposes a de facto limit to on the political rights of the European citizens. This means that there is a control exercised by rules over the European citizens rather than a control by the European citizens over rules and policies."
The European Union: Multilevel Governance in Practice
Within the European Union nearly 95,000 local and regional authorities currently have significant powers in key sectors such as education, the environment, economic development, town and country planning, transport, public services and social policies. These local and regional authorities implement nearly 70% of EU legislation. They help ensure the exercise of European democracy and citizenship. Special rights and competences for regions, cities and communities are supposed to enable and preserve diversity of governance at local and regional level. By thinking beyond traditional EU – Member States relations the EU multi-level governance concept further strengthens regional and transnational cooperation. In a broader sense, this concept also includes the participation of non-state players like economic and social partners and civil society in the decision-making process of all levels of governance(thus taking up the vertical and horizontal dimensions of multilevel governance).
The Treaty of Lisbon as an important step towards Multilevel Governance
The Treaty of Lisbon represents an important step towards institutional recognition of multi-level governance in the way the European Union operates. It strengthens the competences and influence of local and regional authorities in the Community decision-making process giving roles to national (and regional) parliaments and the Committee of the Regions and enshrines the territorial dimension of the European Union, notably territorial cohesion as part of the process of European integration. The Committee of the Regions has established a system to monitor the compliance with the subsidiarity thorough the whole EU policy and law making process.
Multilevel governance within the EU as an ongoing process
Nevertheless, multi-level governance within the EU is a dynamic and ongoing process. On 16 June 2009 the Committee of the Regions adopted a White Paper on multi-level governance which recommended specific mechanisms and instruments for stimulating all stages of the European decision-making process. This document, together with the follow-up opinion "Building a European culture of Multilevel Governance" affirmed the committee's political commitment to Multi-level Governance, proposing a first political project for Building Europe in partnership. As a follow-up to the 2009 White paper on Multi-level Governance, the Committee developed a "Scoreboard on Multi-level Governance" to monitor on a yearly basis the development of multi-level governance at European Union level.
The Charter for Multi-level Governance in Europe
On 3 April 2014 the Committee of the Regions adopted a Charter for Multi-level Governance calling public authorities of all levels of governance to use and promote multi-level governance in their future undertakings. The Charter is open for signature to:
• all European Union local and regional authorities;
• European and national associations of local and regional authorities, as well as local and regional authorities' network are invited to officially commit to multilevel governance principles, giving the Charter their formal support;
• National and European political figures wishing to back up the Charter are also invited to declare their support
Multi-level governance beyond the European Union
The point of departure for multi-level governance was Europe, but recent books and articles have dealt with the dispersion of authority away from central states in Latin America, Asia, and North America. Decentralization has been at least as marked in Latin America as in Europe over the past two decades, and several Asian countries have decentralized in the past decade. Dispersion of authority above the national state is most evident in the EU, but it is not sui generis. A recent survey counts 32 regional IGOs pooling authority over quite wide areas of policy and which cover all but a handful of states in the world today. The number of governmental and non-governmental international organizations has increased markedly over the past two decades, as has their scope, range and intrusiveness. Crossborder interdependence – from migration to climate change to terrorism – has stimulated regional organization in many parts of the world.
Vertical and horizontal dimension of multi-level governance
The "vertical" dimension refers to the linkages between higher and lower levels of government, including their institutional, financial, and informational aspects. Here, local capacity building and incentives for effectiveness of sub national levels of government are crucial issues for improving the quality and coherence of public policy.
The "horizontal" dimension refers to co-operation arrangements between regions or between municipalities. These agreements are increasingly common as a means by which to improve the effectiveness of local public service delivery and implementation of development strategies.
Consequences and practical relevance of multi-level governance
There has been an intensification of research on the consequences as well as the character of multi-level governance. The concept was developed as a tool of pure research, but it now motivates policy makers. From the late 1990s the European Commission began to refer to its own mission as one of achieving multilevel governance, especially in cohesion policy. In 2001, the Commission set up a committee on multilevel governance to contribute to its White Paper on governance. José Manuel Barroso, President of the European Commission, claims that 'the multilevel system of governance on which our European regional policy is based provides a key boost to the Union's competitive edge' and that, in the current economic crisis, 'multilevel governance must be a priority'. In an October 2008 resolution, the European Parliament called on the member states 'to develop as quickly as possible the practical measures set out in the First Action Programme . . . with a view to strengthening multilevel governance'. In 2009, 344 representatives of elected regional and local authorities across the EU approved a resolution on a 'European Union Charter for Multilevel Governance', which would bring localities and regions into European democratic decision making.
Several political parties including the European Peoples Party have taken up this theme. The European Peoples Party which represents Christian democratic parties in the European Parliament recently stated that, 'multilevel governance should be one of the guiding principles of the EU, an integral part of any European strategy or policy where local and regional authorities are widely implicated, and monitored closely to ensure that it is indeed being put into practice on the ground'.
International organizations have also taken positions on the issue. In 2009, the United Nations Development Programme released a report, 'Delivering Human Security through Multilevel Governance', which argued that 'the two-level approach to international relations . . . is being replaced by a much more complex multilevel system of governance that also involves local, sub-national providers of public goods as well as regional governance actors acting at a supranational but not a global level'. The World Bank has commissioned a series of studies examining multilevel governance; the United Nations has a research and training institute on comparative regional integration that studies 'multilevel regulatory processes and the relations between sub- and supra-national regional governance', and the OECD has created a directorate on multilevel governance.
However, the consequences of multilevel governance are debated. In the eyes of its detractors, multilevel governance exacerbates corruption (Treisman 2000), leads to gridlock (Scharpf 2007), engenders moral hazard (Rodden 2006), constrains redistribution (Obinger, Castles, Leibfried 2005), obfuscates accountability (Peters & Pierre 2004), and wastes money (Berry 2009). Research on both causes and consequences of multi-level governance is ongoing and more and more information about the subnational as well as the international dimension of multi-level governance is available in the context of larger data sets.
Multi-level governance of climate change in cities
Global climate change is being contributed to by ever increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions emanating from decisions and activities of individuals and organisations at local, regional, national and international levels. Cities are suggested to contribute up to 75% of global carbon dioxide emissions, reflecting the increasing proportions of global populations living and working in cities. As we know, tackling climate change is an extensive, time-consuming and costly task, a task that cannot be achieved solely through the policy implementation and regulation from central governments and bodies alone. It has become increasingly clear that nation-states will be unable to commit to and meet international targets and agreements for offsetting climate change without engaging with the activity of sub-national and local action. Hereby, warranting the extreme importance of multi-level governance of climate change within cities.
Forms of governance at multi-levels have taken off increasingly at the local scale, building upon the notion of 'think global, act local', in cities in particular. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions stem from certain activities that originate from specific places, bringing about thought that the local scale is the most appropriate political scale to produce necessary offsets in emissions. Cities are exemplary of such specific places in which local governance action can and will help reduce GHG emissions. The levels of governance authority handed down to local governments within cities has been perceived to out-do policy goals within the national and international arena, with some local governments taking on their own initiatives for tackling urban climate change. This sets an important stance to which the local scale of multi-level governance is important for tackling global climate change within the urban arena.
Four distinct modes of governance exist within the dynamics of climate change in cities. Each stems from the local level with the ability of being implemented on multi-scales to mitigate and adapt to urban climate change. Self-governing is the capacity of local governments to govern its own activities such as improving energy efficiency within a designated city, without the burdening pressure to meet targets of increased energy efficiencies set by national governments. A form of self-governing within multi-level systems is horizontal collaboration where cities may collaborate with regions demonstrating multi-levels of governance to tackle urban climate change, imperative to the success of city climate change policy. Governing through enabling is the co-ordination and facilitation of partnerships with private organisations by the local government. National governments also implement this mode of governance to implement policy and action within cities. Governing through provision, a form of vertical collaboration along with governing through enabling, applies itself to the multi-levels of governance. Climate change in cities is tackled here through the shaping of and delivery of services and resources, with additional support aided to local governments from regional and national authorities. Lastly, another form of vertical collaboration, is governing through regulation. Such regulation characterises traditional forms of authoritative governance, exemplifying local to nation-state relations, almost covering the entirety of the multi-level governance scale.
Subnational integration of climate actions
Within the various initiatives of the Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP), the thematic working group on Subnational Integration (SNI-WG) was created in 2013 to support learning and facilitate collaboration between national and subnational governments for accelerated effective climate actions. The SNI-WG realizes several activities at global and regional levels including organizing panels at multiple regional and global forums, hosting peer-learning discussions, publishing reports and case studies, along with facilitating technical workshops, webinars and providing advisory Remote Expert Assistance on LEDS (REAL) support upon request. This process has generated observations, feedback and insights on the potential of the vertical integration and coordination of subnational climate actions to accelerate and scale-up both local and global emission reductions. Improving coordination and integration between the different levels of authority in a country is critical in determining both national and global capacity to govern climate change. City and subnational governments require support from the national government, and vice versa, in order to design and implement intersectoral policies and actions for domestic decarbonization pathways.
Multilevel governance theory and empirical evidence demonstrate that the coordination and vertical integration of climate actions can:
Help alleviate domestic political constraints.
Raise national government ambitions for more aggressive Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) and GHG mitigation commitments.
Scale up, as well as unlock, additional and new mitigation opportunities at the subnational level.
Accelerate the effective implementation of national targets, strategies and development priorities by "localizing" them. This can also provide opportunities for "bundled approaches" and increasing "co-benefits" by linking local priorities with diverse development objectives Improve the consistency of sub-national and national climate data sets; strengthening MRV.
Create a more bankable "low-risk" environment for infrastructure finance and private sector investments.
Enable safe learning and strengthen domestic institutions.
Address recognized challenges and limits to sub-national non-state actor (NSA) climate actions.
Expand and accelerate the flow of international public and private climate finance to cities, urban infrastructure and local priorities.
Help address some of the persistent collective action challenges to multilateral climate agreements.
Cities for Climate Protection program
The Cities for Climate Protection (CCP) program is one example of multi-level governance of climate change. Roles and responsibilities are shared within different levels of governance, from state actors to non-state actors (Betsill & Bulkeley, 2006). Membership consists of 40 large cities worldwide (Large Cities Climate Leadership Group), with local governments often working in close connection with national governments. However, the CCP can overlook the activity of nation-states giving local governments the opportunity to amend positions of policy implementation and regulation for offsetting urban climate change, which may be of a controversial nature to national governments. Thus illustrating even though climate change in cities can be addressed and governed at local, regional, national and international levels, it does not always follow a hierarchical order.
Criticism on multi-level governance theory
Many of the problems associated with multi-level governance revolve around the notion of levels. The very idea of levels and levels of analysis is imbued with hierarchical implications. However, different levels or social spaces often interact or cut across with one another in complex ways that are not strictly hierarchical. To what extent can 'levels' be identified at all? The notion that international bodies constitute a discrete level of authority and governance is contestable. International regulatory networks may not be separate sources of authority but instead represent the reconstitution of state authority and the pursuit of state-level governance by other means. While territorial levels make sense when we are referring to public forms of authority, they seem less compatible with private and market forms of authority.
Another criticism on the theory of multi-level governance is that it's not really a proper theory, rather that it is an approach. The main difference between multi-level governance and other theories of integration is that it gets rid of the continuum or grey area between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism and leaves in its place a descriptive structure. This theory does not address the sovereignty of states directly, but instead simply says that a multi-level structure is being created by subnational and supranational actors. One of the main questions of integration theory, namely, the transfer of loyalty and sovereignty between national and supranational entities and the future of this relationship in the EU is not specifically addressed in this theory.
The identification of partial political measures and general macroeconomics is divided on diverse decisional levels. National governments maintain an important decisional role but the control unlocalizes at supranational level. Individual national sovereignty is dilated in this decisional process and the supranational institutions have an autonomic role.
While there is a growing body of work on multi-level government and on local government of immigration integration, we still lack a systematic discussion of the role and position of non-state actors in the negotiation of responses to immigrant integration between different governmental levels and on the local level. The gap in multi-level governance research is that there is no systematic study of the role of non-state actors in multi-level governance.
Arguments for multi-level governance
Security
The use of security as a means of instituting ideals of democracy. The shift to a multi-level governance perspective of enforcing the ideals prevents one nation from imposing its personal agenda or perception of what these ideals entail. Additionally, the use of supranational judgement creates a uniformity for the international portrayal and enforcement of democratic principles. The utilization of multi-level security governance allows for a pooling of resources to manage this enforcement, while still allowing States to act autonomously. The supranational level merely acts as a medium for allowing the promotion of mutually beneficial security. With the rise of transnational threats, a method for ensuring international security without the reliance on a single policing nation is required. Multi-level governance provides functional means of dealing with the deficiencies of merely national actors dealing with transnational issues on the international stage.
Economic Interdependence
The preliminary notion of the European Union was the European Coal and Steel Community. The union was between the nations of France, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and West Germany. Striving for the concept of European peace the nations sought to bind the nations through economic interdependence. Coming about as a reaction to World War II, the ECSC created an economic tie for previously independent nations. It provided the European peace the nations sought, and would evolve into the European Union seen today. It was not a new concept as trade has historically been viewed as a catalyst for peace between nations. Creating multi-level governance is shown to create the necessary ties for fostering economic interdependence to a greater degree than mere trade between nations. The linking of nations through a sharing of capital creates an adhesiveness that deters the escalation of political conflict from reaching a state of war. On the international stage, political conflict leads to war as a result of perception of potential gains being larger than the opportunity costs. Interdependence created by multi-level governance is shown to greatly reduce the probability of war by increasing the opportunity costs. The increase in opportunity cost to war can be viewed from even the economic ties perspective. It is seen by noting that economic ties between participatory nations makes the cost of disruption to the system through the escalation of the political sphere towards war illogical.
Efficiency
Multi-level government has shown to increase efficiency of governance by creating an agreed upon standard for the implementation and execution of policies. To elaborate, the establishment of a supranational institution can be used to set standards for the way cooperating nations run their environmental, industrial, and safety policies. A key factor for multi-level governance is the terms the national actors agree to when forming the supranational institution as they will give certain decision-making processes to the higher level, and agree to abide by the outcome. Nations consent to the terms as they face a common issue of international policy that has to deal with collective-action problems making it nonsensical to attend to by themselves. Agreements between nations to form a multi-level government creates an efficiency gain that allows them to all share in the positive benefit.
See also
Environmental governance
Earth system governance
References
Bibliography
Acharya, Amitav, and A. I. Johnston eds. (2007). Crafting Cooperation: Regional International Institutions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berry, C. (2009). Imperfect Union: Representation and Taxation in Multilevel Governments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bertrand, Jacques and A. Laliberte eds. (2010). Multination States in Asia: Accommodation or Resistance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bird, Richard M. and F. Vaillancourt eds.( 2008). Fiscal Decentralization in Developing Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dahl, Robert A., and Edward Tufte (1973). Size and Democracy. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Deutsch, Karl W. (1966). Nationalism and Social Communication. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Falleti, Tulia (2010). Decentralization and Subnational Politics in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Farrell, Mary, B. Hettne, and L. van Langenbove eds.(2005), Global Politics of Regionalism: Theory and Practice. London: Pluto.
Goertz, Gary and K. Powers (2011). Regional Governance: The Evolution of a New Institutional Form, paper presented at the American Political Science Association, San Diego.
Hooghe, L. ed. (1996). Cohesion policy and European integration. Building multi-level governance, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hooghe, L., and G. Marks (2001). Multi-level governance and European integration. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hooghe, L., and G. Marks (2002). Types of multi-level governance. Cahiers européens de Sciences Po 3 June.
Hurrell, A. (2007). On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Leonardi, R. (2005). Cohesion Policy in the European Union: The Rebuilding of Europe. Houndsmills, Hampshire: Palgrave.
Marks, G. (1992). Structural policy in the European Community, in: Sbragia, A. (ed.), Europolitics. Institutions and policymaking in the 'new' European Community. 191–225.
Marks, G. (1993). Structural policy and multi-level governance in the EC, in: A. Cafruny and G. Rosenthal (eds.), The state of the European Community. Vol. 2, The Maastricht debates and beyond, 391–410. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Marks, G., and L. Hooghe (2004). Contrasting visions of multi-level governance, in: Bache and Flinders (eds.), Multi-level governance, 15–30 Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
Marks, G., and D. McAdam (1996). Social movements and the changing structure of political opportunity in the European Union, in: G. Marks, F.W. Scharpf, P. Schmitter and W. Streeck (eds.), Governance in the European Union, 95–120. London: Sage.
Obinger, H., F. G. Castles, S. Leibfried (eds.) (2005). Federalism and the Welfare State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peters, G., J. Pierre (2004). A Faustian Bargain? in: I. Bache, M. Flinders (eds.) Multi-level Governance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rodden, J. (2006). Hamilton’s Paradox: The Promise and Peril of Fiscal Federalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rokkan, Stein (with Derek Urwin) (1983). Economy, Territory, Identity: Politics of West European Peripheries. London: Sage Publications.
Smoke, P., E. J. Gómez, G. E. Peterson eds. (2006). Decentralization in Asia and Latin America: Towards a Comparative Interdisciplinary Perspective. Edward Elgar.
External links
Unraveling the Central State, but how? Types of Multi-Level Governance – Online version of this 2003-paper by Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks (Institute for Advanced Studies, Vienna, Austria)
Review Multi-level governance – Online review of the paper 'Unraveling the Central State, but How?' by Hooghe and Marks
Multi-level Governance – Directorate for Public Governance and Territorial Development from the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development)
Politics of Europe
Politics of the European Union
International relations
Political theories
Decentralization
Emergence |
4209867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denys%20Rayner | Denys Rayner | Denys Arthur Rayner DSC & Bar, VRD, RNVR (9 February 1908 – 4 January 1967) was a Royal Navy officer who fought throughout the Battle of the Atlantic. After intensive war service at sea, Rayner became a writer, a farmer, and a successful designer and builder of small sailing craft – his first being the Westcoaster; his most successful being the glass fibre gunter or Bermudian rigged twin keel Westerly 22 from which evolved similar "small ships" able to cross oceans while respecting the expectations, in terms of comfort, safety and cost, of a burgeoning family market keen to get to sea. Before his death in 1967, Rayner had founded, and via his pioneering GRP designs, secured the future expansion of Westerly Marine Construction Ltd – up until the late 1980s, one of Britain's most successful yacht builders.
Early years
Denys Rayner was born in Muswell Hill in a Georgian house, on the outskirts of London, to Francis (née Parker) and Arthur Rayner, a master electrical engineer, who became a commodity broker moving with his family to West Kirby on the Wirral Peninsula and sending his son to Repton School between 1921 and 1924. Flat feet kept Denys from entering the Royal Navy but not from pursuing a successful naval career. In October 1925, he joined HMS Eaglet, Mersey Division of the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) as a part-time midshipman with time to pursue his interest in exploring the rocky coast of the Western Highlands in a small boat of his own design.
As an eight-year-old prep school boy, at the height of the First World War, Rayner was disappointed to be beaten for drawing an "infernal" U-boat sinking device in a school geometry book. "Diagrammatically portrayed, this spoiled the page – I can see that now" wrote the adult Rayner in the preface of his book Escort: The Battle of the Atlantic (1955). At school Rayner, impressed that an uncle by marriage was an officer on "a real destroyer", sketched a "continuous border of destroyers" in the margins of his school books. In later school years came "an endless stream of model destroyers...which really floated and were fitted with systems of propulsion..."
Battle of the Atlantic
"I had already packed my bags, set my affairs in order and seen to the laying up of my yacht" wrote Rayner of his actions four days before the outbreak of World War II. By 1939, partly as a result of a recognition by others of his gift for leadership and partly by insisting on specialising in navigation rather than gunnery, against standard advice to RNVR officers wishing advancement in the Royal Navy, Rayner qualified himself to command 14th Anti-Submarine Group comprising HMTs Loch Tulla, Istria, Regal, Brontes and Davey, a unit of armed trawlers patrolling the notoriously dangerous waters surrounding the main fleet base of Scapa Flow – a 6 by 20 mile stretch of sea between Scotland and the Orkney Islands where a high spring tide can flow 8 knots against a westerly gale. His 'flag' was aboard HMT Loch Tulla for whom Rayner selected skipper Lang – a Devon trawlerman he describes as knowing things "about the way of a ship which no one not trained in sail could have understood".
In September 1940 Rayner, was appointed to command a corvette, , but finding her incomplete, and another, , ready but without a commander, used all his skills of persuasion to get the command himself. Verbena, was the first long fo'c'sle and was, in Rayner's eyes, "quite perfect".
On Verbena, the nickname 'Ben', which stayed with him for the rest of his life, was used as Rayner's call sign. Verbena embarked on convoy duties between different escort groups before being assigned to B-12 group, under Commander C D Howard-Johnston of Malcolm. During the winter of 1940-41 and throughout the summer Verbena operated with the group in the North Atlantic, before a refit in August 1941.
Following this Verbena was sent south to Freetown, then Cape Town, for operations in the South Atlantic, before being dispatched to the Far East. After the Japanese invasion of Malaya, and the fall of Singapore, Verbena was based at Colombo; in May 1942 while heading for Karachi her boilers gave out as a result of constant high-speed work and lack of cleaning and she had to be towed the last few hundred yards to a berth in Bombay for refit. After some months in India, where he made a number of horseback treks, Rayner and his crew came home.
Just after Christmas 1942, he was given the lead of an escort group, in command of the destroyer , becoming one of the first RNVR officers in the Royal Navy (along with Commander E N Wood of a year earlier) to be so promoted. Rayner returned to familiar ground, with his group operating in the North Atlantic on convoy escort duty. In June 1943 he was to lead Operation Rosegarden, an attempt to hunt and kill U-boats as they crossed the Denmark Straits, but this was ultimately unsuccessful.
In October 1943 Rayner was given command of , briefly joining B-5 EG, led by Havelock, before being given an Escort Group to operate in the Channel against E boats in preparation for D-Day. Just a day after taking station at Plymouth, on 20 February 1944, Rayner was with Warwick off Trevose Head when she was torpedoed, with the loss of 90 of her crew, by the submarine commanded by Kapitänleutnant Gustav Poel. He was picked up with other survivors by the steam trawler Lady Luck skippered by Victor Crisp.
Instead of taking "survivor's leave" after this experience, which had included being in the water as depth charges from a destroyer in pursuit of the U-boat exploded close by, Rayner, pressing Admiral Max Horton for "a destroyer with two funnels", was given command of – "best-loved" of his wartime commands – joining B-4 Escort Group led by Helmsdale on the Gibraltar run.
Towards the end of 1944 he was appointed senior officer of a support group of s – 30th Escort Group – in command of and including Portchester Castle (later to 'play' Saltash Castle in The Cruel Sea), Launceston Castle and Kenilworth Castle.
On 10 November 1944 Rayner's group gained an asdic contact and in a swift well-executed manoeuvre attacked and sank a U-boat, later identified as U-1200.
As the Pevensey Castle was returning to her base, her steering broke in a northerly gale off the mouth of the River Foyle. Rayner nearly lost his ship on the long sandy spit leading to Magilligan Point before hand steering was connected. He writes that at this point "The candle was burned out". He sought three weeks leave of Max Horton who then posted him, in the months before V-E Day, to a senior staff role with Channel Command, Portsmouth, in the tunnel complex of Fort Southwick behind Portsmouth Harbour. Here, overseeing radar guided plots from deep underground in a way that would have been impossible at the start of the campaign, Rayner applied his specialist experience to the deployment of a large force of anti-submarine warships in the closing months of the war. Rayner speaks in Escort: The Battle of the Atlantic of his respect for one of his colleagues at the fort – First Officer Audrey Faith Parker, OBE, WRNS – for the seafaring experience she brought to her operational work. It was to her and her husband Gordon that Rayner, in 1946, after a stint as temporary commander of a naval air station at Kirkistown near Cloughy on the east coast of Northern Ireland, sold his yacht, laid up in north Wales for the duration, and moved his household to the first of several farms in the English home counties.
During a campaign that had lasted from 1939 to 1945, Rayner's youngest son, Vyvyan, reckoned (in April 2006) that his father took "as little as four or five weeks home leave in the whole period." After 24 years with the 'wavy navy' Rayner retired from the RNVR in 1949.
Decorations
Rayner's Distinguished Service Cross was announced in the London Gazette of 29 December 1940, dated 1 January 1940, for the "hard and perilous task of sweeping the seas clear of enemy mines, and combating submarines" while commanding the trawler Loch Tulla. On 26 September 1941 it was announced that he had been Mentioned in Despatches 'for good services in action against enemy submarines' while commanding HMS Verbena. On 23 March 1943 the Gazette announced the award of the Volunteer Reserve Decoration (VRD). On 25 May 1945 he was awarded a bar to his DSC "for courage, skill and perseverance... in successful operations against enemy submarines."
Rayner was credited with the sinking of one U-boat on 11 November 1944 – U-1200, commanded by Hinrich Mangels, "to pay me back for Warwick". In an escort group action the fatal depth charges were dropped by under Lieutenant R M Roberts, DSC, RNVR.
Rayner, though at the time given credit for sinking or damaging an unidentified U-boat on 22 May 1941' , had doubts even then, as he had about an earlier incident while in charge of 14th Anti-Submarine Group on HMT Loch Tulla, sailing towards Scapa Flow. He writes of picking up a strong asdic signal north of the Humber on the UK east coast, a depth charging exercise and a pool of oil, and later he mentions "thinking" that his first DSC, announced on 1 January 1940, was "probably" for this action "off Flamborough Head". He was uncertain whether this involved a genuine sinking, writing of the greater "difficulty" of damaging the "pressure hull" of a "modern submarine". Later Rayner refers to an action on 22–23 May 1941 when, in HMS Verbena, he engaged a U-boat on the surface after it had torpedoed the Dutch tanker Elusa and surfaced to inspect the burning wreck. The U-boat dived. Rayner depth charged a strong asdic contact, saw oil on the surface, lost contact and guided HMS Churchill, with deeper depth charges, to the same target, both ships remaining in the area until dawn on 24 May 1941. In the back inside cover of Escort Rayner's map of Western Approaches shows the cross-swords symbol of an engagement and the words "U-boat damaged by Verbena 22.4.41". Many years later – 2006 – Gudmundur Helgason, researcher of the Battle of the Atlantic points out that Elusa was sunk by U-93 "which certainly survived the attack" adding that "there were lots of those attacks reported (often with seemingly very convincing evidence at the time) that failed to sink or even damage an U-boat. Since 1955 there have been loads of revisions of U-boat fates, almost to this day even."
Writer
Having written features in the yachting press before the war, Rayner's career as an author really began in 1955 with a personal account of 'his' war, called Escort: the Battle of the Atlantic published by Kimber, reissued by the Naval Institute Press (1999). He would have been the first to admit the difficulty of discerning the thread of his own experiences in a conflict that ran for the duration of World War II, involved the loss of 63,000 Allied sailors and airmen, 30,000 merchant seamen and 43,000 U-boat sailors. It was only because Captain Stephen Roskill, official historian of the war at sea, became a family friend in the 1950s, and, over a merry evening of food and drink in the Rayner household, succeeded in overcoming Rayner's inhibitions on the subject, that the latter put pen to paper to record his particular experiences of that gigantic campaign. Except that for Rayner the sea was "neither cruel nor kind", there are parallels between the war he describes in Escort and that of the fictional Commander Ericson in Nicholas Monsarrat's enormously successful post-war novel The Cruel Sea published at almost the same time as Rayner's book. In his editor's foreword to Escort, Stephen Roskill writes of Rayner's authority to speak on his subject: "I know of no other officer, let alone one of the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, who served continuously for more than five years in command of escort vessels; nor of any other who graduated from a trawler at the very beginning to a corvette, then to a small destroyer, and finally to command of a group of the new and greatly improved war-built escort vessels."
Mike Raymond of the Flower Class Corvette's Association reports a portrait of Rayner 'with pipe and beard' in the frontispiece of Escort – the picture at the start of this article emphasising this is more biography than history. Yet a 10-year perspective, enabled Rayner in 1955, to weave his and his men's experiences into a larger account of the Battle of the Atlantic, recording, for example, a fleeting and enticing glimpse of the chief protagonist in a four-day sea battle that began with the sinking of Britain's finest warship and closed with the destruction of a German battleship that ended Hitler's use of large surface raiders against allied convoys. While escorting the homeward-bound convoy SC 31, on board Verbena in company with Commander Bostock of HMS Churchill, Rayner spotted a big ship on the horizon hurrying southward: "... she was hull down and difficult to identify. I made to Churchill, 'Are you reporting what I think I see?' and got back the reply, 'Better not – identification by no means certain. Might cause confusion. Gather Suffolk has the situation in hand.'" Suffolk and Norfolk were cruisers following the which, on 24 May 1941 had sunk , on which Rayner had served as a midshipman for three months in 1932.
In 1956, a year after Escort, came Rayner's first novel – The Enemy Below – the story of a prolonged duel between a U-boat and a British destroyer in September 1943. It was adapted in 1957 for an eponymous film by Dick Powell, in which the writer's destroyer HMS Hecate became the USS Haynes – in actuality USS Whitehurst – while his British captain, John Murrell, became an American played by Robert Mitchum with Curt Jürgens playing Rayner's U-boat skipper, Kapitän von Stolberg. Powell displays Rayner's book at the start of the trailer of The Enemy Below. Some of the actual experiences described in the novel and later transferred to film can be read in Rayner's low-key account of his encounter between corvettes and U-1200 off southern Ireland on 11 November 1944 between pages 224 and 228 of Escort.
Rayner's experiences in the Battle of the Atlantic, including taking a torpedoed fuel tanker in tow, also informed a later novel about convoy escort duty, The Crippled Tanker (1962) (titled The Long Haul in the US. The Crippled Tanker is set earlier than The Enemy Below in February 1943, and also involves the fictional destroyer HMS Hecate commanded by John Murrell.
In his novel The Long Fight (1958) Rayner wrote about a three-day ship-to-ship engagement in the Indian Ocean during the Napoleonic Wars; about tank warfare in The Small Spark of Courage (1959) (titled Valor in US editions of the novel), ). In 1966, with Alan Wykes, he wrote The Great Yacht Race, an illustrated account of a millionaires' yacht race from New York to Cowes in December 1866. Between 1961 and 1963 Rayner also published books on sailing, safety at sea in small craft and starting motorboating.
Designer of small boats
Though his father was a keen 6-10 metre racing yachtsman, Rayner preferred the idea of cruising. On 6 June 1937, sailing his small boat out of Loch Fyne, he records passing "a ship which from the lines of her hull I think to have been the original Blue Dragon... if it were, it is poetic justice that I should meet her on my first cruise in my own designed ship in Scottish waters for it was her exploits as detailed in 'The Log of the Blue Dragon''', by C.C.Lynam, read in "the library of a midland county preparatory school" that "first started the sailing canker" though "vows then made to sail my own ship to Scotland had to wait twenty years for fruition." Starting with an 18' open boat, and progressing via a 16' half-decked day sailer to a small converted fishing yawl, followed by a converted ex-fishing boat and then the 14 ton Tredwen barge yacht Pearl – burnt out on her moorings – Rayner was at last, in 1936, able try his hand at designing his own boat "after studying the 'How To' articles in the Y.M." Robinetta, a 4½ ton auxiliary gaff cutter, was built for him at the Rock Ferry yard of the Enterprise Small Craft Company, Birkenhead, and launched on 10 May 1937.
Elected in March 1935 to the Royal Cruising Club – 'an association of yachtsmen who prefer navigation to racing and are full of passionate interests' (Arthur Ransome 1912) – Rayner set out, in summer 1937, to follow 'skipper' Lynam's wake to the Western Highlands. Lynam's Blue Dragon was a small clinker built yawl of his own design, as was Robinetta , built on the Mersey, from where he sailed her to the Firth of Clyde. Thus Rayner, before he was 30, (and according to a self-description in his file at the Royal Institution of Naval Architects (RINA)) became an amateur yacht designer and experienced small boat sailor. Between 1937 and 1938 Rayner completed two short cruises in Robinetta, sometimes with his wife – "E" – and sometimes with RNVR comrades, Dick Taudevin and W.H. Simcoe, writing meticulous logs of intricate exploration of sea lochs with the added excitement of swift and sometimes rough open water passages, including encounters with overfalls and squalls, entranced by the scenery of these complicated shores. These pleasures ceased abruptly with the start of the war. Robinetta was laid up on chocks for the duration at a yard in Beaumaris, N.Wales, and sold in 1946.
After the long war at sea Rayner moved with his family to a farm at Hook near Basingstoke in Hampshire, and then to another farm near Burghclere, south of Newbury in Berkshire, and gave his attention to farming, horse riding and writing. In 2006 the owner of their old home, Earlstone Manor Farm, recalls accounts of Denys and Elizabeth Rayner's children's "extraordinary and happy childhood here, and the huge generosity of the Rayners, who took in old shell-shocked warriors, German Jewish refugee children, and the unhappy son of a British fascist leader, who were all cared for, loved and given security, at a time when conditions were still very primitive here and the family themselves extremely deprived."
At Earlstone the Rayners were neighbours to the Roskills, and it was Captain S.W. Roskill who encouraged his neighbour to write down his recollections of the war. Rayner's eldest son recalls that, as a result, his father "started thinking about boats, the sea, and boat design all over again". Publishing Escort, and then The Enemy Below, Rayner "gradually morphed back to where he had always wanted to be – in yacht design". He built his younger son a dingy to row on a local lake. "When it was finished", says Paul Vyvyan, "I was too big for it." So his dad acquired a small yacht – a Mystic, sail number 2, designed by Robert Tucker from C. E. Clark Boat Builders at Cornubia Yacht Yard at Cowes called Orchid – ostensibly for the boy, but he called it "our ship", making her easier to sail by adding a new stern.
In the late 1950s, a local manufacturer of plywood caravans asked Rayner to design a plywood dinghy to be offered with each caravan. As result of this collaboration Rayner started the Beacon Boat Company at a redundant turnery workshop in Donnington, a village on the River Lambourn north of Newbury, and applied all his enthusiasm and practicality to building and selling small family sailing boats of distinctive design.
Wartime advances in new bonding techniques had made plywood reliable even when constantly immersed in sea water. Using mahogany frames and the new marine plywood laminated with resorcinol glues, Rayner marked his return to the sea by building a 20-foot hard chine bilge keel gunter-rigged sloop – the Westcoaster – designed initially for a customer wishing to navigate the difficult waters and scarce harbours of the Bristol Channel, where Rayner had been torpedoed in 1944. Rayner gave the Westcoaster "sitting head room for tall men" – rare in yachts so small – while ingeniously camouflaging the reverse sheer needed for such generous accommodation by carrying the decks out to the sides of the boat as he had with Robinetta 20 years earlier. Similarly all the Westcoaster's running rigging came back to the cockpit making her easy to handle single-handed. He sailed and demonstrated the first of such yachts, painted a rich royal international blue – often called Oxford Blue – enthusing about its good looks, its affordability, its practicality for weekend "pottering" and fitness for deeper waters despite a draft of no more than 2'3" (70 cm). This design ensemble was topped by Rayner's preference for the gunter rig, its short mast, compared to a Bermudian, making it easier to tow on a trailer, to lower and raise, for the bridges of inland waterways, as well as allowing a swift reef – by lowering the boom – in a squall. Rayner also wrote that he valued the greater 'lifting' quality of a gaff or gunter mainsail as compared to the Bermudian main, prior to the wider use, with that rig, of masthead Genoas – headsails of greater area than the mainsail – which in Rayner's view, in 1962, was 'the herald of rigs to come' with 'great aerodynamic efficiency and with enormous lift!', and returning, in effect, "to the lateen-shaped loose-footed sails of the Mediterranean but with a taut forestay replacing the heavy lateen yard..." A small number of Westcoasters were later modified by the addition of a small bowsprit, with the cutter rig giving an even greater sail area.
Bilge or twin keels, a concept for many more years unfamiliar in America, allowed a boat to take the ground upright on a tripod comprising keels and a sturdy skeg, manoeuvre in shallow water, load and tow easily behind a family saloon, and be conveniently launched. Thus Rayner, developing a concept pioneered in 1922 by a fellow member of the RCC, Arthur Balfour, later Lord Riverdale, and became a key player in the expanding field of affordable chine plywood yachts, brilliantly popularised by Robert Tucker's Mystic, Debutante and Silhouette. Such a vessel could navigate canals and shallow estuaries including short-cuts through swatchways, take the ground safely and 'look after her crew' in hard weather, close to and off shore. It was a specification aimed at the innovative concept of 'family sailing', creating, and responding to, the enthusiasm, pockets and holidays of a post-war generation unused to enjoying the sea as a place for recreation and adventure.
In 1961, Rayner's Westcoaster was briefly followed by the rotund, though equally seaworthy, Corvette – a 5-ton sloop with full standing headroom. The problem he solved with this 'prototype' was to find a way of bending a marine-ply shell in two dimensions, creating a stronger and more attractive hull, on which the hard chine that had characterised plywood yachts including his Westcoaster, was so softened as to make it almost invisible. Rayner's people did this, under his direction, by steaming ply and laminating thinner sheets to achieve a compound bend of the necessary thickness. Refining the twin ballast keels of the Westcoaster, Rayner gave the Corvette – called Danica by her owner the broadcaster Jack Hargreaves – hydrofoil sectioned twin keels, flat on the outside and curved on the inside and very slightly toed in. As well as serving the same function as fin keels, the leeward moulded bilge keel used the Bernoulli's principle, to resist leeward drift as the boat heeled on a beat. Hargreaves' stepson with a companion, Chris Jameson, as her skipper, proved Danica by taking her through France by river and canal and on through the Mediterranean to Athens, returning via the Bay of Biscay where she successfully weathered F10 gale force winds (September 1962), but her construction costs focused Rayner's attention on the emerging technology of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).
Having founded Beacon Boats Co. Ltd. to make and sell Westcoasters – about 60 altogether – and then the Corvette, Rayner experimented with a new enterprise making GRP sailing dinghys. From this temporary project he embarked on the factory manufacture of an ideal family sailing boat expanding, in 1963, to larger premises – temperature-and-humidity-controlled – as the firm of Westerly Marine Construction Ltd., at Hambledon Road, Waterlooville near Portsmouth on the Solent, with himself as Chief Designer, having become, in 1964, an Associate of the RINA. He recruited as his directors Kenneth Bates, Michael C.B.Hurd and David G.M.Sanders and Kenneth Todd, while Dodie Walker in Sales was regarded as integral to an enterprise Rayner was determined should attract customers who cared as much about his boats' interior comfort and convenience as their sailing qualities, for which Rayner sought Lloyd's certification. Two skilled boatbuilders – affectionately esteemed by Rayner as 'the walrus' and 'the carpenter' – were recruited to do the vital job of building the pattern moulds basic to GRP production. GRP was still so recent that he had to be satisfied with a Lloyd's Series Production Certificate affirming that the 4½-ton Westerly 22 – the company's first design – had been built under Lloyd's supervision including inspections and tests of hull strength and the factory conditions under which the moulded fibre glass used in construction went through the process, key to its long term integrity, of curing. Knowing that GRP yachts had not been around long enough to arrive at a proper assessment by Lloyd's of their durability, Rayner added exacting standards of his own to his designs, explaining why, after 40 years, such boats are still trusted by their owners.
Westerly Marine Construction Ltd. grew to be Britain's biggest yacht building company, and during the 1970s, a leader in family yachts. When Rayner was overseeing the construction of his brilliant little Westerly 22, he strengthened his friendship with Jack Hargreaves, who, as an enthusiastic populariser of "messing about in boats", filmed Young Tiger – W22 68 – departing the Solent for America. Rayner's letter, dated 14 December 1965, awaiting her young skipper, Hargreaves' stepson, at a poste restante in Bridgetown Barbados, read "Welcome to the Caribbean and well done! I think this is a justified remark because if you do not get this letter you won't have done so well! I am so glad you have Susanna with you. I shall of course calm down anyone who gets jumpy because I have complete confidence in you and the boat." Young Tiger, crewed by Simon Baddeley and Sue Pulford, telegrammed news of her arrival at Bridgetown on 5 January to Rayner at the 1966 London Boat Show with the words "EASY 29 DAYS. SIMON". They had sailed 2900 miles from the Las Palmas de Gran Canaria to Barbados in 29 days. Peter Guinness, Rear-Commodore of the Royal Cruising Club, in awarding the RCC Challenge Cup, wrote of a winning cruise that ended in Miami United States on 17 April 1966 "in a small, or even very small, ship".
Achievement
Having led men and commanded ships in the Battle of the Atlantic, undoubtedly the most protracted and one of the most crucial of Britain's World War II campaigns, since it was about control of the nation's supply lines, Denys Rayner, who described himself, in his biographical account of the war in the Atlantic, as an 'amateur sailor', gave himself as much to the peace that followed, as he had to the war that won it.
He died of cancer in January 1967 having seen his first two fibreglass designs – a Westerly 22 and a Westerly 25 (Lonesome Traveller owned by Ann and Slade Penoyre) – sailed across the Atlantic by relatively inexperienced seafarers of the kind he dreamed of encouraging to navigate wisely in deep waters. The photo of Young Tiger shows many of the qualities Rayner sought for his Westerly 22 – a shipshape 'baggywrinkled' small craft for everyman moored close to palm trees overhanging a shallow Caribbean beach after an uneventful 29-day crossing of the Atlantic Ocean crewed by two student friends.
Rayner's guidebooks for such adventurers include Safety in Small Craft, Coles, Harrap, De Graff (1961) and Small Boat Sailing, Collins Nutshell Books (1962). Seacraft technologies, especially navigational aids, have been transformed since these books were written, yet they contain timeless wisdom about taking a small ship to sea and bringing her home – without fuss. In Safety in Small Craft Rayner writes: "In any reasonable weather it is the diminutive size of the yacht which makes long passages under sail such thrilling affairs, and one of the reasons why I, for one, find the smallest possible craft the most rewarding" as well, he added, as costing less.
Ben Rayner's greatest peacetime contribution lay in his approach to designing, building and selling such small craft. A fascination with making model destroyers at school evolved into the making of Robinetta in which for a few years he voyaged for pleasure – a pleasure which, after his long war service, he made available to thousands. Starting with Robinetta – based in 2006 on the River Orwell near Harwich and still sailing, and then the rebuilt Orchid to share with his youngest son, Rayner graduated via the one-off Corvette to the Westerly 22, to the Westerly 25, the Westerly 30, the Windrush (a re-worked W25), and the Nomad 22 (a re-worked W22). Applying the husbandry, and inventiveness, that characterised his years as a professional sailor, Rayner applied design and techniques, including the crucial process of curing now recognised as so vital to enduring fibre glass construction, to products that sold themselves. In the recent words of one of his sons, "He was delighted when the butcher, the baker and candlestick maker arrived at the London Boat Show in the early 60s and put down deposits in cash. Boats at that time were produced by 12 men at 6 vessels per annum. With 12 men we built 50 a year. Their yachts cost £6,000. Ours were on a trailer for £1800." But if these small craft were swiftly made and so affordable, none left Rayner's factory unfit for the sea, of which he wrote "neither cruel nor kind... Any apparent virtues it may have, and all its vices, are seen only in relation to the spirit of man who pits himself, in ships of his own building, against its insensate power."
Rayner's home was in West Kirby until 1944, after which the family moved south to Holt Farm, Hook, near Basingstoke, Hampshire, from where he moved to Earlstone Manor Farm, Burghclere, moving again in mid-1963 to Hermitage Farm, Hermitage, both near Newbury in Berkshire. His last home, where he moved in late 1964, was Quarry Farm, West Meon, Hants. He married Isabelle Elizabeth (née Board) in 1933. They had a daughter, Clare, born 1938, and two sons, Martin Drake born in 1934 and Paul Vyvyan born in 1948, who scattered his father's ashes off Gilkicker Point.
References
Baddeley, S., A Voyage to America, 1966 Roving Commissions (7) pp. 9–30, London:RCC Press 1967
Balfour, Hon. R.A. Bluebird of Thorne, plans & specifications, pp. 222–228, in D.C.L.Cree & R.A.R.Pinkney eds 1939 Royal Cruising Club Journal, London:C.F.Roworth 1940
du Plessis, H., Fibreglass Boats, Adlard Coles Nautical, 4th edition, 2006 (see especially the first 8 chapters between pp. 1–52)
Easteal, B. & Poland, P., The Westerly Story – A History of the Company and the Boats. Westerly Owners' Association. 2006
Lynam, C.C., The Log of the Blue Dragon 1892–1904, London: A. H. Bullen 1907
M.G. "A Saucy Little Tub", Robinetta, a 22½ ft. Tabloid with 6 ft. Headroom, Yachting Monthly, Feb 1937, pp. 334–335
Poland, P., "The Westerly Story 1963-1979" Sailing Today, Aug 2005 pp. 88–95
Parker, A.F., "Once around the land – an eventful trip in a Tubby Little Ship", Yachting Monthly, Nov 1947, pp. 3–8
Ransome, Arthur, The Eyewitness, 4 April 1912, pp. 502–503 Reflections on the Royal Cruising Club
Rayner, D.A., Pearl in eds. Cree, Donald C.L. & Pinkney, Roger A.P., assisted by Hibbert, G. StJ., pp. 288–322, 1935 RCC Journal, London:C.F.Roworth 1936
Rayner, D.A., "Robinetta proves herself", Yachting Monthly, Nov 1937, pp. 17–22
Rayner, D.A., Lieut. RNVR, "North East Coast of Ireland: Strangford Lough to Belfast Lough" pilotage information in eds. Cree, Donald C.L. & Pinkney, Roger A.P., pp. 306–315, 1937 RCC Journal, London:Henderson & Spalding 1938
Rayner, D.A., Lieut. RNVR, "Log of Robinetta 1937" in eds. Cree, Donald C.L. & Pinkney, Roger A.P., pp. 347–384, 1937 RCC Journal, London:Henderson & Spalding 1938
Rayner, D.A., Lieut. RNVR, ‘Log of Robinetta 1938’ in eds. Cree, Donald C.L. & Pinkney, Roger A.P., pp. 419–445, 1938 RCC Journal, London:Henderson & Spalding 1939
Rayner, D.A., Escort: The Battle of the Atlantic. London:Kimber 1955, reprinted Annapolis:U.S. Naval Institute Press 1999
Rayner, D.A., The Enemy Below, London:Collins 1956
Rayner, D.A., The Long Fight, London:Collins 1958
Rayner, D.A., The Small Spark of Courage, London:Collins 1959
Rayner, D.A., The Crippled Tanker, London:Collins 1960
Rayner, D.A., Safety in Small Craft, Southampton:Adlard Coles. 1961
Rayner, D.A., Small Boat Sailing, London:Collins Nutshell Books 1962
Rayner, D.A., Starting Motor Boating (Bosun books 14), Coles, Hart-Davis, De Graff 1963
Rayner, D.A., with Wykes, A, The Great Yacht Race, London:Peter Davies 1966
Reviews of the Westerly 22 in The Field 14 January 1963, Yachting Monthly December 1963 by Bill Mison (pp. 308–309), Yachtsman January 1964, 'Westerly 22–25 years on', Yachting Monthly November 1988
Riverdale, Lord, Twin Keel Yachts-Development over 45 Years, RINA Transactions and Annual Report, 1968
Roskill, Capt S. W., History of the Second World War: The War at Sea. HMSO (1954)
Royal Navy: Operational Records, Second World War 1939-1945 Archive research skills needed or visit and get assistance.Seedie's roll of naval honours and awards 1939-1959, Tisbury: Ripley Registers 1989
White, D.F., Bitter Ocean: The Dramatic Story of the Battle of the Atlantic 1939-1945'', Headline Book Publishing, 2006
External links
Denys Rayner at uboat.net
RNVR officers 1939-45
Images to supplement this article
Westerly Owners Association
Westerly Wiki – Technical Information about Westerly Yachts
European Patent Office Rayner's patent on mounting outboard motors
Denys Rayner
1908 births
1967 deaths
Battle of the Atlantic
Boat and ship designers
20th-century British male writers
British yacht designers
Deaths from cancer in England
People educated at Repton School
People from Burghclere
People from Muswell Hill
People from West Kirby
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)
Royal Navy officers
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II |
4210714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 2004 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 2004 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 72e 24 Heures du Mans) was a non-championship 24 hour automobile endurance race held from 12 June to 13 at the Circuit de la Sarthe near Le Mans, France, for teams of three drivers each fielding Le Mans Prototype and Grand Touring cars. It was the race's 72nd edition, as organised by the automotive group, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) since 1923. A test day was held eight weeks before the race on 25 April. Approximately 200,000 people attended the race.
Jamie Davies, Johnny Herbert and Guy Smith of Audi Sport UK Team Veloqx R8 started from pole position after Herbert set the overall fastest lap time in the fourth qualifying session. The car led for the majority of the first 18 hours, until a rear suspension issue caused handling issues that were resolved in the garage. The Audi Sport Japan Team Goh car of Seiji Ara, Rinaldo Capello and Tom Kristensen took the lead, and despite catching fire during a pit stop, Ara held off the faster Herbert for the remainder of the race to win by 41.354 seconds. It was Ara's first Le Mans win, Capello's second and Kristensen's sixth. Kristensen tied Jacky Ickx's record of six overall victories and became the first driver to win the race five times in a row Audi's fourth overall victory since its first in the 2000 edition. The Audi Sport UK Team Veloqx car finished second, while Champion Racing's JJ Lehto, Emanuele Pirro and Marco Werner recovered from a crash in the second hour to finish third overall.
The Intersport Racing Lola B2K/40 car of William Bennie, Clint Field and Rick Sutherland won the Le Mans Prototype 2 (LMP2) category, finishing eight laps ahead of the Rachel Welter WR LM2001 car of Yojiro Terada, Patrice Roussel and Olivier Porta. The Le Mans Grand Touring Sport (LMGTS) class was won by a Chevrolet Corvette C5-R driven by Olivier Beretta, Oliver Gavin and Jan Magnussen, with the sister car of Ron Fellows, Max Papis and Johnny O'Connell finishing eleven laps behind in second place. Colin McRae, Rickard Rydell and Darren Turner finished third in their Prodrive Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello. Porsches took the first six places in the Le Mans Grand Touring (LMGT) class, with the White Lighting Racing Porsche 911 GT3-RS of Jörg Bergmeister, Patrick Long and Sascha Maassen winning for the second consecutive year.
Background and regulation changes
The 72nd 24 Hours of Le Mans took place from 12 to 13 June on the Circuit de la Sarthe road racing track near Le Mans, France. The race was first held in 1923 after the automotive journalist Charles Faroux, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) general secretary Georges Durand and the industrialist Emile Coquile agreed to hold a test of vehicle reliability and durability. The 24 Hours of Le Mans is considered one of the world's most prestigious motor races and is part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.
The ACO announced changes to the Le Mans Prototype (LMP) classes in March 2003, which went into effect for the 2004 race. The former Le Mans Grand Touring Prototype and Le Mans Prototype 900 (LMP900) categories were merged and renamed Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1), with only manufacturers competing. Because the Le Mans Prototype 675 (LMP675) category lacked a car capable of challenging for the overall victory, the ACO renamed it Le Mans Prototype 2. (LMP2). LMP900 and LMP675 cars built in accordance with the ACO technical regulations for the LMP and LMGTP categories could enter until 31 December 2005. Skid blocks were thickened by and the air restrictor size was reduced by five per cent. LMP1 and LMP2 teams could choose between an open or closed cockpit. The maximum weight of LMP2 vehicles was established at and for LMP1 cars. Engine displacement for normally aspirated engines set at , turbocharged engines were limited to and engine displacement for diesel power units was restricted to .
Following a series of airborne accidents in sports car racing, such as those involving a Porsche 911 GT1 at the 1998 Petit Le Mans and a Mercedes-Benz CLR at the 1999 Le Mans race, the ACO altered the bottom of the new LMP1 and LMP2 cars to reduce the amount of downforce produced outside of their wheelbase and a reduction in rear overhang coupled with an increase in front overhang for less pitch sensitivity to reduce the possibility of such a crash occurring. The rear wing was moved forward and shortened from to . A plank was added to the underside of all new LMP1 and converted "hybrid" cars to force a ride height increase and reduce the effectiveness of underfloor aerodynamics.
Entries
By the deadline for entries on 11 February 2004, the ACO had received 77 applications (40 for the LMP classes and 37 for the Grand Touring (GT) categories). It issued 50 invitations to the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with entries split between LMP1, LMP2, Le Mans Grand Touring Sports (LMGTS), and Le Mans Grand Touring (LMGT).
Automatic entries
Teams that won their class in the 2003 24 Hours of Le Mans received automatic entries. Teams that won Le Mans-based series and events in 2003, such as the Petit Le Mans, the 1000 km of Le Mans and the American Le Mans Series (ALMS), were also invited. Some second-place finishers also received automatic entries into specific series and races. Entries were also granted to the 2003 FIA GT Championship winners and runners-up in the GT and N-GT categories. Had the entry of the 2003 Petit Le Mans category winner been the same as the 2003 American Le Mans Series class champion, the second automatic entry would have been awarded to another team in that category under an agreement with the ACO and the ALMS. Because entries were pre-selected to teams, teams were not permitted to switch cars from one year to the next. They were allowed to switch categories as long as they did not change the car make and the ACO gave official permission for the switch.
The ACO published its initial list of automatic invitations on 20 November 2003. Team Bentley, Infineon Team Joest, Pescarolo Sport (after switching engine suppliers from Peugeot to Judd), RN Motorsport, Dyson Racing and Alex Job Racing declined their automatic entries; their places were taken by Champion Racing, Audi Sport Japan Team Goh and Lister Racing due to their performance in the GT category during the 2003 FIA GT Championship.
Entry list and reserves
On 25 March 2004, the ACO's seven-member selection committee announced the full 50-car entry list for Le Mans, plus six reserves. Following the publication of entries, several teams withdrew their entries. Arena Motorsport withdrew its Dome S101 car, promoting the 4 Taurus Sports Racing Lola B2K/10-Judd vehicle. Thierry Perrier's Porsche 911 GT3-RS was allowed to race after one of pre-selected BMS Scuderia Italia Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello's was withdrawn, because the team did not have enough time to make the car compliant with ACO regulations and it wanted to focus on the 2004 FIA GT Championship. Later, Risi Competizione's Ferrari 360 Modena GTC was replaced in the list of entries by XL Racing's Ferrari. Following that, Konrad Motorsport and Welter Racing were granted the fourth and fifth reserve entries, respectively, and XL Racing withdrew its Ferrari. A second Racing for Holland Dome car was promoted, giving the team two LMP1 entries.
On 21 April, the Car Racing team confirmed that its No. 67 Ferrari 550 was withdrawn due to financial problems from a lack of sponsorship and its place in the LMGT category was taken by a second Chamberlain-Synergy Motorsport-entered TVR Tuscan 400R. Force One Racing withdrew its Pagani Zonda from the race after a heavy crash at the ACI Vallelunga Circuit in Italy halted development. This allowed Seikel Motorsport's No. 84 Porsche into the race. When the Spinnaker Clan Des Team withdrew on 1 June due to a lack of preparation and testing, the No. 36 Gerard Welter car took its place. Officials required Courage Compétition and its satellite operation Epsilon Sport to withdraw one C65 chassis per team after an engine supply agreement with Mecachrome was terminated, and both outfits sourced replacement engines from JPX.
Testing
On April 25, the circuit hosted a mandatory pre-Le Mans test day split into two daytime sessions of four hours each, involving all 50 entries and two of the six reserve cars. With six minutes to go, Allan McNish's No. 8 Audi Sport UK Team Veloqx R8 set the pace with a 3 minute, 32.613 second lap, followed by Johnny Herbert's No. 88 Audi. Marco Werner of Champion Racing was third with Team Goh's Tom Kristensen fourth. The two fastest non-Audis were fifth-placed David Brabham's No. 22 Zytek 04S car and sixth-placed Hiroki Kato's No. 9 Kondo Racing Dome S101 vehicle. Max Papis led the LMGTS class in the No. 63 Corvette Racing C5-R in the final minutes of the second session with a lap of 3 minutes, 49.982 seconds, ahead of Oliver Gavin's sister No. 63 Corvette and Christophe Bouchut's No. 69 Larbre Compétition Ferrari. Tomáš Enge and Rickard Rydell's Prodrive Ferrari cars were fourth and fifth, respectively. Jörg Bergmeister's No. 90 White Lightning Porsche 911 GT3-RSR led LMGT with a lap of 4 minutes, 5.975 seconds, followed by Marc Lieb's No. 87 Orbit Racing car, which was sidelined for hours with a broken steering rack after hitting the guardrail at Tertre Rouge corner. A seal failure in the Taurus Lola that mixed oil and diesel and leaked oil on the Mulsanne Straight, as well as a crash for Noël del Bello Racing's entry at Mulsanne Corner, caused further testing delays.
Qualifying
On 9 and 10 June, all entrants had eight hours of qualifying, divided into four two-hour sessions. To qualify for the race, all entrants were required to set a time within 110 per cent of the fastest lap established by the fastest car in each of the four categories during the sessions. Audi led early on and Herbert's No. 88 car recorded a fastest lap of 3 minutes, 34.907 seconds on the session's final lap. Kristensen's Team Goh Audi was more than two seconds slower in second, and McNish in the No. 8 car was third. Jan Lammers' Racing for Holland Dome car was fourth, the fastest non-Audi. JJ Lehto's No. 2 Champion Audi was fifth with Soheil Ayari's No. 18 Pescarolo C60 finished sixth and Brabham's No. 22 Zytek 04S seventh. Pierre Kaffer damaged the No. 8 Audi Sport UK car when he went off the track at the first Mulsanne Chicane due to an error. With a lap of 3 minutes, 46.020 seconds, Jean-Marc Gounon's No. 31 Courage C65 vehicle led in LMP2, more than eleven seconds ahead of its sister No. 35 Epsilon Sport car and the No. 24 Rachel Welter WR LM2001 entry. Olivier Beretta's No. 64 Corvette C5-R set the early pace in LMGTS, and his co-driver Gavin improved on his effort to set the class' best lap time of 3 minutes, 54.359 seconds. Peter Kox's Prodrive Ferrari came second and Ron Fellows' No. 63 Corvette was third. The second Prodrive Ferrari finished fourth through rally driver Colin McRae's lap. Bergmeister's No. 90 White Lightning Porsche led LMGT with a lap of 4 minutes, 9.679 seconds, followed by Stéphane Daoudi in the No. 70 JMB Racing Ferrari 360 Modena GTC.
Teams used the opening minutes of the second session to fine tune their cars and record their fastest laps in lower ambient and track temperatures. Due to a minor gear selection issue and slower traffic, Herbert failed to improve the best lap of the No. 88 Audi Sport UK R8. McNish's sister No. 8 car beat it by 3 minutes and 34.683 seconds. No other driver improved their times over the rest of the session, enabling the No. 8 Audi to take provisional pole position from the No. 88 vehicle. After a collision with a Chevrolet Corvette C5-R at Arnage corner damaged Kristensen's Team Goh car's front splitter, Werner moved Champion's entry to fourth and completed an Audi sweep of the first four positions. Despite a fuel pressure issue and a minor crash by co-driver Nicolas Minassian, Sébastien Bourdais drove the No. 17 Pescarolo C60 to fifth. The No. 15 Racing for Holland Dome car improved to sixth with the No. 6 Rollcentre Racing Dallara SP1 entry seventh. Courage No. 31 C65's LMP2 lap time moved the car to eleventh overall, ahead of the clutch-stricken No. 15 Racing for Holland car. It remained eleven seconds ahead of the Epsilon Sport team. Corvette Racing maintained its lead in LMGTS, with Gavin's No. 64 C5-R improving its best lap to 3 minutes, 52.158 seconds. He was over two seconds faster than Fellows' No. 63 entry and a second faster than Enge's No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari, which collided with a barrier at Indianapolis corner. Bergmesiter improved the No. 90 White Lighting Porsche's best lap in LMGT to 4 minutes, 9.679 seconds, finishing three seconds ahead of the JMB Ferrari.
Rain showers on 10 June removed car rubber from the track, and lap times in the third session were expected to be slower than before. However, ambient and track temperatures rose, allowing drivers to improve on their previous day's lap times. McNish went fastest overall before his Audi Sport UK teammate Herbert recorded the fastest lap at 3 minutes, 33.024 seconds on a new gurney flap with five minutes to go. Brabham, driving the No. 22 Zytek 04S, advanced from provisional seventh to third with his first clear lap of the weekend. Rinaldo Capello improved Team Goh Audi's best lap, but the team fell to fourth and the Champion car to fifth. Bourdais set a lap that kept the No. 17 Pescarolo C60 in sixth place, while Katoh was the fastest of the Dome S101 cars in seventhlace. Gounon's No. 31 Courage C65 car continued to lead LMP2, while the Paul Belmondo Racing team was second. In LMGTS, Rydell's No. 65 Prodrive Ferrari took the lead, which he held until Gavin's 3 minutes, 49.750 seconds lap in the No. 64 Corvette reset the class lap record ten minutes later. The second Corvette, driven by Johnny O'Connell, was third with Kox's other Prodrive Ferrari fourth. In the LMGT category, Sascha Maassen's No. 90 White Lightning Porsche improved its lap time to 4 minutes, 7.394 seconds. Mike Rockenfeller's No. 87 Orbit car finished second, less than two seconds behind. Stéphane Ortelli's No. 85 Freisinger Motorsport entry was third.
Herbert's No. 88 Audi set a new fastest time of 3 minutes, 32.838 seconds eight minutes into the final session. He set the fastest time to earn his first pole position at Le Mans and the fourth of his racing career. McNish improved the No. 8 Audi's time to join Herbert on the front row after missing much of the session due to a lack of power caused by a failed fuel injector, necessitating an engine change. Brabham was unable to improve on his third session lap and started from third. Kristensen bettered Team Goh Audi's best time but remained in fourth, as Bourdais took fifth in the No. 17 Pescarolo C60 car. Werner's Champion Audi went faster for sixth after a front shock absorber repair, and Katoh took seventh. Gounon gave the Courage team the LMP2 pole position by improving the No. 31 car's best lap to 3 minutes, 41.126 seconds and finishing 12th overall. The Paul Belmondo Racing team was second in its class, ten seconds slower. After the No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari was damaged in an accident at the Porsche Curves, Enge took the lead from Gavin's No. 64 Corvette in LMGTS with a 3:49.438-second lap with ten minutes to go in the session. O'Connell's No. 63 Corvette improved to third place. White Lighting's third session lap secured the LMGT category pole position, with Jaime Melo's JMB Ferrari and Rockenfeller's Orbit Porsche second and third in class, respectively.
Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are indicated in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted in gray.
Warm-up
The drivers had a 45-minute warm-up session at 09:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) in clear weather. Teams used warm-up as a final opportunity to check car setup and reliability. Lehto's No. 2 Champion Audi set the fastest time of 3 minutes, 36.078 seconds. The two Audi Sport UK R8s were second and third, with the No. 8 narrowly ahead of the No. 88. Bourdais' No. 17 Pescarolo C60 car came fourth. The Team Goh Audi was fifth, followed by the Lammers' Racing for Holland Dome vehicle and the No. 22 Zytek 04S vehicle. Intersport Racing's Lola car set the fastest LMP2 lap time at 4 minutes, 5.032 seconds. The No. 63 Corvette led LMGTS, while JMB's No. 70 Ferrari led LMGT. Although the session passed without major incident, Bourdais' engine cover came off his Pescarolo C60 car, and several drivers ran into the trackside gravel traps.
Race
Start
The weather at the start before 200,000 people was overcast with an air temperature of and a track temperature of . At 16:00 local time, François Fillon, Minister of National Education, Higher Education, and Research, waved the French tricolour to begin the race, which was led by pole sitter Jamie Davies. There were 48 cars scheduled to start, but the No. 10 Lola B2K/10 and the No. 61 Barron Connor Racing Ferrari 575-GTC started from the pit lane due to clutch and engine changes, respectively. The No. 14 Team Nasamax DM139 was forced off the track after a fuel consumption test, but it rejoined the grid. Davies held off teammate McNish into the Dunlop Curve to lead the opening laps. The other two Audis of Lehto and Capello, as well as Lammers' Racing for Holland Dome entry, passed Andy Wallace's Zytek car, demoting it from third to sixth. The top five LMGTS cars were nose-to-tail, with Kox leading and Lammers had a throttle sensor problem on the Mulsanne, falling to 24th. Capello spun into a gravel trap at the Dunlop Curves four laps later and rejoined behind Lammers. Before the first hour ended, Capello's Team's electronic control unit was replaced. Goh's Audi dropped him off the lead lap as Gavin's Corvette took the lead of LMGTS. His teammate Fellows was forced to enter the pit lane after colliding with a tyre barrier at Arnage corner. Repairs to the No. 63 car's front cost it five laps and O'Connell replaced Fellows.
On 1 hour and 52 minutes, McNish and Lehto's cars lost control when they drove onto a patch of oil laid on the track at the entrance to the Porsche Curves, spun across a gravel trap and crashed into a tyre barrier in unison, temporarily knocking McNish unconscious. McNish and Lehto were able to return to the garage for extensive repairs after both cars sustained significant damage. McNish collapsed shortly after leaving the garage in the No. 8 car, and two doctors examined him. He was taken to the circuit's medical centre with a sore knee and a concussion. Doctors ruled him unfit for the rest of the event. The safety cars were deployed to slow the race as marshals cleared debris from the track. Brabham's Zytek suffered bodywork damage from a puncture as the safety cars were recalled, and John Field crashed the No. 27 Intersport Lola car at the second Mulsanne Chicane. Later in the second hour, the Champion and Team Goh Audi entries returned to the track outside of the top 40 overall positions. Ryo Michigami's No. 9 Kondo Dome vehicle had a transmission failure on the final third of the lap and he drove to the garage for repairs. He fell to fifth, behind Érik Comas No. 18 Pescarolo C60 car and Katsutomo Kaneishi's No. 15 Racing for Holland car. The attrition rate promoted Sam Hancock's No. 31 Courage C65 car to sixth overall.
Smith's No. 88 Audi R8 led Team Goh's Seiji Ara by one lap at the front of the pitch. Enge set the fastest LMGTS lap time of 3 minutes, 53.327 seconds, trailing the class-leading Jan Magnussen's No. 64 Corvette by 17 seconds. Lammers' Racing for Holland Dome car overtook Benoît Tréluyer's No. 17 Pescarolo C60 car for third overall until a fuel pump failed and had to be replaced. Hancock's No. 31 Courage C65 car ceded the lead in LMP2 to the sister Epsilon Sport entry, after a faulty rear gearbox selection mechanism required attention from mechanics. Repairs took 20 minutes and dropped the car down the race order. Soon after, Robert Hearn lost control of Freisinger's No. 86 Porsche and collided with the inside barrier at the Karting Esses exit. Hearn was unable to restart the Porsche and retired. After relieving Smith, Herbert responded to Ara's faster pace by closing the gap at the front of the field, which had grown larger after Ara entered a gravel trap on the Mulsanne Straight. McRae's No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari was second in LMGTS until he spun at the Mulsanne Chicane after moving onto a dirty section of track to let a faster LMP car past. After that, his clutch began to slip, and Prodrive replaced it; the resulting pit stop dropped McRae eight laps behind Gavin's LMGTS-leading Corvette.
Night
With the alternator belt broken, the No. 17 Pescarolo C60 car was driven into the team's garage as night fell. Hayanari Shimoda's No. 22 Zytek car was repaired in 14 minutes and re-entered the top ten. Fellows' No. 63 Corvette was thrown into a barrier after a rear-left puncture on a crest on the Mulsanne Straight. The rear and left-hand corner of the car were severely damaged. When a thick dust cloud obscured Paul Belmondo's vision, the No. 37 Courage C65 car crashed. The car had a puncture in the tub's front-right section and was retired to the garage. The accident prompted a second brief safety car intervention. As the safety car period ended, Darren Turner spun the No. 65 Prodrive Ferrari into a gravel trap at the Dunlop Chicane, and Chris Dyson made a pit stop after driving the No. 15 Racing for Holland car into a gravel trap. At midnight, the two lead Audis were separated by a lap, and Lehto drew closer to the LMGTS class leader, the No. 64 Corvette, which was fifth overall. In the Porsche Curves, Maassen slid the No. 90 White Lightning Porsche on oil, but he still led the LMGT class. Lehto overtook Beretta to take the lead over all LMGTS entries, bringing the number of Audis in the top five overall to three.
After Davies' No. 88 Audi received a stop-and-go penalty for passing under yellow flag conditions, he and Magnussen collided at the Ford Chicane, sending the No. 64 Corvette into a trackside tyre wall. Davies and Magnussen were able to return to the pit lane for repairs. The incident gave Alain Menu's No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari the lead in LMGTS, and the gap between Davies and Kristensen was reduced to less than one lap. The No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari was later forced to enter the pit lane with a suspected misfire though it was later discovered that a section of rubber was lodged inside an air restrictor. Menu's Ferrari spent seven minutes undergoing repairs; it rejoined the race with his lead in the LMGTS category over the No. 64 Corvette lowered from four to laps and the Kondo Dome moved ahead of him. The No. 90 White Lightning Porsche continued to lead the LMGT class but in the eleventh hour, the car ceded the lead it had held for the majority of the race when Bergmeister entered the pit lane to replace a broken shifter linkage cable on its sequential gearbox and to change brakes. Patrick Long relieved Bergmeister and returned to the track in second, three laps behind Ralf Kelleners' No. 85 Freisinger Porsche. The No. 32 Intersport Lola car of William Binnie was required to enter the pit lane with a broken right-rear halfshaft but the car rejoined the circuit more than half an hour later without losing the lead in LMP2.
The No. 22 Zytek car began leaking oil across the circuit at the Porsche Curves as the race approached half distance, possibly due to a broken chunk of bodywork hitting an oil union as the engine compartment caught fire due to a lack of oil pressure. As the safety cars were dispatched for the third time, Brabham drove the car into the pit lane with flames erupting from its compartment bay. During the safety car period, Kristensen brought the Team Goh Audi into the pit lane to correct a two-hour misfire and the Barron Connor No. 61 Ferrari experienced a left-front brake disc fire that required the car's retirement after mechanics were unable to extinguish the fire and a change of uprights on its suspension system failed to work. Gavin damaged the No. 64 Corvette's front when he missed the braking point for the first Mulsanne Chicane in the 12th hour. A 15-minute pit stop dropped the Corvette to 11th overall, six laps behind Kox's LMGTS-leading No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari. Soon after, Turner's No. 65 Prodrive Ferrari experienced gear selection issues, and the car spent the majority of the past hour in the garage, falling to fifth in LMGTS. The safety cars separated the field at the front, with Herbert's Audi Sport UK R8 one lap ahead of Ara's Team Goh R8.
Morning to early afternoon
Pirro's Champion Audi was fifth early in the morning but fell behind Martin Short's No. 6 Rollcentre Dallara SP1 car owing to an eight-minute brake disc change. The No. 17 Pescarolo vehicle passed Enge for eighth overall. IIntersport's Clint Field picked up a right-rear puncture, causing the No. 31 Lola to spin out of the Ford Curves before entering the pit lane. He was able to return to the pit lane for a replacement wheel, and the Lola maintained its lead in LMP2. Short's No. 6 Dallara was hit from behind by Bourdais' No. 17 Pescarolo entry while lapping the car after the Dunlop Curve and beached in a gravel trap before the end of the 15th hour. Short was extricated from the gravel by trackside equipment and continued in fourth place. Davies' No. 88 Audi Sport UK R8 returned to the garage for seven minutes to correct a handling imbalance caused by a seized rear suspension pushrod bearing, promoting Capello's Team Goh car to the lead. Short's No. 6 Dallara car, which lost fourth to the Champion Audi, suffered a left-rear suspension failure in the Karting Esses. The car spun 360 degrees before crashing broadside into a tyre barrier at high speed. Short was unharmed, but the car was damaged and was retired.
At this point, Davies set the race's fastest lap at 3 minutes and 34.264 seconds to lower Capello's lead. Comas maintained third place by driving the No. 17 Pescarolo car into the pit lane for engine repairs. Pirro, in fourth, ran straight at the Mulsanne Corner and beached the Champion Audi R8 in a gravel trap. He recovered with the help of marshals, made a pit stop for new tyres, and Lehto relieved him. Capello, the race leader , soon locked his tyres and ran through the second Mulsanne Chicane. He drove the Team Goh Audi into the pit lane due to a heavily flat spotted tyre disintegrating and Kristensen took over the No. 5 car. Tréluyer's No. 17 Pescarolo 60 car launched over a kerb at a Mulsanne Chicane, and a subsequent crash into the barrier dropped him to third behind Lehto's Champion Audi R8. Enge's No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari was leading the LMGTS category by five laps when its front-left wheel bearing seized in the Dunlop Chicane, damaging the front splitter. The car was returned to the garage, giving Beretta's No. 64 Corvette the class lead.Davies spun the No. 88 Audi Sport UK R8 at the Dunlop Chicane, but the error cost him little time. Further down the order, the No. 85 Freisinger Porsche suffered an oil feed problem, allowing White Lighting to take the lead of LMGT.
When fuel was spilt on the rear of Capello's R8 and ignited, Team Goh became concerned. Capello quickly exited the car as flames spread to its right rear, though marshals extinguished the fire. Capello resumed driving after 30 seconds after mechanics checked for damage. The incident allowed Davies' No. 88 Audi Sport UK R8 to close to within 90 seconds of the Team Goh Audi, but then slower traffic delayed him. Over an hour after losing the LMGTS lead, Menu, driving the No. 66 Prodrive Ferrari, was forced to replace the front splitter in order to correct a handling issue. It did not, however, result in an improvement, and Menu drove into the garage for additional undertray repairs. Enge replaced Menu and damaged the front of the Ferrari during his first lap out of the pit lane when he collided with a wall at Indianapolis corner. He fell to fourth in class, trailing Papis' No. 63 Corvette and Rydell's No. 65 Prodrive Ferrari. ChoroQ Racing Team moved to second in LMGT after Freisinger's Porsche of Ortelli developed a misfire and fell to third in class.
Finish
Ara's No. 5 Team Goh Audi held off Herbert's faster No. 88 Audi Sport UK car in the race's final two hours to take Audi's fourth win in five years at Le Mans by 41.354 seconds, at a distance of and an average speed of . It was Ara's first Le Mans win, Capello's second and Kristensen's sixth. Kristensen equalled Jacky Ickx's all-time record of six victories and was the first driver to win the 24-hour race five times in a row. Champion Racing recovered from its crash in the second hour to finish third. The highest-placed non-Audi was the No. 18 Pescarolo C60 car of Ayari, Comas and Tréluyer in fourth and Frank Biela and Kaffer's No. 8 Audi Sport UK R8 finished fifth. Although Corvette Racing ran out of spare parts because of the incidents it was involved in, the No. 63 held an 11-lap lead over the No. 64 to finish sixth overall and win the category, earning the team their third class victory. McRae, Rydell, and Turner's No. 65 Prodrive Ferrari finished third in class, ahead of Enge, Kox, and Menu's No. 66 car. Porsche took the first six positions in the LMGT class as the No. 90 White Lighting entry won its second consecutive category race following its 2003 victory with Alex Job Racing, bringing the Porsche 911-GT3 RS's total Le Mans class victories to six since its debut in the 1999 edition. Team Nasamax's bio-ethanol-powered DM138 finished 17th, making it the first renewable-fuelled car to complete the Le Mans race. The No. 32 Intersport crew won the LMP2 class, finishing 25th overall and eight laps ahead of the No. 24 Rachel Welter WR LM2001 vehicle, the only other vehicle in the category.
Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 per cent of the overall winning car's race distance) was 265 laps. Class winners are denoted with bold.
References
External links
Le Mans
Le Mans
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races |
4210890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20Report | Morgan Report | The Morgan Report was an 1894 report concluding an official U.S. Congressional investigation into the events surrounding the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, including the alleged role of U.S. military troops (both bluejackets and marines) in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani. Along with the Blount Report submitted in 1893, it is one of the main source documents compiling the testimony of witnesses and participants in the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in January 1893. The Morgan Report was the final result of an official U.S. Congressional investigation into the overthrow, conducted by the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, whose chairman was Senator John Tyler Morgan, Democrat of Alabama.
The Report is formally named the Senate Report 227 of the 53rd Congress, second session, and dated February 26, 1894. It was printed as part of a large volume containing other government documents: "Reports of Committee on Foreign Relations 1789–1901 Volume 6."
Background
The Blount Report had concluded that the U.S. Minister to Hawaii John L. Stevens carried out unauthorized partisan activities, including the landing of U.S. Marines under a false or exaggerated pretext, to support the anti-royalist conspirators and that these actions were instrumental to the success of the overthrow of the queen. The Morgan Report contradicted the Blount Report, finding all individuals involved in the overthrow – with the notable exception of Queen Liliuokalani – "not guilty". The Native Hawaiians Study Commission Report of 1993, commenting on the two competing reports, states: "The truth lies somewhere between the two reports."
The Morgan Report's submission in 1894 roughly coincided with the Turpie Resolution, which terminated Cleveland's efforts to restore the Queen. Cleveland accepted the conclusions of the Morgan Report, continued to engage in diplomatic relations with the Provisional Government, recognized the Republic of Hawaii upon its declaration on July 4, 1894, and even negotiated treaties originally ratified under the Kingdom government with the Republic.
The nine-member Senate Foreign Relations Committee that submitted the report could not agree on a final conclusion, and the oft-cited executive summary was signed only by Morgan himself. Other Republican members of the Committee, including Senators Sherman, Frye, Dolph, and Davis, generally agreed with the report, but refused to endorse the actions of Blount (who was appointed by President Cleveland, a Democrat). Democratic Senators Turpie, Butler, Daniel, and Gray did not endorse the approval of Minister Stevens' actions; while Butler and Turpie generally approved annexation, they refused to endorse the Morgan Report's conclusions because of the implications for internal disorder in Hawaii. Gray and Daniel were apparently outright opposed to annexation.
Origin
The Morgan Report was the final result of Cleveland's referral of the matter of the overthrow to Congress.
Cleveland from the Blount Report:
Though I am not able now to report a definite change in the actual situation, I am convinced that the difficulties lately created both here and in Hawaii and now standing in the way of a solution through Executive action of the problem presented, render it proper, and expedient, that the matter should be referred to the broader authority and discretion of Congress, with a full explanation of the endeavor thus far made to deal with the emergency and a statement of the considerations which have governed my action...<p>...I therefore submit this communication with its accompanying exhibits, embracing Mr. Blount's report, the evidence and statements taken by him at Honolulu, the instructions given to both Mr. Blount and Minister Willis, and correspondence connected with the affair in hand. In commending this subject to the extended powers and wide discretion of the Congress, I desire to add the assurance that I shall be much gratified to cooperate in any legislative plan which may be devised for the solution of the problem before us which is consistent with American honor, integrity and morality.
GROVER CLEVELAND
Executive Mansion,
Washington, December 18, 1893
Historical background
At the time the Hawaiian Kingdom was overthrown, President Benjamin Harrison, a Republican expansionist, was only a few weeks from the end of his term. The new Provisional Government of Hawai'i immediately delivered a treaty of annexation to President Harrison, who referred it favorably to the Senate for ratification on February 15, 1893.
Grover Cleveland, a Democrat opposed to expansionism and colonialism, became President on March 4, 1893 and withdrew the treaty from the Senate on March 9, 1893.
James Henderson Blount, a Democrat, had been chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs during Harrison's term. On March 11, without seeking confirmation from the Senate (though it was in session at the time), President Cleveland appointed Blount to be a special envoy to Hawaii with "paramount" powers and secret instructions to investigate the circumstances of the revolution and the stability of the Provisional Government.
Blount held secret, informal conversations with royalists and annexationists in Honolulu. He invited certain witnesses to sit with him to give formal statements in the presence of a stenographer, to be published later in the Blount Report. These statements were not under oath, and several of them were recanted when made public. Historian Ernest Andrade wrote, "He interviewed only a few people involved in the instigation and carrying out of the revolution. He took no testimony from the officers and enlisted men of USS Boston." He delivered a report to President Cleveland on July 17, 1893, claiming improper U.S. backing for the revolution had been responsible for its success, and that the Provisional Government lacked popular support.
On the basis of Blount's report, President Cleveland began working towards the restoration of the Queen, conditional upon amnesty towards those responsible for the overthrow. Minister Willis was unable to convince the Queen to grant the Committee of Safety amnesty in return for the throne until December 18, 1893, at which point Willis, on behalf of Cleveland, then ordered Hawai'i President Sanford Dole to dissolve the Provisional Government and restore the Queen. Dole flatly refused in a blistering letter decrying Cleveland's interference. Unbeknownst to Willis, on the same day he demanded President Dole to step down, December 18, Cleveland had already given up convincing the Queen to grant amnesty, and sent a message to Congress declaring the revolution improper and decrying the U.S. involvement in it, referring the matter to their authority.
In response, the Senate passed a resolution empowering its Foreign Relations Committee to hold public hearings under oath, and cross-examine witnesses, to investigate U.S. involvement in the revolution, and also to investigate whether it had been proper for President Cleveland to appoint Blount and give him extraordinary powers to represent the U.S. and intervene in Hawaii without Senate confirmation.
The final result of this investigation is the Morgan Report, submitted on February 26, 1894.
Subsequent action by Congress
The Turpie Resolution of May 31, 1894, which was protested by Queen Liliuokalani, was a direct result of the Morgan Report. The Turpie Resolution ended all hope of the Queen for further intervention on her behalf.
Cleveland's final position
Cleveland accepted the verdict of the Congressional committee, abandoned efforts to reinstate the Queen, and treated the Provisional Government and Republic of Hawaii as the internationally recognized lawful successors of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Despite his strong words of December 18, 1893, after the investigation conducted by the Morgan Committee, and the Senate's Turpie Resolution of May 31, 1894, he never again questioned the legitimacy of the overthrow.
In his last bit of resistance to accepting the overthrow, Cleveland managed to get the wording for the Turpie Resolution changed to refer to the "people" rather than the "Provisional Government", although the net effect was still a complete renunciation of his hopes to restore Queen Liliuokalani to power.
Specific conclusions of the committee
The majority report submitted contained the following conclusions:
A condition of affairs existed in Honolulu which led naturally to the apprehension that violence or civil commotion would ensue, in which the peace and security of American citizens would be put in peril, as had been done on three or more separate occasions previously when changes occurred or were about to occur in the government of Hawaii;
The action of the Queen in an effort to overturn the constitution of 1887, to which she had sworn obedience and support, had been accepted and treated by a large and powerful body of the people as a violation of her constitutional obligations, revolutionary in its character and purposes and that it amounted to an act of abdication on her part, so far as her powers and the rights of the people under the constitution of 1887 were concerned. This state of opinion and this condition of the executive head of the Hawaiian Government neutralized its power to protect American citizens and other foreigners in their treaty rights, and also their rights under the laws of Hawaii;
In landing the troops from the Boston there was no demonstration of actual hostilities, and their conduct was as quiet and as respectful as it had been on many previous occasions when they were landed for the purpose of drill and practice. In passing the palace on their way to the point at which they were halted, the Queen appeared upon the balcony and the troops respectfully saluted her by presenting arms and dipping the flag, and made no demonstration of any hostile intent;
The committee agree that such was the condition of the Hawaiian Government at the time that the troops were landed in Honolulu from the steam warship Boston; that there was then an interregnum in Hawaii as respects the executive office; that there was no executive power to enforce the laws of Hawaii, and that it was the right of the United States to land troops upon those islands at any place where it was necessary in the opinion of our minister to protect our citizens;
Afterward, on February 1, 1893, the American minister caused the flag of the United States to be raised on the Government building in Honolulu, and assumed and declared a protectorate over that nation in the name of the United States. This act on the part of our minister was without authority, and was void for want of power. It was disavowed by Secretary Foster and rebuked by Secretary Gresham, and the order to abandon the protectorate and haul down the flag was in accordance with the duty and honor of the United States. To haul down the flag of the United States was only an order to preserve its honor.
A minority report by the four Republicans criticized Blount's appointment and activities.
A minority report by four of the Democrats criticized Minister Stevens for his actions.
All the Senators exonerated the actions of the U.S. military.
Broken down by topic, the votes were as follows:
9–0: U.S. military acted in neutrality
5–4: Blount's appointment was constitutional (Morgan and his fellow Democrats)
5–4: Steven's actions were justified (Morgan and four Republicans)
Members of the Committee
Republicans
John Sherman
Joseph N. Dolph
William P. Frye
Cushman K. Davis
Democrats
John Tyler Morgan
Matthew Butler
David Turpie
John W. Daniel
George Gray
Controversies
Online accessibility
The Morgan Report has been treated with a significant amount of skepticism by pro-sovereignty academics, and has largely been glossed over since the 1970s. Although the Morgan Report was planned to be digitized by the University of Hawaii as part of a collection of annexation documents in 2001, only the pro-sovereignty Blount Report was completed. The library's project ended in 2002 and no further grants were applied for; it is also understood that a devastating flood in 2004 caused significant setbacks for their program. The project narrative for the 2002 grant application to digitize documents, including the Morgan Report said, "The materials selected however are not one-sided. The Morgan Report challenges the Blount Report, which implicated the United States in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy."
It was not until volunteers outside of the University of Hawaii took on the task of digitizing the Morgan Report that it was made available online in 2006. Since its online publication, the University of Hawaii has maintained a link to the website where the report is published alongside their other annexation documents.
Morgan's racism
The Morgan Committee was chaired by Senator John Tyler Morgan of Jim Crow political fame. An Alabama Review article written by Thomas Upchurch states that Morgan wanted to find Black southerners a new homeland.
Throughout the report, Morgan used the term kanaka, derived from the Hawaiian kānaka ʻōiwi for a person of Hawaiian descent. Many native Hawaiians consider this white appropriation of the term to be a racial slur. The use of the word kanaka in the report allowed Morgan to redefine the term Hawaiian to refer to the geographical, rather than the historical, inhabitants, thus creating a literary deceit that disassociated native Hawaiians from Hawaii.
Others note that the racist bigotry of Chairman Morgan, although widespread at the time, does not necessarily invalidate the evidence gathered during the hearings, especially considering that Morgan was just one of nine senators conducting the investigation. Yet his vote was the deciding factor in the 5–4 decision of whether Stevens acted lawfully.
Selective witness list/inherent political bias of senators
Morgan Report critics note that Morgan did not visit Hawai`i before issuing his Morgan Report and instead held hearings in Washington, D.C., which, in effect, eliminated any Hawaiian representation of the royalist position. James Henderson Blount represented the royalist position well in his Blount Report, which was nearly exclusively royalist, and by his own testimony in front of the committee. Senator George Gray was particularly anti-annexationist, and brought forward witnesses with testimony critical of the Provisional Government. Of the total of nine senators, four Republicans and three Democrats indicated their support for annexation.
According to Hawaii historian Ralph Kuykendall, witnesses in the Morgan Investigation were picked to make out the best possible case for annexation. Under the guidance of Lorrin Thurston and W. D. Alexander, Morgan made the case against the queen and for annexation. The earlier Blount report did not interview members of the Committee of Safety, and their testimony as well as other evidence put forth during the Morgan Committee hearings contradicted the assertions Blount had made in hist report. Kuykendall described Blount's report as a "lawyer's brief, making the best possible case for the queen and against Stevens", while the Morgan Report "presented an equally effective case for the Provisional Government and Stevens, and against the Queen."
Unclear majority opinion
A common critique of the Morgan Report is that there was no majority opinion, and that three separate minority opinions existed – Morgan's, the Republicans' and the Democrats'. It is often argued that only Morgan signed the report in its entirety. Hawaiian historian Ralph Kuykendall characterized it this way:
In the end, the majority of the Senate committee on foreign relations found everyone 'not guilty' save the queen, although only Morgan, who wrote the final report, agreed with all parts of it. The Democrats on the committee supported Blount and Willis, imputed the blame to Stevens for his 'inopportune zeal,' and found him deserving of public censure. The Republicans on the committee also filed a report. They refused to censure Blount and Willis; they placed the blame higher up. And at the end, not a single item for future action was recommended in the report.
Towards the end of the main findings section, there is a break after the primary report, followed by a minor disagreement over the constitutionality of Blount's appointment and actions, and then the signatures of the Republicans who joined Morgan, a Democrat, in the rest of the majority opinion. The four Republicans stated their assent to the initial section of the report with the following statement:
We are in entire accord with the essential findings in the exceedingly able report submitted by the chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations.
The four Democrats who disagreed with the four Republicans, and with Morgan (again, a Democrat), clearly indicate their minority dissent, signing their four names as "Members of Minority". Even though they dissented in regards to whether Minister Stevens should have been censured, they still held the U.S. troops blameless, noting that they remained scrupulously neutral throughout their time ashore:
On the other hand, we are not inclined to censure Capt. Wiltse, commanding the United States war-ship Boston, or the officers of that vessel. Their position was one of extreme delicacy and difficulty, and we appreciate their anxiety to afford protection to the lives and property of American citizens. The force of United States marines of the Boston with their ordinary arms stationed at the American legation, and at the consulate in Honolulu, would have effectually represented the authority and power of the United States Government, and would have afforded whatever protection American interests might have required; and at the same time would have avoided the appearance of coercion or duress, either upon the people of Honolulu or the Queen in the controversy between them.
References
External links
The Morgan Report (full-text, scanned images and additional commentary)
(digitized text)
A well-documented senior history paper.
Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom
Presidencies of Grover Cleveland
1894 in the United States
1894 in Hawaii |
4211292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larrys%20Creek | Larrys Creek | Larrys Creek is a tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Lycoming County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. A part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin, its watershed drains in six townships and a borough. The creek flows south from the dissected Allegheny Plateau to the Ridge-and-valley Appalachians through sandstone, limestone, and shale from the Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian periods.
The valley's first recorded inhabitants were the Susquehannocks, followed by the Lenape and other tribes. The Great Shamokin Path crossed the creek near its mouth, where Larry Burt, the first Euro-American settler and the man who gave the creek its present name, also lived by 1769. In the 19th century, the creek and its watershed were a center for logging and related industries, including 53 sawmills, grist mills, leather tanneries, coal and iron mines. A 1903 newspaper article claimed "No other stream in the country had so many mills in so small a territory". For transportation, a plank road ran along much of the creek for decades, and two "paper railroads" were planned, but never built.
As of 2006, the Larrys Creek watershed is 83.1% forest and 15.7% agricultural (a reforestation of land clear-cut in the 19th century). Nearly of second-growth forest are protected public and private land for hunting and trout fishing, with more land protected in parts of Tiadaghton State Forest. Pollution from past industrial use is gone and Larrys Creek "has an exceptionally scenic, ultra-highwater, whitewater run" for canoeing. Despite agricultural runoff and small amounts of acid mine drainage, water quality is quite good, and a water filtration plant on Larrys Creek supplies over 2500 customers.
Name
Larrys Creek is named for Larry Burt, the first European settler in the area, who lived near the mouth of the creek outside what is now the hamlet of Larrys Creek in Piatt Township. He traded with the indigenous peoples, and, according to a tradition reported by Meginness (1892), he had a Native American wife. Larry Burt was already there when surveyors came through in 1769 (after the land was purchased by the colonial government of Pennsylvania on November 5, 1768, as part of the "New Purchase" in the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix), but disappeared sometime soon after, perhaps moving west with the Native Americans who left the area.
Larrys Creek is the only major creek in Lycoming County for which a Native American name is unknown. As of 2006, it is the only stream named "Larrys Creek" on USGS maps of the United States and in the USGS Geographic Names Information System. The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name of the creek, although records from the 19th century often spell it as "Larry's Creek" (as do some highway bridge signs today).
Today the creek has given its name to the hamlet at its mouth, as well as the village of "Larryville" further upstream. Before it became a borough, Salladasburg was also known as "Larrys Creek" (from the name of its post office). The "First Fork" and "Second Fork" of Larrys Creek are named in the order in which they are encountered traveling upstream, with "Fork" here denoting a major tributary. "Lawshe Run", the major tributary of the Second Fork, is named for Robert Lawshe, who established a tannery in Salladasburg in 1848. "Seeley Run", a minor tributary entering the creek at Larryville, is named for Mr. Seely, who built the first sawmill on Larrys Creek in 1796. While the USGS uses "Seeley Run", it is still "Seely Run Road" that follows the stream. The First Fork, Canoe Run, Joes Run, and Wolf Run also have roads named for them.
Course
Larrys Creek is the only major watershed in Lycoming County entirely within the county. Measured directly, Lycoming County is about northwest of Philadelphia and east-northeast of Pittsburgh. It is from the mouth of Larrys Creek along the West Branch Susquehanna River to its confluence with the Susquehanna River at Northumberland, Pennsylvania. The source of Larrys Creek is in northern Lycoming County in Cogan House Township, just south of the hamlet of Steam Valley, at an elevation of It flows west-southwest through the village of Cogan House, and then under the Cogan House Covered Bridge.
The creek next heads due south through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 114. There it runs for about with only a trail or unimproved road beside it. It passes through Mifflin Township for a short distance and heads southeast into Anthony Township, where it leaves the State Game Lands and passes a water filtration plant; there is a dam tall and wide here. Further south, it receives Roaring Run (on the left bank). Roaring Run receives the only acid mine drainage in the watershed and enters Larrys Creek from the mouth.
Larrys Creek then heads southwest back into Mifflin Township, where it passes through the borough of Salladasburg, with Pennsylvania Route 973 running parallel to the creek from the township line to the borough. At Salladasburg, Larrys Creek receives its major tributary, the Second Fork of Larrys Creek, on the right bank from the mouth.
The Second Fork rises in Cogan House Township near the village of White Pine and runs south through the village of Brookside, then a few miles through Cummings Township, and last through Mifflin Township and Salladasburg. Lawshe Run is its major tributary. Pennsylvania Route 287 runs parallel to the Second Fork its whole length, and continues parallel to Larrys Creek from Salladasburg south to its terminus on U.S. Route 220 (near the creek's mouth).
Just south of Salladasburg, Larrys Creek receives the First Fork of Larrys Creek, from the mouth. The First Fork has its source in Cummings Township and flows south-southeast into Mifflin Township. from its mouth Larrys Creek receives Canoe Run. Both these tributaries enter on the right bank.
Larrys Creek then enters Piatt Township, flowing east around a ridge and through the village of Larryville where it receives Seeley Run on the left bank, from the mouth. It next flows back southwest, then south to the hamlet of Larrys Creek and finally into the West Branch Susquehanna River, east of the borough of Jersey Shore, at an elevation of . U.S. Route 220 and the Lycoming Valley Railroad cross the creek on separate bridges just north of its mouth. The direct distance between the source and mouth is only . The difference in elevation between source and mouth, , divided by the length of the creek, , gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 53.5 feet per mile (10.1 m/km). The meander ratio is 1.08, so the creek is fairly straight in its bed.
Discharge
From 1960 to 1979, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) operated one stream gauge on Larrys Creek at the village of Cogan House, for the uppermost of the watershed. The mean discharge measured at this site from 1961 to 1978 was 10.8 cubic feet per second (0.306 m³/s), with a peak discharge of 1,130 cubic feet per second (32.0 m³/s) and peak gauge height of , both on June 22, 1972, during Hurricane Agnes. The USGS also estimated mean monthly and annual groundwater recharge at the Cogan House stream gauge. Using data from 1961 to 1977, the upper and lower annual recharge estimates were , and the greatest monthly recharge was in March, with 20.1% of the annual total.
The USGS also measured discharge at the village of Larrys Creek, very near the creek's mouth, as part of water quality measurements on seven occasions between 1970 and 1975. The average discharge was 66.0 cubic feet per second (1.87 m3/s), and ranged from a high of 114 cubic feet per second (3.23 m3/s) to a low of 8.8 cubic feet per second (0.25 m3/s). Lycoming County operates a stream gauge at Salladasburg as part of the county-wide flood warning system. It only measures the water height (not discharge) and had a peak gauge height of , on September 18, 2004, during Hurricane Ivan.
Geology
Larrys Creek is in a sandstone, limestone, and shale mountain region, with the source in the dissected Allegheny Plateau and the mouth in the Ridge-and-valley Appalachians. The southern part of the Larrys Creek watershed has sedimentary surface rocks from the Devonian period, with a large area from the Mississippian period in the north of the watershed and a small Pennsylvanian period region within this area. The Cogan House anticline runs north of and parallel to the upper part of the creek. Iron ore within the watershed was mined south of Salladasburg and along Canoe Run in the 19th century; there are also deposits on Puterbaugh Mountain.
Larrys Creek is in a narrow valley formed by mountains and hills, with steep to moderate slopes. The channel pattern is regular, with a dendritic drainage pattern. South of its source, the creek turns to flow southwest along the northern edge of Green Mountain, turns south into the State Game Lands at Buckhorn Mountain, and flows south along the western edge of Coal Mountain. The only named peak on the west bank of Larrys Creek itself is Harris Point, where it leaves the dissected Allegheny Plateau.
The Second Fork flows south along the eastern side of Henson Ridge, then east of Puterbaugh Mountain. The only named peak on the east bank of the Second Fork is Clapp Point, which marks the boundary of the dissected plateau and is southwest of Harris Point. The First Fork flows past the southwest edge of Little Round Top and then continues on the southwest side of Puterbaugh Mountain. Fishery Point is at the southern end of the Allegheny Plateau, just west of the First Fork. The three features named Point are each part of the Allegheny Front, the edge of the Allegheny Plateau.
The Larrys Creek watershed has two deposits of low volatile bituminous coal along Roaring Run and a small, deep natural gas field. A potentially large source of natural gas is the Marcellus Shale, which lies below the surface here and stretches from New York through Pennsylvania to Ohio and West Virginia. Estimates of the total natural gas in the black shale from the Devonian era range from 168 to 516 trillion cubic feet (4.76 to 14.6 trillion m3), with at least 10 percent considered recoverable. In November 2007, drilling within the Larrys Creek watershed started in Mifflin Township, just west of Salladasburg, with a deep well. A second well was drilled in Mifflin Township in December 2007, and by February 2008 every well drilled in Lycoming County was producing natural gas. The Marcellus Shale requires special techniques to fracture the rock and release the gas, including pumping sand and water into the well, and, in some cases, horizontal drilling.
Watershed
The Larrys Creek watershed is entirely in Lycoming County and accounts for 7.17% of the county by area. It is the only major creek whose watershed is entirely in the county, and lies between the Pine Creek watershed (including Little Pine Creek) to the west and the Lycoming Creek watershed to the east (as measured on the river).
The Larrys Creek watershed has a total population of 2,513 (as of 2000) and a total area of . Of that area, are forested and are given to agricultural uses. Larrys Creek is the largest creek in Lycoming County without its own watershed association.
Tributaries
The major smaller streams in the Larrys Creek watershed include the First and Second Forks, Roaring Run, Lawshe Run, and Canoe Run. The Second Fork is the largest tributary, with a watershed of or 28.0% of the total watershed. The First Fork is next largest, with a watershed of or 19.8% of the total. Roaring Run accounts for 5.7% of the total watershed with and other tributaries are less than 5% of the total.
Starting at the mouth, the tributaries of Larrys Creek are: Seeley Run, Canoe Run, First Fork Larrys Creek, Second Fork Larrys Creek, Mash Run, "Pond Hollow", "Spook Hollow", Roaring Run, "Cramer Hollow", "Pot Lick Hollow", "Match Pine Hollow", "Watt Hollow", Long Run, Wendell Run, Crayton Hollow Run, Wolf Run, Dibber Hollow Run, and Birch Run (unnamed streams in a named feature are given as the name of the feature in quotation marks).
Water quality, pollution, and filtration plant
The clear-cutting of forests in the 19th century adversely affected the ecology of the Larrys Creek watershed and its water quality. Polluting industries on the creek and its tributaries during that period included coal and iron mines and tanneries. As of 2006, water quality in Larrys Creek is quite good, although two small unnamed tributaries of Roaring Run do receive acid mine drainage from an abandoned coal mine. Agricultural runoff is another source of pollution. Effluent limits for Larrys Creek in Mifflin Township for the 5-day test for carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD5) are 25 mg/L, while fecal coliform bacteria count limits are 200 per 100 mL in May through September, and 2000 per 100 mL in October through April.
The mean annual precipitation for Larrys Creek is . According to the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission: "Pennsylvania receives the most acid deposition of any state in the nation because, in addition to being the third highest producer of the gases that cause acid deposition, we are also located downwind from the highest concentration of air pollution emitters." The region's geology gives it a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid. This makes the creek especially vulnerable to increased acidification from rain, which poses a threat to the long-term health of the plants and animals in the creek.
The Jersey Shore Area Joint Water Authority's water filtration plant is on Larrys Creek, near the border between Mifflin and Anthony Townships. The plant has been there since at least 1914 and provides water from the creek to 2,500 industrial and residential customers in the boroughs of Jersey Shore and Salladasburg, as well as Anthony, Mifflin, Nippenose, Piatt, and Porter Townships in southwestern Lycoming County, and Pine Creek Township in the southeastern part of neighboring Clinton County, Pennsylvania.
Recreation
There are at least two camps along Larrys Creek. "Camp Kiwanis" has a main lodge, four cabins, picnic pavilion, and various recreational facilities on on Route 287, south of Salladasburg in Mifflin Township. It is operated as a service by the Williamsport Kiwanis and rented out for fire department training, Girl Scouts, weddings, church, and other groups. Further south along the creek in Piatt Township is the New Tribes Mission camp for preparing Christian missionaries for field work with indigenous peoples in remote parts of the world. The training at the camp lasts one year.
Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that Larrys Creek "has an exceptionally scenic, ultra-highwater, whitewater run that is really worthy of your attention". Canoeing and kayaking on Larrys Creek are possible when the water is high enough (in Spring and after hard rain), with of Class 3 whitewater on the International Scale of River Difficulty from Township Road 786 south through the State Game Lands to Route 973, and of Class 1 to 2 whitewater south from PA 973 to U.S. 220.
In addition to the in State Game Lands No. 114, opportunities for hunting and fishing are available in the areas of Tiadaghton State Forest in the western part of the watershed, along the First and Second Forks. In 2002, a Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) report on "State Forest Waters with Special Protection" rated the First Fork as a "High Quality-Cold Water Fishery". A stretch of Larrys Creek from the water company filtration plant (near the border between Mifflin and Anthony Townships) to downstream of the confluence with the First Fork has been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. This means the waters will be stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season.
There are also private hunting and fishing clubs and cabins along Larrys Creek and its tributaries. The largest is the "Larrys Creek Fish and Game Club", incorporated August 1, 1906, which owns over along Route 287 on the Second Fork. As of 2006, the club has 55 active and 15 honorary members (all male). The club promotes conservation and stocks its of trout stream with three to four thousand brook and brown trout each year. The club's facilities include a trapshooting range and a helipad, to aid in medical evacuations from its remote location.
Another large private club is the Ogontz Lodge on the First Fork, established by banker Jay Cooke about 1884 for fishing and hunting. Cooke owned nearly the whole First Fork, long, with the main "Lodge" from the mouth, and a smaller "Upper Cabin" upstream of that. Herbert Hoover found solitude at the Ogontz Lodge as a guest of Jay Cooke III three times: in June, 1918 (just before leaving for Europe as head of the American Food Administration), mid-May, 1928 (just before his selection as the Republican presidential candidate), and finally in late May, 1930 (as President of the United States). Other notable guests at the Ogontz Lodge include Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and Katharine Hepburn, and it is still in operation as of 2007.
History
Early inhabitants
Two Clovis points found in the Salladasburg area in a "stream site" are the earliest evidence of human activity along Larrys Creek (circa 10,000 BCE). The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannocks. Their name meant "people of the muddy river" in Algonquian. Decimated by diseases and warfare, they had died out, moved away, or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century. The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape (or Delaware), and were under the nominal control of the Five (later Six) Nations of the Iroquois. The Great Shamokin Path crossed the creek at a ford near its mouth; however, no trails of the indigenous peoples are recorded as having followed Larrys Creek north.
On November 5, 1768, the British acquired the "New Purchase" from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, opening what is now Lycoming County to settlement. However, the Line of Property (or Purchase Line) border defined by "Tiadaghton Creek" dividing colonial and Native American lands was disputed. The colonists claimed this was Pine Creek, the Iroquois and other tribes that it was Lycoming Creek. Larrys Creek was in the disputed territory between these, so the illegal settlers there were part of the "Fair Play Men" system of self-government, with their own Declaration of Independence from Britain on July 4, 1776.
In the Revolutionary War, settlements throughout the Susquehanna valley were attacked by Loyalists and Native Americans allied with the British. After the Wyoming Valley battle and massacre in the summer of 1778 (near what is now Wilkes-Barre) and smaller local attacks, the "Big Runaway" occurred throughout the West Branch Susquehanna valley. Settlers fled feared and actual attacks by the British and their allies. Homes and fields were abandoned, with livestock driven along and a few possessions floated on rafts on the river east to Muncy, then further south to Sunbury. The abandoned property was burnt by the attackers. Some settlers soon returned, only to flee again in the summer of 1779 in the "Little Runaway". Sullivan's Expedition helped stabilize the area and encouraged resettlement, which continued after the war.
On April 13, 1795, Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County, prompting further growth. In 1800, the "State Road" was the second major road built in the county and followed part of Larrys Creek in Cogan House Township as it ran from Newberry (the western part of Williamsport today) north to the Pennsylvania-New York state line near Painted Post, New York. Larrys Creek had a bridge near the mouth by 1806, the first of the major creeks in the county for which a bridge is mentioned.
Lumber
Like all creeks in Lycoming County, Larrys Creek served as an area for settlers to establish homesteads and farms. As logging became a major industry in the mid-19th century, the creek was a source of power for sawmills and other mills. The first sawmill on the creek, in what is now Mifflin Township, was built in 1799. The relatively low flow of water in the creek did not allow rafts of logs to be floated downstream to the river and the lumber boom at Williamsport (as they were on Pine Creek to the west).
This and the lack of logging railroads along the creek led to the development of many small sawmills: the Larrys Creek watershed once had 53 sawmills within of the mouth (as well as other industries of the time). No other stream in the country had so many sawmills in so small a territory. Twelve sawmills were on the Second Fork, six on the First Fork, one each on Canoe Run and Lawshe Run, and the rest were on Larrys Creek itself. Eight were structures rebuilt on the site of previous sawmills, and only four were steam powered (the rest were water powered). The earliest of these sawmills was built in 1796 (near Seeley Run), the last in 1902 (on Lawshe Run), and by 1903 just two mills were still standing and only one of those was operating.
Lumbering removed the tree trunks, but left many flammable limbs, branches, and stumps behind. On May 2, 1872, a large forest fire destroyed the villages of Carter and Gould, north of Salladasburg on Larrys Creek in Mifflin Township. There are large tracts of second growth forest and small lumber companies still operate in the watershed today.
Paper railroads
Two "paper railroads" were proposed for Larrys Creek: the "Larry's Creek Railroad and Coal Company", incorporated June 24, 1839 to hold and operate up to of railroad from the mouth of the creek north to the coal mines; and the "Jersey Shore, Pine Creek & State Line Railroad", incorporated on April 11, 1853, to run north from Jersey Shore up Pine Creek to Tioga or Long Run, and thence to the New York state line. Its charter was amended April 4, 1854 to run up Marsh Creek (then known as the Third Fork Pine Creek) and Crooked Creek to the Tioga Railroad, and again on March 26, 1856, to run up Little Pine Creek (then known as First Fork Pine Creek) to the Larrys Creek Plank Road and then up Blockhouse Creek to Blossburg. It was still an active corporation in 1865, but the charter of the "Jersey Shore, Pine Creek and Buffalo Railway" in 1870 (New York City-Reading interests) superseded it. Neither railroad was actually ever built. The only railroad in the watershed is the Lycoming Valley Railroad, which runs parallel to the river and crosses the creek just north of the mouth.
Plank road
In 1851 a plank road or puncheon was built along Larrys Creek from the village of Larrys Creek at the creek's mouth north to Salladasburg, then later along the Second Fork and on to the village of Brookside in Cogan House Township. It was later extended north to the village of White Pine and finally to the village of English Center in Pine Township (along the current course of Pennsylvania Route 287). A spur of the plank road along Larrys Creek into Anthony Township was also built, but it is not known how far it extended. (Landis claims it may have run nearly as far north as the covered bridge in Cogan House Township).
The plank road was a toll road run by "The Larrys Creek Plank Road Company", a corporation founded May 8, 1850. It served the sawmills, grist mills, mines, and leather tanneries along the creek. There was a connection to the railroad and the West Branch Division of the Pennsylvania Canal at the hamlet of Larrys Creek, as well as the West Branch Susquehanna River.
Hemlock logs were used to build the plank road. At that time, the tree's bark was a major source of tannin used to tan leather. The wood was not used much for lumber, so hundreds of thousands of stripped hemlock logs were normally left to rot. There were sawmills and experienced lumber workers available from the local timber industry.
The earth under the plank road was first graded, then ties (similar to those used for railroad tracks) were set into the ground. Next long narrow stringers (similar to rails on a railroad track) were nailed to the ties, with a distance between stringers of about . The road surface consisted of planks about wide nailed to the stringers and was fairly smooth. The road had turnoffs (as it was not wide enough for horse-drawn vehicles to pass each other). Toll houses were at regular intervals, with variable tolls for pedestrians, riders on horseback and various carts and wagons. No toll schedule has survived.
The plank road was operational for about 38 years when a major flood on June 1, 1889, washed out much of it. The flood also destroyed the canal at the creek's mouth. The same storm system caused the Johnstown Flood, which killed over 2200 people. The Cogan House Covered Bridge was the only one on Larrys Creek to survive the flood, as a fallen tree formed a protective dam just upstream. The 90 foot (27 m) long Burr arch truss bridge was built in 1877, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, rehabilitated in 1998, and is today one of just three left in the county.
By then most of the original forests in the county had been clear-cut, so no cheap source of wood was available as before. While the road from Salladasburg south to the West Branch Susquehanna River was repaired and rebuilt, the rest was not. In 1900 the county courts recognized a petition to end tolls on this last portion of the road. The corporation was dissolved and the road and its maintenance passed to the county. As sections of plank road wore out they were replaced by graded dirt and gravel, so that it soon became a regular road. The plank road operated as a toll road for about 49 years. Today only the "Plank Road" name survives, in a section of road that runs north from U.S. Route 220, parallel to Route 287.
See also
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
References
External links
Note: Official Lycoming County Map showing cities, boroughs, townships, villages, county roads, rivers, and some streams
Rivers of Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the West Branch Susquehanna River
Rivers of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania
Allegheny Plateau |
4211447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Canin | Royal Canin | Royal Canin is a French manufacturer and global supplier of cat and dog food. The company is a subsidiary of Mars, Incorporated. It undertakes research into the specific nutritional needs of dogs and cats.
The company was established by French veterinary surgeon Jean Cathary, after he successfully treated a number of skin and coat conditions in pets by feeding them a cereal-based diet he prepared in his garage. He realized that nutrition was an important part of pets' health. After importing an extruder from the United States, a process used in this industry for the first time in 1956, the company was the first to manufacture dry pet food in France. Aimed primarily at breeders, production steadily increased and distribution extended further into the European market. Royal Canin was sold to the Guyomarc'h Group in 1972, and underwent a further period of expansion, especially in the area of research and development, before being purchased by the Paribas Bank in 1990. The company was floated on the French stock exchange but removed later after it was sold to Mars, Incorporated in 2002.
History
Early history
The company was established by the French veterinary surgeon Jean Cathary in 1968. He had a veterinary practice in a village in the Gard region of France and was concerned many people's pets were being presented with a variety of health problems, especially skin and coat conditions. Convinced the cause was dietary, Cathary devised a cereal–based recipe, which he prepared in an oven in his garage.
The diet successfully alleviated the problems pets were presented with, so in 1968, Cathary registered the food with the trademark “Royal Canin”. He closed his veterinary practice to concentrate on manufacturing and distributing the feed. An extruder was imported from the U.S. and Royal Canin became the first manufacturer of dry pet food in France and the first European company to use an extruder. The target market was primarily breeders and German Shepherd associations; television advertising was used to promote the product.
Production steadily increased and in 1970, the company was incorporated as "Royal Canin S. A."; a larger factory was opened in Aimargues and began distribution throughout Europe. Forty staff were employed in the annual production of five–thousand five hundred tons of feed. A subsidiary, Royal Canin Iberica, was established in Spain. In March 1972, Cathary sold the company to the Guyomarc'h Group, a much larger, family-run animal feed business founded by Jean Guyomarc’h in 1954, which specialised in livestock feed.
In 1972, Royal Canin was sold to the Guyomarc'h Group. The new ownership allowed the company to further undergo a period of expansion, especially in the area of research and development. A second factory was inaugurated in 1975 in Cambrai, France.
The period under the ownership of Guyomarc'h saw a marked expansion of the company, particularly in the area of research and development. A dedicated research centre was opened in Saint-Nolff, Brittany, during 1973. Over the ten years up to 1982 additional subsidiaries were also set up in other European countries. These included Italy, Sweden, Belgium, Spain, Germany and Denmark. Another factory was built in northern France to service sales in the countries of the north of Europe. From 1982 onwards, Royal Canin diversified its portfolio to products such as canned food and bird seed and saw its production quadruple to 200,000 tons in 10 years.
The Guyomarc'h group of companies was purchased by the Paribas Bank in 1990. Royal Canin recorded a loss in 1993; the following year the Guyomarc'h group was divided into four separate businesses, one of which remained as Royal Canin. In 1994, a new CEO was appointed and focused on 3 pillars: dry food, health through nutrition and dog-handling expertise. The bank wished to sell Royal Canin but its chairman managed to persuade it to list it on the Paris stock exchange instead, which took place in 1997. Forty–three percent of the company was floated on the stock market and it raised the company's valuation to four and half billion francs. The additional revenue raised provided the funding to buy Crown Pet Foods in 1999 and the James Wellbeloved brand in 2000.
In 1999, Guyomarc'h site was recognized and Royal Canin's activities became autonomous from the other activities of Guyomarc'h site.
Recent history
The bank sold its holding in the company to Mars, Incorporated in July 2002 for in excess of one and a half billion euros. The majority of this payment, almost ninety–three percent, was for "goodwill". The European Commission only agreed to the takeover by Mars if Royal Canin disposed of some assets to Agrolimen, a Spanish company. Royal Canin was removed from the stock exchange listing after the take over by Mars.
In 2002, Mars acquired 40% of Royal Canin's stakes. According to the economic daily newspaper Les Echos, it was a marriage between a French SME, European leader, with a powerful global distribution network.
In March 2004, Royal Canin acquired the US and Canadian veterinary-grade food brands IVD, Medi–Cal and Techni–Cal from Del Monte Foods for $82.5 million.
The company was one of the many brands affected by the 2007 pet food recalls. As at 30 April 2012, the FDA had reported no subsequent Class I, II, or III recalls by Royal Canin.
By 2008, as much as eighty percent of Royal Canin's one and a half billion euro revenue was generated from sales outside France. The number of staff employed worldwide was around four thousand five hundred.
In 2012, Royal Canin established one of its logistics platforms in Verdun, France.
In 2018, Royal Canin celebrated its 50th anniversary.
In 2021, Mars announced that it would invest 46 million euros in France, among which 22 million euros dedicated to its French and Global headquarters in Aimargues, France, where the historic plant, a pilot plant and an R&D center are located.
Royal Canin's motto is "A Better World for Pets"
Products and services
Royal Canin has about 260 different formulas. The food adapted to each animal, physiology and sensitivities and meets the needs of the dog or cat, exactly according to the firm.
The principle of Royal Canin is 'the health of animals through good nutrition'.
Food
In the UK, Royal Canin is a member of the Pet Food Manufacturers Association (PFMA).
The products are adapted for different digestive capacity and divergent growth periods.
Veterinary food
The company develops several different diet formulas, also for medical prevention and care such as Renal Feline Special for feline urinary, tract health, suitable kibbles for dogs with allergies or digestive disorders.
Some veterinary foods are available through prescription only, such as the Wet Diet brand.
Veterinary products
Pill Assist, a treat designed to help owners to give medication to their cats by masking tablets and capsules. In some countries, Royal Canin has its own Veterinary Channel.
Publications
In collaboration with experts, Royal Canin led in the development of publications such as the Dog's Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Canine Clinical Nutrition, the Royal Canin Cat Encyclopedia, and other books like Nutrition of the pets with the French Veterinary Academia.
Research
Royal Canin bases the production of its feeds on scientific research and set up its first research centre in St-Nolff in 1973; a subsequent research centre was established in Missouri in the late 1980s, and a research facility was also opened in Brazil. Products are tested non-invasively on a "focus group" of about 500 pets (dogs and cats) selected for the characteristics of their breeds. Daniel Cloche was one of the scientists who first worked at the company's French research facility and was described as "one of the pioneers in researching bone–related disorders and diseases among dogs". Research indicated bone problems in large dogs could be dietary, so different recipes were developed to specifically address this. In 1980, Royal Canin brought out a new feed called AGR, especially for puppies categorised as large breeds. At that time, the company also turned its attention towards producing cat foods to suit specific dietary requirements.
Henri Lagarde was chairman of the company during the 1990s, and drove the implementation of three core policies. Firstly, the physiology and biology of pets should be studied to increase the company's knowledge base. Secondly, all products had to address specific needs; this was further endorsed by the Research and Development section having mandatory instructions that "no veterinarian or university should be able to refute any of Royal Canin's nutritional arguments". Finally, animals and their nutritional requirements were to be treated with "knowledge and respect" rather than being humanised. The company theme became "knowledge and respect".
Veterinary and peer-reviewed journals
With the help of academics, the company also produces encyclopedias about dog and cat breeds, which have been translated into fifteen languages. There are also books on breeding, nutrition and publications aimed at breeders and veterinary surgeons. Royal Canin also published the scientific quarterly titled FOCUS which was circulated to in excess of seventy thousand veterinarians worldwide in eleven different languages. FOCUS is now called Veterinary Focus magazine. This is in addition to the one thousand four hundred fifty veterinary literatures produced for the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition.
Studies
Royal Canin conducted some studies, like the one on the life expectancy of dogs and cats, which shows that due to the progress in veterinary medicine and animal food, dogs and cats live longer.
In 2012, Royal Canin participated in a Peer-Reviewed Publication which concluded that diets high in saturated fat are not associated with adverse effects in healthy cats. The same year, another research was conducted by the WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, provided new insights into dogs' natural feeding.
Royal Canin partners with some veterinarians, employed or not, in studies and medical recommendations.
Recruitment of specialists and sponsorships
In 1994, Lagarde was determined the company should be seen as dealing with "specialists". He insisted that the word "traditional" must never be used and the word was removed from every document and company computer file being replaced by "specialist" instead.
There are teams of trained veterinary technicians to help and advise breeders and other professionals. The company coined a new description for its teams of trained sales staff as "cynotechnicians", who were already well established and passionate about the canine world; some were show judges or had gained an international reputation for their breeding skills.
In 2019, Royal Canin signed an agreement to partner with MAssey University Foundation by offering a scholarship in health nutrition for cats and dogs veterinary science.
Sponsorships and partnership
The company sponsors and participates in thousands of cat and dog shows each year around the world, like local and regional Canine Club. The company withdrew from sponsoring the UK Contest of Champions event in 2009 but was quoted as stating it was increasing its sponsorship of dog shows. In 2010, Royal Canin financed the Subculture Animal Friends association, animal rights activists linked to punk band Subculture which fight animal cruelty.
In 2017, Royal Canin collaborated with an association which promotes the integration of people wih disabilities through sport in the context of Para Skiing Championships in Spain.
In 2013, Four Paws, an international animal welfare group, accused Royal Canin of sponsoring events that included illegal bear-baiting in Ukraine. The company confirmed the allegations and promised to take action to put an end to its sponsorship of such events. Subsequently, the company made a commitment to support the rescue of bears used and began negotiations with the group to determine a detailed project plan. In July, the company announced that it would fund the constructions of a rescue facility for bears.
In 2022, in the field of healthcare, Royal Canin partnered with PDSA, a UK-veterinary charity, to tackle obesity among pets. The same year, Royal Canin and RACE Foundation renewed their collaboration on the theme of the well-being and safety of animals during travel.
Factories and logistics
Royal Canin's head office is in Aimargues, southern France. There are sixteen production facilities worldwide, in addition to Aimargues including at Cambrai in northern France; Johannesburg, South Africa; Descalvado, Brazil; and González Catán, near Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The plant located in Rolla, Missouri, produces only dry pet feeds. Royal Canin was fined for "violating the Clean Water Act" in 2005 at this site.
In 2004, production facilities at Dmitrov, near Moscow, Russia, opened. Royal Canin committed twelve million euros in the construction of the factory and anticipated annual production of twenty–two thousand tons a year.
The Polish government announced construction was to start in February 2006 on a fifty million euro factory in Niepołomice, Poland, which would provide employment for in excess of one hundred fifty staff. At the time of the announcement, it was described as "the ninth and most modern of all of those which belong to the company"; this was because of the laboratory that was to be included in the design.
The company's first UK facility, at Castle Cary, near Bristol, opened in December 2007, two years later than expected. Annual production was expected to be two thousand tons, employing eighty staff. Although objections were raised by some local residents, others welcomed the facility. The Environment Agency received complaints of an "unbearable smell" after production started. The company installed carbon filters and a new condenser at a cost of a million pounds in attempts to address the problem.
In 2008, the company invested seventy–three million dollars in the construction of a factory at Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
A factory at North Sioux City, South Dakota, USA, was originally purchased by Mars in 2007 and worked under the Mars Petcare brand. This was then re-branded to Royal Canin in 2011, where it manufactures wet pet food.
Royal Canin's twelfth production facility was fully built at the end of 2009 and is located in Shanghai, China.
A new plant has been opened in 2017 in South Korea in Gimje, North Jeolla Province.
In 2021, the company announced that it would invest $185 million for its facility in North Sioux City in South Dakota. The project aimed at creating 149 new full-time jobs. The same year Royal Canin announced an investment of $200 million to expand its manufacturing facility in Lebanon, Tennessee. The expansion began in 2019.
Corporate information
Governance
Since July 2022, Cécile Coutens has been the new president. She succeeds Loïc Moutault. She is the first woman at the head of Royal Canin.
List of chief executive officers
1972-1994: René Gillain
1994-2004: Henri Lagarde
2004-2007: Alain Guillemin
2007-2014: Jean-Christophe Flatin
2014-2022: Loïc Moutault
2022-present: Cécile Coutens
Royal Canin Foundation
Founded in 2020, the Royal Canin Foundation aims to reinforce the positive role that domestic animals play in the health and well-being of people,with topics such as COVID-19 detection, cancer detection, puppy education and disabled children. For example, the foundation partners with Dogpoint, in spain, to facilitate access to assistance dogs for disabled children. In France, the foundation supports the France Victimes Project and has signed an agreement to finance the deployment of 3 new local assistance dogs per year by 2025. In Mexico, the Foundation uses a brigade of assistant dogs called BREC K-9 to help with natural catastrophes such as earthquakes.
ESG
In October 2021, the Royal Canin brand announced its commitment to become carbon neutral certified by 2025 and adhere to the PAS 2060 standard for carbon neutrality. The brand claimed to have begun moving toward carbon neutrality in 2022, by having its first product range carbon-neutral certified.
The Royal Canin brand announced that it would carry out the following actions: transitioning to renewable electricity, procuring sustainable ingredients, reducing waste and boosting circularity and implementing climate-smart business transformation. For any residual emissions that Royal Canin cannot completely remove or reduce, the brand will invest in high-quality, removal-based certified carbon credits. Royal Canin declares qualifying the carbon footprint of 100% of its raw materials. Around 2020, Royal Canin's factories already used 72% of renewable electricity for its factories around the world powered by systems that had been built in the past 20 years.
Events
Royal Canin organizes events related to the pet and industry, such as the Vet Symposium, aimed at veterinarians, and the PRO Experts Forum, aimed at breeders.
In popular culture
A Royal Canin advertisement from the 1980s featured a running German Shepherd in slow motion, set to the instrumental theme "Chi Mai" composed by Ennio Morricone. Alain Chabat parodied this advertisement by including a slow-motion chase scene (with "Chi Mai" as the background music) between Idéfix and a legionary in the 2002 film Asterix & Obelix: Mission Cleopatra.
Controversies
In 2013, following a controversy sparked by the support of dog and bear fights by its Ukrainian subsidiary, the company announced its commitment to assisting in the protection of bears in Ukraine.
In 2017, the brand was mentioned in a report by France 5, "What Kind of Kibble for Our Pets?" and in the book "Ce Poison Nommé Croquette" by Jérémy Anso, criticizing the quality of products from Hill’s Pet Nutrition and Royal Canin, among others.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Cat food brands
Dog food brands
Mars brands
Companies formerly listed on the Paris Bourse
Food and drink companies established in 1968
French companies established in 1968
French brands
Aimargues |
4211531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-energy%20building | Zero-energy building | A Zero-Energy Building (ZEB), also known as a Net Zero-Energy (NZE) building, is a building with net zero energy consumption, meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site or in other definitions by renewable energy sources offsite, using technology such as heat pumps, high efficiency windows and insulation, and solar panels.
The goal is that these buildings contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere during operations than similar non-ZNE buildings. They do at times consume non-renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases, but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount. The development of zero-energy buildings is encouraged by the desire to have less of an impact on the environment, and their expansion is encouraged by tax breaks and savings on energy costs which make zero-energy buildings financially viable.
Terminology tends to vary between countries, agencies, cities, towns and reports, so a general knowledge of this concept and its various employments is essential for a versatile understanding of clean energy and renewables. The International Energy Agency (IEA) and European Union (EU) most commonly use "Net Zero Energy", with the term "zero net" being mainly used in the USA. A similar concept approved and implemented by the European Union and other agreeing countries is nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB), with the goal of having all new buildings in the region under nZEB standards by 2020.
Overview
Typical code-compliant buildings consume 40% of the total fossil fuel energy in the US and European Union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases. To combat such high energy usage, more and more buildings are starting to implement the carbon neutrality principle, which is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Although zero-energy buildings remain limited, even in developed countries, they are gaining importance and popularity.
Most zero-energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid and some include energy storage onsite. The buildings are called "energy-plus buildings" or in some cases "low energy houses". These buildings produce energy onsite using renewable technology like solar and wind, while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient lightning and heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) technologies. The zero-energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase.
The development of modern zero-energy buildings became possible largely through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques. These include highly insulating spray-foam insulation, high-efficiency solar panels, high-efficiency heat pumps and highly insulating, low emissivity, triple and quadruple-glazed windows. These innovations have also been significantly improved by academic research, which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs.
Zero-energy buildings can be part of a smart grid. Some advantages of these buildings are as follows:
Integration of renewable energy resources
Integration of plug-in electric vehicles – called vehicle-to-grid
Implementation of zero-energy concepts
Although the net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources, water and waste, energy is usually the first resource to be targeted because:
Energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel like natural gas or heating oil, is expensive. Hence reducing energy use can save the building owner money. In contrast, water and waste are inexpensive for the individual building owner.
Energy, particularly electricity and heating fuel, has a high carbon footprint. Hence reducing energy use is a major way to reduce the building's carbon footprint.
There are well-established means to significantly reduce the energy use and carbon footprint of buildings. These include: adding insulation, using heat pumps instead of furnaces, using low emissivity, triple or quadruple-glazed windows and adding solar panels to the roof.
In some countries, there are government-sponsored subsidies and tax breaks for installing heat pumps, solar panels, triple or quadruple-glazed windows and insulation that greatly reduce the cost of getting to a net-zero energy building for the building owner.
Optimizing zero-energy building for climate impact
The introduction of zero-energy buildings makes buildings more energy efficient and reduces the rate of carbon emissions once the building is in operation; however, there is still a lot of pollution associated with a building's embodied carbon. Embodied carbon is the carbon emitted in the making and transportation of a building's materials and construction of the structure itself; it is responsible for 11% of global GHG emissions and 28% of global building sector emissions. The importance of embodied carbon will grow as it will begin to account for the greater portion of a building's carbon emissions. In some newer, energy efficient buildings, embodied carbon has risen to 47% of the building's lifetime emissions. Focusiong on embodied carbon is part of optimizing construction for climate impact and zero carbon emissions requires slightly different considerations from optimizing only for energy efficiency.
A 2019 study found that between 2020 and 2030, reducing upfront carbon emissions and switching to clean or renewable energy is more important than increasing building efficiency because "building a highly energy efficient structure can actually produce more greenhouse gas than a basic code compliant one if carbon-intensive materials are used." The study stated that because "Net-zero energy codes will not significantly reduce emissions in time, policy makers and regulators must aim for true net zero carbon buildings, not net zero energy buildings."
One way to reduced embodied carbon is by using low-carbon materials for construction such as straw, wood, linoleum, or cedar. For materials like concrete and steel, options to reduce embodied emissions do exist, however, these are unlikely to be available at large scale in the short-term. In conclusion, it has been determined that the optimal design point for greenhouse gas reduction appeared to be at four story multifamily buildings of low-carbon materials, such as those listed above, which could be a template for low-carbon emitting structures.
Definitions
Despite sharing the name "zero net energy", there are several definitions of what the term means in practice, with a particular difference in usage between North America and Europe.
Zero net site energy use In this type of ZNE, the amount of energy provided by on-site renewable energy sources is equal to the amount of energy used by the building. In the United States, "zero net energy building" generally refers to this type of building.
Zero net source energy use This ZNE generates the same amount of energy as is used, including the energy used to transport the energy to the building. This type accounts for energy losses during electricity generation and transmission. These ZNEs must generate more electricity than zero net site energy buildings.
Net zero energy emissions Outside the United States and Canada, a ZEB is generally defined as one with zero net energy emissions, also known as a zero carbon building (ZCB) or zero emissions building (ZEB). Under this definition the carbon emissions generated from on-site or off-site fossil fuel use are balanced by the amount of on-site renewable energy production. Other definitions include not only the carbon emissions generated by the building in use, but also those generated in the construction of the building and the embodied energy of the structure. Others debate whether the carbon emissions of commuting to and from the building should also be included in the calculation. Recent work in New Zealand has initiated an approach to include building user transport energy within zero energy building frameworks.
Net zero cost In this type of building, the cost of purchasing energy is balanced by income from sales of electricity to the grid of electricity generated on-site. Such a status depends on how a utility credits net electricity generation and the utility rate structure the building uses.
Net off-site zero energy use A building may be considered a ZEB if 100% of the energy it purchases comes from renewable energy sources, even if the energy is generated off the site.
Off-the-gridOff-the-grid buildings are stand-alone ZEBs that are not connected to an off-site energy utility facility. They require distributed renewable energy generation and energy storage capability (for when the sun is not shining, wind is not blowing, etc.). An energy autarkic house is a building concept where the balance of the own energy consumption and production can be made on an hourly or even smaller basis. Energy autarkic houses can be taken off-the-grid.
Net Zero Energy Building Based on scientific analysis within the joint research program "Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings" a methodological framework was set up which allows different definitions, in accordance with country's political targets, specific (climate) conditions and respectively formulated requirements for indoor conditions: The overall conceptual understanding of a Net ZEB is an energy efficient, grid-connected building enabled to generate energy from renewable sources to compensate its own energy demand (see figure 1).The wording "Net" emphasizes the energy exchange between the building and the energy infrastructure. By the building-grid interaction, the Net ZEBs becomes an active part of the renewable energy infrastructure. This connection to energy grids prevents seasonal energy storage and oversized on-site systems for energy generation from renewable sources like in energy autonomous buildings. The similarity of both concepts is a pathway of two actions: 1) reduce energy demand by means of energy efficiency measures and passive energy use; 2) generate energy from renewable sources. However, the Net ZEBs grid interaction and plans to widely increase their numbers of evoking considerations on increased flexibility in the shift of energy loads and reduced peak demands.
Positive Energy District Expanding some of the principles of zero-energy buildings to a city district level, Positive Energy Districts (PED) are districts or other urban areas that produce at least as much energy on an annual basis as they consume. The impetus to develop whole positive energy districts instead of single buildings is based on the possibility of sharing resources, managing energy efficiently systems across many buildings and reaching economics of scale.
Within this balancing procedure several aspects and explicit choices have to be determined:
The building system boundary is split into a physical boundary which determines which renewable resources are considered (e.g. in buildings footprint, on-site or even off-site) respectively how many buildings are included in the balance (single building, cluster of buildings) and a balance boundary which determines the included energy uses (e.g. heating, cooling, ventilation, hot water, lighting, appliances, IT, central services, electric vehicles, and embodied energy, etc.). It should be noticed that renewable energy supply options can be prioritized (e.g. by transportation or conversion effort, availability over the lifetime of the building or replication potential for future, etc.) and therefore create a hierarchy. It may be argued that resources within the building footprint or on-site should be given priority over off-site supply options.
The weighting system converts the physical units of different energy carriers into a uniform metric (site/final energy, source/primary energy renewable parts included or not, energy cost, equivalent carbon emissions and even energy or environmental credits) and allows their comparison and compensation among each other in one single balance (e.g. exported PV electricity can compensate for imported biomass). Politically influenced and therefore possibly asymmetrically or time-dependent conversion/weighting factors can affect the relative value of energy carriers and can influence the required energy generation capacity.
The balancing period is often assumed to be one year (suitable to cover all operation energy uses). A shorter period (monthly or seasonal) could also be considered as well as a balance over the entire life cycle (including embodied energy, which could also be annualized and counted in addition to operational energy uses).
The energy balance can be done in two balance types: 1) Balance of delivered/imported and exported energy (monitoring phase as self-consumption of energy generated on-site can be included); 2) Balance between (weighted) energy demand and (weighted) energy generation (for design phase as normal end users temporal consumption patterns -e.g. for lighting, appliances, etc.- are lacking). Alternatively, a balance based on monthly net values in which only residuals per month are summed up to an annual balance is imaginable. This can be seen either as a load/generation balance or as a special case of import/export balance where a "virtual monthly self-consumption" is assumed (see figure 2 and compare).
Besides the energy balance, the Net ZEBs can be characterized by their ability to match the building's load by its energy generation (load matching) or to work beneficially with respect to the needs of the local grid infrastructure (grind interaction). Both can be expressed by suitable indicators which are intended as assessment tools only.
Design and construction
The most cost-effective steps toward a reduction in a building's energy consumption usually occur during the design process. To achieve efficient energy use, zero energy design departs significantly from conventional construction practice. Successful zero energy building designers typically combine time tested passive solar, or artificial/fake conditioning, principles that work with the on-site assets. Sunlight and solar heat, prevailing breezes, and the cool of the earth below a building, can provide daylighting and stable indoor temperatures with minimum mechanical means. ZEBs are normally optimized to use passive solar heat gain and shading, combined with thermal mass to stabilize diurnal temperature variations throughout the day, and in most climates are superinsulated. All the technologies needed to create zero energy buildings are available off-the-shelf today.
Sophisticated 3-D building energy simulation tools are available to model how a building will perform with a range of design variables such as building orientation (relative to the daily and seasonal position of the sun), window and door type and placement, overhang depth, insulation type and values of the building elements, air tightness (weatherization), the efficiency of heating, cooling, lighting and other equipment, as well as local climate. These simulations help the designers predict how the building will perform before it is built, and enable them to model the economic and financial implications on building cost benefit analysis, or even more appropriate – life-cycle assessment.
Zero-energy buildings are built with significant energy-saving features. The heating and cooling loads are lowered by using high-efficiency equipment (such as heat pumps rather than furnaces. Heat pumps are about four times as efficient as furnaces) added insulation (especially in the attic and in the basement of houses), high-efficiency windows (such as low emissivity, triple-glazed windows), draft-proofing, high efficiency appliances (particularly modern high-efficiency refrigerators), high-efficiency LED lighting, passive solar gain in winter and passive shading in the summer, natural ventilation, and other techniques. These features vary depending on climate zones in which the construction occurs. Water heating loads can be lowered by using water conservation fixtures, heat recovery units on waste water, and by using solar water heating, and high-efficiency water heating equipment. In addition, daylighting with skylights or solartubes can provide 100% of daytime illumination within the home. Nighttime illumination is typically done with fluorescent and LED lighting that use 1/3 or less power than incandescent lights, without adding unwanted heat. And miscellaneous electric loads can be lessened by choosing efficient appliances and minimizing phantom loads or standby power. Other techniques to reach net zero (dependent on climate) are Earth sheltered building principles, superinsulation walls using straw-bale construction, pre-fabricated building panels and roof elements plus exterior landscaping for seasonal shading.
Once the energy use of the building has been minimized it can be possible to generate all that energy on site using roof-mounted solar panels. See examples of zero net energy houses here.
Zero-energy buildings are often designed to make dual use of energy including that from white goods. For example, using refrigerator exhaust to heat domestic water, ventilation air and shower drain heat exchangers, office machines and computer servers, and body heat to heat the building. These buildings make use of heat energy that conventional buildings may exhaust outside. They may use heat recovery ventilation, hot water heat recycling, combined heat and power, and absorption chiller units.
Energy harvest
ZEBs harvest available energy to meet their electricity and heating or cooling needs. By far the most common way to harvest energy is to use roof-mounted solar photovoltaic panels that turn the sun's light into electricity. Energy can also be harvested with solar thermal collectors (which use the sun's heat to heat water for the building). Heat pumps can also harvest heat and cool from the air (air-sourced) or ground near the building (ground-sourced otherwise known as geothermal). Technically, heat pumps move heat rather than harvest it, but the overall effect in terms of reduced energy use and reduced carbon footprint is similar. In the case of individual houses, various microgeneration technologies may be used to provide heat and electricity to the building, using solar cells or wind turbines for electricity, and biofuels or solar thermal collectors linked to a seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) for space heating. An STES can also be used for summer cooling by storing the cold of winter underground. To cope with fluctuations in demand, zero energy buildings are frequently connected to the electricity grid, export electricity to the grid when there is a surplus, and drawing electricity when not enough electricity is being produced. Other buildings may be fully autonomous.
Energy harvesting is most often more effective in regards to cost and resource utilization when done on a local but combined scale, for example a group of houses, cohousing, local district or village rather than an individual house basis. An energy benefit of such localized energy harvesting is the virtual elimination of electrical transmission and electricity distribution losses. On-site energy harvesting such as with roof top mounted solar panels eliminates these transmission losses entirely. Energy harvesting in commercial and industrial applications should benefit from the topography of each location. However, a site that is free of shade can generate large amounts of solar powered electricity from the building's roof and almost any site can use geothermal or air-sourced heat pumps. The production of goods under net zero fossil energy consumption requires locations of geothermal, microhydro, solar, and wind resources to sustain the concept.
Zero-energy neighborhoods, such as the BedZED development in the United Kingdom, and those that are spreading rapidly in California and China, may use distributed generation schemes. This may in some cases include district heating, community chilled water, shared wind turbines, etc. There are current plans to use ZEB technologies to build entire off-the-grid or net zero energy use cities.
The "energy harvest" versus "energy conservation" debate
One of the key areas of debate in zero energy building design is over the balance between energy conservation and the distributed point-of-use harvesting of renewable energy (solar energy, wind energy and thermal energy). Most zero energy homes use a combination of these strategies.
As a result of significant government subsidies for photovoltaic solar electric systems, wind turbines, etc., there are those who suggest that a ZEB is a conventional house with distributed renewable energy harvesting technologies. Entire additions of such homes have appeared in locations where photovoltaic (PV) subsidies are significant, but many so called "Zero Energy Homes" still have utility bills. This type of energy harvesting without added energy conservation may not be cost effective with the current price of electricity generated with photovoltaic equipment, depending on the local price of power company electricity. The cost, energy and carbon-footprint savings from conservation (e.g., added insulation, triple-glazed windows and heat pumps) compared to those from on-site energy generation (e.g., solar panels) have been published for an upgrade to an existing house here.
Since the 1980s, passive solar building design and passive house have demonstrated heating energy consumption reductions of 70% to 90% in many locations, without active energy harvesting. For new builds, and with expert design, this can be accomplished with little additional construction cost for materials over a conventional building. Very few industry experts have the skills or experience to fully capture benefits of the passive design. Such passive solar designs are much more cost-effective than adding expensive photovoltaic panels on the roof of a conventional inefficient building. A few kilowatt-hours of photovoltaic panels (costing the equivalent of about US$2-3 dollars per annual kWh production) may only reduce external energy requirements by 15% to 30%. A high seasonal energy efficiency ratio 14 conventional air conditioner requires over 7 kW of photovoltaic electricity while it is operating, and that does not include enough for off-the-grid night-time operation. Passive cooling, and superior system engineering techniques, can reduce the air conditioning requirement by 70% to 90%. Photovoltaic-generated electricity becomes more cost-effective when the overall demand for electricity is lower.
Combined approach in rapid retrofits for existing buildings
Companies in Germany and the Netherlands offer rapid climate retrofit packages for existing buildings, which add a custom designed shell of insulation to the outside of a building, along with upgrades for more sustainable energy use, such as heat pumps. Similar pilot projects are underway in the US.
Occupant behavior
The energy used in a building can vary greatly depending on the behavior of its occupants. The acceptance of what is considered comfortable varies widely. Studies of identical homes have shown dramatic differences in energy use in a variety of climates. An average widely accepted ratio of highest to lowest energy consumer in identical homes is about 3, with some identical homes using up to 20 times as much heating energy as the others. Occupant behavior can vary from differences in setting and programming thermostats, varying levels of illumination and hot water use, window and shading system operation and the amount of miscellaneous electric devices or plug loads used.
Utility concerns
Utility companies are typically legally responsible for maintaining the electrical infrastructure that brings power to our cities, neighborhoods, and individual buildings. Utility companies typically own this infrastructure up to the property line of an individual parcel, and in some cases own electrical infrastructure on private land as well.
In the US utilities have expressed concern that the use of Net Metering for ZNE projects threatens the utilities base revenue, which in turn impacts their ability to maintain and service the portion of the electrical grid that they are responsible for. Utilities have expressed concern that states that maintain Net Metering laws may saddle non-ZNE homes with higher utility costs, as those homeowners would be responsible for paying for grid maintenance while ZNE home owners would theoretically pay nothing if they do achieve ZNE status. This creates potential equity issues, as currently, the burden would appear to fall on lower-income households. A possible solution to this issue is to create a minimum base charge for all homes connected to the utility grid, which would force ZNE home owners to pay for grid services independently of their electrical use.
Additional concerns are that local distribution as well as larger transmission grids have not been designed to convey electricity in two directions, which may be necessary as higher levels of distributed energy generation come on line. Overcoming this barrier could require extensive upgrades to the electrical grid, however, as of 2010, this is not believed to be a major problem until renewable generation reaches much higher levels of penetration.
Development efforts
Wide acceptance of zero-energy building technology may require more government incentives or building code regulations, the development of recognized standards, or significant increases in the cost of conventional energy.
The Google photovoltaic campus and the Microsoft 480-kilowatt photovoltaic campus relied on US Federal, and especially California, subsidies and financial incentives. California is now providing US$3.2 billion in subsidies for residential-and-commercial near-zero-energy buildings. The details of other American states' renewable energy subsidies (up to US$5.00 per watt) can be found in the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency. The Florida Solar Energy Center has a slide presentation on recent progress in this area.
The World Business Council for Sustainable Development has launched a major initiative to support the development of ZEB. Led by the CEO of United Technologies and the Chairman of Lafarge, the organization has both the support of large global companies and the expertise to mobilize the corporate world and governmental support to make ZEB a reality. Their first report, a survey of key players in real estate and construction, indicates that the costs of building green are overestimated by 300 percent. Survey respondents estimated that greenhouse gas emissions by buildings are 19 percent of the worldwide total, in contrast to the actual value of roughly 40 percent.
Influential zero-energy and low-energy buildings
Those who commissioned construction of passive houses and zero-energy homes (over the last three decades) were essential to iterative, incremental, cutting-edge, technology innovations. Much has been learned from many significant successes, and a few expensive failures.
The zero-energy building concept has been a progressive evolution from other low-energy building designs. Among these, the Canadian R-2000 and the German passive house standards have been internationally influential. Collaborative government demonstration projects, such as the superinsulated Saskatchewan House, and the International Energy Agency's Task 13, have also played their part.
Net zero energy building definition
The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) published a report called Net-Zero Energy Buildings: A Classification System Based on Renewable Energy Supply Options. This is the first report to lay out a full spectrum classification system for Net Zero/Renewable Energy buildings that includes the full spectrum of Clean Energy sources, both on site and off site. This classification system identifies the following four main categories of Net Zero Energy Buildings/Sites/Campuses:
NZEB:A — A footprint renewables Net Zero Energy Building
NZEB:B — A site renewables Net Zero Energy Building
NZEB:C — An imported renewables Net Zero Energy Building
NZEB:D — An off-site purchased renewables Net Zero Energy Building
Applying this US Government Net Zero classification system means that every building can become net nero with the right combination of the key net zero technologies - PV (solar), GHP (geothermal heating and cooling, thermal batteries), EE (energy efficiency), sometimes wind, and electric batteries. A graphical exposé of the scale of impact of applying these NREL guidelines for net zero can be seen in the graphic at Net Zero Foundation titled "Net Zero Effect on U.S. Total Energy Use" showing a possible 39% US total fossil fuel use reduction by changing US residential and commercial buildings to net zero, 37% savings if we still use natural gas for cooking at the same level.
Net zero carbon conversion example
Many well known universities have professed to want to completely convert their energy systems off of fossil fuels. Capitalizing on the continuing developments in both photovoltaics and geothermal heat pump technologies, and in the advancing electric battery field, complete conversion to a carbon free energy solution is becoming easier. Large scale hydroelectric has been around since before 1900. An example of such a project is in the Net Zero Foundation's proposal at MIT to take that campus completely off fossil fuel use. This proposal shows the coming application of Net Zero Energy Buildings technologies at the District Energy scale.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
isolation for building owners from future energy price increases
increased comfort due to more-uniform interior temperatures (this can be demonstrated with comparative isotherm maps)
reduced total cost of ownership due to improved energy efficiency
reduced total net monthly cost of living
reduced risk of loss from grid blackouts
Minimal to no future energy price increases for building owners reduced requirement for energy austerity and carbon emission taxes
improved reliability – photovoltaic systems have 25-year warranties and seldom fail during weather problems – the 1982 photovoltaic systems on the Walt Disney World EPCOT (Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow) Energy Pavilion were still in use until 2018, even through three hurricanes. They were taken down in 2018 in preparation for a new ride.
higher resale value as potential owners demand more ZEBs than available supply
the value of a ZEB building relative to similar conventional building should increase every time energy costs increase
contribute to the greater benefits of the society, e.g. providing sustainable renewable energy to the grid, reducing the need of grid expansion
Optimizing bottom-up urban building energy models (UBEM) can make strides in the exactness of reenactment of building vitality.
Disadvantages
initial costs can be higher – effort required to understand, apply, and qualify for ZEB subsidies, if they exist.
very few designers or builders have the necessary skills or experience to build ZEBs
possible declines in future utility company renewable energy costs may lessen the value of capital invested in energy efficiency
new photovoltaic solar cells equipment technology price has been falling at roughly 17% per year – It will lessen the value of capital invested in a solar electric generating system – Current subsidies may be phased out as photovoltaic mass production lowers future price
challenge to recover higher initial costs on resale of building, but new energy rating systems are being introduced gradually.
while the individual house may use an average of net zero energy over a year, it may demand energy at the time when peak demand for the grid occurs. In such a case, the capacity of the grid must still provide electricity to all loads. Therefore, a ZEB may not reduce risk of loss from grid blackouts.
without an optimized thermal envelope the embodied energy, heating and cooling energy and resource usage is higher than needed. ZEB by definition do not mandate a minimum heating and cooling performance level thus allowing oversized renewable energy systems to fill the energy gap.
solar energy capture using the house envelope only works in locations unobstructed from the sun. The solar energy capture cannot be optimized in north (for northern hemisphere, or south for southern Hemisphere) facing shade, or wooded surroundings.
ZEB is not free of carbon emissions, glass has a high embodied energy, and the production requires a lot of carbon.
Building regulations such as height restrictions or fire code may prevent implementation of wind or solar power or external additions to an existing thermal envelope.
Zero energy building versus green building
The goal of green building and sustainable architecture is to use resources more efficiently and reduce a building's negative impact on the environment. Zero energy buildings achieve one key goal of exporting as much renewable energy as it uses over the course of year; reducing greenhouse gas emissions. ZEB goals need to be defined and set, as they are critical to the design process. Zero energy buildings may or may not be considered "green" in all areas, such as reducing waste, using recycled building materials, etc. However, zero energy, or net-zero buildings do tend to have a much lower ecological impact over the life of the building compared with other "green" buildings that require imported energy and/or fossil fuel to be habitable and meet the needs of occupants.
Both terms, zero energy buildings and green buildings, have similarities and differences. "Green" buildings often focus on operational energy, and disregard the embodied carbon footprint from construction. According to the IPCC, embodied carbon will make up half of the total carbon emissions between now[2020] and 2050. On the other hand, zero energy buildings are specifically designed to produce enough energy from renewable energy sources to meet its own consumption requirements, and green buildings can be generally defined as a building that reduces negative impacts or positively impacts our natural environment [1-NEWUSDE]. There are several factors that must be considered before a building is determined to be a green building. Building a green building must include an efficient use of utilities such as water and energy, use of renewable energy, use of recycling and reusing practices to reduce waste, provide proper indoor air quality, use of ethically sourced and non-toxic materials, use of a design that allows the building to adapt to changing environmental climates, and aspects of the design, construction, and operational process that address the environment and quality of life of its occupants. The term green building can also be used to refer to the practice of green building which includes being resource efficient from its design, to its construction, to its operational processes, and ultimately to its deconstruction. The practice of green building differs slightly from zero energy buildings because it considers all environmental impacts such as use of materials and water pollution for example, whereas the scope of zero energy buildings only includes the buildings energy consumption and ability to produce an equal amount, or more, of energy from renewable energy sources.
There are many unforeseen design challenges and site conditions required to efficiently meet the renewable energy needs of a building and its occupants, as much of this technology is new. Designers must apply holistic design principles, and take advantage of the free naturally occurring assets available, such as passive solar orientation, natural ventilation, daylighting, thermal mass, and night time cooling. Designers and engineers must also experiment with new materials and technological advances, striving for more affordable and efficient production.
Zero energy building versus zero heating building
With advances in ultra low U-value glazing a (nearly) zero heating building is proposed to supersede nearly-zero energy buildings in EU. The zero heating building reduces on the passive solar design and makes the building more opened to conventional architectural design. The zero heating building removes the need for seasonal / winter utility power reserve.
The annual specific heating demand for the zero-heating house should not exceed 3 kWh/m2a. Zero heating building is simpler to design and to operate. For example: there is no need for modulated sun shading.
Certification
The two most common certifications for green building are Passive House, and LEED. The goal of Passive House is to be energy efficient and reduce the use of heating/cooling to below standard. LEED certification is more comprehensive in regards to energy use, a building is awarded credits as it demonstrates sustainable practices across a range of categories. Another certification that designates a building as a net zero energy building exists within the requirements of the Living Building Challenge (LBC) called the Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) certification provided by the International Living Future Institute (ILFI). The designation was developed in November 2011 as the NZEB certification but was then simplified to the Zero Energy Building Certification in 2017. Included in the list of green building certifications, the BCA Green Mark rating system allows for the evaluation of buildings for their performance and impact on the environment
Worldwide
International initiatives
As a response to global warming and increasing greenhouse gas emissions, countries around the world have been gradually implementing different policies to tackle ZEB. Between 2008 and 2013, researchers from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the US worked together in the joint research program called "Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings". The program was created under the umbrella of International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling Program (SHC) Task 40 / Energy in Buildings and Communities (EBC, formerly ECBCS) Annex 52 with the intent of harmonizing international definition frameworks regarding net-zero and very low energy buildings by diving them into subtasks. In 2015, the Paris Agreement was created under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) with the intent of keeping the global temperature rise of the 21st century below 2 degrees Celsius and limiting temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius by limiting greenhouse gas emissions. While there was no enforced compliance, 197 countries signed the international treaty which bound developed countries legally through a mutual cooperation where each party would update its INDC every five years and report annually to the COP. Due to the advantages of energy efficiency and carbon emission reduction, ZEBs are widely being implemented in many different countries as a solution to energy and environmental problems within the infrastructure sector.
Australia
In Australia, researchers have recently developed a new approach to the construction of visually-clear solar energy harvesting windows suitable for industrialization and applications in net-zero energy buildings. Industrial production of several prototype batches of solar windows has started in 2016.
Up to the December 2017, the State of Queensland has more than 30% of households with rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) system. The average size of Australian rooftop solar PV system has exceeded 3.5 kW. In Brisbane, households with 6 kW rooftop PV system and reasonable energy rating, for example 5 or 6 stars for Australian National House Energy Rating, can achieve net zero total energy target or even positive energy.
Belgium
In Belgium there is a project with the ambition to make the Belgian city Leuven climate-neutral in 2030.
Brazil
In Brazil, the Ordinance No. 42, of February 24, 2021, approved the Inmetro Normative Instruction for the Classification of Energy Efficiency of Commercial, Service and Public Buildings (INI-C), which improves the Technical Quality Requirements for the Energy Efficiency Level of Commercial, Service and Public Buildings (RTQ-C), specifying the criteria and methods for classifying commercial, service and public buildings as to their energy efficiency. Annex D presents the procedures for determining the potential for local renewable energy generation and the assessment conditions for Near Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) and Positive Energy Buildings (PEBs).
Canada
The Canadian Home Builders Association - National oversees the Net Zero Homes certification label, a voluntary industry-led labeling initiative.
In December 2017, the BC Energy Step Code entered into legal force in British Columbia. Local British Columbia governments may use the standard to incentivize or require a level of energy efficiency in new construction that goes above and beyond the requirements of the base building code. The regulation is designed as a technical roadmap to help the province reach its target that all new buildings will attain a net zero energy ready level of performance by 2032.
In August 2017, the Government of Canada released Build Smart - Canada's Buildings Strategy, as a key driver of the Pan Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change, Canada's national climate strategy. The Build Smart strategy seeks to dramatically increase the energy efficiency of Canadian buildings in pursuit of a net zero energy ready level of performance.
In Canada the Net-Zero Energy Home Coalition is an industry association promoting net-zero energy home construction and the adoption of a near net-zero energy home (nNZEH), NZEH Ready and NZEH standard.
The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation is sponsoring the EQuilibrium Sustainable Housing Competition that will see the completion of fifteen zero-energy and near-zero-energy demonstration projects across the country starting in 2008.
The EcoTerra House in Eastman, Quebec is Canada's first nearly net-zero energy housing built through the CMHC EQuilibrium Sustainable Housing Competition. The house was designed by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Masa Noguchi of the University of Melbourne for Alouette Homes and engineered by Prof. Dr. Andreas K. Athienitis of Concordia University.
In 2014, the public library building in Varennes, QC, became the first ZNE institutional building in Canada. The library is also LEED gold certified.
The EcoPlusHome in Bathurst, New Brunswick. The Eco Plus Home is a prefabricated test house built by Maple Leaf Homes and with technology from Bosch Thermotechnology.
Mohawk College will be building Hamilton's first net Zero Building
China
With an estimated population of 1,439,323,776 people, China has become one of the world's leading contributor to greenhouse gas emissions due to its ongoing rapid urbanization. Even with the growing increase in building infrastructure, China has long been considered as a country where the overall energy demand has consistently grown less rapidly than the gross domestic product (GDP) of China. Since the late 1970s, China has been using half as much energy as it did in 1997, but due to its dense population and rapid growth of infrastructure, China has become the world's second largest energy consumer and is in a position to become the leading contributor to greenhouse gas emissions in the next century.
Since 2010, Chinese government has been driven by the release of new national policies to increase ZEB design standards and has also laid out a series of incentives to increase ZEB projects in China. In November 2015, China's Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD) released a technical guide regarding passive and low energy green residential buildings. This guide was aimed at improving energy efficiency in China's infrastructure and was also the first of its kind to be formally released as a guide for energy efficiency. Also, with rapid growth in ZEBs in the last three years, there is an estimated influx of ZEBs to be built in China by 2020 along with the existing ZEB projects that are already built.
As a response to the Paris Agreement in 2015, China stated that it set a target of reducing peak carbon emissions around 2030 while also aiming to lower carbon dioxide emissions by 60-65 percent from 2005 emissions per unit of GDP. In 2020, Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping released a statement in his address to the UN General Assembly declaring that China would be carbon neutral by 2060 pushing forward climate change reforms. With more than 95 percent of China's energy originating from fuel sources that emit carbon dioxide, carbon neutrality in China will require an almost complete transition to fuel sources such as solar power, wind, hydro, or nuclear power. In order to achieve carbon neutrality, China's proposed energy quota policy will have to incorporate new monitoring and mechanisms that ensure accurate measurements of energy performance of buildings. Future research should investigate the different possible challenges that could come up due to implementation of ZEB policies in China.
Net-zero energy projects in China
One of the new generation net-zero energy office buildings successfully constructed is the 71-story Pearl River Tower located in Guangzhou, China. Designed by Skidmore Owings Merrill LLP, the tower was designed with the idea that the building would generate the same amount of energy used on an annual basis while also following the four steps to net zero energy: reduction, absorption, reclamation, and generation. While initial plans for the Pearl River Tower included natural gas-fired microturbines used for generation electricity, photovoltaic panels integrated into the glazed roof and shading louvers and tactical building design in combination with the VAWT's electricity generation were chosen instead due to local regulations.
Denmark
Strategic Research Centre on Zero Energy Buildings was in 2009 established at Aalborg University by a grant from the Danish Council for Strategic Research (DSF), the Programme Commission for Sustainable Energy and Environment, and in cooperation with the Technical University of Denmark, Danish Technological Institute, The Danish Construction Association and some private companies. The purpose of the centre is through development of integrated, intelligent technologies for the buildings, which ensure considerable energy conservation and optimal application of renewable energy, to develop zero energy building concepts. In cooperation with the industry, the centre will create the necessary basis for a long-term sustainable development in the building sector.
Germany
Technische Universität Darmstadt won first place in the international zero energy design 2007 Solar Decathlon competition, with a passivhaus design (Passive house) + renewables, scoring highest in the Architecture, Lighting, and Engineering contests
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg im Breisgau
Net zero energy, energy-plus or climate-neutral buildings in the next generation of electricity grids
India
India's first net zero building is Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, located in New Delhi, inaugurated in 2014. Features include passive solar building design and other green technologies. High-efficiency solar panels are proposed. It cools air from toilet exhaust using a thermal wheel in order to reduce load on its chiller system. It has many water conservation features.
Iran
In 2011, Payesh Energy House (PEH) or Khaneh Payesh Niroo by a collaboration of Fajr-e-Toseah Consultant Engineering Company and Vancouver Green Homes Ltd] under management of Payesh Energy Group (EPG) launched the first Net-Zero passive house in Iran. This concept makes the design and construction of PEH a sample model and standardized process for mass production by MAPSA.
Also, an example of the new generation of zero energy office buildings is the 24-story OIIC Office Tower, which is started in 2011, as the OIIC Company headquarters. It uses both modest energy efficiency, and a big distributed renewable energy generation from both solar and wind. It is managed by Rahgostar Naft Company in Tehran, Iran. The tower is receiving economic support from government subsidies that are now funding many significant fossil-fuel-free efforts.
Ireland
In 2005, a private company launched the world's first standardised passive house in Ireland, this concept makes the design and construction of passive house a standardised process.
Conventional low energy construction techniques have been refined and modelled on the PHPP (Passive House Design Package) to create the standardised passive house.
Building offsite allows high precision techniques to be utilised and reduces the possibility of errors in construction.
In 2009 the same company started a project to use 23,000 liters of water in a seasonal storage tank, heated up by evacuated solar tubes throughout the year, with the aim to provide the house with enough heat throughout the winter months thus eliminating the need for any electrical heat to keep the house comfortably warm. The system is monitored and documented by a research team from The University of Ulster and the results will be included in part of a PhD thesis.
In 2012 Cork Institute of Technology started renovation work on its 1974 building stock to develop a net zero energy building retrofit. The exemplar project will become Ireland's first zero energy testbed offering a post-occupancy evaluation of actual building performance against design benchmarks.
Jamaica
The first zero energy building in Jamaica and the Caribbean opened at the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI) in 2017. The 2300 square foot building was designed to inspire more sustainable and energy efficient buildings in the area.
Japan
After the April 2011 Fukushima earthquake followed by the up with Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, Japan experienced severe power crisis that led to the awareness of the importance of energy conservation.
In 2012 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and Ministry of the Environment (Japan) summarized the road map for Low-carbon Society which contains the goal of ZEH and ZEB to be standard of new construction in 2020.
The Mitsubishi Electric Corporation is underway with the construction of Japan's first zero energy office building, set to be completed in October, 2020 (as of September 2020). The SUSTIE ZEB test facility is located in Kamakura, Japan, to develop ZEB technology. With the net zero certification, the facility projects to reduce energy consumption by 103%.
Japan has made it a goal that all new houses be net zero energy by 2030. The developing company Sekisui House introduced their first net zero home in 2013, and is now planning Japan's first zero energy condominium in Nagoya City, it is a three-story building with 12 units. There are solar panels on the roof and fuel cells for each unit to provide backup power.
Korea (Republic of)
South Korea's Mandatory ZEB requirements, which have been previously applied to buildings with a GFA of 1,000 m2+ in 2021 will expand to buildings with a GFA of 500 m2+ in 2022, until being applicable to all public buildings starting in 2024. For private buildings, ZEB certification will be mandated for building permits with a GFA of over 100,000 m2 from 2023. After 2025, zero-energy construction for private buildings will be expanded to GFAs over 1,000 m2. The goal of the policy is to convert all public sector buildings to ZEB grade 3 (an energy independence rate of 60% ~ 80%), and all private buildings to ZEB grade 5 (an energy independence rate of 20% ~ 40%) by 2030.
Energy X DY-Building (에너지엑스 DY빌딩), the first commercial Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB, or ZEB grade 1) and the first Plus Energy Building (+ZEB, or ZEB grade plus) in Korea was opened and introduced in 2023. The energy technology and sustainable architectural platform company Energy X developed, designed, and engineered the building with its proprietary technologies and services. Energy X DY-Building received the ZEB certification with an energy independence rate (or energy self-sufficiency rate) of 121.7%.
Malaysia
In October 2007, the Malaysia Energy Centre (PTM) successfully completed the development and construction of the PTM Zero Energy Office (ZEO) Building. The building has been designed to be a super-energy-efficient building using only 286 kWh/day. The renewable energy – photovoltaic combination is expected to result in a net zero energy requirement from the grid. The building is currently undergoing a fine tuning process by the local energy management team. Findings are expected to be published in a year.
In 2016, the Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia (SEDA Malaysia) started a voluntary initiative called Low Carbon Building Facilitation Program. The purpose is to support the current low carbon cities program in Malaysia. Under the program, several project demonstration managed to reduce energy and carbon beyond 50% savings and some managed to save more than 75%. Continuous improvement of super energy efficient buildings with significant implementation of on-site renewable energy managed to make a few of them become nearly Zero Energy (nZEB) as well as Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB). In March 2018, SEDA Malaysia has started the Zero Energy Building Facilitation Program.
Malaysia also has its own sustainable building tool special for Low Carbon and zero energy building, called GreenPASS that been developed by the Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB) in 2012, and currently being administered and promoted by SEDA Malaysia. GreenPASS official is called the Construction Industry Standard (CIS) 20:2012.
Netherlands
In September 2006, the Dutch headquarters of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in Zeist was opened. This earth-friendly building gives back more energy than it uses. All materials in the building were tested against strict requirements laid down by the WWF and the architect.
Norway
In February 2009, the Research Council of Norway assigned The Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology to host the Research Centre on Zero Emission Buildings (ZEB), which is one of eight new national Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME). The main objective of the FME-centres is to contribute to the development of good technologies for environmentally friendly energy and to raise the level of Norwegian expertise in this area. In addition, they should help to generate new industrial activity and new jobs. Over the next eight years, the FME-Centre ZEB will develop competitive products and solutions for existing and new buildings that will lead to market penetration of zero emission buildings related to their production, operation and demolition.
Singapore
Singapore unveiled a prominent development at the National University of Singapore that is a net-zero energy building. The building, called SDE4, is located within a group of three buildings in its School of Design and Environment (SDE). The design of the building achieved a Green Mark Platinum certification as it produces as much energy as it consumes with its solar panel covered rooftop and hybrid cooling system along with many integrated systems to achieve optimum energy efficiency. This development was the first new-build zero-energy building to come to fruition in Singapore, and the first zero-energy building at the NUS. The first retrofitted zero energy building to be developed in Singapore was a building at the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) academy by the Minister for National Development Mah Bow Tan at the inaugural Singapore Green Building Week on October 26, 2009. Singapore's Green Building Week (SGBW) promotes sustainable development and celebrates the achievements of successfully designed sustainable buildings.
A net-zero energy building unveiled more recently is the SMU Connexion (SMUC). It is the first net-zero energy building in the city that also utilizes mass engineered timber (MET). It is designed to meet the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) Green Mark Platinum certification and has been in operation since January 2020.
Switzerland
The Swiss MINERGIE-A-Eco label certifies zero energy buildings. The first building with this label, a single-family home, was completed in Mühleberg in 2011.
United Arab Emirates
Masdar City in Abu Dhabi
Dubai The Sustainable City in Dubai
United Kingdom
In December 2006, the government announced that by 2016 all new homes in England will be zero energy buildings. To encourage this, an exemption from Stamp Duty Land Tax is planned. In Wales the plan is for the standard to be met earlier in 2011, although it is looking more likely that the actual implementation date will be 2012. However, as a result of a unilateral change of policy published at the time of the March 2011 budget, a more limited policy is now planned which, it is estimated, will only mitigate two thirds of the emissions of a new home.
BedZED development
Hockerton Housing Project
In January 2019 the Ministry of Housing Communities and Local Government simply defined 'Zero Energy' as 'just meets current building standards' neatly solving this problem.
United States
In the US, ZEB research is currently being supported by the US Department of Energy (DOE) Building America Program, including industry-based consortia and researcher organizations at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). From fiscal year 2008 to 2012, DOE plans to award $40 million to four Building America teams, the Building Science Corporation; IBACOS; the Consortium of Advanced Residential Buildings; and the Building Industry Research Alliance, as well as a consortium of academic and building industry leaders. The funds will be used to develop net-zero-energy homes that consume 50% to 70% less energy than conventional homes.
DOE is also awarding $4.1 million to two regional building technology application centers that will accelerate the adoption of new and developing energy-efficient technologies. The two centers, located at the University of Central Florida and Washington State University, will serve 17 states, providing information and training on commercially available energy-efficient technologies.
The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 created 2008 through 2012 funding for a new solar air conditioning research and development program, which should soon demonstrate multiple new technology innovations and mass production economies of scale.
The 2008 Solar America Initiative funded research and development into future development of cost-effective Zero Energy Homes in the amount of $148 million in 2008.
The Solar Energy Tax Credits have been extended until the end of 2016.
By Executive Order 13514, U.S. President Barack Obama mandated that by 2015, 15% of existing Federal buildings conform to new energy efficiency standards and 100% of all new Federal buildings be Zero-Net-Energy by 2030.
Energy Free Home Challenge
In 2007, the philanthropic Siebel Foundation created the Energy Free Home Foundation. The goal was to offer $20 million in global incentive prizes to design and build a 2,000 square foot (186 square meter) three-bedroom, two bathroom home with (1) net-zero annual utility bills that also has (2) high market appeal, and (3) costs no more than a conventional home to construct.
The plan included funding to build the top ten entries at $250,000 each, a $10 million first prize, and then a total of 100 such homes to be built and sold to the public.
Beginning in 2009, Thomas Siebel made many presentations about his Energy Free Home Challenge. The Siebel Foundation Report stated that the Energy Free Home Challenge was "Launching in late 2009".
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley participated in writing the "Feasibility of Achieving Zero-Net-Energy, Zero-Net-Cost Homes" for the $20-million Energy Free Home Challenge.
If implemented, the Energy Free Home Challenge would have provided increased incentives for improved technology and consumer education about zero energy buildings coming in at the same cost as conventional housing.
US Department of Energy Solar Decathlon
The US Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international competition that challenges collegiate teams to design, build, and operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient solar-powered house. Achieving zero net energy balance is a major focus of the competition.
States
Arizona
Zero Energy House developed by the NAHB Research Center and John Wesley Miller Companies, Tucson.
California
The State of California has proposed that all new low- and mid-rise residential buildings, and all new commercial buildings, be designed and constructed to ZNE standards beginning in 2020 and 2030, respectively. The requirements, if implemented, will be promulgated via the California Building Code, which is updated on a three-year cycle and which currently mandates some of the highest energy efficiency standards in the United States. California is anticipated to further increase efficiency requirements by 2020, thus avoiding the trends discussed above of building standard housing and achieving ZNE by adding large amounts of renewables. The California Energy Commission is required to perform a cost-benefit analysis to prove that new regulations create a net benefit for residents of the state.
West Village, located on the University of California campus in Davis, California, was the largest ZNE-planned community in North America at the time of its opening in 2014. The development contains student housing for approximately 1,980 UC Davis students as well as leasable office space and community amenities including a community center, pool, gym, restaurant and convenience store. Office spaces in the development are currently leased by energy and transportation-related University programs. The project was a public-private partnership between the university and West Village Community Partnership LLC, led by Carmel Partners of San Francisco, a private developer, who entered into a 60-year ground lease with the university and was responsible for the design, construction, and implementation of the $300 million project, which is intended to be market-rate housing for Davis. This is unique as the developer designed the project to achieve ZNE at no added cost to themselves or to the residents. Designed and modeled to achieve ZNE, the project uses a mixture of passive elements (roof overhangs, well-insulated walls, radiant heat barriers, ducts in insulated spaces, etc.) as well as active approaches (occupancy sensors on lights, high-efficiency appliances and lighting, etc.). Designed to out-perform California's 2008 Title 24 energy codes by 50%, the project produced 87% of the energy it consumed during its first year in operation. The shortcoming in ZNE status is attributed to several factors, including improperly functioning heat pump water heaters, which have since been fixed. Occupant behavior is significantly different from that anticipated, with the all-student population using more energy on a per-capita basis than typical inhabitants of single-family homes in the area. One of the primary factors driving increased energy use appears to be the increased miscellaneous electrical loads (MEL, or plug loads) in the form of mini-refrigerators, lights, computers, gaming consoles, televisions, and other electronic equipment. The university continues to work with the developer to identify strategies for achieving ZNE status. These approaches include incentivizing occupant behavior and increasing the site's renewable energy capacity, which is a 4 MW photovoltaic array per the original design. The West Village site is also home to the Honda Smart Home US, a beyond-ZNE single-family home that incorporates cutting-edge technologies in energy management, lighting, construction, and water efficiency.
The IDeAs Z2 Design Facility is a net zero energy, zero carbon retrofit project occupied since 2007. It uses less than one fourth the energy of a typical U.S. office by applying strategies such as daylighting, radiant heating/cooling with a ground-source heat pump and high energy performance lighting and computing. The remaining energy demand is met with renewable energy from its building-integrated photovoltaic array. In 2009, building owner and occupant Integrated Design Associates (IDeAs) recorded actual measured energy use intensity of per year, with per year produced, for a net of per year. The building is also carbon neutral, with no gas connection, and with carbon offsets purchased to cover the embodied carbon of the building materials used in the renovation.
The Zero Net Energy Center, scheduled to open in 2013 in San Leandro, is to be a 46,000-square-foot electrician training facility created by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local 595 and the Northern California chapter of the National Electrical Contractors Association. Training will include energy-efficient construction methods.
The Green Idea House is a net zero energy, zero-carbon retrofit in Hermosa Beach.
George LeyVa Middle School Administrative Offices, occupied since fall 2011, is a net zero energy, net zero carbon emissions building of just over 9,000 square feet. With daylighting, variable refrigerant flow HVAC, and displacement ventilation, it is designed to use half of the energy of a conventional California school building, and, through a building-integrated solar array, provides 108% of the energy needed to offset its annual electricity use. The excess helps power the remainder of the middle school campus. It is the first publicly funded NZE K–12 building in California.
The Stevens Library at Sacred Heart Schools in California is the first net-zero library in the United States, receiving Net Zero Energy Building status from the International Living Future Institute, part of the PG&E Zero Net Energy Pilot Project.
The Santa Monica City Services Building is among the first net-zero energy, net-zero water public/municipal buildings in California. Completed in 2020, the 50,000-square-foot addition to the historic Santa Monica City Hall building was designed to provide its own energy and water, and to minimize energy use through efficient building systems.
At 402,000 square-feet, the California Air Resources Board Southern California Headquarters - Mary D. Nichols Campus, is the largest net-zero energy facility in the United States. A photovoltaic system covers 204,903 square-feet between the facility rooftop and parking pavilions. The +3.5 megawatt system is anticipated to generate roughly 6,235,000 kWh reusable energy per year. The facility was dedicated on November 18, 2021.
Colorado
The Moore House achieves net-zero energy usage with passive solar design, 'tuned' heat reflective windows, super-insulated and air-tight construction, natural daylighting, solar thermal panels for hot water and space heating, a photovoltaic (PV) system that generates more carbon-free electricity than the house requires, and an energy-recovery ventilator (ERV) for fresh air. The green building strategies used on the Moore House earned it a verified home energy rating system (HERS) score of −3.
The NREL Research Support Facility in Golden is a class A office building. Its energy efficiency features include: Thermal storage concrete structure, transpired solar collectors, 70 miles of radiant piping, high-efficiency office equipment, and an energy-efficient data center that reduces the data center's energy use by 50% over traditional approaches.
Wayne Aspinall Federal Building in Grand Junction, originally constructed in 1918, became the first Net Zero Energy building listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On-site renewable energy generation is intended to produce 100% of the building's energy throughout the year using the following energy efficiency features: Variable refrigerant flow for the HVAC, a geo-exchange system, advanced metering and building controls, high-efficient lighting systems, thermally enhanced building envelope, interior window system (to maintain historic windows), and advanced power strips (APS) with individual occupancy sensors.
Tutt Library at Colorado College was renovated to be a net-zero library in 2017, making it the largest ZNE academic library. It received an Innovation Award from the National Association of College and University Business Officers.
Florida
The 1999 side-by-side Florida Solar Energy Center Lakeland demonstration project was called the "Zero Energy Home". It was a first-generation university effort that significantly influenced the creation of the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Zero Energy Home program.
Illinois
The Walgreens store located on 741 Chicago Ave, Evanston, is the first of the company's stores to be built and or converted to a net zero energy building. It is the first net zero energy retail stores to be built and will pave the way to renovating and building net zero energy retail stores in the near future. The Walgreens store includes the following energy efficiency features: Geo-exchange system, energy-efficient building materials, LED lighting and daylight harvesting, and carbon dioxide refrigerant.
The Electrical and Computer Engineering building at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, which was built in 2014, is a net zero building.
Iowa
The MUM Sustainable Living Center was designed to surpass LEED Platinum qualification. The Maharishi University of Management (MUM) in Fairfield, Iowa, founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (best known for having brought Transcendental Meditation to the West) incorporates principles of Bau Biology (a German system that focuses on creating a healthy indoor environment), as well as Maharishi Vedic Architecture (an Indian system of architecture focused on the precise orientation, proportions and placement of rooms). The building is one of the few in the country to qualify as net zero, and one of even fewer that can claim the banner of grid positive via its solar power system. A rainwater catchment system and on-site natural waste-water treatment likewise take the building off (sewer) grid with respect to water and waste treatment. Additional green features include natural daylighting in every room, natural and breathable earth block walls (made by the program's students), purified rainwater for both potable and non-potable functions; and an on-site water purification and recycling system consisting of plants, algae, and bacteria.
Kentucky
Richardsville Elementary School, part of the Warren County Public School District in south-central Kentucky, is the first Net Zero energy school in the United States. To reach Net Zero, innovative energy reduction strategies were used by CMTA Consulting Engineers and Sherman Carter Barnhart Architects including dedicated outdoor air systems (DOAS) with dynamic reset, new IT systems, alternative methods to prepare lunches, and the use of solar photovoltaics. The project has an efficient thermal envelope constructed with insulated concrete form (ICF) walls, geothermal water source heat pumps, low-flow fixtures, and features daylighting extensively throughout. It is also the first truly wireless school in Kentucky.
Locust Trace AgriScience Center, an agricultural-based vocational school serving Fayette County Public Schools and surrounding districts, features a Net Zero Academic Building engineered by CMTA Consulting Engineers and designed by Tate Hill Jacobs Architects. The facility, located in Lexington, Kentucky, also has a greenhouse, riding arena with stalls, and a barn. To reach Net Zero in the Academic Building the project utilizes an air-tight envelope, expanded indoor temperature setpoints in specified areas to more closely model real-world conditions, a solar thermal system, and geothermal water source heat pumps. The school has further reduced its site impact by minimizing municipal water use through the use of a dual system consisting of a standard leach field system and a constructed wetlands system and using pervious surfaces to collect, drain, and use rainwater for crop irrigation and animal watering.
Massachusetts
The government of Cambridge has enacted a plan for "net zero" carbon emissions from all buildings in the city by 2040.
John W. Olver Transit Center, designed by Charles Rose Architects Inc, is an intermodal transit hub in Greenfield, Massachusetts. Built with American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds, the facility was constructed with solar panels, geothermal wells, copper heat screens and other energy efficient technologies.
Michigan
The Mission Zero House is the 110-year-old Ann Arbor home of Greenovation.TV host and Environment Report contributor Matthew Grocoff. As of 2011, the home is the oldest home in America to achieve net-zero energy. The owners are chronicling their project on Greenovation.TV and The Environment Report on public radio.
The Vineyard Project is a Zero Energy Home (ZEH) thanks to the Passive Solar Design, 3.3 Kws of Photovoltaics, Solar Hot Water and Geothermal Heating and Cooling. The home is pre-wired for a future wind turbine and only uses 600 kWh of energy per month while a minimum of 20 kWh of electricity per day with many days net-metering backwards. The project also used ICF insulation throughout the entire house and is certified as Platinum under the LEED for Homes certification. This Project was awarded Green Builder Magazine Home of the Year 2009.
The Lenawee Center for a Sustainable Future, a new campus for Lenawee Intermediate School District, serves as a living laboratory for the future of agriculture. It is the first Net Zero education building in Michigan, engineered by CMTA Consulting Engineers and designed by The Collaborative, Inc. The project includes solar arrays on the ground as well as the roof, a geothermal heating and cooling system, solar tubes, permeable pavement and sidewalks, a sedum green roof, and an overhang design to regulate building temperature.
Missouri
In 2010, architectural firm HOK worked with energy and daylighting consultant The Weidt Group to design a net zero carbon emissions Class A office building prototype in St. Louis, Missouri. The team chronicled its process and results on Netzerocourt.com.
New Jersey
The 31 Tannery Project, located in Branchburg, New Jersey, serves as the corporate headquarters for Ferreira Construction, the Ferreira Group, and Noveda Technologies. The 42,000-square-foot (3,900 m2) office and shop building was constructed in 2006 and is the first building in the state of New Jersey to meet New Jersey's Executive Order 54. The building is also the first Net Zero Electric Commercial Building in the United States.
New York
Green Acres, the first true zero-net energy development in America, is located in New Paltz, about north of New York City. Greenhill Contracting began construction on this development of 25 single family homes in summer 2008, with designs by BOLDER Architecture. After a full year of occupancy, from March 2009 to March 2010, the solar panels of the first occupied home in Green Acres generated 1490 kWh more energy than the home consumed. The second occupied home has also achieved zero-net energy use. As of June 2011, five houses have been completed, purchased and occupied, two are under construction, and several more are being planned. The homes are built of insulated concrete forms with spray foam insulated rafters and triple pane casement windows, heated and cooled by a geothermal system, to create extremely energy-efficient and long-lasting buildings. The heat recovery ventilator provides constant fresh air and, with low or no VOC (volatile organic compound) materials, these homes are very healthy to live in. To the best of our knowledge, Green Acres is the first development of multiple buildings, residential or commercial, that achieves true zero-net energy use in the United States, and the first zero-net energy development of single family homes in the world.
Greenhill Contracting has built two luxury zero-net energy homes in Esopus, completed in 2008. One house was the first Energy Star rated zero-net energy home in the Northeast and the first registered zero-net energy home on the US Department of Energy's Builder's Challenge website. These homes were the template for Green Acres and the other zero-net energy homes that Greenhill Contracting has built, in terms of methods and materials.
The headquarters of Hudson Solar, a dba of Hudson Valley Clean Energy, Inc., located in Rhinebeck and completed in 2007, was determined by NESEA (the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association) to have become the first proven zero-net energy commercial building in New York State and the ten northeast United States (October 2008). The building consumes less energy than it generates, using a solar electric system to generate power from the sun, geothermal heating and cooling, and solar thermal collectors to heat all its hot water.
Oklahoma
The first zero-energy design home was built in 1979 with support from President Carter's new United States Department of Energy. It relied heavily on passive solar building design for space heat, water heat and space cooling. It heated and cooled itself effectively in a climate where the summer peak temperature was 110 degrees Fahrenheit, and the winter low temperature was −10 F. It did not use active solar systems. It is a double envelope house that uses a gravity-fed natural convection air flow design to circulate passive solar heat from of south-facing glass on its greenhouse through a thermal buffer zone in the winter. A swimming pool in the greenhouse provided thermal mass for winter heat storage. In the summer, air from two underground earth tubes is used to cool the thermal buffer zone and exhaust heat through 7200 cfm of outer-envelope roof vents.
Oregon
Net Zero Energy Building Certification launched in 2011, with an international following. The first project, Painters Hall, is Pringle Creek's Community Center, café, office, art gallery, and event venue. Originally built in the 1930s, Painters Hall was renovated to LEED Platinum Net Zero energy building standards in 2010, demonstrating the potential of converting existing building stock into high‐performance, sustainable building sites. Painters Hall features simple low-cost solutions for energy reduction, such as natural daylighting and passive cooling lighting, that save money and increase comfort. A district ground-source geothermal loop serves the building's GSHP for highly efficient heating and air conditioning. Excess generation from the 20.2 kW rooftop solar array offsets pumping for the neighborhoods geo loop system. Open to the public, Painters Hall is a hub for gatherings of friends, neighbors, and visitors at the heart of a neighborhood designed around nature and community.
Pennsylvania
The Phipps Center for Sustainable Landscapes in Pittsburgh was designed to be one of the greenest buildings in the world. It achieved Net Zero Energy Building Certification from the Living Building Challenge in February 2014 and is pursuing full certification. The Phipps Center uses energy conservation technologies such as solar hot water collectors, carbon dioxide sensors, and daylighting, as well as renewable energy technologies to allow it to achieve Net Zero Energy status.
The Lombardo Welcome Center at Millersville University became the first building in the state to become zero-energy certified. This was the largest step in Millersville University's goal to be carbon neutral by 2040. According to the International Living Future Institute, The Lombardo Welcome Center is one of the highest-performing buildings throughout the country generating 75% more energy than currently being used.
Rhode Island
In Newport, the Paul W. Crowley East Bay MET School is the first Net Zero project to be constructed in Rhode Island. It is a 17,000 sq ft building, housing eight large classrooms, seven bathrooms and a kitchen. It will have PV panels to supply all necessary electricity for the building and a geothermal well which will be the source of heat.
Tennessee
civitas, designed by archimania, Memphis, Tennessee. civitas is a case study home on the banks of the Mississippi River, currently under construction. It aims to embrace cultural, climatic, and economic challenges. The home will set a precedent for Southeastern high-performance design.
Texas
The University of North Texas (UNT) was constructing a Zero Energy Research Laboratory on its 300-acre research campus, Discovery Park, in Denton, Texas. The project is funded at over $1,150,000 and will primarily benefit students in mechanical and energy engineering (UNT became the first university to offer degrees in mechanical and energy engineering in 2006). This 1,200-square-foot structure is now competed and held ribbon-cutting ceremony for the University of North Texas' Zero Energy Laboratory on April 20, 2012.
The West Irving Library in Irving, Texas, became the first net zero library in Texas in 2011, running entirely off solar energy. Since then it has produced a surplus. It has LEED gold certification.
Vermont
The Putney School's net zero Field House was opened on October 10, 2009. In use for over a year, as of December 2010, the Field House used 48,374 kWh and produced a total of 51,371 kWh during the first 12 months of operation, thus performing at slightly better than net-zero. Also in December, the building won an AIA-Vermont Honor Award.
The Charlotte Vermont House designed by Pill-Maharam Architects is a verified net zero energy house completed in 2007. The project won the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association's Net Zero Energy award in 2009.
See also
References
Further reading
Nisson, J. D. Ned; and Gautam Dutt, "The Superinsulated Home Book", John Wiley & Sons, 1985, , .
Markvart, Thomas; Editor, "Solar Electricity" John Wiley & Sons; 2nd edition, 2000, .
Clarke, Joseph; "Energy Simulation in Building Design", Second Edition Butterworth-Heinemann; 2nd edition, 2001, .
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2000 ZEB meeting report
Noguchi, Masa, ed., "The Quest for Zero Carbon Housing Solutions", Open House International, Vol.33, No.3, 2008, Open House International
Voss, Karsten; Musall, Eike: "Net zero energy buildings – International projects of carbon neutrality in buildings", Munich, 2011, .
Low-energy building
Sustainable building
Sustainable architecture
Building biology
Energy economics
Environmental design
ru:Активный дом |
4211636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homero%20Aridjis | Homero Aridjis | Homero Aridjis (born April 6, 1940) is a Mexican poet, novelist, environmental activist, journalist, former ambassador and ex-president of PEN International, known for his rich imagination, poetry of lyrical beauty, and ethical independence.
Family and early life
Aridjis was born in Contepec, Michoacán, Mexico, on April 6, 1940, to a Greek father and a Mexican mother; he was the youngest of five brothers. His father fought in the Greek army during World War I and the Greco-Turkish War, when his family was forced to flee from their home in Tire, southeast of Smyrna, in Asia Minor. His mother grew up in Contepec amidst the turmoil of the Mexican Revolution. After nearly losing his life at age ten in a shotgun accident, Aridjis became an avid reader and began to write poetry. In 1959 he was awarded a scholarship at the Rockefeller Foundation-supported Mexico City Writing Center (Centro Mexicano de Escritores), the youngest writer to have received the award in the center's 55-year history.
Aridjis has published 50 books of poetry and prose, many of them translated into a dozen languages. His achievements include: the Xavier Villaurrutia Award for best book of the year for Mirándola dormir, in 1964, the youngest writer to receive the prize; the Diana-Novedades Literary Prize for the outstanding novel in Spanish, for Memorias del nuevo mundo, in 1988; and the Grinzane Cavour Prize, for best foreign fiction, in 1992, for the Italian translation of 1492, Vida y tiempos de Juan Cabezón de Castilla. 1492: The Life and Times of Juan Cabezón of Castile was a New York Times Notable Book of the Year. He received the Prix Roger Caillois in France for his poetry and prose and Serbia's highest literary honor, the Smederevo Golden Key Prize, for his poetry. In 2005 the state of Michoacán awarded him the first Erendira State Prize for the Arts. Recently he received three poetry prizes in Italy: the Premio Internazionale di Poesia 2013, Premio Letterario Camaiore and the Premio Internazionale di Poesía Elena Violani Landi, Centro di Poesia Contemporanea, University of Bologna (2016);Premio Letterario Internazionale L'Aquila (2019).
Twice the recipient of a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship, Aridjis was named Doctor Honoris Causa by Indiana University.
He has been a visiting professor at Indiana University, New York University and Columbia University, and held the Nichols Chair in Humanities and the Public Sphere at the University of California, Irvine. He has been an editorial page columnist at the Mexican newspapers La Jornada, Reforma and El Universal since 1985, publishing hundreds of articles about environmental, political and literary topics.
Homero Aridjis has served as Mexico's ambassador to the Netherlands and Switzerland and to UNESCO in Paris. For six years between 1997 and 2003 he was President of PEN International, the worldwide association of writers.
Personal life
In 1965, Aridjis married Betty Ferber. They have two daughters, Eva Aridjis, a filmmaker in New York City (Niños de la calle, La Santa Muerte, The Favor, The Blue Eyes, "Chuy, el hombre lobo") and writer Chloe Aridjis, in London (Asunder, Book of Clouds, Sea Monsters. Topografía de lo insólito).
Critical appreciation
Octavio Paz: "In the poetry of Homero Aridjis there is the gaze, the pulse of the poet, the discontinuous time of practical and rational life and the continuity of desire and death: there is the poet's primal truth."
Kenneth Rexroth: "He is a visionary poet of lyrical bliss, crystalline concentrations and infinite spaces... I can think of no poet of Aridjis' generation in the Western Hemisphere who is as much at ease in the blue spaces of illumination – the illumination of transcending love. These are words for a new Magic Flute." (Introduction to "Blue Spaces")
Juan Rulfo: "The poetry of Homero Aridjis is a symbol of love. His work is very beautiful, above all, his style is very original, very novel."
Guillermo Sucre: "All his poetry – ever since "Antes del reino" (1963)-- is a continual conquest of splendor."
Seamus Heaney: "Homero Aridjis' poems open a door into light."
Mirándola dormir:
Joaquín Marco: "Mirándola dormir" is one of the most beautiful, profound and invigorating love poems in our language."
José Miguel Oviedo: "Mirándola dormir" is a work of exceptional intensity and beauty. An admirable poetic prose has been the ideal channel for this erotic crossing. Handled with perfect control of its rhythms, its internal breathing and the precise integrity of its sounds, it has shown the voice of the Mexican poet in all its deep singularity."
Persephone:
André Pieyre de Mandiargues: "This vast poem in prose which is narrative but never stops being poetic, which is realistic but always fantastical, is a unique book in contemporary literature. The power of this poem, or of this scandalous and fascinating illumination, is incomparable."
Harvard Bookshelf: "A dazzling work of literature in any tradition, or language, by any standards."
Le Nouvel Observateur: "Aridjis reinvents the multiplicity of language with rare mastery. This poetical form gives the story a new and splendid dimension."
1492: The Life and Times of Juan Cabezón of Castile:
The New York Times Book Review: "Succeeds in magisterially recreating that woeful and bizarre period of Spanish history that prefigured the discovery and conquest of America. The overall effect is one of splendidly rendered originality and authenticity... Swarms of minor characters cannot fail to remind us of classics like Cervantes' Don Quixote or of certain canvases by Velázquez or El Greco."
The Times Literary Supplement: "An extraordinary account of religious persecution in the fifteenth century. The sense of menace and threat that Aridjis conjures up is extraordinary."
La Quinzaine Litteraire: "This superb book reads like the wind, like an epic chronicle. Homero Aridjis retrieves, through the miracle of his magical prose, the very essence of the twilight of Spain."
Le Soir (Brussels): "With 1492, Homero Aridjis has achieved a novel of exceptional grandeur."
The Guardian (England): "A book of remarkable imaginative power, a looming shadow of a book, a pit and a pendulum all in one, measuring and burying, remorselessly bizarre. It is impossible not to respect the eloquence which Aridjis brings to lives facing the threat of sudden death at every point and the subtlety with which he insists that the death of the spirit is more terrible than anything that may befall the body."
Espaces Latino-Américains (Michel Schneider): "1492 - Les Aventures de Juan Cabezón de Castille and 1492" – "Mémoires du Nouveau Monde": "Le diptyque sur et autour de 1492 constitue une fresque romanesque monumentale et exceptionnelle, qui place Homero Aridjis au premier plan de la littérature hispanique et latino-américaine d'aujourd'hui ».
The Lord of the Last Days: Visions of the Year 1000:
The Washington Post (James Reston): "The test is 'whether the past is convincingly imagined and vividly evoked'. That is what Homero Aridjis accomplishes so brilliantly in this phantasmagoric, luminous novel, The Lord of the Last Days: Visions of the Year 1000."
Giuseppe Bellini: "Through the two currents of his fiction, with historical background and futuristic themes, Aridjis has brought and is bringing a contribution to Hispano-American narrative which places him among the greatest authors of the 20th Century."
Moctezuma:
Luis Buñuel: "It's perfect. It's a very profound and strange play. I think the author is completely surrealist, which for me is great praise."
El último Adán (The Last Adam)":
Luis Buñuel: "That the apocalypse will be the work of man and not of God is, for me, an absolute certainty. Therein lies the difference between the apocalyptic delirium of The Last Adam and Saint John's mediocre apocalyptic descriptions. Obviously, man's imagination has been enriched over the centuries."
Los invisibles:
Alberto Manguel: "Contemporary literature in Spanish generally lacks the voluptuousness and richness evident in Los Invisibles. It too often chooses between exacerbated realism and a kind of free-for-all fantasy. Aridjis, on the contrary, can use all kinds of voice, showing absolute mastery in all, and an astonishing narrative virtuosity. If "Los Invisibles" had to claim a lineage, it would be that of Voltaire's Contes philosophiques, Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum and (because of its literary humour) Marcel Aymé's "La tête des autres."
J. M. G. Le Clézio: "After reading the novel, I believe it will be impossible to walk the streets of Paris without feeling surrounded by invisibles forces."
Solar Poems:
Yves Bonnefoy: "A great flame passes through the words, the poetry of Homero Aridjis, who sets reality alight in images that at once illuminate and consume it, making life a sister of dream. Homero is a great poet; our century has great need of him." (Preface to "Les poemes solaires")
Quincy Troupe: "Solar Poems" constantly serves up an exhilarating feast of wonderfully evocative images and metaphors that are also daring, cutting edge, full of surprises, often irreverent, historical, but sensual --- even erotic... Aridjis' poetry is full of love and a profound wonder for all of the universe and its inhabitants --- humans, animals, the earth, the seas, the sky and the sun and the moon. Solar Poems is a beautiful and necessary collection of poems by a wise poet at the peak of his powers."
News of the Earth:
Robert F. Kennedy Jr.: "Aridjis's new book covers more than thirty years of fighting to preserve our natural wonders. It will be an inspiration to future generations."
Jacob Scherr, NRDC: "Homero is one of the planet's great environmental heroes."
Lester Brown, founder of Worldwatch and Earth Policy Institutes: "No one in Mexico has made a more important contribution to protecting the country's environment, an effort that has had ripple effects throughout the world."
Alejandro Jodorowsky: "The Group of 100 is a movement of conscience that strives to change our relationship with nature. Thanks to this group, presided over by the saintly poet Homero Aridjis, in our world we can still enjoy the magic of monarch butterflies, sea turtles and gray whales."
J.M.G. Le Clézio: "The great strength of Aridjis's work is the faith it transmits in a creative virtue of the world, pessimism notwithstanding, and in the possibility of saving it thanks to environmentalism. Aridjis's writings are not gratuitous; they are militant. Their source is the reality of the natural world."
Pierce Brosnan: "Our journey together to visit those great gentle creatures [gray whales] was one I will live with forever."
Serge Dedina, founder-director of Wildcoast:"News of the Earth can be read as a chronicle of the history of environmental activism in Mexico, but its scope reaches beyond Mexico, as so many of the issues featured are shared with the United States and Canada, its North American partners in NAFTA, and the world...It is an invaluable contribution to understanding why we must preserve our global environment."
Smyrna in Flames:
Stephanos Papadopoulos: "[T]he book's power is unmistakable. It lies in its indelible images, and in the very fact that Homero Aridjis, named after the greatest poet of Ionia, returns to his own bloody history by rewriting his father's memoirs, by giving the dead a voice, by returning the story to its owners. It is a bleak, terrifying, undeniably moving accomplishment."
Environmental activism
Aridjis is increasingly renowned as one of Latin America's leading environmental activists. As a child, he would often walk up a hillside behind his village to watch the migrating monarch butterflies. As he grew older logging thinned the forest and his concern for the fate of the butterflies and the trees triggered his earliest public defense of the environment.
In March 1985 Aridjis founded and became president of the Group of 100, an association of prominent artists and intellectuals, including Octavio Paz, Juan Rulfo, Rufino Tamayo, Gabriel García Márquez, Álvaro Mutis, Augusto Monterroso, Francisco Toledo, Leonora Carrington, Mathias Goeritz, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, Elena Poniatowska and others, devoted to environmental protection and the defense of biodiversity in Mexico and Latin America. Under his leadership the Group of 100 achieved in 1986 the official decree ensuring protection for the forests where the migratory monarch butterfly overwinters and in 1990 a permanent ban on the capture and commercialization of all seven species of sea turtle in Mexico. The Group was able to thwart the building of dams on the Usumacinta River that would have flooded 500 square kilometers of the Lacandon forest and submerged important Mayan ruins. For five years Aridjis spearheaded the defense of San Ignacio Lagoon, the gray whale nursery in Baja California, successfully preventing Mitsubishi and the Mexican government from building the world's largest solar salt works at the lagoon. Thanks to Aridjis and the Group of 100 the government agreed to publish daily reports of air quality in Mexico City, leaded gasoline was phased out and lead content in pottery drastically reduced, construction of an airport extension which would have obliterated a bird and wildlife sanctuary in Lake Texcoco was halted, thousands of tons of powdered milk contaminated by fallout from Chernobyl were returned to Ireland before they could be distributed in Mexico and a program limiting the circulation of cars in Mexico City one day each week was put into practice by the city government.
In 1991 he conceived of, organized and presided over the first "Morelia Symposium: Approaching the Year 2000", an international gathering of more than 40 prominent writers, scientists, environmentalists and representatives of indigenous peoples, to discuss the state of the planet and to establish a network for international cooperation. Among the participants were J. M. G. Le Clézio, Sherwood Rowland, Petra Kelly, Gert Bastian, Peter Raven, Lester Brown, and Augusto Roa Bastos.
In 1992 he presented the Morelia Declaration, a statement on the environment signed by more than 1000 writers and scientists from 66 countries, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where he spoke at the Global Forum with the Dalai Lama, Petra Kelly, Tom Hayden, Ted Turner and Jane Fonda, among others.
In 1994 he organized and presided over the second "Morelia Symposium: Approaching the Year 2000". Among the participants were J. M. G. Le Clézio, Rita Dove, Kjell Espmark, Bärbel Bohley, Bei Dao, W. S. Merwin, John Ralston Saul, Bill McKibben and Breyten Breytenbach. The Second Morelia Declaration was presented at the United Nations International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994. Aridjis obtained funding for both meetings from the Rockefeller Foundation.
In 2000 he organized and presided over "The Earth in the Year 2000", a joint International PEN—UNESCO symposium of writers and scientists in alliance for sustainable development.
As a pioneer of Mexican civil society, Aridjis played a crucial role in raising environmental awareness and promoting public participation for solving environmental problems, as well as defending freedom of expression about environmental matters.
Public service
While still in his thirties Homero Aridjis served as Mexico's ambassador to the Netherlands and Switzerland. In 1980 he founded the Michoacán Institute of Culture, and as its Director General held an historic international poetry festival, established public libraries throughout the state, founded Mexico's first Museum of Mexican Masks, oversaw restoration of historical buildings, the recovery and restoration of colonial art, protection of cultural heritage, and promotion of cultural diversity in traditional celebrations throughout the state of Michoacán.
Besides the Morelia (Michoacan) Festival in 1981, Aridjis also organized and presided over two international poetry festivals in Mexico City, in 1982 and 1987, bringing to Mexico poets such as Jorge Luis Borges, Seamus Heaney, Günter Grass, Vasko Popa, Allen Ginsberg, Kazuko Shiraishi, Ted Hughes, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Andrei Voznesensky, João Cabral de Melo Neto, Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke, Lars Forssell, Marin Sorescu, Tadeusz Różewicz, André du Bouchet, Eliseo Diego, Mazisi Kunene, Günter Kunert, Breyten Breytenbach, W. S. Merwin, Rita Dove and Paul Muldoon.
In 1997, a coalition of seventeen centers led by American, Japan, Swedish and Belgian (Dutch-speaking) PEN nominated Aridjis for International President of the worldwide association of writers, and he was elected President at the International PEN Congress in Edinburgh, winning a second three-year term at the Moscow Congress held in 2000. He is the first PEN President living in Latin America. During his presidency he oversaw a complete revision of PEN's constitution, achieved acceptance of Spanish as PEN's third official language and led the organization in bettering its governance and accountability. In 2003 he was elected International PEN President Emeritus.
From April 2007 until the abolition of the post in January 2010 he was Mexico's ambassador to UNESCO, where he was a staunch defender of human rights, freedom of expression and cultural diversity and an outspoken critic of lack of transparency and accountability in the UNESCO bureaucracy.
While Aridjis was Mexico's ambassador to UNESCO, he was the driving force behind UNESCO's decision to name Mexico's Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve a UN World Heritage Site.
Teaching activities
Visiting professor, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1969.
Visiting professor, New York University, 1969-1971.
Visiting professor and writer-in-residence, Columbia University, 1979-1980.
Nichols Chair in Humanities and the Public Sphere at the University of California, Irvine, 2002.
Poetry workshop at the Social Security Institute in Mexico City from 1986-1988.
Inaugural J.H. Tans Lecture, University of Limburg, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 1991.
Cecil Green Distinguished Visiting Professor, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 1993.
Professor, "The Contemporary Novel" at Salzburg Seminar Session 354, Salzburg, Austria.
Writer-in-Residence, The Sweet Briar Seminars 1999-2000 International Writers, Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Virginia.
Professor, Bennington Writing Seminar, Bennington College, Vermont, 2002.
Rachel Carson Distinguished Lecture, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, Florida, 2007.
Awards and honors
As a writer:
Fellowship from the Mexican Writers' Center (1959–60)
Xavier Villaurrutia Prize for best book of the year, for Mirándola dormir (1965)
Chosen by Henry Kissinger to take part in the International Seminar for Politics and Humanities, Harvard University, 1966.
John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship (1966–1967 and 1979–1980)
French government fellowship (1966–1968)
Guest of the Berliner Kunstlerprogramm of the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst in West Berlin (1986 and 1988).
Diana-Novedades Prize for Memorias del Nuevo Mundo, for the outstanding novel in Spanish (1988)
Grinzane Cavour Prize for 1492, Vida y Tiempos de Juan Cabezón de Castilla, best foreign novel translated into Italian, 1992
1492: Life and Times of Juan Cabezón of Castile, New York Times Notable Book of the Year
Doctor Honoris Causa in Humanities, Indiana University (1993)
Residency at the Rockefeller Foundation's Bellagio Study and Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy. (1994 & 2010)
Festival de Poesía Ramón López Velarde, Zacatecas, Mexico, held in his honor, 1995.
Prix Roger Caillois for the ensemble of his work as a poet and novelist, France (1997)
Smederevo Golden Key for Poetry, Serbia (2002)
First Erendira State Prize for the Arts, Michoacán, Mexico (2005).
Premio Internazionale di Poesia 2013, Premio Letterario Camaiore, Italy
Premio Internazionale di Poesía Elena Violani Landi, Centro di Poesia Contemporanea, University of Bologna (2016).
Premio Letterario Internazionale L'Aquila Laudomia Bonanni, Italy (2019).
Emeritus Member, National System of Creative Artists, Mexico, since 1999
Honorary member, Hellenic Authors Society.
As an environmentalist:
Global 500 Award from the United Nations Environment Program on behalf of the Group of 100
Latin Trade magazine's Environmentalist of the Year
José Maria Morelos Medal, the state of Michoacan's highest award
John Hay Award from the Orion Society "for significant achievement in writing that addresses the relationship between people and nature", bestowed during a colloquium of writers and scientists in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Mexico
Natural Resources Defense Council Force for Nature Award
•Green Cross Millennium Prize for International Environmental Leadership, given by Mikhail Gorbachev and Global Green (also awarded to his wife, Betty Ferber)
Bibliography
English
Blue Spaces/Los espacio azules, Selected Poems of Homero Aridjis, edited with an Introduction by Kenneth Rexroth, The Seabury Press, 1974
Exaltation of Light, Boa Editions, 1981 (translated by Eliot Weinberger)
Persephone, Aventura/Vintage Books, 1986 (translated by Betty Ferber)
1492: The Life and Times of Juan Cabezón of Castile, Summit Books, 1991 (translated by Betty Ferber)
The Lord of the Last Days: Visions of the Year 1000, William Morrow, 1995 (translated by Betty Ferber)
Eyes to See Otherwise/Ojos de otro mirar, selected and edited by Betty Ferber and George McWhirter, Carcanet, 2001, New Directions, 2002 (translated by Philip Lamantia, Kenneth Rexroth, W. S. Merwin, Jerome Rothenberg, George McWhirter, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Eliot Weinberger)
Solar Poems/Los poemas solares, City Lights Publishers, 2010, English and Spanish (translated by George McWhirter)
Time of Angels/Tiempo de ángeles, City Lights Publishers, 2012 English and Spanish (translated by George McWhirter)
An Angel Speaks, The Swedenborg Society, London, 2015.
The Child Poet, Archipelago Books, New York, 2016 (translated by Chloe Aridjis).
Maria the Monarch, Mandel Vilar Press, Simsbury, CT, 2017 (translated by Eva Aridjis).
News of the Earth, Mandel Vilar Press, Simsbury, CT, 2017 (edited and translated by Betty Ferber).
Contributor to A New Divan: Lyrical Dialogue Between East and West, Gingko Library 2019.
Smyrna in Flames, Mandel Vilar Press, Simsbury, CT, and Dryad Press, Takoma Park, MD, 2021 (translated by Lorna Scott Fox)
Spanish
Poetry
Los ojos desdoblados, Ed. La Palabra, Mexico, 1960.
Antes del reino, Ed. Era, Mexico, 1963.
Mirándola dormir, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1964.
Perséfone, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, 1967.
Ajedrez-Navegaciones, Ed. Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1969.
Los espacios azules, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1969.
Quemar las naves, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1975.
Vivir para ver, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1977.
Construir la muerte, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1982.
Imágenes para el fin del milenio & Nueva expulsión del paraíso, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1990.
El poeta en peligro de extinción, Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico, 1992.
Tiempo de ángeles, Espejo de Obsidiana, Mexico, 1994. English translation, Time of Angels, City Lights Publishers, San Francisco, 2012.
Ojos de otro mirar, Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico, 1998.
El ojo de la ballena, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2001.
Los poemas solares, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2005. English translation, Solar Poems, City Lights Publishers, San Francisco, 2010.
Diario de sueños, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2011.
Del cielo y sus maravillas, de la tierra y sus miserias, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2013.
Esmirna en llamas, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, DF, 2013
La poesía llama, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2018.
Novels
La tumba de Filidor, Ed. La Palabra, Mexico, 1961.
El poeta niño, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1971.
El encantador solitario, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1972.
1492 vida y tiempos de Juan Cabezón de Castilla, Ed. Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1985.
Memorias del nuevo mundo, Editorial Diana, Mexico, 1988.
La leyenda de los soles, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1993.
El señor de los últimos días: Visiones del año mil, Alfaguara, Mexico, 1994.
¿En quién piensas cuando haces el amor?, Alfaguara, Mexico, 1996.
La montaña de las mariposas, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2000.
La zona del silencio, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2002.
El hombre que amaba el sol, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2005.
Sicarios, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2007.
Los invisibles, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2010.
Los perros del fin del mundo, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2012.
Esmirna en llamas, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2013.
Ciudad de zombis, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2014
Carne de Dios, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2015.
Los peones son el alma del juego, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2021.
Short fiction
Noche de independencia, Ed. Ultramar, Salvat, Madrid, 1978.
Playa nudista y otros relatos, Ed. Argos Vergara, Barcelona, 1982.
La Santa Muerte, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2004.
Drama
Espectáculo del año dos mil y Moctezuma, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, México, 1981.
El último Adán, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, México, 1986.
Gran teatro del fin del mundo, Joaquín Mortiz, México, 1989.
Non-fiction
Apocalipsis con figuras, Taurus, Mexico, 1997.
Noticias de la Tierra, with Betty Ferber, Random House Mondadori, Mexico, 2012.
Testamento del dragón, Alfaguara Penguin Random House, Mexico, 2018.
El nuevo Apocalipsis, Editorial Verbum, Madrid, 2020.
Children's books
El silencio de Orlando, Alfaguara Infantil, Mexico, 2000, Ediciones Castillo, Mexico, 2015.
El día de los perros locos, Alfguara Infantil, Mexico, 2003.
El tesoro de la noche triste (Vuelven los perros locos), Alfaguara Infantil, Mexico, 2005.
La búsqueda de Archelon: Odisea de las siete tortugas, Alfaguara, Mexico, 2006.
María la monarca, Ediciones Castillo, Mexico, 2015.
Poetry anthologies
Antología, Ed. Lumen, Barcelona, 1976.
Antología poética, Ocnos Editores, Barcelona, 1976.
Sobre una ausencia, Akal Editor, Madrid, 1977.
Obra poética 1960-1986, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1987.
Obra poética 1960-1990, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico, 1991.
Antologia poetica 1960-1994, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1994.
Ojos de otro mirar: Poesía 1960-2001, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2002.
Infancia de luz, Ediciones SM, Mexico, 2003.
Antología poética, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2009.
Antología poética, 1960-2018, Ediciones Cátedra, Madrid, 2018.
Critical anthologies
Poesía en movimiento: México 1915-66, Ed. Siglo XXI, México, 1966, with Octavio Paz, Alí Chumacero and Jose Emilio Pacheco.
330 grabados originales de Manuel Manilla, Homero Aridjis y Arsacio Vanegas Arroyo, Editorial A. Vanegas Arroyo, Mexico, 1971.
Seis poetas latinoamericanos de hoy, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York, 1972.
New Poetry of Mexico, E.H. Dutton, New York, 1972; Secker and Warburg, London, 1974.
Heimwee naar de dood: Zeven Mexicaanse dichters van deze eeuw, Meulenhoff, Amsterdam, 1974.
Savremena poezija Meksika, Bagdala, Belgrade, 1976.
Snabbare an tanken ror sig bilden: Modern Mexikansk poesi, with Pierre Zekeli, Fibs Lyrikklubs, Stockholm, 1979.
Antología del Primer Festival Internacional de Poesía, Morelia 1981, Ed. Joaquín Mortiz, Mexico 1982.
Antología del Festival Internacional de Poesía de la Ciudad de México, El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico, 1988.
Artistas e intelectuales sobre el Ecocidio Urbano, with Fernando Cesarman, Consejo de la Crónica de la Ciudad de México, Mexico, 1989.
Recordings
Recording of his poetry for the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 1966.
The World's Greatest Poets Reading at the Festival of Two Worlds, Spoleto, Italy, Spanish Poets, Volume I, Applause Productions, Inc., New York, 1968.
Homero Aridjis: antología poética, Voz Viva de México, UNAM, Mexico, 1969.
Poetry International 1973, Rotterdamse Kunststichting, Rotterdam, 1973.
Homero Aridjis: Ojos de otro mirar, Entre voces, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2003.
Further reading
Edenes subvertidos. La obra en prosa de Homero Aridjis, Laurence Pagacz, Bonilla Artigas, 2018
I tempi dell'apocalisse. L'opera di Homero Aridjis, Giuseppe Bellini, Bulzoni, 2013
Latin American Novels of the Conquest: Reinventing the New World/Kimberle S. Lopez, University of Missouri Press, 2002
El deseo colonial en 1492 y Memorias del Nuevo Mundo de Homero Aridjis/Kimberle s. Lopez, read at the Sexto Congreso de Literatura Mexicana Contemporánea, El Paso, Texas, March 1–4, 2001.
La luz queda en el aire, Estudios internacionales en torno a Homero Aridjis, ed. Thomas Stauder. Vervuert Verlag, 2005
Mexico in the 21st century: selected essays/Alina Camacho Rivero de Gingerich., 2003
Actualización de temas precolombinos en tres poetas contemporaneos Mexicanos/María Socorro Tabuenca Córdoba., 1979
Homero Aridjis: neoliberalismo y ficción narrativa en En quién piensas cuando haces el amor?/Stéphanie Valdés-Besson., 2005
El último Adán: Visión apocalíptica de la ciudad en la narrativa de Homero Aridjis, Lucia Guerra, Contexto, vol. 6, No. 8, 2002
La fantasia milenarista de Homero Aridjis, Summa crítica, Saul Yurkievich, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1997.
References
External links
www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/homero_aridjis/
Biography from the international literature festival berlin Biography from the International Literature Festival Berlin
Group of 100
Homero Aridjis' 2009 publication from City Lights, Solar Poems
"El último Adán: Visión apocalíptica de la ciudad en la narrativa de Homero Aridjis"
Keynote Lecture: "The Birds, or My Life as a Writer and Environmentalist Activist"
PEN International
Enough! Mexico Is Ready to Explode
Migrants Ride a 'Train of Death' to Get to America & We're Ignoring the Root of the Problem
We're Mad as Hell, and We're Not Going to Take It Anymore
Last Call For Monarchs
40 Years Ago the World 'Discovered' Mexico's Monarch Habitat -- Today Its Survival Is at Stake
Charlie Hebdo Deserves the PEN Award. Censorship Is Complicity.
Instead Of Trump's Wall, Let's Build A Border Of Solar Panels
https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/a-poet-of-mythologies-homero-aridjis-at-80/
Homero Aridjis recorded at the Library of Congress for the Hispanic Division's audio literary archive on February 23, 1966.
1940 births
Living people
Mexican people of Greek descent
PEN International
Mexican male poets
Writers from Michoacán
Mexican environmentalists
Mexican columnists
Ambassadors of Mexico to the Netherlands
Ambassadors of Mexico to Switzerland
Mexican expatriates in France |
4212215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Theatre%20Communications%20Group%20member%20theatres | List of Theatre Communications Group member theatres | This is a list of theatre companies with membership of the Theatre Communications Group (TCG) in the United States.
A
1812 Productions, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
The 52nd Street Project, New York
7 Stages, Atlanta, Georgia
About Face Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Academy Theatre, Avondale Estates, Georgia
ACT Theatre, Seattle, Washington
The Acting Company, New York City, New York
Actor's Express, Atlanta, Georgia
The Actors' Gang, Culver City, California
Actors' Guild Of Lexington, Lexington, Kentucky
Actor's Theatre of Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina
Actors Theatre of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
Actors Theatre of Phoenix, Phoenix, Arizona
Adirondack Theatre Festival, Glens Falls, New York
The African Continuum Theatre Company, Washington, D.C.
Alabama Shakespeare Festival, Montgomery, Alabama
Alley Theatre, Houston, Texas
Alliance Theatre Company, Atlanta, Georgia
Amas Musical Theatre, Inc., New York City, New York
American Conservatory Theater, San Francisco, California
American Folklore Theatre, Fish Creek, Wisconsin
American Players Theatre, Spring Green, Wisconsin
American Repertory Theater, Cambridge, Massachusetts
American Shakespeare Center, Staunton, Virginia
American Stage, St. Petersburg, Florida
American Theater Company, Chicago, Illinois
American Theatre Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Arden Theatre Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Arena Stage, Washington, D.C.
Arizona Theatre Company, Tucson, Arizona
The Arkansas Arts Center Children's Theatre, Little Rock, Arkansas
Arkansas Repertory Theatre, Little Rock, Arkansas
Artists Repertory Theatre, Portland, Oregon
Arts Center of Coastal Carolina, Hilton Head, South Carolina
Arvada Center for the Arts and Humanities, Arvada, Colorado
Asolo Theatre Company, Sarasota, Florida
Atlanta Shakespeare Company at the Shakespeare Tavern, Atlanta, Georgia
Atlantic Theater Company, New York City, New York
Aurora Theatre Company, Berkeley, California
B
B Street Theatre, Sacramento, California
Barksdale Theatre, Richmond, Virginia
Barrington Stage Company, Pittsfield, Massachusetts
Bay Street Theatre Festival, Inc., Sag Harbor, New York
Berkeley Repertory Theatre, Berkeley, California
Berkshire Theatre Festival, Stockbridge, Massachusetts
Bilingual Foundation of the Arts, Los Angeles, California
Blank Theatre Company, Los Angeles, California
Bloomsburg Theatre Ensemble, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania
BoarsHead Theater, Lansing, Michigan
Boise Contemporary Theater, Boise, Idaho
Book-It Repertory Theatre, Seattle, Washington
Borderlands Theater, Tucson, Arizona
Boston Theatre Works, Boston, Massachusetts
Brat Productions, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Brava Theater Center, San Francisco, California
Bristol Riverside Theatre, Bristol, Pennsylvania
Burning Coal Theatre Company, Raleigh, North Carolina
Bushfire Theatre, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
C
Cal Rep, Long Beach, California
California Shakespeare Theater, Berkeley, California
California Theatre Center, Sunnyvale, California
Cape Cod Theatre Project, Falmouth, Massachusetts
Capital Repertory Theatre, Albany, New York
Castillo Theatre, New York
Center for New Theater at Cal Arts, Valencia, California
Center for Puppetry Arts, Atlanta, Georgia
Center Theatre Group, Los Angeles, California
Centerstage, Baltimore, Maryland
Centre Stage, Greenville's Professional Theater, Greenville, South Carolina
Charleston Stage Company, Charleston, South Carolina
Cherry Lane Theatre, New York City, New York
Chicago Dramatists, Chicago, Illinois
Chicago Shakespeare Theater, Chicago, Illinois
Children's Theatre Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Childsplay Inc., Tempe, Arizona
The Cider Mill Playhouse, Endicott, New York
Cincinnati Shakespeare Company, Cincinnati, Ohio
City Garage, Santa Monica, California
City Theatre, Miami, Florida
City Theatre Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
The Civilians, New York City, New York
Clarence Brown Theatre Company, Knoxville, Tennessee
Classic Stage Company, New York City, New York
Classical Theatre of Harlem, New York City, New York
The Cleveland Play House, Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland Public Theatre, Cleveland, Ohio
Collaboraction, Chicago, Illinois
Colony Theatre Company, Burbank, California
Columbus Children's Theatre, Columbus, Ohio
Commonweal Theatre Company, Lanesboro, Minnesota
Company Of Fools, Hailey, Idaho
Congo Square Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Connecticut Repertory Theatre, Storrs, Connecticut
Contemporary American Theater Festival, Shepherdstown, West Virginia
Cornerstone Theater Company, Los Angeles, California
The Coterie Theatre, Kansas City, Missouri
Court Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Creede Repertory Theatre, Creede, Colorado
Curious Theatre Company, Denver, Colorado
Cyrano's Theatre Company, Anchorage, Alaska
D – F
Dad's Garage Theatre Company, Atlanta, Georgia
Dallas Children's Theater, Dallas, Texas
Dallas Theater Center, Dallas, Texas
Deaf West Theatre, North Hollywood, California
Delaware Theatre Company, Wilmington, Delaware
Dell’Arte International, Blue Lake, California
Denver Center Theatre Company, Denver, Colorado
Depot Theatre, Westport, New York
Detroit Repertory Theatre, Detroit, Michigan
Dobama Theatre, Cleveland Heights, Ohio
Double Edge Theatre, Ashfield, Massachusetts
East West Players, Los Angeles, California
The Empty Space Theatre, Seattle, Washington
Ensemble Studio Theatre, New York City, New York
The Ensemble Theatre, Houston, Texas
Ensemble Theatre Company, Santa Barbara, California
Ensemble Theatre of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Eugene O'Neill Theater Center, Waterford, Connecticut
Everyman Theatre, Baltimore, Maryland
First Stage Children's Theater, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Florida Stage, Manalapan, Florida
Florida Studio Theatre, Sarasota, Florida
Folger Theatre, Washington, D.C.
The Foothill Theatre Co, Nevada City, California
Ford's Theatre, Washington, D.C.
The Foundry Theatre, New York City, New York
Fountain Theatre, Los Angeles, California
Free Street Programs, Chicago, Illinois
G – J
GableStage, Coral Gables, Florida
Gainesville Theatre, Gainesville, Georgia
GALA Hispanic Theatre, Washington, D.C.
Gamm Theatre, Pawtucket, Rhode Island
Gamut Theatre Group, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Geffen Playhouse, Los Angeles, California
George Street Playhouse, New Brunswick, New Jersey
Georgia Shakespeare Festival, Atlanta, Georgia
Geva Theatre Center, Rochester, New York
Golden Thread Productions, San Francisco, California
Goodman Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Great Lakes Theater Festival, Cleveland, Ohio
Greenbrier Valley Theatre, Lewisburg, West Virginia
Growing Stage Theatre For Young Audiences, Netcong, New Jersey
Guthrie Theater, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Hangar Theatre, Ithaca, New York
Harlequin Productions, Olympia, Washington
HartBeat Ensemble, Hartford, Connecticut
Hartford Stage, Hartford, Connecticut
Harwich Junior Theatre and Harwich Winter Theatre, West Harwich, Massachusetts
History Theatre, Saint Paul, Minnesota
Honolulu Theatre for Youth, Honolulu, Hawaii
Horizon Theatre Company, Atlanta, Georgia
Human Race Theatre Company, Dayton, Ohio
Huntington Theatre Company, [[Boston, Massachusetts
Hyde Park Theatre, Austin, Texas
The Hypocrites, Chicago, Illinois
Idaho Shakespeare Festival, Boise, Idaho
Illinois Theatre Center, Park Forest, Illinois
Illusion Theater, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Indiana Repertory Theatre, Indianapolis, Indiana
INTAR Hispanic American Arts Center, New York City, New York
InterAct Theatre Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
International City Theatre, Long Beach, California
Intiman Theatre, Seattle, Washington
Invisible Theatre Company, Tucson, Arizona
Irish Classical Theatre Company, Buffalo, New York
Irondale Ensemble Project, Brooklyn, New York
J – L
Jewish Theater of New York, New York City, New York
Jewish Theatre of the South, Dunwoody, Georgia
The John Drew Theater, East Hampton, New York
The Jungle Theater, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Kansas City Repertory Theatre, Kansas City, Missouri
The Kavinoky Theatre, Buffalo, New York]]
Kennedy Center - Youth And Family Programs, Arlington, Virginia
Kentucky Repertory Theatre, Horse Cave, Kentucky
Kentucky Shakespeare Festival, Louisville, Kentucky
Kitchen Dog Theater, Dallas, Texas
Kitchen Theatre Company, Ithaca, New York
Know Theatre of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
L.A. Theatre Works, Venice, California
La Jolla Playhouse, La Jolla, California
La MaMa Experimental Theatre, New York City, New York
LAByrinth Theater Company, New York City, New York
Laguna Playhouse, Laguna Beach, California
Lantern Theater Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Lark Play Development Center, New York City, New York
Lincoln Center Theater, New York City, New York
Long Wharf Theatre, New Haven, Connecticut
Lookingglass Theatre Company, Chicago, Illinois
Los Angeles Women's Shakespeare Company, Los Angeles, California
Lost Nation Theater, Montpelier, Vermont
The Lyric Stage Company of Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
M
Ma-Yi Theater Company, New York City, New York
Mabou Mines, New York City, New York
Mad River Theater Works, West Liberty, Ohio
Madison Repertory Theatre, Madison, Wisconsin
Magic Theatre, Inc., San Francisco, California
Main Street Theater, Houston, Texas
Manhattan Ensemble Theater, New York City, New York
Manhattan Theatre Club, New York City, New York
Marin Shakespeare Company, San Rafael, California
Marin Theatre Company, Mill Valley, California
Maryland Ensemble Theatre, Frederick, Maryland
McCarter Theatre Center, Princeton, New Jersey
Meadow Brook Theatre, Rochester, Michigan
Melting Pot Theatre Company, New York City, New York
Merrimack Repertory, Lowell, Massachusetts
Merry Go-Round Playhouse, Auburn, New York
Metro Theater Company, St. Louis, Missouri
Milwaukee Chamber Theatre, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Milwaukee Repertory Theater, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Milwaukee Shakespeare Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Mint Theater Company, New York City, New York
Miracle Theatre Group, Portland, Oregon
Mirror Repertory Company, New York City, New York
Mixed Blood Theatre Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Montana Repertory Theatre, Missoula, Montana
Montgomery Theater, Souderton, Pennsylvania
Moving Arts, Los Angeles, California
Mu Performing Arts, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Mum Puppettheatre, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
My Fair Heathen Productions, Brooklyn, New York
N – O
Native Voices at the Autry, Los Angeles, California
Nautilus Music-Theater, Saint Paul, Minnesota
Nebraska Repertory Theatre, Lincoln, Nebraska
Nevada Shakespeare Company, Reno, Nevada
New American Theater, Rockford, Illinois
New Conservatory Theatre Center, San Francisco, California
New Dramatists, New York
New Federal Theatre, Inc., New York City, New York
New Georges, New York City, New York
New Ground Theatre, Davenport, Iowa
The New Harmony Theatre, Evansville, Indiana
New Jersey Repertory Company, Long Branch, New Jersey
The New Orleans Shakespeare Festival at Tulane, New Orleans, Louisiana
New Paradise Laboratories, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
New Professional Theatre, New York City, New York
New Repertory Theatre, Watertown, Massachusetts
New Stage Theatre, Jackson, Mississippi
New Theatre, Coral Gables, Florida
New World Theater, Amherst, Massachusetts
New York State Theatre, Troy, New York
New York Theatre Workshop, New York City, New York
Next Act Theatre, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
The Next Theatre Company, Evanston, Illinois
A Noise Within, Glendale, California
North Carolina Stage Company, Asheville, North Carolina
North Coast Repertory, Solana Beach, California
North Star Theatre, Mandeville, Louisiana
Northern Stage, White River Junction, Vermont
Northlight Theatre, Skokie, Illinois
Northwest Children's Theater and School, Portland, Oregon
Northwest Classical Theatre Company, Portland, Oregon
Odyssey Theatre Ensemble, Los Angeles, California
The Old Globe, San Diego, California
Olney Theatre Center, Olney, Maryland
Omaha Theater Company For Young People, Omaha, Nebraska
Ontological-Hysteric Theater, New York City, New York
The Open Eye Theater, Margaretville, New York
Open Stage Of Harrisburg, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
OpenStage Theatre and Company, Fort Collins, Colorado
Oregon Children's Theatre, Portland, Oregon
Oregon Contemporary Theatre, Eugene, Oregon
Oregon Shakespeare Festival, Ashland, Oregon
Orlando Shakespeare Theater, Orlando, Florida
Out Of Hand Theater, Atlanta, Georgia
P
Palm Beach Dramaworks, West Palm Beach, Florida
Pan Asian Repertory Theatre, New York
Pangea World Theater, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Paper Mill Playhouse, Millburn, New Jersey
Pasadena Playhouse, Pasadena, California
Passage Theatre Company, Trenton, New Jersey
PCPA Theaterfest, Santa Maria, California
Pegasus Players Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Peninsula Players Theatre, Fish Creek, Wisconsin
Pennsylvania Shakespeare Festival, Center Valley, Pennsylvania
Penobscot Theatre Company, Bangor, Maine
Penumbra Theatre Company, Saint Paul, Minnesota
The People's Light And Theatre Company, Malvern, Pennsylvania
Performance Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Perishable Theatre, Providence, Rhode Island
Perseverance Theatre, Douglas, Alaska
Peterborough Players, Peterborough, New Hampshire
The Philadelphia Shakespeare Festival, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Theatre Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Phoenix Theatre, Phoenix, Arizona
Phoenix Theatre, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Pick Up Performance Company, New York City, New York
Pig Iron Theatre Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Pillsbury House Theatre, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Ping Chong And Company, New York City, New York
Pioneer Theatre Company, Salt Lake City, Utah
Pittsburgh Irish and Classical Theatre, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh Public Theater, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Piven Theatre Workshop, Evanston, Illinois
PlayGround, San Francisco, California
Playhouse on the Square, Memphis, Tennessee
Playhouse West, Walnut Creek, California
PlayMakers Repertory Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
The Playwrights' Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Playwrights Horizons, New York City, New York
Playwrights Theatre Of New Jersey, Madison, New Jersey
Plowshares Theatre Co, Detroit, Michigan
Portland Center Stage, Portland, Oregon
Portland Stage Company, Portland, Maine
Pregones Theater, Bronx, New York
Primary Stages Theater, New York City, New York
ProArts Collective of Austin, Austin, Texas
Profile Theatre Project, Portland, Oregon
The Public Theatre, Auburn, Maine
The Public Theater, New York City, New York
PushPush Theater, Decatur, Georgia
R – S
Red Barn Theatre, Key West, Florida
Redmoon Theater, Chicago, Illinois
Renaissance Theaterworks, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
The Repertory Theatre of St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
River Stage, Sacramento, California
Riverlight And Co, Battle Creek, Michigan
Riverside Theatre, Iowa City, Iowa
Roadside Theater, Norton, Virginia
Round House Theatre, Bethesda, Maryland
Roundabout Theatre Company, New York
Roxy Regional Theatre, Clarksville, Tennessee
Rude Mechanicals, Austin, Texas
Saint Michael's Playhouse, Colchester, Vermont
The Salt Lake Acting Company, Salt Lake City, Utah
Salvage Vanguard Theater, Austin, Texas
San Diego Repertory, San Diego, California
San Jose Repertory Theatre, San Jose, California
Seattle Children's Theatre, Seattle, Washington
Seattle Public Theater, Seattle, Washington
Seattle Repertory Theatre, Seattle, Washington
Seattle Shakespeare Company, Seattle, Washington
Second Stage Theatre, New York City, New York
Shakespeare & Company, Lenox, Massachusetts
Shakespeare Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California
Shakespeare Theatre Company, Washington, D.C.
The Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey, Madison, New Jersey
Shattered Globe Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Shotgun Players, Berkeley, California
Sierra Repertory Theatre, Sonora, California
Signature Theatre, Arlington, Virginia
Signature Theatre Company, New York City, New York
SITI Company, New York City, New York
Society Hill Playhouse, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Solano College Theatre, Fairfield, California
South Coast Repertory, Costa Mesa, California
South Coast Theatre Company, New Bedford, Massachusetts
Southern Rep, New Orleans, Louisiana
Southwest Ensemble Theatre, Phoenix, Arizona
Southwest Shakespeare Company, Mesa, Arizona
Speakeasy Stage Company, Boston, Massachusetts
St Louis Black Repertory Company, St. Louis, Missouri
Stage One: The Louisville Children's Theatre, Inc., Louisville, Kentucky
Stages Repertory Theatre, Houston, Texas
Stages Theatre Center, Los Angeles, California
Stages Theatre Company, Hopkins, Minnesota
StageWorks/Hudson, Hudson, New York
Stark Raving Theatre, Portland, Oregon
State Theater Company, Austin, Texas
Steppenwolf Theatre Company, Chicago, Illinois
The Studio Theatre, Washington, D.C.
The Sugan Theatre Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Sundance Theatre, Beverly Hills, California
Swine Palace, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Synchronicity Performance Group, Atlanta, Georgia
Syracuse Stage, Syracuse, New York
T – U
TADA!, New York
Talking Band, New York City, New York
Taproot Theatre Company, Seattle, Washington
Target Margin Theater, Brooklyn, New York
Teatro del Pueblo, Saint Paul, Minnesota
Teatro Vision de San Jose, San Jose, California
Teatro Vista, Chicago, Illinois
Ten Thousand Things Theater Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Tennessee Repertory Theatre, Nashville, Tennessee
Thalía Spanish Theatre, Long Island City, New York
Theater Alliance, Washington, D.C.
The Theater at Monmouth, Monmouth, Maine
Theater By the Blind, New York City, New York
Theater for the New City, New York City, New York
Theater Grottesco, Santa Fe, New Mexico
Theater J, Washington, D.C.
Theater of the First Amendment, Fairfax, Virginia
Theater on Main, Oconomowoc, Wisconsin
Theater Previews at Duke, Durham, North Carolina
The Theater Project, Cranford, New Jersey
Theatre Aspen, Aspen, Colorado
Theatre de la Jeune Lune, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Theatre For A New Audience, New York City, New York
Theatre Project, Baltimore, Maryland
Theatre West, Los Angeles, California
TheatreSquared, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Theatreworks, Palo Alto, California
Theatrical Outfit, Atlanta, Georgia
Touchstone Theatre, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Traveling Jewish Theatre, San Francisco, California
Triad Stage, Greensboro, North Carolina
Tricklock Theatre Company, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Trinity Repertory Company, Providence, Rhode Island
True Colors Theatre Company, Atlanta, Georgia
Trustus Theatre, Columbia, South Carolina
Two River Theater Company, Red Bank, New Jersey
Undermain Theatre, Dallas, Texas
Unicorn Theatre, Kansas City, Missouri
Urban Stages, New York
Utah Shakespearean Festival, Cedar City, Utah
V – Z
Valley Youth Theatre, Phoenix, Arizona
Vermont Stage Company, Burlington, Vermont
Victory Gardens Theater, Chicago, Illinois
Vineyard Playhouse, Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts
Vineyard Theatre, New York
Virginia Stage Company, Norfolk, Virginia
Vital Theatre Company, New York
Voices of the South, Memphis, Tennessee
Walden Theatre, Louisville, Kentucky
The Warehouse Theatre, Greenville, South Carolina
WaterTower Theatre, Addison, Texas
Wellfleet Harbor Actors Theater, Wellfleet, Massachusetts
West Coast Ensemble, Los Angeles, California
The Western Stage, Salinas, California
Weston Playhouse, Weston, Vermont
Westport Country Playhouse, Westport, Connecticut
Wheelock Family Theatre, Boston, Massachusetts
William Inge Center for the Arts, Independence, Kansas
Williamstown Theatre Festival, Williamstown, Massachusetts
The Wilma Theater, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Wing-It Productions, Seattle, Washington
Women's Project & Productions, New York
Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company, Washington, D.C.
The Wooster Group, New York City, New York
Working Classroom, Albuquerque, New Mexico
The Working Theater, New York City, New York
Writers' Theatre, Glencoe, Illinois
Yale Repertory Theatre, New Haven, Connecticut
Young Playwrights' Theater, Washington, D.C.
Youth Ensemble of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia
The Z Space Studio, San Francisco, California
Zachary Scott Theatre Center, Austin, Texas
See also
List of LORT member theatres
References
Lists of theatres in the United States |
4212469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilith%27s%20Brood | Lilith's Brood | Lilith's Brood is a collection of three works by Octavia E. Butler. The three volumes of this science fiction series (Dawn, Adulthood Rites, and Imago) were previously collected in the now out-of-print omnibus edition Xenogenesis. The collection was first published under the current title of Lilith's Brood in 2000.
Synopsis
Dawn (1987)
The first novel in the trilogy, Dawn, begins with Lilith Iyapo, a black human woman, alone in what seems like a prison cell. She has memories of this happening before, with an enigmatic voice that asks strange questions. She has no idea who this is or what they want. She remembers a nuclear war and an earlier traffic accident in which her husband and child had been killed.
The truth emerges by stages. The same questions are asked. She is then visited by humanoid beings whose appearance terrifies her, even though they behave well. She learns that the nuclear war had left the Earth uninhabitable. Humans are all but extinct. The few survivors were plucked from the dying Earth by an alien race, the Oankali. Lilith has awakened 250 years after the war on a living Oankali ship.
At first, she is repulsed by the alienness of her saviors/captors. The Oankali have sensory tentacles all over their bodies, including locations of human sensory organs, with which they perceive the world differently than humans. Stranger still, the Oankali have three sexes: male, female, and Ooloi. Oankali have the ability to perceive genetic biochemistry, but the Ooloi manipulate genetic material to mutate other beings and build offspring from their mates' genetic material.
Lilith eventually bonds to Nikanj, an Ooloi. The Oankali have made Earth habitable and obtain Lilith's help in awakening and training humans to survive on the changed Earth. In exchange, the Oankali want to interbreed with the humans to blend the human and Oankali races, a biological imperative they compare to a human's need to breathe. They perceive the interbreeding as mutually beneficial; in particular, it will solve what the Oankali think is the humans' fatal combination of intelligence and hierarchical tendencies. They are particularly attracted to humans' "talent" for cancer, which they will use to reshape themselves. The humans rebel against Lilith and the proposed "gene trade," and kill Joseph, Lilith's new mate. This group is sent to Earth without her. Nikanj uses Joseph's collected DNA to impregnate Lilith with the first Oankali/human child.
Adulthood Rites (1988)
The second book, Adulthood Rites, takes place years after the end of Dawn. Humans and Oankali live together on Earth, but not in complete peace. Some humans have accepted the bargain and live with the Oankali, giving birth to hybrid children called "constructs." Others, however, have refused the bargain and live in separate, all-human, "resister" villages. The Ooloi have made all humans infertile, so the only children born are those made with Ooloi intervention. This creates a great deal of tension and strain as the humans consider their lives meaningless without reproduction, especially as they see themselves being outbred by the Oankali-human constructs. Desperate humans often steal human-looking construct children to raise as their own.
The main character of this book, Akin, is the first male construct born to a human mother (Lilith). Akin has more human in him than any construct before him. Adulthood Rites focuses on Akin's struggle with his human and Oankali heritage. As a human, he understands the desire to fight for the survival of humanity as an independent race. As an Oankali he understands that the combination of the species is necessary and that humans would destroy themselves again if left alone. Akin is kidnapped by the resisters as an infant, when the only evidence of his construct status is a tentacle-like tongue through which he samples his world in the Oankali manner of identifying DNA. The Oankali allow the resisters to keep him for a sustained period of time so that he might understand his human nature more fully, but at the cost of the connection to his paired sibling that would have happened had he stayed with his family. His isolation is hugely painful to them both, and he is taken to the orbiting ship to experience whatever healing he and his insufficiently-paired sibling can be granted. During that time, he travels around the ship with an Akjai, an Oankali who has no human DNA.
Through these experiences, he realizes that humans, too, need an Akjai group, and his conviction ultimately persuades the Oankali. Humans will be given Mars, modified sufficiently to (barely) support human existence, despite the Oankali certainty that the Mars colony will destroy itself eventually. Akin returns to tell the resisters and begin gathering them up to have their fertility restored before transport to their new world.
Imago (1989)
The final book of the trilogy, Imago, is the shortest and the only one written from the first-person perspective. Imago shows the reader what has been hinted at for the last two books: the full potential of the new human-Oankali hybrid species. The story is in the first person from the perspective of Jodahs, the first Ooloi construct, and a child of Lilith. Through its unique heritage, it has unlocked latent genetic potential of humans and Oankali.
Akin's proposal for a Mars colony in the previous book has been realized, providing an opportunity for humans who wish to live independently from the Oankali. Many humans have already migrated there, though the most hateful and barbaric of them still resist so that the Oankali render them unconscious and store them on the ship for genetic material.
Imago brings a sense of completeness to the three books, by allowing the reader to understand the Oankali better by understanding Jodahs. Jodahs also builds upon Lilith and Akin's human-Oankali integration work from the previous two novels; the novel ends with the humans more willingly acquiescing to the Oankali.
Background
In her 2000 interview with Charles Brown, Butler identified the Cold War under the Reagan Administration as a main motivator for the trilogy: “I was pretty despairing when I began the Xenogenesis books. This was back during the first Reagan administration, when the guy was talking about ‘winnable’ nuclear wars, ‘limited’ nuclear wars and all that. It scared me that we were electing someone who was talking that way. What if he meant it?”
Butler later expanded her explanation in an interview with Joshunda Sanders:
I thought there must be something basic, something really genetically wrong with us if we're falling for this stuff [Reagan’s rhetoric]. And I came up with these characteristics. The aliens arrive after the war and they tell us that we have these two characteristics that don't work and play well together. They are intelligent, and they tell us we're the most intelligent species they've come across. But we're also hierarchical. And I put this after the big war because it's kind of an example. We've one-upped ourselves to death, just our tendency to one-up each other as individuals and groups, large and small.
Themes
Throughout the Xenogenesis trilogy themes of sexuality, gender, race, and species are explored. The Oankali believe that the human species have an inevitably self-destructive "Contradiction" between their high intelligence and their hierarchical natures. According to the Oankali, this is what caused the war that almost ended the human race, and this is why they cannot leave humans alone. Lilith and the Oankali-human hybrids are constantly battling with this inner conflict. According to Tor.com's Erika Nelson, the trilogy parallels the story of African slaves in America and the conflict that later generations of African Americans feel regarding their integration into American society. The human-Oankali hybrids feel that they have somehow betrayed their human side by integrating into Oankali society, but at the same time, because of the vast power imbalance, they never really had another viable option. In addition to allegorizing slavery, the trilogy more generally is written "in the context of colonization," as Nelson puts it, raising broad questions of coercion and agency. The relationship between the Oankali and the humans speaks to a range of imperialist relationships, from slavery to internment camps to eugenics. The series also draws upon elements of the myth of Lilith, the first wife of Adam.
The series also heavily draws on themes of consent and coercion.
In addition to the social themes, the possible results of developing genetic science and biologically based technology are shown by the Oankali's genetic mastery. Joan Slonczewski, a biologist, published a review of the series in which she discusses the biological implications of the ooloi and how they can, through genetic engineering, achieve positive effects from "bad" genes such as a predisposition for cancer. Biological determinism is another ongoing thematic concern in the trilogy that links Butler's use of social and scientific themes; because the Oankali believe above all in a species' innate biological tendencies, characters must constantly negotiate between their supposed biological capacities and the limits of their individual will.
Reception
Orson Scott Card commends the Xenogenesis trilogy as "more satisfying as hard science fiction" than Butler's earlier Patternist novels, specifically in that they show "how much power her storytelling has gained" in the intervening years. In terms of each novel, Adele Newson praises the prose of Dawn, as "engaging" and having "a single-minded intensity." She highlights the relationship among the novel's main characters, Lilith and Joseph, as being unusual for science fiction to the point of being "refreshing" and "sensuous." Calling Lilith "the epitome of heroic womanism," Newson argues that "Lilith's life, like that of the black woman's, is a metaphor for the quest which would resolve the problem of her being both revered and despised by those with whom she inhabits society. In contrast, Newson finds the story's development in Adulthood Rites "disappointing": Lilith, she points out, "does little more than sulk silently away" and the story relies so much on "laborious" dialogue that it becomes "more or less a treatise in on the contradictory and often violent nature of humankind." Similarly, Ted White from The Washington Post finds Imago verbose and "wandering" and concludes that, as an end to the trilogy, it is "anticlimactic."
Each of the three novels originally was nominated for the Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel in the year it was published (1987, 1988, and 1989), though none of the books won the award.
Adaptations
In September 2015, it was announced that producer Allen Bain had optioned the rights to make Dawn for television. On February 26, 2020, Amazon Studios acquired the streaming rights with Victoria Mahoney writing and directing the pilot episode based on Dawn, and will produce the series with Bain, Pearl, and Carter's Bainframe, Ava DuVernay's Array Filmworks and Charles D. King's MACRO.
Further reading
Scholarship
Mehta (2019) "Indigenous maternal and child health" Dawn by Octavia Butler used in course syllabus, University of Manitoba. Department of community health sciences. Family 4606.
Ackerman, Erin M. Pryor. "Becoming and Belonging: The Productivity of Pleasures and Desires in Octavia Butler's "Xenogenesis" Trilogy." Extrapolation 49.1, Spring 2008.
Belk, Nolan. "The Certainty of the Flesh: Octavia Butler's Use of the Erotic in the Xenogenesis Trilogy." Utopian Studies 19.3 Sept. 2008.
Bonner, Frances. "Difference and Desire, Slavery and Seduction: Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis." Contemporary Literary Criticism, edited by Jeffrey W. Hunter, vol. 230. Gale, 2007. Originally published in Foundation 48 (Spring 1990): 50–62.
Braid, Christina. "Contemplating and Contesting Violence in Dystopia: Violence in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." Contemporary Justice Review 9.1 (Mar. 2000): 47–65.
Boulter, Amanda. "Polymorphous Futures: Octavia E. Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." American Bodies: Cultural Histories of the Physique. Ed. Tim Armstrong. New York: NYU P, 1996. 170–185.
Brataas, Delilah Bermudez. "Becoming Utopia in Octavia E. Butler's Xenogenesis Series." Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction 35 (96) (Spring 2006): 84-101.
Curtis, Claire P. "Utopian Possibilities: Disability, Norms, and Eugenics in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis. " Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies 9.1 Jan. 2015, pp. 19–33.
Federmayer, Eva. "Octavia Butler's Maternal Cyborgs: The Black Female World of the Xenogenesis Trilogy." Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies 6.1 (Spring 2000): 103–118.
Freccero, Carla. "Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis." Popular Culture: An Introduction. New York: New York UP, 1999. 72–75.
Green, Michelle Erica. "'There Goes the Neighborhood': Octavia Butler's Demand for Diversity in Utopias." Contemporary Literary Criticism, edited by Jeffrey W. Hunter and Polly Vedder, vol. 121. Gale, 2000. Originally published in Utopian and Science Fiction by Women: Worlds of Difference, edited by Jane L. Donawerth and Carol A. Kolmerten, Syracuse University Press, 1994, pp. 166–189.
Goss, Theodora. "The Gothic Technological Imaginary in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis." Modern Fiction Studies 53.3 (Fall 2007): 434–459.
Grewe-Volpp, Christa. "Octavia Butler and the Nature/Culture Divide: An Ecofeminist Approach to the Xenogenesis Trilogy." Restoring the Connection to the Natural World: Essays on the African American Environmental Imagination. Ed. Sylvia Mayer. Munster, Germany: LIT, 2003. 149–173.
Holden, Rebecca J. "The High Costs of Cyborg Survival: Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." In Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction, No.72 (Spring 1998): 49–57.
Jacobs, Naomi. "Posthuman Bodies and Agency in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis." Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination. Ed. Tom Moylan and Raffaella Baccolini. New York: Routledge, 2003.91-112.
Jesser, Nancy. "Blood, Genes and Gender in Octavia Butler's Kindred and Dawn." Contemporary Literary Criticism Select. Gale, 2008. Originally published in Extrapolation 43. 1, Spring 2002, pp. 36–61.
Jesser, Nancy. "Blood, Genes and Gender in Octavia Butler's Kindred and Dawn." Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 43.1 (2002): 36–61.
Johns, Adam. "Octavia Butler and the Art of Pseudoscience." English Language Notes 47. 2 Fall/Winter 2009.
Johns, J. Adam. "Becoming Medusa: Octavia Butler's 'Lilith's Brood' and Sociobiology." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 37, no. 3, 2010, pp. 382–400.
Magedanz, Stacy. "The Captivity Narrative in Octavia E. Butler's Adulthood Rites." Extrapolation 53. 1 2012 p. 45+.
Miller, Jim. "Post-Apocalyptic Hoping: Octavia Butler's Dystopian/Utopian Vision." Science Fiction Studies, vol. 25, no. 2, 1998, pp. 336–360.
Nanda, Aparajita. "Re-Writing the Bhabhian "Mimic Man": Akin, the Posthuman Other in Octavia Butler's Adulthood Rites." Ariel, 41. 3/4, Jul-Oct 2011, pp. 115-135.
Nanda, Aparajita. "Power, Politics, and Domestic Desire in Octavia Butler's Lilith's Brood." Callaloo 36. 3 2013 pp. 773–788.
Obourn, Megan. "Octavia Butler's Disabled Futures." Contemporary Literature. 54. 1 Spring 2013.
Osherow, Michele. "The Dawn of a New Lilith: Revisionary Mythmaking in Women's Science Fiction." NWSA Journal 12.1 (Spring 2000): 68–83.
Outterson, Sarah. "Diversity, Change, Violence: Octavia Butler's Pedagogical Philosophy." Utopian Studies 19. 3 2008, pp. 433–456.
Peppers, Cathy. "Origins and Alien Identities in Butler's Xenogenesis." Science Fiction Studies 22.1 (1995): 47–62.
Peppers, Cathy. "Dialogic Origins and Alien Identities in Butler's XENOGENESIS." Science Fiction Studies. No. 65, Vol. 22, 1995.
Plisner, Andrew. "Arboreal Dialogics: An Ecocritical Exploration of Octavia Butler's Dawn." African Identities 7. 2, May 2009.
Sands, Peter. "Octavia Butler's Chiastic Cannibalistics." Utopian Studies 14.1, 2003, pp. 1–14.
Schwab, Gabriele. "Ethnographies of the Future: Personhood, Agency, and Power in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis." Accelerating Possession: Global Futures of Property and Personhood. Ed. Bill Maurer and Gabriele Schwab. New York: Columbia UP, 2006. 204–228.
Seed, David. "Posthuman Bodies and Agency in Octavia Butler' s Xenogenesis." Dark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination. Ed. Raffaella Baccolini and Tom Moylan. New York: Routledge, 2003. 91-111.
Smith, Stephanie A. "Morphing, Materialism, and the Marketing of Xenogenesis." Genders 18 (Winter 1993): 67–86.
Smith, Rachel Greenwald. "Ecology beyond Ecology: Life After the Accident in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." Modern Fiction Studies 55. 3, Fall 2009, pp. 545–565.
Slonczewski, Joan. "Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy: A Biologist's Response." Presented at SFRA, Cleveland, June 30, 2000.
Stickgold-Sarah, Jessie. "Your Children Will Know Us, You Never Will": The Pessimistic Utopia of Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." Extrapolation 51. 3, Fall 2010.
Talbot, Mary M. "'Embracing Otherness': An Examination of Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." Kimota 5 (Winter 1996): 45-49.
Tucker, Jeffrey A. "'The Human Contradiction: Identity and/as Essence in Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Trilogy." Yearbook of English Studies 37.2(2007): 164-181.
Wallace, Molly. "Reading Octavia Butler's "Xenogenesis" After Seattle." Contemporary Literature 50.1 Spring 2009, pp. 94-128.
White, Eric. "The Erotics of Becoming: Xenogenesis and The Thing." Science Fiction Studies 20.3 (1993): 394-408.
Wood, Sarah. "Subversion through Inclusion: Octavia Butler's Interrogation of Religion in Xenogenesis and Wild Seed." FEMSPEC 6.1 (2005): 87–99.
Yu, Jeboon. "The Representation of Inappropriate/d Others: The Epistemology of Donna Haraway s Cyborg Feminism and Octavia Butler's Xenogenesis Series." Journal of English Language and Literature 50.3 (2004): 759–777.
Reviews
Card, Orson Scott. "Review of Mind of My Mind, Patternmaster, and Survivor." Contemporary Literary Criticism, edited by Jeffrey W. Hunter and Polly Vedder, vol. 121, Gale, 2000. Originally published in Fantasy & Science Fiction, Jan. 1992, pp. 52–54.
Constance, Joseph W and Nora Rawlinson. "Adulthood Rites (Book)." Library Journal 113. 11 15 June 1988 p. 70.
Mediatore, Kaite. "She Reads: SF/Fantasy." (Review of Dawn). Booklist 101. 16 15 Apr. 2005 p. 1443.
Nelson, Erica. "Sleeping With the Enemy: Octavia Butler's Dawn." Tor.com 30 September 2009.
Nelson, Erica. "Negotiating Difference in Octavia Butler's Adulthood Rites." Tor.com 12 October 2009.
Nelson, Erica. "Playing Human in Octavia Butler's Imago." Tor.com26 October 2009.
Newson, Adele S. "Review of Dawn and Adulthood Rites." Black American Literature Forum 23 Summer 1989, pp. 389–396.
White, Ted. "Love with the Proper Stranger." (Review of Imago). The Washington Post. 25 June 1989, p. X8.
Yescavage, Karen, David Lumb, and Jonathan Alexander. "Part Four of Imagining Alien Sex: Preparing for the Alien". Los Angeles Review of Books. January 5, 2014.
References
External links
Lilith's Brood reviews from Powell's
"Celebrating Dawn by Octavia Butler"
Biopunk novels
Science fiction book series
Science fiction novel trilogies
1980s science fiction novels
Novels by Octavia Butler
Feminist science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Novels set during the Cold War
Novels about extraterrestrial life
Novels about genetic engineering
Sexuality in novels |
4212632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Orozco | Gabriel Orozco | Gabriel Orozco (born April 27, 1962) is a Mexican artist. He gained his reputation in the early 1990s with his exploration of drawing, photography, sculpture and installation. In 1998, Francesco Bonami called Orozco "one of the most influential artists of this decade, and probably the next one too."
Biography
Early life and education
Orozco was born in 1962 in Veracruz, Mexico to Cristina Félix Romandía and Mario Orozco Rivera, a mural painter and art professor at the University of Veracruz. When Orozco was six, the family relocated to the San Ángel neighborhood of Mexico City so that his father could work with artist David Alfaro Siquieros on various mural commissions. His father took him along to museum exhibitions and to work with him, during which time Orozco overheard many conversations about art and politics.
Orozco attended the Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas between 1981 and 1984 but found the program too conservative. In 1986, he moved to Madrid and enrolled at the Circulo de Bellas Artes. There his instructors introduced him to a broad range of post-war artists working in non-traditional formats. He said of his time in Spain, "What's important is to be confronted deeply with another culture. And also to feel that I am the Other, not the resident. That I am the immigrant. I was displaced and in a country where the relationship with Latin America is conflicted. I came from a background that was very progressive. And then to travel to Spain and confront a very conservative society that also wanted to be very avant-garde in the 1980s, but treated me as an immigrant, was shocking. That feeling of vulnerability was really important for developing my work. I think a lot of my work has to do with that kind of exposure, to expose vulnerability and make that your strength."
Career
In 1987, Orozco returned from his studies in Madrid to Mexico City, where he hosted weekly meetings with a group of other artists including Damián Ortega, Gabriel Kuri, Abraham Cruzvillegas and Dr. Lakra. This group met once a week for five years and over time the artist's home became a place where many artistic and cultural projects took shape.
Orozco's nomadic way of life began to inform his work strongly around this time, and he took considerable inspiration from exploring the streets. His early practice was intended to break away from the mainstream work of the 1980s, which was often created in huge studios with many assistants and elaborate techniques of production and distribution. In contrast, Orozco typically worked alone or with one or two other assistants. His work revolves around many repeated themes and techniques that incorporate real life and common objects. The exploration of his chosen materials allows the audience's imagination to explore the creative associations between oft-ignored objects in today's world.
In 1995 he worked in Berlin on a Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst grant."For him [Orozco], the decentralization of the manufacturing practice mirrors a rich heterogeneity of object and material. There is no way to identify a work by Orozco in terms of physical product. Instead it must be discerned through leitmotifs and strategies that constantly recur, but in always mutating forms and configurations." – Ann Temkin
"What is most important is not so much what people see in the gallery or the museum, but what people see after looking at these things, how they confront reality again."- Gabriel Orozco from an interview with Benjamin H. D. BuchlohHe is represented in New York by Marian Goodman.
Personal life
Gabriel Orozco married Maria Gutierrez on August 2, 1994, at City Hall in New York. They have one son, Simόn, born in November 2004. Orozco lives and works in New York, Mexico City, Tokyo, and France.
Selection of works
1981–91
Recaptured Nature, 1991
Recaptured Nature is one of Orozco's earliest sculptural works and is constructed entirely from the vulcanized rubber made to create the inner tubes of truck tires. Orozco cut the rubber down the middle, then opened it up, cut two circular lid shapes from another inner tube, and welded them together at a tire shop. This resulted in an inflatable ball. Orozco says the work is an “exercise in topology,” an area of mathematics concerned with the study of continuity and connectivity. Recaptured Nature plays with the idea that everything can become everything else. This piece informed future works like Elevator in which the artist reconstructed an elevator to be exactly his height.
Sleeping Dog, 1990
Orozco began working with photography around 1989. An early photograph, Sleeping Dog, evidences both Orozco's reverence for and his mistrust of the photographic medium. The print immobilizes a sleeping dog from an aerial perspective on a large rock. The perspective of the camera compresses the foreground and background in such a way that the dog becomes at once image and object, possessing weight and presence while simultaneously producing a memory of the event. The overall physical impression that the image produces is suggestive of Orozco's interest in photography as a means to inform sculptural representation.
Crazy Tourist, 1991
Crazy Tourist was a photograph taken by Orozco in Bahia Brazil. While wandering through the town of Cachoeira, Orozco came upon an empty marketplace. He spied some rotting oranges left over from the closed market and proceeded to position one on each table. Orozco then captured the intervention in a photograph. The locals who were watching him called him a "turista maluco". Crazy Tourist exemplifies Orozco's approach to photography. Orozco does not want his photographs to serve as documentation in the way of becoming a relic, but rather as a witness to an ephemeral event that often occurs while the artist is alone. You forget the photograph but see the phenomena.
My Hands are my Heart, 1991
My Hands are my Heart is a small heart-shaped sculptural work made in 1991 by the artist applying pressure with his fingers into a small lump of clay, leaving the impression of his fingers in the shape of a heart. The durable nature of hardened clay contrasts with the soft vulnerability of the object's identification as a human organ. The impression of the artist's fingers leaves a lingering trace of contact with the artist hands, a meditation on the creative process. My Hands are my Heart also refers to the diptych of photographs taken with the artist, bare-chested, holding the work near his actual heart.
1992–99
Yielding Stone, 1992
Yielding Stone was one of two works created for a group exhibition in 1992. The work consisted of a solid ball of grey plasticine that was rolled through the streets in Monterrey, collecting dirt, debris and pebbles on its surface. The work was then exhibited in a gallery space where it continued to collect dust and attract foreign objects to its surface, elevating the object to the point of focus. Orozco showed a second version of Yielding Stone in the group exhibition In Transit at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York in 1993. The work displays the process of its creation and embodies the imprints of its interactions.
Empty Shoe Box, 1993
For the 1993 Venice Biennale, Orozco placed an empty shoebox on the floor of the Aperto. The use of the shoebox could at first be thought of simply as a readymade but Orozco's use of this object is meant to instead draw the viewer's attention to his or her surroundings. The placement of such a highly familiar object within an otherwise empty environment allows for more of an awareness of what is and isn't in the space.
"The reasons for the quietly compelling attraction of an utterly banal object are of course manifold, yet one primary explanation could be found in the fact that the presentation of an empty container, rather than the object itself, traces the very shift from use value to exhibition value that has occurred in the culture at large." – Benjamin H.D. Buchloh
Home Run, 1993
Home Run was part of a larger exhibition—Projects 41: Gabriel Orozco—that took place at MoMA in September 1993. The parameters of the exhibition were founded upon experimentation with the spatial limitations of viewing art. For his part, Orozco asked occupants in the buildings adjacent to MoMA to place oranges in their windows, so that the viewer would encounter the exhibition even after leaving the typically defined space of the museum. The placement of the oranges introduced a playful element to the piece as viewers accidentally came upon the work: museum visitors could experience the installation beyond the walls of the institution. In this way Home Run disrupted the traditional notion of the exhibition “viewing space” and blurred the line between art and life.
La DS, 1993
La DS was first exhibited at the Galerie Chantal Crousel in Paris in 1993. In preparation for the exhibition, Orozco traveled to Paris and for nearly two months worked on the reconstruction of a Citroen DS with the aid of his assistant Philippe Picoli. Orozco intentionally used the 1950s classic French automobile due to its status in French popular culture as a symbol of post-World War II ingenuity. The fabrication and presentation of La DS reflects Orozco's interest in the mental and physical aspects of sculptural space and set a precedent for playful viewer-object relationships that Orozco continues to explore in his sculptural works. To create the work, Orozco cut an interior horizontal section from the automobile, and reassembled the remaining two halves so the car maintained its formal qualities. A mirror inserted on the driver's side of the automobile, furthers the illusion of the car still being drivable. The exchange between the physical perception of the object and the memory of how the object should behave in space determines the spectators' overall understanding of the work, creating a mental image of the car that has a photographic effect.
"I have been interested in this notion of space that is still there and how a thin line that divides two bodies is not measurable. Of course, physically it is very thin, but emotionally or mentally it is much bigger and is immeasurable. In my work, I think, it is that space which interests me as a sculptor." – Gabriel Orozco
Yogurt Caps, 1994
It is evident from works such as La DS, Home Run, and Empty Shoe Box that Orozco pays great attention to the space in which his viewers will interact with his work. For his first show with Marian Goodman in New York, Orozco placed four yogurt caps onto each opposing wall in the empty northern room of the gallery. Orozco has said a number of times that he aims to “disappoint the viewer.” In other words, his work can sometimes seem underwhelming to those who may have come to the experience with certain expectations. Yogurt Caps challenged the viewer's notion of space, emptiness, self-awareness, and the body.
"It was a poem about nothing, that beautifully, could thus be one about everything too. A presence, however slight, was the key to seeing the emptiness of the room, as just a single sound is needed to manifest silence." – Ann Temkin
Working Tables, 1996
Orozco's first Working Table was exhibited in Zurich in 1996. The working tables are accumulations of sketches, ideas, found objects, leftovers, and unfinished artworks. The tables offer up an intimate picture of the process of the artist; the conception of an idea, the experimentation, and sometimes the decision to discard a work and its idea entirely. These small objects, when shown together, give the viewer an understanding of the recurring themes and connections that can be found within Orozco's work.
Black Kites, 1997
Black Kites was conceived for Documenta X shortly after one of Orozco's lungs collapsed in 1996. After a week spent in the hospital, Orozco decided he wanted to make his next work via a "very slow process." He purchased a human skull from a nature store in NYC and for the next few months he worked at covering the entire skull in a checkerboard grid made of graphite. The grid follows the contours of the skull, leading the viewer in a circular pathway around it. There is a relationship formed between the rigidity of a system such as a grid and the naturally created shape of a human skull. Black Kites additionally embodies ideas of the memento mori and the iconographic skulls seen frequently within Mexican culture. The work brings to mind questions of our human fate and mortality.
2000–current
Lintels, 2001
Lintels was created for Orozco's solo show with Marian Goodman in 2001. The installation consists of numerous sheets of dryer lint collected over the course of a year. Orozco installed the sheets in the gallery to hang across the room as if on a clothesline. The fragile sheets are full of hair, dust, nail clippings and particles of clothing. They would sway ever so slightly when viewers walked through the installation. The Lintels are essentially the accumulation of residue left by the human body's presence. The work echoes Orozco's earlier sculpture Yielding Stone as both reflect upon corporeality and ephemerality. Both of the works continue to change within the environment they inhabit as new dust and debris gather on their surface.
Samurai Tree Paintings, 2004
In 2004, Orozco began creating geometric abstract paintings. The circular forms and diagrammatic design were similar to those which Orozco had been toying with for years on graph paper, currency, and airplane tickets. He debuted the first paintings at his solo exhibition at the Serpentine Gallery in London in 2004. Beginning at a single point in space, Orozco used computer software to draw a circle around the point and divide this circle into quadrants. He then drew another circle to touch the outer edge of the previous one (varying the size of the circle) and proceeded to divide those into quadrants. Orozco would then paint the halves and quadrants in red, blue, white, or gold, treating the sections of the circles as if they were squares on a chessboard. Circles play an integral part in Orozco's work and he sees them as instruments of movement. In the Samurai Tree paintings there is a centrifugal point from which the circles spin and rotate outwards.
Corplegados, 2011
The Corplegados are a series of large format drawings created for Orozco's most recent show with Marian Goodman in 2011. The word literally translates to mean folded bodies. The works are life-size sheets of paper that Orozco would fold up and take with him on his travels between 2007 and 2011. Orozco drew, paint and wrote all over the surfaces of the paper. The application and layering of the various media permeated the paper and soaked through to the back side forming an unpredictable, ghostly reflection of the front. The drawings were installed in two-sided glass frames that hung from the wall on hinges so the viewer could see both sides of the paper. Each drawing transitioned from bright, colorful, painterly gestures to linear, geometric shapes and a muted palette. These contrasts reflected the different psychological and environmental changes to which the artist and his drawings were exposed to over extended periods of time.
Exhibitions (selection)
The Museum of Modern Art in New York presented a solo show of the artist in 1993 and a mid-career retrospective exhibition in December 2009. The exhibition traveled to the Kunstmuseum Basel, the Centre Pompidou, Paris, and ended at the Tate Modern, London, in May 2011. Other more recent solo exhibitions include Asterisms at Deutsche Guggenheim (2012) and the Guggenheim, New York (2012); the Museo del Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City (2006); the Museum Ludwig, Cologne (2006); Palacio de Cristal del Retriro and the Museo Nacional Centre de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, (2005), the Hirshhorn Museum, Washington D.C. (2004), and the Serpentine Gallery, London (2004).
Among his most recent solo exhibitions we can mention: Gabriel Orozco (OROXXO), kurimanzutto, Mexico City, Mexico 2017; Gabriel Orozco, Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, United States (2016); Fleurs Fantômes, Domaine de Chaumont-sur-Loire, France (2015–2016); Gabriel Orozco – Inner Cycles, at the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo MOT, Tokyo, Japan (2015); Natural Motion at the Kunstahaus Bregenz, Bregenz, Austria (2013); which also travelled to the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, Sweden in 2014; Thinking in Circles at the Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh, Scotland, (2013).
Orozco participated in the Venice Biennale in 1993, 2003, and 2005, the Whitney Biennial (1995 and 1997), as well as Documenta X (1997) and Documenta XI (2002). He has received numerous awards, including the Seccio Espacios Alternativos prize at the Salon Nacional de Artes Plasticas in Mexico City (1987), a DAAD artist-in-residence grant in Berlin (1995), and the second-awarded blueOrange prize (2006) in Germany.
Public collections (selection)
His work has been included in the permanent collection of several museum institutions such as the Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida with the work Samurai Tree (Invariant 260) from 2020–21; Museum of Modern Art, New York; Aspen Art Museum, Colorado; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; San Jose Museum of Art, California; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA); Dallas Museum of Art, Texas; Philadelphia Museum of Art; Pennsylvania; Whitney Museum of American Art; New York; Noguchi Museum, Queens; Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, Illinois; Tate, London; Museo Reina Sofia, Spain.
Bibliography
A list of select publications include:
Art books
Art catalogs
Morgan, Jessica, and Gabriel Orozco (2011). Gabriel Orozco. London: Tate.
October Files: Gabriel Orozco. Bois, Yve-Alain, ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2009.
Gabriel Orozco. Orozco, Gabriel, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin H. D. Buchloh and Briony Fer. Mexico City, Mexico: Museo del Palacio de Bellas Artes, 2006.
Gabriel Orozco. Orozco, Gabriel, Guillermo Santamarina and Marta González Orbegozo. Madrid, Spain: Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, 2005.
Filmography
Art:21 Film on Gabriel Orozco, 2003
Gabriel Orozco, 2002, directed by Juan Carlos Martin with music by Manuel Rocha Iturbide
References
External links
Guggenheim: Pelota en agua
MoMA: Horses Running Endlessly
Guardian Article: Orozco at White Cube, London
Gabriel Orozco at Marian Goodman, New York
Ping Pond Table
Sand on Table
Kurimanzutto Gallery: Orozco
Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century – Season 2 (2003).
Art Magazine site
NY Arts Magazine profile on Orozco's playful sculptures
Black Kites
La D.S.
Clam Shell
Ligne d'abandon
Lost Line
Installation views and exhibition reviews: Thinking in Circles, Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh, 2013
Gabriel Orozco at Kadist Art Foundation
Gabriel Orozco Kapsul Image Collection
1962 births
Living people
Artists from Veracruz
Mexican contemporary artists
Mexican people of Basque descent
People from Xalapa |
4213035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasyl%20Avramenko | Vasyl Avramenko | Vasyl Kyrylovych Avramenko (; sometimes transcribed as Vasile) (March 22, 1895 – May 6, 1981) was a Ukrainian actor, dancer, choreographer, balletmaster, director, and film producer, credited with spreading Ukrainian folk dance across the world. Colourful, energetic, imaginative, and, quite often exasperating, he was an impresario greatly reminiscent of The Music Man. For his unparalleled missionary zeal and his love of Ukrainian culture, he is considered by many to be the "Father of Ukrainian Dance".
Early days
Vasyl Avramenko was born on March 22, 1895, in Stebliv, a townlet located on the Ros' river approximately 100 km south of Kyiv. Orphaned at a young age, he was forced to wander homeless as an adolescent, until he eventually headed east, crossing the vast expanse of Imperial Russia towards Siberia, and reunited with his older brothers in Vladivostok, on the coast of the Sea of Japan. There, Vasyl's eldest brother taught him how to read and write, which enabled Vasyl to gain employment at the naval base. This position allowed Avramenko to visit several major Asian ports as a crewman aboard Russian naval vessels; such worldly exposure encouraged in him a greater love of learning, and he returned to study with his brother whenever possible, eventually earning the qualifications to become a primary school teacher. It was during this time that Vasyl Avramenko saw a production of Ivan Kotlyarevsky's operetta Natalka Poltavka in Vladivostok in 1912, which Avramenko later recounted as having been the first experience of viewing his fellow Ukrainians on stage.
After passing his teacher's exams at Vladivostok men's gymnasium in 1915, the Russian Empire having already entered World War I, Avramenko was drafted into the Russian Imperial Army and assigned to the 4th Heavy Artillery Regiment. After two months' basic training, he was reassigned to the Irkutsk military school for ensigns, then onto the 35th Siberian Infantry Regiment in Tyumen which advanced from Irkutsk to Bryansk and to the Russian front. Here he was wounded and hospitalized, first in Minsk, then Petrograd, where he visited some of its theaters and became active in a troupe of military actors led by Yasha Vavrak who grasped that Avramenko had a flair for the stage.
Formative years
In Kyiv, in the summer of 1917, Avramenko attended three of Vasyl Verkhovynets' rare and irregularly scheduled lectures on Ukrainian folk dance, its choreography and stage performance, including theory and practical demonstrations.
Verkhovynets' theories of Ukrainian dance, which he based on his theatrical training and his extensive research of the village dances of Central Ukraine, would inspire Avramenko to live the life of an artist. During this time, Avramenko took copious notes compiling a vocabulary of Ukrainian dances and dance steps, which he would later develop into his life's work. In his book, Ukrainian National Dances, Music, and Costumes, Avramenko acknowledged the work of Verkhovynets' and the Ukrainian theater in preserving and elevating the legacy of dance in Ukraine.
By spring of 1919, Avramenko was for a short time in Stanyslaviv, a member of Yosyf Standnyk's theatre before joining Mykola Sadovsky's troupe. During this time, he was able to apply some of the lessons he had learned in the Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kyiv. In the fight between the Bolshevik and White Russian Armies, Avramenko served in the Central Telegraph Administration of the Ukrainian People's Republic. When UNR forces retreated west in 1919–20, he remained in Soviet occupied territory and worked with Ukrainian itinerant troupes of actors that continued to tour the region. He was arrested at this time and interned in Kalisz.
In February 1921, Avramenko established a school of Ukrainian folk dancing in the Kalisz camp, the first of more than 100 schools over the next 20 years across Europe and North America. He impressed on his pupils that Ukrainian folk dancing could be an art form.
He began with 100 students (everyone from the guards to small children), teaching them the basic steps of Ukrainian dance, eventually teaching whole dances, and finally putting on a celebrated performance May 24.
In the fall of that year he met Oleksandr Koshyts. Koshyts remarked: "I was invited to attend a ballet performance by Avramenko's school. The ballet was marvellous: it was simply impossible to believe that such an exacting and artistic work could be created out of our dance!"
Avramenko soon became so successful and popular that he set out on tour with a group of his students through Polish-ruled western Ukraine, often presenting demonstrations and workshops in the towns he visited, encouraging others to perform his dances and pass them on to still others. The tour passed through Lviv several times between 1922 and 1924, while also visiting Rivne, Lutsk, Kremenets, Oleksandriia, Mezhirich, Chełm, Brest-Litovsk, Stryi, Stanyslaviv, Kolomyia, Przemyśl, Deliatyn, Ternopil, and Drohobych.
North America
December 1925, Avramenko arrived in Canada in Halifax, as a man with a mission; it being his determination to tour North America with dancers, singers, and instrumentalists to bring attention to the Ukrainian people and their fight for independence.
Eighty-five percent of Ukrainians in Canada at the time lived on the prairies. Avramenko decided to stay in Toronto, and opened his first dance school in North America in St. Mary's Roman Catholic hall, today the Factory Theatre building. For fees from five to thirty dollars, he offered a set of lessons for pre-schoolers to grown-ups. The school inculcated its pupils with Ukrainian pride and identity. His troupe first performed, the year after his arrival, at the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) August 30 through September 11 to grandstands filled with up to twenty-five thousand spectators. When the dancers gave a special performance at the women's pavilion, Florence Randal Livesay spoke glowingly about Ukrainian folk dancing. Avaramenko's name now became coupled with that of Koshyts in the Ukrainian-Canadian press. Articles about him appeared in every major Ukrainian-Canadian newspaper, as well as the English ones.
Avramenko arrived in Winnipeg in January 1927. His troupe gave their first performance at the Canadian-Ukrainian Institute Prosvita hall at the corner of Pritchard and Arlington in Winnipeg's North-End. This publicized his arrival, and he opened a school shortly thereafter. By April 30, Avramenko and 275 of his pupils performed at Winnipeg's amphitheatre, a venue usually reserved for hockey and politics.
Avramenko and his disciples began to set up schools quickly across the prairies, in Saskatoon, Yorkton, and Edmonton. Their base of support was a strong Ukrainian-Canadian community. For example, some 20 Ukrainian public school teachers attended his Edmonton classes, and Avramenko gave them instructions on how to teach dance when they returned to their schools. Avramenko traveled from town to town, teaching the same dances. When he was finished teaching in a town, he would assign a leader to continue teaching to the residents. One of these leaders was Chester Kuc, who founded the Ukrainian Shumka Dancers in 1959, and Cheremosh Ukrainian Dance Company in 1969.
On June 16, 1928, Avramenko married one of his star dance pupils, Pauline Garbolinsky, from Winnipeg, and soon the couple was living in New York City. With a network of dance schools across Canada, Avramenko now turned his sites to the United States. Lacking business acumen, he had debts in excess of three thousand dollars upon leaving Canada.
New York at this time was a creative center for drama, song, and dance. Eugene O'Neill was having his plays produced. George Gershwin was writing musicals here. Martha Graham had just opened a school of contemporary dance. Vasile and Pauline Avramenko lived in rented rooms on 8th Avenue in Brooklyn. Avramenko set up his school in Little Ukraine in Manhattan, Greenwich Village to the west of it, and the Lower East Side with a Ukrainian enclave to the east. Able to dispense with live music with the arrival of the phonograph and vinyl records, it became easier for him in the 1930s to offer these lessons. Within a few months he had over 500 pupils attending.
Paying dance instructors over widely dispersed areas across Canada and the United States, as well as for rental spaces for his schools, perpetuated his financial woes. To clear up these troubles, Avramenko turned to the idea of staging his work on Broadway. His successes up to now had been solely in the Ukrainian community. His first attempt to reach beyond it was at the Star Casino, and was disrupted by a summer storm that hit the city. His second attempt was at the Metropolitan Opera, with 500 dancers, a chorus of 100 singers, and a folk orchestra, all dressed in Ukrainian costume. The New York Evening Post gave it a rave review, "…excited over the kaleidoscopic ardors of the dance, the richness of the chorus, the congeniality of the audience and the fairly inspiring naturalness of what really amounted to a brilliant Ukrainian folk festival." The Ukrainian newspapers, like Svoboda, saw the performance as a well-attended artistic failure. In a venue like the Met, where the great operas of the world were performed by the finest singers, the Ukrainian press had expected those values to be reflected in the premiere of a comparable Ukrainian operetta or musical. Instead, they found themselves seeing more of what they, unlike the larger English community, were already familiar with from Avramenko. His debts increased, and in order to address his finances, he turned to film.
Film producer
By October 1933, Avramenko was in Hollywood. Along the way to the west coast, he obtained loans and donations from Ukrainian immigrants in these far-flung communities, only aware of who he was through what they had read, unaware as yet of his inability to handle finances. Avramenko always claimed to have been offered a lucrative contract to dance in the film Catherine the Great starring Marlene Dietrich, but had refused on the grounds that the dances would be billed as 'Russian' dances.
He staged performances at the Chicago World's Fair of 1933, and borrowed a thousand dollars from his father-in-law to do so. In 1935, his Baltimore pupils participated in the White House Easter Egg Roll and he claimed a victory for the Ukrainian cause and published postcards with photos of Eleanor Roosevelt at the event.
Natalka Poltavka
On the road most of the time, leaving behind his wife with their newly born daughter, with little if anything to live on, so that his wife depended on friends to survive, by 1934, his marriage began to fall apart. The Great Depression made it hard to earn a living running dance schools. Avramenko made plans to produce a feature film based on the oldest and most popular Ukrainian operetta, Natalka Poltavka, convinced that it would bring fame and glory to the Ukrainian cause. He rallied wealthy widows and convinced them that people in their community needed a place to apprentice in film. The Avramenko Film Company was established in New York City in 1936. Having raised enough money, twenty-five thousand dollars, to begin production, fortuitously Edgar G. Ulmer, a real Hollywood film director appeared on the scene. Ulmer had lost favour in Hollywood after running off with the wife of the nephew of Carl Laemmle Sr., who owned Universal Studios.
Ulmer put together a film crew and rewrote the screenplay. The musical score was recorded ahead of time at Reeves Sound Studio in New York City. The set was located on a farm northwest of Trenton, New Jersey. Ulmer said of Avramenko: "Nothing was impossible for Avramenko… The man was so enthusiastic. I couldn't say no to him…. He was the spark of everything." Without a Hollywood distributor, the film company rented theatres at high cost to show the film. In the end, though an artistic success, the film left Avramenko in further debt. Koshyts was particularly critical of the film, finding it offensive and tasteless. Not surprisingly, his review appeared in Svoboda. It sounded very much like a personal attack. No doubt Avramenko's personality had got under Koshyts' skin when they had toured together. Koshyts' criticism was not without merit. Avramenko, despite his rhetoric to develop a Ukrainian film industry, had brought in people and resources from outside the community in order to make the film. In fairness though to Avramenko, these resources did not exist in the Ukrainian community at that time. This was the first Ukrainian language film produced in the United States.
Cossacks in Exile
Unable to raise money in New York due to the financial setback of his last film, he turned to Canada to raise the funds for his next feature film Cossacks in Exile. On September 22, 1937, Avramenko returned to Winnipeg, and announced the creation of the Ukrainian Film Corporation. At this distance from New York, audiences had seen and loved his film Natalka Poltavka, but knew nothing about the questionable financial state in which it had left its shareholders, and Avramenko. Appealing unabashedly to patriotic Ukrainian sentiment, Avramenko sold rights to screen the new film province by province. Rumours circulated that he was using these funds to pay off old debts. Dr. Mykyta Mandryka, the secretary-treasurer of the new company seemed to be the only one to fully appreciate the situation, and wrote a letter to Avramenko. "We really do not understand each other, and this is why: you think it is necessary, above all, to start producing the film with or without money, and you believe things will somehow turn out well. You live on high hopes and faith in an imminent miracle. But that is not enough to handle people's money wisely." Avramenko ignored all advice and continued to ask for donations, borrow money, and sell rights, fundraising the way he had always done.
Filming began the first week of May 1938. It ended November 27 and the director Ulmer was pleased with the final product. His cheerful mood though turned when he saw advertising for the movie, identifying Avramenko as the "director" or "general production director". He stormed into the film company's office, clearly having failed to appreciate the size of Avramenko's ego.
Again, with Ulmer having directed it, the film received great reviews. In Winnipeg, filled with civic pride, the critics were unashamedly enthusiastic. The New York Times did not even notice that it was a Canadian production, stating that it was "highly agreeable both to the eye and the ear." Koshyts did not publish any review of it, but privately was very critical. With no American or international distributor the film fell victim, like the previous, to being shown city by city at a high cost for theatre rental wherever theatres could be obtained.
Later life
The remaining years of his life, Avramenko spent hauling around film canisters, showing his films or outright selling them wherever he disembarked. In 1954 he released the documentary film "The Triumph of Ukrainian Dance", consisting primarily of excerpts from documentaries and feature films produced by him during the 1930s.
In postwar Canada between 1945 and 1947, Avramenko offered Ukrainian folk dancing courses. One of his students in Winnipeg at this time was William Kurelek, nineteen at the time. By the mid-1960s folk dance ensembles were reinventing themselves: Rusalka in Winnipeg, Yevshan in Saskatoon, Shumka in Edmonton, as well as the touring ensembles from the Soviet Union, the State Folk Dance Ensemble of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic under Pavlo Virsky. They were interested in preserving the spirit of the folk dance rather than preserving traditional dance steps. Avramenko's concerts juxtaposed against these dances were simply a bit of nostalgia.
During the 1960s Avramenko spent time in Australia, teaching dance at a number of Ukrainian schools, particularly around Melbourne.
Towards the very end of his life, Avramenko created tribute events, for example "Ukrainian Tribute to Australia", and celebrations of some of his personal triumphs and milestones, and rallied the Ukrainian community around them. He had many of his former pupils across North America, and around the world, help him with these events, pupils who had been children when first encountering dance lessons with him. In the end, even the Ukrainian language newspaper Svoboda and he reconciled, as he lived out his old age in New York City, and whenever he entered their offices on his birthday, everyone would sing Mnohaya lita.
Avramenko died on May 6, 1981, in New York.
References
Bibliography
In English
Bogdanovich, Peter. Edgar G. Ulmer: An Interview, Film Culture, 1974.
Halich, Wasyl. Ukrainians in the United States,(1970), Ayer Publishing.
Martynowych, Orest T. "'All That Jazz!' The Avramenko Phenomenon in Canada, 1925-1929" in Journal of Ukrainian Studies 28, No.2 (Winter 2003). Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. .
Martynowych, Orest T. The showman and the Ukrainian cause. University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2014.
Nahachewsky, Andriy. "Avramenko and the Paradigm of National Culture" in Journal of Ukrainian Studies 28, No.2 (Winter 2003). Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. .
Shatulsky, Myron (1980). The Ukrainian Folk Dance, Kobzar Publishing Co. Ltd. .
Subtelny, Orest. Ukrainians in North America, An Illustrated History. University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1991.
Swyripa, Frances and Thompson, John Herd, editors. Ukrainians in Canada During The Great War, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Alberta, Edmonton, 1983.
Zerebecky, Bohdan (1985). Ukrainian Dance Resource Booklets, Series I-IV, Ukrainian Canadian Committee, Saskatchewan Provincial Council.
In Ukrainian
Avramenko, Vasyl (1947). Ukrainian National Dances, Music, and Costumes (Українські Національні Танки, Музика, і Cтрій), National Publishers, Ltd.
Pihuliak, Ivan (1979). Wasyl Avramenko and the Rebirth of Ukrainian National Dancing, Part 1 (Василь Авраменко та Відродження Українського Танку, Частина Перша), published by the author.
External links
Vasyl Avramenko. Solo Dance
Vasyl Avramenko papers at the Immigration History Research Center Archives, University of Minnesota Libraries.
Zoloto's Tribute to Avramenko
Avramenko Fund
Cheremosh's history
Short bio
Vasile Avramenko fonds (R6747) at Library and Archives Canada
Ukrainian choreographers
Soviet emigrants to Canada
Ukrainian-Canadian culture
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Ukrainian male dancers
Ukrainian dancers
Russian military personnel of World War I
Ukrainian people of World War I
People from Cherkasy Oblast
1895 births
1981 deaths
Folk dancers
Dance teachers |
4213697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanders%E2%80%93Cowboys%20rivalry | Commanders–Cowboys rivalry | The Commanders–Cowboys rivalry is a National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the Washington Commanders, formerly known as the Redskins, and the Dallas Cowboys. In 2005, Sports Illustrated called it the top NFL rivalry of all time and "one of the greatest in sports." ESPN ranked it the best rivalry in the NFL. The Sportster has ranked it the 17th biggest rivalry in the world. During the tenure of this rivalry, the two franchises have won 32 combined division titles and eight combined Super Bowls.
They are two of the wealthiest franchises in the NFL.
The rivalry started in 1960 when the Cowboys joined the league as an expansion team. During that year they were in separate conferences, but played once during the season. In 1961, Dallas was placed in the same division as Washington, and from that point on, they have played each other twice in every regular season.
Beginning
Texas oil tycoon Clint Murchison, Jr. was having a hard time bringing an NFL team to Dallas, Texas. He tried buying two teams, but the negotiations fell through. In 1958, Murchison heard that George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, was eager to sell the team. Just as the sale was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms. Murchison was outraged and canceled the whole deal.
Around this time, Marshall had a falling out with the Redskin band director, Barnee Breeskin. Breeskin had written the music to a fight song, "Hail to the Redskins", now a staple for the team. Breeskin wanted revenge after the failed negotiations with Marshall. He approached Murchison's lawyer and sold the rights for $2,500. Murchison then decided to create his own team, with the support of NFL expansion committee chairman, George Halas. Halas decided to put the proposition of a Dallas franchise before the NFL owners, which needed to have unanimous approval in order to pass. The only owner against the proposal was George Preston Marshall, as the Redskins were the only NFL team in the Southern United States at that time, and did not want a professional team in Texas encroaching in their territory, as they saw it. However, Marshall found out that Murchison owned the rights to Washington's fight song, so a deal was finally struck. If Marshall showed his approval of the Dallas franchise, Murchison would return the song. The Cowboys were then founded and began playing in 1960.
To build the roster of an expansion team, Dallas was allowed to pick certain players from certain teams per League rules. In addition to selecting three players from the Redskins roster, the Cowboys traded their first round (#2-Norm Snead) and sixth round (#72-Joe Krakoski) draft choices in the 1961 NFL Draft to the Redskins in exchange for Pro Bowl quarterback Eddie LeBaron, convincing him to come out of retirement to become the franchise's first starting quarterback.
First few games
Though both teams would become juggernauts in the National Football League, the beginning of the rivalry was not all that exciting.
The first game took place in Griffith Stadium on October 9, 1960, and was won by the Redskins 26-14; the Redskins would not win any of their last ten games in 1960 and would finish with a record of 1-9-2 (as part of a 23-game winless streak that ended in the last week of 1961), while the Cowboys would finish winless with a record of 0-11-1.
The Redskins would go on to win two of their first four meetings, and tie the two others.
Cowboy Chicken Club
In December 1961, an unknown number of Cowboys fans snuck into D. C. Stadium, armed with bags of chicken feed. When Alaskan snow dogs were to drag Santa Claus onto the field during the halftime show, the pranksters would unleash dozens of hungry chickens onto the field – 75 white, one black. The significance of the black chicken was to symbolize how Marshall was the only owner in the league who would not recruit an African-American football player; Marshall stating, "We'll start signing Negroes when the Harlem Globetrotters start signing whites."
The chickens fit into two large crates, which were smuggled into the stadium the morning of the game. The chickens and the smugglers went unspotted until halftime, when a stadium usher noticed a man guarding the crates and heard the chickens. Though the guard tried to bribe the official with $100, he was quickly reported and arrested, and the chickens confiscated. As it turned out, the "official" was actually Redskins general manager Dick McCann.
The following year and the night before the third Redskins-Cowboys match-up in less than a year, pranksters sneaked into Marshall's hotel suite and dropped off a large turkey in the bathroom. When Marshall went into the bathroom, the turkey puffed up and gobbled at him, causing Marshall to flee his room. "Chickens are nice", Marshall said, "but a man shouldn't fool with a mad turkey."
Just minutes before kickoff, while "Hail to the Redskins" blared throughout the stadiums, four banners reading "CHICKENS" – one at each 50-yard line and one in each end zone center – were unfurled in the stadium's upper decks. Two acrobats, hired by Cowboys fans and Chicken Club founders Bob Thompson and Irv Davidson (along with the University of Maryland students with the banners) rushed onto the field dressed in chicken costumes and began to throw colored eggs. One was apprehended by a guard, but the other proved to be too elusive. By this time, the band was playing the National Anthem, therefore unable to move. The lone chicken-acrobat reached into this bag and released a chicken, then returned to his egg-throwing. Running to a sideline, he then attempted to leave the stadium by jumping over a bench, but slipped.
A group of security guards then apprehended him, but he was able to break free. He made it back to the 50-yard line, turned a cartwheel, then ran and flopped onto the 30-yard line. By this time, only aware that the National Anthem was over, the two teams rushed onto the field in the middle of the chaos. In the midst of the ruckus, the man made it off the field and into the stands. Although the real chicken was caught, the acrobat-chicken was never apprehended.
The next day, while reporting the 38–10 Cowboys victory, the Dallas News scoring summary ended with, Attendance-49,888 (and one chicken).
1965 – 1967
November 28, 1965, DC Stadium: The Cowboys quickly took a 21–0 lead on a pass play, a running play and a 60-yard fumble recovery. Despite Jurgensen's 26-yard touchdown pass to Charley Taylor, the fans in the stands called for him to be benched in favor of second-string quarterback Dick Shiner. However, Jurgensen then drove the Redskins down field for a second touchdown to cut the Cowboys lead to 24–13. They then scored a rushing touchdown to make it 24–20. But just when the Redskins were gaining momentum, Meredith tossed a 53-yard scoring touch to Frank Clarke. Jurgensen was then able to throw another touchdown pass to Bobby Mitchell to make it 31–27. The Redskins got the ball back on their 20-yard line with less than two minutes to go. After working his way down the field, Jurgensen passed to tight end Angelo Coia to give the Redskins their first lead, 34–31, with about one minute to play. But Meredith was not done either. He drove the Cowboys to the Redskins 37-yard line with seven seconds to go. Danny Villanueva was then brought in and attempted a tying field goal, but it was blocked by Redskins defensive back Lonnie Sanders. Final: Redskins, 34 – Cowboys, 31
November 13, 1966, DC Stadium: In the second quarter with the score 7–6 Dallas, Meredith threw a 52-yard touchdown to Bob Hayes, followed in the third quarter with a 95-yard repeat, making the score 21–7. Then Washington scored three consecutive times with Jurgensen's 4-yard pass to Jerry Smith and 78-yard pass to Charley Taylor, followed by a Charlie Gogolak field goal, giving them the lead, 23–21. Meredith then drove the Cowboys down field to set up a one-yard touchdown run by Dan Reeves. But the Redskins matched their score on a drive ending with Jurgensen's 18-yard scoring pass to Taylor, making it 30–28. Meredith got the ball back with no timeouts and the Redskins playing deep prevent. Somehow, he was able to drive them to the Redskins 33. The Redskins mounted a strong pass rush to push the Cowboys out of field goal range. But apparently it was too strong. Meredith was hit just as he scrambled out of bounds. The penalty put the Cowboys on the Redskins 12 for an easy Villanueva field goal. Final: Cowboys, 31–Redskins, 30
December 11, 1966, The Cotton Bowl: The Redskins took a 10–7 lead at the half after linebacker John Reger recovered a block punt and ran it in for a score. But Danny Villanueva then kicked a tying 26-yard field goal for the Cowboys and Bob Hays caught a 23-yard pass for the 17–10 lead. The Redskins tied it up on Bobby Mitchell's 11-yard reception from Jurgensen. The Cowboys regained the lead when Dan Reeves broke for a 67-yard touchdown run, making it 24–17. But the Redskins then drove the field and scored on Jurgensen's 11-yard pass to Jerry Smith, only to have the Cowboys regain the lead with a six-yard touchdown run by Don Perkins, making it 31–24. Jurgensen was then able to hit Charlie Taylor with a 65-yard touchdown pass that Taylor caught between two defenders, tying the game. After good defense, the Redskins got the ball back with two minutes to go. Starting at their 46-yard line, Redskins running back A. D. Whitfield ran right for a 30-yard gain that set up Charlie Gogolak's winning field goal. Final: Redskins, 34 – Cowboys, 31
October 8, 1967, DC Stadium: The Redskins led 14–10 with 70 seconds to go in the fourth quarter. The Cowboys took possession on their 29-yard line. On fourth down with 23 seconds remaining, Meredith hit an open Dan Reeves who beat out linebacker Chris Hanburger to score, making it 17–14. After the kick-off with seven seconds to go, Jurgensen pitched a long pass to Charley Taylor, but he was tackled at the Cowboys 20-yard line as time ran out. Final: Cowboys, 17 – Redskins, 14 Washington would win the rematch in Dallas that season, 27–20, but the Cowboys closed out the decade with four straight wins over the Redskins. In the late 60's the Redskins hired Vince Lombardi to try to stop ex-Giants coordinator Tom Landry. Lombardi's 7–5–2 record with the Redskins was the team's first winning season in 14 years, but he was still swept by the Cowboys. Lombardi's untimely death in 1970 froze Redskins development for two seasons.
1970s
After a losing season in 1970, the Redskins' hired George Allen as head coach from the Los Angeles Rams. Under Allen, the Skins in 1971 went 9–4–1, including a 20–16 victory at the Cowboys, against whom Allen carried particular hatred. As the 1972 football season approached, preseason predictors were touting the Cowboys, who had defeated the Dolphins, 24–3 in the previous Super Bowl, to again win the NFC East.
October 22, 1972, RFK Stadium: Both teams came into the game with a 4–1–0 record. Sonny Jurgensen was Washington's starting quarterback, with Billy Kilmer benched after a previous loss. Craig Morton was the Cowboys' quarterback while the injured Roger Staubach watched from the sideline. Despite Washington's home-field advantage, the Cowboys were favored by a touchdown. A field goal and a Morton touchdown pass gave Dallas a 10–0 lead at the end of the first quarter, which was extended to 13–0 in the second period. Jurgensen led a Washington drive that climaxed with a pass to Larry Brown for a touchdown, but at the half, the Redskins trailed by six points. Another seven points were added to the lead in the third quarter when Walt Garrison scored a touchdown. But then, Larry Brown broke a run for 34 yards and a touchdown to make the score to 20–14. Curt Knight kicked a 42-yard field goal to make it 20–17. Charley Harraway ran for 13 yards to make the score 24–20, Redskins on top. During this offensive scoring period, the Over-the-Hill Gang defense shut down the Cowboys. Ultimately, Washington defeated the Cowboys, which moved the Redskins into first place in the NFC East.
December 31, 1972, RFK Stadium (NFC Championship): On the New Year's Eve playoff game, Redskins Quarterback, Billy Kilmer connected with Charley Taylor on a 15-yard touchdown pass, and Washington had a 10–3 lead at halftime. In the fourth quarter, Kilmer again went to Taylor for a 45-yard touchdown. Knight added three more field goals that period, and the Over-the-Hill Gang defense allowed only a second-quarter field goal. The final score was Washington 26, Dallas 3.
October 8, 1973, RFK Stadium: Roger Staubach had won back the quarterback job after missing most of the 1972 season with a shoulder injury, but Tom Landry pulled him in the third quarter when he missed an important signal and was sacked by the Redskins defense. Dallas led 7–0 when Craig Morton replaced Staubach. Late in the fourth quarter, the game was tied 7–7 when Redskins defender Brig Owens picked off Morton's errant pass and raced 26 yards to score a touchdown. The Cowboys threatened in the last seconds to tie the game, but Ken Houston tackled Walt Garrison on the one-yard line as time ran out, preserving a 14-7 Redskins win.
November 28, 1974, Texas Stadium: Before this Thanksgiving Day matchup, the Redskins were 8–3 and ready to secure a playoff berth with a win against the Cowboys (6–5) in a nationally televised game from Texas Stadium in Irving, TX. With less than ten minutes to go in the third quarter, Washington was leading 16–3 when Redskins linebacker Dave Robinson knocked Roger Staubach out of the game. Rookie Clint Longley came into the game; before the game Redskins defensive tackle Diron Talbert had boasted the goal was to knock out Staubach “because all they’ve got left is that rookie Longley.” Longley responded when he led the Cowboys to a last-minute come-from-behind victory, throwing a 50-yard touchdown pass to Drew Pearson with 28 seconds left. The final score was Cowboys 24, Redskins 23. The Redskins were stunned. "I don't have very much to say," coach George Allen said when it was over. "It was probably the toughest loss we ever had."
December 16, 1979, Texas Stadium: The NFC East Division Championship and home field advantage on the line for both teams. This set the stage for the regular season finale against Washington; the winner would capture the NFC East title while the loser would be relegated to the second wild card (Dallas) or miss the playoffs entirely (Washington). In the game, Texas Stadium fans were treated to one of Staubach's greatest comebacks in his final regular season game. The Cowboys trailed 17–0 but then scored three touchdowns to take the lead. Led by running back John Riggins, the Redskins came back to build a 34–21 lead, but the Cowboys scored 2 touchdowns in the final five minutes — including a Staubach touchdown pass to Tony Hill with less than a minute remaining — for an amazing 35–34 victory. In the week leading up to the game, Cowboys’ defensive end Harvey Martin received a funeral wreath, supposedly sent by the Redskins. He kept it in his locker all week for motivation, and after the win, he raced into Washington's locker room, opened the door, and heaved it into the room, breaking up a team prayer.
1980s
January 22, 1983, RFK Stadium (NFC Championship): The Redskins defeated the Cowboys to earn a trip to Super Bowl XVII. Before the game, the stadium physically shook as a capacity crowd of 54,000 chanted, "We Want Dallas!" The game is best remembered for the quarterback hit by Redskins defensive end Dexter Manley that sent Cowboys' quarterback Danny White into the locker room shortly before halftime, knocking him out for the rest of the game and defensive tackle Darryl Grant's interception return for a 10-yard touchdown of a Gary Hogeboom pass tipped by Manley to score the decisive points. John Riggins rushed for 140 yards and two touchdowns on 36 carries as the Redskins defeated the Cowboys 31–17. The Redskins went on to defeat Miami for their first Super Bowl championship.
September 5, 1983, RFK Stadium: Before a sold-out season opener on Monday Night Football, the Redskins were leading the visiting Cowboys 23–3 going into halftime. Danny White's second-half comeback erased the lead, and the Cowboys took an improbable 31–30 victory.
December 11, 1983, Texas Stadium: The second 1983 regular season meeting between the Redskins and Cowboys at Texas Stadium was more remembered for an infamous play by the Cowboys than it was for the game's outcome. On a 4th down and 1 play, Danny White was attempting to draw the Redskins offside by using hard counts, thereby giving the Cowboys a first down and keeping their drive going. But the Redskins' defense never moved, and Danny White ran a play that resulted in a loss of yards, turning the ball over to the Redskins on downs. During the replay, coach Tom Landry was simultaneously shown yelling, "No, Danny, no!" from the sidelines (undoubtedly wanting White to call a time-out to punt the ball). After the play, Landry was shown shaking his head in disgust. The Redskins went on to win, 31–10.
December 9, 1984, Texas Stadium: Down 21–6 at halftime, the Redskins scored 17 unanswered points on turnovers to take a 23–21 lead going into the fourth quarter. They came back to defeat the Cowboys, 30–28. Coupled with the 34–14 win earlier in the year, the Redskins enjoyed their first season sweep of the Cowboys in series history.
September 9, 1985, Texas Stadium: For the Monday Night Football season opener, the Cowboys secondary, nicknamed "Thurman's Thieves," intercepted Redskins quarterback Joe Theismann five times. Redskins coach Joe Gibbs would pull Theismann from the game in the fourth quarter due to his poor performance. To rub salt in the wound, fans at Texas Stadium began singing "Happy Birthday" to Theismann as he sat on the bench staring straight ahead (the game took place on Theismann's birthday). The Cowboys went on to win in a blowout, 44–14.
October 19, 1987, Texas Stadium: Dubbed by Washington fans as the "Scab Game," no team in the NFL had more players cross the picket line during the 1987 strike than the Cowboys, who were 2–0 with their veteran players entering a game with the Redskins on Monday Night Football. Washington had also won their two games during the strike but without any veterans. For this game, the Cowboys had Danny White, Randy White, Tony Dorsett, and Ed Jones, among other veterans, but were upset by the replacement Redskins players, 13–7, in a game former Washington head coach Joe Gibbs called "one of my greatest experiences and wins." The Redskins finished 3–0 with the replacements, the strike ending the following week. In 2000 Warner Bros. made a movie loosely based on the 1987 Redskins, The Replacements.
December 11, 1988, RFK Stadium The Cowboys upset the reigning Super Bowl champion Redskins, 24–17, ending any shot the Redskins had of making the playoffs. Rookie and eventual hall of fame wide receiver Michael Irvin was the big star of the game with three touchdown catches. This game would prove to be the final victory for legendary Dallas Cowboys head coach Tom Landry.
1990s
November 24, 1991, RFK Stadium: The 6–5 Cowboys handed the 11–0 Redskins their first defeat and their only defeat at home that season, 24–21. Despite the loss, the Redskins would finish 14–2 and go on to win Super Bowl XXVI. The Cowboys, motivated by the victory, would start a 6-game win streak, finishing 11–5; Cowboys owner Jerry Jones would later tell The Washington Post that he believed this victory was a key turning point in the Cowboys' transformation into the dominant team they would become during the early 1990s.
September 7, 1992, Texas Stadium: On Monday Night Football, the Cowboys, led by Emmitt Smith's 140 yards rushing, handed the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins an embarrassing 23–10 loss at Texas Stadium in their first game of the season.
December 13, 1992, RFK Stadium: The defending Super Bowl champion Redskins stunned the eventual Super Bowl champion Cowboys 20–17 in Washington thanks to Safety Danny Copeland's fourth-quarter recovery of a Troy Aikman/Emmitt Smith fumble in the end zone. This game would prove to be Hall of Fame Head Coach Joe Gibbs' final victory at RFK Stadium.
September 6, 1993, RFK Stadium On Monday Night Football, the Redskins gained revenge for their Week 1 Monday night loss the year before by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Cowboys 35–16 at RFK to earn Richie Petitbon his first victory as a head coach.
December 26, 1993, Texas Stadium: The Cowboys would avenge their opening week loss by defeating the Redskins 38–3. The Cowboys' 35-point margin of victory is the largest margin of victory by either team to this point. The Cowboys would eventually close out the season with their second straight Super Bowl championship, while the Redskins would finish 4–12, their worst regular season record since 1963.
December 22, 1996, RFK Stadium: The Redskins defeated the Cowboys 37–10 in the final game played at RFK Stadium.
September 12, 1999, Jack Kent Cooke Stadium: In Week 1 of the 1999 season, the Redskins opened a 35–14 lead. Then Dallas scored three touchdowns during the final eleven minutes of regulation. The Redskins botched a last-second field goal attempt, and the game went to overtime. A play-action pass four minutes into overtime to Raghib Ismail fooled Redskins safety Matt Stevens and won the game for the visiting Cowboys.
2000s
December 22, 2002, FedExField: In the 2002 regular-season finale, Washington ended an 11-game losing streak to the Cowboys, defeating them 20–14. The win allowed Washington to finish 7–9, while Dallas finished 5–11 for the third straight year. Cowboys coach Dave Campo was fired following the 2002 season.
September 19, 2005, Texas Stadium: For this game, Emmitt Smith, Troy Aikman, and Michael Irvin were inducted into the Cowboys' "Ring of Honor" with a pre-game and halftime ceremony. Throughout a poorly played game, Dallas kept the Redskins out of the endzone and led 13–0 with less than 4 minutes left. It was at that point that the Redskins, led by quarterback Mark Brunell, took the lead thanks to two long touchdown passes to Santana Moss to win the game.
December 18, 2005, FedExField: This game was the Redskins' largest margin of victory against the Cowboys in a 35–7 blowout. The Cowboys' lone touchdown came in the fourth quarter after Washington was already ahead 35–0. The victory gave Washington its first sweep against Dallas since 1995. Dallas eventually finished 9–7, while Washington won its last two games to secure the final NFC wildcard playoff berth.
November 5, 2006, FedexField: During the fourth quarter, the game was tied 19–19 (due partly to a missed two-point conversion by the Cowboys). With 31 seconds to go, the Redskins' recently acquired kicker, Nick Novak, missed a 49-yard field goal wide right. The Cowboys then worked their way up the field to set up Mike Vanderjagt, the most accurate kicker in NFL history, for a 35-yard field goal with only seconds left. However, the kick was blocked by Troy Vincent, a safety who had been picked up by the Redskins off waivers earlier that week. The ball was scooped up by the Redskins' free safety, Sean Taylor, who ran it back to the Cowboys' 44-yard line, where the Cowboys' offensive lineman Kyle Kosier grabbed him by his facemask in an attempt to tackle him. The game would have gone into overtime had it not been for Kosier's defensive penalty, which added fifteen yards to the end of the return (by rule, an NFL game cannot end on a defensive penalty). Novak set up for a 47-yard field goal with no time left on the clock. Despite the recently missed field goal, Novak made this field goal to give the Redskins a victory.
September 8, 2008, Texas Stadium: The Redskins beat the Cowboys 26–24 in their final meeting at Texas Stadium.
November 16, 2008, FedExField: The Cowboys returned the favor of the 2005 week 1 defeat. Darrell Green and Art Monk were honored before the game for their recent induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. In a game that was highly touted for the return of Tony Romo, the Cowboys' defense held the Redskins to ten points while the Cowboys scored 14.
December 27, 2009, FedExField: The Cowboys shut out the Redskins 17–0. This marked the third time the Cowboys have blanked the Redskins. Washington has never shut out Dallas. 2009 would also be the 15th time the Cowboys have swept the two-game regular season series. To this point, Washington has swept the Cowboys only five times.
2010s
September 12, 2010, FedExField: Late in the fourth quarter, Tony Romo led the team down the field. With three seconds on the clock and the score 13–7, Romo made a touchdown pass to wide receiver Roy Williams that would have tied the game with a successful extra point giving the Cowboys the win. However, the touchdown was called back due to a holding penalty against Alex Barron as time expired, and Washington went on to win.
December 19, 2010, Cowboys Stadium: The Cowboys built a 20–7 lead by halftime. By the end of the third quarter, the Cowboys led 30–14. The Redskins started quarterback Rex Grossman who filled in for the recently benched Donovan McNabb, and he brought the Redskins back to tie the game 30–30 with minutes left to play. Cowboys kicker David Buehler kicked a 39-yard field goal to put Dallas up 33–30 with 50 seconds to play. Rex Grossman then drove the Redskins down the field only to be intercepted by cornerback Terrence Newman to end the game.
November 22, 2012, Cowboys Stadium: After the Redskins built a 28–3 halftime lead, Dallas quarterback Tony Romo led the Cowboys to within seven, but the Redskins held on to win, 38–31. This marked the first time the Redskins defeated the Cowboys on Thanksgiving, previously 0–5 to their rival on Thanksgiving. Robert Griffin III completed 19 of 27 passes for 304 yards and had 4 touchdown passes and 1 interception on his way to winning the Galloping Gobbler Award issued to the player deemed to have had the best performance in the game. Alfred Morris also had 113 yards rushing on 24 carries and 1 touchdown while the Redskins defense intercepted two Tony Romo passes and sacked him three times.
December 30, 2012, FedExField: In the final game of the season, the Redskins met the Cowboys on Sunday Night Football in Washington to decide the winner of the NFC East. Three interceptions by Tony Romo doomed the Cowboys. The Redskins defense, led by London Fletcher's eleven total tackles and two sacks, confused Romo all game long. The Redskins defense had three interceptions in the game with the final one being the most costly. With Dallas trailing 21–18 late in the fourth quarter from the Cowboy, Romo threw a pass to the flat intended for running back DeMarco Murray, which was intercepted by Redskins linebacker Rob Jackson. Redskins rookie running back Alfred Morris ran for 200 yards, and three touchdowns on 33 carries, the last coming with one minute left, effectively putting the game out of reach (the referee initially called a fumble and Cowboys recovery, but reversed his ruling once convinced by the side judge that, as replays would clearly show, Morris had crossed the goal line before losing the ball). The 28–18 win gave the Redskins their first NFC East title since 1999 while preventing the Cowboys from making the playoffs.
December 22, 2013, FedExField: Trying to play spoiler, the Redskins hosted the Dallas Cowboys and attempted to spoil their playoff chances. Leading 23-17 late, the Redskins looked poised to pull out the upset, but the Cowboys would score with just under a minute left and won 24-23.
September 18, 2016, FedExField: Both teams came into their Week 2 match-up in Washington having lost their season openers. Dallas started hot, getting a field goal and a touchdown run by rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott on their first two possessions to take a 10–0 lead into the 2nd quarter. The Redskins responded with a Matt Jones touchdown to make it 10–7, and both teams traded field goals to make it 13–10 at halftime. The Redskins opened the second half scoring as Kirk Cousins threw an 11-yard touchdown to Jamison Crowder. Dallas rookie quarterback Dak Prescott responded with a 6-yard touchdown run to help Dallas retake the lead at 20–17. The Redskins got two field goals to make it 23–20 and were about to make it a potential two-score game in the fourth quarter, but Cousins threw an interception in the end zone. That proved costly as Alfred Morris, the former Redskin, scored a 4-yard touchdown to make the score 27–23 for Dallas, and the Redskins failed to score on their final two possessions.
November 24, 2016, AT&T Stadium: This would be the 8th time the Cowboys and Redskins have faced off for the annual Thanksgiving Day event hosted at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas. The Redskins offense led by Kirk Cousins with 449 yards (8 yards shy of a career-best) would light up the air attack against a porous Dallas secondary. However, failing to convert key drives into touchdowns, missing two field goals, a questionable onside kick attempt, and the inability to stop the Cowboys' 4th ranked offense in the 4th quarter would be too much for the Redskins to overcome. The Cowboys rolled to a then franchise-best 10th win in a row with an easy 31–26 victory. The Cowboys–Redskins rivalry was rekindled between Josh Norman and Dez Bryant as both clashed several times during the game, and both coaches were warned by referees about their antics. Immediately after the game, both players would go helmet-to-helmet while exchanging shoves and taunts. During an interview Dez Bryant added fuel to fire by saying, "Washington needs to get their money back...I honestly feel like the guy is extremely soft." 2016 would also be the 18th time the Cowboys have swept the two-game regular-season series.
October 29, 2017, FedExField: The Redskins and Cowboys entered their first matchup in 2017 both at 3–3 and behind the Eagles by 3.5 games in the division. In a rainy, washout game in Washington, the Cowboys would win 33–19 for their third straight win of the season. Ezekiel Elliott fumbled on the first play of the game, which led to a Redskins field goal and a 3–0 lead. The Cowboys answered with an Elliott touchdown to take a 7–3 lead. The Redskins came back with 10 unanswered points to take a 13–7 lead, but momentum shifted when the Cowboys blocked a Nick Rose field goal attempt and returned it inside the Redskins 10-yard line. The Cowboys then scored 19 unanswered points to take a 26–13 lead late in the fourth, with Elliott's second touchdown coming right after the blocked field goal. The Redskins would score a touchdown yet miss an extra point to make the score to 26–19 and give them a chance, but Kirk Cousins had yet another untimely turnover as he threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown with 21 seconds left to seal the Cowboys victory.
November 30, 2017, AT&T Stadium: During this game, former Redskins running back Alfred Morris rumbled for 127 yards while subbing for the suspended Ezekiel Elliott. The Redskins' hopes were all but doomed after Kirk Cousins' penchant for turnovers continued with two interceptions and a lost fumble on the day.
October 21, 2018, FedExField: The Redskins defeated the Cowboys 20–17 in Washington. In a low-scoring game that saw the two teams tied at 7–7 heading into halftime, the Redskins would take a 20–10 lead with 4:55 left in the game after Dak Prescott fumbled the ball and Preston Smith picked it up and scored a touchdown. Prescott would run in from 1 yard out to make it 20–17, and Dallas had a chance to tie the game and send it into overtime, but after a rarely-called snap infraction penalty moved Dallas back 5 yards, kicker Brett Maher missed the game-tying field goal when it hit off the left upright; given its trajectory, the kick would have likely been good from 5 yards closer. ESPN reporter Ed Werder claims an inside source told him coach Jay Gruden planted the idea in the officials' minds before the game when he told them to look at how Ladouceur moves the ball before the play. Redskins long snapper Nick Sundberg was also continuously shouting at the refs to watch out for Ladouceur's subtle movement during the game on Sunday.
November 22, 2018, AT&T Stadium: For the 9th time, the Redskins came to Dallas to play the Cowboys on Thanksgiving. Dallas had won 7 of the first 8 matchups, with history repeating itself as the Cowboys won 31–23 to move into first place in the NFC East. This game was a coming-out party for wide receiver Amari Cooper, whom Dallas recently acquired from the Oakland Raiders. He had eight receptions for 180 yards and two touchdowns, the first for 40 yards and the second for 91 yards. Dallas quarterback Dak Prescott was also very efficient with 288 passing yards, 2 passing touchdowns, and 1 rushing touchdown. Running back Ezekiel Elliott ran strong for 121 rushing yards and caught 5 passes for 22 yards in this game with a touchdown. Washington had lost their starting quarterback Alex Smith to injury the week prior so the Redskins relied upon backup Colt McCoy, who had 268 passing yards with 2 touchdowns but also threw 3 interceptions.
December 29, 2019, AT&T Stadium: In the last game of the season, Dak Prescott threw 4 touchdowns in a blowout win for Dallas. This would mark the 17th to this point that Dallas has swept the 2-game series. This would also be the last game that the Washington franchise would use the name Redskins. The name was dropped due to massive pressure from the team's major sponsors because of the perceived racial connotation of the name.
2020s
October 25, 2020, FedExField: This was Washington's first win against Dallas since October 2018. The most notable play of the game came in the third quarter when Washington linebacker Jon Bostic made a dirty hit on Andy Dalton (who was starting for Dak Prescott, who was on injured reserve for the season) as he was sliding, causing Dalton to exit the game due to a head injury. Jon Bostic was immediately ejected from the game and later fined. The result of the violent blow to the head would keep Andy Dalton sidelined for three consecutive weeks.
November 26, 2020, AT&T Stadium: For the 10th time, Washington came to Dallas to play the Cowboys on Thanksgiving. Both teams entered this game with matching 3–7 records, but with a chance to take the lead in the NFC East. This time, Washington came out with the victory, 41–16, with rookie Antonio Gibson rushing for 115 yards and 3 touchdowns and Montez Sweat picking off Andy Dalton for a pick 6 to seal the win and sweep Dallas for the first time since 2012. The win moved Washington to 4–7 in first place in the NFC East. This was Washington's second win in ten Thanksgiving day matchups with Dallas.
December 12, 2021, FedexField: Due to widely reported poor conditions of FedExField, the Cowboys brought their own sideline hot seat benches that included the Cowboys’ logo and team tame. Following the game, when questioned by reporters about the Cowboys' actions, Washington Head Coach Ron Rivera responded by saying, “That’s all the gamesmanship that goes with it. It’s part of the mind games people like to play.” When questioned if he wasn't bringing Washington's own benches to Dallas, Rivera responded, "I didn't say that." For the game, a strong Cowboys defensive effort held on to win 27-20.
December 26, 2021, AT&T Stadium: As a response to the Cowboys' "gamesmanship" in the previous game, Washington shipped in their own hot seat benches with their logos to the climate-controlled AT&T stadium where the retractable roof was closed even though outdoor temperatures were in the 70s. However, the stunt backfired as the Cowboys' 56–14 win over Washington was the largest margin of victory in the history of the rivalry. When asked about Washington bringing their own benches in a post-game news conference. DeMarcus Lawrence could only say laugh and say, "They gotta take them back with 'em don't they?"
Rivalry off the field
On December 19, 2005, Dallas Mavericks guard Darrell Armstrong was fined $1,000 for grabbing a microphone before a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves at the American Airlines Center and yelling "How 'bout those Redskins!" Only a few hours prior, the Cowboys had been routed by the Redskins 35–7, in the most lopsided loss of Bill Parcells's coaching career. Armstrong was raised in North Carolina as a Redskins fan.
Dallas coach Tom Landry appeared in a 1980s American Express TV commercial in which he visits an Old West-style saloon and makes the statement, "You never know when you'll be surrounded by Redskins". Several large men dressed in Redskins uniforms encircled Landry, who addressed them with, "Howdy!" After the credit card sales pitch was read, the ad returned to the scene where Landry, as he recites the company's slogan, "Don't leave home without it", leaves the saloon and the Redskins follow him out. The saloon doors knock the Redskins backwards as they swing shut.
After Tom Landry was fired as Cowboys coach by new Cowboys owner Jerry Jones in 1989, Landry appeared in another TV commercial for Choice Hotels, in which he states that he feels so great being out of football that he might take up a new career. Landry then pulls out a guitar and sings the Waylon Jennings/Willie Nelson classic, "Mamas, don't let your babies grow up to be", and after a pause, sings, "Redskins!" In the commercial's closing tag, Landry quips, "You didn't think I would say 'Cowboys', did ya?"
In 2017, the animosity between Cowboys wide receiver Dez Bryant and Redskins cornerback Josh Norman was part of an ad series for the Samsung Galaxy Note 8 phone. In the first ad, Norman is asked by reporters about a picture he posts on Twitter that shows Bryant's hands replaced with sticks of butter and a picture in which he says, "I'm Better Than Dez Bryant." Dez Bryant responded with his own commercial, where he says he's taking the high road when talking about Norman but draws Norman on a snail using the phone, indicating he's slow, and another drawing of the Redskins cornerback as a blanket, meaning Norman can't cover him.
In 2022, Washington owner Dan Snyder took a swipe at Cowboys owner Jerry Jones in an attempt to deflect heat away from a long sexual harassment investigation. Per ESPN's Don Van Natta Jr., Seth Wickersham, and Tisha Thompson, multiple team owners are aware that Snyder allegedly instructed his law firms to hire investigators, with one owner reportedly being told directly by Snyder that he "has dirt on" Jones. During a radio interview, Jerry Jones denied all knowledge of the 'dirt' that Dan Snyder was referring to.
Season-by-season results
|-
|
| style="|
| no game
| style="| Redskins 26–14
| Redskins 1–0
| Cowboys join NFL as an expansion team. The teams only played one game as Cowboys were placed in the Western Division and Redskins were in the Eastern division.
|-
|
| style="|
| Tie 28–28
| style="| Redskins 34–24
| Redskins 2–0–1
| Cowboys moved to the Eastern division with the addition of the Minnesota Vikings to the NFL. The Cowboys and Redskins would play two games annually beginning in 1961. Redskins open Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium (then known as District of Columbia Stadium).
|-
|
| style="|
| Tie 35–35
| style="| Cowboys 38–10
| Redskins 2–1–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 35–20
| style="| Redskins 31–23
| Redskins 3–2–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 24–18
| style="| Redskins 28–16
| Redskins 4–3–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 27–7
| style="| Redskins 34–31
| Redskins 5–4–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 34–31
| style="| Cowboys 31–30
| Redskins 6–5–2
| Cowboys lose 1966 NFL Championship.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 27–20
| style="| Cowboys 17–14
| Redskins 7–6–2
| Cowboys lose 1967 NFL Championship.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 29–20
| style="| Cowboys 44–24
| Cowboys 8–7–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 20–10
| style="| Cowboys 41–28
| Cowboys 10–7–2
|
|-
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 34–0
| style="| Cowboys 45–21
| Cowboys 12–7–2
| AFL-NFL merger. Both teams placed in the NFC East. Cowboys lose Super Bowl V.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 20-16
| style="| Cowboys 13-0
| Cowboys 13–8–2
| Cowboys win Super Bowl VI.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 34–24
| style="| Redskins 24–20
| Cowboys 14–9–2
| First game of series at Texas Stadium. Redskins lose Super Bowl VII.
|- style="background:#f2f2f2; font-weight:bold;"
| 1972 playoffs
| style="|
|
| style="| Redskins 26–3
| Cowboys 14–10–2
| NFC Championship Game.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 27–7
| style="| Redskins 14–7
| Cowboys 15–11–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 24–23
| style="| Redskins 28–21
| Cowboys 16–12–2
| Cowboys win game Thanksgiving game at Texas Stadium in Irving, TX on last-minute 50-yard touchdown pass.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 30–10
| style="| Redskins 30–24(OT)
| Cowboys 17–13–2
| Cowboys lose Super Bowl X.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 27–14
| style="| Cowboys 20–7
| Cowboys 18–14–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 34–16
| style="| Cowboys 14–7
| Cowboys 20–14–2
| Cowboys win Super Bowl XII.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 37–10
| style="| Redskins 9–5
| Cowboys 21–15–2
| Cowboys lose Super Bowl XIII.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 35–34
| style="| Redskins 34–20
| Cowboys 22–16–2
| Game at Texas Stadium in Irving, TX was the final regular season game and de facto NFC East championship game. The Cowboys won to clinch the division while the Redskins loss kept them out of the playoffs all together.
|-
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 17–3
| style="| Cowboys 14–10
| Cowboys 24–16–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 24–10
| style="| Cowboys 26–10
| Cowboys 26–16–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| no game
| style="| Cowboys 24–10
| Cowboys 27–16–2
| Dallas home game cancelled as a result of the 1982 players strike reducing the season to nine games. Cowboys hand Redskins only regular season defeat. Redskins win Super Bowl XVII.
|- style="background:#f2f2f2; font-weight:bold;"
| 1982 playoffs
| style="|
|
| style="| Redskins 31–17
| Cowboys 27–17–2
| NFC Championship Game. Redskins avenge their only defeat of the strike-shortened season.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 31–10
| style="| Cowboys 31–30
| Cowboys 28–18–2
| Redskins lose Super Bowl XVIII. Washington's victory at Texas Stadium in Irving, TX denies the Cowboys the NFC East and home-field advantage in the playoffs, which Washington would claim themselves the following week.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Redskins 30–28
| style="| Redskins 34–14
| Cowboys 28–20–2
| Redskins' first two-game sweep over Cowboys.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 44–14
| style="| Cowboys 13–7
| Cowboys 30–20–2
| Cowboys intercept Redskins QB Joe Theismann five times in the game at Texas Stadium in Irving, TX.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 30–6
| style="| Redskins 41–14
| Cowboys 31–21–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Redskins 13–7
| style="| Redskins 24–20
| Cowboys 31–23–2
| Redskins win Super Bowl XXII.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 35–17
| style="| Cowboys 24–17
| Cowboys 32–24–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 30–7
| style="| Cowboys 13–3
| Cowboys 33–25–2
| Game at Washington was the Cowboys' lone win of 1989.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 27–16
| style="| Redskins 19–15
| Cowboys 34–26–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 33–31
| style="| Cowboys 24–21
| Cowboys 35–27–2
| Redskins win Super Bowl XXVI.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 23–10
| style="| Redskins 20–17
| Cowboys 36–28–2
| Cowboys win Super Bowl XXVII.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 38–3
| style="| Redskins 35–16
| Cowboys 37–29–2
| Cowboys win Super Bowl XXVIII.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 31–7
| style="| Cowboys 34–7
| Cowboys 39–29–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Redskins 24–17
| style="| Redskins 27–23
| Cowboys 39–31–2
| Cowboys win Super Bowl XXX.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 21–10
| style="| Redskins 37–10
| Cowboys 40–32–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 17–14
| style="| Redskins 21–16
| Cowboys 41–33–2
| Redskins open FedEx Field (then known as Jack Kent Cooke Stadium).
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 23–7
| style="| Cowboys 31–10
| Cowboys 43–33–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 38–20
| style="| Cowboys 41–35(OT)
| Cowboys 45–33–2
| Cowboys come back from 21-point 4th quarter deficit to win game in Washington.
|-
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 32–13
| style="| Cowboys 27–21
| Cowboys 47–33–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 9–7
| style="| Cowboys 20–14
| Cowboys 49–33–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 27–20
| style="| Redskins 20–14
| Cowboys 50–34–2
| Cowboys win 10 straight meetings (1997–2002).
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 21–14
| style="| Cowboys 27–0
| Cowboys 52–34–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 13–10
| style="| Cowboys 21–18
| Cowboys 54–34–2
| Cowboys win nine straight home meetings (1996–2004).
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Redskins 14–13
| style="| Redskins 35–7
| Cowboys 54–36–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 27–10
| style="| Redskins 22–19
| Cowboys 55–37–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 28–23
| style="| Redskins 27–6
| Cowboys 56–38–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 26–24
| style="| Cowboys 14–10
| Cowboys 57–39–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 7–6
| style="| Cowboys 17–0
| Cowboys 59–39–2
| Cowboys open AT&T Stadium (then known as Cowboys Stadium). Cowboys clinched a playoff berth in their shutout victory in Washington.
|-
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 33–30
| style="| Redskins 13–7
| Cowboys 60–40–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 18–16
| style="| Cowboys 27–24(OT)
| Cowboys 62–40–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Redskins 38–31
| style="| Redskins 28–18
| Cowboys 62–42–2
| Game in Washington was the final game of the regular season and a de facto NFC East championship game. The Redskins won to clinch the division and the Cowboys were left out of the playoffs. The game in Arlington, TX was played on Thanksgiving and was Washington's first-ever win at AT&T Stadium.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 31–16
| style="| Cowboys 24–23
| Cowboys 64–42–2
|
|-
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 20–17(OT)
| style="| Cowboys 44–17
| Cowboys 65–43–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Redskins 34–23
| style="| Cowboys 19–16
| Cowboys 66–44–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 31–26
| style="| Cowboys 27–23
| Cowboys 68–44–2
| Bryant–Norman fight in the game at Dallas's home game.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 38–14
| style="| Cowboys 33–19
| Cowboys 70–44–2
|
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 31–23
| style="| Redskins 20–17
| Cowboys 71–45–2
|
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 47–16
| style="| Cowboys 31–21
| Cowboys 73–45–2
| The game at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, TX was Washington's last game as the "Redskins".
|-
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Washington 41–16
| style="| Washington 25–3
| Cowboys 73–47–2
| Game in Washington involved Washington linebacker Jon Bostic delivering a violent hit on Andy Dalton (who was starting for Dak Prescott, who was on injured reserve for the season) as he was sliding, causing Dalton to exit the game due to a head injury. Jon Bostic was immediately ejected from the game and later fined. Dalton was sidelined for three weeks. Dallas's home game involved a controversial fake punt attempt by Dallas that eventually led to a Washington lopsided victory.
|-
|
| style="|
| style="| Cowboys 56–14
| style="| Cowboys 27–20
| Cowboys 75–47–2
| Dallas's home game saw Dak Prescott become the first player to throw touchdown passes to a wide receiver, running back, offensive lineman, and a tight end in the same game. This was also the largest margin of victory in the series.
|-
|
| Tie 1–1
| style="| Cowboys 25–10
| style="| Commanders 26–6
| Cowboys 76–48–2
| Washington Football Team adopts the "Commanders" name. Both games were played with different quarterbacks starting for both teams.
|-
|-
| Regular season
| style="|Cowboys 76–46–2
| Cowboys 42–17–2
| Cowboys 34–29
|
|-
| Postseason
| style="|Commanders 2–0
| no games
| Commanders 2–0
| NFC Championship Game: 1972, 1982.
|-
| Regular and postseason
| style="|Cowboys 76–48–2
| Cowboys 42–17–2
| Cowboys 34–31
|
|-
References
External links
National Football League rivalries
Washington Commanders
Dallas Cowboys
Dallas Cowboys rivalries
Washington Commanders rivalries |
4214310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20County%20Kildare | History of County Kildare | County Kildare in the province of Leinster, Ireland, was first defined as a diocese in 1111, shired in 1297 and assumed its present borders in 1836. Its location in the Liffey basin on the main routes from Dublin to the south and west meant it was a valuable possession and important theatre of events throughout Irish history.
Ancient history
An inland town on Ptolemy's map of Ireland of 100 AD may be Rheban on the Barrow river, the only written records from pre-Christian County Kildare. The estimated date for the abandonment of the sacred pre-Christian site of Knockaulin/ Dún Áilinne is 400 AD, the traditional date for foundation of the monastery at Cill Dara is 490 AD, the date for the death of first Bishop Conlaed ua hEimri, (St Conleth) is 520 AD and the estimated date for the death of foundress St Brigid (Irish: Naomh Bríd), is 524 AD (also dated 521 and 526). Her death has been celebrated traditionally on 1 February, which is also the pre-Christian festival of Imbolc. The rise of Kildare sept the Uí Dúnlainge after 633AD helped promote the cult of St Brigid, as she was related to that dynasty, giving her status as one of three 'national saints' of Ireland and increase the status of the two monasteries where they had influence, Kildare and Glendalough.
The first hagiography of St Brigid, Vita Brigitae, already containing familiar wonder tales such as the story of how her cloak expanded to cover the area now known as the Curragh of Kildare, was compiled in 650AD by Cogitosus for Faolán mac Colmáin the first of the Uí Dúnlainge kings of Leinster. In 799 a reliquary in gold and silver was created for relics of Conlaed (St Conleth). Further south the death of Diarmait (St Diarmuid), anchorite scholar and founder of Castledermot created a second major monastic site in the county. There were also about 50 local saints associated with pattern days and wells in the county. Kildare is home to five surviving round towers at Kildare town, Castledermot, Old Kilcullen, Taghadoe near Maynooth and Oughter Ard near Ardclough.
Kings of Leinster
The Uí Dúnlainge claimed descent from Dúnlaing, son of Enna Nia. Their positions as Kings of Leinster were unopposed following the death of Aed mac Colggan in the Battle of Ballyshannon, on 19 August 738. The dynasty then divided into three kindreds, amongst which the kingship rotated from c.750 until 1050. This is unusual in early Irish history, according to Professor Francis John Byrne of University College Dublin, for it was the equivalent of "keeping three oranges in the air." 14 Uí Meiredaig kings (later to become the O'Tooles) were based at Mullaghmast/Máistín 9 Uí Faelain kings (later the O'Byrnes) were based at Naas/ Nás na Ríogh and 10 Uí Dúnchada kings (later the Hiberno-Norman FitzDermots) were based at Lyons Hill/ Líamhain. The influence of the family helped secure place-myths for prominent Kildare landmarks in the heroic and romantic literature such as the Dindeanchas, Dinnshenchas Érenn as one of the "assemblies and noted places in Ireland"
In 833 Vikings raided Kildare monastery for first of sixteen times, the second and most destructive raid following three years after, and the power of the Uí Dúnlainge waned after the battles of Gleann Mama, beside Lyons Hill in the north of the county in 999 and Clontarf in 1014. After the death of the last Kildare-based King of Laighin, Murchad Mac Dunlainge, in 1042, the Kingship of Leinster reverted to the Uí Cheinnselaig sept based in the south east.
In the Gaelic-era "Triads of Ireland", Kildare was described at line 4 as: "The heart of Ireland".
End of the Abbacy
In 1132 Kildare monastery was destroyed by Diarmait Mac Murchada /Diarmait MacMurrough, King of Laighin, when he forced the abbess to marry one of his followers and installed his niece as abbess. It was the end of the only major Irish church office open to women, in 1152 the Synod of Kells deprived the Abbess of Kildare of traditional precedence over bishops and when the last abbess of Kildare, Sadb ingen Gluniarainn Meic Murchada, (niece of Diarmait Mac Murchada), died in 1171 the Norman invasion of Ireland brought the famous abbacy to an end. Gerald of Wales/ Giraldus Cambrensis visited Kildare in 1186 and described the (later lost) Book of Kildare as the "dictation of an angel." He also recorded the sacred fire of Kildare, the pagan nature of which was subject of iconoclastic suspicion as early as 1220 when it was extinguished by Henry de Londres, archbishop of Dublin. According to folklore, it was rekindled and continued to burn until the Protestant Reformation in 1541.
Boundaries
Origins as diocese
The first attempt to define the borders of Kildare was in 1111 when a sphere of influence for Kildare diocese was defined by the synod of Raith Bressail. For a short time Kilcullen was also a diocese.
Initial Norman structures
After the Cambro-Norman invasion removed the Uí Dúnlainge dynasty from power in 1170, Diarmait Mac Murcada's Norman allies led by Strongbow divided Kildare amongst themselves: the Barony of Carbury to Meyler FitzHenry, Naas Offalia to Maurice Fitzgerald, Norragh to Robert FitzHereford and Salt (Saltus salmonus – Salmon Leap, i.e. Leixlip) to Adam FitzHereford. In 1210 Kildare became one of original twelve Norman counties of Ireland, originally known as the "Liberty of Kildare". The Normans introduced the feudal system which was the usual landholding system in western Europe at the time.
In 1247 the estate of Anselm Marshall was subdivided, Kildare was assigned to Sybilla (fourth daughter of William Marshall and Isabella, heiress to Strongbow and Aoife). Sybilla was already dead so the "Liberty of Kildare", including what is now counties Laois and Offaly, passed to her daughter Agnes and husband William de Vesci. In 1278 the "Liberty" (later County) of Kildare was restored to Anges de Vesci. On her death in 1290 her son William succeeded to the Lordship of Kildare.
Beginning of the County
In 1297 William de Vesci surrendered the "Liberty of Kildare" to the English crown. "County Kildare" came into being and was defined as such by an Act of the new Irish Parliament of Edward I.
Shortly afterwards De Vesci fled to France, leaving the FitzGeralds of Maynooth to become the pre-eminent family in the county. John FitzThomas FitzGerald, 5th Baron of Offaly, was created the first Earl of Kildare on 14 May 1316.
The Norman settlers also had their own literature. In 1200–25 the "Song of Dermot and the Earl" was drafted in Norman-French, and mentioned parts of Kildare. Soon after 1300 the "Kildare Poems" were written in medieval English.,
Changes in boundaries
The 1297 boundaries of County Kildare included much of the present counties Offaly and Laois. These were shired as King's and Queen's Counties in 1556.
Final form
County Kildare assumed its current borders in 1836 when it was reassigned three detached sections of County Dublin (including Ballymore Eustace) and one detached district of King's County (the western Harristown and Kilbracken), while a detached district of Kildare, around Castlerickard, was reassigned to County Meath.
Monastic houses
The establishment of a Cistercian Abbey at Monasterevin by the O'Dempsey's in 1189 and an Augustinian priory in Naas in 1200 brought a new monastic tradition to Kildare. In 1202 Great Connell Priory Augustinian priory, set to become one of the finest in medieval Ireland, was founded by Meyler FitzHenry. In 1223 the last Gaelic bishop of Kildare, Cornelius MacFaelain, was succeeded by Ralph of Bristol and control of the church remained in Norman hands. In 1253 a Dominican friary was established at Athy and in 1302 a Franciscan abbey at Castledermot. In the early 14th century, the Kildare Poems, comprising some of the earliest written documents of English in Ireland, are thought to have been composed by Franciscan friars from Kildare.
The Fitzgeralds
In the years leading to the ascendancy of the FitzGerald family (1470–1535) Kildare came virtual capital of Ireland. The Irish Parliament sat in Naas on twenty occasions between 1255 and 1484, and there were also sittings in Kildare in 1266–67 and 1310, 12 in Castledermot between 1264 and 1509, Ballymore Eustace in 1390 and Great Connell Priory in 1478. English King Richard II took the submission of Irish chiefs at Great Connell Priory Augustinian Priory in 1395. in 1481, Gerald FitzGerald, Gearóid Mór, eighth earl of Kildare, was appointed English King's Deputy in Ireland by Edward IV. The principles of the county, Edmond Lane, Bishop of Kildare, the Prior of Great Connell Priory and Gearóid Mór all assisted in the coronation of the Yorkist pretender Lambert Simnel in Dublin but were pardoned by the new king Henry VII after Simnel's defeat.
In 1488 Gearóid Mór became one of the first to use guns in Ireland, importing six handguns from Germany for his personal guard and using cannon to destroy Balrath Castle in County Westmeath. Gearóid Mór rebuilt Athy castle to secure his southern frontier in 1506 but died in Athy in 1513 from gunshot wounds received in an engagement with O'Mores and was succeeded by Gearóid Óg.
Even at the supposed height of their power, accusations by rivals that the family was plotting against Henry VIII bedeviled the FitzGerald dynasty. Gearóid Mór spent two years and Gearóid Óg 11 years in all as the King's prisoner in the Tower of London. In 1534 Gearóid Óg was recalled to London once more (February), leaving his 20-year-old son Silken Thomas in charge. Thomas declared rebellion (11 June) on false information that his father had been executed. In 1535 Maynooth Castle, stronghold of Silken Thomas, was bombarded by cannon for 18 days and taken by William Brereton. Rathangan castle was also taken before Thomas submitted in October. Despite a guarantee of personal safety, Silken Thomas and five uncles were executed in the Tower of London in 1537. Thomas's younger brother Gearóid was smuggled to Tuscany. The FitzGerald lands were confiscated and the biggest share-out of Kildare land since the Cambro-Norman conquest took place. In 1552 Gearóid the only survivor of FitzGerald family, was restored to his ancestral title and possessions.
Religious change
After King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1533 after his decision to remarry, the Pope appointed Franciscan Dónall O Bóacháin bishop of Kildare. When he died almost immediately Thady Reynolds was appointed and initially recognised by Henry VIII. Reynolds refused to break with Rome in common with most Irish bishops and while he continued to minister Henry VIII appointed William Miagh in opposition as the first Protestant bishop of Kildare. Some later documents refer to his 1550 successor Thomas Lancaster as the first Protestant bishop, partly because he was Kildare's first married bishop and partly because Henry VIII also disliked Lutherans until his death in 1547. By 1550 Edward VI was formulating a more Lutheran state religion.
When the English crown turned back to Catholicism under Queen Mary in 1555–58, Thomas Leverous became the first native Kildare bishop in 400 years, being of Norman descent. In 1558 the new queen, Elizabeth I, ascended the throne and as Leverous refused to take the Oath of Allegiance he was deprived of his see. Pope Pius V, in his papal bull Regnans in Excelsis, finally declared Elizabeth to be an illegitimate heretic in 1570, and from this point on it became harder for Kildare's landed families, most of whom were Catholic, to be simultaneously loyal to the queen and also to be observant Catholics. Kildare's numerous Norman families became known as Old English, to distinguish them from newer arrivals who conformed to the state religion.
Elizabethan Kildare
Queen Elizabeth I granted charters to Naas in 1568 and Athy in 1613. In 1576 the earliest record of grazing rights on the Curragh named Robert Bathe as the beneficiary. In 1580, during the Second Desmond Rebellion, 200 Spaniards who had arrived in Smerwick in the Dingle Peninsula as part of the 1579 Papal invasion force and marched to Naas were massacred by the English crown forces at Fód Spáinigh. In 1581 Catholic martyrs Fr James Eustace and Fr Nicholas FitzGerald were executed in Naas.
Wars of the 1640s
Kildare suffered greatly in the civil wars of the 1640s that ravaged both Ireland and Britain -see Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Lord Deputy Thomas Wentworth came to reside at the uncompleted Jigginstown House in Naas, Ireland's first royal palace, in 1637. When he was recalled and executed in 1641 it remains unfinished and today only the basement is still standing.
The wars began in Ireland with the Irish Rebellion of 1641 that broke out in October of that year. The early fighting in Kildare saw small bands of Irish Catholic rebels attacking English troops and Protestant settlers, followed by a punitive English expedition led by the Earl of Ormonde. In early 1642 Ormonde led out his royalist forces to subdue Kildare; burned the town of Lyons Hill, gave up Naas to his soldiers to plunder, reduced Kildare cathedral to ruins through cannon fire and sent parties to burn Kilcullen, Castlemartin, and "all the county for 17 miles in length and 25 in breadth". Butler garrisoned Naas and then defeated the Confederate Irish forces under Lord Mountgarret in the Battle of Kilrush (15 April). When Father Peter Higgins of Naas was hanged, he became the county's third famous Catholic martyr.
In May 1642, the landed Catholic rebels set up their own government at Kilkenny known as Confederate Ireland. Most of the Kildare landowners participated in this assembly. The English position was weakened by the outbreak of the English Civil War, the recall of many of their troops and the split of the remaining forces between Royalists and Parliamentarians.
The Parliamentarians were the more hostile faction to the Confederates and a truce known as the first Ormonde Peace, a ceasefire between Royalists and Irish Confederates, was signed at Jigginstown House in Naas (15 Sept). The ceasefire broke down in May 1646 and Confederate forces marched through Kildare to besiege Dublin. The Royalists then handed the capital over to Parliamentarian troops in 1647 and the Confederate armies tried to eliminate this hostile force. Owen Roe O'Neill took Woodstock Castle in Athy briefly in 1647. Thomas Preston also took Maynooth castle in that year and hanged its garrison. However, Preston's Leinster army was destroyed, losing 3000 killed at the battle of Dungans Hill, on the road between Maynooth and Trim in August 1647, crippling Confederate power in the area. Kildare landowner and Confederate cavalry officer Garret Cron Fitzgerald was killed early in the battle. In 1648 Owen Roe O'Neill refused to ally his army with Ormonde's royalists and the moderate Confederates, and engaged in a brief war with them which fatally weakened the Confederate cause.
In 1649, Oliver Cromwell landed in Dublin with over 10,000 Parliamentarian troops and began a thorough re-conquest of Ireland. In 1650 Naas and Kildare surrendered to Cromwellian forces. Cromwell's Dublin-based commander John Hewson took Ballisonan Castle by force. Athy and Castledermot were captured without opposition.
Lands redistributed
The first major map of Kildare, The Down Survey was completed in 1656. It served as the basis of more redistribution of land confiscated after the Cromwellian conquest, in line with the Adventurers' Act 1640 (see also Plantations of Ireland). After the Treaty of Limerick in 1691, further estates in Kildare forfeited included those of Talbot, Dongan, Tyrrel, Eustace, Trant and Lawless who continued to support the losing Jacobite cause. The best known buyer of land from the new grantees was the Donegal-born lawyer and estate agent, William Conolly, who built what was then the largest private house in Ireland at Castletown House, Celbridge in 1722–28.
Diocese of Kildare
The Catholic diocese of Kildare first united with Leighlin Diocese to the south in 1676 when Mark Forstall, bishop of Kildare, was also appointed administrator of Leighlin by St Oliver Plunkett. He was arrested in 1678 and again in 1681 for 'having exercised papal jurisdiction.' The union was formalised in 1694 when John Dempsey was appointed bishop of Kildare and administrator of Leighlin, despite penal laws. The last Catholic bishop to reside in Kildare was James Gallagher, much of it in hiding near the Bog of Allen. His Sixteen Irish Sermons (1736) is the major Irish language theological work of the age and has gone through 14 editions by 1820. The Anglican/Episcopalian Diocese of Kildare merged with Dublin in 1846 after the death of the last Church of Ireland bishop of Kildare, Charles Dalrymple Lindsay. In 1976 the Church of Ireland diocese of Kildare separated from Dublin and joined to Meath.
Georgian Kildare
Kildare enjoyed prosperity during the 18th century, as the focus of economic life turned to the large landed estates and market towns. The Earl of Kildare purchased and started reconstruction of Carton House near Maynooth in 1739. Henry Boyle Carter purchased and started reconstruction of Castlemartin near Kilcullen in 1730. The running of horse races on the Curragh, well established for centuries, was formalised in 1717 when the duties of the Ranger of the Curragh were extended to supervising "the proper conduct of the King's Plate". Maps of the county compiled by Noble & Keenan in 1753 and Alexander Taylor in 1783 show the advent of arterial drainage and the boglands of the north west of the county being reclaimed for agriculture.
Turnpike (toll) roads were laid from the 1730s, largely in line with today's main roads. In the late 1700s the grand canal and the Royal Canal passed through the county on the way from Dublin to the Shannon. The county was run by landowners on the grand jury system. While much of Ireland had a problem with absentee landlords living and spending their rents mostly in Dublin or London, most Kildare landlords lived on their land and reinvested more of their income locally.
Constituencies
In the Parliament of Ireland (1297–1800), by 1684 Kildare was represented by two men for County Kildare, and two each for the boroughs of Naas, Kildare, Athy and Harristown. Therefore, the county had 10 seats in the 300-seat Irish House of Commons.
In the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1918) Kildare became
the single constituency of County Kildare from 1801 to 1885, returning 2 members;
two constituencies of North Kildare and South Kildare, from 1885 to 1918, returning one member each.
In 1918 both elections were won by members who sat in the First Dáil
From the 1921 election and the creation of the Irish Free State the county has been merged with other constituencies, or has been divided:
Kildare–Wicklow 1921–22
Kildare 1923–37
Carlow–Kildare 1937–48
Kildare 1948–97
Kildare North 1997–
Kildare South 1997–
Industrial Revolution
Industrial projects were started by largely Quaker families at Ballitore by Abraham Shackleton in 1726 while Robert Brooke was assisted by a £25,000 grant from the Irish Parliament in building a cotton mill and town of 200 houses at the newly named town of Prosperous in the 1780s. Turnpike roads were built from the 1730s. John Wynn Baker opened Kildare's earliest factory, manufacturing agricultural instruments at Loughlinstown, Celbridge in 1764. John Cassidy established a distillery in Monasterevin in 1784. In 1729 Ireland's first turnpike road was created from Dublin to Kilcullen. In 1756 the year that construction work on the Grand Canal commenced in the north of the county. 31-year-old Celbridge-born brewer Arthur Guinness leased a brewery at Leixlip in 1755 and bought a second brewery at St James's Gate in Dublin. In the 1790s the Royal Canal was dug from Dublin along the north of the county and the first railways were laid in the 1840s.
Population growth
Early estimates of Kildare's population include GP Bushe's 1788 return of the number of households in Kildare at 11,272 (population afterwards estimated at 71,570) and DA Beaufort's household returns of 11,205 in 1790, and estimated population at 56,000. Mason's Statistical Survey of 1813 calculated the number of households at 14,564, and the population at 85,000 with figures for towns: Athy 3,192, Naas 2,018, Maynooth 1,468, Kildare 1,299. The first census in 1821 recorded a population of 99,065 (Athy 3,693, Naas 3,073, Kildare 1,516, Maynooth 1,364).
University
Maynooth, which had been the site of Ireland's first 'college' in 1518, was re-established by the government as a seminary for Catholic lay and ecclesiastical students in 1795, with Kildare-born Fr John Chetwode Eustace among first professors. In 1817 Maynooth's lay college closed and it functioned solely as a Catholic seminary for 150 years. In 1910 it became a constituent college of the National University of Ireland and reopened for lay students in 1967. Nobel Peace prize winner John Hume is among its alumni. In 1812 Clongowes Wood College near Clane was founded by the Jesuit order as a centre for second-level education. James Joyce and three Taoisigh of the Republic are among its alumni.
Canals
Work on the Grand Canal began in 1756 and it reached the Kildare border in 1763. In 1779 the first section of Grand Canal was opened to goods traffic, from Dublin to Ballyheally, near Celbridge and in 1780 to passenger boats. Ten years later the Naas branch of the Grand Canal completed. The canal reached Tullamore in 1784, and a southern branch known as the Barrow navigation reached Athy in 1791.
Work began on the Royal Canal in 1789 and it reached Kilcock in 1796, but this more northerly line was never a commercial success.
Traffic on the Grand Canal peaked at 120,615 passengers in 1846 and 379,045 tons of cargo in 1865. The canal was motorised in 1911–24 and closed for commercial traffic in 1960. The Grand Canal remains open for pleasure boats and restoration of the Royal Canal was completed in 2006. Both were seriously affected by the advent of railways in Kildare from the 1840s.
1798 rebellion and Emmet rebellion of 1803
See also Irish Rebellion of 1798
Support in Kildare for the United Irishmen's revolutionary democratic movement at the time of the 1798 rebellion has been estimated at 10,000. It has also been suggested that Valentine Lawless who inherited Lyons near Ardclough was a prominent member of the government in waiting should the rebellion succeed. United Irish leader and later informer Thomas Reynolds lived at Kilkea, Lord Edward Fitzgerald returned to Maynooth in 1796 to organise the United Irishmen and Theobald Wolfe Tone was buried at his godfather's family plot at Bodenstown. In the years leading up to the rebellion there were anti-militia riots in Kilcullen and Ballitore. Lawrence O'Connor was executed in Naas for plotting against the English administration in 1795. In December 1797, 1,500 guns and 3,000 bayonets were captured on a boat on the canal at Athy.
The first shots of the 1798 rebellion were fired in Kildare. On 23 May, the signal for rebellion given when mail coaches were seized at Johnstown and Maynooth. Kildare rebels attacked Kilcullen Prosperous, were repulsed at Naas and Clane, and a force under William Aylmer was eventually defeated at the battle of Ovidstown on 18 June. 350 surrendering prisoners were slaughtered in the Gibbet Rath massacre at the Curragh despite an initially successful effort by General Dundas to defuse the rising with a policy of mass pardons. In turn, the two loyalist garrisons at Rathangan were also slaughtered after surrendering. The fighting in Kildare did not end until the surrender of William Aylmer in mid-July.
In 1803 Kildaremen recruited by Michael Quigly participated in a brief United Irish uprising organised by Robert Emmet. Maynooth was the only town successfully seized by the rebels ( 23–25 July) and Kildare troops under Nicholas Gray marched to Thomas Street in Dublin to participate in the ill-fated rebellion. Emmett's uniform was later found at Rathcoffey. The most prominent victim of the Emmet rebellion, Arthur Wolfe, Lord Kilwarden, was buried at Oughterard in Ardclough.
Military camp
One outcome of the rebellion was the establishment of a temporary military encampment at the Curragh in 1805. In 1816 a new town came into being with the building of a military barracks near a bridge over the Liffey – it was to be called Newbridge. In 1855 a permanent encampment was built for 10,000 infantry on the Curragh.
Local politicians
Kildare had ten parliamentary representatives in old Irish House of Commons – two for the County Kildare and two members from each of the boroughs of Athy, Harristown, Kildare and Naas. Two of the most powerful figures in 18th century politics resided in the county, Speakers of the house William Conolly at Castletown House near Celbridge and John Ponsonby at Bishopscourt near Kill. The post-1801 Act of Union County Kildare constituency had two seats in the United Kingdom House of Commons. The La Touche and Fitzgerald families controlled local politics through the first half of the 19th century until challenged by Balyna-born Richard More O'Ferrall. Naas Corporation, countrolled by the Bourke family, was dissolved in 1840. In 1898 Stephen J Brown was elected first chairman of the first Kildare County Council to be directly elected. With the rise of the Home Rule movement and the establishment of a nationalist newspaper, the Leinster Leader in Naas in 1884, William H. F. Cogan and Otho Fitzgerald were succeeded by Home Rule members of parliament Charles Henry Meldon, James Leahy and James Carew, owner of the Leinster Leader and founder of the Irish Independent newspaper.
Railways
The first sod on the new railway line from Dublin to Cork was turned at Adamstown near the Dublin-Kildare border in January 1846. By June the line had been completed to Sallins. The first train ran to Carlow in 1846 and to Cork in 1850. The third worst rail accident in Irish history occurred at Straffan Station in 1853, when a goods train ran into the back of a stationary passenger train killing 18 people, including a nephew of Irish political leader Daniel O'Connell. As rail traffic declined Straffan Station was closed in 1947 and Hazelhatch and Sallins stations in 1963. Kildare was also served by the Tullow Extension, running south from Naas, through Harristown (for that area and Kilcullen) and on to Tullow in County Carlow.
In 1995 a section of the line was opened for a new Dublin area commuter service, the Arrow, and Sallins and Hazlehatch stations reopened as part of the "Southwestern Commuter" line. Another reopened line runs westwards, serving Leixlip, Maynooth and Kilcock, continuing towards Enfield, County Meath.
Sporting Revolution
The Turf Club was founded at the Curragh horse racing circuit in 1790 to regulate the racing of horses, but attempts to establish an Irish 1000 guineas in 1815 and an "O'Darby Stakes" in 1817 were unsuccessful until the most important flat race in the country, the Irish Derby was established on an annual basis from 1866 on. The Turf Club regulated to famous bare knuckle contests involving Dublin prize fighter Dan Donnelly against Tom Hall in 1814 and George Cooper in 1815, drawing estimated crowds of 20,000 to the Curragh. In 1846 the first railway excursion organised for a sporting event worldwide ran on the new Great Southern and Western Railway line to Curragh races. The first annual ball of the Kildare hunt was held in 1860, soon to become the social event of the year in the county. Punchestown Races were reorganised and reconstituted as 'Kildare and National Hunt Steeplechases' in 1861. The first day of the 1868 meeting attracted an estimated 150,000 spectators.
Athletes and horses
Cricket clubs were established from the 1850s on and Ireland's first golf course laid out on the Curragh in 1852 by Musselburgh club member David Ritchie. In 1871 County Kildare Cricket Club was formed "for the promotion of cricket, football, archery, pigeon shooting, lawn tennis and, if possible, polo. Kildaremen winning sporting fame in the USA included Clane-born Jack Kelly, alias Jack (Nonpareil) Dempsey who won the world middleweight boxing title in 1884 in Great Kills, New York, held the title for seven years and inspired a later heavyweight boxer to borrow his name. In 1893 Clane born Tommy Conneff ran a new world mile record of 4 minutes 17.8 seconds, a record that was to stand for 20 years. In 1903 the fourth Gordon Bennett Cup Motor Race staged in Athy, setting new speed records of over 60 MPH. The GAA was established in the county in 1887 and Kildare GAA helped establish Gaelic football as a major sport meeting Kerry three times in 1903 GAA All Ireland "home" final attracting attendances of 12,000, 18,000 and 20,000.
In 1995 the annual staging of the European Open golf tournament was moved to the K Club at Straffan from Birmingham and the course staged the Ryder Cup in September 2006.
In 2000 Kildare was designated the "Thoroughbred County" by its county council in recognition of its equine tradition. In 2000 Kildare-trained racehorses won the leading races in England and Ireland over jumps and on the flat, Ted Walsh from Greenhills, Kill won the Irish (Comanche Court) and English (Papillon) Grand Nationals while Sindaar, trained by John Oxx on the Curragh, won the Irish and English Derbies. Ted is the father of jockey Ruby Walsh. Kildare's reputation as a stud capital was undamaged by the high-profile kidnap of the English Derby winner Shergar in 1983.
A New State
Kildare did not participate in the Fenian rebellion of 1867, though John Devoy was born at Kill. Incidents in the Land War such as the Clongorey evictions politicised the largely agricultural county and one of the first politicians elected to the new Irish parliament, Dáil Éireann in 1922, Hugh Colohan, was a veteran of the Clongorey campaign. Several Kildare politicians have held high rank since independence including Dónal Ó Buachalla, last Governor General of the Irish Free State, who had led a column of volunteers from Maynooth to participate in the 1916 Easter Rising, Art O'Connor, appointed Minister for Agriculture by the first Dáil in 1919 and briefly leader of Sinn Féin after Éamon de Valera founded Fianna Fáil in 1926 before he, too, joined Fianna Fáil, William Norton leader of the Labour Party 1932–60 and Tánaiste 1948–51 and 1954–57, Alan Dukes leader of Fine Gael 1987–90 and Minister for Finance 1982–86, Gerry Sweetman Minister for Finance 1954–57, Charlie McCreevy Minister for Finance 1997–2004 and later EU commissioner, and Paddy Power Minister for Forestry and Fisheries 1979–81 and Defence 1982.
Towns and trends
Kildare's population plunged to a low of 57,892 in 1936. Athy, Kildare's most populous town since records began, was briefly overtaken by Naas as Kildare's largest in 1901 (Naas 3,836, Athy 3,599) but regained its position by a small margin in 1926. By 1956 Newbridge was the largest town with a population of 4,157, (Athy 3,948, Naas 3,915). In 1986 Leixlip became the largest town, and Celbridge was recorded as the fastest growing town in Ireland. Naas was the largest town in 1996 only to be overtaken by Newbridge again in 2002 when the census recorded a highest ever population of 163,995 for the county, a 21.5pc increase on 1996. Infrastructural projects helped change the demographics of the county. The Kildare leg of the dual carriageway to Naas opened in 1963 and was followed by Ireland's first section of motorway, the Naas Bypass in 1983, the Newbridge bypass (1993), Kildare bypass (2003) and Monasterevin bypass (2004) on the M7, the Maynooth bypass (1994) and Kilcock- Kinnegad bypass (2005) on the M4, and the Kilcullen by-pass (1994) on the M9.
Bibliography
"Journals of the Kildare Archaeological Society",
References
External links
Kildare.ie
Historic constituencies in County Kildare |
4214446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid%20coinage | Achaemenid coinage | The Achaemenid Empire issued coins from 520 BC–450 BC to 330 BC. The Persian daric was the first gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the siglos (from , , shékel) represented the first bimetallic monetary standard. It seems that before the Persians issued their own coinage, a continuation of Lydian coinage under Persian rule is likely. Achaemenid coinage includes the official imperial issues (Darics and Sigloi), as well as coins issued by the Achaemenid provincial governors (satraps), such as those stationed in Asia Minor.
Early coinage of Western Asia under the Achaemenid Empire
When Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) came to power, coinage was unfamiliar in his realm. Barter, and to some extent silver bullion, was used instead for trade. The practice of using silver bars for currency also seems to have been current in Central Asia from the 6th century.
Cyrus the Great introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of Lydia and the defeat of its king Croesus, whose father Alyattes had put in place the first coinage in history. With his conquest of Lydia, Cyrus acquired a region in which coinage was invented, developed through advanced metallurgy, and had already been in circulation for about 50 years, making the Lydian Kingdom one of the leading trade powers of the time.
It seems that Cyrus initially adopted the Lydian coinage as such, and continued to strike Lydia's lion-and-bull Croeseid coinage. The stater coins had a weight of 10.7 grams, a standard initially created by Croesus, which was then adopted by the Persians and became commonly known as the "Persic standard". The Persians also minted posthumous Croeseid half-staters, with a weight of 5.35 g, which would become the weight standard for the later Sigloi, introduced at the end of the 6th century BC.
Soon after 546, Cyrus also had full control of Asia Minor, including other regions such Lycia, Caria or Ionia, following the conquests of his general Harpagus. With the conquest of Lydia and the adoption of Lydian coinage, the nascent Achaemenid Empire thus obtained access to the most modern coinage of its time and the economic power that goes with it. The mint was located in Sardis, now capital of all the western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, and continued minted operation under Cyrus. This coinage would supply the western part of the Achaemenid Empire.
Technically, these early coins used incuse punches on the reverse, while the obverse die would consist in some pictorial design ("die and punch" technique, rather than the later "two dies" technique). The Lydian coins used double punches on the reserve, a technique which would be simplified in the time of Darius by using a single reverse punch on some coinage. Some of the earliest Lycian coins under the Achaemenids also used an animal design on the obverse and incuse punches on the reverse, which developed into geometrical forms, such as two diagonals between projecting rectangular lugs.
Apadana hoard (c.515 BC)
As late as the time of the foundation of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis (dated to between 519 and 510 BC), it seems that the Achaemenids had not yet designed the Sigloi and Darics: no coins of these types were found in the Apadana hoard discovered under the palace's foundation stones, whereas the hoard contained several gold Croeseids of the light type from Sardis (probably minted under the rule of Darius I) and several imported Archaic Greek silver staters.
Darics and Sigloi
The coinage of the Achaemenid Empire started to move away from simply copying Lydian coinage, to introducing changes with the reign of Darius I (ruled 522-486 BC). Under Darius I, the minting of Croeseids in Sardis was progressively replaced by the minting of Darics and Sigloi.
From around 510-500 BC, Darius then simplified the coining procedure by replacing the double reverse punch of Lydian coins, by a single, oblong reverse punch, and he introduced the image of the Persian king in place of the lion and bull design. This is deduced from the fact that no Darics or Sigloi were found in the Apadana hoard, under the Apadana foundation stones of the Apadana Palace in Persepolis (dated to between 519 and 510 BC), whereas there were gold Croeseids of the light type and Greek silver staters. But by around 500 BC, a clay tablet, issued in year 22 of the reign of Darius I (circa 500 BC), contained the impression on clay of two Type II Sigloi ("King shooting arrow"), showing that the new Sigloi had already been issued by that date. Because of these and other discoveries, the creation of the Darics and Sigloi is dated to the last decade of the 6th century BC, during the reign of Darius I.
The new Achaemenid coins were initially only made in silver, while the Lydian gold design of the Croesus was maintained. Then, Darius introduced his new design for gold coins as well, which came to be known as Darics, from Old Persian Daruiyaka, meaning "Golden". Although the Achaemenids had developed their own currency, they still accepted local monetary production including civic issues, throughout the land under their control, in particular in Western Asia.
According to numismat Martin Price, there is no doubt that the Darics and Sigloi of Types I and II were minted at Sardis and immediately followed the production of the Croeseids, since they adopted similar weights and were of the same fabric. He insists that the finds of the Croeseids and the "Archer" types of Darics and Sigloi indicate that they were not an Imperial coinage, but rather the coinage of the Satrapy of Lydia.
Minting activity
Although the Achaemenids fully exploited and developed coinage production in Western Asia, it seems barter economy remained quite important in the Iranian heartland throughout the Achaemenid period, and the Achaemenids did not develop their own mints in Iran. At the same time, the circulation of the Daric was mainly confined to the Western part of the Achaemenid Empire. The minting of coins in Iran would only start later from circa 330 BC under Alexander the Great and the Seleucid Empire.
It seems that all the minting activity for the Darics and the Sigloi for the whole Empire was essentially centralized in one mint, or possibly two mints at Sardis in Lycia. Sardis remained the central mint for the Persian Darics and Sigloi of Achaemenid coinage, and there is no evidence of other mints for the new Achaemenid coins during the whole time of the Achaemenid Empire. According to hoard finds, Sardis was clearly the main mint, but there may also have been secondary mints in southwestern and northwestern Asia Minor as well.
Overall, it seems that the minting of Darics and Sigloi was rather small in quantity compared to the other local productions of coins in Asia Minor, or the circulation of Greek coins in the area. Although the gold Daric became an international currency which was found throughout the Ancient world, the circulation of the silver Sigloi remained very much limited to Asia Minor: important hoards of Sigloi are only found in these areas, and finds of Sigloi beyond are always very limited and marginal compared to Greek coins, even in Achaemenid territories.
Standards
Darius introduced the reformed currency system from about 510-500 BC, consisting of gold Darics and silver Sigloi. The rate of exchange was 1 Daric = 20 Siglos. A Daric was between 8.10 and 8.50 grams in weight, based on the Babylonian shekel of 8.33 grams, slightly heavier than the Croesus standard of 8.06 grams. The purity of gold was between 98 and 99%. 1 Daric = 25 Attic Drachmae. It represented initially about 1 month of a soldier's wage. This new coin became popular throughout all of the ancient world for more than 150 years. Around 395 BC, the Achaemenids, led by Satrap Pharnabazes, bribed Greek states by paying them tens of thousands of Darics in order to attack Sparta, which was then waging a campaign of destruction in Asia Minor under Agesilaus. This started the Corinthian War. According to Plutarch, Agesilaus, the Spartan king, said upon leaving Asia "I have been driven out by 10,000 Persian archers", a reference to "Archers" (Toxotai) the Greek nickname for the Darics from their obverse design, because that much money had been paid to politicians in Athens and Thebes in order to start a war against Sparta.
The Siglos was 5.40-5.60 grams each, based on the 0.5 Lydian Siglos of 10.73-10.92 grams for the full unit. Purity was at first issue 97-98% but by the middle 4th century was 94-95%. 1 Siglos = 7.5 Attic Obols.
Although the area of Babylon had never minted Darics or Sigloi, after the capture of Babylon by Alexander, the Satrap Mazaeus, reconfirmed by Alexander in his position for having opened the doors of Babylon to his armies after the Battle of Gaugamela, issued the double Daric of 16.65 grams in weight whose image was based on the Daric coin and bore his name until his death in 328 BC.
Design
The "archer" type used in Achaemenid coinage may have been derived from similar and contemporary images on Greek coinage, in particular those of Herakles shooting arrows. The adaptation of this design for the illustration of the Achaemenid king or hero on the obverse may have been meant as a way to glorify the king, in way a which was easily understandable to the Hellenized people in the Western areas of the Achaemenid Empire, who minted the Achaemenid coinage and to whom this coinage was mainly destined as a currency. Other depictions of the king as an archer (for example shooting from his charriot) are also known from Sumerian art, so this representation would also have been natural to subjects in the Achaemenid realm as well. The "archer" type of Type II, less hieratic and rigid than the traditional Achaemenid illustration of the bust of the king on Type I, may represent the fusion of the Eastern conception of the King as a royal hunter, and the Western conception of the King as a hero, and designed to represent the Achaemenid king as an Olympian contestant in a propaganda effort towards the West. These depictions also imply that the Achaemenids were the first ever to illustrate the person of their king on coinage.
Extent
In effect, the gold Daric became a currency desired in all the ancient world, since it was the most convenient format to exchange and accumulate wealth. The Greeks never minted much gold, but their silver Athenian tetradrachms also became a sort of world currency from the 5th century BC. The first important competition against the prestigious Daric, as a means of storing wealth and making large payments on an international scale, came later from Philip II of Macedon (ruled 359–336 BC), when he issued his own gold coinage, pointedly called Dareikos Philippeios by the Greeks.
Archaeological finds
Daric coins have been found in Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia and Italy. The Siglos denomination have been found in hoards only in Asia Minor, and single coins with other Greek coinage from Ancient Egypt to Afghanistan (Kabul hoard) and Pakistan (Shaikhan Dehri hoard).
Circulation of Greek coinage throughout the Empire
In all the known hoards of the Achaemenid period, royal Achaemenid coinage, such as the sigloi, form actually a small minority, while most of the non-local coinage generally comes from the Greek realm, either from the independent Greek mainland or from the Greek colonies of Western Asia under the Achaemenid rule. For example, the Kabul hoard, in modern-day Afghanistan, included 30 coins from various Greek cities, about 33 Athenian coins and an Iranian imitation of an Athenian coin, only 9 royal Achaemenid silver coins (sigloi). There were also 29 locally minted coins and 14 punch-marked coins in the shape of bent bars.
Some Achaemenid satraps are also known to have minted coins in imitation of Athenian coinage, such as the satrap of Egypt Sabakes (ruled circa 340-333 BCE). An Achaemenid copy of an Athenian coin, this time found in the Kabul hoard, was minted in the vicinity of Babylon circa 380 BC.
The fact that Greek coins (both Archaic and early Classical) are comparatively numerous in Achaemenid period coin hoards, much more numerous than sigloi, suggests that the circulation of Greek coinage was central in the monetary system of the Empire. These coins were probably not legal tenders in the Achaemenid Empire, but were valued for their weight in silver, and thus used as bullion silver. Numerous finds of hacksilber hoards in the East also exist from the period, in which various silver objects, including coins, are cut into pieces, in order to facilitate their exchange on the basis of their weight.
Greek coinage travelled throughout the Achaemenid Empire. For example, the Greek coins discovered in the Kabul hoard include the following types:
Coinage of Southern Asia under the Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire already reached the doors of India during the original expansion of Cyrus the Great, and the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley is dated to circa 515 BC under Darius I. An Achaemenid administration was established in the area. The Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri hoard, is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, containing numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The deposit of the hoard is dated to the Achaemenid period, in approximately 380 BC. The hoard also contained many locally produced silver coins, minted by local authorities under Achaemenid rule. Several of these issues follow the "western designs" of the facing bull heads, a stag, or Persian column capitals on the obverse, and incuse punch on the reverse.
According to numismatist Joe Cribb, these finds suggest that the idea of coinage and the use of punch-marked techniques was introduced to India from the Achaemenid Empire during the 4th century BC. More Achaemenid coins were also found in Pushkalavati and in Bhir Mound.
Later Satrapal issues
During the 4th century, following the weakening of central Achaemenid power, and the development of coinage technologies, Siglos production receded and numerous satrapal issues of a very high quality started to appear in Western Asia under the Achaemenid Empire. These issues combined Achaemenid as well as Greek characteristics. Throughout, coin circulation was characterized by a mix of coins from the Achaemenid and Greek realms.
Various Achaemenid satraps also issued imitations of Athenian tetradrachms, such as Sabakes in Egypt.
First attempts at portraiture
Although many of the first coins of Antiquity were illustrated with the images of various gods or symbols, the first ever portraiture of actual rulers appears with these Achaemenid satrapal issues in the 5th century BC, in particular with the coinage of Lycia. The Achaemenids had been the first to illustrate the person of their king or a hero in a stereotypical manner, showing a bust or the full body, but never an actual portrait, on their Sigloi and Daric coinage from circa 500 BC. Before the Lycian coins with dynastic portraits, a slightly earlier candidate for the first portrait is Themistocles, the Athenian general who became a Governor of Magnesia on the Meander for the Achaemenid Empire circa 465-459 BC, although there is some doubt that his coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself. Themistocles may have been in a unique position in which he could transfer the notion of individual portraiture, already current in the Greek world, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own coins and illustrate them as he wished. From the time of Alexander the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.
After the conquests of Alexander the Great
After his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander the Great established his own satraps in the conquered territories, some of them Achaemenids who had been favorable to the invader, such as Mazaios, others some of Alexander's closest supports, such as Balacrus. Several satraps continued to use an Achaemenid type for their coinage, such as Balacrus when he became Hellenistic satrap of Cilicia, complete with the local deity of Tarsus, Baal. This coinage is said to have later influenced Alexander's imperial coinage, which was often minted in the same mints.
Even many years after the death of Alexander, Achaemenid gold darics continued to be minted in Babylon, at the same time as Alexandrine imperial issues were minted. Some of these issues are dated to circa 315-300/298 BC. These darics continued to use the Achaemenid type, but the reverse was slightly modified to include wavy patterns.
See also
Parthian coinage
Sasanian coinage
Ancient Greek coinage
Elymais
References
Bibliography
External links
Zeno coins of Iran
Daric information
Money weights and measures in Antiquity including Babylonian
Persian coins and Satraps coins
Asia Minor Coins - Achaemenid Satraps and Governors
Achaemenid Empire
Ancient currencies
hr:Ahemenidsko Perzijsko Carstvo#Monetarni sustav |
4214968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Southeast%20Croatia | Operation Southeast Croatia | Operation Southeast Croatia () was a large-scale German-led counter-insurgency operation conducted in the southeastern parts of the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH; modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina) during World War II. It was the first of two German-led operations targeting mainly Yugoslav Partisans in eastern Bosnia between 15 January and 4 February 1942. Several days after the conclusion of Operation Southeast Croatia, a follow-up operation known as Operation Ozren was carried out between the Bosna and Spreča rivers. Both operations also involved Croatian Home Guard and Italian troops and are associated with what is known as the Second Enemy Offensive () in post-war Yugoslav historiography. The Second Enemy Offensive forms part of the Seven Enemy Offensives framework in Yugoslav historiography.
The insurgents in the area of operations included some groups of the communist-led Partisans and some of Serb–chauvinist Chetniks. Although the Partisans and Chetniks had already irrevocably split in the German-occupied territory of Serbia following Operation Uzice in late 1941, this had not yet happened in eastern Bosnia, and in some areas they were still cooperating. As a result, differentiating between the rank and file of the two groups was difficult, as even the communist-led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders. While there were 20,000 Chetnik insurgents located within the area of operations, they offered no resistance to the German–NDH forces and many withdrew east across the Drina river to avoid being engaged. This contributed to the complete unravelling of Chetnik–Partisan cooperation in eastern Bosnia. The Partisan main force was able to evade the Germans, infiltrate through the Italian cordon to the south and establish itself around Foča.
The failure of the Axis forces to decisively engage the Partisans during these operations necessitated a further major offensive, Operation Trio, in the area immediately south of where Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren had taken place.
Background
On 6 April 1941 the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia from multiple directions, rapidly overwhelming the under-prepared Royal Yugoslav Army which capitulated 11 days later. In the aftermath of the invasion Yugoslavia was partitioned between the Axis powers through a combination of annexations and occupation zones. In addition, an Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH) was established on the territory of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The NDH was divided by a German–Italian demarcation line, known as the "Vienna Line", with the Germans occupying the north and northeastern parts of the NDH, and the Italians the south and southwestern sections. The NDH immediately implemented genocidal policies against the Serb, Jewish and Romani population of the puppet state. Armed resistance to the occupation and the NDH itself initially formed into two loosely cooperating factions, the Partisans who were led by communists, and the Chetniks who were mostly led by Serb–chauvinist officers of the defeated Royal Yugoslav Army. In November and December 1941, almost all Partisan forces in the German-occupied territory of Serbia had been forced to withdraw into eastern Bosnia where they combined with local Partisan forces, mainly consisting of Serb peasants. Most of the Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia were also local Serb peasants. The insurgency in eastern Bosnia meant that NDH authorities were unable to retain control of the region.
At the end of 1941, there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, with about 7,300 fighters operating in the Majevica, Ozren, Birač, Romanija, Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas. According to Enver Redžić, in early January 1942, the Chetniks controlled a large portion of eastern Bosnia, including the towns of Zvornik, Višegrad, Vlasenica, Srebrenica, Drinjača, Bratunac, Foča, Ustikolina, Goražde and Čajniče. Due to continuing cooperation between the two groups, the Chetniks also shared control of the towns of Rogatica, Olovo and Han Pijesak with the Partisans.
Planning
The orders from General der Artillerie (Lieutenant General) Paul Bader, the German Military Commander in Serbia who also had responsibility for operational matters in the NDH, directed that Operation Southeast Croatia was to be an encirclement operation. All persons encountered within the area of operations were to be treated as the enemy. The population within the area to be targeted by the operation were almost all either Orthodox Serbs or Bosnian Muslims, although there was a small Catholic Croat minority. Bader believed that the Partisans and Chetniks were using the area as winter quarters, and that their presence there was a threat to major transport routes through eastern Bosnia. Time was a factor, as the 342nd Infantry Division was only available until 31 January, after which it was being withdrawn and sent to the Eastern Front.
The operation itself was led by the German 342nd Infantry Division, which had been relieved of its occupation duties in the occupied territory of Serbia by Bulgarian troops. The commander of the 342nd Infantry Division, Generalmajor (Brigadier General) Paul Hoffman, also had the 718th Infantry Division of Generalmajor Johann Fortner under his command for the duration of the operation. The German force was assisted by Croatian Home Guard units including seven infantry battalions and nine artillery batteries. The Axis forces available for the operation were 30,000–35,000 troops in total. Luftwaffe support included reconnaissance aircraft and a combat squadron. The offensive targeted areas held by the Romanija, Zvijezda, Birač, and Ozren Partisan detachments, between Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zvornik and Višegrad. To the south, along the "Vienna Line" separating the German-occupied zone of the NDH from the Italian-occupied zone, the Italians placed a cordon. In total, the area targeted by the operation was estimated by the Germans to contain around 8,000 Partisans and 20,000 Bosnian Chetniks.
On 9 January 1942, the 718th Infantry Division issued orders to both its regiments that defined the following groups as hostile: all non-residents and residents that had been absent from their localities until recently; all identifiable Chetniks or communists with or without weapons or ammunition; and anyone concealing, supplying or providing information to those groups. Any captured Partisans were to be briefly interrogated and summarily shot, as were any other insurgents that had attacked the Germans, been caught carrying ammunition or messages, or who resisted or fled. Also, any houses from which shots were fired at German troops were to be burned.
15–18 January
Operation Southeast Croatia commenced on 15 January 1942. The 342nd Infantry Division approached the area of operations from the Drina River valley to the east, with the 718th Infantry Division pushing east from assembly areas in Sarajevo and Tuzla.
In the first days of the operation, the 697th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division, supported by the Croatian 3rd Home Guard Regiment and four batteries of artillery, thrust out of their bridgehead over the Drina at Zvornik and cleared the high ground southwest and south of that town, and south along the Drina valley road, hindered by roadblocks and destroyed bridges. It then followed up the retreating insurgents, mopping up the Drinjača River valley, before pushing southwest through the mountains and reaching Vlasenica on 18 January. Parts of the 698th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division fought southwest from Višegrad along the upper Drina valley to Međeđa, while other elements pushed west towards Rogatica, reinforced by an Italian Alpini battalion from the 5th Alpine Division Pusteria. The 699th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division, reinforced by I. Battalion of the 202nd Panzer Regiment, advanced along the Drina valley past the confluence with the Drinjača to the area west of Ljubovija, clearing roadblocks as they went. In the area of Milići, they captured about 400 insurgents, mostly Chetniks loyal to Jezdimir Dangić, along with a tank, two machine guns, about 160 rifles and a large amount of ammunition. The regiment then mopped up the area west to Vlasenica and one battalion cleared the route to Srebrenica.
The 738th Regiment of the 718th Infantry Division (less its II. Battalion) was reinforced by two battalions of the Croatian 13th Home Guard Regiment, pioneers, four NDH artillery batteries and two-and-a-half German mountain gun batteries. It pushed east from Sarajevo along the Prača valley then through the Romanija mountains towards Rogatica. Fighting in very difficult terrain, it captured 240 insurgents and significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. It also freed 10 Italian and 57 NDH soldiers. The other regiment of the 718th Infantry Division, the 750th Regiment, was reinforced by a German artillery battery, I. Battalion of the Croatian Home Guard Regiment and a Croatian Home Guard mountain battery. It moved south from an assembly area southwest of Tuzla towards Olovo. It reached Kladanj on 16 January, and spent the following days clearing both sides of the road west towards Vlasenica. It had been planned that the Italian 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna would provide a cordon to the south, blocking any southerly withdrawal by the insurgents. This did not occur, as the Italians claimed the railroad near Mostar had been damaged, resulting in several weeks delay. A scratch force, consisting of two battalions of Croatian border guards, II. Battalion of the Croatian 7th Home Guard Regiment, and one battalion of Ustaše Militia, was deployed along the line Vijaka–Vareš–Visoko to prevent insurgents from crossing the Bosna River.
When the local leaders appointed by overall Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović, Majors Boško Todorović and Dangić, became aware of the commencement of Operation Southeast Croatia, they advised other Chetnik commanders that the operation was targeted at the Partisans, and there was no need for the Chetniks to get involved. Following this, their units withdrew from their positions on the front line, let the Germans pass through their areas, or went home. Many withdrew across the Drina into the German-occupied territory of Serbia to avoid being engaged, which severely weakened the Partisan positions with the result that they suffered significant casualties and lost a great deal of territory. These actions severed any remaining cooperative links that remained between the Chetniks and Partisans in eastern Bosnia.
The insurgents in the area of operations destroyed villages to deny supplies and shelter to the Germans who were operating in mountainous terrain with snow up to deep and facing extreme temperatures approaching . The Partisans proved very difficult to pin down, aided by excellent communication and supported by the local populace. During the operation, the decisive engagements with the Partisans were mainly in the Romanija region. The Romanija Detachment made up forty percent of all Partisans in eastern Bosnia and bore the brunt of most of the fighting during the operation.
19–23 January
After their initial advances, the 342nd Infantry Division spent the next few days mopping up the areas they had entered. The 697th Regiment advanced south from Vlasenica through the Javor Mountains, meeting little resistance and capturing Han Pijesak on 22 January. Elements of the 697th Regiment pushed west towards Olovo the same day. The 698th Regiment cleared the area around Rogatica, killing 50 and capturing 200 insurgents, and liberating 63 captured Croatian Home Guard soldiers. The 699th Regiment patrolled the area as far as Vlasenica and Srebrenica. These mopping up operations achieved little, as most of the insurgents had escaped the encirclement before it was completed.
The 718th Infantry Division was assisted in their subsequent operations by air support from the ZNDH, which bombed Sokolac on 20 January. On 21 January, the 738th Regiment captured the village of Podromanija south of Sokolac, and on the following day elements of the regiment drove through Sokolac and closed on Han Pijesak. On the same day, the 750th Regiment reached Olovo, but the insurgents had withdrawn from the area.
On 21 January, Bader dramatically altered his previous orders regarding the treatment of those encountered in the area of operations, directing that those who did not resist and surrendered or merely had weapons in their houses, were to be treated as prisoners of war. It is likely that this change was intended to assist Chetniks in the area of operations to avoid destruction. By the end of January, Bader's chief of staff was attempting to negotiate a cooperation agreement with Dangić, and in turn Dangić ordered the 4,500–10,000 Chetniks under his command to avoid the Germans or surrender their weapons immediately if they were unable to do so.
After temporarily improving the Partisan defences against the German and NDH forces, the Partisan Supreme Headquarters under Josip Broz Tito and the 1st Proletarian Brigade commanded by Koča Popović were unable to salvage the situation and retreated south towards Foča. The 1st Proletarian Brigade, less two battalions that were accompanying the Supreme Headquarters, crossed the Igman mountain plateau near Sarajevo with temperatures reaching . According to Popović, 172 Partisans suffered severe hypothermic injury and six died. When they approached the German-Italian demarcation line south of Sarajevo, the Partisans were able to infiltrate through the weak Italian cordon. Montenegrin Partisans crossed into the NDH to attack the Chetniks, capturing Foča on 20 January and Goražde on 22 January. The German and NDH forces were successful in recapturing Sokolac, Rogatica, Bratunac, Srebrenica, Vlasenica, Han Pijesak, Olovo, Bosansko Petrovo Selo, and some smaller settlements, and inflicted significant losses on the Partisans.
Because the Chetniks failed to assist the Partisans in the battle, the Central Committee of the Communist Party ceased all further attempts to cooperate with them and issued a declaration on 22 January to "Bosnians! Serbs, Muslims, Croats!" that Chetnik leaders Boško Todorović, Aćim Babić, and others were traitors. It further proclaimed that the Partisans fought alone "all across Bosnia and Herzegovina" and ended with "long live the united people's liberation struggle of all the peoples of Bosnia!". The Romanija Detachment's commander, Slaviša Vajner-Čiča, was killed in combat against the Germans. A member of the Supreme Headquarters of the Partisans, Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo, reported that detachment had completely collapsed.
Faced with overly ambitious objectives and atrocious weather, the combined operation failed to destroy the Partisan forces and was called off on 23 January 1942, with the Germans having suffered casualties of 25 dead, 131 wounded, and one missing, as well as around 300 cases of frostbite. The NDH forces lost 50 soldiers killed or seriously wounded. The Germans captured 855 rifles, 22 machine guns and four artillery pieces, along with livestock and draft animals. The Partisans had lost 531 killed and between 1,331 and 1,400 captured, in addition to the frostbite casualties suffered by the 1st Proletarian Brigade while crossing Mt. Igman. A total of 168 NDH and 104 Italian troops that had been captured by the Partisans were freed during the operation. The Supreme Headquarters entered Foča on 25 January and stayed there for three-and-a-half months.
Operation Ozren
Operation Ozren () was aimed at clearing an estimated 2,000 Partisans from the area between the Bosna and Spreča Rivers, and was effectively an extension of Operation Southeast Croatia employing elements of the force used in that operation. The main force used was Fortner's 718th Infantry Division reinforced by a regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division, supported by a number of NDH units, including a battalion of the Ustaše Black Legion. The force was also supported by five tank platoons and an armoured train. Around 20,000 Axis troops were committed to the operation. It commenced several days after Operation Southeast Croatia ended on 23 January 1942.
The Germans advanced north and west from Kladanj towards a cordon established by ten Croatian Home Guard battalions supported by their own artillery. The Germans believed they had thoroughly sealed off the area, and checked the Croatian cordon every night, but the majority of Partisans were able to evade the cordon and escape by breaking up into small groups and infiltrating through the cordon via seemingly impassable terrain. The Germans also believed that some Partisans merely withdrew into the mountains, concealing their numbers by walking in each other's footprints in the snow, in order to return to the valleys when the Axis forces left. The operation concluded on 4 February 1942.
Aftermath
Both operations were hampered by the German need to rely on their Croatian allies as well as the fact that Axis forces were ill-equipped for operations in mountainous terrain during extreme winter conditions. The Croatian units had proven not to be a useful addition to the operation, as they possessed little in the way of fighting power, had little unit cohesion and suffered from serious supply problems.
Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren were early opportunities for the Germans to learn lessons about the challenges their poorly equipped and often substandard occupation troops faced fighting in the difficult terrain and weather conditions of Bosnia. However, these lessons were to be repeated many more times in the following years as German commanders persisted with their encirclement tactics and unreasonable expectations of what could be achieved in a given time and space.
Following the conclusion of Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren, German and NDH forces conducted Operation Prijedor in northwest Bosnia. The Germans inflicted considerable losses on the Partisans and captured extensive territory and population centres from them; however, they failed to eliminate them as a military factor and shortly afterwards had to undertake Operation Trio in the region immediately south of the area of operations for Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren.
Footnotes
References
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
Southeast Croatia
1942 in Yugoslavia
Southeast Croatia
1942 in Bosnia and Herzegovina
January 1942 events
bs:Igmanski marš
fr:Opération Süd-Kroatien I |
4215075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard%20Roschmann | Eduard Roschmann | Eduard Roschmann (25 November 1908 – 8 August 1977) was an Austrian Nazi SS-Obersturmführer and commandant of the Riga Ghetto during 1943. He was responsible for numerous murders and other atrocities. As a result of a fictionalized portrayal in the novel The Odessa File by Frederick Forsyth and its subsequent film adaptation, Roschmann came to be known as the "Butcher of Riga".
Early life and career
Roschmann was born on 25 November 1908, in Graz-Eggenberg, in Austria.
He was the son of a brewery manager. He was reputed to have come from the Styria region of Austria, from a good family. From 1927 to 1934, Roschmann was a member of the Fatherland's Front, which in turn was part of the Austrian home guard ("Heimatschutz"). From 1927 to 1934, Roschmann was associated with an organization called the "Steyr Homeland Protection Force." Roschmann spent six semesters at a university. Contrary to a report that he was once a lawyer in Graz, Austria, he had studied to be a lawyer but failed. By 1931, he was a brewery employee, joining the civil service in 1935. In May 1938, he joined the Nazi Party NSDAP Number 6,276,402, and the SS the following year. In January 1941, he was assigned to the Security Police.
War crimes in Latvia
Within the SS Roschmann was assigned to the Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst), often referred to by its German initials SD. Following the German occupation of Latvia in the Second World War, the SD established a presence in Latvia with the objective of killing all the Jews in the country. To this end, the SD established the Riga ghetto.
Structure of the Riga ghetto
The Riga ghetto did not exist prior to the occupation of Latvia by the German armed forces. Jews in general lived throughout Riga before then. The ghetto itself was a creation of the SD. Surrounded by barbed wire fences, with armed guards, it was in effect a large and overcrowded prison. Furthermore, while it is common to see the Riga ghetto referred to as a single location, in fact it was a unified prison for only a very short time in autumn of 1941. After that it was split into three ghettos.
The first ghetto was the Latvian ghetto, sometimes called the "Big Ghetto", which was in existence for only 35 days, from late October to 30 November 1941. Men, women and children were forced into the ghetto, where at least for a short time they lived as families. On 30 November and on 8 December 1941, 24,000 Jews were force-marched out of the ghetto and shot at the nearby forest of Rumbula. Except for Babi Yar, this was the biggest two-day massacre in the genocides until the construction of the death camps in 1942. A few thousand Latvian Jews, mostly men, who were not murdered at Rumbula, were confined to a much smaller area of the former Latvia ghetto. This became known as the men's ghetto; about 500 Latvian Jewish women, who were also not selected for murder, were similarly confined to an adjacent but separated smaller ghetto, known as the women's ghetto.
A few days after the 8 December massacre, train-loads of Jews from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia began to arrive in Riga, where, with some important exceptions, they were housed in a portion of the former Latvian ghetto, which then became known as the German ghetto.
Participation in Dünamünde Action
In March 1942, the German authorities in charge of the Riga ghetto and the nearby Jungfernhof concentration camp murdered about 3,740 German, Austrian and Czech Jews who had been deported to Latvia. The victims were mostly the elderly, the sick and infirm and children. These people were tricked into believing they would be transported to a new and better camp facility at an area near Riga called Dünamünde. In fact no such facility existed, and the intent was to transport the victims to mass graves in the woods north of Riga and shoot them.
According to a survivor, Edith Wolff, Roschmann was one of a group of SS men who selected the persons for "transport" to Dünamünde. (Others in the selection group included Rudolf Lange, Kurt Krause, Max Gymnich, Kurt R. Migge, Richard Nickel and Rudolf Seck). Wolff stated that only the "prominent people" made selections, and she was not sure whether Migge, Seck or Nickel had picked anyone.
Appointment as ghetto commandant
Starting in January 1943, Roschmann became commandant of the Riga ghetto. His immediate predecessor was Kurt Krause. Survivors described Krause as "sadistic","bloody", "monster", and "psychopath". Roschmann's methods differed from those of Krause. Unlike Krause, Roschmann did not execute offenders on the spot, but, in most cases, sent them to Riga's Central Prison. Whether this was a matter of having qualms about murder is not certain. However, being sent to the prison was likely to be, at best, only a brief reprieve, as conditions there were brutal.
At that time, Roschmann held the relatively low rank of Unterscharführer. Differing ranks are supplied for Roschmann. According to Ezergailis and Kaufmann, Roschmann held the rank of SS-Unterscharführer. According to Schneider, Roschmann was an SS-Obersturmführer, a higher rank. Schneider mentions no promotion for Roschmann.
Murders and other crimes
Historians Angrick and Klein state that in addition to the mass killings, the Holocaust in Latvia also consisted of a great number of individual murders.
Angrick and Klein name Roschmann among others as responsible for these individual murders. Historian Schneider, a survivor of the German ghetto, has stated that it is certain that Roschmann was a murderer, otherwise he never would have risen as high as he did in the SS. One documented murder committed by Roschmann, with his subordinates assisted by Scharführer Max Gymnich and Kurt Migge, was that of Arthur Kaufmann, the 17-year-old son of Max Kaufmann, who later came to write one of the first histories of the Holocaust in Latvia. Roschmann personally issued the order for this particular murder. Kaufmann himself described the murder, which occurred when both of them were housed outside the ghetto at the Sloka work camp, where among other things they were tasked with peat cutting:
Food for ghetto occupants was strictly rationed and generally inadequate. It was common for Jews assigned to work details to obtain and attempt to smuggle extra food into the ghetto. For this and other reasons, all returning work details were subject to search, although this was actually carried out only on a sporadic basis. When searches did occur, those smuggling food were forced to abandon it before it could be found on their person, which was a serious offence. Roschmann and his aide, Max Gymnich, accompanied by a trained attack dog, involved themselves in the details of the searches for contraband food, which included inspections of kitchens in the ghetto, again forcing people to discard food they had smuggled in, even when they were about to eat it. Survivor Nina Ungar related a similar incident at the Olaine peat bog work camp, where Roschmann found three eggs on one of the Latvian Jews and had him shot immediately. Kaufmann describes an incident, possibly the same one referred to by Ungar, where Roschmann, during a visit to the Olaine work camp with Gymnich in 1943, found a singer named Karp with five eggs and had him shot immediately.
Roschmann, together with Krause, who, although no longer ghetto commandant, was close at hand as the commandant of the Salaspils concentration camp, investigated a resistance plot among the Jews to store weapons at an old powder magazine in Riga known as the Pulverturm. As a result, several hundred inmates were executed, whom Kaufmann described as "our best young people."
While ghetto commandant, Roschmann became involved with the work detail known as the Army Motor Park (Heereskraftpark). This was considered a favourable work assignment for Jews, as it involved skilled labour (vehicle mechanics) necessary for the German army, thus providing some protection from liquidation, and it also gave a number of opportunities to "organise" (that is, to buy, barter for or steal) contraband food and other items. The Jews on the work detail benefited from the fact that the German in charge, Private First Class (Obergefreiter) Walter Eggers, was corrupt and wanted to use the Jews under his command to become rich. Consequently, better treatment could be had, at least for a time, by paying Eggers bribes. Roschmann heard rumours about the "good life", and attempted to prevent it by putting some of the workers into one of the prisons or transferring them to Kaiserwald concentration camp.
Roschmann himself was not above accepting bribes, or at least pretending to accept bribes. In one instance, a shoemaker whose two children had been incarcerated in the Riga prisons as a result of Roschmann's investigation, attempted to secure their release by paying Roschmann a large number of gold coins. Roschmann took the coins, but did not release the children.
Actions outside of the ghetto
Roschmann was later transferred to the Lenta work camp, a forced-labour facility in the Riga area where Jews were housed at the workplace. Originally this facility had been located on Washington (Ludendorff) Square in Riga and had been known as the "Gestapo" work detail. Lenta was considered a favoured work assignment. The original German commandant, Fritz Scherwitz, had determined to make a lot of money involving the work of highly skilled Jews in the tailoring trade. Scherwitz made efforts to protect Jews in the Lenta work detail. This changed when Roschmann became the Lenta commandant. According to Kaufmann:
Roschmann participated in the efforts of Sonderkommando 1005 to conceal the evidence of the Nazi crimes in Latvia by exhuming and burning the bodies of the victims of the numerous mass shootings in the Riga area. In the fall of 1943, Roschmann was made the chief of Kommando Stützpunkt, a work detail of prisoners which was given the task of digging up and burning the bodies of the tens of thousands of people whom the Nazis had shot and buried in the forests of Latvia. About every two weeks the men on the work detail were shot and replaced with a new set of inmates. Men for this commando were selected both from Kaiserwald concentration camp and from the few remaining people in the Riga ghetto.
Historian Ezergailis states that one Hasselbach, an SS officer, was the commander of the Stützpunkt commando, and does not mention Roschmann. As his source, Ezergailis cites a witness, Franz Leopold Schlesinger, who testified in the trial in West Germany of Viktors Arajs in the late 1970s, almost 35 years later. Schlesinger in turn appears to have only "thought" Hasselbach was the commander.
Roschmann is sometimes described as the commandant of the Kaiserwald concentration camp, which was located on the north side of Riga. Kaufmann however gives the Kaiserwald commandant as an SS man named Sauer who held the rank of Obersturmbannführer.
Jack Ratz, a Latvian Jewish survivor, came face to face with Roschmann in Lenta at the age of 17. According to Jack:
Character
According to Gertrude Schneider, a historian and a survivor of the Riga ghetto, Roschmann was clearly a murderer, but was not uniformly cruel. She records an instance where Krause, Roschmann's predecessor as commandant, had executed Johann Weiss, a lawyer from Vienna, and a First World War veteran, for having hidden money in his glove. A year later, when Roschmann was commandant, his widow and daughter requested of him that he allow them the Jewish custom of visiting the grave. Roschmann allowed the request.
Schneider, in describing this incident, characterised Roschmann as "that most peculiar SS man." According to Schneider, Roschmann would order food abandoned during searches for contraband to be sent to the ghetto hospital. Schneider particularly objected to Roschmann's modern image as the so-called "butcher of Riga". Up to the time of the publication of Forsyth's book in 1972, Herberts Cukurs, a famous Latvian pilot, had been the person known as "the Butcher of Riga" as a result of his actions during the occupation of Latvia from 1941 to 1944.:
However, other accounts assign a more malignant role to Roschmann. Historian Bernard Press, a Latvian Jew who was able to hide outside of Riga and avoid confinement in the ghetto, describes Krause, Gymnich and Roschmann as having engaged in random shootings of human beings. Press describes an incident where a woman was condemned to death for "illegal correspondence" with a friend in Germany. Roschmann had her confined in the Central Prison, where she was not in fact executed but released based on the recommendation of Krause, who had previously wanted the woman to become his mistress.
Also, Max Michelson described Roschman, Rudolf Lange and Kurt Krause as all being "notorious sadists." Michelson, a Riga ghetto survivor, described Roschmann:
Max Kaufmann, a survivor of Latvian ghetto, compared Roschmann to Krause, coming to a similar conclusion as Max Michelson:
Flight from Latvia
In October 1944, out of fear of the approaching Soviet armies, the SS personnel of the concentration camp system in Latvia fled the country by sea from Riga or Liepāja to Danzig, taking with them several thousand concentration camp inmates, many of whom did not survive the voyage.
Escape to Argentina
In 1945, Roschmann was arrested in Graz, but later released. Roschmann concealed himself as an ordinary prisoner of war, and in so doing obtained a release from custody in 1947. After visiting his wife in Graz, he was recognised with the assistance of former concentration camp inmates and arrested by the British military police. Roschmann was sent to Dachau concentration camp which had been converted to an imprisonment camp for accused war criminals. Roschmann succeeded in escaping from this custody;
in the process while running in hiding from a British patrol at the Austrian Border he was shot through the lung and also lost two toes of one foot to frostbite.
In 1948 Roschmann was able to flee Germany. He travelled first to Genoa in Italy, and from there to Argentina by ship, on a pass supplied by the International Red Cross. Roschmann was assisted in this effort by Alois Hudal, a strongly pro-Nazi bishop of the Catholic Church. Roschmann arrived in Argentina either on 10 February 1948 or 2 October 1948 (2/10/1948 or 10/2/1948, depending on date notation used). He founded a wood import-export firm in Buenos Aires. In 1955 in Argentina Roschmann married, although he was not divorced from his first wife. His second wife left him in 1958; the marriage was later declared null and void. In 1968, under the name "Frederico Wagner" (sometimes seen as "Federico Wegener") he became a citizen of Argentina.
Criminal charges
In 1959, a warrant was issued in Germany for Roschmann on a charge of bigamy. In 1960, the criminal court in Graz issued a warrant for the arrest of Roschmann on charges of murder and severe violations of human rights in connection with the killing of at least 3,000 Jews between 1938 and 1945, overseeing forced labourers at Auschwitz, and the murder of at least 800 children under the age of 10. However, the post-war Austrian legal system was ineffective in securing the return for trial of Austrians who had fled Europe, and no action was ever taken against Roschmann based on this charge. In 1963, the district court in Hamburg, West Germany, issued a warrant for the arrest of Roschmann. This would eventually prove a more serious threat to Roschmann.
Extradition negotiations
In October 1976, the embassy of West Germany in Argentina initiated a request for the extradition of Roschmann to Germany to face charges of multiple murders of Jews during the Second World War. This was based on the request of the West German prosecutor's office in Hamburg. The request was repeated in May 1977. On 5 July 1977, the office of the President of Argentina issued a communiqué, which was published in the Argentine press, that the government of Argentina would consider the request even though there was no extradition treaty with West Germany. The communiqué was reported to be a surprise to both the Argentine Foreign Ministry and the West German embassy. The Argentine Foreign Embassy had not received a request that Roschmann be arrested. Roschmann was in fact still not under arrest at the time the communiqué was issued.
At that time, a number of Germans had been arrested by the Argentine government, then under military control, and were facing charges before military tribunals. The Argentine government had also failed to account for the death of a West German citizen in unusual circumstances, apparently related to the conduct of the so-called Dirty War then being conducted by the Argentine government against alleged terrorists within the country. This was regarded by the West German government as a breach of international treaty obligations. In addition, the prominent Argentine journalist, Jacobo Timmerman, a Jew, had been arrested at that time and held incommunicado under circumstances which raised concern that he had been "subjected to ill-treatment" while in custody.
Roschmann then fled to Paraguay.
The U.S. Embassy in Argentina sent a cable to the State Department which reported the situation and contained the following comment:
Death
Roschmann died in Asunción, Paraguay, on 8 August 1977.
The body initially went unclaimed, and questions were raised as to whether the dead man was, in fact, Roschmann. The body bore papers in the name of "Federico Wegener", a known Roschmann alias, and was missing two toes on one foot and three on the other, consistent with Roschmann's known war injuries. Emilio Wolf, a delicatessen owner in Asunción who had been a prisoner under Roschmann, positively identified the body as Roschmann's. Simon Wiesenthal, however, was sceptical of the identification, claiming that a man matching Roschmann's description had been spotted in Bolivia only one month earlier. "I wonder who died for him?" he said.
On the other hand, a report made five days after his death stated that the international police agency Interpol had confirmed the fingerprints on the body as matching prints of Roschmann on file at Argentina's police agency in Buenos Aires, and Wiesenthal said at that time that although he at first had doubted Paraguayan reports, he was "75 percent sure" that the body was that of Roschmann.
Fictional portrayal
A fictionalised version of Roschmann was given in Frederick Forsyth's novel The Odessa File. A film version of the novel was released in 1974, where Roschmann was played by Austrian actor Maximilian Schell. In the book and the film, Roschmann is portrayed as a ruthlessly efficient killer. Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal was portrayed in the film by actor Shmuel Rodensky. Wiesenthal himself also functioned as a "documentary advisor". Historian Schneider sharply disputes this fictionalised image of Roschmann. She describes this fiction novel as "lurid" and containing "many inaccuracies". Among the inaccuracies of Forsyth's fictional version of Roschmann are:
Roschmann never murdered a Wehrmacht captain at the Latvian port of Liepāja to force his way onto an evacuation ship.
No mention is made of Rudolf Lange, whom Schneider describes as the real Butcher of Riga.
Krause is portrayed as Roschmann's deputy, rather than as his predecessor.
Alois Hudal is incorrectly identified as the "German apostolic nuncio" and a cardinal.
Roschmann is described as having been sheltered in a "big" Franciscan house in Genoa which apparently never existed.
ODESSA is portrayed as having purchased 7,000 Argentinian passports for people like Roschmann. No explanation is given for why, if this were so, Roschmann would need a travel document from the International Red Cross.
The head of ODESSA is identified as former SS General Richard Glücks, who in fact committed suicide in 1945.
Researcher Matteo San Filippo, who studied the issue of the discrepancies between the fictional and the real Roschmann, gives the following analysis:
"We cannot blame Forsyth for being inaccurate. He was writing a thriller, not an historical essay. The incidents were based on fact and the overall impression was not inaccurate (for example, some religious houses did shelter the wanted, just not in Genoa. Roschmann did murder many people, but not a Wehrmacht captain. ODESSA did supply faked travel documents of different kinds. And so on)."
The role of Wiesenthal in the genesis of the novel is more interesting. Later, the Nazi hunter confessed that he wanted to influence the writer. In fact, Wiesenthal was using the thriller to force Roschmann out into the open, which is what actually happened.
Wiesenthal himself, in his 1990 book Justice Not Vengeance, admitted that he had suggested, in response to Forsyth's inquiry, that Forsyth's book, and the later film, include fictional statements about Roschmann, and that he, Wiesenthal, had done so for the purpose of casting the light on Roschmann and forcing his arrest. Roschmann was eventually identified and denounced by a man who had just watched The Odessa File at the cinema.
See also
Riga Ghetto
The Holocaust in Latvia
The Odessa File, fictionalised 1972 novel by Frederick Forsyth that cast Roschmann back into public attention
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Jewish Community in Latvia – Joint project of Latvia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Latvian Jewish Community, and the Democracy Commission of the US Embassy.
1908 births
1977 deaths
20th-century Austrian lawyers
Austrian expatriates in Argentina
Austrian Nazi lawyers
Bigamists
Escapees from British military detention
Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges
Fugitives wanted on war crimes charges
Holocaust perpetrators in Latvia
Kaiserwald concentration camp personnel
Military personnel from Graz
Nazi concentration camp commandants
Nazi fugitives
Nazis in South America
People convicted of bigamy
Reich Security Main Office personnel
People of Reichskommissariat Ostland
Riga Ghetto
SS-Obersturmführer
Shooting survivors |
4215139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata%20Suburban%20Railway | Kolkata Suburban Railway | The Kolkata Suburban Railway (colloquially called Kolkata local trains or simply locals) is a suburban rail system serving the Kolkata metropolitan area and its surroundings in India. It is the largest suburban railway network in the country with the highest number of stations and also one of the largest suburban rail systems in the world. There are five main lines and nineteen branch lines. The suburban railway operates more than 1,500 services, carrying 3.5 million people daily and 1.2 billion people every year. It runs from 03:00 am until 02:00 am and the fares range from Rs.5 to Rs.25. The system uses power supply and runs on broad gauge track. It has interchange stations with the Kolkata Metro at various locations.
The Kolkata Suburban Railway is part of the second passenger railway constructed in British India during the mid 19th century. The first train ran between Howrah and Hooghly stations. A hundred years after the initial run, Electric Multiple Unit (EMU) services began. It is the largest suburban railway network in India by track length and the number of stations with 458 stations and a track length of .
The system is operated by two zones of Indian Railways; the Eastern Railway zone and the South Eastern Railway zone. These zones are further divided into the Howrah and Sealdah divisions for the Eastern Railway and the Kharagpur division for the South Eastern Railway. Howrah, Sealdah and Kolkata railway stations are the three major terminals serving the network in the city. Shalimar and Santragachi are also the termini stations for mail/express trains as well as passenger/fast passenger trains.
History
The Kolkata Suburban Railway is an offshoot of the second passenger railway to be built by the British in India. The first train ran between Howrah and Hooghly stations on 15 August 1854 and was operated by the East Indian Railway (EIR). Regular services on the line were introduced on the same day, with stops at Bally, Serampore and Chandannagore stations. The broad gauge Sheoraphuli–Tarakeswar branch line was opened by the Tarkessur Railway Company on 1 January 1885.
In 1951, all the railway companies, zone and divisions were integrated and recategorized. This led to the formation of the Eastern Railway (ER) and South Eastern Railway (SER) zones. These zones of Indian Railways currently operate the Kolkata Suburban Railway.
Eastern Railway zone
The Eastern Railway zone was formed on 14 April, 1952, by the amalgamation of the East Indian Railway Company and the entire Bengal – Nagpur Railway (later it formed the SER). It has four divisions; Howrah and Sealdah divisions operate the system. The Sealdah division was part of the Eastern Bengal Railway before the recategorisation. Howrah division is the oldest in the ER zone.
On 1 February, 1957, the EMU services were introduced on the Howrah – Bandel section of the Howrah division. In 1963, services were gradually extended to Barddhaman and on the Sealdah Division of Eastern Railway were introduced on the Sealdah – Ranaghat route. In 1968, the Howrah – Barddhaman main and chord line was totally converted to power supply from a 3000 V DC power supply. Howrah–Sheoraphuli–Tarakeswar line was electrified in 1957–58.
South Eastern Railway zone
The Bengal Nagpur Railway (BNR) Company was incorporated in 1887 to take over from the Nagpur Chhattisgarh Railway (NCR) and to convert the line to broad gauge. The work was completed in 1888. The extension of the main line from Nagpur to Asansol was completed by 1891. Later, it formed the Eastern Railway zone. On 1 August, 1955, the former Bengal Nagpur Railway portion was separated and a new zone, the South Eastern Railway (SER), came into existence. The SER comprises four divisions, and Kharagpur is the only division to operate the suburban railway.
In the SER zone, EMU service made its maiden run on 1 May, 1968 between Howrah – Mecheda of the Kharagpur division, and on 1 February, 1969, EMU services were extended to Kharagpur. Gradually the services were extended to eight other lines by 2003. The system under this zone was completely electrified by 1968.
Network
Kolkata is the smallest of India's six A-1 cities in terms of area. However, the Kolkata Suburban Railway is the largest suburban railway network in India by track length and number of stations. The overall track length is and has 458 stations. The system is operated by two zonal divisions (under Indian Railways), Eastern Railways (ER) and South Eastern Railways (SER). The fast commuter rail corridors on Eastern Railway as well as South Eastern Railway are shared with long-distance and freight trains, while inner suburban services operate on exclusive parallel tracks. SER operates the South Eastern Line and ER operates the Eastern Line, Circular Line, Chord link Line as well as the Sealdah South lines.
Junction stations are marked in bold
Lines
South Eastern line
The South Eastern line in Kolkata consists of three major corridors, which divide into two branches as they run into the suburban satellite towns. Two corridors—one local and the other through—follow the South Eastern Railway and run from Howrah Junction to Midnapore, a distance of . The mainline bifurcates (splits) into two branch lines—the Panskura–Haldia line at Panskura Junction to the south-east—and the Santragachi–Amta line at Santragachi Junction to the north. These corridors constitute the 'main' South Eastern line. The South Eastern line also includes two branch lines, and , connecting Santragachi with Shalimar and Tamluk to Digha, respectively.
The South Eastern line has one interchange station with the Eastern Line at Howrah Junction. Rolling stock consists of a fleet of AC as well as dual-powered AC/DC EMUs. The major car sheds on this line are at Tikiapara and Panskura.
On 6 September 2009, then Railway Minister, Mamata Banerjee announced the introduction of Ladies Special local trains, namely Matribhumi (i.e. motherland), in the Kolkata suburban section. The first local Matribhumi Special local ran from Howrah to Kharagpur.
Eastern line
The Eastern line in Kolkata, the largest network of the Kolkata Suburban Railway, consists of two divisions—Howrah and Sealdah divisions (named after their respective terminals)—which serve both sides of the Hooghly River.
In the Howrah division of the Eastern line, there are five corridors, which also bifurcates and runs into the northwestern suburbs. The first two corridors are the Howrah–Bardhaman main line and the chord line. On these two corridors, the Howrah–Tarakeswar branch line bifurcates at and terminates at Tarakeswar with a length of crossing over the chord line at . Kamarkundu now this line has been extended to Goghat from Tarakeswar as Tarakeswar - Bishnupur branch, under Tarakeswar - Bishnupur rail project. The Bandel–Katwa line bifurcates at Bandel Jn with a length of ; the Bardhaman–Katwa branch line bifurcates at Bardhaman Jn with a length of .
On the other side of the river, the Sealdah division of the Eastern line has seven corridors, splitting into branch lines to serve the northeastern suburbs. The Sealdah–Gede line, considered to be mainline, terminates in , a small town on the India–Bangladesh Border with a length of . On this corridor, the first branch line bifurcates from terminating at Bangaon Junction with a length of . The second branch line bifurcates at terminating at with a length of . The third branch line bifurcates at Ranaghat Junction terminating at passing through and with a length of or by bypassing Shantipur, passing only through Kalinarayanpur with a length of . And also there is an extension of the third branch line which starts from to with a line length of . The fourth branch line bifurcates at terminating at with a line length of . The fifth branch line bifurcates at terminating at with a line length of . The Eastern line also includes a connection from to with a length of which is an important link between the Howrah and Sealdah divisions.
The major car sheds (depots) on this line are at Howrah Jn and Bandel on the Howrah division and at Narkeldanga, Barasat and Ranaghat in the Sealdah division.
Sealdah division's first Matribhumi local started in October 2018; it was the first all-women passenger train in Indian Railway history. It had female motormen, guards, and security personnel. On 24 August 2015, train services were halted between the Barasat and Bangaon line after a protest by a group of passengers obstructed movement of the trains. They demanded that male passengers be allowed to travel on the Matribhumi ladies special trains. This occurred when Eastern Railway withdrew the decision to allow male passengers to travel on Matribhumi local.
Circular Railway
The Circular Railway corridor encircles the inner city neighbourhoods of Kolkata. At a length of with 20 stations, this line is under the jurisdiction of Eastern Railway's Sealdah Division. From Dum Dum Junction to Tala, the line is double-tracked, while from Tala to Majerhat, the line is single-tracked. Running by the side of the Hooghly River from Tala to Majerhat, it joins and runs parallel to the Sealdah South tracks after Majerhat and elevates at Park Circus in order to bypass Sealdah (which is a terminal station). After bypassing Sealdah, it rejoins the mainline at Bidhannagar Road and again terminating at Dum Dum Jn. The line is also known as Chakra Rail.
The circular line is a point of interest for tourists. As it runs under Howrah Bridge, Vidyasagar Setu and runs parallel to the Hooghly River, connecting multiple tourist places and ghats it provides access to a scenic view for daily commuters and visitors.
Sealdah South lines
The Sealdah South line is an important link to Sundarbans in West Bengal from Kolkata. It is also part of the Eastern Railway. This line has four corridors, and bifurcates as branch lines linking the southern suburbs to Kolkata. The main line starts at Sealdah terminating at Namkhana railway station with a length of . The main line is double-tracked until Lakshmikantapur railway station and single-tracked from Lakshmikantapur to Namkhana. The first branch line of this corridor starts at Ballygunge Junction terminating at Budge Budge railway station with a length of . A second branch line starts at Sonarpur Junction terminating at Canning with a length of . The third branch line starts at Baruipur Junction railway station terminating at Diamond Harbour railway station with the length of . This line has a sole depot at Sonarpur.
This line has three interchange stations, at Majerhat and Park Circus with Circular Railway and at Sealdah for Eastern line.
Chord link line
The Chord link line connects Sealdah to Dankuni Junction on the Howrah–Barddhaman Chord. This line plays an important role in connecting the Sealdah Division's mainline with the Howrah–Bardhaman chord, which is primarily used by freight and passenger trains heading towards North India(The Howrah–Bardhaman chord is part of the Howrah–Delhi mainline and the Grand Chord). The Chord link crosses the Hooghly River on the Vivekananda Setu road-rail bridge.
This corridor has a famous tourist spot, the Dakshineswar Kali Temple, where Ramakrishna Paramhansa served as a priest. It also includes the road-cum-rail bridge, Vivekananda Setu, also known as the Bally Bridge.
It has three interchange stations. Interchange is possible at Dum Dum Junction for the Eastern line (Sealdah–Gede mainline), at Dankuni Junction for the Eastern line (Howrah–Barddhaman Chord) and at Bally Halt (lying above Bally station) for the Eastern Line (Howrah–Barddhaman mainline). The extension of the Kolkata Metro Line 1 runs parallel to this line, and will have interchange facilities at Dum Dum, Baranagar and Dakshineswhar stations.
Expansion
A new line is under construction between Amta and Bagnan with a length of under the jurisdiction of the South Eastern Railway sanctioned in 2010–11. Another new line is in progress between the Dakshinbari and Tarakeswar with joint work by the ER and SER.
On the southern part of the Eastern Railways side, there is an expansion of the line between Canning and Jharkhali with a length of . The second expansion is at Kakdwip railway station and Budhakhali with a length of . It extends to Sagar Island on the Hooghly River delta. The island can only be reached by boat; expansion of this line is a boon for the people of island providing better connectivity. The third expansion is at Namkhana and Bakkhali with a length of , and a fourth expansion between Kulpi railway station and Bahrarat with a length of .
Operations
Services and security
Three types of local train services are operated. They are normal locals, trains which stop at every station; galloping locals, these trains have limited stops and skip the smaller stations; and women-only trains known as Matribhoomi local.
The Railway Protection Force (RPF) and Government Railway Police (GRP) are responsible for the security of Kolkata Suburban Railway. The major stations in Kolkata also have closed-circuit cameras.
Travel classes
There are three travel classes:
Class II: These are regular compartments, where anyone can travel. The last rows on both ends of the compartment are reserved for physically challenged and senior citizens.
Class L: These compartments are exclusively reserved for women. Men are not allowed in them. The second compartment from both ends is for ladies.
Vendor: These are for vendors to transport heavy goods and luggage. The compartments have seats along the walls and are made to haul goods. The third compartment from both ends is for vendors.
Ridership
During 2010–11, there was an average of 1,275 trains per day. The average passenger capacity per rake was 6,207. In 2014–15, the average number of trains was 1,511 with an average passenger capacity per rake of 4,141. In the last five years, there was an increase of three percent in the average number of trains per day and reduction of eright percent in the average number of passengers per rake. The number of passengers carried in 2013–14 was and in 2014–15 was —a reduction of three percent in total trips. The daily ridership as of 2017–18 is .
Fares and ticketing
In the 2013 Railway Budget, the Railway Board increased the Kolkata suburban ticket fare by eight paise per kilometre, although the railway ministry has hiked it by two paise per kilometre. The number of slabs has also been reduced to four—, , and —from the eight slabs earlier. Also, ticket denominations have been rounded off to multiples of . As per the revised slab, a person travelling up to will have to pay , between and , between and , and between and . One can buy a monthly, quarterly or season ticket if commuting regularly on a particular route. This allows unlimited rides on that route. Season tickets are the most cost-effective and time-efficient option for regular commuters.
Kolkata Suburban Railway uses a proof-of-payment fare collection system. Tickets can be bought for a single journey (one way) or a return journey. Travelling without a valid ticket is an offence and if caught can result in a penalty. As per the Indian Railway Report, in 2016–17, the Eastern Railway and the South Eastern Railway generated through penalties imposed on ticketless and irregular travelers, an increase from 2013 to 2014 with .
Offline tickets can be bought from the unreserved ticket counters present at every station and Cash/Smart Card operated Ticket Vending Machines (CoTVM) and Automatic Ticket Vending Machines (ATVM) installed in most of the stations. One can issue online tickets using the UTSOnMobile app.
Non-suburban routes
Some routes do not have any regular EMU services and therefore bypass the Kolkata Suburban Railway Network. To connect people on these routes, passenger trains run to help transport people from small towns and villages to the Kolkata Metropolitan Area and vice versa. There are two routes that bypass the Kolkata Suburban Railway and are not connected to any other network. The first route is from Tamluk to Digha, which is under the jurisdiction of South Eastern Railway with a length of . The second route is from Krishnanagar City Junction to Lalgola, which is under the jurisdiction of Eastern Railway with a length of .
Infrastructure
Rolling stock
The Electric Multiple Units (EMUs) for the Kolkata suburban services were built domestically at the Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Perambur; the first EMU rolled out in September 1962.
The Howrah division of Eastern Railways has a rolling stock of 12-coach EMUs made by Jessop, ICF and Titagarh Wagons. BEML EMU's have been purchased and are in use. A few Unique BEML stainless steel EMUs are also in service. A small fleet of 12-coach Siemens EMUs are also in service. MEMU Rakes from the Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala (RCF) and Diesel multiple units (DEMUs)) from the ICF are in service. Howrah division has 61 12-car rakes. The Sealdah division has rolling stock including nine and 12-coach EMUs, also made by Jessop, ICF and Titagarh Wagons. A small fleet of Siemens 12-coach EMUs is also in service. BEML EMU's have been purchased and are in use and a small number of unique BEML stainless steel EMUs are also in service. DEMU trains made by ICF and MEMU from Rail Coach Factory, Kapurthala (RCF) are in service. The number of 9-car and 12-car EMU rakes Sealdah division are 49 and 66 respectively. There are 2 Mainline Electric Multiple Unit (MEMU) rakes also.
The South Eastern Railways uses 12-coach EMUs made by Jessop, Siemens, Titagarh Wagons and ICF. BEML EMUs have been purchased and are in use. A few unique BEML stainless steel EMUs are also in service. SER was the first Division in West Bengal to use the ICF Medha 3-phase rakes. DEMU rakes from ICF and MEMU from RCF are in service. In February 2018, SER launched Medha ICF Rakes on the Howrah–Kharagpur route and on 15 April 2018, Eastern Railway also started using them on the Howrah–Bandel Route. SER has 30 12-car EMU rakes.
Every division of the Kolkata Suburban Railway are rapidly replacing their old Jessop and ICF EMUs with the latest Medha 3-phase EMU rakes made by ICF with Bombardier Transportation. Almost all the EMU Units used by the Kolkata Suburban Railway are equipped with a GPS-based passenger information system. Some EMUs, which were previously in service with the Western Line of the Mumbai Suburban Railway, were later shifted to Kolkata for service.
Electrification and gauge
The Howrah to Bardhaman section of Eastern Railway, got equipped with 3000 V DC electrification by 1958. Following the research and trials by SNCF in Europe, Indian Railways decided to adopt 25 kV AC system as a standard in 1957, as it was found more economical, and by 1968 the mainlines of both zones were electrified with 25 kV AC traction. Branch lines and other lines were gradually electrified later. On 5 January 2015, the Kalinarayanpur to Krishnagar City Junction route via Shantipur was totally converted into electrified broad gauge from meter gauge with three phases, Phase-I was from Krishnanagar City Junction to Shantipur Junction which was commissioned on 7 February 2012; Phase II was from Shantipur Junction to Phulia which was commissioned on 30 January 2014; and the last, Phase III, for Phulia to Kalinarayanpur was commissioned and later EMU services begun. On 12 January 2018, the Barddhaman to Katwa line was totally converted to electrified broad gauge from narrow gauge with two phases—Phase-I Barddhaman to Balgona and Phase-II Balgona To Katwa began to be converted beginning on 30 May 2012. Currently, the network has a 25 kV overhead catenary electrification system, with Indian broad gauge tracks.
Signalling and telecommunication
An Electronic Interlocking signalling system is most widely used, replacing the old lever frames/panel interlockings system. To increase sectional capacity and efficiency, automatic signalling is being used. This is controlled by AC/DC track circuits, axle counters etc. The axle counter system is used to detect the presence of a train in an absolute block section, point zone area of a station and level crossings.
An optical fibre communication system is the backbone of the telecommunications network. The telecommunications facility is an omnibus circuit between stations and the central control hub at Sealdah and Howrah. For ground based mobile communication, Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) is used.
Incidents
In the early 1980s, down Kalyani Simanta local overshot the down starter signal at Kalyani rail station and rammed into up Krishnagar City local which was coming into pf. 1 from the opposite direction. Eye-witnesses say the 'head' of the down local hit the 'belly' of the up local. Several coaches derailed, and passengers sustained injuries as both trains were going slow (10kmph). Services on the mainline were suspended for a few days and the derailed rakes kept laying in Kalyani outers for several months.
Two local trains (Sealdah– EMU local and Shantipur–Sealdah EMU local) collided on the same track at railway station on 7 January 2012. One person was killed and several were injured. Three coaches of both trains derailed.
On 12 December 2013, an accident was averted as two trains arrived on the same line at Sealdah Station. The driver of the Sealdah–Lalgola passenger train which left from platform seven had overshot the starter signal and entered the down main line but stopped because of the Bangaon–Sealdah local, which was coming from the opposite direction. This was reported to the control room and the passenger train was hauled back to platform seven of Sealdah Station.
Fourteen passengers were injured when an explosion took place inside a compartment of the Sealdah–Krishnanagar local train early on the morning of 12 May 2015. The blast took place just after a person boarded the train at Titagarh station, which is from Sealdah. Train services along the Sealdah Section were normal. However, two trains were cancelled as train movement was affected following the incident.
On 17 November 2015, a 40-year-old man, who had boarded the Howrah–Bandel Matribhumi special local for women only, fell off the train and died between Uttarpara and Hind Motor stations. This incident occurred when the man boarded the train. Some female commuters surrounded and abused him. He was eventually forced to get off the train. When the man realized a station was approaching, he ran to grab the handle but missed it and fell from the train to his death.
On 19 July 2017, a train from Sonarpur Jn to Sealdah (South) Station broke the buffer and hit the wall of platform number 13 in Sealdah (South) Station. This incident happened in the morning around 10:25 am (IST).
On 4 September 2018, Majerhat Bridge which was 40 years old, collapsed on the rail line between and at around 4:45 pm (IST), which results in the death of 3 people while injuring at least 25 others. After the collapse, Eastern Railways suspended train services via Majerhat railway station on the Kolkata Circular Railway and Sealdah-Budge Budge lines temporarily.
On 28 September 2018, one woman was killed while another woman sustained serious injuries after a slab of a foot over-bridge (FOB) at Baruipur railway station in South 24 Parganas fell on them from a height of . This incident happened at night. According to locals and daily passengers, the foot over-bridge was in bad condition due to lack of maintenance.
There was a stampede on a foot over-bridge at railway station in West Bengal on 23 October 2018. Two people died and twelve others were injured, including two children and two women. This incident occurred because of the arrival of two trains at the same time. People rushed to board the trains and that created a stampede-like situation on the bridge.
On 2 October 2019, A local train coming from Masagram was derailed, when it was entering on Platform no.6 of Howrah railway station. No casualties were reported. This incident happened around 8:10 pm (IST).
On 15 March 2020, a massive fire broke out in the Salimpur slum area which lies near the railway station track at around 8:30 am. No casualties were reported. After this incident, Sealdah South lines were suspended temporarily.
See also
Eastern Bengal Railway
Bengal Nagpur Railway
Trams in Kolkata
Transport in Kolkata
Mumbai Suburban Railway
Delhi Suburban Railway
Chennai Suburban Railway
Bengaluru Commuter Rail
Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System
List of suburban and commuter rail systems
References
External links
South Eastern Railway
Eastern Railway
Kolkata Suburban Railway timetable
1854 establishments in British India
Rail transport in Howrah
Transport in Kolkata
Rail transport in Kolkata
Eastern Railway zone
Indian companies established in 1854
Railway companies established in 1854
South Eastern Railway zone |
4215226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20Gold%20Coast | Dutch Gold Coast | The Dutch Gold Coast or Dutch Guinea, officially Dutch possessions on the Coast of Guinea (Dutch: Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) was a portion of contemporary Ghana that was gradually colonized by the Dutch, beginning in 1612. The Dutch began trading in the area around 1598, joining the Portuguese which had a trading post there since the late 1400s. Eventually, the Dutch Gold Coast became the most important Dutch colony in West Africa after Fort Elmina was captured from the Portuguese in 1637, but fell into disarray after the abolition of the slave trade in the early 19th century. On 6 April 1872, the Dutch Gold Coast was, in accordance with the Anglo-Dutch Treaties of 1870–71, ceded to the United Kingdom.
History
The Dutch settle on the Gold Coast
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in contemporary Ghana. By 1471, they had reached the area that was to become known as the Gold Coast because it was an important source of gold. The Portuguese trading interests in gold, ivory and pepper so increased that in 1482 the Portuguese built their first permanent trading post on the western coast of present-day Ghana. This fortress, a trade castle called São Jorge da Mina, was constructed to protect Portuguese trade from European competitors.
The Portuguese position on the Gold Coast, known as Portuguese Gold Coast, remained secure for over a century. During that time, Lisbon sought to monopolize all trade in the region in royal hands, though appointed officials at São Jorge, and used force to prevent English, French and Dutch efforts to trade on the coast. After Barent Eriksz successfully sailed to the Gold Coast in 1591, Dutch merchants began trading in the area. Pieter de Marees's publications greatly increased the interest of merchants in the region.
The Twelve Years' Truce between Portugal-Spain and the Dutch Republic, which lasted from 1609 to 1621, disrupted Dutch trade on the Gold Coast, as the Portuguese now had sufficient resources to protect their trade monopoly. Dutch traders then petitioned the States-General of the Dutch Republic to build a fort on the coast. The States-General were receptive of their demands, and sent Jacob Clantius, who was to become the first General on the Coast, to the Gold Coast in 1611. In 1612, after gaining permission of the local rulers through the Treaty of Asebu, he built Fort Nassau near Moree, on the site of an original Dutch trading post that had been burned down by the Portuguese.
After the Twelve Years's Truce ended in 1621, the Dutch West India Company was established, which tried to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa and America as part of the Groot Desseyn plan. After failing in 1625, the company managed to capture Elmina Castle from the Portuguese in 1637. Fort San Sebastian at Shama and Fort Santo Antonio at Axim followed in 1640 and 1642 respectively.
Competition with other European powers
The Dutch West India Company was given the monopoly on trade in the West Indies, including the Gold Coast, in 1621. Mismanagement meant that several disillusioned employees of the Dutch West India Company left the company to work for another European power. Hendrik Carloff, for example, was a former high-ranking officer in the company, who joined the Swedish Africa Company, founded in 1649 by the Walloon-Dutch industrialist Louis De Geer. In the end, Carloff also left the Swedish company, this time for the Danish Africa Company, which he founded himself with Isaac Coymans and Nicolaes Pancras, also former Dutch West India Company employees.
Whereas Swedish presence on the Gold Coast turned out to be only temporary, British and Danish settlement in the area proved to be permanent. From 1694 until 1700, the Dutch West India Company fought the Komenda Wars with the British over trade rights with the Eguafo Kingdom. In addition, Brandenburgers also had forts in the area from 1682 onwards, until they were bought out by the Dutch in 1717. The Portuguese had completely left the area, but still the Gold Coast had the highest concentration of European military architecture outside of Europe.
Relationship with local peoples
The European powers were sometimes drawn into conflicts with local inhabitants as Europeans developed commercial alliances with local political authorities. These alliances, often complicated, involved both Europeans attempting to enlist or persuade their closest allies to attack rival European ports and their African allies, or conversely, various African powers seeking to recruit Europeans as mercenaries in their inter-state wars, or as diplomats to resolve conflicts. Another way conflicts with the local inhabitants was avoided was through marriage. European men often created alliances with the local African people through a practice known as cassare or calisare derived from the Portuguese casar meaning "to marry." Dutch men and other Europeans would marry African women whose families had ties to the Atlantic slave trade. In this way, both Africans and Europeans benefited from each other and allowed for peaceful trading partnerships. African wives could receive money and schooling for the children they bore by European men. Wives could also inherit slaves and property from their husbands when they returned to Europe or died.
Many coastal ethnic groups in Africa, such as the Ga and Fante, used this system to gain economic and political advantages. These African ethnic groups had been using this practice before the arrival of the Europeans with strangers of a different ethnicity, and extended the same privilege to European men by the late 1400s. Cassare enabled Africans to trust strangers, like the Europeans, when dealing within their trade networks. It made the transition between stranger and trade partner a lot smoother.
At Elmina, the Dutch had inherited from the Portuguese a system in which tribute was paid to the Denkyira, who were the dominant power in the region. After the Battle of Feyiase (1701), the Ashanti Empire replaced the Denkyira as the dominant power, and the Dutch began paying tribute to the Ashanti instead. Although the existence of the so-called "Elmina Note" is often questioned, the Dutch generally paid two ounces of gold per month to the Ashanti as tribute. This bond between the Dutch and the Ashanti, who through the port of Elmina had access to trade with the Dutch and the rest of the world, deeply affected the relations between the Dutch, the other local peoples and the British. The latter were increasingly tight with the Fante, to which the Denkyira and thus also Elmina were culturally and linguistically close. Several Ashanti-Fante wars followed and the rivalry between the two peoples were key in the events surrounding the transfer of the Dutch Gold Coast to Britain in 1872.
After the Dutch managed to dislodge the Swedes from Butre and began building Fort Batenstein at that site, the leaders of the Dutch West India Company thought it beneficial to negotiate a treaty with the local political leadership in order to establish a peaceful long-term relationship in the area. The local Ahanta leaders found it equally beneficial to enter into such an agreement, and thus on 27 August 1656, the Treaty of Butre was signed. This treaty established a Dutch protectorate in the area, and established diplomatic ties between the Dutch Republic and the Ahanta. The treaty's arrangements proved very stable and regulated Dutch-Ahanta diplomatic affairs for more than 213 years. Only after the Gold Coast was sold to Britain in 1872 were the provisions of the treaty abrogated.
On 18 February 1782, as part of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, the British attacked Elmina. Although this attack failed, Britain seized Fort Nassau, Fort Amsterdam, Fort Lijdzaamheid, Fort Goede Hoop and Fort Crêvecoeur from the Dutch. The Dutch Republic only managed to seize Fort Sekondi from the British. In the Treaty of Paris of 1784, all forts returned to their pre-war owners.
Disestablishment of the DWIC and the abolition of slave trade
In 1791, the Dutch West India Company was disestablished, and on 1 January 1792, all territories held by the company reverted to the rule of the States-General of the Dutch Republic. During the French occupation of the Netherlands between 1810 and 1814, the Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast held the rather unusual position—together with the island of Deshima in Japan—of being the only Dutch territories not occupied by either France or Great Britain.
The British Slave Trade Act of 1807 effectively ended all slave trade from the Gold Coast. William I of the Netherlands took over this abolition when he issued a royal decree to that effect in June 1814 and signed the Anglo-Dutch Slave Trade Treaty in May 1818. The abolition of slave trade was coupled with the arrival of Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General. Daendels was a Patriot who played a major role in the Batavian Revolution, and subsequently became Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies for the Batavian Republic in 1807. This republican and revolutionist background made him controversial in the Kingdom of the Netherlands established in 1815, which effectively banned him from the country by assigning to him the rather obscure governorship of the Gold Coast in 1815.
Daendels tried to redevelop the rather dilapidated Dutch possessions as an African plantation colony driven by legitimate trade. Drawing on his experience in building the Great Post Road on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies, he came up with some very ambitious infrastructural projects, including a comprehensive road system, with a main road connecting Elmina and Kumasi in Ashanti. The Dutch government gave him a free hand and a substantial budget to implement his plans. At the same time, however, Daendels regarded his governorship as an opportunity to establish a private business monopoly in the Dutch Gold Coast.
Eventually none of the plans came to fruition, as Daendels died of malaria in the castle of St. George d'Elmina, the Dutch seat of government, on 8 May 1818. His body was interred in the central tomb at the Dutch cemetery in Elmina town. He had been in the country less than for two years.
Recruitment of soldiers for the Dutch East Indies Army
In the remainder of the 19th century, the Dutch Gold Coast slowly fell into disarray. The only substantial development during this period was the recruitment of soldiers for the Dutch East Indies Army. This recruitment of the so-called Belanda Hitam (Indonesian for "Black Dutchmen") started in 1831 as an emergency measure as the Dutch army lost thousands of European soldiers and a much larger number of "native" soldiers in the Java War (1825–1830), and at the same time saw its own population base diminished by the independence of Belgium (1830). As the Dutch wanted the number of natives in the Dutch East Indies Army to be limited to roughly half the total strength to maintain the loyalty of native forces, the addition of forces from the Gold Coast seemed an ideal opportunity to keep the army at strength and loyal at the same time. It was also hoped that the African soldiers would be more resistant to the tropical climate and tropical diseases of the Dutch East Indies than European soldiers.
In 1836, the Dutch government had decided to recruit soldiers via the King of Ashanti. Major General Jan Verveer arrived for this purpose in Elmina on 1 November 1836, and went to the Ashanti capital of Kumasi with a delegation of about 900 people. After long negotiations, an agreement with King Kwaku Dua I was reached. A recruitment depot was established in Kumasi, and furthermore the king sent the young Ashanti princes Kwasi Boachi and Kwame Poku with General Verveer to take with him to the Netherlands, so that they could receive a good education. Kwasi Boachi later received education at the forerunner of Delft University and became the first black Dutch mining engineer in the Dutch East Indies. Dutch author Arthur Japin wrote a novel about the life of the two princes with The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi (1997).
Trade of forts with Britain and subsequent cession
Whereas the Dutch forts were a colonial backwater in the 19th century, the British forts were slowly developed into a full colony, especially after Britain took over the Danish Gold Coast in 1850. The presence of Dutch forts in an area that became increasingly influenced by the United Kingdom was deemed undesirable, and in the late 1850s British began pressing for either a buyout of the Dutch forts, or a trade of forts so as to produce more coherent areas of influence.
In the Dutch political landscape of the time, a buyout was not a possibility, so a trade of forts was negotiated. In 1867, the Convention between Great Britain and the Netherlands for an Interchange of Territory on the Gold Coast of Africa was signed, in which all Dutch forts to the east of Elmina were handed over to Britain, while the British forts west of Elmina were handed over to the Netherlands.
The trade proved a disaster for the Dutch, as their long-standing alliance with the mighty inland Ashanti Empire did not fare well with the coastal Fante population around the new forts assigned to them, who were allied with the British. To subject the local people around Fort Komenda, the Dutch had to send an expeditionary force to the local capital of Kwassie-Krom. Meanwhile, a Fante Confederacy was founded to drive the Dutch and their Ashanti allies out of Elmina. The confederacy founded an army, which marched to Elmina in March 1868. Although the army was deemed strong enough in April to begin the siege of the town, struggle between the various tribes united in the confederacy meant that the siege was lifted in May. In June, a peace treaty between the confederacy and Elmina was signed, in which Elmina pledged to be neutral if war was to break out between the Ashanti and Fante.
The blockade of the town by the confederacy was not lifted, however, and trade between Elmina and the Ashanti dropped to an absolute minimum. Attempts were made to persuade Elmina to join the confederacy, to no avail. Elmina and the Dutch sent a request for help to the king of Ashanti, whose army, under the leadership of Atjempon, arrived in Elmina on 27 December 1869. Unsurprisingly, the Ashanti army had an uncompromising attitude to their Fante rivals, making the prospect of a compromise between the Ashanti-backed Elminese and the new Fante-dominated forts transferred to the Dutch ever more difficult.
Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, the ongoing conflicts made the call for the transfer of the entire colony to Britain to become ever louder. The Dutch governor of Elmina, Cornelis Nagtglas, tried to persuade the Elminese to relinquish their city to the British. This was of course complicated by the presence of an Ashanti army in the town, which even arrested Nagtglas for a short while in April 1871. In February of that year, a treaty had been signed with the United Kingdom, under which terms the whole colony was to be ceded for a sum of 46,939.62 Dutch guilders. On 6 April 1872, after ratification of the treaty by parliament, Elmina was formally handed over to Britain.
Destruction of Elmina
As was to be expected, the Ashanti were less pleased by the handover of Elmina to the Fante-allied British. Ashanti king Kofi Karikari posited that the "Elmina Note", which governed the tribute paid by the Dutch to the Ashanti, asserted Ashanti sovereignty over the town. In June 1873, the situation escalated when an Ashanti army marched to Elmina to "win back" the town from Britain. The Third Anglo-Ashanti War had started, and Britain began bombing Elmina on 13 June 1873. The old town of Elmina was completely destroyed and leveled to make room for a parade ground.
Administration
Dutch West India Company
During the reign of the Dutch West India Company, the government of the colony was headed by a Director-General. The Director-General was assisted by a Council composed of senior colonial officers. Aside from being the supreme ruler of the colony, the Director-General was also the supreme commander of the land and sea forces, and highest judicial officer. The Director-General had a double mandate, being installed by both the States-General of the Dutch Republic and the Dutch West India Company. The colonial government was based at Fort Nassau in Moree between 1621 and 1637, and at Fort George in Elmina from 1637 onward.
When the Dutch conquered Luanda and São Tomé from the Portuguese in 1642, the Dutch West India Company's possessions on the coast of Africa were divided into two separate commandments. The government at Elmina was charged with the rule over "Guinea and its dependencies from Cabo Tres Puntas to Cabo Lopes Gonsalves," and the government at Luanda with the possessions south of the latter cape, including São Tomé. The title of the Director-General at Elmina was changed to "Director-General of the North Coast of Africa." When the Dutch lost Luanda to the Portuguese in 1648, Sao Tomé was shortly ruled from Elmina, until it was recaptured by the Portuguese as well in the same year.
With the establishment of the Second Dutch West India Company in 1675, the government structure was revised. The area under the authority of the Director-General was redefined as "the Coast of Africa, from Sierra Leone all exclusively to 30 degrees South of the equator, together with all the islands in between," thereby nominally reinstating the claim on the territories lost in this area to the Portuguese. The title of the Director-General was concurrently changed to "Director-General of the North and South Coast of Africa." This larger claim was not primarily meant to reclaim Luanda and Sao Tomé from the Portuguese, however, but merely to establish authority over Dutch trade in the area. This was especially relevant for Loango, from which the Dutch began buying slaves in large amounts from the 1670s onward. Until the liquidation of the Dutch West India Company in 1791, the title of the Director-General and the limits of jurisdiction remained the same.
Composition of the Council
According to the 1722 government instruction, the Council comprised the Director-General, who functioned as the council's president, the fiscal (Dutch: fiscaal), the senior merchant (Dutch: opperkoopman), and the senior commissioners (Dutch: oppercommies). These senior commissioners consisted of the head of Fort Saint Anthony at Axim, the head of Fort Nassau at Moree, the head of Fort Crèvecoeur at Accra, and the head of the factory at Ouidah, on the Dutch Slave Coast. Between 1746 and 1768, the Council consisted of the Director-General, the fiscal, and the seven highest ranking "first officials", which included the senior commissioners, the master of works (Dutch: equipagemeester), the bookkeeper-general (Dutch: boekhouder-generaal), and the ensign (Dutch: vaandrig). In 1768, the council was again reduced to the fiscal, the three senior commissioners (the trading post at Ouidah has since been abandoned), and the commissioner-and councillor. The composition of the council was changed for a final time in 1784, in the wake of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, now extending the membership to include the bookkeeper-general-and-commissioner.
Direct Dutch rule
After the liquidation of the Dutch West India Company in 1791, the Council of Colonies for the West Indies took over the government of the Dutch Gold Coast. Little changed in the first years, and the old administration of the Dutch West India Company was left largely intact.
This changed when the Batavian Republic replaced the Dutch Republic in 1795. The administration of the Dutch Gold Coast was reformed by a secret resolution of 12 May 1801. The office of Director-General was renamed Governor-General, and the council was split in a Great Council and a Small Council. The Small Council was responsible for the everyday government of the colony, and comprised the Governor-General, the administrator-and-Director-General (Dutch: administrateur en directeur-generaal), the master of stores, the master of works, and the bookkeeper of the general office (Dutch: boekhouder ten comptoir-generaal). The Great Council consisted of the Small Council, with the addition of the residents of Fort Crèvecoeur at Accra, Fort Saint Anthony at Axim, Fort Saint Sebastian at Shama, and Fort Amsterdam at Kormatin, and met every three months.
The administration of the Dutch Gold Coast was again reformed when the Kingdom of Holland replaced the Batavian Republic in 1806. By royal decree of Louis Napoleon, King of Holland, the office of Governor-General was demoted to Commandant-General in 1807, and the administration was overhauled in 1809. An even bigger change came with the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. Leaving behind the uncertain years of French occupation, and with slave trade abolished, the newly established kingdom put up a plan to transform the colony into a profitable plantation colony. For this purpose, the new governor Herman Willem Daendels was given an open mandate and a large budget. The project was cut short with Daendels early death in 1818, however.
Left without a visionary governor, budgets were cut for the colony. The new regulations of 1 November 1819 reduced the budget to the minimum necessary to keep the colony running, fired all unnecessary colonial officers, and pensioned of most of the slaves of the state. Most notably, the offices of bookkeeper, fiscal, secretary, cashier, and bailiff were combined into one office, the summation of functions actually being the office-holder's title (Dutch: boekhouder, fiscaal, secretaris, kassier en deurwaarder). Also, the office of Governor-General was demoted to Commander. When the Dutch decided to recruit soldiers for the Dutch East Indies Army in 1836, the government was strengthened again, something which was reinforced in the wake of the disastrous Ahanta War of 1838. By virtue of a royal decree dated 23 March 1838, the office of Commander was raised to Governor and extra officers were installed to make government more effective. The government itself was reformed in 1847, which among its most notable inventions included the establishment of a Court of Justice, legally separate from the council, although memberships often overlapped. The office of fiscal, responsible for public prosecution, was renamed Officer of Justice.
In the late 1850s, the administrative divisions into forts was changed into a division into districts (Dutch: afdelingen), asserting Dutch sovereignty (or suzerainty) over not only the forts, but also the territory surrounding the forts. District officers were instructed to make surveys of physical, economic, and socio-political situation of the districts. As a consequence of the tariff system set up in the Anglo-Dutch Gold Coast Treaty, a tax and customs office was established in Elmina in 1867. At the same time, a postal office was established as well.
Economy
Although the colony is nowadays primarily associated with Atlantic slave trade, this was not the reason for the first Dutch traders to trade with the Gold Coast. Barent Eriksz made a profit trading gold, ivory, and West African pepper, and these products remained the primary trading goods in the early 17th century. According to Joannes de Laet, the Dutch West India had transported West African goods worth 14 million Dutch guilders to the Dutch Republic by 1637, of which the most important was the trade in gold.
This changed with the gradual capture of Brazil from the Portuguese, from 1630 onward. Suddenly, the trade of slaves, for which there was no significant market earlier, became a necessity for the economic survival of Dutch Brazil. Nicolas van Yperen, Governor of the Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast, was instructed by his superiors of the Dutch West India Company to supply Dutch Brazil with slaves. In 1636, he managed to ship around a thousand slaves to Brazil from Fort Nassau, but to secure a continuous flow of slave labour, the company decided it was necessary to attempt once more to capture Elmina from the Portuguese. After Elmina was finally captured in August 1637, the focus of trade for the Dutch West India Company shifted to slave trade. The directors of the Dutch West India Company were not happy with the increasing slave trade on the Gold Coast itself, however, as it interfered with the profitable gold trade, and actively tried to move the slave trade to the Slave Coast, where they had trading posts from 1640 onward.
The loss of Brazil did not collapse Dutch slave trade, as in 1662, Dutch signed their first asiento with the Spanish Empire, pledging to provide slaves to Spanish America, primarily through their trading post in Willemstad, Curaçao. Furthermore, in 1664, the Dutch conquered Suriname, complementing Berbice and Essequibo as Caribbean plantation colonies depending on slave labour.
Meanwhile, the Dutch had tried in 1654 to directly control the mining of gold by building Fort Ruychaver far inland on the Ankobra River, but had left gold production to the locals since that fort was attacked and burned to the ground in 1660. The supply of gold declined dramatically at the turn of the eighteenth century, due to warfare among the states of the Gold Coast. While the Ashanti succeeded in the Battle of Feyiase of 1701 to establish their hegemony on the Gold Coast, it took them a few years to fully "pacify" their newly conquered territory. 1701 proved to be the historic low for the gold trade, with only 530 mark of gold exported, worth 178.080 guilders.
Whereas the supply of gold was declining, the supply of slaves boomed as never before. This was to a large part due to the Ashanti wars; Governor-General Willem de la Palma wrote to his superiors at the Dutch West India Company that the war had unleashed slave raids among the local peoples in the Gold Coast. Whereas between 1693 and 1701, 1,522 slaves were transported from Elmina to the Americas, an average of 169 slaves per year, 1,213 slaves were transported between 1702 and 1704, an average of 404 per year.
Apart from increased supply of slaves, the demand also increased due to the asiento trading with the Spanish. Between 1660 and 1690, the Dutch trading posts in Africa, which included the Slave Coast, Arguin, and Senegambia, shipped a third of the total number of slaves across the Atlantic. On the Gold Coast, Governor De la Palma actively tried to systemize the slave trade and improve the numbers of slave shipped to the Americas. To this purpose, he sent Jacob van den Broucke as "opperkommies" (head merchant) to the Dutch trading post at Ouidah, on the Slave Coast.
De la Palma was a difficult personality and often at odds with his merchants and local African leaders. He resigned from his position in September 1705, but died before he could return to the Dutch Republic. He was replaced by his deputy, Pieter Nuyts, who tried to revive the gold trade at the coast.
But by the beginning of the eighteenth century, even slave trade dwindled, with the Dutch becoming a rather small player in the trans-Atlantic trade. Since globally this trade peaked in the 18th century, this meant that the Dutch contribution to the Atlantic slave trade only amounts to 5% of the grand total, equalling around 500,000 slaves shipped from Africa to the Americas.
In 1730, the monopoly of the Dutch West India Company on the Atlantic slave trade was lifted. This contributed to the rise of the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), which dominated the Dutch slave trade for much of the eighteenth century.
The Gold Coast economy in the 19th century
With the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, the Dutch vowed to stop trading slaves. This meant a severe blow to the economy of the Gold Coast, which had increasingly relied on slave trade from the 18th century onwards. Attempts were made to establish a plantation colony and to open gold mines on the coast, but virtually all attempts proved failures.
One of the first attempts at establishing a plantation was made by the sons of Governor-General Herman Willem Daendels in 1816. They established a plantation named Oranje Dageraad in Simbo. The Governor-General himself tried to buy 300 slaves from Kumasi, which were to regain their freedom by cultivating farmland. Both projects failed.
Between 1845 and 1850, the colonial government once again, after the failure of Fort Ruychaver, tried to establish a gold mine on the coast. The Dutch government bought an open-air gold mine from the chief of Butre, and sent in 1845 an expedition of a director, three engineers, and nine workers
to the village of Dabokrom to establish a mine. Two engineers and all nine workers fell victim to tropical diseases and died, leaving the rest of the expedition to return to Europe. The second expedition of 1847 was not less successful, now with 11 out of 13 people dying. By 1850, the Dutch government ended the mining attempt.
Another attempt to develop the colony involved the establishment of a cotton plantation just outside Elmina. In light of this project, a Brazilian man by the name of La Rocha Vièra was brought to the Gold Coast. Due to the rude treatment of workers, La Rocha Vièra was unable to attract new labourers, and the plantation died an early death. In 1848, a tobacco plantation was attempted in the government's garden in Elmina, but failed due to bad soil conditions. A more successful tobacco plantation was established in Simbo, but fell victim to a lack of labourers wanting to work on the plantation. From February to October 1859, Dutch colonial government official J.S.G. Gramberg tried to develop the soil on the Bossumprah River, but also had difficulty attracting workers.
The only two plantations that were successful comprised a coffee plantation in Akropong, established by missionaries from Basel, and another coffee plantation in Mayra near Accra, owned by mulatto entrepreneur Lutterodt, worked by slaves.
Society
Until the destruction of Elmina in 1873, the town was the largest settlement on the Gold Coast, eclipsing Accra and Kumasi. In the 18th century, its population numbered 12,000 to 16,000 inhabitants, and in the 19th century, this figure rose to between 18,000 and 20,000. Most of these inhabitants were not European, however; their number peaked at 377 Dutch West India Company employees for the entire Dutch Gold Coast in the 18th century, before sinking back to a mere 20 officers in the 19th century.
Much more important were the African inhabitants of Elmina, who came from every region of the Gold Coast to Elmina to try their luck. Slaves formed a considerable portion of the population of Elmina as well, and were often in the possession of the Akan people inhabitants themselves. The third group in Elmina was of mixed race, and the result of interracial relations between Dutch West India Company employees and African women in Elmina. The illegitimate children of the employees were called "Tapoeijers" by the Dutch, for, according to them, the colour of their skin resembled those of native Americans. A decree from 1700 by the Governor-General at Elmina stipulated that employees of the Dutch West India Company who were to return to the Netherlands either had to take their (illegitimate) children with them, or had to pay a sum of money to provide for their "Christian upbringing". For the latter purpose, a school was established in Elmina.
Many people of mixed descent, also referred to as Euro-Africans, became wealthy merchants. The most prominent of these was Jan Niezer, who visited Europe on several occasions, and who traded directly with European and American companies.
The fourth group in Elmina was also of mixed descent, but had a different status as "Vrijburghers" (free citizens). They had the same rights as Europeans, and were organized in a separate in so-called Asafo company known as "Akrampafo". Their burgemeester had the power to conclude treaties with the Dutch, and all Vrijburghers had the right to wear a sword. Well known Vrijburghers include Carel Hendrik Bartels, Jacob Huidecoper and Jacob Simon. Many Vrijburghers worked in the lower ranks of the Dutch administration of Elmina, and in the 19th century, various Vrijburgher families sent their children (girls included) to Europe for education. In the 19th century, the Vrijburghers settled north of the Benya lagune, near Fort Coenraadsburg. This part of Elmina, also known as "the Garden" was spared from British bombardment in 1873.
Wilhelm Amo and Jacobus Capitein
The presence of European powers on the Gold Coast opened up the area to the outside world, and some Africans from the Gold Coast achieved a modicum of accomplishment in European society. Two Africans from the Gold Coast are especially notable in this regard, although one of them is notorious for defending slavery as compatible with Christianity.
Anton Wilhelm Amo was born near Axim in 1703 and sent to Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company around 1707. He was given as a present to Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Amo was baptised, went to school at the Wolfenbüttel Ritter-Akademie (1717–1721) the University of Helmstedt (1721–1727), and the University of Halle (1727–1729), and subsequently gained a doctorate in philosophy at the University of Wittenberg in 1734 with the thesis On the Absence of Sensation in the Human Mind and its Presence in our Organic and Living Body, in which he argued against Cartesian dualism and in favour of a broadly materialist account of the person. In 1740, Amo took up a post in philosophy at the University of Jena, but in 1747 he returned to the Gold Coast where he died in 1759. Amo was the first black person to attend a European university. He lies interred in the graveyard of Fort San Sebastian.
Around 1717, Jacobus Capitein was born in the Gold Coast. He was forcibly taken to the Netherlands in 1725, where he was given to Jacobus van Goch. Capitein excelled at school and announced during his baptism in 1735 that he wanted to return to the Gold Coast as a missionary. To that effect, he studied at Leiden University between 1737 and 1742, graduating on a dissertation defending slavery. He was subsequently installed by the Dutch East India Company as a Christian minister at Elmina, where he married Antonia Ginderdros. Ashanti king Opoku Ware I demanded that Capitein teach his children, which he did. Capitein died in Elmina in 1747.
Legacy
After the Dutch East Indies gained independence as Indonesia in 1949, most Belanda Hitam migrated to the Netherlands, since they had been soldiers of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army. Other than that, the Dutch colonial history on the Gold Coast was more or less forgotten. This changed slightly after Arthur Japin published the earlier mentioned The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi in 1997. This attention also revealed that the head of Ahanta king Badu Bonsu II, taken to the Netherlands after his execution in 1838, was still in the possession of the Leiden University Medical Centre. The head of the king was handed over to the Ghanaian ambassador in a ceremony held on 23 July 2009 in The Hague.
In 2002, the 300 year anniversary of diplomatic ties between Ghana and the Netherlands was celebrated, with Dutch Crown Prince Willem-Alexander and his wife Máxima visiting Ghana between 14 and 17 April, and with Ashanti king Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II visiting the Netherlands in June. The anniversary referred to is the sending by the Dutch West India Company of David van Neyendael as envoy to the Ashanti Empire in 1701, after the Ashanti had become the dominant power on the Gold Coast by defeating the Denkyira at the Battle of Feyiase.
Remnants of Dutch presence in the Gold Coast, other than the forts along the coastline, are Dutch surnames which were taken on by the descendants of the children the Dutch slave traders had with their black mistresses. Bossman is a common surname in Ghana, and ultimately derives from the Dutch slave trader Willem Bosman. Other Ghanaian surnames derived from Dutch names include Bartels, Van Dyck, and De Veer. In an episode of Who Do You Think You Are?, British-Ghanaian actor Hugh Quarshie traced his ancestry to Pieter Martinus Johannes Kamerling, a Dutch official on the Gold Coast.
Settlements
Main forts
Trade of forts with Britain
In 1868, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands traded some forts in order to create more geographically contiguous areas of influence. The Netherlands ceded Fort Nassau, Fort Crêvecoeur, Fort Amsterdam, Fort Goede Hoop, and Fort Lijdzaamheid, and in return received Apollonia (renamed Fort Willem III), Fort Dixcove (renamed Fort Metalen Kruis), Fort Komenda (not to be confused with the already Dutch Fort Vredenburgh, also in Komenda), and Fort Sekondi (not to be confused with the already Dutch Fort Orange, also in Sekondi). This arrangement proved short-lived, as the colony was completely ceded to the United Kingdom in 1872.
Temporarily held forts
Apart from the main forts held for more than a century, other forts in the region have been temporarily occupied by the Dutch:
See also
Colonial Heads of Dutch Gold Coast
History of Ghana
Dutch Loango-Angola
Ministry of the Colonies (Netherlands)
Notes
Citations
References
In Dutch
External links
WorldStatesmen - Ghana - Dutch Gold Coast
Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Ghana
History of Ghana
Former colonies in Africa
Former Dutch colonies
Former settlements and colonies of the Dutch West India Company
Dutch colonisation in Africa
Dutch West India Company
17th century in Ghana
18th century in Ghana
19th century in Ghana
Danish Gold Coast
States and territories established in 1598
States and territories established in 1872
1598 establishments in Africa
1872 disestablishments in Africa
1598 establishments in the Dutch Empire
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4215240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigfrid%20of%20Sweden | Sigfrid of Sweden | Saint Sigfrid of Sweden
(, , , ) was a missionary-bishop in Scandinavia during the first half of the 11th century. Originally from England, Saint Sigfrid is credited in late medieval king-lists and hagiography with performing the baptism of the first steadfastly Christian monarch of Sweden, Olof Skötkonung. He most likely arrived in Sweden soon after the year 1000 and conducted extensive missions in Götaland and Svealand. For some years after 1014, following his return to England, Sigfrid was based in Trondheim, Norway. However, his position there became untenable after the defeat of Olaf Haraldsson.
While in Norway, Sigfrid continued to participate in the Christianization of Sweden, to which he devoted the remainder of his life. According to Swedish and Icelandic tradition, he retired to Värend. Sigfrid later died in Växjö on an unknown date within the life-time of Adam of Bremen. Sigfrid's burial-place in Växjö became the centre of a cult. According to a statement by Johannes Vastovius, an antiquarian writing in the 17th century, Sigfrid was canonized by Pope Hadrian IV c. 1158. His feast day is 15 February.
Sigfrid is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 15 February.
Historical background
In the ninth century, Anskar, 'Apostle of the North', had already made a missionary journey to Sweden and found Christians among those in captivity there. Subsequently, archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, as Anskar's successors, and on the basis of papal documents which are now considered of varying degrees of authenticity, regarded themselves as likewise charged with the evangelization of the Far North. Attempts to bring Christianity to Sweden continued sporadically through the ninth and tenth centuries with a considerable measure of success, as is attested particularly by the archaeology of Västergötland.
At the time, the Swedish Kingdom comprised Svealand in the north and Götaland in the south, in addition to provinces bordering Norway, and various offshore islands including Gotland. For a short period after the Battle of Svolder (1000), the King of Sweden controlled a considerable part of Norway and throughout the period of Sigfrid's missions, control of Skåne was disputed between Sweden and Denmark. However, the Swedish Kingdom, as a whole, long remained a conservative bastion of traditional Nordic polytheism, defending itself against Christian missions by a law forbidding forcible conversion. The destruction of its principal cult-centre of Thor, Wodan, and Fricco in Uppsala was not carried out until late in the eleventh century, and the thorough Christianization of the kingdom had to wait until the twelfth century.
Sigfrid's career, therefore, belonged to a period when neither of these goals had yet been achieved, but his success, fame, and influence on younger missionaries nevertheless sufficed to earn him recognition as the primary 'Apostle of Sweden'. That he also worked in Norway, something not at all evident from his hagiography, is stated as a fact by Adam of Bremen, while an anonymous Historia Norvegie additionally reports that Sigfrid was transported from England to Norway, along with other bishops, by the future King and Saint, Olaf Haraldsson. This probably happened in the autumn of 1014. He visited Bremen on at least two occasions; one dates back to perhaps c. 1015, and the other, more certainly, to c. 1030. On the former occasion he entrusted a protégé called Osmund to the schools of Bremen for his education; on the latter, he brought good news to the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen about the success of his most recent missions in Sweden. Two Swedish dioceses, Växjö and Skara, claim St Sigfrid as their founding bishop.
The problematic character of the evidence for Saint Sigfrid's career
Statements about the life of Saint Sigfrid that can be regarded as unimpeachable are hard to discover, either in medieval primary sources or in modern reference books; scholars agree in declaring that very little can safely be said about him. The main difficulty for historians is that none of this pioneering missionary's correspondence has survived and, to our knowledge, none of his colleagues in the Scandinavian mission-field wrote a memoir relating his achievements. While it is well-nigh inconceivable that any important pre-Reformation mission-leader originating from England would have set about his work without papal accreditation, in the case of St. Sigfrid, there are no known records of his dealings with Rome, or with the kings, or archbishops of England. The destruction by fire in 1069 of York Minster's archives has left it impossible to reconstruct in any detail the history of the Scandinavian missions dispatched from England before that date.
Hagiographical narratives of Sigfrid's work in Sweden
The sources which attest to the activity of Saint Sigfrid—late-medieval Vitae, king-lists of Sweden, and bishop-lists of Swedish dioceses— are generally dismissed today by academic historians both in Sweden and the English-speaking world as of dubious reliability. The two main Latin Vitae open with an episode in which envoys are sent by a king of the Svear (or Götar) called Olavus to a King of England named 'Mildred', entreating him to send Christian missionaries to his country—a request to which Sigfrid, 'Archbishop of York', responds positively. Rather less challenging to modern sceptical attitudes are traditions that, soon after his first arrival in Sweden, Saint Sigfrid was granted land for the church by the newly baptized King Olavus at Husaby (in Västergötland, not far from Skara), and also two more estates, called Hoff and Tiurby, in the vicinity of the future city of Växjö, this time in judicial compensation for the murder of three of his nephews, who had been assisting him in his mission. These are named in the Vitae as Unaman (a priest), Sunaman (a deacon) and Vinaman (a subdeacon). It is reported that their severed heads, deliberately plunged into a lake by the murderers, were miraculously discovered, minus their bodies, by their uncle. Already, before the triple murder, Sigfrid had been instructed by an angel, in a dream, to build a church at the place called Östrabo, later to known as Växjö.
Whereas Sigfrid's earliest days in Sweden are reported by the late-medieval hagiographers in some detail, with extreme specificity as regards names and locations, most of his subsequent long missionary career in the Swedish Kingdom is sketched in the extant Vitae with infuriating vagueness, and with no mention of any journeys and sojourns that he may have made anywhere outside that country after his initial journey there from England via Denmark. Vita I concludes with a report that, much later in his life, he elected to travel to Värend, 'the southernmost district in Götaland', for his retirement, where, as a very old man, he died at Växjö. This tradition is also touched upon in the late-medieval bishop-lists of Skara, and in an Icelandic tale, also late-medieval, about a composite saga-character called Bishop 'Sigurð'. 'Sigurð' appears to be an amalgam between Sigewéard, also known as Johannes, the first of three bishops from England reported by Adam of Bremen to have been based in Trondheim, and the third such bishop, identifiable as our Saint Sigfrid. The Icelandic text adds details about Bishop 'Sigurd's demise in Värend, which might suggest access by its author to richer authentic information about Saint Sigfrid than we possess, but unfortunately, not only is 'Värend' mistaken here for the name of a town, but other narratives by the same author about Bishop 'Sigurd' - his expedition to Jerusalem, and his courageous confrontation with the pagans of Sigtuna - are too novelistic in approach to inspire the trust of cautious scholars.
Vita II asserts that Sigfrid established separate bishoprics for the western and eastern parts of Götaland and also, further north, in Svealand, for Uppsala and Strängnäs. While there is no inherent improbability in the supposition that Saint Sigfrid 'from England' (supposing he been given papal authorization and the standing of a missionary archbishop) might have followed the example of Saints Augustine, Willibrord and Boniface in ordaining bishops for rural regions and population centres within his northern European mission-field, these reports of bishopric-foundation are not usually taken seriously. This is not only because the hagiographical context in which they are presented is easy to dismiss as a tissue of lying tales: the reports themselves appear to conflict with the account of Swedish church-history supplied by Adam of Bremen, a much earlier and seemingly more reliable authority. However, these considerations do not necessarily amount to conclusive disproof.
Disambiguation
For chronological reasons, Saint Sigfrid of Sweden cannot possibly be identifiable with Sigefrid, a monk of Glastonbury whose work as a missionary-bishop to Norway belonged to the days of England's King Edgar (regnal dates 959-975). Despite much confusion generated by Icelandic sources, this Saint Sigfrid also needs to be firmly distinguished from Sigewéard (also known as Johannes), the leading bishop in Olaf Tryggvason's Norway at the end of the tenth century, who seems very probably identifiable with a missionary bishop called 'Siwardus' who retired to the monastery of Ramsey in the abbacy of Eadnoth (993 - c.1008).
On the other hand, it seems safe to identify the Sigfrid of Swedish hagiography and bishop-list traditions with Adam of Bremen's 'Sigafridus', missionary to Sweden as well as Norway. However, it is also possible to identify the apostle to Sweden and 'bishop of the Norwegians', with Sigeferð, bishop of Lindsey, a signatory of certain charters of Æthelred II around the time of the millennium.
In his hagiography, Saint Sigfrid of Sweden is problematically described as having held the office of Archbishop of York. It is possible basis that Sigeferð of Lindsey could have been elected to that office in the late Spring of 1002, following the death of Archbishop Ealdwulf, but because of a call to evangelize Sweden, resigned before enthronement, whereupon Wulfstan, Bishop of London, took his place at York. One seeks in vain for an Archbishop of York signing English royal charters in the summer of 1002. But the possibility that one had been appointed, only to disappear abroad, is certainly not capable of proof. Alternative hypotheses regarding the alleged archiepiscopal rank of Saint Sigfrid can reasonably be mooted, as they have been in the past.
Adam of Bremen's perspective on the missions to Sweden
Adam of Bremen, master of the schools of Bremen in the third and fourth quarter of the 11th century, wrote about missionary activity in Scandinavia in the context of a history of the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, the Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum. Unsurprisingly, he foregrounds the missions dispatched by the archbishops of that province, who regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of St. Anskar, claiming to have been given sole responsibility for the evangelization of the Far North in papal documents of varying degrees of authenticity. According to Adam's account, the only diocese founded in the Swedish Kingdom in the first half of the 11th century was that of Skara, in Götaland, endowed by Olof Skötkonung in his later years, with Thurgot, a nominee of Archbishop Unwan of Hamburg-Bremen, as its first bishop. Not until the 1060s was there to be another attempt by an archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen to found a bishopric in Sweden, this time at Sigtuna in Svealand, and the attempt failed. The reason for this failure was, according to Adam, pagan opposition, and we need not doubt that this was one factor. But another reason could have been the favour with which 'English' missionaries, as distinct from those dispatched from Bremen, had come to be regarded by those in the population of Svealand who had by that date embraced Christianity. The evidence of runic memorial stones datable to the relevant period suggests that such people were already quite numerous.
The date (not supplied by Adam) at which the Diocese of Skara was founded seems to have been c. 1020, if we may judge from traditions about near-contemporary events as recounted in the Saint Olaf Saga of Snorri Sturluson. Bishop Thurgot, after working for an unspecified length of time among the Götar, was, for some unexplained reason, recalled to Bremen, where he took sick and died in c. 1030. The man appointed to succeed him, Gottskalk, Abbot of Ramelsloh, declined ever to leave his north-German monastery for Sweden, and the result was a virtual vacancy-in-see at Skara. This seems to have lasted more than a quarter-century, coming to an end only with Gottskalk's death in c. 1055 and the eventual accession to the see of Bishop Adalward I in c. 1058. As bishop-elect, Adalward, formerly Dean of Bremen, first had to oust Osmund, court-bishop to Emund, king of Sweden, who was discovered behaving as if he were that country's archbishop. At first, furthermore, Osmund was successful in asserting that he had a better claim to ecclesiastical primacy in Sweden than Adalward, who had only Hamburg-Bremen's authorization for his mission, not that of Rome.
Bishop Osmund is known, from Adam's account, to have been educated at the schools of Bremen under the sponsorship of Sigafridus, bishop of the Norwegians, presumably, the same third bishop in Trondheim who was known also for his missions to Sweden. It is reasonable to surmise from this incident that this Bishop Sigfrid, though from England, was disposed to cultivate a good diplomatic relationship with the Hamburg-Bremen archbishopric. Another testimony of his courtesy in relation to the authorities in Bremen is the fact that he was on a visit there, reporting on his successes in Sweden, at the time of Thurgot's death and funeral. But plainly he was not an appointee of an archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. Nor was his protégé and apparent successor, Osmund, who, by claiming papal authorization for his assuming of an archiepiscopal role in Sweden in the mid-1050s, incurred charges of insubordination and ingratitude towards the archdiocese which had provided him with his education.
Adam, the historian of that archdiocese, was broad-minded enough to acknowledge on many occasions the important part played by missionaries dispatched from places other than Bremen in the evangelization of the Far North. He vouches specifically for the fame of Sigfrid. But his information about the processes whereby Norway and Sweden were evangelized was impressionistic, patchy, and sometimes out of date, having been obtained at second-hand from well-travelled visitors to Bremen, rather than from personal travel and fact-finding.
His most distinguished informant was Svein Estrithsen, King of Denmark, who had spent his soldiering days in the service of Anund Jakob, son and heir of Olof Skötkonung. Svein Estrithsen had great respect for the missionaries working among the 'barbarians' in the remoter parts of the area which the Hamburg-Bremen archbishopric considered its province, pointing out once to Archbishop Adalbert that they had a distinct advantage over clergy from Bremen, in coming from a cultural background which gave them an affinity and a shared language with their prospective converts. Anglo-Scandinavians would have been among the people he had in mind, along with Christians actually of Danish, Norwegian or Swedish nationality. The general impression Adam had gained, most likely from Svein Estrithsen, was that 'among the Norwegians and Swedes, because the planting of Christianity is something new, no dioceses with fixed boundaries have so far been designated, but all of the bishops chosen by a king or the populace combine to build a church and, traveling around a region, draw as many people as they can to Christianity and govern them without rancour as long as they live'. Adam thus stresses the mobility and adaptability of the missionaries, whose leader Saint Sigfrid seems to have been, and the collaborative nature of their enterprises. He mentions no particular names of places in Sweden where bishops were installed in churches by common consent. But that is not to say that Sigfrid might not have initiated the building of churches at Uppsala and Strängnäs, which were from the beginning envisaged as at least potential cathedrals of those cities and the countryside surrounding them—or that he may not have, from the outset, envisaged the newly acquired Church properties at Husaby and in the district of Värend as headquarters for two distinct missions aimed at the two main sectors into which Götaland was divided. The question of whether the reports of bishopric-foundation in Vita Sigfridi II had a factual basis is ripe for re-examination.
The sequence of events in Saint Sigfrid's missionary career: an attempt at reconstruction
Medieval primary sources are unanimous in stating that Saint Sigfrid came from England (Latin: Anglia), "Anglia" being a geographical term which, for Adam of Bremen, meant the whole of the large island known to the Romans as Britannia, distinct from Ireland (Hibernia) 'to the left of it'. No information is given in any extant pre-modern text as to Sigfrid's exact place of birth within England, or about any attachment he may have had to a monastic community, English or continental.
The hagiographical traditions about Saint Sigfrid's first arrival in the Swedish Kingdom presuppose a political background in which a king called Olavus, desirous of his country's adoption of Catholic Christianity, was ruling in a kingdom which included both Svealand and Götaland. At the same time, England and Denmark were being ruled by two separate kings, not by one, as was the case during the ascendency of Cnut, who ultimately gained control of Norway as well as England and Denmark. The scenario evoked in the problematic opening episodes of Saint Sigfrid's Lives is thus suggestive of the situation, immediately after the Battle of Svolder in the year 1000, when Æthelred II was king of England, while the Danish king, Svein Forkbeard, and his Swedish counterpart, Olof Eriksson Skötkonung, had recently made a pact agreeing to promote Christianity in their respective realms and spread it abroad. A date early in the first decade of the new millennium may, therefore, be hypothetically suggested for St Sigfrid's first arrival in Sweden and the beginning of his missionary activities there.
Material evidence of Anglo-Saxon Christian influence on Olof Skötkonung from the beginning of his reign in c. 995 may be found in his coinage. The spread of the fashion for (mainly Christian) rune-stones northward from Denmark provides evidence of intensive missionary activity, particularly in Götaland in the first quarter of the eleventh century. This is a period to which the earliest of the liturgical manuscript fragments of English origin found in Sweden may also belong, though there is much dispute about the dating of particular examples.
Sigfrid's main sojourn in Norway evidently belonged to the years of the ascendancy of Olaf Haraldsson, who seized the throne there in 1015. According to an anonymous Historia Norvegie, Sigfrid was the name of one of the four bishops transported across the North Sea from England to Norway by this nautical war-lord, probably in the autumn of 1014, following an episode when he had helped restore Æthelred II to the throne of England. It is hence likely that, in Snorri Sturluson's saga-narratives, the activities credited to the bishop 'Sigurd' in the reign of Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf), reflect actual events in the Norwegian ministry of Saint Sigfrid, whereas those attributed to an identically named bishop in the saga of Olaf Tryggvason reflect the achievements of an earlier English bishop, Sigewéard, otherwise known as Johannes.
Sigfrid was a 'bishop of the Norwegians' at the time when he entrusted the future bishop Osmund to the schools of Bremen. A birth-date for Osmund of c. 1000 is suggested by the fact that he seemed 'old' to the monks of Ely, when he spent his retirement in their company for a period between the years 1057 and 1072. Perhaps Sigfrid had brought the young Osmund over the North Sea from England with him late in 1014 and took him to Bremen in the following year. But other sequences of events, and hence different chronologies are possible to envisage.
Royal displeasure on the part of Olof Skötkonung is the most likely explanation for Sigfrid's departure from the Swedish Kingdom back to England and then to Norway. Certainly, in c. 1020, when that king, on retirement to Götaland, decided upon the foundation of a new bishopric based at Skara, it was to Bremen that he looked for a bishop, rather than to England. But the death of Olof Skötkonung, soon enough followed by the recall of Thurgot, Bishop of Skara, to Bremen, altered the church-political situation in Sweden in ways which could have encouraged Sigfrid, as early as the mid-1020s, to base himself once more exclusively in his old mission field.
The last appearance in Norway of Bishop 'Sigurð' in Snorri's Óláfs saga Helga, chapter 120, is implicitly dated to the tenth year of the reign of Olaf Haraldsson of Norway (1025); the death of Olof, King of Sweden, is reported, in chapter 114, as having happened earlier than this. We need not assume that Sigfrid's appointment as the third bishop to be based in Trondheim tied him exclusively to Norway: it is credible that all along he was at liberty to make visits to his colleagues working on the other side of the Norwegian-Swedish border—given that Olaf Haraldsson is said to have encouraged the bishops whom he ferried across the North Sea to travel on to 'Svealand, Götaland, and all the islands beyond Norway.' Adam of Bremen specifically states that Bishop Sigfrid preached to both the Swedes and the Norwegians 'side by side' (Latin 'iuxta'). The journey from one mission-field to the other, though arduous if undertaken overland, would have been tolerably easy by ship. So, possibly, Sigfrid was still based in Norway at the time of Olaf Haraldsson's defeat by Cnut of Denmark and Anund Jakob of Sweden at the battle of the Holy River (1027). But after that, Cnut's takeover of power in Norway was followed by a radical change in church leadership which would have made Sigfrid's previous position in Trondheim untenable. By c. 1030, he could look back on great successes specifically in his Swedish mission-field, which he was able to report to Archbishop Libentius when—in company with two fellow-bishops, Odinkar the Younger from Denmark and Rodolf from Norway—he made a courteous visit to Bremen at the time of Bishop Thurgot's funeral.
Sigfrid's movements after that visit are unrecorded, apart from his eventual move to Värend. Of the period prior to his retirement, Vita I merely tells us that: 'He traversed all parts of Sweden, preaching, baptizing and converting the people to the faith of Christ, and he also urged those who he had imbued with the faith by holy admonitions that they should persevere, for they would receive eternal rewards from God. In particular, he constructed churches, ordained clerics and gave them orders to gain people for the Lord by preaching and baptizing.'
By 1030, Sigfrid may well already have reached an age appropriate for retirement from a life of such demanding activity. However, the refusal of Bishop-elect Gottskalk to take up residence in Götaland brought about a prolonged crisis of leadership in the newly founded diocese of Skara, and there is some evidence that Sigfrid, presumably basing himself at Husaby, was the first to step into the breach.
In the late-medieval bishop-lists of Skara, 'Saint' Sigfrid 'from England', is commemorated as the first bishop of the diocese - with no mention of Thurgot, let alone Gottskalk. Sigfrid is also credited with having demarcated churchyards for three adjacent tiny villages in Västergötland: Friggeråker, (Östra) Gerum and Agnestad. This incident is unlikely to have happened before Christianization in the vicinity of Skara had reached an advanced stage, probably in the 1020s or early 1030s. By that time, rune-specialists believe that in Västergötland, though not yet further north in the Swedish Kingdom, the older custom of erecting wayside runic memorials to the dead had largely been abandoned in favour of churchyard burials. This episode about the three village churchyards sounds like a piece of short-term deputization for an absent bishop. Following this incident, so tradition says, Sigfrid went on his way to Värend. Maybe it was remembered at Skara because it was his last action in Västergötland.
It is implied, later in the bishop-list, that Sigfrid never actually 'sat' as bishop at Skara. Not until a somewhat later stage in the 'vacancy in see' crisis did Bishop Osmund, presumably Sigfrid's protégé, venture to do this, after being granted a residence on former common-land adjacent to that of the Dean, presumably with the consent of the local populace and the Cathedral Chapter. From an anglophile point of view expressed in Vita Sigfridi II, this move constituted transference of the Bishop's see, after a long elapse of time, from Husaby to Skara.
To the information conveyed by Sigefrid's Vita I, that he died and was buried in Växjö, the late-medieval author of Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta adds an anecdote about Bishop 'Sigurd', set in 'a town called Värend'. This story alleges that the bishop had become slightly forgetful about the niceties of Church discipline before his death in extreme old age. But, while it is doubtless the case that fuller accounts of the life of St Sigfrid were in circulation in the pre-Reformation era than now, a warning has already been given against trusting the reportage of this particular Icelandic author.
No primary source gives any precise date for Sigfrid's demise. The only reasonably safe chronological finding deducible from extant evidence is that Sigfrid lived on at or near Växjö in retirement for a considerable number of years after his attendance, in c.1030, at the funeral in Bremen of Bishop Thurgot.
Successors
With regard to Trondheim, Adam of Bremen names Tholf and Siwardus, both Hamburg-Bremen appointees, as the successors to the earliest three bishops, all of whom had come 'from England'. 'Tholf' may have been Throlf (Thorulf), a bishop who, according to Adam, was put in charge of the Orkney Islands (a day's sea-journey from Trondheim), while 'Siwardus' seems identifiable with the Danish Bishop 'Sigurð', who, according to Snorri, was appointed by Cnut as court-bishop to the jarl who became his first regent in Norway, but became so unpopular for his disparagement of Olaf Haraldsson that he left Norway, whereupon Grimkel, Sigfrid's predecessor in Trondheim, was recalled from a mission in the mountains to replace him.
That Sigfrid continued, even in his retirement, to be a director of Christian mission in Sweden, advising younger clergy in their choices of mission field, is the implication of hagiographical traditions linking him with Saint Eskil of Strängnäs and Saint David of Västerås. These two saints were prominent among the missionaries of English origin who carried on Sigfrid's work in Svealand in the period which followed the expulsion of Bishop Osmund (most probably in 1057) and the subsequent failure in c. 1060 of Archbishop Adalbert's attempt to set up a new diocesan see at Sigtuna. As for Götaland: several of the eleventh-century bishops in the succession-list of bishops of Skara are stated to have been from England, though others were definitely not.
Problematically, the bishop-lists of Skara state that Sigfrid's immediate successor in Västergötland was 'Archbishop Unni' or 'Saint Unno', specifying that he was an Englishman who was martyred by stoning. Critical scholars have to decide whether he should be presumed to be a genuine historical figure of some importance or a fictional doublet of a tenth-century Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, who died in Sweden. Osmund is said to have succeeded him. In the Växjö bishop-list, Osmund is named as Sigfrid's immediate successor, but the list suffers from an evident lacuna, skipping as it does from the 'first' to the 'third' of Sigfrid's successors. It could be that, here too, the name of 'Unni'/'Unno' once appeared before that of Osmund, but was deleted by someone who thought him fictional.
The issue of the conflict of ecclesiastical interests between Hamburg-Bremen and England with regard to Sweden, which the success of Saint Sigfrid's had precipitated, was not finally settled until the twelfth century, when new archbishoprics were established within Scandinavia itself, successively at Lund (1104), Trondheim (1152) and Uppsala (1162). As Papal Legate to Scandinavia in 1150, Nicholas Breakspear, the future Pope Hadrian IV, was prominent in furthering the latter part of the process that led to the eventual settlement.
References
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Malmer, Brita (1989), The Sigtuna Coinage c. 995-1005 (Commentationes de nummis saeculorum IX-XI in Suecia repertis, nova series 4, Stockholm & London.
Malmer, Brita 1997, The Anglo-Scandinavian Coinage, c. 995-1026 (Commentationes de nummis saeculorum IX-XI repertis, nova series 9 (Stockholm & London)
Monumenta Historica Norvegiae: Latinske kildeskrifter til Norges historie in Middelaldern ed. G. Strom (Kristiania 1880)
Niblaeus, Erik G. (2010) German Influence on religious practice in Scandinavia c. 1050 - 1150, King's College, London, diss.
Norton, Christopher (2004), 'York Minster in the time of Wulfstan', in Townend 2004, pp.207–34.
Oláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta: 'Frá Sigurði Byskupi; Her (s(egir) af framferd Sigurdar byskups; Kapitulum': printed in Halldorsson vol III (2000) pp.57–64; also cited in secondary sources as from Flateyjarbók.
Oppermann, C.J.A. (1937), The English Missionaries in Sweden and Finland (London)
Raine, James ed. (1874–94), Historians of the Church of York and its Archbishops (Rolls Series, vols. LXXI – LXXII London).
Rimbert, Vita Sancti Anskarii, Latin text in Waitz 1884 and Trillmich 1961 (with German translation; English translation in Robinson 1921.
Robinson, Charles H (1921), Anskar, the Apostle to the North, 801-65, translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert (London)
Sawyer, Birgit (2000), The Viking Age Rune-Stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia (Oxford).
Sawyer, Birgit and Sawyer, Peter (1993) Medieval Scandinavia: from Conversion to Reformation, circa 800-1500 (Minneapolis & London)
Sawyer, Birgit, Sawyer, Peter & Wood, Ian (1987), The Christianization of Scandinavia: Report of a Symposium held at Kungalv, Sweden, 4–9 August 1985 (Alingsås)
Sawyer, Peter, The Making of Sweden (1988: Occasional Papers on Medieval Topics 3 - Viktoria Bokforlag, Alingsås, in cooperation with the Department of History, Gothenburg University)
Scriptores Rerum Suecicarum Medii Aevi (Uppsala 1818-1876):
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vol. II ed. E.J. Geijer & J.H. Schröder (1828)
vol. III. ed. E. Annerstadt (1871–76)
Schmeidler, Bernhard (1917) ed. Adam Bremensis, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesie Pontificum (MGH SRG vol. 2, 3rd edition).
Schmid, Toni (1931) Den Helige Sigfrid (Lund)
Schmid, Toni (1942) 'Trois légendes de Saint Sigfrid', Analecta Bollandiana 60, pp. 82–90.
Scott, John (1981) ed. & trans.William of Malmesbury, De antiquitate Glastoniensis ecclesiae (Woodbridge).
Snorri Sturluson, Óláfs saga Helga, from Heimskringla ed. Aðalbjarnarson 1941-51; English translations in Monson, E. & Smith. A.H. (Cambridge 1932); Hollander. Lee M. (Austin, Texas 1964).
Sträng, Arne (1986), Skara: Före 1700, Staden i Stiftet (Skara).
Talbot, C.H. (1954), The Anglo-Saxon Missionaries in Germany (London).
Tolkien, Christopher (1960), Hervarar saga och Heidreks konungs: the Saga of King Heidrek the Wise, translated from the Icelandic with introduction, notes, and appendices (London).
Townend, Matthew (2004) ed. Wulfstan, Archbishop of York (Proceedings of the Second Alcuin Conference: Studies in the Early Middle Ages 10: York)
Trillmich W. (1961) ed. Quellen des 9. und 11. Jahrhunderts zur Geschichte der Hamburgischen Kirche und des Reiches (Darmstadt).
Tschan F. (2002), trans. History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, with introduction and bibliography by Timothy Reuter (New York).
Vastovius, Ioannes (1623), Vitis Aquilonia (Cologne, 2nd edition, corrected and annotated by Erik Benzelius, Uppsala 1708).
Vretemark, Maria and Axelsson, Tony (2008), 'The Varnhem Archaeological Research Project - a new insight into the Christianisation of Västergötland', Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 4, pp. 209 – 219.
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External links
Sigfrid at Patron Saints Index
Orthodox church article
https://www.pase.ac.uk
10th-century births
11th-century deaths
Anglo-Saxon saints
Medieval Swedish saints
People from Växjö
Viking Age clergy
11th-century Christian saints
11th-century Swedish people
British emigrants to Sweden
Anglican saints
Swedish Roman Catholic saints |
4215367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senedd%20building | Senedd building | The Senedd building () in Cardiff houses the debating chamber and three committee rooms of the Senedd (Welsh Parliament; ; formerly the National Assembly for Wales). The Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 March 2006, Saint David's Day, and the total cost was £69.6 million, which included £49.7 million in construction costs. The Senedd building is part of the Senedd estate that includes Tŷ Hywel and the Pierhead Building.
After two selection processes, it was decided that the debating chamber would be on a new site, called Site 1E, at Capital Waterside in Cardiff Bay. The Pritzker Prize-winning architect Lord Rogers of Riverside won an international architectural design competition, managed by RIBA Competitions, to design the building. It was designed to be sustainable with the use of renewable technologies and energy efficiency integrated into its design. The building was awarded an "Excellent" certification by the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM), the highest ever awarded in Wales, and was nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize.
The Senedd building was constructed in two phases, the first in 2001 and the second from August 2003 until it was handed over to the then National Assembly for Wales in February 2006. Between phases, the National Assembly changed contractors and the project's management structure, but retained Lord Rogers of Riverside as the scheme architect. The building was nearly six times over budget and four years and 10 months late, compared to the original estimates of the project in 1997. Total costs rose due to unforeseen security measures after the 11 September attacks, and because the National Assembly did not have an independent cost appraisal of the project until December 2000, three years after the original estimate. Phase 2 costs rose by less than 6% over budget, and that phase was six months late.
Architecture
The Senedd building is in the former Cardiff Docks, about south of Cardiff Castle. Cardiff Docks had been the largest coal-exporting port in the world, but by the 1980s with the decline of the south Wales coalfield, the area had gradually become derelict. By the 1990s the area was being transformed with the construction of the Cardiff Bay Barrage and was renamed Cardiff Bay.
The building faces southwest over Cardiff Bay, it has a glass façade around the entire building and is dominated by a steel roof and wood ceiling. It has three floors; the first and second floors are accessible to the public and the ground floor is a private area for officials. The building was designed to be as open and accessible as possible, the architects, the Richard Rogers Partnership (RRP) said "The building was not to be an insular, closed edifice. Rather it would be a transparent envelope, looking outwards to Cardiff Bay and beyond, making visible the inner workings of the Assembly and encouraging public participation in the democratic process." The main area in the building is the debating chamber, called the Siambr, including a public viewing gallery. Other areas of the building are the Neuadd, which is the main reception area on the first floor and the Oriel on the second floor. The three committee rooms and the Cwrt are on the ground floor.
Environmental features
The design criteria required sustainability, including a design life of 100 years, the use of local Welsh materials, minimal energy consumption and waste, the use of renewable technologies and for it to be an exemplar in terms of sustainability.
In total, 36% of all materials and labour costs were spent in Wales, with about 1,000 tonnes of Welsh slate used. The environmental features of the building have allowed energy savings of between 30% and 50% compared to buildings without these features. The features include 27 pipes that were drilled 100m below ground, so that during cold spells, water is pumped through the pipes and heated to 14 °C by geothermal energy. The hot water is then pumped back up to the slate floor to warm the building to a constant temperature. In warm spells, the same system helps to keep the building cool. A biomass boiler was installed to use wood chips from recycled waste wood to heat the building, and rainwater is collected from the roof to flush the toilets in the building.
Interior and contents
Y Siambr (The Chamber; ) is a debating chamber, which holds all 60 Members of the Senedd (MSs) in a circular configuration under the cowl. The Siambr can be increased to accommodate 80 MSs in the future, by removing temporary walls. On the level above is the public viewing gallery, which looks down on the debating chamber and is separated by security glass. The public gallery holds 128 people on two rows of seats. The MSs' desks and public gallery seating are made of Welsh oak in a circular configuration so that all MSs can see each other, which, it is claimed, makes debating less confrontational.
In front of the Llywydd’s desk is the ceremonial mace. Melbourne goldsmith Fortunato Rocca was commissioned by the Parliament of New South Wales in 2002 to design it. The mace took 300 hours to craft and is made from gold, silver and brass. In 2006, it was worth around £10,500 (A$25,000) and was handed over to the National Assembly during the opening ceremony.
All committee meetings are held in three committee rooms. Each can accommodate 24 people, although committee rooms 1 and 2 can both hold 34 when fully opened. Members of the public can access the committee room viewing galleries from the Neuadd, which holds 31 people.
Members of the public enter the building through Y Neuadd ("The Hall" ). This first floor level houses the public reception and information area. The reception desk features a large slate and glass desk and a canopy. Stairs to the left of the desk lead to the Oriel on the second floor.
Yr Oriel ("The Gallery", from ; ) is a public sitting and exhibition area with views down to Y Siambr and committee rooms. The glass flooring, which surrounds a large funnel feature, enables visitors to look down into the Siambr two floors below. The Swan chairs selected for the Neuadd and Oriel areas were from Fritz Hansen, a Danish company, and originally designed by Arne Jacobsen in 1958.
Y Cwrt ("The Courtyard"; ) is an area on the ground floor with a members' tea room, a media briefing room, and access to the Siambr and committee rooms. It is accessible only to MSs, officials of the Senedd and members of the press.
An undulating ceiling made of Canadian-sourced Western Redcedar timber spans across the various sections of the building. It was manufactured and installed by BCL Timber Projects (sub-contracted by Taylor Woodrow).
Artwork
Four pieces of art were originally commissioned by the National Assembly to be both decorative and functional; they cost £300,000 in total. The Swansea-based artist Alexander Beleschenko designed and created the circular and domed Heart of Wales for the centre of the Siambr. It is wide, made out of blue and gold glass, and lit from beneath. Martin Richman designed and created 270 fabric-covered acoustic absorption panels, which were dyed and painted. American sculptor Danny Lane designed and created the wind hedge, Assembly Field. It has five parallel rows of 32 glass plates and was designed to have the practical use of protecting the public from high winds coming off Cardiff Bay. Devon-born sculptor Richard Harris created The Meeting Place on the Plinth, which is 45 tonnes of slate machine-cut into 39 slate slabs; the slate was from Cwt y Bugail Quarry in north Wales. It is an informal seating area south of the building. Harris said of the work, "I wanted to create a space that was to the side of the building, that related closely to the building but was very inviting for people to use – somewhere quieter that people could sit and spend some time."
In 2008, two temporary tinplate portraits were commissioned by the National Assembly for Wales. The artist was Dylan Hammond, and each portrait, one of Aneurin Bevan and the other of Margaret Thatcher measured x . They were on display for 3 months.
The Welsh sculptor and blacksmith Angharad Pearce Jones designed and created the Three Maps of Wales () that were unveiled in 2021. They were made from Port Talbot steel at her workshop near Brynamman and are on permanent display. They consist of three large steel maps of Wales, the smallest shows the boundaries of the 5 electoral regions of the Senedd, the other the 40 constituencies of the Senedd and the largest being the landscape of Wales and weights and is wide and just over 2 metres high. The largest map of the Welsh landscape is on wheels so it can be displayed in other parts of the building if needed.
Etymology
The Welsh word means 'senate' or 'parliament'. The Roman Senate () used the word Senatus in its name, which is derived from the Latin word , meaning 'old man', 'old age', 'elder' or 'council of elders'.
Background and construction
First site selection process
Under the Laws in Wales Act 1536 Wales was fully incorporated into England and administered as a single sovereign state (the Kingdom of England) with a single legal system (English law). It was in 1964 that the Secretary of State for Wales was created as a Cabinet post, which gave some powers to Wales. A referendum was held in 1979 to decide whether there was support for a Welsh Assembly among the Welsh electorate. This was defeated with a majority of 20.2% for and 79.7% against.
After the 1997 United Kingdom general election, the Labour Government published a white paper in July 1997, called A Voice for Wales; in it, the UK Government proposed that "(the Welsh Assembly) headquarters will be in Cardiff ... (the) setting up (of) the Assembly is likely to cost between £12M and £17M. Additional running costs should be between £15M and £20M a year." On 18 September 1997, Wales voted in favour of a National Assembly for Wales in the Welsh devolution referendum, with 50.30% for and 49.70% against. The Government of Wales Act 1998 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and was granted Royal Assent on 31 July 1998.
Before the referendum took place, the Welsh Office asked Symonds Facilities Management (later known as Capita Symonds) to investigate possible sites for a new Welsh Assembly. The study was carried out in June 1997, and it considered 20 sites. By August 1997, the Welsh Office and the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate (now part of the Office of Government Commerce) produced a shortlist of five sites for selection: the Cathays Park Building (the existing Welsh Office buildings); the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay; a site next to County Hall in Cardiff Bay; the former Glamorgan County Hall, Cathays Park; and Cardiff City Hall, Cathays Park, owned by Cardiff Council. In making their decision they considered the need for a space of that would be ready to use by May 1999. The building was to be of appropriate stature, location and quality, and provide good access for the disabled and good staff accommodation that would avoid disruption to existing staff.
From the five on the shortlist, two sites were selected for further consideration: the Cathays Park Building and Cardiff City Hall. Cardiff City Hall was favoured because the executive and legislative functions would be separated; Cardiff City Hall was more widely recognised by the Welsh public and was a more prestigious building compared with the Cathays Park Building. The move to Cardiff City Hall would have also avoided a disruptive move for Welsh Office staff at the Cathays Park Building. The Welsh Office concluded that Cardiff City Hall would only remain an option if the initial costs were £17M or less, which was the top end of the estimate figure given in the White Paper. This would only be possible if essential works were carried out immediately and the remainder of the work carried out later. Cardiff Council would need to agree a selling price of £5M or less for this to be possible.
There were discussions between the leader of Cardiff Council, Russell Goodway, and the Secretary of State for Wales, Ron Davies MP. The two disagreed on the valuation of the site: Davies offered what was believed to be the market price of £3.5 million; Goodway demanded £14 million for the relocation of Council staff. In October 1997, both the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council agreed to the District Valuer providing an independent assessment of the market value of Cardiff City Hall and the cost of staff relocating to an equivalent standard of accommodation. The District Valuer advised that the open market value of Cardiff City Hall was £3.5 million. There was not enough information available for the District Valuer to make a decision. A bid of £2.5 million was made by the Welsh Office on 14 November 1997, which was rejected on 21 November 1997. A final offer of £3.5 million was made on 24 November and this too was rejected by Cardiff County Council. Davies later announced his decision not to go ahead with the Cardiff City Hall site for the National Assembly.
Second site selection process
In December 1997, the Welsh Office invited proposals from Wales for the National Assembly building. 24 proposals were received; 14 came from the private sector and government-owned corporations including HTV Group, Grosvenor Waterside (owned by Associated British Ports), Tarmac Developments, Cardiff Bay Development Corporation and Cardiff Airport. Nine local authorities in Wales made proposals including the Guildhall proposed by Swansea Council, Cardiff City Hall by Cardiff Council, Margam Castle by Neath Port Talbot Council, Cyfarthfa Castle by Merthyr Tydfil Council; proposals also came from Wrexham Council, Flintshire County Council who proposed two sites at Ewloe and Mold, Rhondda Cynon Taf Council, Powys County Council and five sites from Bridgend Council. The Grosvenor Waterside proposal, known as Capital Waterside, included the Pierhead Building, Crickhowell House and Site 1E, which would become the site of the new debating chamber.
All the proposals were reviewed by the Welsh Office, who rejected sites due to poor location, accommodation or cost. A shortlist of ten sites were further reviewed. These were: Capital Waterside (now known as Cardiff Waterside); Cardiff City Hall; a site next to County Hall; Bute Square (now known as Callaghan Square); Prospect Place; Cardiff Gate Business Park; Kingsway and the Coal Exchange all in Cardiff, with the HTV site at Culverhouse Cross, and the Guildhall in Swansea.
Davies announced on 13 March 1998 that the new National Assembly building would be in Cardiff. He said that the Cardiff proposals were "too compelling to resist", because "in making this decision, I am mindful that Wales has invested 40 years in promoting Cardiff as our capital city." The National Assembly building would be either in Bute Square or Capital Waterside. The Welsh Office decided that the Capital Waterside proposal carried less risk and would cost less than the Bute Square proposal. Capital Waterside would cost £43.9M, while Bute Square would cost £52.5M. On 28 April 1998, Davies announced that the site of the National Assembly building would be Capital Waterside. The site was acquired by the National Assembly from Grosvenor Waterside Investments Ltd, which was owned by Associated British Ports. The agreement covered extending the lease of Crickhowell House, later known as Tŷ Hywel, until 2023, renting the Pierhead Building for 15 years and purchasing Site 1E for £1, which would be where the Senedd building was built.
Design selection process
Before deciding on Capital Waterside as the site of the National Assembly, Davies announced on 13 March 1998 that an international competition would be held to select the design of the building for the debating chamber. Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) Competitions would oversee the competition and a design panel would recommend a design to the Secretary of State for Wales. The Design Competition Advisory Panel was made up of seven members and was chaired by Lord Callaghan of Cardiff, the former MP for Cardiff South and Penarth and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The chair and four other members were appointed by Davies and the remaining two members were appointed by the RIBA. The competition was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Communities on 13 June 1998.
Davies wanted a building "to capture the imagination of the Welsh people". The criteria of the competition were that the building should have a functional specification and a price tag of no more than £12 million including fees. In total, 55 architects had shown interest in the project: nine came from Wales, 38 from the rest of the UK and the remaining eight from the rest of the world. The Design Competition Advisory Panel selected 12 architects for interview in August 1998; from those a shortlist of six architects were chosen to submit concept designs; they were: Benson & Forsyth; Eric Parry Associates; Niels Torp and Stride Treglown Davies; Richard Rogers Partnership (now known as Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners); Itsuko Hasegawa Atelier and Kajima Design Europe; and MacCormac Jamieson Prichard.
Each architect submitted designs by 5 October 1998; 10 days later the Design Competition Advisory Panel met and unanimously recommended that the Richard Rogers Partnership (RRP) design should be selected. Davies announced RRP as the scheme architects on 16 October 1998. Richard Rogers said, "The idea was that steps rise out of the water and there is a whole public domain where people meet each other and look down on the Assembly Members." Richard Rogers had previously designed the Lloyd's building in London and the Pompidou Centre in Paris with Renzo Piano. 11 days later, Davies resigned as Secretary of State for Wales.
It was planned that the outline design would be completed by June 1999, and the detailed design completed by February 2000. Construction of the building was due to begin in November 2000 and be completed in April 2001. On 1 July 1999, The National Assembly for Wales (Transfer of Functions) Order 1999 came into effect: this transferred all powers from the Secretary of State for Wales to the National Assembly for Wales; responsibility for the construction of the debating chamber transferred at the same time. Cardiff Council granted planning permission for the building on 8 November 1999, and by 26 January 2000 the National Assembly voted to progress the project to the next stage.
First phase of construction
Rhodri Morgan AM replaced Alun Michael AM as the First Secretary (now known as the First Minister) of the National Assembly on 15 February 2000. On 22 March, Morgan stopped all work on the project to carry out a complete review. The decision to stop the project was supported by a vote in the National Assembly on 6 April 2000. The review included the costs and construction risks of the new building, the timetable for the completion of the project and consideration of possible alternatives to the new building.
The review was carried out by the Assembly's Management Services Division, the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and Symonds Group Ltd. They considered the following options: cancel the project; continue with the existing design; design a building on Site 1E; improve the existing debating chamber; construct a small chamber in the courtyard of Crickhowell House; and relocate to Cardiff City Hall. On 21 June 2000 it was agreed that the original proposal using the RRP design should proceed.
An international competition was held to select the main contractor. It was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Community, and in December 2000 Skanska Ltd was selected as the main contractor. Edwina Hart AM, the Minister for Finance, Local Government and Communities, approved the final project design on 18 January 2001 and by 1 March 2001, the groundbreaking ceremony took place to mark the beginning of construction.
Six months after construction had begun and with only the piling and a temporary road around the site having been completed,
Hart announced on 17 July 2001 that the National Assembly had terminated the contract of RRP. She said that despite the termination of the contract, the debating chamber should still be built to RRP's design. RRP said of the project that "From the outset, RRP has advised that the project could not be built within a construction budget of £13.1M due to client changes, the political requirement to use indigenous materials at any cost and exceptional contractor changes. RRP's advice was consistently ignored. It is plainly untrue for the Finance Minister to assert that RRP underestimated the costs." Hart said she stopped the project because of the "significant underestimates in the cost plan prepared by RRP", and that RRP "had hidden costs from the Assembly".
A legal dispute then arose between RRP claiming £529,000 in fees, and the National Assembly claiming £6.85M in damages. On 10 December 2001 RRP requested an appointment of an adjudicator from the Construction Industry Council to resolve the issue. The adjudication took place in February 2002, and ruled that RRP was entitled to £448,000 of its claim, while the National Assembly was not entitled to any of the damages they had claimed.
Second phase of construction
In August 2001, the National Assembly appointed Francis Graves Ltd as the project managers, to review the whole project up until the termination of the RRP contract and to propose how the project should progress in the future. They reported that the "lines of accountability were complex and insufficiently clear", that no project costs were obtained by the National Assembly, independent of RRP, until December 2000, and that the project "was highly susceptible to cost over runs". The report recommended that the National Assembly appoint project managers, which they did when they appointed Schal International Management Ltd (part of Carillion) in May 2002. Northcroft Group Ltd were appointed as a subcontractor, responsible for cost management and they reported directly to Schal. Schal had full responsibility to manage the main contractor and subcontractors. Schal reported to a Project Board, who reported to the Minister for Finance, Local Government and Communities. The Project Board was made up of National Assembly and Welsh Government officials and a representative from Schal.
The Welsh Government decided that a design and build fixed-price contract would be used for the second phase of construction, while phase one of construction made time the important factor over cost certainty. The overall aim was to "deliver a landmark building…to time, to an appropriate quality and within budget". On 23 October 2002 an invitation to tender was issued through the Official Journal of the European Community. Eight companies submitted an interest in the tender process, including Taylor Woodrow, David McLean, Laing and Skanska, of these only David McLean and the Taylor Woodrow Strategic Alliance Partnership with RRP as a subcontractor, submitted tenders. David McLean's tender did not comply with the tender requirements, so the Assembly Government negotiated a fixed-price contract with Taylor Woodrow for £48.2M. The contract was signed between Taylor Woodrow and the First Minister on 1 July 2003 and construction began for a second time on 4 August 2003.
The topping out ceremony took place on 25 November 2004 by the Presiding Officer, Dafydd Elis-Thomas, Privy Counsellor (PC), AM, which included the lifting into place of the world's largest free rotating wind driven cowl, which was the tallest point of the building. The cowl sits above the roof line and rotates when the wind changes direction to ventilate the debating chamber. Construction of the Senedd building ended on 7 February 2006 when the National Assembly took control of the building. The project was six months late, due to the National Assembly not producing a detailed specification on time. The 10-year ICT contract, known as Merlin, was between the National Assembly and Siemens Business Services Ltd, now known as Siemens IT Solutions and Services. Other subcontractors on the project included Arup (structural engineers), BDSP Partnership and MJN Colston (services engineers), and BCL Timber Projects (timber ceiling).
The Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II, the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall on 1 March 2006 (St. David's Day). After an address by the Queen, the Parliament of New South Wales presented a ceremonial mace to the National Assembly to recognise the links between Wales and New South Wales. Addresses were later given by John Price MP, the Deputy Speaker of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, Morgan and Elis-Thomas. A set of commemorative envelopes and postmarks were issued by the Royal Mail to mark the opening of the Senedd building, in the form of a souvenir sheet.
Two years after the opening ceremony in 2008, Taylor Woodrow Construction were fined £200,000 and ordered to pay costs of £71,400, after being prosecuted by the Health and Safety Executive for breaching the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 at Cardiff Crown Court. The breach contributed to the death of John Walsh, a foreman working for Ferson Construction Services Ltd, a subcontractor of Taylor Woodrow. The accident occurred on 14 March 2004 and was due to a cavity wall that Mr Walsh was filling, collapsing on him, even though Taylor Woodrow Construction had recognised the risks before the contract had begun. Judge Neil Bidder QC said "No-one seriously disputes it was an unsafe construction and Ferson (Construction Services) must share blame for that construction."
Timeline of cost increases and time delays
The cost of the Senedd building increased from £12 million in 1997 to £69.6 million in 2006, an increase of 580%. In a report published in March 2008 by the Wales Audit Office, the reason for the increase was that the original estimate of £12 million was not based on any detailed design of the final requirements of the building. In addition, there were unforeseen security measures after the September 11 attacks in the United States.
After the project was stopped in 2001, the contract for the construction of the second phase of the building used a fixed-price design and build contract, which meant a much tighter control of costs than in the first phase.
Ongoing cost of repairs
In 2008, two years after the Senedd building had opened, the cost of repairs to the building had reached £97,709. Repairs have been for windows, doors, plumbing and electrics. A spokesman for the National Assembly said, "The repair figures are not excessive for a public building that has hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. The costs are within estimated levels and covered by existing budgets." In 2011, the official figures show that more than £157,000 had been spent on repairing the building since it had opened, with £29,000 having been spent on electrical repairs, £25,000 on fixing doors and almost £19,000 on plumbing. In addition, other repairs were also paid for by Vinci Construction under the terms of the contract. In was reported that rain water had leaked into a steel and glass staircase reserved for members and staff and in September 2008, a committee meeting was halted after water started dripping through the ceiling.
Senedd estate in Cardiff Bay
The Senedd building is part of the Senedd estate in Cardiff Bay, along with Tŷ Hywel (Howell House) and the Grade 1 listed Pierhead Building. Tŷ Hywel houses staff of the Senedd Commission, AMs, the First Minister and other ministers. Tŷ Hywel is named after Hywel Dda (Howell the Good), King of Deheubarth in South West Wales. On 26 June 2008, the Prince of Wales officially opened Siambr Hywel, the then National Assembly's youth debating chamber and education centre. It is based in the debating chamber that was used by the National Assembly between 1999 and 2006, while the Senedd building was being constructed. Two covered link bridges connect the Senedd building to Tŷ Hywel. Construction of the link bridges began in September 2004 and they were completed by December 2005.
The Pierhead Building was opened in 1897 and designed by William Frame. It was originally the headquarters of the Bute Dock Company and by 1947 it was the administrative office for the Port of Cardiff. The building was reopened in May 2001 as 'The Assembly at the Pierhead', which was a visitor and education centre for the National Assembly. The exhibition provided visitors with information on the National Assembly. On 1 March 2010, the building was again reopened to the public as a Welsh history museum and exhibition.
In 2008, Elis-Thomas announced that the Pierhead Building would display the history of the Black community in Butetown, Cardiff Docks and Welsh devolution.
In popular culture
The Senedd building was involved in what is called the "Sex and the Senedd" controversy. An episode of Caerdydd, the S4C Welsh language television programme set in Cardiff, which started when the broadcast of the episode shot a sex scene was filmed in a toilet room of the Senedd, and not in a television studio. The National Assembly for Wales Commission, who approved filming in the Neuadd area, the corridors of the Senedd building and for one scene in the baby-changing room, were not made aware of the nature of the scene.
The Doctor Who episode "The Lazarus Experiment" was filmed in the Senedd building, along with the ending of "The Almost People" as was the Doctor Who spin-off programme Torchwood, which used the Senedd building in the episode "Meat", where Gwen Cooper and Rhys Williams sit on the steps of the Senedd building.
In March 2015 it emerged that the makers of Spectre, the 24th James Bond film, had requested use of the Senedd building's debating chamber for the filming of some scenes, but that this had been declined by Senedd officials, who said the debating chamber was "not a drama studio". Several Welsh politicians, including First Minister Carwyn Jones and Welsh Conservatives leader Andrew RT Davies, cited the decision as a missed opportunity that would have boosted tourism for Wales.
Nominations and awards
Building
Nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects. The award was won by Terminal 4, Barajas Airport, Madrid, also an RRP design.
Nominated for the 2006 Prime Minister's Better Public Building Award.
Listed as Architects' Journals top 50 favourite buildings.
Awarded "Excellent" certification by BREEAM, the highest ever awarded in Wales.
Awarded Major Project of the Year in the 2006 Building Services Awards, organised by Building Sustainable Design and Electrical and Mechanical Contractor magazines.
Awarded the 2006 Gold Medal winner from the National Eisteddfod of Wales.
Awarded the Slate Award in the 2006 Natural Stone Awards.
Awarded the British Constructional Steelwork Association's 2006 Structural Steel Design Award.
Awarded the 2006 Excellence on the Waterfront from the Waterfront Center, in the category Commercial and Mixed Use.
Civic Trust Award winner in 2008.
Awarded a Chicago Athenaeum 2007 International Architecture Awards.
Individual award
Jeremy Williams (of Taylor Woodrow Construction) won the Construction Manager of the Year Award in 2006 for his work on the Senedd building by the Society of Professional Engineers. He also won a gold medal in the New Build/Refurbishment Projects Over £25 million category.
See also
Politics of Wales
Senedd on television
Owain Glyndŵr's Parliament House (Senedd-dy Owain Glyndŵr)
Notes
External links
The Senedd on the National Assembly for Wales website
The Senedd on the Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners website
The Senedd on the Arup website
The National Assembly for Wales on the BBC website
Live feeds from the Senedd
Politics of Cardiff
Economy of Cardiff
Landmarks in Cardiff
Buildings and structures in Cardiff
Government buildings in Wales
Government buildings completed in 2006
Wales
Senedd buildings
2006 establishments in Wales |
4215451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bagpipes | List of bagpipes |
Northern Europe
Ireland
Uilleann pipes: Also known as Union pipes and Irish pipes, depending on era. Bellows-blown bagpipe with keyed or un-keyed 2-octave chanter, 3 drones and 3 regulators. The most common type of bagpipes in Irish traditional music.
Great Irish Warpipes: One of the earliest references to the Irish bagpipes comes from an account of the funeral of Donnchadh mac Ceallach, king of Osraige in AD 927. Bagpipes were a noted instrument in Irish warfare since medieval times, but only became standardized in Irish regiments in the British Army in the last century, when the Great Highland Bagpipe became standard. The Warpipe differed from the latter only in having a single tenor drone. Irish warpipes fell out of use for centuries due to the British outlawing them; whence the Scottish bagpipes took the place of the Irish bagpipes role in the British army. Warpipes today are rarer specialty instruments in military and civilian pipe bands, or private players.
Brian Boru bagpipes: Carried by the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and had three drones, one of which was a baritone, pitched between bass and tenor. Unlike the chanter of the Great Highland Bagpipe, its chanter is keyed, allowing for a greater tonal range.
Pastoral pipes: Although the exact origin of this keyed, or un-keyed chanter and keyed drones (regulators), pipe is uncertain, it developed into the modern uilleann bagpipe.
Scotland
Great Highland Bagpipe: This is perhaps the world's best-known bagpipe. It is native to Scotland. It has acquired widespread recognition through its usage in the British military and in pipe bands throughout the world. The bagpipe is first attested in Scotland around 1400, having previously appeared in European artwork in Spain in the 13th century. The earliest references to bagpipes in Scotland are in a military context, and it is in that context that the Great Highland bagpipe became established in the British military and achieved the widespread prominence it enjoys today.
Border pipes: also called the "Lowland bagpipe" or "reel pipes", commonly confused with smallpipes, but louder. Played in the Lowlands of Scotland it is conically bored, made mostly from African blackwood like Highland pipes. Some makers have developed fully chromatic chanters.
Scottish smallpipes: a modern re-interpretation of an extinct instrument.
Pastoral pipes: Although the exact origin of this keyed, or un-keyed chanter and keyed drones (regulators), pipe is uncertain, it developed into the modern uilleann bagpipe.
Zetland pipes: a reconstruction of pipes believed to have been brought to the Shetland Islands by the Vikings, though not clearly historically attested.
England and Wales
English bagpipes: with the exception of the Northumbrian smallpipes, no English bagpipes maintained an unbroken tradition. However, various other English bagpipes have been reconstructed by Jonathan Swayne and Julian Goodacre.
Northumbrian smallpipes: a bellows-blown smallpipe with a closed end chanter played in staccato.
Border pipes: also called the "Half-long pipes" in the North East, commonly confused with smallpipes, but louder. Traditionally played in Northern England as well as the Lowlands of Scotland. English border pipes have been reconstructed by Swayne, and they have in common with the Lowland Scottish pipes above 2-4 drones in a single stock, but the design of the chanter (melody pipe) is closer to the French cornemuse du centre and uses the same "half-closed" fingering system.
Cornish bagpipes: an extinct type of double chanter bagpipe from Cornwall (southwest England); there are now attempts being made to revive it on the basis of literary descriptions and iconographic representations.
Welsh pipes (, pibgod): Of two types, one a descendant of the pibgorn, the other loosely based on the Breton veuze. Both are mouthblown with one bass drone.
Pastoral pipes: Although the exact origin of this keyed, or un-keyed chanter and keyed drones (regulators), pipe is uncertain, it was developed into the modern Uilleann bagpipe.
Yorkshire bagpipes, known in Shakespeare's time, but now extinct
Lincolnshire bagpipes, a one-drone pipe extinct by 1850, with one reproduction made in the modern era
Lancashire bagpipes, widely mentioned in early-Modern literature and travel accounts
Finland
Säkkipilli: The Finnish bagpipes died out but have been revived since the late 20th century by musicians such as Petri Prauda.
Pilai: a Finnish bagpipe, described in 18th century texts as similar to the Ukrainian volynka.
Estonia
Torupill: an Estonian bagpipe with one single-reeded chanter and 1-3 drones.MP3
Latvia
Dūdas: Latvian bagpipe, with single reed chanter and one drone.
Lithuania
Dūdmaišis, or murenka, kūlinė, Labanoro dūda. A bagpipe native to Lithuania, with a single reed chanter and one drone.
Sweden
Säckpipa: Also the Swedish word for "bagpipe" in general, the name is commonly used for the revived Swedish bagpipe, based on surviving säckpipor of the Dalarna region. It has a cylindrical bore and a single reed, and usually a single drone in the same pitch as the bottom note of the chanter. There are around 20 surviving historical instruments in various museums and private collections.
Walpipe, according to some 19th century anglophone sources a type of bagpipe used alongside "the Sakpipe" in Lapland during the 18th and 19th centuries. The only known description, as well as the name, in addition to it not being mentioned in any Swedish sources, suggests it's not a bagpipe but another name for the Swedish cowhorn.
Southern Europe
Italy
Zampogna (also called ciaramella, ciaramedda, or surdullina depending on style and or region): A generic name for an Italian bagpipe, with different scale arrangements for doubled chanters (for different regions of Italy), and from zero to three drones (the drones usually sound a fifth, in relation to the chanter keynote, though in some cases a drone plays the tonic).
Piva: used in northern Italy (Bergamo, Emilia), Veneto and bordering regions of Switzerland such as Ticino. A single chantered, single drone instrument, with double reeds, often played in accompaniment to a shawm, or piffero.
Müsa: played in Pavia, Alessandria, Genova and Piacenza.
Baghèt: similar to the piva, played in the region of Bergamo, Brescia and, probably, Veneto.
Surdelina: a double-chantered, bellows-blown pipe from Naples, with keys on both chanters and drones
Launeddas: is a typical pipe from Sardinia but it is characterised by the absence of bags: the mouth works as bag.
Malta
Żaqq (with definite article: iż-żaqq): The most common form of Maltese bagpipes. A double-chantered, single-reed, droneless hornpipe.
Il-Qrajna: a smaller Maltese bagpipe
Greece
The ancient name of bagpipes in Greece is Askavlos (Askos Ασκός means wine skin, Avlos Αυλός is the pipe)
Askomandoura (): a double-chantered bagpipe used in Crete
Tsampouna (): Greek Islands bagpipe with a double chanter. One chanter with five holes the second with 1,3 or 5 depending on the island. The tsambouna has no drone as the second chanter replaces the drone.
Gaida (): a single-chantered bagpipe with a long separate drone, played in many parts of Mainland Greece. The main center is Thrace, especially around the town of Didymoteicho in the Northern Evros area. In the area of Drama (villages of Kali Vrisi and Volakas) a higher pitched gaida is played. Around Pieria and Olympus mountain (Rizomata and Elatochori) another type of gaida is played. Each of these regions have their distinct sound, tunes and songs.
Dankiyo or Tulum: traditional double-chantered bagpipes played by Pontic Greeks
North Macedonia
(pronounced guy'-da) also known as () is the Macedonian name of the bagpipe (). It's a folk musical wind instrument composed of a bag (), with three or four tubes for blowing and playing. The Macedonian bagpipe can be two-voiced or three-voiced, depending on the number of drone elements. The most common are the two-voiced bagpipes. The three-voiced bagpipes have an additional small drone pipe called slagarche (pronounced slagar'-che) (). They can be found in certain parts of Macedonia, most of them in Ovče Pole ().
On the territory of Macedonia, there are two variants of the placement of the elements:
The first variant, which is the most widespread, is when the blow pipe and the drone are place of the front legs, and the chanter goes at the head. The small drone goes between the blow pipe and the drone slightly towards the chanter.
The second variant is found only in Radoviš and differs from the first in that the drone goes at the animal head while the chanter and the blow pipe are inserted at the legs. The small drone goes between the two legs.
All bags for these types a bagpipes are made usually from the entire skin of a goat or sheep. The use of donkeyskin has also been reported in the past..
Central and Eastern Europe
Dudy (also known by the German name Bock): Czech bellows-blown bagpipe with a long, crooked drone and chanter (usually with wooden billy-goat head) that curves up at the end.
Dudy or kozoł (Lower Sorbian kózoł) are large types of bagpipes (in E flat) played among the (originally) Slavic-speaking Sorbs of Eastern Germany, near the borders with both Poland and the Czech Republic; smaller Sorbian types are called dudki or měchawa (in F). Yet smaller is the měchawka (in A, Am) known in German as Dreibrümmchen. The dudy/kozoł has a bent drone pipe that is hung across the player's shoulder, and the chanter tends to be curved as well.
Parkapzuk (Armenian պարկապզուկ)
Cimpoi is the name for the Romanian bagpipes. Two main categories of bagpipes were used in Romania: with a double chanter and with a single chanter. Both have a single drone and straight bore chanter and is less strident than its Balkan relatives.
Magyar duda or Hungarian duda (also known as tömlősíp, bőrduda and Croatian duda) has a double chanter (two parallel bores in a single stick of wood, Croatian versions have three or four) with single reeds and a bass drone. It is typical of a large group of pipes played in the Carpathian Basin.
Poland
Dudy is the generic term for Polish bagpipes, though since the 19th century they are usually referred to as kobza due to the confusion with koza and the relative obscurity of kobza proper in Poland. They are used in folk music of Podhale (koza), Żywiec Beskids and Cieszyn Silesia (dudy and gajdy), and mostly in Greater Poland, where there are four types of bagpipes:
Dudy wielkopolskie, "Greater Polish bagpipes", with two subtypes: Rawicz-Gostyń and Kościan-Buk;
Kozioł biały (weselny), "white (wedding) buck (used during wesele, the lay part of the wedding)";
Kozioł czarny ((do)ślubny), "black (wedding) buck (used during ślub, the religious part of the wedding)";
Sierszeńki, "hornets", a bladder pipe used as a goose (practice pipes).
The Balkans
Kaba gaida: Kaba Gaida – low pitched single-drone bagpipe from the Rhodope Mountains in Bulgaria
Gaida: Southern Balkan (e.g. Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian) bagpipe with one drone and one chanter. Also found in Macedonia and Serbia.
Istarski mih (Piva d'Istria): a double chantered, droneless Croatian bagpipe whose side by side chanters are cut from a single rectangular piece of wood. They are typically single reed instruments, using the Istrian scale.
Gajdy or gajde: the name for various bagpipes of Eastern Europe, found in Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, and Croatia.
Duda, used in some parts of Croatia
Belarus
Duda () or Mutsianka () are the names of a Belarusian bagpipes.
Russia
Volynka () is a Russian bagpipe.
Finno-Ugric Russia
Shyuvr, a bagpipe of the Volga-Finnic Mari people
Puvama, a bagpipe of the Mordvin people
Turkic Russia
Shapar, a bagpipe of the Turkic Chuvash people of the Volga region
Ukraine
Duda () is a Ukrainian bagpipe.
Western Europe
France
Musette de cour: A French open ended smallpipe, believed by some to be an ancestor of the Northumbrian smallpipes, used for classical compositions in 'folk' style in the 18th Century French court. The shuttle design for the drones was recently revived and added to a mouth blown Scottish smallpipe called shuttle pipes.
Biniou (or biniou kozh "old style bagpipe"): a mouth blown bagpipe from Brittany. The great Highland bagpipe has also been used since the 20th century in marching bands called bagadoù and known as biniou braz ("great bagpipe").
Veuze, found in Western France around Nantes, into the Breton marshes and in the very north of Poitou (Vendée).
Cabrette: bellows-blown, played in the Auvergne region of central France.
Chabrette (or chabretta): found in the Limousin region of central France.
Bodega (or craba): found in Languedoc region of southern France, made of an entire goat skin.
Boha: found in the regions of Gascony and Landes in southwestern France, notable for having no separate drone, but a drone and chanter bored into a single piece of wood.
Musette bressane: found in the Bresse region of eastern France
Cornemuse du Centre (or musette du Centre) (bagpipes of Central France) are of many different types, some mouth blown. They can be found in the Bourbonnais, Berry, Nivernais, and Morvan regions of France and in different tonalities.
Chabrette poitevine: found in the Poitou region of west-central France, but now extremely rare.
Caramusa: a small bagpipe with a single parallel drone, native to Corsica
Musette bechonnet, named from its creator, Joseph Bechonnet (1820-1900 AD) of Effiat.
Bousine, a small droneless bagpipe played in Normandy. (:fr:Bousine)
Loure, a Norman bagpipe which gives its name to the French Baroque dance loure.
Pipasso, a bagpipe native to Picardy in northern France
Sourdeline, an extinct bellows-blown pipe, likely of Italian origin
Samponha, a double-chantered pipe played in the Pyrenees
Vèze (or vessie, veuze à Poitiers), played in Poitou
Spain and Portugal
Gaita is a generic term for "bagpipe" in Castilian (Spanish), Portuguese, Basque, Asturian-Leonese, Galician, Catalan and Aragonese, for distinct bagpipes used across the northern regions of Spain and Portugal and in the Balearic Islands. In the south of Spain and Portugal, the term is applied to a number of other woodwind instruments, a trait that the moroccan ghaita also shares, since its name origin comes from the southern iberian peninsula. Just like the term "Northumbrian smallpipes" or "Great Highland bagpipes", each region attributes its toponym to the respective gaita name. Most of them have a conical chanter with a partial second octave, obtained by overblowing. Folk groups playing these instruments have become popular in recent years, and pipe bands have been formed in some traditions.
Gaita alistana: played in Aliste, Zamora, north-western Spain.
Gaita asturiana: native to Asturias, north-western Spain. Very similar to the gaita galega but of heavier construction with an increased capability for octave jumps and chromatic notes.
Gaita de boto: native to Aragon, distinctive for its tenor drone running parallel to the chanter.
Gaita cabreiresa (or gaita llionesa): an extinct but revived pipe native to León.
Galician gaita: traditional bagpipe used in Galicia, north-west Spain and the Minho river valley, northern Portugal.
Gaita de saco: native to Soria, La Rioja, Álava, and Burgos in northwestern-central Spain. Possibly the same as the lost gaita de fuelle of Old Castile.
Gaita sanabresa: played in Puebla de Sanabria, in the Zamora province of north-western Spain.
Gaita-de-foles mirandesa or gaita transmontana: native to the Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, Mogadouro and Braganza in Tras-os-Montes region, northern Portugal.
Gaita-de-fole Coimbrã: native to Coimbra in Beira Litoral region, center Portugal.
Odrecillo: a small medieval bagpipe, with or without drones.
Sac de gemecs: used in Catalonia (north-eastern Spain).
Xeremies: played in the island of Majorca, accompanying the flabiol and drum.
Germany
Dudelsack: German bagpipe with two drones and one chanter. Also called Schäferpfeife (shepherd pipe) or Sackpfeife. The drones are sometimes fit into one stock and do not lie on the player's shoulder but are tied to the front of the bag. (see: :de:Schäferpfeife)
Marktsackpfeife: a bagpipe reconstructed from medieval depictions
Huemmelchen: small bagpipe with the look of a small medieval pipe or a Dudelsack.
Dudy or kozoł (Lower Sorbian kózoł) are large types of bagpipes (in E flat) played among the (originally) Slavic-speaking Sorbs of Eastern Germany, near the borders with both Poland and the Czech Republic; smaller Sorbian types are called dudki or měchawa (in F). Yet smaller is the měchawka (in A, Am) known in German as Dreibrümmchen. The dudy/kozoł has a bent drone pipe that is hung across the player's shoulder, and the chanter tends to be curved as well.
The Low Countries
Doedelzak (or pijpzak): found in Flanders and the Netherlands, this type of bagpipe was made famous in the paintings of Pieter Brueghel the Elder; died out, but revived in the late 20th century.
Muchosa (or muchosac): found in the Hainaut province of Wallonia, in southern Belgium, and previously known down into the north of France as far as Picardy
Switzerland
Schweizer Sackpfeife (Swiss bagpipe): In Switzerland, the Sackpfiffe was a common instrument in the folk music from the Middle Ages to the early 18th century, documented by iconography and in written sources. It had one or two drones and one chanter with double reeds.
Austria
Bock (literally, male goat): a bellows-blown pipe with large bells at the end of the single drone and chanter
West Asia
Turkey
Dankiyo: A word of Greek origin for "bagpipe" used in the Trabzon Province of Turkey.
Tulum or Guda: double-chantered, droneless bagpipe of Rize and Artvin provinces of Turkey. Usually played by the Laz and Hamsheni people.
Karkm, a bagpipe of the Turkish Turkmen nomads (Yörük)
Armenia
Parkapzuk (): A droneless horn-tipped bagpipe played in Armenia
Azerbaijan
Tulum () or Tulug (): double-chantered, droneless bagpipe native to Azerbaijan. Used to be common in Nakhchivan, Karabakh and Gazakh. Now only used in Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Sometimes used alongside Balaban.
Georgia
Gudastviri (): A double-chantered horn-tipped bagpipe played in Georgia. Also called a chiboni or stviri.
Iran
Ney anban (): a droneless double-chantered pipe played in Southern Iran
Bahrain
Jirba (): a type of double-chantered droneless bagpipe, primarily played by the ethnic Iranian minority of Bahrain.
Arabian Peninsula
Habbān (): a generic term covering several types of bagpipes, including traditional Bedouin bagpipes in Kuwait, and a modern version of the Great Highland Bagpipes played in Oman.
North Africa
Egypt
Zummarah-bi-soan, a small Egyptian double-bagpipe
Libya
Zukra (): famous in Libya bagpipe with a double-chanter terminating in two cow horns.
Tunisia
Mizwad (; plural مَزاود mazāwid): Tunisian bagpipe with a double-chanter terminating in two cow horns.
Algeria
Tadghtita, a Berber bagpipe
South Asia
India
Mashak, a bagpipe of Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh in northern India. The term is also used for the Highland pipes which have displaced the traditional bagpipe over time, such as the mushak baja (Garhwali : मूषक बाजा): in Garhwal region. or masak-been (Kumaoni : मसकबीन): of the Kumaon Division.
Titti (bagpipe), a Telugu bagpipe of Andhra Pradesh
Sruti upanga, a bagpipe of Tamil Nadu primarily used for drone accompaniment
Non-traditional bagpipes
Electric bagpipes, bagpipes fitted with an amplifying pickup
Electronic bagpipes, an electronic musical instrument designed to look and sound like bagpipes
References
Bagpipes |
4215601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev%20offensive | Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive | The second Jassy–Kishinev offensive, named after the two major cities, Iași ("Jassy") and Chișinău ("Kishinev"), in the staging area, was a Soviet offensive against Axis forces, which took place in Eastern Romania from 20 to 29 August 1944 during World War II. The 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts of the Red Army engaged Army Group South Ukraine, which consisted of combined German and Romanian formations, in an operation to reoccupy Bessarabia and destroy the Axis forces in the region, opening the way into Romania and the Balkans.
The offensive resulted in the encirclement and destruction of the German forces, allowing the Soviet Army to resume its strategic advance further into Eastern Europe. It also pressured Romania to switch allegiance from the Axis powers to the Allies. For the Germans, this was a massive defeat, which can be compared to the defeat at Stalingrad.
Background
The Red Army had made an unsuccessful attack in the same sector, an operation referred to as the first Jassy–Kishinev offensive, from 8 April to 6 June 1944. In 1944, the Wehrmacht had been pressed back along its entire front line in the East. By May 1944, the South Ukraine Army Group (Heeresgruppe Südukraine) was pushed back towards the prewar Romanian frontier, and managed to establish a line on the lower Dniester River, which was however breached in two places, with the Red Army holding bridgeheads. After June, calm returned to the sector, allowing the rebuilding of the German formations.
Heeresgruppe Südukraine had been, until June 1944, one of the most powerful German formations in terms of armour. However, during the summer most of its armoured units were transferred to the Northern and Central fronts to stem Red Army advances in the Baltic states, Belarus, northern Ukraine, and Poland. On the eve of the offensive, the only armoured formations left were the 1st Romanian Armored Division (with the Tiger I tank), and the German 13th Panzer and 10th Panzergrenadier Divisions.
Failure of German intelligence
Soviet deception operations prior to the attack worked well. The German command staff believed that the movement of Soviet forces along the front line was a result of a troop transfer to the north. Exact positions of Soviet formations were also not known until the final hours before the operation. By contrast, the Romanians were aware of the imminent Soviet offensive and anticipated a rerun of Stalingrad, with major attacks against the 3rd and 4th Armies and an encirclement of the German 6th Army. Such concerns were dismissed by the German command as "alarmist". Marshal Ion Antonescu suggested a withdrawal of Axis forces to the fortified Carpathian–FNB (Focșani–Nămoloasa–Brăila)–Danube line, but Friessner, the commander of Army Group South Ukraine, was unwilling to consider such a move, having already been dismissed by Hitler from Army Group North for requesting permission to retreat.
Order of battle
Soviet
2nd Ukrainian Front – Army General Rodion Malinovsky
6th Guards Tank Army – Major General Andrei Kravchenko
18th Tank Corps – Major General V. I. Polozkov
Cavalry-Mechanized Group Gorshkov – Major General Sergey Gorshkov
5th Guards Cavalry Corps
23rd Tank Corps – Lieutenant General Alexey Akhmanov
4th Guards Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Galanin
27th Army – Lieutenant General Sergei Trofimenko
52nd Army – Colonel General Konstantin Koroteyev
7th Guards Army – Colonel General Mikhail Shumilov
40th Army – Lieutenant General Filipp Zhmachenko
53rd Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Managarov
3rd Ukrainian Front – Army General Fyodor Tolbukhin
5th Shock Army – Lieutenant General Nikolai Berzarin
4th Guards Mechanized Corps – Major General Vladimir Zhdanov
7th Mechanized Corps – Major General Fyodor Katkov
57th Army – Lieutenant General Nikolai Gagen
46th Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Shlemin
37th Army – Major General Mikhail Sharokhin
6th Guards Rifle Corps
66th Rifle Corps
Black Sea Fleet – Sergey Gorshkov
Axis forces
Army Group South Ukraine – Generaloberst Johannes Friessner
Army Group Dumitrescu (East)
Romanian 3rd Army – Colonel General Petre Dumitrescu
XXIX. Army Corps (Generalleutnant Anton von Bechtoldsheim): 9th Infantry, Romanian 4th Mountain and 21st Infantry Divisions,
Romanian II Corps: 4th Infantry Division and 15th Infantry Division
Coastal Defence: Romanian II Corps: 9th Infantry Division and 110th Infantry Brigade.
6th Army – General der Artillerie Maximilian Fretter-Pico
VII Corps (General der Artillerie Ernst-Eberhard Hell) : 106th, 370th and Romanian 14th Infantry Divisions,
XXXXIV Corps (Generalleutnant Ludwig Müller) : 62nd, 258th, 282nd and 335th Infantry Divisions,
LII Corps (General der Infanterie Erich Buschenhagen) : 161st, 294th and 320th Infantry Divisions,
XXX Corps (Generalleutnant Georg-Wilhelm Postel) : 384th, 302nd, 257th, 15th and 306th Infantry Divisions,
Reserve
13th Panzer Division – Generalleutnant Hans Tröger
Romanian 1st Cavalry Division
Army Group Wohler (West)
8th Army – General der Infanterie Otto Wöhler
XVII Army Corps (General der Gebirgstruppe Hans Kreysing) : 8th Jäger-Division and 3rd Mountain Division
Romanian VII Corps : 8th Infantry Division, 103rd and 104th Mountain Brigade
Romanian I Corps : 6th Infantry Division and 20th Infantry Division
Romanian V Corps : Guards Division and 4th Infantry Division
LVII Panzer Corps (General der Panzertruppe Friedrich Kirchner) : 46th, Romanian 1st and 13th Infantry Division and Romanian 1st Armoured Division "Groß-Rumänien"
Romanian 4th Army – Lieutenant General Ioan Mihail Racoviță, replaced by Ilie Șteflea on 23 August
Romanian VI Corps : 5th Infantry Division, 102nd Mountain Brigade and German 76th Infantry Division,
Romanian IV Corps : 3rd Infantry Division, 7th Infantry Division and 102nd Mountain Brigade
IV Corps (General der Infanterie Friedrich Mieth) : 79th, 376th and Romanian 11th Infantry Divisions.
Reserve
10th Panzergrenadier Division – Generalleutnant August Schmidt
153rd Feldausbildungs-Division - Generalleutnant Friedrich Bayer
1st Romanian Armoured Division
The 1st Romanian Armored Division did not have all of its units immediately available for opposing the Soviet offensive. Some of its units were still in the interior as of 20 August. Therefore, an ad hoc organization of the Division's units which were actually available for opposing the Soviet offensive lists the Division's 80 front line tanks as follows (not including the Division's 12 armored cars):
The Division also had a dedicated anti-tank battalion. Its main weapons were entirely of Romanian origin: 10 TACAM T-60 tank destroyers and 24 75 mm Reșița field/anti-tank guns. The 24 guns were the first ones produced of this model.
The 1st Romanian Armored Division had lost 34 armored fighting vehicles by 23 August, but claimed 60 Soviet tanks on 20 August alone.
Soviet strategy
Stavka's plan for the operation was based on a double envelopment of German and Romanian armies by the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts.
The 2nd Ukrainian Front was to break through north of Iași, and then commit mobile formations to seize the Prut River crossings before withdrawing German units of the 6th Army could reach it. It was then to unleash the 6th Tank Army to seize the Siret River crossings and the Focșani Gate, a fortified line between the Siret River and the Danube.
The 3rd Ukrainian Front was to attack out of its bridgehead across the Dniester near Tiraspol, and then release mobile formations to head north and meet the mobile formations of the 2nd Ukrainian Front. This would lead to the encirclement of the German forces near Chișinău.
Following the successful encirclement, the 6th Tank Army and the 4th Guards Mechanised Corps were to advance towards Bucharest and the Ploiești oil fields.
Progress of the offensive
General
Both the 2nd and the 3rd Ukrainian Fronts undertook a major effort, leading to a double envelopment of the German Sixth Army and parts of the Eighth Army. The German–Romanian front line collapsed within two days of the start of the offensive, and 6th Guards Mechanized Corps was inserted as the main mobile group of the offensive. The initial breakthrough in the 6th Army's sector was deep, and destroyed rear-area supply installations by the evening of 21 August. By 23 August, the 13th Panzer Division was no longer a coherent fighting force, and the German 6th Army had been encircled to a depth of . The Red Army mobile group managed to cut off the retreat of the German formations into Hungary. Isolated pockets of German units tried to fight their way through, but only small remnants managed to escape the encirclement.
Detailed study of the Soviet breakthrough
The main effort of the front was in the sector of the 37th Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Sharokhin, by the 66th and 6th Guards Rifle Corps. The 37th Army had a -wide breakthrough frontage assigned to it. It was divided in two groupings, two corps in the first echelon, and one in reserve. According to the plan, it was to break through the German–Romanian defence lines in seven days, to a distance of , with the goal of covering per day during the first four days.
The 66th Rifle Corps, under Major General Kupriyanov, consisted of the 61st Guards Rifle and 333rd Rifle Divisions in the first echelon and the 244th Rifle Division in reserve. Attached were the 46th Gun Artillery Brigade, 152nd Howitzer Artillery Regiment, 184th and 1245th Tank Destroyer Regiment, 10th Mortar Regiment, 26th Light Artillery Brigade, 87th Recoilless Mortar Regiment, 92nd and 52nd Tank Regiment, 398th Assault Gun Regiment, two pioneer assault battalions, and two light flamethrower companies.
Corps frontage:
Corps breakthrough frontage: (61st Rifle Division , 333rd Rifle Division )
Troop density per kilometer of frontage:
Rifle battalions – 7.7
Guns/mortars – 248
Tanks and assault guns – 18
Superiority:
Infantry – 3:1
Artillery – 7:1
Tanks and assault guns – 11.2:1
There is no manpower information on the divisions, but they probably had between 7,000 and 7,500 men each, with the 61st Guards Rifle Division perhaps mustering 8,000–9,000. The soldiers were prepared over the course of August by exercising in areas similar to those they were to attack, with emphasis on special tactics needed to overcome the enemy in their sector.
Troops density in the 61st Guards Rifle Division's sector per kilometer of frontage was:
Rifle battalions – 6.0
Guns/mortars – 234
Tanks and assault guns – 18
Troops density in the 333rd Rifle Division's sector per kilometer of frontage was:
Rifle battalions – 4.5
Guns/mortars – 231
Tanks and assault guns – 18
Initial attack
The 333rd Rifle Division put three regiments in the first echelon and had none in reserve. The 61st Guards Rifle Division attacked in a standard formation, with two regiments in the first echelon and one in reserve. This proved to be fortunate, because the right wing of the 188th Guards Rifle Regiment was unable to advance past the Plopschtubej strongpoint. The 189th Guards Rifle Regiment on the left wing made good progress though, as did 333rd Rifle Division on its left. The commander of the 61st Guards Rifle Division therefore inserted his reserve (the 187th Guards Rifle Regiment) behind the 189th Guards Rifle Regiment to exploit the breakthrough. When darkness came, the 244th Rifle Division was assigned to break through the second line of defense. It lost its way, and only arrived at 23:00, by which time elements of the 13th Panzer Division were counterattacking.
The German–Romanian opposition was XXX. and XXIX. AK, with the 15th and 306th German Infantry Divisions, the 4th Romanian Mountain Division, and the 21st Romanian Infantry Division. The 13th Panzer Division was in reserve. At the end of the first day, the 4th Romanian Mountain (General de divizie, (Major General) Gheorghe Manoliu), and 21st Romanian Divisions were almost completely destroyed, while the German 15th and 306th Infantry Divisions suffered heavy losses (according to a German source, the 306th Infantry lost 50% in the barrage, and was destroyed apart from local strong-points by evening). Almost no artillery survived the fire preparation.
The 13th Panzer Division counterattacked the 66th Rifle Corps on the first day, and tried to stop its progress the next day to no avail. A study on the division's history says 'The Russians [Soviets] dictated the course of events.' The 13th Panzer Division at the time was a materially underequiped, but high manpower unit, with a high proportion of recent reinforcements. It only had Panzer IVs, StuG IIIs and self-propelled anti-tank guns. By the end of the second day, the division was incapable of attacking or putting up meaningful resistance.
At the end of the second day, the 3rd Ukrainian Front stood deep in the rear of the German 6th Army. No more organised re-supply of forces would be forthcoming, and the 6th Army was doomed to be encircled and destroyed again. Franz-Josef Strauss, who was to become an important German politician after the war, served with the Panzer Regiment of the 13th Panzer Division. He comments that the division had ceased to exist as a tactical unit on the third day of the Soviet offensive: 'The enemy was everywhere.'
In Mazulenko, results of the operations of the 66th Rifle Corps were described: "Because of the reinforcement of the Corps and the deep battle arrangements of troops and units the enemy defenses were broken through at high speed."
German survivors of the initial attack stated "By the end of the barrage, Russian [Soviet] tanks were deep into our position." (Hoffman). A German battalion commander, Hauptmann Hans Diebisch, Commander II./IR579, 306.ID, commented "The fire assets of the German defense were literally destroyed by the Soviet fighter bombers attacking the main line of resistance and the rear positions. When the Russian infantry suddenly appeared inside the positions of the battalion and it tried to retreat, the Russian air force made this impossible. The battalion was dispersed and partly destroyed by air attacks and mortar and machine gun fire."
Alleged Romanian collapse
It is often alleged that the speed and totality of the German collapse were caused by Romanian betrayal, for example, in Heinz Guderian's 1952 autobiography Panzer Leader. The study of the combat operations by Mazulenko indicates that this is probably not correct. Romanian formations did resist the Soviet attack in many cases, but were ill-equipped to defend themselves effectively against a modern army due to a lack of modern anti-tank, artillery, and anti-air weapons. In contrast to German claims, for instance, in the symposium notes published by David Glantz, or in the history of the offensive published by Kissel, it appears that the Romanian 1st Armoured Division did offer resistance against the Soviet breakthrough. However, Mark Axworthy states in his book that the battered 1st Armoured Division maintained cohesion, experiencing some local, costly successes before being forced to cross the Moldova River. Axworthy claims that the postwar Communist government would have obviously used this act of "betrayal" for propaganda purposes. Also, there are no Soviet reports of collaboration before 24 August 1944. The Soviet rates of progress imply an ineffective defense of the Romanian troops, rather than active collaboration and en-masse surrender.
Ion. S. Dumitru was a Romanian tank commander in the battle of the Romanian 1st Armoured Division against Soviet tanks and he described the battle in his book. According to Dumitru, fighting took place near the village of Scobâlțeni in the vicinity of a town called Podu Iloaiei on 20 August. The Romanian division destroyed 60 Soviet tanks and lost 30 tanks. At the end of the day, Romanians decided to retreat to the south after an analysis of the military results of the day.
The complete collapse of the German 6th Army and the Romanian 4th Army was more likely caused by the inability of the numerous horse-drawn infantry divisions to maintain cohesion while retreating and under attack of the Soviet mechanized troops. This claim is reinforced by the fact that the only Romanian division which retained its cohesion under the Soviet attack was the 1st Armoured Division, which had the mobility and the anti-tank weapons needed to do so.
The surrender of Romania took place at a time when the Soviet Army had already moved deep inside Romania, and the German 6th Army had been cut off from the rest of the Wehrmacht in Romania. The opening of hostilities between the Wehrmacht and the Romanian Army commenced after a failed coup d'état by the German ambassador.
German–Romanian combat
Simultaneously, a coup d'état led by King Michael of Romania on 23 August deposed the Romanian leader Ion Antonescu and withdrew Romania from the Axis. By this time, the bulk of the German and Romanian armies had either been destroyed or cut off by the Soviet offensive, with only residual and rear-echelon forces present in the Romanian interior. Hitler immediately ordered special forces under the command of Otto Skorzeny and Arthur Phleps, stationed in nearby Yugoslavia, to intervene in support of the remaining German troops, which were mostly concentrated around Bucharest, Ploiești, Brașov, and Giurgiu. General Alfred Gerstenberg, commander of the Luftwaffe defenses around the oilfields at Ploiești, had already ordered a column of motorized troops to attack Bucharest on the evening of 23 August. Open hostilities between German and Romanian forces began the following morning on the city's northern outskirts. After capturing the airfield at Otopeni, the attack stalled, and by 28 August Gerstenberg and the remaining German forces in the vicinity of Bucharest surrendered. The fighting here featured the only instance of cooperation between Romanian and Western Allied forces during the campaign, when Romanian ground troops requested a USAAF bombing raid on the Băneasa Forest. Poor coordination however led to friendly fire when American bombers accidentally hit a company of Romanian paratroopers.
Meanwhile, Brandenburger special forces landed at Boteni and Țăndărei airfields on 24 August in an attempt to immobilize the Romanian aircraft there, but they were overpowered by Romanian paratroopers and security companies before they could achieve their objectives. A proposed operation to rescue Antonescu, led by Skorzeny and inspired by the Gran Sasso raid which liberated Benito Mussolini in 1943, could not materialize as Antonescu's whereabouts were unknown even to the Romanian government until 30 August, when he was handed over to the Soviets and shipped to Moscow. Another group of Brandenburgers joined Gerstenberg's unsuccessful drive on Bucharest on 25 August and were captured three days later. Altogether, these events constituted one of the worst defeats suffered by the German special forces in the war.
The German situation was further complicated by the loss of Brașov and the Predeal Pass, both of which were secured by the Romanian 1st Mountain Division by 25 August, thus cutting off the most direct route of reinforcement or retreat for the remaining Wehrmacht formations to the south. The following day, the Romanian 2nd Territorial Corps captured Giurgiu and neutralized the German AA units there, taking 9,000 prisoners in the process. The 25,000-strong German presence around Ploiești, consisting mostly of flak troops and their security companies, was at first locked in a stalemate with the Romanian 5th Territorial Corps, which had a similar numerical strength. Over the following days however, the Germans were gradually confined to the city's immediate surroundings and became heavily outnumbered as Romanian reinforcements began arriving from Bucharest and also from the east, together with lead elements of a Soviet motorized brigade. On 30 August, an attack by the 5th Territorial Corps, now numbering over 40,000 men, reduced the Germans to a pocket around the village of Păulești, roughly north of Ploiești. They surrendered the following day after a failed breakout attempt. About 2,000 Germans were able to escape to the Hungarian lines across the Carpathians. Other major cities and industrial centers, such as Constanța, Reșița, and Sibiu were secured by the Romanians with relative ease. By 31 August, all German resistance in Romania had been cleared.
During the fighting between 23 and 31 August, the Romanian Army captured 56,000 German prisoners, who were later surrendered to the Soviet Army. A further 5,000 Germans were killed in action, while Romanian casualties amounted to 8,600 killed and wounded.
Romanian sources claim that internal factors played a decisive role in Romania's switch of allegiance, while external factors only gave support; this version is markedly different from the Soviet position on the events, which holds that the offensive resulted in the Romanian coup and "liberated Romania with the help of local insurgents".
Aftermath
The German formations suffered significant irrecoverable losses, with over 115,000 prisoners taken, while Soviet casualties were unusually low for an operation of this size. The Red Army advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and F from Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia to avoid being cut off. Together with Yugoslav partisans and Bulgaria, they liberated the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October.
On the political level, the Soviet offensive triggered King Michael's coup d'état in Romania, and the switch of Romania from the Axis to the Allies. Almost immediately, border hostilities between Romania and Germany's ally Hungary erupted over territory that Romania had been forced to cede to Hungary in 1940 as a result of the Second Vienna Award. Romania's defection meant the loss of a vital source of oil for Germany, leading to serious fuel shortages in the Wehrmacht by the end of 1944 and prompting Hitler's first admission that the war was lost.
Following the success of the operation, Soviet control over Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, which had been occupied by the USSR in 1940, was re-established. Soviet forces proceeded to collect and expel the remaining Romanian troops. According to Anatol Petrencu, President of the Historians' Association of Moldova, over 170,000 Romanian soldiers were deported, 40,000 of which were incarcerated in a prisoner-of-war camp at Bălți, where many died of hunger, cold, disease, or execution.
Legacy
In Moldova and the breakaway state Transnistria, August 24 is a public holiday, and is known officially as Liberation Day. King Michael's Coup on August 23 was also celebrated in neighboring Romania as Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day until 1990. In 1970, a street in Botanica was named in honor of Aleksei Belsky, a Hero of the Soviet Union and a participant in the second Jassy–Kishinev offensive. After the collapse of the USSR, the street was renamed to honor Alexandru Ioan Cuza. The village of Malinovscoe, in the Rîșcani District, named in honor of the Marshal Rodion Malinovsky was dedicated to the anniversary of the end of the operation.
Monuments
On 23 August 1969, during the 25th anniversary of the offensive, a liberation monument at the Academy of Sciences of Moldova was opened. It has been renovated three times, in 1975, 2014, and 2019. The monument to the second Jassy–Kishinev offensive in the village of Chițcani was opened on 9 May 1972 and is currently the site of the monument is a mass grave, in which 1,495 soldiers who died during the operation are buried. The Capul de pod Șerpeni Memorial Complex was opened in 2004. Two years later, the Eternity Memorial Complex in Chișinău was opened on Liberation Day, acting as the Soviet war memorial in Moldova.
Events
In 2019, President Igor Dodon dedicated the year to the 75th anniversary of the Liberation of Moldova, and ordered that a National Coordination Committee plan national events and celebrations throughout the country in honor of the anniversary. On the actual anniversary, celebrations were held, led by Dodon and attended by Russian Defence Minister Sergey Shoigu at the request of Moldovan Defence Minister Pavel Voicu. A ceremony with Dodon, Shoigu and Voicu in attendance at the Capul de pod Șerpeni Memorial Complex was held, in which Shoigu ceremonially handed Voicu the military flags of two Moldovan regiments who participated in the offensive, which until then, were kept at the Central Armed Forces Museum. A separate ceremony at the Transnistria-based Operational Group of Russian Forces was also held.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Art of War Symposium, From the Dnepr to the Vistula: Soviet Offensive Operations – November 1943 – August 1944, A transcript of Proceedings, Center for Land Warfare, US Army War College, 29 April – 3 May 1985, Col. D.M. Glantz ed., Fort Leavewnworth, Kansas, 1992
Ziemke, E.F. Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East, Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army; 1st edition, Washington D.C., 1968
Roper, Steven D. Romania: The Unfinished Revolution (Postcommunist States and Nations), Routledge; 1 edition, 2000,
External links
Soldiers of the Great War
Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive operation (20.08 – 29.08.1944)
Освобождение Кишинев
1944 in Romania
1944 in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic
1944 in Ukraine
Jassy-Kishinev, Second Offensive
Jassy-Kishinev, Second Offensive
Jassy-Kishinev, Second Offensive
History of Iași
History of Chișinău
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Jassy-Kishinev, Second Offensive |
4215710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonersh | Wonersh | Wonersh is a village and civil parish in the Waverley district of Surrey, England and Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Wonersh contains three Conservation Areas and spans an area three to six miles SSE of Guildford.
In the outer London commuter belt, the village is southwest of London. Wonersh's economy is predominantly a service sector economy. Three architecturally-listed churches are within its boundaries as are a number of notable homes such as Frank Cook's 1905 hilltop mansion, which is a hotel, business and wedding venue.
History
Etymology
State records show the name as Wonherche, (14th century); Ognersh and Ignersh, (16th and 17th centuries). The form Woghenersh, in a Charter roll of 1305, indicates the (Old English) formation (aet) wogan ersce, 'at the crooked field'.
Pre-Roman settlement
Finds have been found in the hamlet and forest of Blackheath of mesolithic (Stone Age) flint implements and near Chinthurst Hill.
Middle Ages
Based on foundations and core of the church, a settlement has existed in Wonersh village centre since Anglo-Saxon times.
Wonersh is not named in the Domesday Book of 1086. All the six manors: Tangley or Great Tangley; Little Tangley; Halldish; Losterford/Lostiford above the intact mill and mill house by the village; Rowleys and; Chinthurst (partly in Shalford) were later built on lands then in Bramley and Shalford. Great Tangley Manor in 1582 became the residence of John and Lettice Carrill and descended to their grandson John Carrill (d. 1656) and his widow Hester, who secondly married Sir Francis Duncombe.
The church of Wonersh was formerly a chapel (of Shalford), and as such the advowson (right to appoint the vicar) was in the presentation of the King who later transferred it to St Mary without Bishopsgate in London; after this it was held by a line of nobles until bought in the 19th century by the lord of the manor. As a chapel, the great tithes were commuted for £700 and the lesser for the vicar for £17.
Post Renaissance
Until Charity Commission amalgamation in 1908, Wonersh had charity endowments paying out for its poor: John Austen of Shalford left money for poor relief in 1620. Henry Chennell of Wonersh left land whose produce was to be devoted to putting six poor boys to school from 1672. A Mr Gwynne of London gave land and bank stock in 1698 to put four poor boys to school and to distribute bread to fifteen poor persons every Sunday after service. Manorial fortunes became more muted from 1700 to 1900 during the Industrial Revolution – seeing almost all of their farm lands being sold up for lack of scale or produce.
Wonersh was one of the flourishing seats of the clothing trade in West Surrey. The special manufacture was blue cloth, dyed, no doubt, with woad, licence to grow which was asked in the neighbourhood in the 16th century.
Wonersh Park was a lightly wooded park now public Green in front of and beside the church. Through the park runs a small stream and its 17th century stone gatehouse houses a protected species of bat. Wonersh Park, a 17th-century mansion, was demolished in 1935. Owners were: the original owner of the demolished building Richard Gwynn, who died in 1701, and it passed by issue's marriage to 1710 Sir William Chapple, serjeant-at-law and later judge who probably rebuilt it; later passing in 1741 to Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley of Grantley in Yorkshire, leading government lawyer created Lord Grantley in 1782. His family held Wonersh Park until 1884 on a sale to Mr. Sudbury.
In 1848 the Cranleigh Water here was used for coal, building materials and agricultural produce as part of the Wey and Arun Canal and the west boundary formed an economic draw of the village. The Northbrook's mill, used for dressing leather, employed people, as readied for use for saddles, straps, bags and garments. Shamley Green was formed into a parish from Wonersh in 1881 at which time the 1st Baron Ashcombe did not part with the advowson of Shamley Green, but did of Wonersh, to Selwyn College, Cambridge.
In 1905 Barnett Hill was chosen to be built on for the first time, by the grandson of Thomas Cook, Frank Cook, who lavished £35,000 on constructing a Queen Anne-style mansion. The house later passed to the Red Cross who owned it until 2006 – today, it is a hotel, conference and events venue managed by the Sundial Group.
Geography
Flanked by two round hills, Chinthurst Hill (121 m) north west of the village and Barnett Hill (112 m) east of the village, the village centre ranges between 40 and 50 m above sea level. Two-thirds of the pine heath and mixed forest-covered high ground Blackheath is included in Wonersh as are the settlements/neighbourhoods of Shamley Green, Blackheath, Ridgebridge Hill, Whipley, Plonk's Hill, Woodhill, Lordshill Common and Norley Common.
Spanning three to six miles SSE of Guildford. and in the outer London commuter belt, the centre of the village is 28 miles (45 km) southwest of London.
Grassy expanses of Smithwood Common in the south and Wonersh Common in the north are in the civil parish; over of the southeast is Winterfold Wood and Heath an ancient forest part of the Weald, with parts managed by Surrey Wildlife Trust.
Elevations, geology and soil
The parish rises from west to east up the eroded basin of the Cranleigh Water holding the villages to the flint, clay, greensand and sandy soil topped Greensand Ridge. Elevations vary from 39 m AOD by the Bramley/Wonersh bridge over the Cranleigh Water to 207 m at the car park on Winterfold Hill, Winterfold Heath.
Geologically the landscape demonstrates the contrast between the retention of the top of the Greensand Ridge from coastal deposition (geology) followed by avoiding sea rise changes and the formation of the lower Weald because of water erosion on the three-county-sized calciferous and sandy beds south of this ridge. The Ridge forms the highest hills in the south east, excluding the southwest Berkshire Downs.
Soil is slowly permeable loamy/clayey slightly acid but base-rich soil except for the higher ground including Blackheath which is slightly acid only freely draining sandy soils containing small areas of wet impeded drainage heathland soil.
Demography and housing
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.
The proportion of households in the civil parish who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).
In 2001, Wonersh parish contained 3,297 residents of which 19.8% were aged over 65; 5.2% of the population were in full-time further education; 75.5% of all men were economically active whereas 2.2% were unemployed, 4.8% worked part-time; 57.6% of all women were economically active whereas 1.7% were unemployed, 34.8% worked part-time.
Wonersh's economy is predominantly a service sector economy reflected by the lower end of the official categorisation table of occupation given, compiled from the 2001 census:
Whereas in this census, 34.6% of the population worked in middle or higher professional occupations.
Economy
Wonersh's economy is predominantly a service sector economy with its access to Shalford and Guildford stations and road links to the Compton interchange of the A3 road from Shalford it is part of the London Commuter Belt. Large eastern areas are managed by workers from Surrey Wildlife Trust and the commons and sports grounds are supported by woodsmen, woodswomen and maintenance staff funded by Parish Councils.
Culture and community
Many of the societies and clubs in the villages of Wonersh and Shamley Green are community-run without parish council intervention or support such as amateur dramatics and sports clubs. However cricket grounds, paths, commons and events are sponsored and organised by the village associations and the Wonersh Parish Council. Shamley Green has two village halls for private and community events.
Sports
Wonersh village green where local teams play football, cricket and stoolball. The sports club have built a pavilion there with a bar, meeting room and changing facilities.
Wonersh Bowling Club is situated in the heart of the village at the end of a lane behind the Memorial Hall. It has a close view of Chinthurst Hill. The club was founded in 1925 by J.M. Courage, F. H. Cook, R. H. Haslam and F. Rogerson. The club is affiliated to both the English and Surrey Bowling Associations.
The bowling green, comprising six full sized rinks, is maintained by a team of groundsmen who are, themselves, active bowling members of the club. The pavilion has, in addition to the usual changing rooms and dining area, a kitchen and fully licensed bar. The bowling season runs from the beginning of April through to the end of September.
Societies
Wonersh Players are a well established amateur dramatic society that write, produce and perform their own pantomimes. The Wonersh Players have been in existence since 1982, always performing at the Wonersh Memorial Hall, usually during the February half term holiday, with rehearsals starting the previous October.
In 1993 Wonersh History Society was formed to preserve and build on a quantity of historical material and notes gathered over many years by the late Anthony Fanshaw. Much of this archive is now being transferred to the Society's computer data base and will be available.
A social club named Wonersh Village Club, which was founded about 110 years ago. It provides a venue for playing snooker, billiards, darts and all manner of card games.
There is an active Wonersh U3A and a Gardening Club.
Localities
Wonersh is situated in a gap between two steep hills in front of the Cranleigh Waters stream: Chinthurst Hill with wooded paths and land managed by Surrey Wildlife Trust which had a manor on it and now has a folly and a listed farm at its foot and; Barnett Hill which is the conference, wedding and meeting venue managed by Sunrise Group and was built in 1905 by Thomas Cook.
In a meadow by this stream the Church of England church is called St John the Baptist which had tower crenellations added in 1751, has a 12th-century bell tower, 13th-century chancel, 15th-century north chapel and 1793 south aisle including transept. The ecclesiastical parish is joined with Blackheath and lies within the Guildford diocese.
There is also a United Reformed church which overlooks the village common. There is a large college built in 1891 (St John's Seminary) for the training of Roman Catholic priests, built in the Italian Renaissance style.
Wonersh has a village shop and post office which is owned by a village co-operative. There is also a small art gallery next door. A scout group trains and enriches the lives of young people in the village. The Grantley Arms is the central pub/restaurant, which is often used for functions and also has a bar food menu. Both the shop and the pub are situated in the centre of the village by the pepper pot, which is a small shelter.
Doctors have the area's surgery opposite the post office. Its purpose-built right wing was opened in 1972 and extended in 1982.
Blackheath
Blackheath is often called Blackheath Village to distinguish it from Blackheath in south east London. The settlement appears in the Domesday Book as Blacheatfeld. Blackheath as a hundred (not marked on its Surrey map, which shows only Domesday manors), an administrative area, where local leaders met about once a month. Blackheath is architecturally a Victorian heathland settlement with pioneering Arts and Crafts movement buildings by Harrison Townsend. Its church, which has remarkable stained glass (see Landmarks) is a listed building. It is a lightly wooded east–west lineal settlement in the elevated, wooded heath. St Martin's church, built in 1893 based upon the design of an Italian wayside chapel, contains some wall painting from 1894/5 by the American artist Anna Lea Merritt.
Shamley Green
Shamley Green is a village part of the Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty between Wonersh and Cranleigh. It is bordered on the east by Blackheath and in the west by the Cranleigh Water. Blackheath is separated by farmland and footpaths in Reelhall Hill and Woodhill. Two 300m footpaths, traversing Lordshill Common, connect the middle of the village to The Wey South Path from Guildford to Cranleigh which was historically the Cranleigh Railway Line.
The parish church of Christ Church, Shamley Green, was completed in 1864, initially as a daughter church of the Wonersh parish. The adjacent Old Vicarage, now a private home, was built for the first vicar, the Reverend Edgar Bowring.
Two areas of public open space in the village include the Cricket Green that hosts occasional summer fairs. The Red Lion and the Bricklayers Arms are pubs in the village. There are several shops and there are schools. Shamley Green Conservation Area contains 22 listed buildings with 10 others on the village outskirts. Shamley Green is a area of common land, the majority of which is owned by the parish council. The area is predominantly open grassland and part of it is used as a cricket pitch. None of the buildings in Shamley Green are graded Grade I or II*.
In 2013, BBC Two featured the village in the Horizon episode The Secret Life of the Cat, stating that Shamley Green has the highest density feline population in the United Kingdom.
Willinghurst Copses forming the west of Winterfold Forest and Heath
This forested area of the southeast adjoins Winterfold Forest. In its middle is Willingshurst House, an 1887 Arts and Crafts property by Philip Webb, sometimes called the father of arts and crafts and son of commercial and residential buildings architect Sir Aston Webb. Spring Wood, The Shaws, The Ball; Madgehole, South, Great, Dean, Pithouse, Rock and Lapscombe Copses are the names for sections of the forest. A car park is on top of Winterfold Heath on the Cranleigh parish boundary in the middle of the southern Winterfold Heath section.
South of the main forest is a series of 11 woodland lakes – one is large enough to allow boats – used for fishing and woodland walks.
Landmarks
Wonersh Conservation Area contains 27 listed buildings – at least ten of which are early and late Tudor period – however none in the highest Grade I category. Just north of the village centre however is the only Grade I listed building, moated Great Tangley Manor.
The Dower House
Architecturally Grade II*-listed the Dower House is the largest building on a long residential lane off Cranleigh Road, Barnett Lane at the end east of the street. In 1710 most all of its exterior was built – the date of foundations and chimneys is uncertain – in red brick with plain hipped tiles and five 12-pane glazing bar sash windows to its first floor. Its architectural features represent typical authentic Queen Anne style architecture.
Wonersh Court
At the opposite end of The Street behind a large listed entrance arch, are eight courtyard townhouses, the original stables and parade ring to the demolished mansion Wonersh Park, converted and divided in 1745–1759 by the owner Sir Fletcher Norton, first Lord Grantley. Red and brown brick with some blue brick headers in arches over windows, painted weatherboard to first floor of rear (south) range. Architecturally the building is Grade II-listed.
Great Tangley Manor
In the 15th century a hall house core was built on its motte that remains in the very core of the manor, but its main portion was built by Richard Caryll in 1584. Wickham Flower employed Philip Webb to restore and extend the house in 1884 and in 1906 Colonel Hegan Kennard employed Inigo Thomas to build the north wing.
Set a few metres above a narrow square moat, Great Tangley Manor has been well preserved and has been made the subject of many paintings as have its garden and lily pond, well described and illustrated. A long entrance tunnel added by Philip Webb, with one sandstone and brick wall and open timber 12-bay arcade on the other, crosses the moat. This medieval and Elizabethan highest-listed building is open for film shoots, board meetings and has Victorian gardens. The main front facing south-east is decorative timber frame with whitewashed render infill and remainder is brick and whitewashed extensions on the south wing, ashlar ground floor and roughcast above on rounded north wing.
Barnett Hill
Architecturally Grade II*-listed Barnett Hill's social history is described in History, its architect was Arnold Mitchell who chose an expensive and ornate masonry Carolean style. Purple/brown bricks with red brick and yellow stone dressings form its walls. Roofing consists of hipped plain tiled several roof slopes over a wooden eaves cornice around its roof, incorporating dormer windows. Spread over three above ground floors the venue is on a short H-shaped plan with a long service wing in an identical style. Ground floor windows have 24 panes each and keystone lintels. In the angles between wings are square turrets and a recessed range under copper ogee domes with spherical finials.
Christ Church, Shamley Green
Christ Church is towards the end of the main street (B road) towards Cranleigh in the south of Shamley Green and is a Grade II listed building. The churchyard is the resting pace of television presenter Tony Hart who lived in the village for more than 40 years.
St Martin's Church Blackheath
Colourful stained glass and imposing arches are in Blackheath's Grade II-listed church, St Martin's, which is its only listed building. The murals are by the American artist Anna Lea Merritt.
Chinthurst Hill
A 1930s folly tower tops this 397-foot (121-metre above sea level) knoll. Surrey Wildlife Trust manage the hill's woodland and tower. It is the 31st highest hill in the county and a stand-alone outcrop of the Greensand Ridge which restarts in parishes east and west on its course from Hampshire to Kent.
Transport
The main road through Wonersh is the B2128, which links the village to Shamley Green, Cranleigh and Guildford. The nearest railway station is Shalford railway station on the Reading to Gatwick Airport via Guildford Line.
Education
Shamley Green Montessori Pre-School - closed in approx 2017
Wonersh Preschool
Wonersh and Shamley Green C of E Primary School
Longacre School ages 2–11 (independent)
Other notable residents
William Howard Seth-Smith III (1852–1928), architect, born in the hamlet of Tangley
Tony Hart (1925–2009), artist and TV presenter, lived in Shamley Green for more than 40 years.
The Irish actor Max Adrian died in Shamley Green in 1973.
See also
List of places of worship in Waverley (borough)
References
Notes
References
External links
Whole Parish main menu – Wonersh Parish Council
Wonersh main menu – Wonersh Parish Council
Blackheath, Shamley Green, Wonersh Village Design Statement
Wonersh Our Village, with information about the people of Wonersh, and their families
Shamley Green
Shamley Green main menu – Wonersh Parish Council
Stained Glass Windows at Christ Church, Shamley Green, Surrey
Archive pictures
Blackheath
Blackheath main menu – Wonersh Parish Council
Villages in Surrey
Borough of Waverley
Civil parishes in Surrey |
4215716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriegsspiel | Kriegsspiel | Kriegsspiel is a genre of wargaming developed by the Prussian Army in the 19th century to teach battlefield tactics to officers. The word Kriegsspiel literally means "wargame" in German, but in the context of the English language it refers specifically to the wargames developed by the Prussian army in the 19th century. Kriegsspiel was the first wargaming system to have been adopted by a military organization as a serious tool for training and research. It is characterized by high realism, an emphasis on the experience of decision-making rather than on competition, and the use of an umpire to keep the rules flexible. After Prussia's impressive victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War, other countries swiftly began designing Kriegsspiel-like wargames for their own armies.
Most forms of Kriegsspiel involve at least two teams of players and one umpire gathered around a map. The map represents a battlefield. Each team is given command of an imaginary army, which is represented on the map using little painted blocks. Each block represents some kind of troop formation, such as an artillery battery or a cavalry squadron. The players command their troops by writing their orders on paper and giving them to the umpire. The umpire will then read these orders and move the blocks across the map according to how he judges the imaginary troops would interpret and execute their orders. The outcomes of combat are determined by mathematical calculations.
History
Precursors
By definition, a "wargame" is a strategy game that attempts to realistically represent warfare. The earliest wargames were invented in the German states around the turn of the 19th century. They were derivatives of chess, but the pieces represented real military units (cavalry, infantry, artillery, etc.) and the squares were color-coded to represent different types of terrain. These early wargames were not taken seriously by the military because they were not realistic enough. The pieces were constrained to move across a grid in chess-like fashion: only a single piece could occupy a square (even if that square represented, say, a square mile), and the pieces had to move square by square. This, of course, did not represent how real troops maneuvered in the field. The grid system also forced the terrain to take unnatural forms, such as rivers flowing in straight lines and right angles.
Reisswitz Sr.'s prototype (1812)
In response to these criticisms, a Prussian nobleman and wargaming enthusiast named George Leopold von Reisswitz set out to develop a more realistic wargame wherein the units could move about in a free-form manner over more natural terrain.
Reisswitz first experimented with a table covered in a layer of damp sand. He sculpted the sand into a three-dimensional model battlefield, with hills and valleys. He used little wooden blocks to represent troop formations. The Prussian princes heard about Reisswitz's project and asked for a demonstration. He showed it to them in 1811, and they enthusiastically recommended the game to their father, King Frederick Wilhelm III.
Reisswitz did not want to present the king a table of damp sand, so he set about constructing a more impressive apparatus. In 1812, Reisswitz presented to the king a wooden table-cabinet. The cabinet's drawers stored all the materials to play the game. The cabinet came with a folding board which, when unfolded and placed on top of the cabinet, provided a gaming surface about six feet by six feet in size. Instead of sculpted sand, the battlefield was made out of porcelain tiles, upon which terrain features were depicted in painted bas-relief. The tiles were modular and could be arranged on the table surface to create a custom battlefield (the scale was 1:2373). Troop formations were represented by little porcelain blocks. The blocks could be moved across the battlefield in a free-form manner; dividers and rulers were used to regulate movement.
The royal family was delighted by Reisswitz's game, and frequently played it. However, it was not adopted by army instructors nor sold commercially. The apparatus that Reisswitz made for the king was too expensive for mass-production. But more importantly, his system was not complete and required some improvisation on the part of the players. For instance, the rules for resolving the effects of hand-to-hand combat and terrain advantage were not fully worked out. Reisswitz may have been too distracted by the upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars to perfect his game. By 1816, Reisswitz seemed to have lost interest in wargaming altogether. The development of the wargame was continued by his son, Georg Heinrich Rudolf Johann von Reisswitz.
Reisswitz Jr. perfects Kriegsspiel (1824)
Georg Heinrich Rudolf Johann von Reisswitz was a junior officer in the Prussian army. He took over the development of his father's wargame after his father lost interest in it. He developed the game with the help of a circle of junior officers in Berlin. The prince eventually heard of Reisswitz Jr.'s project and, having fond memories of playing Reisswitz Sr.'s wargame, joined the son's gaming circle.
In the earlier wargames of Hellwig and Venturini, units were like chess pieces in that when attacked, they were simply killed and removed from play, even if the pieces represented groups of soldiers. By contrast, units in Reisswitz's game could suffer partial losses yet still remain on the battlefield. A unit might withstand several rounds' worth of enemy attacks before finally collapsing. Reisswitz's game was thus the first to incorporate unit hitpoints. It also modeled variable damage: The casualties inflicted by an attacker on his enemy were determined using dice.
Reisswitz Jr.'s game was designed to be played on accurate, large-scale (1:8,000) topographical maps. The Prussian army had recently begun using such maps, which were the product of new advances in cartography and printing. These maps may have not been available to Reisswitz Sr. and previous wargame designers, but they were available by the 1820s and Reisswitz Jr. took advantage of them. Using topographical maps allowed for more natural terrain and the play of battles in real locations.
Reisswitz Jr.'s great innovation, however, was the introduction of an umpire. The players did not directly control the troop blocks on the game map. Rather, they wrote down their orders for their troops and gave them to the umpire. The umpire would then move the blocks across the game map according to how he judged the imaginary troops would interpret and carry out the players' orders. When the troops engaged the enemy on the map, it was umpire who rolled the dice, computed the effects, and removed slain units from the map. The game also could simulate the fog of war, where the umpire would place on the map blocks only for the troops which were in visual range of both sides. The umpire kept a mental track of where the hidden troops were located, and only deployed blocks for them when they came into view of the enemy. The umpire also arbitrated situations which the rules did not explicitly cover, which plugged any gaps in Reisswitz Jr.'s system. Naturally, this required the umpire to be an impartial and experienced officer.
In early 1824, the prince invited Reisswitz Jr. to present his wargame to the king and his senior generals at Berlin Castle. They were impressed and officially endorsed his game as a training tool for the officer corps. The Chief of the General Staff, General von Müffling declared: "this is no ordinary sort of game, this is schooling for war. I must and will recommend it most warmly to the army." The king ordered that every regiment receive a Kriegsspiel set. Reisswitz established a workshop by which he could mass-produce and distribute it. He sold the game's material in a box-set priced at 30 thalers. This was thus the first wargame to be widely adopted by a military as a serious tool for training and research.
Kriegsspiel after Reisswitz Jr.'s death
In 1826, Reisswitz was transferred away from Berlin to the provincial city of Torgau. This was interpreted as a banishment: allegedly, he had made offensive remarks about his superiors. He committed suicide in 1827. This disgrace was detrimental to the progression of his wargame for obvious reasons. It wasn't until 1860 that the game was widely played in the military. Until then, it survived thanks to the efforts of a small number of wargaming clubs. The earliest of these clubs was the Berlin Wargame Association. Another prominent club was the Magdeburg Club, managed by General von Moltke. These clubs continued to develop Reisswitz's game, but they avoided mentioning his name in their publications. In 1828, the Berlin Wargame Association published a limited expansion to Reisswitz's system. In 1846, they released a fresh wargaming manual which received a second edition in 1855. These updates sought to make Kriegsspiel more realistic, but they also made the rules more complicated.
Wilhelm von Tschischwitz published a Kriegsspiel manual in 1862 that incorporated new technological advances such as railroads, telegraph, and breech-loading cannons; and which used conventional gaming dice. It also greatly simplified the rules, making the wargame even simpler than Reisswitz's original version. Tschischwitz's rules went through three editions between 1862 and 1869. In 1869, Colonel Thilo von Trotha published his own wargaming treatise which went through three editions and had more complicated rules.
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 broke a long period of peace for the German states, which made many officers feel a pressing need to better familiarize themselves with the conduct of war. This led to a surge in interest in Kriegsspiel among Prussian officers.
The free Kriegsspiel movement
Lieutenant Wilhelm Jacob Meckel published a treatise in 1873 and another in 1875 in which he expressed four complaints about the overcomplicated rules of Kriegsspiel: 1) the rules constrain the umpire, preventing him from applying his expertise; 2) the rules are too rigid to realistically model all possible outcomes in a battle, because the real world is complex and ever-changing; 3) the computations for casualties slow down the game and have a minor impact on a player's decisions anyway; 4) few officers are willing to make the effort to learn the rules. The fourth issue was the most serious, as the Prussian military struggled to meet the growing demand for umpires. Meckel proposed dispensing with some of the rules and giving the umpire more discretion to arbitrate events as he saw fit. The only things he kept were the dice and the losses tables for assessing casualties.
In 1876, General Julius von Verdy du Vernois proposed dispensing with all the rules and tools completely and allowing the umpire to arbitrate the game entirely as he saw fit. This form of Kriegsspiel came to be known as free Kriegsspiel (counterpart to Reisswitz's rigid Kriegsspiel) and was well-received by the officer corps because it was easier to learn and allowed umpires to apply their own expertise. Verdy's insight was that all that was truly essential for Kriegsspiel was the umpire and concealed information, with an emphasis on the fog of war and delayed messaging. Free Kriegsspiel became popular and Reisswitz's rigid style fell out of favor in professional circles.
The spread of wargaming beyond Germany
Kriegsspiel attracted little attention outside of Prussia before 1870. Reisswitz Jr. travelled to Russia where he demonstrated Kriegsspiel to the Russian court, but he failed to win them over. In 1825, the French general Auguste de Marmont witnessed a Kriegsspiel match in Berlin and commissioned a translation of Reisswitz's manual which was submitted to the French army in March 1829. A Dutch translation appeared in 1836.
In 1870, Prussia defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War. Many credited the Prussian army's superior performance to its wargaming tradition. The Prussian army did not have any significant advantage in weaponry, numbers, or troop quality, but it was the only army in the world that practiced wargaming. This led to great worldwide interest in Kriegsspiel. The first Kriegsspiel manual in English, Rules for the Conduct of the War-Game by E. Baring, based on the system of Wilhelm von Tschischwitz, was published in 1872 for the British army and received a royal endorsement. In the United States, Charles Adiel Lewis Totten published Strategos, the American War Game in 1880, and William R. Livermore published The American Kriegsspiel in 1882. In 1873, a group of students and teachers at Oxford University founded the University Kriegspiel [sic] Club, which was the world's first recreational wargaming club.
Kriegsspiel in the present day
Kriegsspiel has undergone a minor revival in the English-speaking world with various organisations in real life or on the internet promoting the activity.
Reisswitz rules (1824)
This summary is based on an English translation of a wargaming manual written by Georg Heinrich Rudolf Johann von Reisswitz in 1824.
Reisswitz's wargame was an instructional tool designed to teach battlefield tactics to Prussian officers. It therefore aimed for maximum realism. The participants were expected to be well-versed in how battles were waged in the early 19th century. This was particularly true for the umpire, who had to arbitrate situations which the rules did not cover using his own expertise.
Kriegsspiel is an open-ended game with no fixed victory conditions. The objectives of the respective teams are determined by the umpire and typically resemble the goals that an army might pursue in a real battlefield situation, such as expelling the enemy from a certain defensive position or inflicting a certain number of casualties.
The game is played between two teams and one umpire. Either team can have any number of players, but Reisswitz recommended 4 to 6 players each and that they be equal in size. The players in a team will divide command of the troops between them and establish a hierarchy. Only the umpire needs to be fully familiar with the rules, as he manipulates the pieces on the map and computes the outcomes of combat, whereas the players describe what they want their troops to do as if they were issuing orders to real troops in the field.
Materials
The materials required include:
Rectangular pieces that represented various kinds of troop formations
Rulers and dividers
Dice
A topographical map (recommended scale is 1:8000)
A rulebook
Note paper
Supplemental sheets of paper to track casualties and other information
The map represents the battlefield. Troop formations on the battlefield are represented on the map by little rectangular pieces. In Reisswitz's time, these pieces were made of lead, but modern reconstructions typically use plastic or wood. Each piece is painted with markings that denotes what kind of unit it represents (cavalry, infantry, etc.) and the team it belongs to. The dimensions of each piece match the dimensions of the actual troop formation it represents, to the same scale as the map. Thus, each piece occupies an area on the map proportional to the space the actual troop formation would occupy in the field.
Order of play
The umpire establishes the scenario of the game. He decides what the tactical objectives of the respective teams are, what troops they are provided with and how those troops are initially deployed on the battlefield. The umpire will then assign each team the appropriate troop pieces for their units. If there are multiple players in a team, the teammates will divide control of their troops and establish a hierarchy of command in a way that should resemble Prussian military doctrine, subject to the umpire's approval.
Players do not speak to each other. Instead, they communicate with their teammates and the umpire through written messages. This is so that the enemy team cannot hear their plans. This is also so that the umpire can delay or block messages if he feels the circumstances on the battlefield warrant it. In the early 19th century, officers in the field communicated over long distances through messengers (there was no radio in those days). Messengers needed time to reach the recipient, and could be delayed or intercepted by the enemy. The umpire can simulate this problem by holding on to a player's message for a round or two before giving it to the recipient, never giving it, or even give it to the enemy.
Likewise, the players command their imaginary troops through written orders, which they submit to the umpire. The players are not allowed to manipulate the pieces on the map themselves — that is for the umpire to do. The umpire will move the pieces across the map according to how he judges the imaginary troops would interpret and execute the players' orders.
The umpire places pieces on the map only for troops which he judges are visible to both sides. If a unit disappears from the enemy army's line of sight, the umpire will remove the piece from the map and keep it aside. Naturally, this means the participants must keep a mental track of the positions of troops whose pieces are not on the map.
The players themselves may be represented on the battlefield with pieces that represent officers and their bodyguards. The positions of the officers on the battlefield affects how the players can communicate with each other and the troops. Officers can be slain in battle like any other soldier, and if that happens the player ceases to participate in the game.
The course of the game is divided into turns, which are executed simultaneously for both sides. A turn represents two minutes of time. Thus, in a turn the troops can perform as many actions as they realistically could in two minutes of time, and Reisswitz's manual provides some guidelines. There is, for instance, a table which lists movement rates for the various troop types under different conditions, e.g. in a turn, a cavalry squadron can move 400 paces over open ground, 250 paces through light forest, and 100 paces up inclines.
Combat
The umpire uses dice to determine how much damage that attacking units inflict upon the enemy. The dice designed by Reisswitz are of unique design, with each face displaying a multitude of numbers and symbols that denoted different damage scores, measured in points, for different situations. There are five dice:
Die I is used to determine ranged damage inflicted by line infantry and skirmishers fighting in the open, hand-to-hand combat results when both sides are even, and whether a howitzer attack sets a village on fire.
Die II is used to determine ranged damage by skirmishers firing from cover, and hand-to-hand combat results when the odds are 3:2.
Die III is used to determine damage inflicted by artillery under good conditions.
Die IV is to determine hand-to-hand combat results when the odds are 3:1.
Die V is used to determine damage inflicted by artillery under bad conditions, and hand-to-hand combat results when the odds are 4:1.
Each unit has a point value which represents how many points of damage the unit in question can absorb before "dying". In modern gaming parlance, this "point value" is analogous to "hitpoints". The number of hitpoints a unit has is determined by the type of unit, the number of men in it, and their formation. For instance, a cavalry squadron with 90 riders has 60 hitpoints, and a line infantry half-battalion with 450 men has 90 hitpoints. Individual cavalry riders are "tougher" than infantrymen (1.5 hitpoints per rider vs 0.2 hitpoints per infantryman) because they moved faster and in looser formations, which meant a barrage of fire inflicted fewer casualties on them.
In most cases, a piece is simply removed from the map when it has lost all its hitpoints. An exception to this is line infantry. Line infantry had a special function in early 19th century warfare. On the battlefield, infantry stood close together in long lines facing the enemy. A key tactical purpose of a line of infantry was to obstruct the advance of enemy troops. When the line suffered casualties, this resulted in the formation of gaps through which enemy troops could slip through. If the defender didn't have reserve infantrymen with which to plug the gaps, this was a disaster, as then the enemy could move through the gaps to isolate and flank his troops. To represent this phenomenon on the game map, the game provides "exchange pieces" for infantry half-battalion pieces. An exchange piece resembles a regular half-battalion piece but is marked with the fraction or , which signifies that the half-battalion in question has lost either one sixth or two sixths of its men. The exchange pieces are commensurately smaller in length. So if a half-battalion piece in a line of such pieces is replaced with an exchange piece, this will create a gap in the line. Furthermore, a half-battalion piece is removed from the map when it loses half of its hitpoints, because a half-battalion that had lost half of its men was considered ineffective in combat (and typically the men just fled the battlefield).
To track hitpoint loss, Reisswitz's original manual provided sheet of paper called the "losses table". The losses table is divided into columns for line infantry, tirailleurs, jagers, cavalry, and artillery. Each column has a series of numbered dots. At the start of the game, the umpire shall stick one pin for each piece on the map in the first dot of the appropriate column. For instance, if the Red Army begins with three infantry pieces and two cavalry pieces, the umpire will stick three pins in the first dot in the infantry column and two pins in the first dot in the cavalry column. Generally, the dot a pin is stuck in represents how many damage points the corresponding unit has accumulated. When a unit takes damage, the umpire will move the corresponding pin down its column to the appropriate dot. If a pin reaches the bottom of the column, then the corresponding piece is removed from the map, or in the case of line infantry, replaced with an exchange piece. For instance: if a cavalry squadron suffers 10 points of damage, the umpire will move the corresponding pin ten dots down the cavalry column. If the pin reaches the 60th dot in the column, the cavalry unit has suffered a fatal level of casualties, and the umpire will then remove the corresponding piece from the map.
Tschischwitz rules (1862)
Tschischwitz's version of Kriegsspiel was very much like Reisswitz's version, but it incorporated new advances in technologies and tactics. For instance, by 1862 the Prussian army had transitioned from muskets to breech-loading rifles and hence troops could inflict casualties at up to 900 paces instead of a mere 400. Whereas Reisswitz used a unique set of dice, Tschischwitz used conventional gaming dice; his manual provided tables with which to translate dice rolls into combat outcomes.
Tschischwitz's game did not use line infantry exchange blocks. By 1862, Prussian battle doctrine had moved away from line infantry tactics to an emphasis on wider deployments. To represent this, the 1862 game represents infantry companies individually with their own blocks, so exchange blocks for battalions are no longer required. Rules for deploying skirmishers were also updated to reflect the newer tactics.
Whereas Reisswitz's manual prescribed just one map around which all the participants were gathered, Tschischwitz's manual proposed the option of having multiple maps: one for the umpire which displayed the positions of all troops, and one for each team with displayed only those troops which the respective team could see; and the teams would be placed in separate rooms with their respective maps so that they could not see the other team's map nor the umpire's map.
Verdy du Vernois' flexible approach (1876)
In his 1876 book, Contribution to Wargaming, Verdy du Vernois illustrated his concept of free Kriegsspiel with a long transcript of a game. A noted difference between classic Kriegsspiel and Verdy's approach is that the players had conversations with the umpire instead of communicating with written messages. Verdy's insight was that the only elements that were essential to Kriegsspiel were the umpire and hidden information.
See also
Military simulation
Footnotes
Bibliography
(translation by Bill Leeson, 1989)
External links
Kriegsspiel News Web site dedicated to the original game of Kriegsspiel
International Kriegsspiel Society (formerly the Southern California Kriegsspiel Society) Online community dedicated to hosting Kriegsspiel games in person and online using various systems including traditional and modified.
Modern publishers of Kriegsspiel rules
Wargames
Military education and training in Germany
Prussian Army
Games and sports introduced in the 19th century |
4215779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangechi%20Mutu | Wangechi Mutu | Wangechi Mutu (born 1972) is a Kenyan-born American visual artist, known primarily for her painting, sculpture, film, and performance work. Born in Kenya, she has lived and established her career in New York City for more than twenty years. Mutu's work has directed the female body as subject through collage painting, immersive installation, and live and video performance while exploring questions of self-image, gender constructs, cultural trauma, and environmental destruction and notions of beauty and power.
Background and education
Mutu was born in 1972 in Nairobi, Kenya. She was educated at Loreto Convent Msongari (1978–1989), and later studied at the United World College of the Atlantic, Wales (I.B., 1991). Mutu moved to New York in the 1990s, focusing on Fine Arts and Anthropology at The New School for Social Research, and Parsons School of Art and Design. She earned a BFA degree from Cooper Union for the Advancement of the Arts and Science in 1996 and a master's degree in sculpture from Yale School of Art in 2000.
Art
Mutu's work crosses a variety of mediums, including collage, video, performance, and sculpture, and investigates themes of gender, race, and colonialism. Her work, in part, centers on the violence and misrepresentation experienced by Black women in contemporary society. A recurring theme of Mutu's work is her various depictions of femininity. Mutu uses the feminine subject in her art, even when the figures are more or less unrecognizable, whether by using the form itself or the texture and patterns the figure is made from. Her use of otherworldly depictions for women, many times shown in a seemingly sexual or sensual pose, brings about discussion of the objectification of women. Specifically, Mutu addresses the hyper-objectification of black female bodies and has used an otherworldly nature to reiterate the fictitious nature of society's depictions of black women. Whether through delicate lined patterns or familiar feminine builds, Mutu's various ways of representing feminine qualities is said to enhance the strength of the images or the significance of the issues presented. Many of Mutu's artworks are known to be interpreted in contradictory ways, both seen as complicit to problematic society and as hopeful for future change in society. It's also been said that Mutu's use of such intentionally repulsive or otherworldly imagery may help women to step away from perfection as it is presented in society and instead embrace their own imperfections and become more accepting of the flaws of others as well. In her Sentinel series which has been active from 2016 until now, she creates regal and fierce abstract female forms made from clay, wood and various found materials.
In an interview with the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia curator, Rachel Kent, she states, "I try to stretch my own ideas about appropriate ways to depict women. Criticism, curiosity, and voyeurism lead me along, as I look at things I find hard to view – things that are sometimes distasteful or unethical". Mutu frequently uses "grotesque" textures in her artwork and has cited her mother's medical books on tropical diseases as an inspiration, stating that there is "nothing more insanely visually interesting and repulsive than a body infected with tropical disease; these are diseases that grow and fester and become larger than the being that they have infected, almost."
Mutu is able to enact personal and cultural transfigurations by transitioning from painting to sculpture and back again. Mutu says " This transition was so powerful because I used my mind as an object maker – I think I always painted like a sculptor." In Mutu's collage work she began to respond to western advertisement and beauty standards: "I began an ongoing critique and an intellectual an actual vandalization of those images, which were violating me by rendering me invisible."
Works
Exhuming Gluttony: A Lover's Requiem (2006)
Mutu has exhibited sculptural installations. In 2006, Mutu and British architect David Adjaye collaborated on a project. They transformed the Upper East Side Salon 94 townhouse in New York into a subterranean dinner-party setting entitled Exhuming Gluttony: A Lover's Requiem. Furs and bullet holes adorned the walls while wine bottles dangled in a careless chandelier-like form above the stained table. The table's multiple legs resembled thick femurs with visibly delicate tibias, and the whole space had a pungent aroma. The artists strove to show a moment of gluttony as she stated, "I wanted to create a feast, a communing of minds and viewers Something has gone wrong, there is a tragedy or unfolding of evil". This vicious hunger was seen as a connection between images of The Last Supper, the climate of the current art-buying world, and the war in Iraq.
Suspended Playtime (2008)
Another installation of Mutu, Suspended Playtime (2008) is a series of bundles of garbage bags, wrapped in gold twine as if suspended in spiders' webs, all suspended from the ceiling over the viewer. The installation makes reference to the common use of garbage bags as improvised balls and other playthings by African children.
Sketchbook Drawing (2011–12)
As a visual artist, Mutu takes inspiration from fashion and travel magazines, pornography, ethnography, and mechanics. In 2013, at the Nasher Museum of Art, Mutu showed her sketchbook drawings for the first time ever in her retrospective exhibition, Wangechi Mutu: A Fantastic Journey. The books consisted of strangely attractive, yet grotesque human figures fused with animals, plants, or machines.
The End of Eating Everything (2013)
In 2013, Wangechi Mutu's first-ever animated video, The End of Eating Everything, was created in collaboration with recording artist Santigold, commissioned by the Nasher Museum of Art. The video was animated by Awesome + Modest.
Nguva na Nyoka (2014)
In 2014, Mutu's art was on display at an exhibition entitled Nguva na Nyoka, at Victoria Miro Gallery in London. At the exhibition's opening night, Mutu displayed a performance piece, wherein guests were encouraged to consume custom-made Wangechi Mutu chocolate mermaids. The guests could obtain a mermaid only by "snapping a photo of their first bite, lick, taste", operating as a commentary on "the public consumption of brown bodies".
The Seated series (2019)
In 2019, Mutu created bronze statues (titled The Seated I, The Seated II, The Seated IV) for the exterior niches of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The statues seated women were displayed from September 9, 2019 through January 12, 2020.
MamaRay (2020)
In 2020 Mutu completed her large bronze sculpture, MamaRay, commissioned by the Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University.
Filmography
Mutu's artistic oeuvre also embraces film and video installations as media, and the artist has produced a number of films such as Amazing Grace (2005) in the collections of Pérez Art Museum Miami, Eat Cake (2012), The End of eating Everything (2013), and My Cave Call (2021).
Exhibitions
Mutu's work has been exhibited at galleries and museums worldwide including the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, The Contemporary Austin (Texas), the Miami Art Museum, Tate Modern in London, Centre for Fine Arts in Brussels, the Studio Museum in Harlem in New York, Museum Kunstpalast in Düsseldorf, Germany, the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, and the Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University. Her first solo exhibition at a major North American museum opened at the Art Gallery of Ontario in March 2010.
She has held one-person shows at the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia; Deutsche Guggenheim, Berlin; the Brooklyn Museum of Art; Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; Staatlichen Kunsthalle Baden-Baden, Germany; Wiels Contemporary Art Center, Brussels; the Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, North Carolina; the Block Museum of Art at Northwestern University, Illinois; and Miami Art Museum.
On 21 March 2013, she held her first United States solo exhibition, Wangechi Mutu: A Fantastic Journey at Nasher Museum of Art. The exhibition Wangechi Mutu: A Fantastic Journey subsequently traveled to the Brooklyn Museum's Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art in October 2013.
She participated in the 2008 Prospect 1 Biennial in New Orleans and the 2004 Gwangju Biennale in South Korea. Her work has been featured in major exhibitions including Greater New York at the P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York and the Barbican Centre in London, and USA Today at the Royal Academy in London.
In Fall 2013, the creative team of Wangechi Mutu took part in the main project of the 5th Moscow Biennale of Contemporary Art.
In 2014, she participated in The Divine Comedy. Heaven, hell, purgatory from the perspective of African contemporary artists at the Museum of Modern Art (MMK), Frankfurt / Main, curated by Simon Njami. Mutu was awarded the 2014 United States Artist Grant.
In 2014 Mutu founded the charitable organization Africa's Out! located in Brooklyn New York. The organization is devoted to supporting artists whose work subverts traditional narratives around Africa and its diaspora.
In 2015, Mutu participated in the 56th Venice Biennale's International Art Exhibition entitled All The World's Futures, curated by Okwui Enwezor at the Giardini and the Arsenale venues. She also participated in the Dak'Art Biennial, the Kochi-Muziris Biennial, the Paris Triennial: Intense Proximity, the International Center of Photography's Triennial, and the Moscow Biennale.
In 2016, her film The End of Carrying All was exhibited at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas. The film depicts Mutu crossing a landscape with a basket filling up with consumer goods as the landscape changes, ending with a volcanic eruption. In 2016, she also participated in several group exhibits, including "Blackness in Abstraction," at the Pace Gallery in New York, "Black Pulp!" at the International Print Center in New York, and "Africans in America" at the Goodman Gallery in Johannesburg.
In 2017, her black bronze sculpture Water Woman, of which depicted a nguva, was placed at the foot of the amphitheater at the Contemporary Austins fourteen-acre sculpture park at Laguna Gloria. Based on the East African folklore of the half woman and half sea creature is a representation of histories narrative of women as cunning temptresses. The exhibition ran from September 23, 2017, to January 14, 2018, when it became a part of the museum's permanent collection.
In September 2019, four female bronze sculptures by Mutu, "Seated I, II, III, and IV", were placed to occupy the empty niches always intended to house free-standing sculpture in the facade of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the first instillation and exhibition ("The New Ones Will Free Us" September 9 – Fall 2020) of what will be an annual commission meant to feature work by contemporary artists. Mutu has described the bronze statues as having been inspired by caryatids. Initially, the sculptures were planned to be displayed until January 12, 2020, but their exhibition was extended to June 8, 2020, and further extended to Fall 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. "Seated I" and "Seated III" were subsequently acquired for The Met's permanent collection. A discussion with her about the exhibit and contemporary times was recorded on July 28, 2020 for a series entitled Women and the Critical Eye.
In January 2020, Mutu was part of Artpace's exhibit entitled Visibilities: Intrepid Women of Artpace. Curated by Erin K. Murphy, Visibilities not only kicks off Artpace's 25th anniversary celebration, but also highlights past artists from their International Artist-in-Residency program, such as Mutu who was a resident there in Fall of 2004. Mutu's 12-panel series Histology of the Different Classes of Uterine Tumors, made up of collaged digital prints, was exhibited in the Hudson Showroom.
In 2021 Mutu had a solo exhibition at the Storm King Art Center, New Windsor, New York, USA. According to the Art Center, Mutu's outdoor works assert "the existence and cultural relevance of ancient original myths, fables, and histories."
In 2023 the New Museum featured a retrospective of Mutu's work. The solo exhibition entitled Mutu: Intertwined, features roughly 115 pieces ranging from early in her career to brand new pieces showcasing various mediums and techniques including sculpture, video, collage, and more.
Influence of Afrofuturism and Africanfuturism
Mutu's work has been called "firmly Africanfuturist and Afrofuturist", as exemplified in her piece, The End of Eating Everything (2013). In her 2013–2014 installation at the Brooklyn Museum, the curatorial placard accompanying her work A'gave described Afrofuturism as "an aesthetic that uses the imaginative strategies of science fiction to envision alternate realities for Africa and people of African descent". For critics, Mutu's imagined alternate realities for Africa through the medium of science fiction definitively situated Mutu in the genre of Afrofuturism.
Specific elements of Mutu's art that situate her within this genre include her amalgamations of humans and machines, or cyborgs, within collages such as Family Tree as well as the film The End of Eating Everything. Additionally, Mutu's work consistently involves intentional re-imaginations of the African experience. In Misguided Little Unforgivable Hierarchies, she examines social hierarchy and power relationships through the medium of collage, for "rankings of peoples have historically been constructed around fabricated racial and ethnic categories". In Family Tree, as in many of her works, Mutu deliberately constructs both a past and a future within the single figure through displaying diagrams from antique medical journals as well as mechanical images.
Collections
Her work is included in the collections of the Museum of Modern Art, New York; The Whitney Museum of American Art; The Studio Museum in Harlem; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago; the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; Pérez Art Museum Miami, the Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University; the Brooklyn Museum; Tate Modern in London.
Publications
Adrienne Edwards, Courtney J. Martin, Kellie Jones, Chika Okeke-Agulu, Wangechi Mutu (2022), Phaidon Press, London.
Isaac Julien and Claudia Schmuckli, Wangechi Mutu: I Am Speaking, Are You Listening?, Distributed Art Publishers, New York, 2021
Trevor Schoonmaker, Wangechi Mutu: A Fantastic Journey (2013), Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham.
Awards
On 23 February 2010, Wangechi Mutu was honoured by Deutsche Bank as its first "Artist of the Year". The prize included a solo exhibition at the Deutsche Guggenheim in Berlin. Entitled My Dirty Little Heaven, the show traveled in June 2010 to the Wiels Center for Contemporary Art in Forest, Belgium.
In 2013, Mutu was awarded the BlackStar Film Festival Audience Award for Favorite Experimental Film in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for her film The End of Eating Everything, as well as the Brooklyn Museum Artist of the Year, Brooklyn, New York.
In 2014, Mutu won the United States Artist Grant (2014).
Philanthropy
In 2014, Mutu founded the charitable organization Africa's Out! to "advance radical change through the power of art and activism, particularly supporting artists, initiatives and institutions from Africa and its Diaspora that celebrate freedom of creative expression."
References
Further reading
Wangechi Mutu, as told to Faye Hirsch. "The Women". Art in America, November 2013. New York: Brant Publications, Inc. pp. 54–55.
"Grotesque Sensations: Carnivalising the Sensorium in the Art of Wangeshi Mutu" by Bettina Papenburg in: B. Papenburg and M. Zarzycka (eds.) Carnal Aesthetics. London: I.B.Tauris, 2013. .
Preziuso, Marika. “Is America Really Full? A Conversation with Wangechi Mutu.” Transition, no. 129, 2020, pp. 26–45. Accessed 1 Apr. 2021.
External links
Official website
1972 births
Living people
Afrofuturists
American collage artists
Kenyan women artists
Sculptors from New York City
American women painters
People educated at Atlantic College
People educated at a United World College
Yale School of Art alumni
American women printmakers
Cooper Union alumni
21st-century American women artists |
4216117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E233%20series | E233 series | The is a commuter and suburban electric multiple unit (EMU) train type developed by East Japan Railway Company (JR East) from the earlier E231 series and the E531 series design. The first train was introduced in December 2006 for use on the Chūō Line (Rapid), followed by the E233-1000 series variant in 2007 for use on the Keihin–Tōhoku and Negishi lines, the E233-3000 series outer-suburban variant in December 2007 for use on the Tōkaidō Main Line, and narrow-bodied E233-2000 series variant for Jōban Line and Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line through services. Further variants were built for use on the Keiyō Line, Yokohama Line, Saikyō Line, and Nambu Line.
Design
The E233 series features two identical sets of main equipment in case of failure. This is the first JR East stock to feature such backup measures. The E233 series provides for better accessibility for the disabled, and is designed to be more comfortable to ride overall than previous stock. The height between the platform and the train was reduced from the of the 201 and 209 series to only . Seats are wide, compared to the of the 201 series and of the 209 series. For standing passengers the handle straps have been lowered by compared to older train models.
This stock also features an air filtration system to remove unpleasant smells. It also features liquid crystal display information screens and automatic announcement system similar to those previously used on the E231 series rolling stock on the Yamanote Line.
The stock is the first JR East stock to use full-colour LEDs for the destination indicators on the sides of the carriages. This is due to the fact that the Chūō Line has numerous types of services, and colour-coding will help passengers board the correct train.
Variants
E233-0 series: 4-, 6-, and 10-car sets used on the Chūō Rapid, Ōme, Itsukaichi, Hachikō and Fujikyuko lines since 26 December 2006
E233-1000 series: 10-car sets used on the Keihin–Tōhoku and Negishi lines since 22 December 2007
E233-2000 series: 10-car sets used on Jōban Line/Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line through services since 9 September 2009
E233-3000 series: 5- and 10-car sets used on Tōkaidō Main Line, Takasaki Line, and Utsunomiya Line outer-suburban services since March 2008, and on Ueno–Tokyo Line and Shōnan–Shinjuku Line through services since March 2015
E233-5000 series: 4-, 6-, and 10-car sets used on the Keiyō Line since 1 July 2010
E233-6000 series: 8-car sets used on the Yokohama Line since 16 February 2014
E233-7000 series: 10-car sets used on the Saikyō Line, Kawagoe Line and Rinkai Line since 30 June 2013, and on Sōtetsu Shin-Yokohama Line and Sōtetsu Main Line services since November 2019
E233-8000 series: 6-car sets used on the Nambu Line since 4 October 2014
E233-8500 series: One converted former E233-0 series 6-car set used on the Nambu Line from 2017
E233-0 series
The first E233-0 series train was introduced in December 2006 for use on the Chūō Line (Rapid), Ōme, and Itsukaichi lines, replacing the aging 201 series trains. The fleet of 688 E233-0 series vehicles (10-car x 42, 6-car x 28, 4-car x 25) was delivered by the end of March 2008; 42 ten-car sets (T1-T42), and 15 6+4-car sets (H43-H57) were constructed primarily for use on the Chūō Line (but also on through services to the Ōme, Itsukaichi, Hachikō, and Fujikyuko Lines), while ten four-car sets (Ao458-Ao467) and 13 six-car sets (Ao658-Ao670) were constructed for the Ōme Line and Itsukaichi Line. In March 2008 and April 2015, sets Ao458+Ao658 and Ao459+Ao659 were transferred to the Chūō Line and renumbered H58 and H59 respectively.
An additional five cars were built at JR East's Niitsu factory in 2009 to replace five cars from six-car set Ao661 which were withdrawn due to accident damage in 2008.
In 2017, six-car set Ao670 was modified to become the E233-8500 series set N36 for use on the Nambu Line alongside the fleet of E233-8000 series sets.
Green Car introduction
In April 2018, JR East announced plans to add two bilevel Green (first class) cars to 58 ten-car and six-car E233-0 series EMU sets operated on the Chūō Line and through-service trains to the Ōme Line, and to install toilets on these sets ahead of Green car introductions. To compensate for train shortages brought on by toilet installations, a new ten-car set (T71) was delivered from J-TREC's Yokohama facility on 11 June 2020.
The Green cars will be positioned as cars 4 and 5 in the newly formed 12- and 8-car sets. Green car services were initially due for introduction in fiscal 2020, but this was deferred to 2023. On 27 April 2022, JR East announced that Green car introductions would again be postponed until the end of fiscal 2024 or later as a result of the global chip shortage.
The first Green cars, SaRo E233-1 and SaRo E232-1, were delivered from J-TREC's Yokohama facility from 12 July 2022. These cars use double-leaf sliding doors with a width of to allow for reduced boarding times at stations; previous designs were built using single-leaf doors with a width of . Test runs of the new Green cars are being conducted as of July 2022, starting with set H57.
Interior
Formations
10-car Chūō Line sets
As of 11 June 2020, 43 ten-car sets (T1-T42 and T71) are based at Toyoda Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
MoHa E233-200 and MoHa E233-400 cars each have one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and MoHa E233 cars has two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space (also car 4 in sets equipped with a toilet).
Car 4 has a universal design toilet (in sets equipped with a toilet).
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
6+4-car Chūō Line sets
As of 22 March 2020, 17 6+4-car sets (H43-H59) are based at Toyoda Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Car 4 has one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and cars 2 and 8 each have two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space (also car 4 in sets equipped with a toilet).
Car 4 has a universal design toilet (in sets equipped with a toilet).
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
6+4-car Ōme Line and Itsukaichi Line sets
As of 1 October 2018, ten six-car sets (Ao660-Ao669) and eight four-car (Ao460-Ao467) sets are based at Toyoda Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars. Depending on the specific schedule and line, trains are operated in 4-, 6-, or 6+4-car sets.
Car 4 has one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and cars 2 and 8 each have two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
E233-1000 series
A fleet of 83 ten-car E233 series sets was introduced on the Keihin–Tōhoku and Negishi lines from autumn 2007, replacing the 209 series EMUs previously used from 1993 until 2010. The first set was delivered in August 2007. The main difference over the earlier E233-0 series is the absence of passenger door controls.
The first set entered service on 22 December 2007.
Two cars of set 177, KuHa E233-1077 and SaHa E233-1277, were involved in a derailment in February 2014 and were scrapped in December 2016. The remaining eight cars of set 177 were scrapped in April 2018.
Interior
Formation
As of April 2018, 82 ten-car sets were based at Saitama depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
E233-2000 series
This is a narrow-bodied variant for Jōban Line and Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line through services, replacing the 203 series and 207-900 series EMUs previously used. The first ten-car set was delivered to Matsudo Depot from Tokyu Car Corporation in May 2009. It entered service on 9 September 2009.
These trains have also been used on through services on Odakyu lines since 2016. In 2017 the last set was delivered (set number 19 built by J-TREC). Like all trains running into the Tokyo Subway, these trains are fitted with emergency doors in the driver's cabin to allow for the evacuation of passengers in the Chiyoda Line's tunnels.
The floor height is lowered to for improved accessibility, compared to for the earlier 203 series and for the 207-900 series and 209-1000 series trains.
Interior
Formation
, the fleet consists of 19 ten-car sets, numbered 1 to 19, based at Matsudo Depot, and formed as shown below, with car 1 at the southern end.
Cars 3 and 9 are equipped with one single-arm pantograph. Car 6 is equipped with two.
Build details
The delivery dates for the fleet are as shown below.
E233-3000 series
The E233-3000 sub-series are outer-suburban sets formed as ten-car sets containing two bilevel Green (first-class) cars and five-car sets. Sets are allocated to Kōzu and Oyama depots for use on Tōkaidō Main Line services between Tokyo and Numazu, as well as Shōnan–Shinjuku Line and Ueno–Tokyo Line through services to and from the Takasaki Line and Utsunomiya Line. The first sets entered service on 10 March 2008, and were introduced to the Shōnan–Shinjuku Line from the start of the new timetable on 14 March 2015.
Exterior
Formations
Early 10-car sets
, 2 ten-car sets (E-01 and E-02) are based at Kōzu depot in Kanagawa Prefecture and formed as shown below with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Cars 3 and 9 each have one single-arm pantograph, and car 7 has two (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Cars 1, 5, and 10 each have a toilet (universal design in cars 1 and 10).
Car 8 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
Cars 4 and 5 are bilevel Green Cars.
Standard 10-car sets
, 15 ten-car sets (E-03 to E-17) are based at Kōzu depot in Kanagawa Prefecture and 16 ten-car sets (U618 to U633) are based at Oyama depot in Tochigi Prefecture. They are formed as shown below with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Cars 7 and 9 each have one single-arm pantograph, and car 3 has two (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Cars 1, 5, 6, and 10 each have a toilet (universal design in cars 1 and 10).
Car 8 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
Cars 4 and 5 are bilevel Green Cars.
5-car sets
, 21 five-car sets (E-51 to E-67, E-71 to E-74) are based at Kōzu depot in Kanagawa Prefecture and 18 five-car sets (U218 to U235) are based at Oyama depot in Tochigi Prefecture. They are formed as shown below with two motored ("M") cars and three non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Car 13 has two single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 11 and 15 have a wheelchair space.
Car 11 has a universal design toilet.
Interior
Standard-class cars have longitudinal seating with dark blue moquette seat covers. Cars 1, 2, 9, 10, 14, and 15 include transverse four-person seating bays. The two Green (first class) bilevel cars (cars 4 and 5) have rotating, reclining seats arranged 2+2 abreast. Seats on the lower deck and end saloons have crimson moquette seat covers, and seats on the upper deck have dark blue moquette.
The first 10+5-car E233-3000 series outer suburban set (E01 + E51) for use on the Tōkaidō Main Line was delivered from the Tokyu Car factory in Yokohama to Kōzu Depot in November 2007. This includes two bilevel Green cars. It entered revenue service on 10 March 2008, and was initially limited to use on the Tōkaidō Main Line between Tokyo and Atami. The second set (10+5-car set E02 + E52) was delivered in February 2010.
Subsequent sets (originally numbered NT1 + NT51 onward) were delivered to Tamachi Depot from September 2011, entering service from 12 November 2011. These sets incorporate a number of minor changes, including moving the second reserve pantograph from car 7 to car 3, and the addition of a toilet in car 6.
Takasaki-based ten- and five-car sets were introduced on Takasaki Line services between Ueno and Maebashi, replacing 211 series sets, and on Ryōmō Line services from 1 September 2012.
E233-5000 series
These are 10-car and 4+6-car sets for use on the Keiyō Line. The fleet consists of 20 ten-car sets and four 4+6-car sets, with the first sets entering revenue service on 1 July 2010, replacing the 201 series, 205 series, and E331 series EMUs previously used.
The first E233-5000 series set, set 501, was delivered from JR East's Niitsu factory on 10 March 2010. In addition to services on the Keiyō Line between Tokyo and , these sets are also used on Sotobō Line through services between Soga and , Uchibō Line through services between Soga and , and on Tōgane Line through services between and .
Formations
10-car sets
, 20 ten-car sets are based at Keiyō Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Cars 3 and 9 each have one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and car 5 has two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
6+4-car sets
, four 6+4-car sets are based at Keiyō Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Car 3 has one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and cars 5 and 9 each have two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
Interior
E233-6000 series
These are eight-car sets operated in the Yokohama Line since 16 February 2014. As with the earlier Saikyo Line E233-7000 series variant, the trains use LED interior lighting.
A total of 28 sets were delivered. The first E233-6000 series set, H016, was delivered from the J-TREC Yokohama factory in January 2014. The first set built at the J-TREC Niitsu factory, set H001, was delivered on 22 January 2014.
Interior
Passenger accommodation consists of longitudinal bench seating with individual seat widths of . Each car has priority seating at one end, and cars 1 and 8 have a wheelchair space.
Formation
As of September 2014, 28 8-car sets are based at Kamakura depot are formed with four motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Car 4 has two single-arm PS33D pantographs (one reserve), and car 7 has one.
Build details
The build details for the fleet are as shown below.
E233-7000 series
These are ten-car sets operated on Kawagoe Line/Saikyō Line/Rinkai Line services between and since 30 June 2013. A total of 31 ten-car sets were delivered, displacing the fleet of 205 series EMUs previously used. These trains are the first E233 series variant to use LED interior lighting.
An additional seven more sets were delivered in 2019, in preparation for through running services between the Saikyō Line and the Sōtetsu Main Line via the newly built Sōtetsu Shin-Yokohama Line, bringing the total number of trains up to 38 ten-car sets. They began use on Sōtetsu Line services on 30 November 2019.
Interior
Passenger accommodation consists of longitudinal bench seating with individual seat widths of .
Formation
As of 1 January 2020, all 38 ten-car sets are based at Kawagoe Depot and formed with six motored ("M") cars and four non-powered trailer ("T") cars.
Cars 3 and 9 each have one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and car 5 has two PS33D single-arm pantographs (one is only used as a backup, the other gets normal use).
Cars 1 and 10 have a wheelchair space.
Car 9 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
History
The first E233-7000 series set (number 101) was delivered to Kawagoe Depot from JR East's Niitsu factory on 9 April 2013. The first set built by J-TREC (set number 122) was delivered from the manufacturer's Yokohama factory in July 2013.
E233-8000 series
These are six-car sets introduced on Nambu Line services between and from 4 October 2014. A total of 35 E233-8000 series sets (210 vehicles) are on order, displacing the previous fleet of 205 series and older 209 series EMUs.
Interior
Passenger accommodation consists of longitudinal bench seating throughout, with wheelchair spaces in cars 1 and 6. As with the earlier Yokohama Line E233-6000 series and Saikyo Line E233-7000 series variants, the trains use LED interior lighting.
Formation
As of 2015, 35 six-car sets are based at Nakahara depot and formed with four motored ("M") cars and two non-powered trailer ("Tc") cars.
Notes
Car 4 has one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and car 2 has two single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Cars 1 and 6 have a wheelchair space.
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
History
The first set, N1 was delivered from the J-TREC factory in Niitsu in August 2014. It entered revenue service from 4 October 2014.
Build details
The delivery dates for the fleet are as shown below.
E233-8500 series
In 2017, six-car Itsukaichi Line/Ōme Line set Ao670 was modified and renumbered at Omiya Works to become the sole E233-8500 series set N36 for use on the Nambu Line alongside the fleet of E233-8000 series sets and replacing the last remaining 209 series EMU still in use there. In addition to receiving the Nambu Line livery carried by the E233-8000 series fleet, modifications included adding a WiMAX antenna and replacing the original LCD passenger display screens with screens. Set N36 entered service on the Nambu Line on 15 March 2017.
Formation
As of March 2017, 1 six-car set is based at Nakahara depot and formed with four motored ("M") cars and two non-powered trailer ("Tc") cars.
Car 4 has one PS33D single-arm pantograph, and car 2 has two single-arm pantographs (one used as a backup).
Car 1 has a wheelchair space.
Car 4 is designated as a mildly air-conditioned car.
Accidents
Keihin–Tōhoku Line E233-1000 series set 177 was derailed in a collision with a track maintenance vehicle in the early hours of 23 February 2014 near Kawasaki Station while on an empty stock train operating from Sakuragicho to Kamata. The first two cars of the ten-car train derailed, with the first car ending up on its side. The train was carrying no passengers, and the driver and conductor escaped with minor injuries. The two derailed cars from the set involved, KuHa E233-1077 and SaHa E233-1277, were formally withdrawn in December 2016.
E233 series derivatives
Export
PNR EM10000 class, a Philippine standard gauge commuter where the body of this class is derived from.
Local
E129 series, an E233 series derivative for use on local services in the Niigata area
Odakyu 4000 series, an E233-2000 series derivative
Sotetsu 11000 series, an E233 series derivative
Toei 10-300 series, an E233 series derivative (Batches 3 onwards)
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Chūō Line press release
Keihin–Tōhoku Line press release
Jōban Line press release
Electric multiple units of Japan
East Japan Railway Company
Train-related introductions in 2006
J-TREC multiple units
Kawasaki multiple units
1500 V DC multiple units of Japan
Tokyu Car multiple units |
4216437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%BCnstadt | Grünstadt | Grünstadt () is a town in the Bad Dürkheim district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany with roughly 13,200 inhabitants. It does not belong to any Verbandsgemeinde – a kind of collective municipality – but is nonetheless the administrative seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Leiningerland.
Geography
Location
The town lies in the Leiningerland (the lands once held by the Counts of Leiningen) on the northern border of the Palatinate Forest about 10 km north of Bad Dürkheim, 15 km southwest of Worms and 20 km northwest of Ludwigshafen at the point where the German Wine Route crosses the Autobahn A 6. Grünstadt belongs to the “Unterhaardt” a landscape with submediterranean character as the geographer Christophe Neff wrote in his paysages blog. The town's landmark mountain is the so-called Grünstadter Berg.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Grünstadt amounts to 529 mm, which is very low, falling into the lowest tenth of the precipitation chart for all Germany. Only at 7% of the German Weather Service's weather stations are even lower figures recorded. The driest month is February. The most rainfall comes in June. In that month, precipitation is 1.7 times what it is in February. Precipitation hardly varies throughout the year, however. At 15% of the weather stations, lower seasonal swings are recorded.
Constituent communities
Besides the main town of Grünstadt itself, which has some 10,000 inhabitants, there are two outlying centres within town limits, the Ortsteile of Asselheim (about 1,300 inhabitants) and Sausenheim (about 2,300 inhabitants).
History
Early history until first documentary mention
The Grünstadt area is an ancient centre of culture. Within the town's modern limits, hunters from the Middle Stone Age, about 5000 BC, left their traces, as did farmers from the New Stone Age about 2000 BC. From the Bronze Age (1500-750 BC), Hallstatt times (700-450 BC) and La Tène times (450 BC – 1) come both remnants of settlements and archaeological finds.
In Roman times until AD 450 there were three inhabited centres, one of which was near today's Peterspark. This is one of Grünstadt's “seeds”, and it was also settled in the Merovingian and Frankish periods. It was here that the Romans buried their dead, the Christian Franks later taking over. There were quite likely a Roman burgus (a Latin word borrowed from the Germanic whose root also yields the German Burg ["castle"] and the English borough [originally "fortified town"]; it was a kind of small, towerlike fortification) and a temple complex that later became a church. Also here, about 800, the Alsatian Weißenburg Monastery (which lay in what is now Wissembourg, France) owned a church consecrated to Saint Peter with a parish estate – the latter of which gives a clue as to the town's importance – a lordly estate with great outbuildings and 14 farms.
At roughly the same time, there still stood a southern centre in the area around the Martinskirche (Saint Martin's Church) that belonged to the Glandern (or Lungenfeld) Monastery near Metz, and it is believed that there was a further settlement between the two. Grünstadt at first developed gradually from these three centres, one of which – apparently the southernmost – went back to a Frankish clan chief by the name of “Grimdeo” or “Grindeo”. Although the first syllable in the town's name – grün – happens to be the German word for “green”, modern linguistic research has unambiguously shown that the name does not derive from this root at all. The green municipal coat of arms introduced in the 19th century and the town colours, green and white, that were derived from it in 1928 therefore lack any historical basis.
875 to 1500
Grünstadt – or rather the southern settlement around Saint Martin's – had its first documentary mention on 21 November 875, when King Louis the German restored this estate to the Glandern Monastery near Metz. The place was already called Grinstat in this document, and the ownership rights already went back further, as they were only being restored. This settlement, therefore, was considerably older than that 875 document, which had nothing to say about the estate's buildings. It is assumed to have been a monastery estate with a small church, out of which grew first a Benedictine priory which was newly built several times, and then today's Protestant Saint Martin's Church, with the burial place of the House of Leiningen-Westerburg.
At roughly the same time, about 900, the northern settlement belonging to the Weißenburg Monastery (near today's Peterspark) was recorded in that institution's directory of holdings, even describing it in depth, with the holdings already mentioned (church, parish estate, manor house and many buildings), which point to an already great age for the village even then. The settlement later vanished or perhaps moved to the south to join the other two. Saint Peter's Church (Peterskirche) and its graveyard, whose beginnings could well go back to Roman times, were nevertheless kept on into the 19th century as a religious centre and necropolis, even though they lay far outside the later town of Grünstadt. In 1819, the church, which was more than 1,000 years old, was torn down, and the ancient patronage "St. Peter" then passed to the Capuchin church (now the Catholic parish church). The graveyard was closed only in 1874 and converted into today's Peterspark.
In 1155, Grünstadt was named in a document from Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa in which he donated the holdings there to the Ramsen Monastery. In 1218, Pope Honorius III confirmed the Glandern Monastery's ownership of Saint Martin's Church in Grünstadt. In 1245, Pope Innocent IV certified the Höningen Monastery's holdings in Grünstadt. About 1300, the Weißenburg Monastery enfeoffed the Counts of Leiningen with its holdings in Grünstadt.
1500 to 1700
From 1481 to 1505, Grünstadt belonged to the Palatinate, and then once again to the Leiningens, who in 1549 were also enfeoffed with the Glandern Monastery's holdings there (the southern part around Saint Martin's). It was not until 1735 that the Leiningens managed to acquire this property formerly belonging to the Glandern or Lungenfeld Monastery as their own.
In 1556, Emperor Karl V granted the municipality market rights, raising it from village to market town. The year before this one, Count Philipp I of Leiningen had introduced the obligatory practice of the Lutheran faith in his county and forbidden the other Christian denominations, namely Roman Catholicism and Reformed.
In 1573, Henry III of France, then King of Poland, spent the night in Grünstadt.
In 1596 and 1597, the Plague raged in Grünstadt, killing more than 250 inhabitants in a short time.
Beginning in 1610, the Counts were having coins struck in Grünstadt, and established a mint.
In the time of the Thirty Years' War, the town was spared any major destruction; however, the Plague once again beset the townsfolk between 1625 and 1629. Many of them died or left the area. For a time, Spanish soldiers were quartered in Grünstadt.
In 1673, Count Ludwig Eberhardt of Leiningen converted to the Catholic faith and thereafter granted Catholics tolerance in his county. He had the Capuchins come there, who soon founded a monastery from which arose today's Catholic parish church and the monastery building.
In 1689, in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), the French burnt the town down, which is why there are only a few traces of pre-Baroque architecture in town.
It was only in 1689 that the long overdue reform to the Gregorian Calendar was implemented in Grünstadt and the rest of the county, heretofore having been boycotted for religious reasons because it was instituted by Pope Gregory XIII.
1700 to 1800
Since both the family castles of Altleiningen and Neuleiningen had also been burnt down, the two comital lines both settled in Grünstadt beginning in 1700, made it a common residence town and took turns ruling. The Altleiningers had the old Glandern monasterial estate near Saint Martin's Church expanded into a palatial residence and called it Schloß Unterhof, while the Neuleiningers built the stately Baroque Schloß Oberhof not far away. For about 100 years, Grünstadt remained the capital of the county of Leiningen-Westerburg.
In 1726, the first Reformed church service was held in Grünstadt. In the time that followed, the Reformed Church's followers were subjected to great oppression, mainly by the Lutheran clergy. They were not allowed to build their own church, and they were even forbidden to bury their dead at the local graveyard. They were instead buried in a barn, where the community also met for its services. The Reformed Schultheiß and master tanner Johann Peter Schwartz, especially, put himself forth as the group's spokesman to defend against this treatment. He wrote to royalty (for instance, King Frederick II of Prussia) and eventually forced formal tolerance of the Reformed Church in the county. Not far from his house (which still bears the initials “JPS” today), on the same spot where their old barn had stood, the Reformed Church's followers built themselves their own church in 1740, which is now known as the Friedenskirche (“Church of Peace”).
In 1729, Count Georg Hermann at Leiningen-Westerburg-Altleiningen founded a Latin school in Grünstadt, as a successor institution to the monastery school at Höningen (nowadays an outlying centre of Altleiningen). From this arose first a Progymnasium and then today's Leininger-Gymnasium.
In the War of the First Coalition, there was fighting in the area around Grünstadt between 1793 and 1795 with the occupiers changing among the Austrians, the French and the Prussians. In 1794, the man who would later become Field Marshal von Blücher, but who at this time was a colonel in the Prussian Red Hussars, procured quarters in the town. According to local lore, he rode his horse up the outdoor stairway that then stood at the (now former) town hall and made a speech to the townsfolk.
1800 to 1900
In 1797, with the Treaty of Campo Formio – itself permanently confirmed by the Treaty of Lunéville (1801) – Grünstadt passed as a cantonal seat to the French Department of Mont-Tonnerre (or Donnersberg in German), whose seat of government was in Mainz. Grünstadt remained French until 1815.
After Napoleon's downfall, Grünstadt passed in 1816 to the Kingdom of Bavaria. It remained Bavarian for exactly 130 years, until the new state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded in 1946.
On 14 June 1829, King Ludwig I of Bavaria and his consort Queen Therese visited the town as part of their tour of the Palatinate. The king attended a High Mass at the Capuchin church and was ceremoniously welcomed by Father Bernhard Würschmitt.
On 14 June 1849 – twenty years to the day later – Prince William of Prussia, who would later be Wilhelm I, German Emperor, rode in pursuit of the irregular, revolutionary partisans (Freischärler) coming from Kirchheimbolanden with his staff through what is now called Jakobstraße (street) and Hauptstraße. At the Stadthaus (now known as the Old Town Hall) he made a stop and an officer from his entourage spoke from the outdoor stairway to the townsfolk on the topic of “Loyalty towards Prince and Fatherland”, whereafter the military detachment pushed on towards the south.
In 1873, Grünstadt acquired a rail link on the Bad Dürkheim - Monsheim railway with its own station.
1900 to present
In the First World War (1914–1918), 164 inhabitants of Grünstadt fell, in whose memory in 1937 a templelike memorial was built in a prominent spot on the Grünstadter Berg.
In the Second World War (1939–1945), Grünstadt was repeatedly the target of air raids to which, among others, Saint Martin's Church fell victim. As a result of wartime events, 360 people lost their lives, soldiers and civilian victims of bombings. As well, the town's very old and important Jewish community was swept away in this time by deportation and emigration, although the Baroque synagogue and the Jewish graveyard east of town have been preserved.
On 20 March 1945, American troops occupied the town area; the French military followed them on 7 July 1945.
In the wake of the dissolution of the Frankenthal district, after having belonged to the same district for more than 150 years, Grünstadt passed in 1969 to the new district of Bad Dürkheim; the vehicle licence prefix changed from “FT” to “DÜW”. On 7 June 1969, the formerly autonomous localities of Asselheim and Sausenheim were amalgamated with the town.
Religion
History of Grünstadt’s Jewish community
Grünstadt was once one of the most important Jewish communities in the Palatinate. In 1827, more than ten percent of the town's population was Jewish. From 1608 to 1933, the Jewish community's history can be traced in an unbroken line. The persecution of Jews by the Nazi régime sealed the community's fate. It simply ceased to exist.
Today
In 2007, 44.4% of the inhabitants were Evangelical and 25.5% Catholic. The rest belonged to other faiths or adhered to none.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 28 honorary council members, who were elected at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the full-time mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayors
From 2002 to 2009, the directly elected mayor was Hans Jäger (SPD). Since 1 January 2010, however, Klaus Wagner (CDU) has been the new Mayor of Grünstadt.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads:
The town's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Vert an eagle displayed argent armed and langued gules among four Greek crosses in fess Or, two in chief, and two in base.
The arms were approved in 1890 by the Bavarian prince regent Luitpold and go back to a court seal from 1456.
The eagle is taken from the arms borne by the Counts of Leiningen, but the reason for the crosses’ inclusion as a charge is less clear. They might refer to the Weißenburg Monastery, which was also a landlord in the town. The tincture vert (green) is canting for the town's name, Grünstadt, which means “Greentown”, although research has shown that the name does not derive from this German word.
Town partnerships
Grünstadt fosters partnerships with the following places:
Hermsdorf, Saale-Holzland-Kreis, Thuringia
Greenville, Ohio, USA
Carrières-sur-Seine, Yvelines, France
Bonita Springs, Florida, USA
Westerburg, Westerwaldkreis, Rhineland-Palatinate
Peine, Peine, Lower Saxony (friendship agreement with outlying centre of Asselheim)
Culture and sightseeing
Regular events
In Grünstadt, the tradition of the Stabausstecken has been kept, or has at least been given new life. This is a festival, traditionally held in early March, in which winter is burnt in effigy, an event known as the Winterverbrennung (“Winter Burning”).
Economy and infrastructure
Transport
Thanks to the A 6 motorway (from Saarbrücken to Mannheim), Grünstadt is well linked not only to the national motorway network in Germany, but also to France and the Czech Republic. Grünstadt station also lies on the Palatine Northern Railway, which in parts runs alongside the German Wine Route in the southerly direction to Neustadt an der Weinstraße. Furthermore, the re-opened Eis Valley Railway runs into the Palatinate Forest to the Eiswoog (a reservoir and hiking destination) near Ramsen. Formerly this line reached all the way to Enkenbach. The Lower Eis Valley Railway also branches off the Palatine Northern Railway in Grünstadt.
Authorities
Besides its own town administration, Grünstadt harbours the administration of the Verbandsgemeinde of Leiningerland, even though the town itself is in neither this nor any other Verbandsgemeinde.
Courts
Grünstadt has at its disposal an Amtsgericht that belongs to the state court region (Landgerichtsbezirk) of Frankenthal and the high state court region (Oberlandesgerichtsbezirk) of Zweibrücken.
Hospital
In the town is found a 200-bed hospital with an adjoining day clinic (12 places). The sponsor is the Bad Dürkheim district.
Education
Besides three primary schools, a Hauptschule and a Realschule, there is the Leininger Gymnasium, which is steeped in tradition and rooted in the old Höningen Latin School.
Sundry
Grünstadt is known for its AAFES bakery. In Grünstadt it is called the depot (AAFES Depot Grünstadt).
Notable people
Sons and daughters of the town
19th century
Jacob Frankel (1808–1887), the first Jewish military chaplain in the United States
Franz Umbscheiden (1825–1874), German revolutionary and journalist
Adolf Stern (1849–1907), chess player
20th century
Erwin Lehn (1919–2010), German pianist and Orchestra leader (SWR's Südfunk-Tanzorchester)
Ludwig Wilding (born 1927), painter and object artist
Wolfgang Heinz (born 1938), politician (FDP)
Marco Haber (born 1971), footballer
Silvio Adzic (born 1980), footballer
Notable people associated with the town
Friedrich Christian Laukhard, (1757–1822), writer, attended the Leininger-Gymnasium.
Christophe Neff, forest fire expert and geographer, lives in Grünstadt.
Boris Brejcha, DJ and music producer, lives in Grünstadt.
Ludwig Kratzer, (1913-2001), WWII prisoner of war
Further reading
Walter Lampert:"1100 Jahre Grünstadt", Stadtverwaltung Grünstadt, 1975 (aus diesem Werk, das alle bis dahin erschienenen stadtgeschichtlichen Publikationen zusammenfasste, sind sämtliche Angaben im Abschnitt "Geschichte" entnommen.)
Emil Müller: "Grünstadt und Umgebung", Schäffer Verlag, Grünstadt, 1904
Hans Feßmeyer: "Geschichte von Grünstadt", Verlag Emil Sommer, Grünstadt, 1939
Dr. Ludwig Blankenheim: "Aus Grünstadts vergangenen Tagen", Rheinpfalz Verlag, Ludwigshafen, 1955
Walter Lampert: "Bewegte Jahre - Grünstadt 1918-1948", Verlag Emil Sommer, Grünstadt, 1985
Kyra Schilling, Odilie Steiner, Elisabeth Weber: Jüdisches Leben in Grünstadt. Grünstadt 2007, (Ökumenischer Friedenskreis der prot. Kirchengemeinde Grünstadt)
References
External links
Town’s official webpage
Verbandsgemeinde Grünstadt-Land
Outlying centre of Asselheim
Outlying centre of Sausenheim
About early mediaeval topography of Grünstadt
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Palatinate Forest
Bad Dürkheim (district)
Palatinate (region)
Holocaust locations in Germany |
4216502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deidesheim | Deidesheim | Deidesheim () is a town in the Bad Dürkheim district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany with some 3,700 inhabitants.
The town lies in the northwest of the Rhine-Neckar urban agglomeration and since 1973 it has been the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Deidesheim. The most important industries are tourism and winegrowing. Deidesheim's two biggest folk festivals revolve around wine: the Geißbockversteigerung (literally “Billygoat Auction”) and the Deidesheimer Weinkerwe (wine fair).
Geography
Location
Deidesheim lies in the Palatinate in the Weinstraße region (as distinct from the Deutsche Weinstraße – or German Wine Route – itself). Deidesheim's municipal area stretches for , covering parts of three morphological and ecological units, namely the Palatinate Forest, the Weinstraße region's uplands and the Upper Rhine Plain: 23.9% of this area is used for agriculture, mainly grape-growing for wine, 67.9% of it is wooded, 0.6% is water, 7.4% is residential or transport-related and 0.1% of the land fits under none of these headings. The town itself lies some 1 000 m east of the Haardt. Deidesheim is found in the northwest of the Rhine-Neckar urban region in the middle of the Palatinate wine region. Running through the town is the German Wine Route.
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, these are Forst an der Weinstraße, Friedelsheim, Rödersheim-Gronau, Niederkirchen bei Deidesheim, Meckenheim, Ruppertsberg, Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Lindenberg, Lambrecht, Frankeneck, Neidenfels and Wachenheim an der Weinstraße.
Climate
Macroclimatically, Deidesheim is characterized by the surrounding relief: The Palatinate Forest to the west forces the main, rainbearing winds from the west and southwest upwards, whereupon they cool and their water condenses, raining down on the Palatinate Forest. The now drier air then falls at the forest's east side warming back up, making for a drier, less cloudy climate with warmer temperatures to the forest's lee. The number of summery days (that is, with temperatures reaching or surpassing 25 °C) far exceeds the countrywide average by 40 or 50 each year, and the yearly precipitation level of just over is below the threshold, set at , for German regions that are considered dry.
From a local climatic point of view, Deidesheim is part of the climatically favoured foothill zone of the Weinstraße region. With a mean elevation of 235 m above sea level at the forest's edge, the lands of the Deidesheim area reach down to some 130 m above sea level at the lower mid-slope area in the foothill zone. The outliers of the Madental and the Sensental, as well as those of the Einsteltal (dales) northwest of Deidesheim, form outflow pathways for the cold winds coming from the Haardt. Also affecting the local climate are small hollows and dells in which cold air can gather.
Climatic conditions in Deidesheim have almost Mediterranean traits as witnessed by ripening figs, almonds and bitter oranges in the area. Profiting especially from the favourable climate are warmth-loving crops such as grapes. This favours the growing of Qualitätsweine, which is done here on a grand scale. With its long growing season, the wine can age fully. Thoroughly fermented wines have a high quality, and frost damage is rare.
Geology
The most important event in the Deidesheim area's, and indeed the whole eastern Palatinate's, geological development was the rifting and downfaulting relative to the Haardt of the Upper Rhine Plain, whose onset was some 65,000,000 years ago in the Lower Tertiary and which has lasted until today. The area before the Haardt range was over time scored by brooks that rise in the Palatinate Forest. During the ice ages, there were gradual solifluction on the slopes and also wind abrasion. These processes led to a transformation of the original surface relief in whose wake an alluvial fan with embanked or eroded terraces formed. In colder, drier phases of the Würm glaciation, loess beds came into being through the influence of the wind, whereby the loess gathered mostly at faults and alee of small hollows.
West and northwest of Deidesheim, the Voltziensandstein that predominates in the middle of the Palatinate Forest from the Triassic represents the oldest stratigraphic unit within Deidesheim's limits, the so-called “Rehberg Layer”. In Deidesheim's southwest, Pleistocene deposits can be found; these came into being some 1,500,000 years ago. In the north, Deidesheim is girded by a band of Pliocene deposits that formed some 3,000,000 years ago. In Deidesheim's east are found the newest stratigraphic units in the Holocene deposits. With foreign material such as basalt, bricks and dung, man has altered the natural soil composition. The most important soil types in the Deidesheim area are various rigosols, rendzina, parabraunerde and limestone-bearing terra fusca.
History
Founding and Early Middle Ages
The name Deidesheim had its first documentary mention in 699, although the town now standing in its current location only arose, it is believed, in the 13th century around the former Deidesheim Castle. From 770 onwards, there is proof of winegrowing here. In the early 19th century, Deidesheim was the first place in the Palatinate whose wineries were growing Qualitätsweine. Today, Deidesheim is one of the Palatinate wine region's biggest winegrowing centres.
The first time when the placename was mentioned in 699 was in a document in which the Lotharingian nobleman Erimbert bequeathed estates under his ownership to Weißenburg Monastery in Alsace (in the now French town called Wissembourg). Further mentions came in documents from Fulda Abbey (770 or 771) and Lorsch Abbey (791), in the latter of which Deidesheim is already named as being a winegrowing centre. Documentary mentions from the Early and High Middle Ages, however, deal with various settled places that lay not in the town's current place, but rather elsewhere within a greater municipal area around Deidesheim. Frankish burial grounds in and around the neighbouring municipality Niederkirchen bei Deidesheim lead to the conclusion that there were individual settlements at least as long ago as the 6th century, some of which were forsaken. The first documentary mention is believed to refer to neighbouring Niederkirchen. When today's Deidesheim arose as a settlement next to Niederkirchen is not known with any certainty; the two centres only became separate from each other when the Prince-Bishop's castle, Schloss Deidesheim, was built, and for this the first evidence dates from 1292. The first confirmed distinction between Niederdeidesheim – today's Niederkirchen – and Oberdeidesheim – today's Deidesheim – only came in the 13th century.
In the Early Middle Ages, Deidesheim was mainly under the aforesaid Erimbert's and his descendants’ ownership. Among them were a few Counts of Metz, Upper Lotharingian dukes and Salians, and they had holdings in Deidesheim for almost 400 years, until Henry IV (1056) and Margravine Matilda of Tuscany (1086) gave up their Deidesheim holdings and donated them to the Cathedral Chapter or Saint Guy's Monastery in Speyer. Not long thereafter, Deidesheim passed into the Speyer Prince-Bishops’ hands and thenceforth belonged to the Prince-Bishopric of Speyer. Other, but less important, holdings in Deidesheim in the Early Middle Ages were owned by Lorsch Abbey and the Bishopric of Worms.
Further development
As the Speyer Bishopric's records confirm, Deidesheim quickly grew into an economically important centre to which contributed financially strong Jews, who had their own community with a synagogue in Deidesheim until the pogroms during the time of the plague about 1349.
Along with this development arose the townsmen's wish to offer the flourishing community greater protection against attacks, which was granted at last by Bishop of Speyer Gerhard von Ehrenberg in 1360 when he granted Deidesheim fortification rights. On Saint Valentine's Day 1395, the Bohemian King Wenceslaus (Wenzel in German, Václav in Czech) granted Deidesheim town rights. These were given – as was then customary – not to the town itself, but to the Bishop of Speyer, since he was the town's lord.
The fortification could only afford the town limited protection in wartime. The town was conquered in 1396, 1460, 1525, 1552, several times in the Thirty Years' War, and in 1689 and 1693 (Nine Years' War), sometimes getting plundered and set on fire in the process.
Early modern times
With the invasion by French militiamen, Deidesheim passed to France in 1794. Although it was reconquered by Imperial troops in 1795, it soon fell again to France, and remained under French administration until Napoleon's overlordship collapsed in 1814. Under the new territorial order prescribed by the Congress of Vienna, Deidesheim belonged, beginning in 1816, to the Kingdom of Bavaria as part of the Rheinkreis (“Rhine District”), which from 1838 bore the name Pfalz (“Palatinate”). In 1819, the outlying centre of Niederkirchen, long considered to be a constituent community of Deidesheim, was demerged from the town, and has been an autonomous municipality ever since.
In 1865, Deidesheim acquired a connection on the new Bad Dürkheim - Neustadt an der Weinstraße railway line. Around the start of the 20th century, there were other industrial achievements. In 1894, Deidesheim got a gasworks, in 1896 electric lighting, in 1897 a local electrical network, and in 1898, the town was connected to a public watermain. Furthermore, in the late 19th century, all important estates had a telephone connection.
20th century onwards
After the First World War in 1918, French troops moved into town. Troop units were billeted here. This persisted until France withdrew from the Rhineland in July 1930. In August 1921 there was a great forest fire near Deidesheim in which some 300 ha of woodland burnt, of which 130 ha was in the Deidesheim town forest. To fight the fire, all Deidesheim's men aged 17 and over were recruited. Quenching the fire took three long days and nights.
During the Second World War, Deidesheim was mostly spared any great war damage at first, but then, on 9 March 1945, not long before the war ended, the local infirmary was struck by a bomb, which killed nine people. On 21 March 1945, American troops moved into town, ending the war, at least in Deidesheim.
With the formation of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate in 1946, Deidesheim found itself within it, and no longer part of Bavaria. In 1968, Deidesheim was given the designation Luftkurort (“climatic spa”). Along with Forst an der Weinstraße, Ruppertsberg, Niederkirchen and Meckenheim, Deidesheim has since 1972 formed the Verbandsgemeinde of Deidesheim.
Great media coverage came Deidesheim's way with all the visits by high-ranking foreign state visitors invited to Deidesheim by then Chancellor Helmut Kohl between 1989 and 1997. Often, state guests were served the dish (“Palatine Sow’s Stomach”). The state guests who came with Kohl were British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (April 1989), Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev (November 1990), Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney (June 1991), US Vice President Dan Quayle (February 1992), Czech President Václav Havel (October 1993), Russian President Boris Yeltsin (May 1994), British Prime Minister John Major (October 1994) and the Spanish King and Queen Juan Carlos I and Sofía (July 1997).
Since early 2009, Deidesheim has been the first town in Rhineland-Palatinate to be a member of the Cittàslow movement, among whose goals are improving the quality of life and enhancing cultural diversity in towns.
Population development
From the Middle Ages has come no information about Deidesheim's population. In part, considerable swings in the 17th and early 18th centuries in the number of inhabitants were the consequences of the many wars; foremost among these were the Thirty Years' War and the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession) in their effect on Deidesheim's population. In the rather more peaceful later 18th century, Deidesheim underwent a great upswing in its population, bringing the total number of inhabitants to nearly three times what it had been towards the end of the Middle Ages. After the next quick swelling of the population leading up to the Palatine Uprising in 1849, Deidesheim's population did not rise significantly in the latter half of the 19th century – which was rather at odds with the general trend in Germany in this time of industrialization – and even shrank around the start of the 20th century, leaving Deidesheim with fewer inhabitants in 1917 than it had had in 1823. The main cause of all this was people from Deidesheim emigrating to North America. Only years after the First World War did Deidesheim's population again reach its mid-19th-century level. After the Second World War, the number of inhabitants again began to rise sharply and for the first time broke the 3,000 level. Over the last few years, the population has been relatively steady and amounts to some 3,800 inhabitants.
Religion
St. Ulrich’s Catholic parish
On the same spot where now stands Saint Ulrich's Parish Church once stood a chapel consecrated to Saint Mary. This chapel was first mentioned about 1300. Owing to the transfer of the parish seat from Niederkirchen bei Deidesheim to Deidesheim sometime between 1437 and 1460, a new, roomier church building was needed. Work on the new building began before the middle of the century, about 1444. In 1473, the work had been finished as far as it could be. Saint Ulrich's Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Ulrich) with its 62.7 m-tall, somewhat crooked tower is the only major church building in the Palatinate to have been built in the mid 15th century.
The Reformation could not prevail in the Prince-Bishopric of Speyer, to which Deidesheim belonged and whose bishop was Deidesheim's town lord (cuius regio, eius religio). Nevertheless, it wrought considerable difficulties with the allocation of the Deidesheim rectorate in the latter half of the 16th century. In 1750 and 1820 respectively, the branch parishes of Niederkirchen and Forst were split away from Deidesheim again and were raised to fully-fledged parishes in their own right. For a short time after the French annexation of the Rhine’s left bank, the parish of Deidesheim belonged to the Bishopric of Mainz before being ceded back to the Bishopric of Speyer.
Under the new order of deaconries made in the diocese of Speyer in 1980, Deidesheim was assigned to the deaconry of Bad Dürkheim. Owing to a dearth of priests, Saint Ulrich’s parish has since 2006 formed a parish union with Saint Margaret’s (Forst) and Saint Martin’s (Ruppertsberg) whose seat is in Deidesheim. In late 2007, 2,165 of Deidesheim’s inhabitants were Catholic, which made them 56.87% of the population.
Evangelical parish
The Protestants’ share of Deidesheim's population was long very slight, with only four in the town in 1788. By 1863 that had risen to 38. In 1874 and 1875, the Protestant church arose from the conversion of a former barn. In 1891, this acquired a tower.
The number of Protestants in town also swelled after the Second World War with the arrival of refugees. Since 1957, Deidesheim has formed its own parish with Forst an der Weinstraße, Niederkirchen bei Deidesheim and Ruppertsberg; the places in Wachenheim an der Weinstraße used to also belong. The Deidesheim parish belongs to the Evangelical Church of the Palatinate (Protestant State Church), and since 1984 has had its own rectorate. In late 2007, 924 of Deidesheim's inhabitants were Evangelical, which made them 24.27% of the population.
Jewish community
As early as the High Middle Ages, Jews had a community with a synagogue in Deidesheim. The community was wiped out in the pogrom during the time of the plague in 1349 when all Deidesheim's Jews were slain and the synagogue passed into the Church's ownership. In the 16th century a new Jewish community was formed.
Because the prayer hall in use up to that time could no longer be used owing to disrepair, a new synagogue was built. As the persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany increased, many Jews felt forced to emigrate, shrinking and impoverishing the community. In 1935, the synagogue, which was in need of renovation, was sold. Seven Jews who were born or had long lived in Deidesheim were deported in 1940 under the so-called Bürckel-Wagner Action (they were both Gauleiters), even Mrs. Reinach, who had survived Camp Gurs; all were murdered in The Holocaust.
The former Jewish graveyard on Platanenweg is under town ownership. It is some 800 m² in area and is under monumental protection. All together, 95 gravestones from the time between the 18th and 20th centuries could be restored in 1946 after they were destroyed in 1938.
Politics
Coat of arms
The town's arms might be described thus: Azure a cross pattée humetty argent, in dexter chief and base sinister a mullet Or.
The German blazon mentions nothing about a bordure. The version shown at Heraldry of the World has none, and thus matches the blazon.
Deidesheim's oldest seal, from 1410, showed a cross that was not couped (that is, it reached the escutcheon’s edges, unlike the one in the current arms), standing for the Bishopric of Speyer, and only one mullet (star) in dexter chief, that is, in the upper part of the escutcheon on the dexter (armsbearer’s right, viewer’s left) side. It is believed that the mullet stood for Saint Mary, the patron of the now long-vanished Marienkapelle. With this seal, the Schultheiß, the council and the court of Deidesheim authenticated the documents that they issued. The seal bore the circumscription Gericht von Deidesheim (“Court of Deidesheim”). After Deidesheim's destruction in the Nine Years' War in 1693, a new seal was made. This one bore the circumscription Der * Stat * Deidesheim * Insigel. The heraldic device that it bore was the same as the arms still borne by the town now.
Town politics since the 19th century
Before the First World War
In the early 19th century in Deidesheim, an influential class of winery estate owners formed who always put forward the honorary mayor, even through to the Weimar Republic’s downfall, and were markedly overrepresented on town council. The actual structure of the town’s population at this time was not reflected on town council. After the First World War, the Bavarian Municipal Act of 1869 still applied at first and the 23-member council elected in 1914 stood unchanged. The last mayor, Ludwig Bassermann-Jordan, had been killed in the war after volunteering for service, and his deputy, Karl Kimich, was elected in his stead. At the next municipal election, though, he did not seek another term.
Weimar Republic
The most promising candidate to succeed Kimich was said to be Arnold Siben, whose father, Johann Julius Siben, had already been Deidesheim’s mayor from 1895 to 1905. Backing Siben was the Unparteiische Bürgerliste (“Independent Citizens’ List”), which itself brought Centre Party supporters and liberals together. The liberal to left-leaning Bürgerliste and the Volksliste, which was close to the SPD, fixed on the frontrunner, Josef Eid. Siben, however, could decide the election's outcome by himself, and he won a ten-year mandate.
While the 1920 and 1924 municipal elections went forth relatively quietly, the 1929 election was considerably more raucous. This stemmed from a proposal from the Mayor's Office to town council just before the election to raise Siben to full-time, professional mayor. Outrage was the response, for on the one hand, the electorate would thereby be bypassed, and on the other, many found the yearly salary of quite beyond the pale against the backdrop of the Great Depression, which had just broken out. Nonetheless, Siben got just enough votes from the Unparteiische Bürgerliste to become the professional mayor for the next five years. At the next council election, which came shortly thereafter and had an unusually high voter turnout, the Unparteiische Bürgerliste lost almost half its council members, many to the protest movement Fortschritt und Freiheit (“Progress and Freedom”), whose leader, Friedrich Schreck, rose to become the deputy mayor after Siben.
Nazi Germany
In Deidesheim, the Machtergreifung came mainly on 15 March – the Ides – 1933 in the form of a demonstration by several hundred people outside Siben's house. The crowd threatened to storm the house if Siben was not prepared to surrender the mayor's office. Siben thereupon declared to two town councillors who were there that he was resigning, all the while, however, reserving his rights. The mayoralty would then have fallen to the second mayor Friedrich Schreck; however, he would not have suited those now in power, as he had already twice been interned for resistance against the NSDAP. The Neustadt regional office eventually decreed on 20 March that the estate owner Friedrich Eckel-Sellmayr should be mayor; he had already held a seat on town council since 1924 as part of the Bürgerliste formed by the Left-Liberals and the commercial association. Eckel-Sellmayr held the mayoralty until the end of the Second World War in 1945.
After the Second World War
After the Americans had occupied Deidesheim towards the end of the war in March 1945, they appointed the retired headteacher Michael Henrich mayor; Ernst Fürst became his deputy. On 1 July 1948, Fürst took over the mayoralty for half a year. At the first town council elections after the Second World War on 15 September 1946, the CDU got 62% of the vote, and thereafter always earned over 50% of the vote in municipal elections, putting forth all mayors. At the next municipal election in late 1948, two voters’ groups entered the council for the first time. Thenceforth they played an important rôle in town politics and later joined forces as the Free Voters' Group.
On 1 December 1948, the CDU candidate Norbert Oberhettinger was elected mayor. After the owner of the Reichsrat von Buhl Winery, Karl Theodor Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg, died, Norbert Oberhettinger and his wife were killed in an accident on the way back from the baron's burial. Succeeding him to the mayoralty was the winery owner Erich Gießen, who held office until 1975. After him, Stefan Gillich, who at the time already held the mayoralty of the Verbandsgemeinde of Deidesheim, was elected. The current mayor, Manfred Dörr (CDU) was elected on 13 June 2004, succeeding Stefan Gillich. He furthermore won the 2009 municipal election in which nobody stood against him, earning 81.9% of the votes cast.
The latest municipal election's results, along with the changes in figures from the last one before that are set out in the table at right. These results give the CDU an absolute majority on town council.
Deidesheimers in state and Imperial politics
Many Deidesheim estate owners were able to use their strong financial bases for activities at higher levels of government. Beginning in the 1840s, Ludwig Andreas Jordan and Franz Peter Buhl gathered liberal politicians in their houses who were of the “Greater German” mindset. The composition of this “Deidesheim Circle” (Deidesheimer Kreis) changed often; to it belonged, among others, Adam von Itzstein, Ludwig Häusser, Heinrich von Sybel, Carl Theodor Welcker, Heinrich von Gagern, Karl Mathy, Friedrich Daniel Bassermann, Carl Joseph Anton Mittermaier and Georg Gottfried Gervinus. In March 1848, Buhl and Jordan sat in the Vorparlament in Frankfurt, a preparatory gathering for the Frankfurt Parliament, which neither one attended, Buhl because he was not elected and Jordan because he wanted to remain Mayor of Deidesheim. No later than the Second Schleswig War in 1864, the Deidesheim Circle's mindset had changed to a “Lesser German” one.
After the German Empire was founded in 1871, two Deidesheimers were elected as Members of the Reichstag: Ludwig Andreas Jordan, a Member until 1881, and , who held a mandate until 1893 and functioned for three years as Deputy Speaker of the Reichstag. He played a part in Bismarck's social and wine legislation. In Andreas Deinhard, Deidesheim also had another of its sons in the Reichstag as a Member. He held a mandate from 1898 to 1903. Buhl, Jordan and Deinhard were all members of the National Liberal Party.
Three Deidesheimers held seats in the Chamber of Imperial Councillors (Kammer der Reichsräte) of the Kingdom of Bavaria: Franz Armand Buhl (from 1885 to 1896), Eugen Buhl (from 1896 to 1910) and Franz Eberhard Buhl (from 1911 to 1918). In the Bavarian Chamber of Deputies (Kammer der Abgeordneten), eight Deidesheimers were represented all together: Andreas Jordan (from 1831 to 1843), Ludwig Andreas Jordan (from 1848 to 1852 and from 1863 to 1871), Franz Peter Buhl (from 1855 to 1861), Eugen Buhl (from 1875 to 1896), Franz Eberhard Buhl (from 1907 to 1911), Andreas Deinhard (from 1881 to 1904), Johann Julius Siben (from 1899 to 1907), and Josef Siben (from 1907 to 1920). Besides the eight resident Members, there were also two other Members of the Bavarian Chamber of Deputies who had been born in Deidesheim: Josef Giessen (from 1907 to 1918) and Franz Tafel (from 1840 to 1843, from 1849 to 1858 and from 1863 to 1869). The latter also had a seat in the Frankfurt Parliament.
After the Second World War, one more Deidesheimer went into state politics: Hanns Haberer, who was born in Bruchmühlbach and now lived in his wife's hometown, was Economics and Finance Minister from 1946 to 1947 in Rhineland-Palatinate’s first government and from 1947 to 1955 functioned as Secretary of State.
Town partnerships
Deidesheim maintains town partnerships with the following towns:
Saint-Jean-de-Boiseau, Loire-Atlantique, France
Bad Klosterlausnitz, Thuringia
Buochs, Nidwalden, Switzerland
Tihany, Veszprém County, Hungary
Consular representation
Deidesheim is home to the Honorary Consulate of the Republic of Togo.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
Saint Ulrich’s Parish Church
The Late Gothic Catholic Saint Ulrich's Parish Church was built between 1440 and 1480 as a successor to an older Chapel of Saint Mary. It is a three-naved groin-vaulted column basilica and the Palatinate's only major church building preserved from the mid 15th century. The church is counted among the most important witnesses to Late Gothic architecture in the Palatinate by the Bad Dürkheim district's catalogue of memorial sites.
Gasthaus zur Kanne
This inn was built about 1160 as an estate of the Cistercian Eußerthal Abbey to lodge and entertain travellers. From this branch location of the Abbey grew today's inn, whose innkeepers and leaseholders can be traced back in an unbroken line to the year 1374. The inn is therefore said to be the Palatinate’s oldest. Today the inn is run by the Wachenheim winery Weingut Dr. Bürklin-Wolf.
Castle Deidesheim
Castle Deidesheim (Schloss Deidesheim) was built in the 13th century when Deidesheim still belonged to the Prince-Bishopric of Speyer. It was likely the seed from which sprang today’s town of Deidesheim, and was the seat of the Speyer Episcopal administration. Because it has been destroyed twice, the castle has been subject to profound building alterations.
Heidenlöcher
On the Martensberg (mountain), some northwest of Deidesheim, are found the Heidenlöcher (singular: Heidenloch – “heathen holes”), the ruins of a refuge castle, which once offered Deidesheimers shelter to which they could flee in times of war. It is believed to have been built in the 9th or 10th century, but never used for its intended purpose. Its utterly ruined state today is merely from the ravages of time, not war.
Deidesheimer Spital
The Deidesheimer Spital is a short-term residence for seniors with a 500-year history full of changes. It was endowed by the Deidesheim knight Nikolaus von Böhl and served over time as both a civilian and military hospital. In an air raid on the Spital in the Second World War, nine people lost their lives. Since 1994 the Café Alt Deidesheim has belonged to it as a “meeting place of the generations”, as has the Gästehaus „Ritter von Böhl“ (inn), whose proceeds go to benefit the Spital.
Former synagogue
The former synagogue was built in the mid 19th century by the Jewish community. With its dissolution under Nazi Germany, the building was liquidated and used for a few decades as a storehouse. In the late 1980s, the building was placed under monumental protection and later bought by the town of Deidesheim. Since its renovation about the turn of the millennium, the former synagogue has been used for cultural events.
Historic Town Hall
The Historic Town Hall (Historisches Rathaus) was built in 1532. After sustaining heavy damage in the Nine Years' War, it was built, this time in the Baroque style. Its twin outdoor stairways with its “baldachin” porch come from 1724. The historic council chamber inside was done in Renaissance Revival style in 1912. Stained glass in the windows from the same year shows the coats of arms of resident landed families. In the building has been since 1986 the Museum für Weinkultur, whose exhibits reflect the history of winegrowing.
Fountains
The Geißbockbrunnen (“Billygoat Fountain”) from 1985 was created by sculptor Gernot Rumpf. It can be found in the Deidesheim Town Square (Stadtplatz) across from the Stadthalle (literally “town hall”, but actually an event venue) and follows the theme of the Geißbockversteigerung (see Regular events below), which is held in Deidesheim each year on Whit Tuesday.
The Andreasbrunnen (“Andrew’s Fountain”) on the Deidesheim Marketplace (Marktplatz) comes from 1851 and was endowed by Ludwig Andreas Jordan and his kin. It is named for his father Andreas Jordan (1775–1848), Deidesheim's former mayor and a trailblazer for producing Qualitätsweine in the Palatinate. The fountain was poured by the Gienanthsche Hütte (foundry) in Eisenberg and is based on Italian Renaissance models.
The Geschichts- und Brauchtumsbrunnen (“History and Tradition Fountain”) at the Königsgarten (“King’s Garden”) shows on the one hand important junctures in Deidesheim's history, such as the granting of town rights or the lordship of the Prince-Bishopric of Speyer, and on the other hand it recognizes local clubs who give themselves over to upholding traditions, such as the costume group and the Kerwebuwe (“kermis lads”). The fountain was created by sculptor Karl Seiter and finished in 2003.
Regular events
Geißbockversteigerung
The Geißbockversteigerung (literally “Billygoat Auction”) is a folk festival in the form of a historical game that is celebrated each year on the Tuesday after Whitsun. The festival began with an old agreement with the neighbouring municipality of Lambrecht under which each year to pay off debts for woodland and meadow rights within Deidesheim's limits, a billygoat had to be delivered by Lambrecht, which was then auctioned, with the proceeds going to Deidesheim's benefit. This historical situation grew over time into a folk festival.
Deidesheim wine fair
The Deidesheimer Weinkerwe is a wine festival, and with over 100,000 visitors is the town's biggest folk festival. It has been celebrated in its current form since 1972 and quickly grew into one of the biggest wine festivals along the German Wine Route. The festival is always held on the second and third weekends of August, each time from Friday to Tuesday. At the fair, wineries and clubs from throughout the Verbandsgemeinde run temporary bars.
Advent
The Deidesheimer Advent is a Christmas market held on the four weekends in Advent. It has been held since 1975. More than 100 sellers from Deidesheim and the surrounding area run stalls, which must stylistically fit into the market's whole theme. The handicrafts, such as goldsmithing, ceramic, textile, woodcarving and glassblowing crafts play an important rôle in the Deidesheimer Advent. For the mulled wine that is served then, only wines from the Verbandsgemeinde of Deidesheim may be used, which also applies to the wine fair.
Lesser events
The Pfälzer Mineralienbörse (“Palatinate Mineral Exchange”) has been held each year since 1971 on the weekend after Whitsun at the Stadthalle.
The Deidesheimer Orgelherbst (“Organ Autumn”), a series of concerts under church musician Elke Voelker, has been held every year since 1996 in October over several Sundays at the Catholic Parish Church.
Twice each year, the Film- und Fotobörse (“Film and Photo Exchange”) is held at the Stadthalle at which objects from the fields of photography, film and projection are displayed and traded.
Museums
The Museum für Weinkultur is housed at the Historic Town Hall; it was opened in 1986. The museum's exhibited pieces reflect wine's cultural history and influence in fields such as literature, science, art and religion. The museum is financed by, among other things, contributions from the vineyard leaseholders at the Prominenten vineyard in the Deidesheimer Paradiesgarten.
The Deutsches Film- und Fototechnik Museum is found slightly slantwise across the street from the Historic Town Hall in the rooms of the Deidesheimer Spital; it was opened in December 1990. In some 300 m² are displayed more than 4,000 exhibits from all epochs of camera technology. The museum receives donated objects from, among others, Agfa, Kodak and Arri, but also from television operations such as ZDF and Südwestrundfunk.
Deidesheimer Turmschreiber
The Stiftung zur Förderung der Literatur in der Pfalz (“Foundation for Furthering Literature in the Palatinate”), in existence since 1978, invites well known men and women of letters every one to five years so that they can write “with a Palatine bearing” and thereafter publish the fruits of their labour. The Foundation is financed by the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung (“German Academy for Language and Poetry”), Südwestrundfunk, the state of Rhineland-Palatinate and the town of Deidesheim. Candidates for the office are selected by the Foundation's members. Because the writers, at least symbolically, reside in a little turret in the Castle Park (Schlosspark) of the former Castle Deidesheim (Schloss Deidesheim) during the term of their creative endeavours, they are called Turmschreiber (“Tower Writers”). The fund for this is endowed with €7,500. Recipients get a free stay in Deidesheim for a duration of four weeks and a three-bottle-a-day allowance in wine and become a vineyard leaseholder in the Prominenten vineyard in the Deidesheimer Paradiesgarten. Following is a list of all the “Tower Writers” thus far, their works, and the year in which each was in Deidesheim:
Wolfgang Altendorf (1978; “Wie ein Vogel im Paradiesgarten”)
Rudolf Hagelstange (1980; “Liebesreim auf Deidesheim”)
Ludwig Harig (1982; “Zum Schauen bestellt”)
Herbert Heckmann (1987; “Sieben Weinpredigten”)
Walter Helmut Fritz (1991; “Die Schlüssel sind vertauscht”)
Manuel Thomas (1992; no publication yet)
Hans-Martin Gauger (1996; no publication yet)
André Weckmann (1998; “Der Geist aus der Flasche und die Leichtigkeit der Zuversicht”)
Emma Guntz (2001; “Ein Jahr Leben”)
Fanny Morweiser (2003; “Deidesheimer Elegie oder wie man keinen Krimi schreibt”)
Bernd Kohlhepp (2006; “Der Ring des Piraten”)
Economy and infrastructure
Winegrowing
Vineyards
Deidesheim vineyards belong to the Palatinate wine region, and also to the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstraße winegrowing area (Anbaubereich). Local vineyard names used to be borne in ownership documents that described the plots’ locations and their boundaries. Some 170 vineyards and plots of greatly varying size are known to have been within the limits of Deidesheim, Niederkirchen, Forst and Ruppertsberg; they stretched partly across municipal boundaries as they now exist (they were not assigned until 1829). With the amendment to the Rhineland-Palatinate Wine Law in 1971, the Deidesheim vineyards were newly organized. Today there are eleven “single locations” – Einzellagen – and one winemaking appellation – Weingroßlage: the Einzellagen are Grainhübel, Herrgottsacker, Hohenmorgen, Kalkofen (whose name, oddly enough, means “lime kiln”), Kieselberg, Langenmorgen, Leinhöhe, Letten, Mäushöhle, Nonnenstück and Paradiesgarten; the Weingroßlage is called Hofstück. All together, the Einzellagen have an area of 523.58 ha; the Weingroßlage, to which belong many other Einzellagen in other centres, has an area of 1 401 ha. No longer to be found since the reorganization are names such as Geheu, Hahnenböhl, Kränzler, Reiß, Rennpfad, Vogelsang and Weinbach.
Winegrowing history
Long before there were domesticated grapes, wild grapes grew in the area around Deidesheim. Witnessing this are remains of vines from some 4,500,000 years ago found about north of Deidesheim near. It is said to be certain, however, that wine was being made in Central Europe no earlier than the beginning of the Christian Era. Whether it was being done at Deidesheim at this time is a matter of speculation: Finds of wine amphorae and a barrel-shaped glass jug from Roman times near Deidesheim and Ruppertsberg do indeed suggest that wine was being enjoyed at this time. Unambiguous evidence of any winegrowing right near Deidesheim in Roman times, however, is lacking.
About winegrowing in the Middle Ages little is known. In 770, Deidesheim was named for the first time in a document from Fulda Abbey as being a winegrowing centre. Today's vineyards in Deidesheim were only cleared after the turn of the second millennium. The change in land use can be seen in neighbouring placenames Forst (“forest”) and Haardt. With the so-called Ungeld (“unmoney”), a tax on wine allowed by the Prince-Bishop of Speyer in 1360, the town wall's building and maintenance were financed. The earliest mention of a grape variety in Deidesheim was in 1504, when Gänsfüßer (Argant) was named.
In the early 19th century, an important change took hold in winegrowing in the Palatinate. The Deidesheim landowner Andreas Jordan therein became the first to produce Qualitätswein. Well known to him was the worth of the late harvest of noble-rot-bearing grapes at Schloss Johannisberg, and this selective principle he also followed in his own winery. Moreover, he first used, along with vintage and variety, the location name “Deidesheimer Geheu” as a trademark for his wines. As a result of this striving for quality, which later the other local winemakers also made their own, Deidesheim wines earned themselves great repute in the 19th century.
By implementing his ideas in production and marketing, Andreas managed to earn Qualitätswein prizes, becoming very wealthy and able to expand his winery appreciably. When he died in 1848, his bequest was split three ways – an event known as the Jordansche Teilung (Teilung means “division” or “sharing” in German) – giving rise to Deidesheim's three biggest wineries, which thenceforth developed independently of each other and still exist today. They bear the names Geheimer Rat Dr. von Bassermann-Jordan, Reichsrat von Buhl and Dr. Deinhard.
Because many smaller winemakers were hit hard in the wake of cheap imports and rising labour costs due to the emerging industrialization in the late 19th century, the Deidesheim Winemakers’ Association (Deidesheimer Winzerverein) was founded in 1898 on schoolteacher Johannes Mungenast's initiative. It was the Palatinate’s first winemakers’ association. The winemakers who joined were offered a common wine cellar and common marketing. A further association, formed by small winemakers in 1913, was the Winzergenossenschaft, which merged with the Winzerverein in 1966.
Beginning in 1972 – and therefore somewhat later than in other parts of the Palatinate – a Flurbereinigung process was undertaken near Deidesheim, which gave the area a new look. The last Flurbereinigung operation was finished in 2007. These processes allowed winemakers to save on the cost of harvesting, as this could now more easily be done with tractors and harvesting machines.
Winegrowing today
Just like Deidesheim's secondary economic underpinning, tourism, winegrowing, too, profits to a great extent from the Weinstraße region's natural particularity, namely the extraordinarily favourable climate. In Deidesheim, there are many wineries, a Sekt cellar and a winemakers’ association. There are 85 winegrowing operations each cultivating an area of at least 0.3 ha. All together, working vineyards cover 485 ha, making the average for each operation 3.7 ha. At this time, 83.7% of the whole area is planted with white wine varieties, while the other 16.3% is planted with red, although the percentage of red is rising; in the early 1980s, the red's share of the vineyards lay at less than 2%. By far the most widely planted variety is Riesling, with other wines being produced here mainly from Müller-Thurgau, Silvaner, Pinot noir, Portugieser and Gewürztraminer varieties.
Tourism
In Deidesheim a considerable catering and lodging industry has sprung up, which can easily be traced to the winegrowing and its widespread fame. Since winegrowing and tourism profit from each other, they are to a certain extent dependent on each other. In Deidesheim there are many hotels and pensions whose capacity is some 800 beds. Moreover, for a town of Deidesheim's size, there are very many restaurants, of which the best known may be the Gasthaus zur Kanne (“Inn at the Jug”) and the Schwarzer Hahn (“Black Cock”) at the Deidesheimer Hof Hotel. Tourism offers the most jobs in town; this development owes itself to rationalization measures in the winegrowing sector. Alongside winegrowing and its attendant festivals such as the Deidesheimer Weinkerwe and the Geißbockversteigerung described earlier on, the Palatinate Forest with its markedly well developed network of paths and many carparks for hikers is of great importance for tourism and recreation; many hikers and nature lovers come for these from the nearby urban agglomerations on day trips to Deidesheim.
Authorities
As seat of the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, the Rathaus der Verbandsgemeinde (“Verbandsgemeinde Hall”) in Deidesheim has since it took on its current duties on 1 January 1973 housed the Verbandsgemeinde administration. Here is, among other things, the Citizens’ Bureau (Bürgerbüro), a reception centre for citizens of the Verbandsgemeinde with questions and concerns having to do with the public sector, such as, for instance, issues of residency, issuing Personalausweise and passports, or issuing payroll tax cards and postal voting documents. Furthermore, there are also forms for requests of any kind and a lost-and-found.
Transport
Rail transport history
After the Palatinate’s first railway line, between Ludwigshafen and Bexbach, came into service in 1849, Dürkheim, Deidesheim and the other municipalities in the Middle Haardt, too, strove for a rail link. A local committee put forth a suggestion in 1860 to build a railway line from Neustadt to Dürkheim in Frankenthal, a request that was granted on 3 February 1862 by the administration of the Pfälzische Ludwigsbahn. One of the eight signers from the local committee was the Deidesheim landowner Ludwig Andreas Jordan. The Bavarian King Maximilian II eventually awarded the committee, represented by the eight signatories thereto, the “Supreme Concession Document for Forming a Corporation to Build and Run a Railway from Neustadt a. H. to Dürkheim”. To carry out this project, a company was formed, the Neustadt-Dürkheimer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, which was later absorbed by the Gesellschaft der Pfälzischen Nordbahnen.
In 1865, the Bad Dürkheim–Neustadt an der Haardt (now Neustadt an der Weinstraße) railway line was completed, whose trains also stopped at Deidesheim. On 6 May of that year, the first train made the roughly trip along the line. Until the late 19th century, Deidesheim grew into an important goods station. Important commodities that were handled here were dung, wood, coal and wine. Moreover, basalt, mined near the Pechsteinkopf (mountain) and transported to Deidesheim station by cableway, was loaded here. Goods transport, though, dwindled through to the 1980s until it was discontinued. Since then, there have only been passenger trains.
Public transport
Over the link afforded by the Neustadt–Bad Dürkheim line, each of those towns can be reached from the other in roughly 10 minutes by rail. The trains run half-hourly in both directions throughout the day. By changing trains at Neustadt's main station, both Mannheim and Kaiserslautern can then be reached by S-Bahn in about 30 minutes. With the introduction of “Rhineland-Palatinate timing” and the link to the RheinNeckar S-Bahn, Deidesheim is well linked to rail transport. Deidesheim is furthermore linked to the two bus routes Neustadt–Bad Dürkheim and Deidesheim–Ludwigshafen. Public transport in Deidesheim is within the area covered by the VRN tariff structures.
Highway transport
Running through Deidesheim from north to south is the German Wine Route, which used to be the same road as Bundesstraße 271. That road's new alignment has merely taken it along the town's eastern outskirts since it was opened as a bypass in 2000. The B 271 affords a quick link to the south to the Autobahn A 65 (interchange 11 Deidesheim), over which Ludwigshafen can be reached in about 25 minutes and Karlsruhe in about 50. To the north along the B 271 lies Bad Dürkheim, where there is an interchange on the A 650 (Bad Dürkheim–Ludwigshafen).
Media
For Deidesheim readers, the daily newspaper Die Rheinpfalz contains a local section called Mittelhaardter Rundschau, which is also available in Haßloch, Neustadt an der Weinstraße and the Lambrecht area as part of the same newspaper. Weekly, the advertising fliers Stadtanzeiger (in the Verbandsgemeinden of Deidesheim, Maikammer and Lambrecht, as well as in Neustadt an der Weinstraße) and Rund um die Mittlere Weinstraße (in the Verbandsgemeinden of Deidesheim and Wachenheim). Likewise weekly, the public journal of the Verbandsgemeinde of Deidesheim is delivered to every household in Deidesheim.
On the cable television network, the regional broadcaster Offener Kanal Ludwigshafen was available until 20 November 2008, but since that day, owing to cable network restructuring, subscribers now receive Offener Kanal Neustadt/Weinstraße and Rhein-Neckar Fernsehen.
Established businesses
Deidesheimer Hof
The hotel Deidesheimer Hof with its “Nobelrestaurant Schwarzer Hahn”, once run by leading-edge cook Manfred Schwarz, is known above all for former Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl’s visits, on which he often brought along state guests to entertain. Margaret Thatcher, Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin, among others, thus all got to know the traditional Palatine dish Saumagen (“sow’s stomach”). The Deidesheimer Hof became the second five-star hotel in Rhineland-Palatinate in 2001 since the classification was introduced in 1996.
Reichsrat von Buhl winery
The winery's founder was Franz Peter Buhl (1809–1862); in 1849 it came into being through the so-called Jordansche Teilung, a division of inheritance (see Winegrowing history above). Today the winery cultivates a vineyard area of some 52 ha, mostly within Deidesheim's and Forst's limits and is a member of the VDP. In 1989 the house was leased to Japanese investors. Since 2005 it has belonged to the Niederberger Group.
Geheimer Rat Dr. von Bassermann-Jordan winery
The foundation stone for this wine estate was laid by Andreas Jordan (1775–1848), who with his ideas promoted the production and marketing of Palatine Qualitätsweine. Today the winery cultivates a vineyard area of some 42 ha, among them many locations within Deidesheim's and Forst's limits. The winery is a member of the VDP; in 2002 it was bought by the Neustadt entrepreneur Achim Niederberger and now belongs to his business group.
Leopold von Winning winery
The winery came into being through the so-called Jordansche Teilung (see Winegrowing history above); its first owner and founder was Friedrich Deinhard (1812–1871) from Koblenz whose father Johann Friedrich Deinhard had founded the Deinhard firm. The winery cultivates a vineyard area of some 40 ha within Deidesheim's, Ruppertsberg’s and Forst's limits and belongs to the VDP. Since late 2007, it has belonged to the Niederberger Group.
Sektkellerei Deidesheim
In this business, which once dealt purely with winegrowing, Klaus Reis began to build a Sekt wine cellar after the Second World War alongside the bottle wholesale business founded by his father Johannes. This Sektkellerei now works 6 ha of its own vineyards around Deidesheim and draws the greater part of the raw wines that it needs to make Sekt from wineries in the nearby area. It is a member of the Deutscher Sektverband and is under the family Reis's ownership.
J. Biffar & Co. GmbH
This company is one of Germany's last producers of candied fruit used in the manufacture of sweetmeats and pralines. It was founded in 1890 by Josef Biffar, who had dealt much with the process of candying. Linked with the company is the , which belongs to the VDP.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Andreas Jordan (1775−1848), Mayor of Deidesheim, Member of the Bavarian Landtag and trailblazer in the introduction of Qualitätswein growing in the Palatinate
Franz Tafel (1799−1869), Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Ludwig Andreas Jordan (1811−1883), Mayor of Deidesheim, Member of the Bavarian Landtag and Member of the Reichstag
Eugen Buhl (1841−1910), Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Andreas Deinhard (1845−1907), Member of the Bavarian Landtag and Member of the Reichstag
Heinrich Buhl (1848−1907), legal scholar
Johann Julius Siben (1851−1907), Mayor of Deidesheim and Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Josef Giessen (1858−1944), Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Josef Siben (1864−1941), Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Franz Eberhard Buhl (1867−1921), Member of the Bavarian Landtag
Ludwig Bassermann-Jordan (1869−1914), Mayor of Deidesheim, leader in the founding of the Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter
Friedrich von Bassermann-Jordan (1872−1959), winegrowing historian and honorary citizen of Deidesheim
Ernst von Bassermann-Jordan (1876–1932), German art and timepiece collector
Famous people associated with the town
Carl Heinrich "Bipontinus" Schultz (1805−1867), botanist, initiator in the founding of Pollichia, a conservation club
Franz Peter Buhl (1809−1862), Member of the Baden and Bavarian Landtage
Emil Bassermann-Jordan (1835−1915), banker
Franz Armand Buhl, (1837−1896), Member of the Bavarian Landtag, Member of the Reichstag and Vice-President of the Reichstag
Hanns Haberer (1890−1967), Minister for Economics and Finance in Rhineland-Palatinate and honorary citizen of Deidesheim
Theo Becker (1927−2006), oenologist and Master of the Wine Brotherhood of the Palatinate
Stefan Steinweg (1969– ), professional cyclist, German champion, world champion and Olympic medallist
Further reading
Kurt Andermann, Berthold Schnabel: Deidesheim – Beiträge zu Geschichte und Kultur einer Stadt im Weinland. Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Sigmaringen 1995,
Horst Müller: Berühmte Weinorte – Deidesheim. Falkenverlag Niederhausen/Taunus 1976
Karl Heinz Himmler, Berthold Schnabel, Paul Tremmel: Dienstag nach Pfingsten – Der Höhepunkt im Leben des Deidesheimer Geißbocks. D. Meininger Verlag, Neustadt/Weinstraße 1982,
Fanny Morweiser: Deidesheimer Elegie oder wie man keinen Krimi schreibt. Verlag Pfälzer Kunst, Landau i. d. Pfalz 2004,
Heinz Schmitt: Geißbock, Wein und Staatsbesuche – Deidesheim in den letzten 150 Jahren. Verlag Pfälzer Kunst, Landau in der Pfalz 2000,
Hans-Jürgen Wünschel: Ein vergessenes Kapitel. Deidesheim nach dem Ende der Diktatur. Knecht-Verlag, Landau in der Pfalz 1994
References
External links
Palatinate Forest
Bad Dürkheim (district)
Holocaust locations in Germany |
4216750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Liberal%20Party%20%28UK%29%20MPs | List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs | This is a list of Liberal Party MPs. It includes all members of Parliament elected to the British House of Commons representing the Liberal Party from 1922. This includes all those elected as National Liberals supporting David Lloyd George in 1922. Members of the Northern Ireland House of Commons or the European Parliament are not listed.
List of MPs
A
Thomas Raven Ackroyd, Manchester Moss Side, 1923–24
Francis Dyke Acland, Richmond, 1906–10; North West Cornwall, 1910–22; Tiverton, 1923–24; North Cornwall, 1932–39
William Ryland Dent Adkins, Middleton, 1906–1918; Middleton and Prestwich, 1918–1923
Maurice Alexander, Southwark South East, 1922–1923
Ronald Wilberforce Allen, Leicester South, 1923–24
Robert Alstead, Altrincham, 1923–24
David Alton, Liverpool Mossley Hill, 1979–88
Paddy Ashdown, Yeovil, 1983–88
Sir Robert Aske, Newcastle upon Tyne East, 1923–1924, 1929–31
H. H. Asquith, East Fife 1886–1918, Paisley, 1920–24
David Austick, Ripon, 1973–74
B
Robert Noton Barclay, Manchester Exchange, 1923–24
Charles Barrie, Banffshire, 1918–24
Alan Beith, Berwick-upon-Tweed, 1973–88
William Wedgwood Benn, Tower Hamlets, St George, 1906–18; Edinburgh Leith, 1918–27
Albert Bennett, Mansfield, 1922–1923
Donald Bennett, Middlesbrough West, 1945
Reginald Berkeley, Nottingham Central, 1923–24
Robert Bernays, Bristol North, 1931–45
Peter Bessell, Bodmin, 1964–70
William Beveridge, Berwick-upon-Tweed, 1944–45
Norman Birkett, Nottingham East, 1923–24, 29–31
John Wycliffe Black, Harborough, 1923–24
James Blindell, Holland with Boston, 1929–31
Mark Bonham Carter, Torrington, 1958–59
Alfred Bonwick, Chippenham, 1923–24
William Bowdler, Holderness, 1922–1923
Roderic Bowen, Cardiganshire, 1945–66
Thomas Bramsdon, Portsmouth, 1900 & 1906–1910; Portsmouth Central, 1918–22 & 1923–24
Frank Briant, Lambeth North, 1918–29; 31–34
Ernest Brown, Rugby, 1923–24; Edinburgh Leith, 1927–31
Malcolm Bruce, Gordon, 1983–88
John Fowler Leece Brunner, Leigh, 1906–1910; Northwich, 1910–18; Southport, 1923–24
Leslie Burgin, Luton, 1929–31
James Burnie, Bootle, 1923–24
James Ramsay Montagu Butler, Cambridge University, 1922–1923
Frank Byers, North Dorset, 1945–50
C
Menzies Campbell, North East Fife, 1987–88
Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Stirling Burghs, 1868–1908
Alex Carlile, Montgomeryshire, 1983–88
William Chapple, Stirlingshire, 1910–18; Dumfriesshire, 1922–24
Edgar Chatfeild-Clarke, Isle of Wight, 1922–1923
Winston Churchill, Oldham, 1904–06; Manchester North West 1906–08; Dundee 1908–22
Clifford Cory, St Ives, 1906–24
Godfrey Collins, Greenock, 1910–31
Pat Collins, Walsall, 1922–24
Levi Collison, Penrith and Cockermouth, 1922–1923
Arthur Comyns Carr, Islington East, 1923–24
Leonard Costello, Huntingdonshire, 1923–24
William Dingwall Mitchell Cotts, Western Isles, 1922–1923
Dugald McCoig Cowan, Combined Scottish Universities, 1918–33
Horace Crawfurd, Walthamstow West, 1924–29
Aaron Curry, Bishop Auckland 1931–1935
D
Charles Darbishire, Westbury, 1922–24
James Davidson, West Aberdeenshire, 1966–70
Clement Davies, Montgomeryshire, 1929–31; 42–62
David Davies, Montgomeryshire, 1906–29
John Cledwyn Davies, Denbigh 1922–1923
Seaborne Davies, Caernarvon Boroughs, 1945
Ellis William Davies, Denbigh, 1923–29
John Purcell Dickie, Gateshead, 1923–24; Consett, 1931–35
Stephen Roxby Dodds, Wirral, 1923–24
John Duckworth, Blackburn, 1923–29
Cecil Dudgeon, Galloway, 1922–24, 29–31
John Freeman Dunn, Hemel Hempstead, 1923–24
Sir William Dunn, 1st Baronet, of Lakenheath, Paisley, 1891–1906
E
William Edge, Bolton, 1916–23; Bosworth, 1927–31
Garnham Edmonds, Bethnal Green North East, 1922–1923
John Hugh Edwards, Mid Glamorgan, 1910–18; Neath, 1918–22; Accrington, 1924–29
Sir Ellis Ellis-Griffith, 1st Baronet, Anglesey, 1895–1918; Carmarthen, 1923–24
John Emlyn Emlyn-Jones, North Dorset, 1922–24
Abraham England, Heywood and Radcliffe, 1922–24; 24–31
Cyril Entwistle, Kingston upon Hull South West, 1918–24
Arthur Evans, Leicester East, 1922–1923
Ernest Evans, Cardiganshire, 1921–1923; University of Wales, 1924–43
Owen Evans, Cardiganshire, 1932–45
Richard Thomas Evans, Carmarthen, 1931–35
F
Richard Robert Fairbairn, Worcester, 1922–1923
James Falconer, Forfarshire, 1909–18 & 1922–24
Ronald Fearn, Southport, 1987–88
Thomas Fenby, Bradford East, 1924–29
Henry Fildes, Stockport, 1920–1923; Dumfriesshire
Victor Harold Finney, Hexham, 1923–24
Herbert Fisher, Sheffield Hallam, 1916–18; Combined English Universities, 1918–26
Reginald Fletcher, Basingstoke, 1923–24
Dingle Foot, Dundee, 1931–45
Isaac Foot, Bodmin, 1922–24; 29–35
Walter Forrest, Batley and Morley, 1924–29
Leonard Benjamin Franklin, Hackney Central, 1923–24
Clement Freud, Isle of Ely, 1973–83; North East Cambridgeshire, 1983–87
G
James Gardiner, Kinross and Western Perthshire, 1918–1923
George Morgan Garro-Jones, Hackney South, 1924–29
James Daniel Gilbert, West Newington, 1916–1918; Southwark Central, 1923–1924
Charles Gilpin (politician), Northampton constituency, 1857–1874
Alec Ewart Glassey, East Dorset, 1929–31
Edgar Granville, Eye, 1929–31; 1945–51,
William Gorman, Royton, 1923–24
Frank Gray, Oxford, 1922–24
Milner Gray, Mid Bedfordshire, 1929–31
George Charles Grey, Berwick-upon-Tweed, 1941–44
Edward Grigg, Oldham, 1922–25
Frank Kingsley Griffith, Middlesbrough West, 1928–40
Jo Grimond, Orkney and Shetland, 1950–83
William John Gruffydd, University of Wales, 1943–50
Frederick Guest, Dorset East, 1910–1922; Stroud, 1923–24; Bristol North, 1924–1929
Henry Guest, East Dorset, June–December 1910, Pembroke and Haverfordwest, December 1910 – 1918, Bristol North, 1922–1923.
Thomas Maule Guthrie, Moray and Nairn, 1922–1923
H
John Hancock, Mid Derbyshire, 1909–1918; Belper, 1918–1923
Arthur Harbord, Great Yarmouth, 1922–24; 29–31
Edward Harney, South Shields, 1922–29
Thomas Edmund Harvey, Leeds West, 1910–18; Dewsbury, 1923–24; Combined English Universities, 1937–45
Robert William Hamilton, Orkney and Shetland, 1922–35
John Hobbis Harris, Hackney North, 1923–24
Percy Alfred Harris, Harborough, 1916–18; Bethnal Green South West, 1922–45
Thomas Henderson, Roxburgh and Selkirk, 1922–1923
Albert Ernest Hillary, Harwich, 1922–24
Frederick Hindle, Darwen, 1923–24
John Hinds, West Carmarthenshire, December 1910 – 1918; Carmarthen, 1918–1923
Arthur Hobhouse, Wells, 1923–24
James Philip Hodge, Preston, 1922–1924
Henry Cairn Hogbin, Battersea North, 1923–24
James Myles Hogge, Edinburgh East, 1912–24
Herbert Holdsworth, Bradford South, 1931–45
Arthur Holt, Bolton West, 1951–64
Emlyn Hooson, Montgomeryshire, 1962–79
Rhys Hopkin Morris, Cardiganshire, 1923–32; Carmarthen, 1945–56
Tom Horabin, North Cornwall, 1939–47
Leslie Hore-Belisha, Plymouth Devonport, 1923–31
Geoffrey Howard, Eskdale, 1906–10; Westbury, 1911–18; Luton, 1923–24
Geraint Howells, Cardigan, 1974–83; Ceredigion and Pembrokeshire North, 1983–88
Simon Hughes, Bermondsey, 1983; Southwark and Bermondsey, 1983–88
Joseph Hunter, Dumfriesshire, 1931–34
Robert Hutchison, Kirkcaldy Burghs, 1922–1923; Montrose Burghs, 1924–32
I
J
Barnett Janner, Whitechapel and St Georges, 1931–35
William Albert Jenkins, Brecon and Radnor, 1922–24
Russell Johnston, Inverness, 1964–83; Inverness, Nairn and Lochaber, 1983–88
Harcourt Johnstone, Willesden East, 1923–24; South Shields, 1931–35; Middlesbrough West, 1940–45
Charles Sydney Jones, Liverpool West Derby, 1923–24
Henry Haydn Jones, Merioneth, 1910–45
(John) Henry Morris-Jones, Denbigh, 1929–31
Leif Jones, Camborne, 1923–24; 29–31
William Nathaniel Jones, Carmarthen, 1928–29
William Allen Jowitt, The Hartlepools, 1922–24; Preston, 1929
K
Robert Newbald Kay, Elland, 1923–24
Roderick Morris Kedward, Bermondsey West, 1923–24; Ashford, 1929–31
Thomas Keens, Aylesbury, 1923–24
Sir George Kemp, Heywood, 1895–1906, Manchester North West, 1910–12
Joseph Kenworthy, Kingston upon Hull Central, 1919–26
Barnet Kenyon, Chesterfield, 1913–1929
Archy Kirkwood, Roxburgh and Berwickshire, 1983–88
L
George Lambert, North Devon, 1891–1918; South Molton, 1918–24; 29–31
Wallace Lawler, Birmingham Ladywood, 1969–70
Frederick Joseph Laverack, Brixton, 1923–24
Joseph Leckie, Walsall, 1931–38
Edward Lessing, Abingdon, 1923–24
Arthur Lever, Harwich, 1906–January 1910; Hackney Central, 1922–1923
Thomas Arthur Lewis, Pontypridd, 1918–1922; University of Wales, 1922–1923
Frederick Caesar Linfield, Mid Bedfordshire, 1922–24
Alexander Livingstone, Western Isles, 1923–29
Richard Livsey, Brecon and Radnorshire, 1985–88
Frederick Llewellyn-Jones, Flintshire, 1929–31
David Lloyd George, Caernarfon Boroughs, 1890–31; 35–45
Gwilym Lloyd George, Pembrokeshire, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–50
Megan Lloyd George, Anglesey, 1929–31; 1935–51
John Frederick Loverseed, Sudbury, 1923–1924
Eric Lubbock, Orpington, 1962–70
William Lygon, East Norfolk, 1929–31
Alexander Lyle-Samuel, Eye, 1918–1923
M
William Mabane, Huddersfield, 1931–c35
George Mackie, Caithness and Sutherland, 1964–66
Charles McCurdy, Northampton, January 1910 – 1923
Archie Macdonald, Roxburgh and Selkirk, 1950–51
Murdo Macdonald, Inverness-shire, 1922–50
Eric Macfadyen, Devizes, 1923–24
William McKeag, City of Durham, 1931–35
Alasdair Mackenzie, Ross and Cromarty, 1964–70
Joseph Payton Maclay, Paisley, 1931–45
Thomas James Macnamara, Camberwell North, 1900–1918; Camberwell North West, 1918–1924
Ian Macpherson, 1st Baron Strathcarron, Ross and Cromarty, 1911–31
Donald Maclean, Bath, 1906–10; Peebles and Selkirk, 1910–18; Peebles and South Midlothian, 1918–22; North Cornwall, 1929–31
Sir George McCrae, Edinburgh East, 1899–1909; Stirling and Falkirk, 1923–24
Henry Maden, Lonsdale, 1923–24
Edward Lancelot Mallalieu, Colne Valley, 1931–35
Geoffrey Mander, Wolverhampton East, 1929–35
Courtenay Mansel, Penryn and Falmouth, 1923–24
Croydon Marks, North Cornwall, 1918–24
Arthur Harold Marshall, Wakefield, 1910–1918; Huddersfield, 1922–1923
Albert Edward Martin, Romford, 1922–1923
Frederick Martin, Aberdeen and Kincardine East, 1922–24
David Marshall Mason, Edinburgh East, 1931–35
C F G Masterman, West Ham North, 1906–11; Bethnal Green South West, 1911–14; Manchester Rusholme, 1923–24
Christopher Mayhew, Woolwich East, 1974
Michael Meadowcroft, Leeds West, 1983–87
Hugh Meyler, Blackpool, 1923–24
Ray Michie, Argyll and Bute, 1987–88
James Duncan Millar, East Fife, 1922–24; 29–31
Robert MacGregor Mitchell, Perth, 1923–24
Alfred Mond, Chester, 1906–10; Swansea, 1910–18; Swansea West, 1918–23; Carmarthen, 1924–28
Henry Mond, Isle of Ely, 1923–24
Algernon Moreing, Buckrose, 1918–1922, Camborne, 1922–1923.
Harold Morris, Bristol East, 1922–1923
Rhys Hopkin Morris, Cardiganshire, 1923–1932; Carmarthen, 1945–1956
George Alexander Morrison, Combined Scottish Universities, 1934–35
William Ewart Morse, Bridgwater, 1923–24
Hugh Moulton, Salisbury, 1923–24
Ramsay Bryce Muir, Rochdale, 1923–24
Arthur Murray, Kincardineshire, 1908–1918; Kincardine and Western Aberdeenshire, 19181–1923
John Murray, Leeds West, 1918–1923
Frank Murrell, Weston-super-Mare, 1923–24
N
Harry Nathan, Bethnal Green North East, 1929–35
Sir Henry Norman, Wolverhampton South, 1900–January 1910, Blackburn, December 1910 – 1923
O
Philip Milner Oliver, Manchester Blackley, 1923–24; 29–31
John Joseph O'Neill, Lancaster, 1923–24
Frank Owen, Hereford, 1929–31
Goronwy Owen, Caernarvonshire, 1923–31; 35–45
P
John Pardoe, North Cornwall, 1966–79
Thomas Henry Parry, Flint Boroughs, 1913–18; Flintshire, 1918–24
Robert Pattinson, Grantham, 1922–1923
Samuel Pattinson, Horncastle, 1922–24
David Penhaligon, Truro, 1974–86
Sidney John Peters, Huntingdonshire, 1929–31
Hilton Philipson, Berwick-upon-Tweed, 1922–1923
Vivian Phillipps, Edinburgh West, 1922–24
Ernest Harold Pickering, Leicester West, 1931–35
Robert Pilkington, Keighley, 1923–24
Bill Pitt, Croydon North West, 1981–83
Ernest Griffith Price, Shoreditch, 1922–1923
William Pringle, North West Lanarkshire, 1910–18; Penistone, 1922–24
Percy John Pybus, Harwich, 1929–31
Q
R
Henry Norman Rae, Shipley, 1918–1923
Peter Wilson Raffan, Leigh, 1910–22; Edinburgh North, 1923–24
Frank Raffety, Bath, 1923–24
Cecil Beresford Ramage, Newcastle upon Tyne West, 1923–24
T. B. Wilson Ramsay, Western Isles, 1929–31
Hugh Reynolds Rathbone, Liverpool Wavertree, 1923–24
Walter Russell Rea, Scarborough, 1906–1918; Bradford North, 1923–24; Dewsbury, 1931–35
Tudor Rees, Barnstaple, 1918–22 & 1923–24
Beddoe Rees, Bristol South, 1922–29
Athelstan Rendall, Thornbury, 1906–22 & 1923–24
Aled Owen Roberts, Wrexham, 1931–35
Charles Henry Roberts, Lincoln, 1906–1918; Derby, 1922–1923
Emrys Roberts, Merionethshire, 1945–51
George Henry Roberts, Norwich, 1906–1923
Wilfrid Roberts, North Cumberland, 1935–50
Thomas Atholl Robertson, Finchley, 1923–24
Sydney Walter Robinson, Chelmsford, 1923–24
Thomas Robinson (Stretford politician), Stretford, 1918 -1929,
William Edward Robinson, Stoke-on-Trent, Burslem, 1923–24
Stephen Ross, Isle of Wight, 1974–87
James A. de Rothschild, Isle of Ely, 1929–45
Charles Royle, Stockport, 1923–24
Charles Rudkin, Chichester, 1923–24
Hilda Runciman, St Ives, 1928–29
Walter Runciman Sr, The Hartlepools 1914–1918
Walter Runciman, Oldham, 1899–1900; Dewsbury, 1902–18; Swansea West, 1924–29; St Ives, 1929–31
Richard John Russell, Eddisbury, 1929–31
S
Herbert Samuel, Cleveland, 1902–18; Darwen, 1929–35
James Scott, Kincardine and West Aberdeenshire, 1929–31
Hugh Seely, East Norfolk, 1923–24; Berwick-upon-Tweed, 1935–41
J E B Seely, Isle of Wight, 1904– 06 & 1923–24; Liverpool Abercromby, 1906–10; Ilkeston, 1910–1922
Geoffrey Hithersay Shakespeare, Norwich, 1929–31
Alexander Shaw, Kilmarnock Burghs, 1915–1918; Kilmarnock, 1918–1923
Elizabeth Shields, Ryedale, 1986–87
Ernest Darwin Simon, Manchester Withington, 1923–24; 29–31
John Simon, Walthamstow, 1906 – 18; Spen Valley, 1922 – 31
John Hope Simpson, Taunton, 1922 – 24
Archibald Sinclair, Caithness and Sutherland, 1922 – 45
Cyril Smith, Rochdale, 1972 – 88
Louis Spears, Loughborough, 1922 – 24
Ernest Spero, Stoke Newington, 1923 – 24
Herbert Harvey Spencer, Bradford South, 1922 – 24
Charles Walter Starmer, Cleveland, 1923 – 24
David Steel, Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles, 1965 – 83; Tweeddale, Ettrick and Lauderdale, 1983 – 88
Henry Kenyon Stephenson, Sheffield Park, 1918 – 1923
Sydney Stern, 1st Baron Wandsworth 1891- 95
Innes Harold Stranger, Newbury, 1923 – 24
Robert Strother Stewart, Stockton-on-Tees, 1923 – 24
Edward Anthony Strauss, Southwark North, 1927 – 29
John Leng Sturrock, Montrose Burghs, 1918 – 24
Charles Summersby, Shoreditch, 1931 – 35
Joseph Sunlight, Shrewsbury, 1923 – 24
William Sutherland, Argyllshire, 1918 – 24
T
John Lincoln Tattersall, Stalybridge and Hyde, 1923 – 24
Matthew Taylor, Truro, 1987 – 88
Lady Terrington, Wycombe, 1923 – 24
Robert John Thomas, Wrexham, 1918 – 22; Anglesey, 1923 – 29
Piers Gilchrist Thompson, Torquay, 1923 – 24
Trevelyan Thomson, Middlesbrough West, 1918 – 28
George Rennie Thorne, Wolverhampton East, 1908 – 29
Maxwell Ruthven Thornton, Tavistock, 1922 – 24
Jeremy Thorpe, North Devon, 1959 – 79
Robert Parkinson Tomlinson, Lancaster, 1928 – 29
Graham Tope, Sutton and Cheam, 1972 – 74
Paul Tyler, Bodmin, 1974
U
V
Henry Harvey Vivian, Birkenhead, 1906 – 10; Totnes, 1923 – 24
W
Donald William Wade, Huddersfield West, 1950 – 64
George Wadsworth, Buckrose, 1945 – 50
Richard Wainwright, Colne Valley, 1966 – 70, 1974 – 87
James Robert Wallace, Orkney and Shetland, 1983 – 88
George Ward (Liberal MP), Bosworth, 1923 – 24
John Ward, Stoke-on-Trent 1918 – 29
Walter Waring, Banffshire, 1907 – 1918, Blaydon, 1918 – 1922, Berwick and Haddington, 1922 – 1923
Courtenay Warner, North Somerset, 1892 – 1895; Lichfield, 1896 – 1923
John Bertrand Watson, Stockton-on-Tees, 1917 – 1923
Sir Henry "Harry" Webb, Forest of Dean, 1911 – 1918; Cardiff East, 1923 -1924
Charles Frederick White, Derbyshire West, 1918 – 1923
Henry Graham White, Birkenhead East, 1922 – 24; 1929 – 45
Sir Luke White, Buckrose 1900 – 18
John Henry Whitley, Halifax, 1900 – 28
William Wiggins, Oldham, 1925 – 29
Arnold Williams (Liberal MP), Sowerby, 1923 – 24
Christmas Price Williams, Wrexham, 1924 – 29
Penry Williams, Middlesbrough, 1910 – 18; Middlesbrough East, 1918 – 22 & 1923 – 24
Ronald Samuel Ainslie Williams, Sevenoaks, 1923 – 24
Herbert Willison, Nuneaton; 1923 – 24
Sir Richard Winfrey, South West Norfolk, 1906 – 23; Gainsborough, 1923 – 24
Michael Winstanley, Cheadle, 1966 – 70; Hazel Grove, 1974
Margaret Wintringham, Louth, 1921 – 24
Thomas Wintringham, Louth, 1920 – 21
Murdoch McKenzie Wood, Central Aberdeenshire 1919 – 24, Banff, 1929 – 35
George Woodwark, King's Lynn, 1923 – 24
X
Y
Edward Hilton Young, Norwich, 1915 – 23; 24 – 26
Ernest Young, Middlesbrough East, 1931 – 35
Z
Graphical representation (1945-1988)
Notes
See also
:Category:Liberal MPs (UK)
Liberal
List
Liberal Party (UK) |
4216884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirn | Kirn | Kirn is a town in the Bad Kreuznach district in Rheinland-Pfalz, Germany. It is the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde Kirner Land. Kirn is a middle centre serving an area on the Nahe and in the Hunsrück.
Geography
Location
Kirn lies in a landscape characterized by the Nahe valley and the valley of the Hahnenbach, cut deeply into the Lützelsoon, roughly 10 km northeast of Idar-Oberstein and 30 km west of Bad Kreuznach. The valley floors are heavily settled in places, whereas the steep slopes in the higher areas are mostly bare of buildings and decked with forest. Rising up above the woodland canopy in many places are freestanding quartzite crags. Particularly striking among these are the Oberhauser Felsen, the Kallenfels and the Wehlenfelsen north of the town. Flowing through the unhurried inner town is the Hahnenbach, which rises in the Hunsrück, and not too much farther downstream empties into the Nahe. Also characterizing the town's appearance is the quarry up from the town centre, which stretches eastwards all the way to the town limit.
Land use
Kirn's municipal area measures 16.53 km2, and by percentages, the uses of this land break down thus:
Agriculture — 15.1
Woodland — 51.9
Open water — 2.4
Residential and transport — 28.6
Other — 2.0
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, Kirn's neighbours are the municipalities of Oberhausen bei Kirn, Hochstetten-Dhaun, Meckenbach, Heimweiler and Bärenbach, the town of Idar-Oberstein and the municipalities of Fischbach, Bergen and Hahnenbach. Idar-Oberstein, Fischbach and Bergen all lie in the neighbouring Birkenfeld district, whereas all the others likewise lie within the Bad Kreuznach district.
Constituent communities
Kirn's Stadtteile are the main centre, also called Kirn, and the two outlying centres of Kallenfels and Kirn-Sulzbach. Also belonging to Kirn are the outlying homesteads of Akvas Papiermühle, Cramersmühle, Füllmannsmühle, Hasenfels, Kallenfelser Hof, Kyrburg, Ölmühle Spielmann and Schleif-Mühle.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Kirn amounts to some 540 mm, which is rather low, falling below average for the precipitation chart for all Germany. Kirn lies alee of the surrounding uplands. The driest months are January and February. The most rainfall comes in August. Rainfall is, however, rather evenly spread across the whole year. Fog is very common for the colder season.
History
The town of Kirn can look back on a very long history. It was founded at a river crossing near which several roads met. On 20 May 841, Kirn had its first documentary mention in a document from Fulda Abbey. Archaeological finds from Celtic and Roman times (the remnants of a were unearthed in the part of town known as ""), however, point to a considerably greater age than that. The name Kirn is believed to be of Celtic origin. In the Fulda document mentioned above, the town was named as Chira. The name likely derives from the Celtic , meaning 'water'. Meant here, of course, would be the Nahe and the Hahnenbach, which empties into it here, whose water apparently gave the town its name. The Nahe served then as an important transport route as well as supplying water for livestock and fish for people.
The first settlement is believed to have lain on the bank of the Kyrbach (another name for the Hahnenbach although, strictly speaking, it designates only the Hahnenbach's headstream some distance upstream from Kirn), in an area today bordered by Gerbergasse and Langgasse (lanes), with the marketplace in the middle. In other words, at the crossroads, a market grew up. This was the seed from which the town's history sprouted. The roads leading over the heights brought the people of the Nahegau to this market town. The (), within whose tightly defined boundaries no other market was allowed to be held, protected the markets and those who fed them in a tightly bordered area around the town. Great parts of the market town were held during the High Middle Ages by Saint Maximin's Abbey in Trier, which also held the market rights.
In 926, the Abbey gave three Frankish noblemen by way of exchange a hill suitable for use as a fortification, and they proceeded to build a castle there to defend their holdings against the Magyars. It came to be known as the Kyrburg. It seems that these noblemen's castle had passed by 966 to the rising family of the Emichones/Waldgraves. In the time that followed, these new owners bit by bit did the Abbey out of its rights, leaving it only with the market rights. In the 11th or 12th century, the rights to the market were transferred to the Lords of Stein, whose seat was on the "stones" ( means in German) in the Hahnenbach valley above what is now Kirn's outlying centre of Kallenfels. The Lords of Stein-Kallenfels were able to assert these rights until the 18th century, defending them first against the Waldgraves and later against their successors.
West of the market centre arose another settlement in the years that followed, obviously founded by the Waldgraves, which was called (), and for which town rights were being sought, as it were, to take the bread out of the market town's mouth. Town rights, though, were forthcoming to neither the Kyr settlement nor the , even though the settlement on the Hahnenbach, beginning in 1335, was time and again in documents being called (). Both the market centre and the Old Town were at least partly fortified. The names of the gates that stood at the ends of the thoroughfares () are known. The last town gate was torn down in 1880 in the Old Town to make way for growing traffic. The Kyrbach's left bank was also built up. Standing here was the church, which if anything was part of an old royal estate. As a landhold of the Archbishopric of Mainz it became an outlying centre of a great rural chapter that comprised the rural clergy all the way over to the Simmern area.
Even after various divisions of inheritance, Kirn remained between 1258 and 1790 a joint holding of the Houses of Dhaun and Kyrburg. Despite its economic and ecclesiastical importance, Kirn had at its disposal since earliest times only a small municipal area, which even today has not changed. The vineyards strewn over the hills all about the town surely only provided for local demand. The scant, stony soils allowed no more than limited yields when farmed. Livestock raising, on the other hand, seems to have played a certain role. These circumstances favoured the growth of various handicrafts in the town.
Livestock raising, the low-lying oak forest right nearby and the water from the Nahe and the Kyr consequently led to the establishment of tanning and wool processing. Reports of a woollen weavers' guild crop up as early as 1359. The tanners' and tailors' guilds seem to have arisen about this time, too. The tanners, and the dyers, too, settled along the flat bank of the Hahnenbach. The later tanners' quarter between Gerbergasse and the Nahe only arose in modern times. Their products were marketed by both local people and those from farther afield, mainly at the four great yearly markets and the weekly markets. The houses around the marketplace had on their ground floors recesses in which local handicraftsmen would offer their wares for sale in their “shops”.
On the marketplace itself were, besides the two fountains, also lockable market stalls that could be hired by bakers, butchers and potters. On the Hahnenbach side of the square stood the 1508 town hall, which was torn down in 1849 to make way for what was even then a growing amount of traffic. The prison there once held the thirteen-year-old Johannes Bückler – better known as Schinderhannes – in 1796, but not for very long, for he quickly escaped. The townsfolk's self-assurance in those days showed itself in the establishment of civic institutions such as a bathing parlour and an infirmary. The great many donations to the Church bear witness to the people's wealth.
Around the church over on the Kyr's left bank stood clerics' houses as well as the Latin school, which was first mentioned in 1402, and which in the course of its history sent dozens of students to every university in Germany. Because the local lordships were somewhat less than decisive in their governance, the Reformation was introduced into the Waldgravial-Rhinegravial lands only in 1544 or 1545. Outwardly, the Kirn townsfolk's new self-assurance showed itself in the way they ended their own serfdom in 1600 by buying their freedom for 4,000 Rhenish guilders. It was many years, though, before the debt burden arising from this no longer weighed on the town's economy.
Kirn's and its economy's favourable growth came to a dead stop with the Thirty Years' War. Foreign fighters (Spaniards, Croats, Frenchmen and Swedes, to name but a few) along with two Plague epidemics wrought havoc with the town, reducing its 230 families in 1616 (two years before the war broke out) to only 74 afterwards. These losses were somewhat offset by the arrival of newcomers from Lombardy, the Tyrol and the Engadin. These immigrants and their offspring quickly became a force not only in the town's economy but also in its cultural life. From the Family Englisch, who had come from the Davos area, sprang the painter Johann Georg Englisch (1668-1741), who did paintings in many churches over a broad area, and Johann Bernhard Englisch (1709-1768), who as a much sought-after plied his trade as far away as Lake Geneva.
The latter half of the 17th century, though, brought Kirn many occupations in connection with French King Louis XIV's wars of conquest. The town sometimes had to put up with (and supply) years-long occupations. This period ended with the Kyrburg's destruction in 1734, an event that the townsfolk surely also welcomed. After the House of Salm died out, the lordship over the of Kirn and the half share of the town itself passed in 1743 to the line of Salm-Leuze. Together with his brother Phillip Joseph, Prince Johann Dominik Albert took over the lordship.
Johann Dominik (1708-1778) was an enlightened, affable prince, who through future-oriented measures, such as building streets and boulevards, boosted the economy. Many of his master builder Thomas Petri's buildings still characterize Kirn's appearance, and the same is true for a number of the outlying villages that then belonged to the . Particularly worthy of mention here are the winery on Kallenfelser Straße, the Piarist monastery (nowadays the town hall) and many official and private buildings throughout the town. Meanwhile, in 1767, Kirn received a town charter. Johann Dominik's nephew and successor Friedrich III ruined the country's finances with his impecunious ways of conducting his life, to the point at which the even imposed a bankruptcy régime on the town. In 1794, he met his end in Paris at the guillotine.
Beginning in 1797, the little state that was Kirn belonged, like all the German lands on the Rhine's left bank, to the French state. It formed together with a few outlying villages a () in the of Simmern in the Department of Rhin-et-Moselle. Kirn now became a town lying in the southwesternmost part of its department, thus cleaving it asunder from many of the formerly Salm-held areas that had once fed its economy. When the decisions made at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815 began to be implemented locally in 1817, things got even worse for Kirn as it was assigned to the Kreuznach district. To the west the town now bordered on the Birkenfeld district in the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and to the south on the Meisenheim district in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg. Thus, just beyond the last houses in town began foreign territory. The economic downfall arising from this situation could not be stopped.
Together with seven villages, Kirn now formed the () of Kirn, an arrangement that lasted until 1857 when, by Royal Cabinet Order, Kirn was granted the rank of town. Now, however, there was only one leader, the mayor, who held the reins of both the town and the now supposedly separate outlying villages. This "personal union" lasted until 1896.
Only after the fall of the customs barriers and the building of the Rhine-Nahe Railway (1856-1859) was there once again an appreciable economic upswing. Leathermaking began to recover once the tanners, both those using bark tanning and those using mineral tanning, set up shop – sometimes jointly – in the area between the Nahe, the Hahnenbach and the millpond, after traditionally keeping their tanneries along the bank of the Hahnenbach.
After 1850, a few tanning families moved on and rose with new businesses in new locations, sometimes to worldwide importance. After the Rhine-Nahe Railway had been completed, not only leather products could be shipped to market, but so could the melaphyre being quarried at Kirn's quarries. With the rise of the brewery near the winery in 1863, the town eventually earned itself the title "Town of Leather, Stones and Beer". As industry grew, so too did the demand for manpower, and thus between 1850 and 1910, the town's population swelled from roughly 1,500 to 7,000.
This positive development was, however, interrupted by the upshot from the First World War, the runaway inflation and the Great Depression. Already in the 1920s and 1930s, many enterprises felt forced to restructure their production. New businesses came that contributed once again to a rise in Kirn's economic importance, and in the field of finishing small leather goods, to a rise in the town's prestige.
After the Second World War, there was another economic upswing, which brought along with it more population growth. Beginning in the 1960s, it was clear that another restructuring was needed. Since that time, no more tanning has been done in Kirn and even the small leather goods industry found itself undergoing changes. Instead of leather, plastic goods are now produced. With the amalgamation of the villages of Kallenfels and Kirnsulzbach in 1969, the population rose for a time above 10,000, only to shrink later on. Today, somewhat more than 8,000 people call Kirn home.
Jewish history
Kirn had a Jewish community until sometime between 1938 and 1942. Even as far back as the Middle Ages, there were Jews living in the town. The violent persecution that took place on 21 September 1287 (11 Tishri 5048 according to data in Siegmund Salfeld's Das Martyrologium des Nürnberger Memorbuches) saw the murder of six Jews in Kirn. This is believed, for it did after all happen in the same year, to have been linked to the wave of pogroms that swept the region as a result of the Oberwesel blood libel (see Werner of Oberwesel). The survivors moved away from Kirn. In the earlier half of the 14th century, however, there were once again Jews living in the town. The Waldgrave of Kyrburg, then the town's lord, took ownership of three Jews, after having secured leave from King Albrecht to do so in 1301. In 1330, Waldgrave Johann asked for the number of Jews (or Jewish families) to be raised to 15, which was likewise approved by the Emperor. Jewish life in the town was, however, destroyed in the antisemitic persecution that arose in the time of the Plague (1348-1349). It is believed that Kirn's Jewish families saw to their own institutions, such as a prayer room and a graveyard: from the 16th century to the 19th, there was still a cadastral area within the town named Of dem Judenkirchof () in memory of an old Jewish graveyard. Between the 15th and 18th centuries, there were apparently no Jewish residents at all in Kirn. Only in 1693, during one of French King Louis XIV's occupations, is a Jewish inhabitant mentioned as being in town for a short while. From the mid 19th century, there were once again Jewish families living in Kirn. The number of Jewish inhabitants developed as follows: in 1843, there were none; in 1858, 5; in 1866, 45; in 1895, 104 (1.8% of all together 5,639 inhabitants). The Jews who had moved to town were by and large from smaller outlying places in the region, among others Hennweiler, Bruschied, Becherbach, Simmern unter Dhaun (today Simmertal), Merxheim, Meddersheim, Sien, Laufersweiler and Hottenbach. After 1900, the Jews living in Becherbach became part of the Kirn Jewish community, having hitherto belonged to the Hundsbach community. The actual entity known as the Jewish community (the ) was founded in 1866 when a leadership and representatives were elected and at the same time both a men's association and a women's association came into being. Appearing on the 1866 list of "Jews who have been empowered to exercise the franchise" were Jacob Ullmann (salesman), David Ullmann (merchant), David Wolf (spice dealer from Löllbach), Moses Lieb (salesman) Abraham Scholem (merchant), Marcus Loeb (merchant from Weierbach) and Jacob Mayer (musician, innkeeper from Hennweiler). In the way of institutions, there were a synagogue (see Synagogue below), a Jewish school, a mikveh and a graveyard (see Jewish graveyard below). To provide for the community's religious needs, a schoolteacher was hired, who also busied himself as the hazzan and the shochet (preserved is a whole series of job advertisements for such a position in Kirn from such publications as Der Israelit). Among the religion teachers were Joseph Seligmann (about 1880), Max Goldschmidt (about 1892; born in 1871 in Schlüchtern; died at Theresienstadt concentration camp in 1943), Joseph Nathan Kahn (in 1898–1899; born in 1877 in Rieneck; had been a teacher in Babenhausen, after his short time in Kirn he moved to Offenbach am Main), Bernhard Weil (beginning in 1908; born in 1868 in Eichstetten, died in 1943 in Noé, Haute-Garonne, France, was until February 1939 in Kirn, thereafter and until his deportation in October 1940 in Karlsruhe; further details can be found at the end of this section). One member of Kirn's Jewish community fell in the First World War, Alfred Moritz (b. 16 May 1890 in Meisenheim, d. 20 June 1916). In 1925, Kirn's Jewish community numbered 106 (1.4% of the total population). In 1932, the Jewish community's leaders were Ferdinand Schmelzer (head of leadership), since 1911 the owner of a shop that sold brushes and household goods at Radergasse 1, Dr. med. Richard Asch (second leader), who since 1918 had had a medical practice at Bahnhofstraße 11, was a doctor for the Deutsche Reichsbahn, and was said to be called the "poor man's doctor" for his charitable engagement, and Wilhelm Vogel I (third leader), a merchant who lived at Neuestraße 9. Still working as teacher, cantor and shochet was the same Bernhard Weil already named. In the 1931–1932 school year, he taught 12 Jewish children from the community in religion. After 1933, the year when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis seized power, though, some of the Jews (that year, almost 100 persons) moved away or even emigrated in the face of the boycotting of their businesses, the progressive stripping of their rights and repression, all brought about by the Nazis. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the synagogue's interior was utterly destroyed by Brownshirt thugs, and perhaps worse, 13 Jewish homes were also invaded and demolished. Nevertheless, there were still 39 Jewish inhabitants in Kirn in 1939. The last eleven Jewish inhabitants were deported to the camps in July 1942. According to the Gedenkbuch – Opfer der Verfolgung der Juden unter der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft in Deutschland 1933-1945 ("Memorial Book – Victims of the Persecution of the Jews under National Socialist Tyranny") and Yad Vashem, of all Jews who either were born in Kirn or lived there for a long time, 50 were victims of Nazi persecution (birthdates in brackets):
Johanna Allmeyer née Köhler (1880)
Julius Allmeyer (1884)
Erwin Baum (1918)
Johanna Baum née Liebmann (1878)
Siegmund Baum (1883)
Julius Berg (1899)
Martha Blasius née Koppenhagen (1892)
Otto Brück (1873)
Otto Dornhard (1886)
Else Dornhard (1914)
Ernst Dornhard (1917)
Selma Dornhard née Hanau (1891)
Johanna Gottschalk née Fried (1881)
Maurice Gottschalk (1896)
Max Gottschalk (1878)
Moritz Gottschalk (1893)
Paul Gottfried Gottschalk (1909)
Theo Gottschalk (1915)
Julius Grebe (1881)
Hertha Greve née Weingarten (1897)
Erich Haas (1914)
Helene Haas née Gudenberg (1879)
Leo Haas (1878)
Willy (Wilhelm) Haas (1888)
Felix Joseph (1905)
Gustav Joseph (1866)
Rosa (Rosina) Joseph née Scholem (1867)
Anni Kahn (1921)
Amalie Leib (1872)
Elise Leib née Sender (1874)
Leopold Leib (1875)
Erna Levy née Vogel (1899)
Max Ernst Levy (1908)
Berta Levy née Kaufmann (1870)
Leopold Levy (1895)
Loritz Levy (1909)
Erna Lob (1919)
Frieda Paula Moritz (1890)
Jette (Henriette) Moritz née Rosenfeld (1859)
Henriette Römer née Sender (1902)
Siegfried Römer (1924)
Bertha Rothschild née Bärmann (1856)
Albert Schmelzer (1903)
Fritz Sigismund Schmelzer (1904)
Herbert Sternheimer (1898)
Rosa Vogel née Michel (1879)
Wilhelm Vogel I (1872)
Bernhard Weil (1868) (see also below)
Otto Weil (1894)
Else Weiss née Dornhard (1914)
Bernhard Weil, third from the bottom in the list and also mentioned earlier, was born on 19 June 1868 in Eichstetten to Isaak Weil and Pauline née Rotschild. He had himself trained as a schoolteacher and a cantor and worked as such from 1908 to 1939 in Kirn (and before that in Leutershausen [Bergstraße], among other places).
Religion
As at 30 September 2013, there are 8,220 full-time residents in Kirn, and of those, 4,180 are Evangelical (50.852%), 2,152 are Catholic (26.18%), 2 are Greek Orthodox (0.024%), 2 are Jehovah's Witnesses (0.024%), 1 is Lutheran (0.012%), 1 is Old Catholic (0.012%), 2 belong to the Palatinate State Free Religious Community (0.024%), 1 is Reformed (0.012%), 1 is Old-Reformed (0.012%), 7 are Russian Orthodox (0.085%), 1 belongs to the Frankfurt Jewish worship community (0.012%), 481 (5.852%) belong to other religious groups and 1,389 (16.898%) either have no religion or will not reveal their religious affiliation.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 24 council members, who were elected by personalized proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the mayor as chairman. The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Gains and losses (“+/–”) are reckoned against the 2004 election results. Voter turnout was 48.5% (48.3% in 2004).
Mayor
Kirn's mayor is Frank Ensminger (FDP), and his deputies are Christa Hermes (CDU), Michael Kloos (SPD), and Hartmut Ott (FWG).
Coat of arms
The town's arms might be described thus: Gules two lions combatant Or armed and langued azure holding two cramps per saltire argent, crowning the shield a mural coronet with three towers embattled of the second.
Town partnerships
Kirn fosters partnerships with the following places:
Fontaine-lès-Dijon, Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), France since 10 May 1986
Since the partnership documents were signed, there have been regular exchanges between Kirn and the commune of Fontaine-lès-Dijon (which lies just outside Dijon and about 500 km from Kirn) of families, groups and officials. The official yearly meeting takes place at Whitsun, with the venue alternating between the two towns each year, and this is attended by up to 250 citizens.
Marange-Silvange, Moselle (Lorraine), France since 7 November 2010
The commune of Marange-Silvange lies 12 km northwest of Metz. The partnership’s goal is mainly to bring youth from both places together. Since the signing of the agreement, there have already been contacts and meetings.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Kirn (main centre)
Evangelical church, Kirchstraße 4 – former Saint Pancras's Collegiate Church (Stiftskirche St. Pankratius), Late Gothic Revival hall church, 1891–1893, architect Wiethase; Late Gothic quire, after 1467; six-floor tower, fifth floor inserted in between in 1893, mid 13th century; Late Gothic vestry (see also below)
Saint Pancras's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Pankratius), Kolpingweg 1 – Late Gothic Revival basilica, 1892–1894, architect Max Meckel, Limburg
Alter Oberhauser Weg 8 – house, Baroquified building with hipped mansard roof, 1937, architect Friedrich Otto, Kirn
Altstadt 1 – former manufacturer's villa for member of the Family Simon; Late Historicist representative building, last fourth of the 19th century, setting important to town building layout
Auf der Schanze, at the graveyard – graveyard gate, sandstone, mid 19th century; grave crosses, cast-iron, after 1871; Peter and Gerhardt tomb, Baroquified columbarium-like Rundbogen niche, about 1900; Böcking tomb, grave cross, cast-iron, about 1862; Andres grave: complex with nine gravestones in wrought-iron enclosure, 19th and 20th centuries; mass grave, with Angel of Death, about 1875; Nonnweiler grave: small Gründerzeit complex with display wall, about 1880/1890; Häfner and Stroh grave: Late Classicist grave columns, about 1882 and 1885; Theodor Simon grave: about 1878 to 1920, antique sandstone aedicula, about 1880/1900; two granite obelisks, about 1878; Sorrowful Mother, about 1920; Child, about 1902
Auf der Schanze, Jewish graveyard (monumental zone) – about 1870 to 1939, area with many tombs (see also below)
Bahnhofstraße 21 – Gründerzeit clinker brick building, Gothic Revival motifs, about 1900
Bahnhofstraße 23 – three-floor Late Classicist house, latter half of the 19th century
Bahnhofstraße 27 – villalike Late Classicist house, mid 19th century
Bahnhofstraße 31 – former Böcking leather factory, long three-floor quarrystone building, two- to three-floor factory building, about 1860 to 1880, expansion into the 20th century
Bahnhofstraße 35 – Late Gründerzeit villa with hip roof, about 1900
Bürgermeister-Tschepke-Straße 18–66 (even numbers) (monumental zone) – housing estate for workers at the Jakob Müller leatherware factory, 1950s; 13 semi-detached bungalows with front gardens, Heimatstil
Dhauner Straße – so-called Weiße Brücke (“White Bridge”); concrete-trough bridge, 1905
Dominikstraße 41 – Dominikschule (school); three-floor plastered building, Renaissance Revival, gymnasium, toilet facility, 1903–1905
Fasanenweg – water cistern; sandstone, about 1900/1910
Gerbergasse 1 – five-floor shophouse, Bauhaus architecture, 1931, architect Otto Deyhle
Gerbergasse 4 – three-floor shophouse, building with mansard roof, clinker brick, about 1890/1900
Gerbergasse 12 – three-floor timber-frame shophouse, partly slated, essentially Baroque, possibly from the 18th century, corner setting important to town building layout
Gerbergasse 13 – former tanning house; partly timber-frame, roof with penthouse-roof aeration zone, latter half of the 19th century
Halmer Weg 10 – Late Gründerzeit villa, partly timber-frame, Art Nouveau motifs, about 1905
Halmer Weg 14 – villa; two- to three-floor building with knee wall, partly timber-frame, about 1900/1905
Halmer Weg 27 – school; two- to three-floor three-wing building, stairway and gymnasium, mixed forms, Heimatschutzarchitektur/1950s, about 1953/54, architect possibly Julius Schneider, Idar-Oberstein or Friedrich Otto, Kirn
Im Hohen Rech 8 – house, about 1900
Jahnstraße 11 – hospital; two- to three-floor Neoclassical building with mansard roof, about 1910
Kallenfelser Straße (no number) – Andres brewery; stately three-floor Late Classicist main building, long works building, quarrystone, further older works buildings
Kallenfelser Straße 1 – former princely winery; two-and-a-half-floor three-wing complex, mansard roof, 1769–1771, architect Johann Thomas Petri (see also below)
Kallenfelser Straße 2 – Villa Andres; Late Historicist plastered building with mezzanine, about 1890/1900
Kasinoweg 3 – Baroque Revival building with mansard roof, partly slated timber framing, 1930, architect Otto, Kirn
Kasinoweg 5 – former casino; Late Classicist villa, 1876
Kirchstraße 3 – former Piarist monastery (town hall); three-floor Late Baroque three-wing complex, 1765–1769, architect Johann Thomas Petri; former rectory and schoolhouse, 1753, floor added in 1768 (see also below)
Kolpingweg 1 – Catholic rectory, Gothic Revival plastered building, about 1900
Linke Hahnenbachstraße 10 – house; Gründerzeit sandstone-block building with knee wall, late 19th century
Linke Hahnenbachstraße 11 – “An der Bach” inn; partly timber-frame, late 16th or early 17th century, in alteration 19th century
Marktplatz – fountain figure, Saint George; bronze, about 1910, sculptor Hugo Cauer, Bad Kreuznach
Marktplatz 4 – “Haus Kölsch”; Baroque house-inn; three-floor timber-frame building, half-hip roof, 17th century
Marktplatz 7 – former summer house; eight-sided Rococo pavilion, 1776, architect Johann Thomas Petri
Marktplatz 4, 5, 6, 7, (8), 9 (monumental zone) – two- to three-floor shophouses, partly timber-frame, from the 16th to 19th centuries, form the marketplace's west side
Nahegasse 2 – shophouse; three-floor Late Gothic building with half-hip roof, partly timber-frame, possibly from the 16th century, altered in the 18th or 19th century
Nahegasse 5 – three-floor shophouse; Baroque timber-frame building, slated, marked 1666
Nahegasse 9 – three-floor shophouse; Baroque timber-frame building, slated, 17th century
Nahegasse 11 – three-floor shophouse; Baroque timber-frame building, slated, essentially from the 17th century (?)
Neue Straße 13 – Evangelical parish hall; building with hip roof with gable risalto, about 1880/1890
Ohlmannstraße 24 – châteaulike Baroquified building with mansard roof, Rococo Revival pavilion, possibly from the 1920s
Steinweg 2 – four-floor Expressionist shophouse, 1922; commercial building
Steinweg 8 – Alte Apotheke (“Old Pharmacy”); rich three-floor timber-frame building, marked 1592
At Steinweg 15 – relief stone of a Late Baroque portal, marked 1769
Steinweg 16 – “Haus Fuchs”; former Salm-Salm government chancellery, 1760–1765, architect Johann Thomas Petri; Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, marked destroyed 1798/renewed 1933, architect Friedrich Otto, Kirn (?)
Steinweg 17 – shophouse; three-floor Baroque Revival building with hipped mansard roof, 1920s/1930s, architect Otto, Kirn
Steinweg 25 – “Goldener Löwe”; shophouse, former smithy; Late Baroque solid building, marked 1791
Steinweg 41 – “Haus Benkelberg”; shophouse; three-floor building with hipped mansard roof, Art Nouveau, about 1900/1910
Sulzbacher Straße – former garden enclosure; Art Nouveau, about 1905
Sulzbacher Straße 15 – one-and-a-half-floor three-wing Late Classicist house, about 1880
Teichweg 3 – three-floor corner building formerly belonging to Schloss Amalienlust, about 1780/1790, upper floor 1920s
Teichweg 6/8 – two-and-a-half-floor Late Classicist pair of semi-detached houses, latter half of the 19th century
Teichweg 7 – former Schloss Amalienlust, pavilion; Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, about 1780/1790; see also no. 11
Teichweg 11a – house, Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, 18th century
Teichweg 11 – former Schloss Amalienlust, pavilion; Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, about 1780/1790; see also no. 7
Teichweg 12 – theatre of the former Schloss Amalienlust; Late Baroque-Early Classicist building with hip roof, about 1780/1790
Teichweg 24 – Historicized Art Nouveau building, 1906
Teichweg 26 – house, Heimatstil with Gothic Revival motifs, about 1900/1905
Teichweg 28 – Late Classicist house, latter half of the 19th century
Teichweg 30 – villalike Late Classicist house, latter half of the 19th century
Übergasse 6 – house, building with mansard roof, clinker brick, Renaissance Revival, about 1900
Übergasse 7 – shophouse; Baroque timber-frame building, late 17th century
At Übergasse 8a – armorial stone, at the former Piarist College, “Haus Holinga”, Late Baroque, marked 1770
Übergasse 10 – two shophouses, timber-frame, partly slated, 16th century and about 1800
Übergasse 12 – Late Baroque building with mansard roof, possibly from the latter half of the 18th century
Übergasse 14 – three-floor timber-frame house, partly slated, 17th century
Übergasse 18 – three-floor shophouse with knee wall, about 1800
Übergasse 20 – three-floor shophouse with knee wall, timber-frame, about 1800
Denkmalzone Übergasse 5–9, 10–14, 18, 20, Kirchstraße 1, 2, Sackgasse 2 – mostly continuous two- to three-floor row of buildings from the 16th to 19th centuries, among them mainly timber-frame houses
Wassergasse 3 – timber-frame house, partly solid, about 1800
Wilhelm-Dröscher-Platz 1 – former Amt court; three-floor sandstone building, Renaissance Revival, 1876; sculptural adornment, sculptor Hanna Cauer, Bad Kreuznach; entrance design Friedrich Otto sen.
Wörther Weg 10–14 (monumental zone) – façade made less tight by spire lights, oriel windows and timber-frame sections of five one-and-a-half- to two-and-a-half-floor houses, about 1905
Wörtherweg 13 – Late Gründerzeit house, 1907, building entrepreneur Franz Reuther
Bismarck Column on the Gauskopf, melaphyre-block building, 1901
Castle Kyrburg ruin (monumental zone) – mentioned in 1128, expansion into palatial castle in the 16th century, destroyed in 1734; preserved a Baroque dwelling building, 18th century (about 1764?), ruin of a Renaissance building; slope retaining walls, vaulted cellar, remnants of round towers, former gunpowder tower, marked 1526, Eselsbrunnen (“Ass’s Fountain”) (see also below)
Kallenfels
Castle Steinkallenfels ruin – mentioned in 1158, in 1682/1684 blown up, remnants of the three castles “Stock im Hane”, “Kallenfels” with keep and wall remnants, “Stein” with gate tower, shield and ringwalls, round towers and so on (see also below)
Evangelical church, Burgweg 12 – Gothic Revival quarrystone building, latter half of the 19th century
Eulenweg 1 – former school; one-floor Gründerzeit group of buildings, marked 1895
At Kallenfelser Hof 1 – spolia, armorial stone, possibly from the 16th or 17th century
Kallenfelser Hof 4 – remnant of a round tower
Kirn-Sulzbach
Evangelical Church, Kirner Straße 62 – Baroque aisleless church, essentially from the 18th century
Saint Joseph Calasanz's Catholic Church (Kirche St. Josef Calasanza) – inside Kirner Straße 79, two Baroque stone altars, endowed in 1753, design possibly by Johann Thomas Petri, execution by Johann Philipp Maringer
Kirner Straße, at the graveyard – warriors’ memorial 1914–1918, stele with relief, 1920s, expanded after 1945
Near Kirner Straße 85 – drink kiosk, 1929
More about buildings
Evangelical church
This Gothic Revival hall church, originally consecrated to Saint Pancras, with its Late Gothic quire and Romanesque steeple from the 11th or 12th century was renovated in 1992 and 1993 to give it back its original form and interior design. Inside are found several tombs of Walgraves-Rhinegraves that are worth seeing. Between 1681 and 1892, the church served both Protestants and Catholics as a simultaneous church. During this time, a wall split of the Protestant section of the church from the sanctuary, which was reserved for the Catholics. After the frightful flood of 1875, new building was required at the church. As a result of this, the Catholics thought it best to build themselves their own church on Halmer Weg.
Princely winery
The princely winery building was built about 1771 on Prince Dominik von Salm-Kyrburg's orders. The horseshoe-shaped building, whose front is still adorned with the princely family's coat of arms in its original form, was built by master builder Johann Thomas Petri from Schneppenbach. After the Second World War and until 1990, the building housed a fruit juicing plant. After standing empty for several years, the left wing, along with the main entrance, was converted into a hotel with a restaurant in 2005. The rest of the building is now used as dwellings.
Kyrburg
Kirn's foremost landmark, standing above the town, is the Kyrburg (also written “Kirburg”), a former hill castle, now a ruin. It lies between the Nahe and Hahnenbach valleys high above Kirn. In 1128, the Kyrburg had its first documentary mention in a document from Count Emich de Kirberc. The castle was one of the seats held by the Waldgraves (whose successors were the Emichones). By the late 13th century, the Waldgraves had split into several lines, one of which named itself after the Kyrburg. In 1409, the Rhinegraves took over the holding through marriage. In the Thirty Years' War, after being occupied by the Spaniards, the Swedes and Imperial troops, it fell into French hands in 1681. Eight years later, a replacement of the defensive complexes was undertaken. In 1734, the stronghold was once again under French occupation, and in the course of the War of the Polish Succession, it was blown up. The ruin thereafter served the townsfolk as a stone quarry. In 1764, Prince Johann Dominik had the garrison house built, which nowadays houses the Restaurant Kyrburg, and in the cellar, the well known whisky museum. In 1908, the castle complex past into the ownership of the Princes of Salm-Salm; since 1988, it has been owned by the town of Kirn. As an outdoor stage, the ruin offers a dramatic backdrop for cultural events. In the past, several operas have been staged there (mainly ones by Giuseppe Verdi). It is also a venue for plays, concerts and celebrations.
Steinkallenfels
Steinkallenfels (also written “Stein-Kallenfels”) is yet another hill castle ruin in Kirn, this one in outlying Kallenfels. In 1158, the castle had its first documentary mention. It was originally a fief held by the Lords of Stein, later called the Lords of Steinkallenfels, who died out in 1778. Beginning in the 14th century, it was a jointly held castle. As long ago as 1615, the castle was described as being in a state of disrepair. Eventually, in either 1682 or 1684, it was blown up by the French and has been a ruin ever since. The castle uses the spectacular natural ledge, of which the nearby formation, the Oberhauser Felsen (also called the “Kirner Dolomiten”), is also a part, that lies athwart the Hahnenbach valley. The castle is actually three castle complexes on separate crags. Standing on the lowest crag is a castle that had fallen into disrepair as early as the 16th century, called “Stock im Hane”. It has no appreciable wall remnants. On another crag stands the Kallenfels with a square keep, but there is no access to this site. Highest up sits the castle Stein, which with its neck ditch, gate tower, bastions, shield wall and five-sided keep set back from the side of any expected attack. The three castles were joined together by defensive passages, of which only a few remnants have been preserved. The complex is now under private ownership, and is not reachable to visitors all the way down to the lowest crags. The ruins can, however, be seen quite well from the road.
Town hall
Today's town hall was built in the years from 1752 to 1771. The master builder Johann Thomas Petri built here, once again on Prince Dominik's orders, a Piarist monastery, which was nevertheless used as such for only a few years. The building later served for more than a century as a Progymnasium or a Realschule, before it was obtained by the town administration in 1938. The former monastery chapel now houses the council chamber. Belonging to the complex is a pavilion that originally stood in the extensive garden complex. Today the eight-sided building stands on the Hahnenbach's right bank at the marketplace.
Hellberg
From the country house named “St. Johannisberg” is an outstanding view, dominated as it is by the Hellberg, the biggest stone run north of the Alps. Although it is in an area where stone has long been quarried, it is a natural formation made up of weathered stone. The stones slowly slide down the slope over time. Quarrying is not allowed, as the Hellberg lies within a conservation area.
Synagogue
Beginning in the early 1870s there was a Jewish prayer room in Kirn. Rented for this purpose was a backyard behind the inn “Zur Krone” on Übergasse (a lane), which had once been used as a gymnasium (today a carpark occupies this spot). In 1887, the foundation stone was laid for a synagogue on Amthofstraße, whose architects and building contractors were the Brothers Benkelberg from Kirn. On 24 and 25 February 1888, the synagogue was festively consecrated. The building was conjoined with its neighbours, which all stood in an unbroken row, and its eaves faced the street. The side with the eaves was framed with lesenes between which were found windows, Rundbogen windows in both the outer fields and above these tracery-filled round windows, while in both the inner fields, twinned windows with mullions, also topped with tracery. A report appeared about the consecration in the Kirner Zeitung on 26 February 1888:
“On 24 and 25 February, on the part of the local Jewish religious community, the consecration of its newly built synagogue took place. From near and far, a great number of coreligionists attended to participate in this lovely festival. The consecration unfolded according to a programme. At 3 o’clock in the afternoon in the old synagogue, the farewell service took place amid the removal of the Torah scrolls. Hereupon, the procession made its way to the new synagogue, which was made up of the following: schoolchildren and teachers, music, synagogue choir, the community elders with the Torah scrolls, accompanied by the festival virgins, rabbis and cantors, Mr. Mayor and the synagogue board, the guests of honour, the members of the worship community and a great number of festival participants. Having reached the new synagogue, Rabbi Dr. Goldschmidt held a short but apt speech, whereupon Mr. Michel II’s little daughter, who had borne the key to the new synagogue on a cushion in the festive procession, passed this to the building contractor Mr. Benkelberg. He thereupon handed the key over to the mayor, Mr. Rau, who as representative of the town handed it to the synagogue board, who then delivered it to the rabbi for the purpose of opening the synagogue. After all the festival participants had entered the new temple, the consecration and the festive service took place, at which we cannot fail to express our full approval to Rabbi Dr. Goldschmidt for his exceedingly bold consecration speech. After the conclusion of this celebration came a service and following this at the community hall was a great festive meal, partaking of which were not only festival attenders but also a great number of local citizens. The festive meal proceeded in the nicest way and the Gregorius’sche Musikkapelle (orchestra) contributed much to its beautification. The job of food catering was given to a Jewish restaurateur from Kreuznach, while the drink catering was taken care of by a local innkeeper. Yesterday morning, there was once again a festive service at the synagogue. The concert announced for 4 o’clock yesterday afternoon at the community hall was attended by quite a number and spread with its precise presentation of the individual musical pieces on the part of the Gregorius’sche Musikkapelle a special enjoyment. At the ball set for the evening many participants likewise showed up and, young and old, kept together merrily through the course of the evening until the early morning hours.”
In February 1928, a commemorative service was held for the synagogue's 40th anniversary. Participating at the celebration were the town's dignitaries, led by Mayor Bongartz. On 28 February 1928, the Kirner Zeitung also published a report about this:
“Memorial service at the synagogue on the occasion of the 40-year anniversary of the existence of the place of worship. On 26 February 1888, the Kirner Zeitung reported on the consecration festivities of the newly built synagogue, which ran a pleasant course amid great participation of the whole citizenry. The former Jewish house of worship was housed before 1888 at the former gymnasium, Übergasse (owner Mr. Nonweiler). Of the generation of that time when the house of worship was built, the last, Mr. L. Rothschild died only a short time ago. In the sermon on Saturday the 25th of this month, Cantor Demant, among others, commemorated the time forty years ago, when the building work was carried out at great sacrifice. The donations flowed richly. It was received as an especially fine stroke of noble humanity that even those fellow townsfolk of other beliefs took part in the donations in great measure, thus earning themselves the Jewish community’s thanks for ever. Certainly a sign of the good comity that prevails among the local citizenry, whatever their faith, then and now. Subsequently, after the sermon, a prayer of thanks was offered for salvation, in which all late donors of any belief were included.”
Ten years later, on Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), Brownshirt thugs thrust their way into the synagogue and destroyed the whole institution. Pews and Judaica were dragged outside and burnt. On 13 April 1939, the Jewish community was forced to sell the synagogue property for 5,358 ℛℳ. In connection with the restitution proceedings in 1950, a further payment of 4,000 DM was made. That same year, the building was torn down. A cinema was built there instead. A memorial has recalled the fate of the town's Jewish community and its synagogue since 9 November 1988 – the fiftieth anniversary of Kristallnacht. This can be found on Steinweg between Neue Straße and Langgasse. Another memorial plaque dating from earlier – 1978 – can be found at the memorial to the war dead at the graveyard. The synagogue's address was Amthofstraße 2.
Jewish graveyard
A Jewish graveyard in Kirn was being mentioned as of 1555 (cadastral area called “off'm Judenkirchhof”), which presumably meant a graveyard for the mediaeval Jewish community. Its whereabouts are now unknown. In 1870, a new graveyard was laid out. It was expanded in 1915. The graveyard's area is 1 000 m2. Preserved on part 1 are 33 graves, and on part 2, 21. In the 1990s, the graveyard was desecrated several times. It lies on Kallenfelser Straße right next to the municipal (Christian) graveyard. The Jewish graveyard actually comprises the north corner of the municipal graveyard, but lies outside the graveyard wall.
Cultural and leisure institutions
At the community hall (Gesellschaftshaus), which was built in 1879 by the leather company of Carl Simon & Söhne in the Classicist style, concert, cabaret and theatrical events are held the year round by Kulturinitiative Kirn. Twice each year, the hall, big enough for up to 500 people, converts itself into an exhibition hall where, for a fortnight each time, paintings and sculptures, mostly by local artists, are put on display. After intensive conversion work, the family leisure pool “Jahnbad” was opened again in the spring of 2002. Besides the 50 m-long main basin, there is now a leisure basin with a slide, a flow channel and massage couches as well as a wading pool with a little slide. The Kirn town library has been housed since January 2002 at Wilhelm-Dröscher-Haus on the Hahnenbach's left bank. On a floor area of 145 m2, some 5,800 books are available to readers. Thematic specialization involves, besides belles lettres, mainly children's and youth literature.
Tourism
Kirn is a starting point for the Hunsrück Schiefer- und Burgenstraße (“Hunsrück Slate and Castle Road”), the Soonwaldsteig (hiking trail), the Keltenweg Nahe–Mosel (likewise) and the Lützelsoon-Radweg (cycle path), as well as being a stage on the Nahe-Hunsrück-Mosel-Radweg (another cycle path).
Clubs
The following clubs are active in Kirn:
Angelsportverein “Forelle” — angling club
Angelsportverein “Hahnenbachtal” — angling club
Arbeiterwohlfahrt Betreuungsverein — workers’ welfare
Arbeiterwohlfahrt, Ortsverein — workers’ welfare, local chapter
Behindertensportgruppe Kirn e.V. — disabled sports group
Brieftaubenverein 08 146 — carrier pigeon club
Bund der Pfadfinderinnen und Pfadfinder, Stamm Wildgrafen Kirn — scouts’ and guides’ association, Wildgrafen Kirn troop
Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz, Ortsgruppe Kirn — environmental and conservation association, local chapter
Bundesbahn-Sozialwerk — DB charitable organization
Chorgemeinschaft “Vivace” — choir union
Club der Briefmarkenfreunde — philately club
CVJM, Christlicher Verein Junger Menschen — YMCA
Deutscher Amateur-Radio-Club, Ortsverband Kirn — amateur radio club, local chapter
Deutsches Rotes Kreuz, Ortsverein Kirn-Stadt und Land — German Red Cross, local chapter for the town and the outlying Verbandsgemeinde
Deutsch-Russischer-Chor — German-Russian choir
DLRG Ortsgruppe Kirn e.V. — DLRG, local chapter
Eagle-Kai-Karate Nahe-Hunsrück e.V.
Eisenbahn-Turn- und Sportverein — railway gymnastic and sport club
Evangelische Frauenhilfe — Evangelical women's aid
Evangelische Frauenhilfe Kirn-Sulzbach — Kirn-Sulzbach Evangelical women's aid
Evangelische Stadtmission Kirn e.V. — Evangelical town mission
Evangelischer Jugendtreff “Der Treff” — Evangelical youth meeting place
Evangelischer Jugendtreff “JuCa” — Evangelical youth meeting place
Evangelischer Kirchenchor Kirn — Kirn Evangelical church choir
Evangelischer Kirchenchor Kirn-Sulzbach — Kirn-Sulzbach Evangelical church choir
FCK-Fanclub Naheteufel — 1. FC Kaiserslautern fan club
Fischereisportverein — sport fishing club
Flugsportverein — air sport club
Förderer der Feuerwehr der Stadt Kirn — fire brigade promoters
Förderverein des Gymnasiums Kirn e.V. — Gymnasium promotional association
Förderverein für Jugendarbeit der evangelischen Kirche — promotional association for Evangelical Church youth work
Förderverein Kita Ohlmannstraße — Ohlmannstraße daycare promotional association
Förderverein Realschule plus Kirn — Realschule plus promotional association
Freundeskreis und Förderverein der Hellberg-Grundschule e.V. — Hellberg primary school circle of friends and promotional association
Gewerbeinitiative Kirner Land — commercial initiative association
Gymnastikverein Kirn-Sulzbach — gymnastic club
Handwerksgesellenverein — handicraft club
Hunsrück Schiefer- und Burgenstraße — “Hunsrück Slate and Castle Road”
Hunsrückverein e.V. — local history and geography club
Interessengemeinschaft “Steinweg” — interest group
“Kallenfelser Eulen” — Shrovetide Carnival (Fastnacht) club
Karachi-Gruppe-Kirn — church aid group
Karnevalsgesellschaft “Rappelköpp” — Shrovetide Carnival club
Katholischer Chor der Pfarreiengemeinschaft Kirn — Catholic church choir
Kirn aktiv — advertising association
Kirner Tafel — food bank
Kolpingfamilie — charitable organization
Kolpingfamilie Karneval — Shrovetide Carnival charitable organization
Lions-Club Kirn-Mittlere Nahe
Männergesangverein “Edelweiß” — men's singing club
Männergesangverein “Frohsinn” — men's singing club
Männergesangverein Kallenfels — men's singing club
Mentor-die Leselernhelfer Nahe-Hunsrück e.V. — language tutoring (reading and speaking)
Motorradfreunde Kirn e.V. — motorcycle club
Musikschule KMS e.V. Kirn — music school
Musikverein 1878 — music club
Obst- und Gartenbauverein Kirn-Sulzbach — fruitgrowing and gardening club
Reit-, Fahr- und Zuchtverein — riding club
Schützenverein 1960 Kirn — shooting sport club
Schützenverein Kallenfels — shooting sport club
Siedlergemeinschaft “Über Nahe” — community association
Spielgemeinschaft 09 Borussia DPSG e.V. — team partnership
Sport-Club 1911 Kirn-Sulzbach
Sportfahrerteam “Brunkenstein” — rally racing club
St.-Georg-Pfadfinder Kirn-Sulzbach DPSG — scouting
SV Vatanspor Kirn — sport club
Tanzgruppe “Gingers” des TUS Kirn — dance club
Tennisclub Kirn
terre des hommes
Theatergruppe Kolping — theatrical group
Tierschutzverein Kirn und Umgebung e.V. — animal welfare
Tischtennisclub “Grün-Weiß” — table tennis club
Türkisches und Islamisches Kulturzentrum Kirn und Umgehung e.V. — Turkish and Islamic Cultural Centre
Turn- und Sportgemeinde 1862 — gymnastic and sport association
Turn- und Sportgemeinde 1862 Abteilung Tennis — tennis department of foregoing
Turnverein Kallenfels — gymnastic club
VCP Verein Christlicher Pfadfinder — Christian scouting
VdK-Ortsgruppe — social advocacy group local chapter
Verein der Freunde und Förderer der Dominikschule Kirn e.V. — friends and promoters of the Dominikschule (school)
Verein der Förderer des Kirner Krankenhauses e.V. — hospital promoters
Verein der Hundefreunde — dog lovers’ club
Verein Freunde und Förderer Realschule plus Kirn - Auf Halmen — friends and promoters of the Realschule plus Kirn - Auf Halmen
Verein für Karate und Selbstverteidigung — karate and self-defence club
Verein für Rasenspiele 07 Kirn e.V. — grass sport club
Verschönerungs- und Heimatverein Kirn-Sulzbach — beautification and local history club
Volkshochschule — folk high school
Wanderfreunde Kirn-Sulzbach — hiking club
Economy and infrastructure
Markets
Given its central geographical location, Kirn was always a lively market centre. Still preserved today, alongside the flea markets held on the first Monday of each month, are two prominent markets: the Andreasmarkt – which celebrated its 300th anniversary in 2000 – on the last weekend in November, and the Thomasmarkt on the second Saturday in December. These markets are quite a boon for Kirn in that they always draw many visitors from the surrounding region. At the Handwerker- und Bauernmarkt (“Craftsmen’s and Farmers’ Market”) in October, small businesses from the Kirn area present their handmade wares and offer them for sale. There is also a Wochenmarkt (weekly market – which despite this name is held twice weekly) on Wednesdays and Saturdays.
Established businesses
Kirn once earned itself countrywide fame as the “Town of Leather”. Most of the tanneries and leather-finishing plants of yore are now long gone, and all that remains of them in town is their head offices. Because such a great deal of the production has been shifted to countries where wages are low, very few people are now employed in the leather industry in Kirn itself. World-famous among what little is left of the industry are the Müller & Meirer Lederwarenfabrik GmbH (locally known as “Müller Hein” and its products marketed under the name Maître) and the Braun GmbH & Co. KG (local name and marketing brand: Braun Büffel). Throughout Rhineland-Palatinate, the town is also well known for its local brewery and the beer that it brews, Kirner Pils. Kirn's biggest employer is SIMONA AG, a worldwide-active manufacturer and distributor of thermoplastic semi-finished products, which originally grew out of the leatherware field. Further important branches of the economy are woodworking, plant construction, the hard-rock industry, packaging and automotive supply. Many small and midsize craft and retail businesses are also represented in town. Over the last few years, tourism, too, has been growing in importance.
Education
For a town of its size, Kirn has a rather comprehensive offering of educational institutions. Besides five daycare centres and two primary schools, there is the municipal Hauptschule, which as of 1 August 2011 became a Realschule plus. Also available are a Gymnasium (Gymnasium Kirn), a Realschule and the Wilhelm-Dröscher-Schule for pupils with special needs. The vocational schools of the Bad Kreuznach district are represented in Kirn in the fields of mechanics, commerce and industry, home economics, economics and administration. The programmes offered by the folk high school and the music school round out Kirn's educational offerings.
Medicine
Medical services are supplied by the hospital run by the kreuznacher diakonie (always written with lowercase initials), many general and specialized healthcare professionals who have located in town and five pharmacies. For seniors, the town has two homes for the elderly, both under church sponsorship.
Transport
Kirn is linked by Bundesstraße 41 to Saarbrücken and Mainz. Leading across the Hunsrück to the Moselle is Landesstraße 184. One can board a train at Kirn on the Nahe Valley Railway (Bingen–Saarbrücken). The travel time on the hourly Regionalexpress trains to Saarbrücken is 1 hour and 10 minutes, while Mainz can be reached in just under an hour. Every other train to and from Frankfurt also runs through to Frankfurt Airport. Frankfurt-Hahn Airport lies some 30 km away from Kirn and can be reached from the town by car in just under a half hour.
Media
Appearing in Kirn are two local editions of regional daily newspapers: the Kirner Zeitung (Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz) and the Allgemeine Zeitung (Kirn edition) (Verlagsgruppe Rhein Main, Mainz).
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Bernhard Stroh (1822–1882), founder of the once third biggest brewery in the United States (Stroh Brewery Company in Detroit)
Friedrich Niebergall (1866–1932), Evangelical theologian
Karl Andres (1876–1935), landowner, winegrowing lobbyist and politician (NLP)
Fritz Oswald Bilse (1878–1951), Prussian officer and writer
Julius Zerfaß (1886–1956), journalist and writer
Wilhelm Dröscher (1920–1977), politician (SPD), Member of the Bundestag (MdB), Member of the Rhineland-Palatinate Landtag (MdL), beginning in 1975 SPD federal treasurer
Werner Schoop (1924–2011), angiologist, textbook author and recipient of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Karl-Georg Faber (1925–1982), historian
Volker Bierbrauer (1940–), prehistorian and mediaeval archaeologist
Frank Farian (1941–; né Franz Reuther), music producer (Milli Vanilli, Boney M.)
Peter Wilhelm Dröscher (1946–), politician (SPD), MdL (Rhineland-Palatinate)
Gerhard Wöllstein (1963–), pianist
Fabian Schönheim (1987–), footballer
Famous people associated with the town
Bernhard Weil (1868–1940), schoolteacher and synagogue cantor in Kirn, deported to Gurs internment camp, died at Noé concentration camp, born in Eichstetten
Berno Wischmann (1910–2001), athlete, college teacher and official in the Deutscher Leichtathletik-Verband, born in Tondern, Prussia (now Tønder, Denmark)
Frank Farian born Franz Reuther on 18.07.41.Record producer of Boney M,Gilla & Milli Vanilli.
Schinderhannes
Like many places in the region, Kirn can claim to have had its dealings with the notorious outlaw Schinderhannes (or Johannes Bückler, to use his true name). He often found himself in Kirn and the surrounding area. In 1796, he and his accomplices went about stealing mutton several times around Kirn, which they sold to a butcher in town. For other misdeeds, he was punished with 25 strokes of the cane at the marketplace. On 10 December 1796 he was caught and locked up in the dungeon at Kirn town hall, only to escape that very night by way of the roof. On 22 December 1797 he amused himself at the Kirn Christkindchen-Markt (“Christ Child Market”) and shortly thereafter committed his first murder in Hundheim.
Further reading
Bernd Brinken, Gerd Danco: Kirn, Weidlich, Frankfurt 1983 (3. Aufl.).
Ulrich Hauth: Die Stadt Kirn und ihr Umland, erschienen in der Reihe: Heimatkundliche Schriftenreihe des Landkreises Bad Kreuznach. Bd. 34, 2006
Becker, Kurt (Hrsg.): Heimatchronik des Kreises Kreuznach, Köln 1966
References
External links
Town’s official webpage
Die alte Stadt des Leders (“The Old Town of Leather”)
History of the town of Kirn (PDF) (22 kB)
SWR Mediathek - Straßen und Plätze: Kirn (streets and squares)
History of the Kyrburg
Steinkallenfels reconstruction drawing by Wolfgang Braun
Bad Kreuznach (district)
Naheland
Holocaust locations in Germany |
4217009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20Sobernheim | Bad Sobernheim | Bad Sobernheim is a town in the Bad Kreuznach district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, and is also its seat. It is a state-recognized spa town, and is well known for two fossil discovery sites and for the naturopath Emanuel Felke. Bad Sobernheim is also a winegrowing town.
Geography
Location
Bad Sobernheim lies on the middle Nahe about halfway between the district seat of Bad Kreuznach (roughly 20 km southwest of that town) and the gemstone town of Idar-Oberstein. Looming to the north is the Hunsrück, and to the south, the North Palatine Uplands. The municipal area stretches as far as the Soonwald. One notable feature of Bad Sobernheim's municipal area is that it is split geographically into two non-contiguous pieces. The part to the southeast containing the main town holds most of the population, whereas the part to the northwest is only thinly populated, but nevertheless makes up more than half the town's area. This came about as a result of the former Bundeswehr airfield in what is now the northwest part of the town. A great number of the people there chose to move house to Bad Sobernheim to escape the continual noise from aircraft, and the town annexed the land where they had formerly lived, up on the Nahe Heights. Since the residents of Nußbaum did not give their village up, Bad Sobernheim now has a great swathe of land to the northwest of its original municipal area, separated from it by Nußbaum's municipal area.
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, Bad Sobernheim's neighbours are the municipalities of Waldböckelheim, Oberstreit, Staudernheim, Abtweiler, Lauschied, Meddersheim and Nußbaum. Bad Sobernheim also holds an outlying swathe of territory, not contiguous with the piece containing the actual town – Nußbaum lies between the two areas – and even greater in area, although very thinly populated. Its neighbours, again clockwise from the north, are the municipalities of Sargenroth, Winterbach, Ippenschied, Rehbach, Daubach, Nußbaum, Monzingen, Auen, Langenthal, Seesbach, Weitersborn, Schwarzerden and Mengerschied, the first and last of these both lying in the neighbouring Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis (district).
Constituent communities
Bad Sobernheim's only outlying Stadtteil is Steinhardt, lying north-northeast of the main centre. Also belonging to Bad Sobernheim, however, are a number of other outlying centres. Some of these lie within the same patch of municipal territory as the main town, namely Dörndich, north-northwest of the main centre, and also Freilichtmuseum, Kurhaus am Maasberg and Neues Leben. Dörndich was once a Bundeswehr facility with barracks that belonged to the Pferdsfeld airfield. Today the area is used by various companies and private citizens. Other centres are also to be found in the municipal exclave lying to the northwest: Eckweiler, Birkenhof, Entenpfuhl mit Martinshof, Forsthaus Alteburg, Forsthaus Ippenschied, Hoxmühle, Kallweiler, Pferdsfeld and Trifthütte. This piece of land was once two former municipalities’ municipal areas. They were the municipalities of Eckweiler and Pferdsfeld.
Climate
A mild, bracing climate, many sunny days, a long autumn and a mild winter all contribute to the area's being one of Southwest Germany's sunniest regions.
History
In the New Stone Age (roughly 3000 to 1800 BC) and during the time of the Hunsrück-Eifel Culture (600 to 100 BC), the Bad Sobernheim area was settled, as it likewise was later in Roman times. Beginning about AD 450, the Franks set up a new settlement here. However, only in 1074 was this "villa" (that is, village) of Suberenheim first mentioned in a document, one made out to Ravengiersburg Abbey. The Sobernheim dwellers then were farmers (some of whom were townsmen) and craftsmen, and into modern times they earned their livelihoods mainly at agriculture, forestry and winegrowing. Businesses and trades existed, but they were often linked with farming. Several monastic orders held landholds in the town. Furthermore, several noble families were resident, such as the Counts of Sponheim, the Raugraves and the Knights of Steinkallenfels. Administration was led by an archiepiscopal Schultheiß, who by 1269 at the latest also had three Schöffen (roughly "lay jurists") at his side. They also formed the first town court. In 1259, Sobernheim was split away from Disibodenberg; only the pastoral duties remained in the monks' hands. Sobernheim was from the Early Middle Ages a centre among the estates held by the Archbishopric of Mainz on both the Nahe and the Glan. It was subject to the vice-lord of the Rheingau. The archbishop transferred Saint Matthew's Church (Kirche St. Matthias) to the monks at Disibodenberg. The Romanesque-Early Gothic building was newly built about 1400 and renovated in the 19th century. The town was granted town rights on the Frankfurt model in 1292 by King Adolf of Nassau and again in 1324 by Emperor Louis the Bavarian. It was, however, the town rights on the Bingen model granted by Archbishop Baldwin of Trier in 1330 that became operative and remained so until the French Revolutionary Wars. Until 1259, Sobernheim was administered by Disibodenberg, and thereafter until 1471 by the Burgraves of Böckelheim. In the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), the fortifications and most of the town's buildings were destroyed by the French. Named in 1403, besides the archiepiscopal Schultheiß, were a mayor and 14 Schöffen drawn from among the townsmen. At that time, there were also Jews living here, who worked at trading. A stone bridge spanned the Nahe beginning sometime between 1423 and 1426, but after a flood shifted the riverbed towards the south in 1627, it sat high and dry in the meadows and was only replaced with the current bridge in 1867–1868. In 1471, Elector Palatine Friedrich I's conquests for Electoral Palatinate included Sobernheim, ending Burgravial rule. Two great fires laid almost the whole town waste in 1567 and 1689. The oldest part of the town hall (Rathaus) was built in 1535, with later expansions being undertaken in 1805, 1837 and 1861–1862. There was already a school sometime after 1530. Despite efforts by the Archbishopric of Mainz, Sobernheim remained with Electoral Palatinate until the French Revolution, then passing to France's Department of Rhin-et-Moselle after the French conquest in the years 1792–1797, which ended the Elector's own rule. Sobernheim became the seat of a mairie ("mayoralty") that included not only the town itself but also the outlying villages of Waldböckelheim, Thalböckelheim, Schloßböckelheim, Steinhardt, Boos, Oberstreit, Bockenau, Burgsponheim and Sponheim as well as a Friedensgericht ("Peace Court"; in 1879 this became an Amtsgericht). After the Napoleonic Wars had ended and the Congress of Vienna had been concluded, the town passed to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1815. The mairie became a Bürgermeisterei (also "mayoralty") under Prussian administration. The year 1817 saw the two Protestant denominations, Lutheran and Reformed, united. In 1857, the King of Prussia once more – for the fourth time in the town's history – granted Sobernheim town rights. In 1858, members of the town's Jewish community built a synagogue. This lasted for 80 years before it was destroyed by Brownshirt thugs on Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938). Industrial development took a long time to make itself felt in Sobernheim, even after the town was linked to the new Rhine-Nahe-Saar Railway in 1859. A cardboard packaging printshop opened for business in 1832, a stocking factory in 1865 and a gelatine factory in 1886/1887. There was also a factory that made sheet-metal articles, and after 1900 there were two brickworks. The Kreuznach district savings bank (Kreissparkasse Kreuznach) was founded in Sobernheim in 1878 and moved to Bad Kreuznach in 1912. A Catholic hospital opened in 1886, as did a location of the Rhenish Deaconry in 1889. In 1888, the Prussian government split the outlying villages from the town, making them a Bürgermeisterei in their own right, called Waldböckelheim. A new development began after 1900 with the introduction of the Felkekur ("Felke cure"). From 1915 until his death in 1926, Pastor Emanuel Felke worked in Bad Sobernheim. He was a representative of naturopathy who developed the treatment so named, which now bears his name. This cure is to this day still applied at Bad Sobernheim's many spa houses. His student Dhonau established a Felke treatment house across the Nahe that began operations in 1907. Further such houses sprang up in 1924 (Stassen), 1926 (Neues Leben) and 1928 (Menschel). The small Amt of Meddersheim was in 1935 brought into joint administration with Sobernheim and, as of 1940, was wholly merged with the town to form the new Amt of Sobernheim. The Second World War brought not only a toll in human lives but also damage from Allied air raids. Reconstruction began with the 1948 currency reform and brought into being a town of some 7,000 inhabitants in which trade, industry, services and public institutions defined economic life. Several central schools, extensive sport facilities and the raising to a Felke spa town are more recent milestones in the town's development. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate in 1969 and 1970, the Verbandsgemeinde of Sobernheim was formed. Belonging to this originally were 20 Ortsgemeinden and the town of Sobernheim, but the number of Ortsgemeinden dropped to 18 in 1979 with the dissolution of the Ortsgemeinden of Pferdsfeld and Eckweiler, whose municipal areas made up the swathe of non-contiguous municipal territory lying to the northwest. The German Air Force was stationed at the outlying centre of Pferdsfeld from 1960 with the Leichtes Kampfgeschwader ("Light Combat Squadron") 42 and from 1975 with the Jagdbombergeschwader 35 (Jagdgeschwader 73). On 1 January 1969, a tract of land with 121 inhabitants was transferred from the municipality of Waldböckelheim to Sobernheim. On 10 June 1979, the hitherto self-administering municipalities of Eckweiler and Pferdsfeld were amalgamated with Sobernheim. Since 11 December 1995, the town has borne the designation "Bad" (literally "bath") in recognition of its tradition as a healing centre.
Jewish history
As early as the Middle Ages, there were Jews living in Sobernheim, with the first mention of them coming from 1301. During the persecution in the time of the Plague in 1348 and 1349, Jews were murdered here, too. In 1357, Archbishop Gerlach of Mainz took two Jews into his protection and allowed them to settle in either Bingen or Sobernheim. Jews were mentioned as being in the town once again in 1384. In the earlier half of the 15th century, there were four or five Jewish families. These families earned their livelihoods at moneylending. In 1418, four Jewish families each paid 10 Rhenish guilders, a woman 4 guilders and three poor Jews 4 guilders in yearly tax to the Mainz stewardship or the Empire. In 1429, all the Jews at Sobernheim (named were Hirtz, Gomprecht, Smohel, Mayer, Smohel's mother and others), together with those throughout the Archbishopric of Mainz, were taken prisoner. It is not believed that this resulted in banishment. Nonetheless, there were clearly no Jews living in Sobernheim in the mid 16th century. The founding of the modern Jewish community came sometime in the 16th or 17th century. Then living in the town were up to five families with all together 20 to 30 persons. After the French Revolution, the community grew from 64 persons in 1808 to a peak of 135 persons in 1895. Beginning in the late 19th century, though, the number of Jews in the town shrank as some either moved away or emigrated. Among Sobernheim's Jews in the 19th and 20th centuries were livestock dealers, butchers, textile sellers, farm product sellers, shoemakers, leather dealers, shop owners and stocking manufacturers. Of particular importance in this last field of business was the Marum stocking factory. In the way of institutions, there were a synagogue (see Synagogue below), a Jewish elementary and religious school with a teacher's dwelling at the house at Marumstraße 20 (this house had been donated after the synagogue's consecration in 1859 by Isaac Werner as a school building), a mikveh (while a supposedly mediaeval one was also unearthed at the house at Großstraße 53 in 1996) and a graveyard (see Jewish graveyard below). To provide for the community's religious needs, an elementary schoolteacher (but later only a religion teacher) was hired, who also busied himself as the hazzan and, although this is not known for sure, as the shochet. Preserved is a whole series of job advertisements for such a position in Sobernheim from such publications as the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums. This one appeared in that newspaper on 1 August 1853:The local Jewish community seeks for 1 September of this year an efficient elementary teacher and cantor. He must be a native, receives 160 Thaler as salary along with free dwelling and heating. Interested parties please announce themselves as soon as possible, and include a copy of their examination and service records. Sobernheim in Rhenish Prussia. School board J. Werner, J. Klein. The successful applicant for this job was Alexander Cahn, who then worked in Sobernheim for several decades and was the figure who characterized Sobernheim's Jewish community life in the latter half of the 19th century. He also established a successful Jewish boarding school for boys in the town. Beginning in 1890, schoolteacher Simon Berendt was active in the community. With him, the community celebrated the synagogue's reconsecration in 1904. He celebrated his own 25 years of service in Sobernheim in 1915. In the First World War, four men from Sobernheim's Jewish community fell:
Rudolf Hesse (b. 26 July 1876 in Sobernheim; d. 24 April 1917)
Gefreiter Richard Feibelmann (b. 26 November 1889 in Meddersheim; d. 21 November 1917)
Dr. Joseph Rosenberg (b. 4 April 1886 in Sobernheim, d. of war wounds on 4 May 1922)
Kurt Metzler
Their names appear on the memorial to the fallen at the Jewish graveyard. In the mid 1920s, Sobernheim's Jewish community still had some 80 persons within a total population of roughly 3,850 (2.1%). Also belonging to the town's Jewish community were the Jews living in Meddersheim (in the mid 1920s, this amounted to 16 persons). The synagogue was then headed by Leopold Loeb, Heinrich Kallmann and Gustav Hesse. In the meantime, Julius Katzenstein had been hired as the cantor and religion teacher. He taught religion at the town's public school to 14 Jewish children. In the way of Jewish clubs, there were a Jewish women's club whose task it was to see to the community's welfare, the club Chewroth whose task it was to see to care of the sick and burials and a Liberal Youth Association. The community belonged to the Koblenz Rabbinate Region. In the early 1930s, the community's leaders were Alfred Marum, Heinrich Kallmann and Mr. Haas. For representation, nine members were part of the leadership, under Richard Wolf's and Moses Fried's chairmanship. The cantor by this time was Felix Moses. In 1933, there were still 83 Jewish inhabitants among the town's population. After 1933, the year when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis seized power, though, some of the Jews moved away or even emigrated in the face of the boycotting of their businesses, the progressive stripping of their rights and repression, all brought about by the Nazis. By Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), only 45 were left. In 1942, the town's last 12 Jewish inhabitants were deported. According to the Gedenkbuch – Opfer der Verfolgung der Juden unter der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft in Deutschland 1933-1945 ("Memorial Book – Victims of the Persecution of the Jews under National Socialist Tyranny") and Yad Vashem, of all Jews who either were born in Sobernheim or lived there for a long time, 40 were victims of Nazi persecution (birthdates in brackets):
Rosa Bergheim née Schrimmer (1868)
Frieda Cohen née Gerson (1887)
Anna (Anni) Feibelmann née Bergheim (1895)
Emmy Frankfurter née Metzler (1878)
Bertha Fried née Kahn (1876)
Moses Fried (1866)
Elisabeth Gerothwohl née Herz (1889)
Ignatz Gerothwohl (1881)
Klementine Haas née Abraham (1877)
Anna Hartheimer née Siegel (1880)
Selma Heimbach née Glaser (1885)
Benno Heymann (1910)
Therese Kahn (1869)
Elise Kallmann née Herz (1873)
Friedel Katzenstein (1920)
Markus Klein (1868)
Johanna Mayer (1880)
Emilie Landau née Gerson (1882)
Nathan Landau (1878)
Clara Lehmann née Wolf (1885)
Johanna Lichtenstein née Herz (1877)
Heinrich Marum (1848)
Johanna Mayer (1880)
Clementine Mendel (1883)
Ernst Metzler (1895)
Gertrud(e) Metzler née Kann (1888)
Judith Metzger (1933)
Jakob Ostermann (1872)
Johanna Ostermann née Mayer (1872)
Dorothea Pappenheim née Klein (1875)
Rita J. Rothschild née Wolf (1879)
Paula Salm née Wolf (1886)
Melanie Schönwald née Haas (1905)
Martha Sondermann née Wolf (1892)
Arthur Wolf (1890)
Bertha Wolff née Oppenheimer (1856)
Emilie Wolff (1885)
Friederike Wolff née Fröhlich (1873)
Hugo Wolf (1881)
Otto Wolf (1890)
Criminal history
Like many places in the region, Bad Sobernheim can claim to have had its dealings with the notorious outlaw Schinderhannes (or Johannes Bückler, to use his true name). The "Steinhardter Hof", an estate in the constituent community of Steinhardt, served him and his sidekick Peter Petri, known as "Schwarzer Peter" ("Black Peter"), as a hideout for a while in the late 18th century.
Religion
The two big church communities are the Evangelical community of St. Matthias Bad Sobernheim and the Catholic community of St. Matthäus Bad Sobernheim, which belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trier. As at 31 October 2013, there are 6,420 full-time residents in Bad Sobernheim, and of those, 3,176 are Evangelical (49.47%), 1,582 are Catholic (24.642%), 8 belong to the Greek Orthodox Church (0.125%), 2 belong to the Russian Orthodox Church (0.031%), 5 are Lutheran (0.078%), 1 belongs to the Alzey Free Religious Community (0.016%), 2 belong to the North Rhine-Westphalia Jewish community (0.031%), 335 (5.218%) belong to other religious groups and 1,309 (20.389%) either have no religion or did not disclose their religious affiliation.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 22 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
Mayor
Bad Sobernheim's mayor is Michael Greiner (SPD), and his deputies are Alois Bruckmeier (FWG) and Ulrich Schug (Greens).
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: Auf Schwarz ein goldener Löwe, rot bekront und bewehrt, rote Zunge, ein silbernes Rad haltend. Auf Silber im Schildfuß ein blaues Wellenband. Die dreitürmige Festungsmauer in grau-braun.
The town's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: On an escutcheon ensigned with a wall with three towers all embattled grey-brown, sable a lion rampant Or armed, langued and crowned gules between his paws a wheel spoked of six argent, in base argent a fess wavy azure.
As suggested by the blazon, the official version of Bad Sobernheim's coat of arms has a wall on top of the escutcheon, not shown in the version in this article.
The two main charges in the escutcheon are references to the town's former allegiance to two electoral states in the Holy Roman Empire, the Wheel of Mainz for the Electorate of Mainz and the Palatine Lion for Electoral Palatinate. The wavy fess in base symbolizes the Nahe. The "wall crown" in the more up-to-date version recalls the granting of town rights. The arms met with the requirements for the granting of such in 1924.
Town partnerships
Bad Sobernheim fosters partnerships with the following places:
Louvres, Val-d'Oise, France
Edelény, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County, Hungary
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Bad Sobernheim (main centre)
Evangelical parish church, Igelsbachstraße 7 – Late Gothic hall church, west tower about 1500 by Peter Ruben, Meisenheim, nave 1482–1484, quire about 1400, converted towards 1500, Romanesque tower; in the churchyard tombs from the 19th century
Evangelical Philip's Church (Philippskirche) and Kaisersaal ("Emperor’s Hall"), Kreuzstraße 7 – Baroque quarrystone building, 1737–1741, 1901 conversion into inn, 1905 addition of Baroque Revival Kaisersaal, architect Friedrich Otto, Kirn; belonging to the area a building with mansard roof no. 9
Catholic Maltese Chapel (Malteserkapelle), Malteser Straße 9 – Late Gothic chapel of the former Sovereign Military Order of Malta commandry, about 1426 to about 1465, nave reconstructed in 1671
Saint Matthew's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Matthäus), Herrenstraße 18 – Late Gothic Revival hall church, 1898–1900, architect Ludwig Becker, Mainz; on the churchyard wall cast-iron hearth heating plates with reliefs and Baroque figure of Saint John of Nepomuk, 18th century
Town fortifications – built after 1330, destroyed 1689, reconstructed in altered form; preserved parts of the town wall: between Kirchstraße 9 and 13; near Kapellenstraße 5 (former Disibodenbergerkapelle); behind Poststraße 39 and 41; between Großstraße 91 and Ringstraße 3; behind Ringstraße 35 and 37; behind Ringstraße 59 and 61; near Wilhelmstraße 37; behind Bahnhofstraße 24; behind Bahnhofstraße 2 and 4
Bahnhofstraße – Felke Monument; standing figure, bronze, marked 1935
Bahnhofstraße 4 – shophouse; Late Classicist plastered building, open-air stairway with porchtop terrace on columns, mid 19th century, addition crowned with gable about 1910
Bahnhofstraße 21 – former savings bank building; Late Historicist hewn-stone building, marked 1900
Bahnstraße 1 – railway station; sandstone-block buildings with one- to two-floor reception building, slated hip roofs, latter half of the 19th century
Dornbachstraße 20 – former town mill; unified group of dwelling and commercial buildings, partly timber-frame, half-hip roofs with off-centre ventilation zones, one marked 1810; millrace, waterwheel
Eckweiler Straße, at the graveyard – group of tombs: in the shape of an oak stump, 1868; two others of the same type; Gothicized stele, 1855; two Classicist grave columns, mid 19th century; E. Felke tomb, granite block with bronze image, 1926 (?); Families Liegel and Schmitt tomb, façade, Art Nouveau, about 1910; J. Müller tomb, electrotyped angel, wrought-iron fencing, about 1910; Morian tomb, ancient stele, urns, 1898
Felkestraße 76–96 – former Kleinmühle ("Little Mill"); 19th and early 20th centuries; no. 76/78: three- to four-floor former factory building, no. 86: mill building, Heimatstil, about 1910/1920, next to it a quarrystone building, 19th century; no. 94, 96: originally possibly tenant farmers’ dwelling belonging to complex; hydraulic engineering facilities
Großstraße 6 – Late Classicist house, partly timber-frame, mid 19th century
Großstraße 7 – shophouse; Baroque timber-frame building, partly solid, essentially 18th century
Großstraße 10 – timber-frame house, partly solid, possibly earlier half of the 19th century
Großstraße 19 – shophouse; timber-frame building, partly solid, essentially possibly 16th/17th century
Großstraße 35 – shophouse; Late Baroque timber-frame building, partly solid, marked 1754
At Großstraße 36 – Baroque wooden relief, 18th century
Großstraße 37 – estate complex; timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially Baroque, marked 1700, remodelled in the early 19th century, gateway arch marked 1772, side building 18th century
Großstraße 40 – shophouse, essentially 16th/17th century, stairway tower, gateway arch marked 1720, façade remodelled in Classicist form about 1820/1830
In Großstraße 53 – former mikveh, after 1850
Großstraße 55/57 – so-called Russischer Hof ("Russian Estate"); three-floor former noble estate, partly timber-frame, stairway tower, marked 1597
Großstraße 67 – former Gasthaus Deutsches Haus (inn); long Baroque timber-frame building, partly solid, early 18th century
Großstraße 88 – former house; Late Baroque building with mansard roof, mid 18th century
Großstraße 2–52,1–57, Marumstraße 26, Marktplatz 2 (monumental zone) – two- to three-floor shophouses, partly timber-frame, mainly from the 16th to 19th centuries
Gymnasialstraße 9 – former synagogue; Late Classicist building with hip roof, sandstone-block, marked 1859
Gymnasialstraße 11 – former Realschule; two-wing Baroque Revival building with mansard roof, 1911/1912, architect Friedrich Otto, Kirn
Gymnasialstraße 13 – former Teutonic Knights commandry; Late Baroque building with hip roof, marked 1750
Herrenstraße 16 – Catholic rectory; Baroque plastered building, marked 1748
At Herrenstraße 24 – Renaissance stairway tower, about 1600
Igelsbachstraße – warriors’ memorial 1914–1918, soldier, bronze, sandstone steles, 1936, sculptor Emil Cauer the Younger
Igelsbachstraße 8 – Ehemhof, former noble estate; three-floor part with stairway tower, marked 1589, two-floor Baroque part with gateway, 18th century
Igelsbachstraße 14 – Evangelical rectory; two-part Baroque building, 18th century, expanded in late 19th century; monumental tablet to Wilhelm Oertel
Kapellenstraße 5 – former Disibodenberg Chapel (Disibodenberger Kapelle); Late Gothic vaulted building, 1401 and years that followed, 1566 conversion to storehouse, vaulted cellar
Kirchstraße – warriors’ memorial 1870–1871, column with eagle, after 1871
Kirchstraße 7 – house, architectural part, essentially 16th century, expanded towards the back, remodelled in Late Classicist in mid 19th century; on the north gable a Renaissance window, 16th century
Kleine Kirchstraße 2 – Baroque building with mansard roof; gateway arch with armorial stone, marked 1722; with Saarstraße 30 the former Malteserhof (estate); barn with gateway arch, 16th century (?)
At Marktplatz 2 – Madonna, Baroque, 18th century
Marktplatz 6 – shophouse; three-floor Late Gothic timber-frame building, partly solid, possibly from the 16th century
Marktplatz 9 – shophouse; Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, mid 18th century
Marktplatz 11 – town hall; representative Late Gothic Revival hewn-stone building, 1861–1863, architect Peters, Bad Kreuznach; belltower and two Late Classicist additions, 1860s
Meddersheimer Straße 37 – Baroque Revival villa, marked 1893, expanded on the garden side about 1910/1920
Meddersheimer Straße 42 – villa; two-and-a-half-floor Late Gründerzeit clinker brick building, Renaissance motifs, marked 1890
Poststraße 5 – villa; Late Gründerzeit two-and-a-half-floor building with hip roof, Renaissance Revival motifs, sandstone and clinker brick, marked 1894
Poststraße 7 – villa; Late Gründerzeit clinker brick building, Renaissance motifs, about 1890
Poststraße 11 – two-and-a-half-floor solid building, partly timber-frame, about 1900
Poststraße 26 – former municipal electricity works; administration building; villalike Late Gründerzeit clinker brick building, about 1900
Poststraße 30 – villa; one-floor building with mansard roof, Heimatstil, 1914.
Poststraße 31 – villa; Heimatstil, about 1910
Priorhofstraße 16/18 – former Priorhof; Renaissance building with stairway tower, marked 1572, oriel window marked 1609, gateway arch 16th or 17th century, addition with cellar arch and Baroque relief
Ringstraße 36 – former hospital; three-and-a-half-floor villalike Gothic Revival quarrystone building, marked 1893, commercial building
Saarstraße 17 – timber-frame house, 16th or 17th century
Saarstraße 30 – former Malteserhof; Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, gateway arch, portal with skylight marked; joined with Kleine Kirchstraße 2 by a gateway arch
Staudernheimer Straße – signpost/kilometre stone; sandstone obelisk, 19th century
Staudernheimer Straße 13 – villa; Baroquified building with hip roof, about 1920; town planning focus
Steinhardter Straße 1/3 – Gründerzeit pair of semi-detached houses; building with hipped mansard roof with Late Classicist elements, about 1870
Steinhardter Straße 2 – former Villa Zens; Late Classicist plastered building with knee wall, addition with conservatory; in the garden wall the pedestal of a wayside cross, marked 1753
Wilhelmstraße 3 – Haus „Zum kleinen Erker“; opulent Renaissance building, marked 1614 and 1622; gabled building belonging thereto, essentially 16th century, remodelled in the 19th century in Late Classicist
Wilhelmstraße 8 – former Steinkallenfelser Hof and “Hohe Burg” inn: building with half-hip roof, essentially 16th century (marked 1532 and 1596); Late Classicist inn, latter half of the 19th century
Wilhelmstraße 13 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 18th century, ground floor marked 1840
Jewish graveyard, “Aufm Judenkirchhof” ("At the Jews’ Churchyard") (monumental zone) – laid out about 1785, area with 140 gravestones beginning from 1829; memorial from 1950 with warriors’ memorial plaque 1914-1918
Kurhaus Dhonau south of town (monumental zone) – Heimatstil buildings, 1907 until about 1930: Kurhaus ("spa house"), former commercial building, about 1920; Hermannshof with timber framing and covered walkways, before 1920; teahouse not far from the Nahe; Haus Waldeck, villa 1907 (addition in 1958), Haus Helge, about 1930; Arngard group of houses (mud hall and bathhouse); whole complex of buildings
Eckweiler
Evangelical church; formerly Holy Cross (Heilig-Kreuz) – Late Gothic aisleless church, about 1500, expanded 1908, ridge turret 1907
Pferdsfeld
Alteburgturm, in the Soonwald – four-floor round tower, quarrystone, 1893
Alteburg forester's house, in the Soonwald – Gründerzeit estate complex along the road, late 19th century
North of Landesstraße 230 – New Royal Forest Office of Entenpfuhl (nowadays Soonwald Forest Office), one-floor Heimatstil building, about 1900/1910
South of Landesstraße 230 – Alte Oberförsterei Entenpfuhl ("Old Entenpfuhl Chief Forest Office"), Baroque timber-frame building, partly solid, half-hip roof, earlier half of the 18th century, 1760-1795 residential seat of the Electoral Palatinate hereditary forester . Utsch was thought to be the subject of "Ein Jäger aus Kurpfalz", a popular folk song.
South of Landesstraße 230, Entenpfuhl – monument to the "Ranger from Electoral Palatinate"; limestone, 1913, sculptor Fritz Cleve, Munich
Steinhardt
Bockenauer Straße 19 – estate complex; building with half-hip roof, timber-frame, plastered, marked 1810, timber-frame barn
Kreuznacher Straße 19 – estate complex; Classicist house, marked 1835
More about buildings and sites
Saint Matthias Evangelical Parish Church
Bishop Willigis consecrated Saint Matthias Church (Pfarrkirche St. Matthias) about 1000. The oldest parts (north tower base) are Romanesque, if not Carolingian; the quire is Early Gothic. The main nave was built in the late 15th century, and the tower in 1500, by Peter Ruben from Meisenheim. Besides sumptuous altar baldachin capitals with representations of angels and colouring from the time of building, the organ built by Johann Michael Stumm in 1739, largely preserved in its original state and restored, and the windows by Georg Meistermann are worth viewing.
Disibodenberg Chapel
The Late Gothic Disibodenberger Kapelle (chapel) was built to a plan by Heinrich Murer von Beckelnheim for the Cistercians of Disibodenberg Abbey on an estate that lay between the town wall and Großstraße, and which had already been presented to the abbey by Archbishop Willigis of Mainz in 975. The estate, which functioned as a tithe-gathering place for the landholds on the middle Nahe and the Glan, grew into the abbey's most important settlement. The chapel, bearing an imprint of the Frankfurt school, was according to dendrochronological studies, in the area of the quire, roofed about 1455, while the nave got its roof somewhat later, about 1493. Both roof frames, given their age, size, quality and completeness are held to be among the most important witnesses to the carpenter's craft in Rhineland-Palatinate. The means of financing the construction of this 23.25 m-long, 7.65 m-wide building came from an inheritance from Katharina von Homburg, widow of Antilmann von Scharfenstein, called von Grasewege, an Electoral Mainz Amtmann at Schloss Böckelheim, who died on 24 December 1388, and whom Catholics revere as Blessed. After the Reformation was introduced under Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, the chapel was profaned in 1566 by being converted into a storehouse. A vaulted cellar with a height of about 3.90 m was built in, taking in the space between the base of the foundation and the windowsills and thus leading to the loss of the original ground floor's floor level and pedestal zone. Therefore, the chapel can now no longer be entered through any doorway dating from the time of building. The new "high ground floor" thus created lies at the level of the sills of the Gothic windows. Likewise about 1566, in an attempt to gain more stabling room, a wooden middle floor was built in, which is now important to the building's history for both its age and its shaping in the Renaissance style. Since both the later building jobs – the vaulted cellar and the middle floor – came to be in the course of the chapel's profanation after the Reformation was introduced, they can also be considered witnesses to the local denominational history. The west portal's outer tympanum, which shows, under a mighty ogee, in the style of the Frankfurt School, a calvary with Jesus, Mary Mother of God and John the Apostle as well as two thurible-swinging angels attending, is the only one with carved ornamentation in the Nahe-Glan region that has been preserved from the Middle Ages. The artwork is stylistically akin to the tomb carving in nearby St. Johannisberg (constituent community of Hochstetten-Dhaun) and at the Pfaffen-Schwabenheim collegiate church. The motif of the crockets along the ogee, on the viewer's left turned away and on his right opened towards him, are otherwise only found on the west portal of St. Valentin in Kiedrich in the Rheingau. Brought to light in 1985 during restoration work beneath the tympanum was an atlas in the shape of a male figure, which because of his arm warmers reaching down over his palms is described as the Bauhandwerker – roughly "construction worker". The atlas was, after painstaking analysis, walled up again for conservational reasons. After the chapel had been hidden for 111 years behind a print shop's walls, it came back to public awareness in 2010 with the opening of a retail park on the former print shop's property. The Förderverein Disibodenberger Kapelle Bad Sobernheim e.V. (Förderverein means "promotional association" in German) has since set itself the task of finding a cultural use for the old chapel in keeping with its dignity as a former ecclesiastical building, and of permanently opening it to the broader public. In the spring of 2013, however, plans were put forth to turn the Disibodenberg Chapel into a brewpub.
Maltese Chapel
The Late Gothic Malteserkapelle arose as a church of a settlement of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta/Knights Hospitaller. The quire was built in 1456 and the nave completed in 1465. The chapel's quire stands taller than the nave. The building's exterior is framed by stepped buttresses and windows with fish-bladder tracery. After the Reformation was introduced, the Knights had to leave Sobernheim. The chapel was used as a commercial building and fell into disrepair. After the reintroduction of the Catholic faith in 1664, the chapel, now renovated from the ground up, served as the Catholic parish church. At the Maltese Commandry in 1821, a Progymnasium was established (the Höhere Stadtschule or "Higher Town School"); the chapel was restored in 1837 and was then used as the school chapel. This school is considered the forerunner to the current Gymnasium. After the new Catholic parish church, Saint Matthew's (St. Matthäus) was built in 1898/1899, directly opposite the chapel, six tombs, the baptismal font made about 1625 and a Sacramental shrine from the 15th century were all transferred to the new parish church. The chapel building was converted into a clubhouse. The last renovation work was undertaken in 1999–2003, and since then the Catholic parish of St. Matthäus has been using the building as its Haus der Begegnung ("Meeting House"). The building is under monumental protection.
Saint Matthew’s Catholic Parish Church
Saint Matthew's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Matthäus), a Gothic Revival church built by master church builder Ludwig Becker from 1898 to 1899, was consecrated by Bishop Michael Felix Korum. It is a great, three-naved hall church built out of yellow sandstone. It has a Gothic Revival triptych altar from 1905, a Sacramental shrine from the 15th century and an historic organ from 1901/1902 built by Michael Körfer from Gau-Algesheim. The organ is one of Körfer's few still preserved works. In the sanctuary stands the baptismal font made about 1625 and taken from the Maltese Chapel. The 59 m-tall churchtower looms over the town and can be seen from far beyond. Among the glass windows, those in the sanctuary stand out from those elsewhere in the church with their special images and colouring. The middle window uses mediaeval symbolism to describe the Last Judgment. The left window shows church patron Saint Matthew's calling at the tax office, under which are shown Hildegard of Bingen and Simon Peter. Displayed on the right window is the Maltese Chapel's patron, John the Baptist, and underneath, among others, Saint Disibod. On each side of the chancel are wall surfaces shaped in local forms. To the right, the lower part shows the town with the town hall's façade, the parish churches’ towers (both Catholic and Evangelical) and the town's coat of arms. The populace standing before this is shown in the four ages of life and as representatives of ecclesiastical and secular worlds. The historic Körfer organ was thoroughly restored in 2011–2012. The parish church itself is slated to be renovated inside beginning in January 2014
Marketplace
Worth seeing, too, is the historic marketplace (Marktplatz) with the town hall (Rathaus) from the 16th century, whence all other historical places, leisure facilities and restaurants in town can be easily reached. The marketplace and the neighbouring streets are also the venue for Bad Sobernheim's yearly traditional Innenstadtfest ("Inner Town Festival"), held on the first weekend in September.
Noble estates
Bad Sobernheim is home to several former landholds once belonging to noblemen or monasteries in bygone centuries. The Steinhardter Hof temporarily served as a hideout towards the end of the 18th century for the robbers Johann Peter Petri, called "Schwarzer Peter" ("Black Peter") and Johannes Bückler, called "Schinderhannes".
Paul Schneider Monumental Column
In Pferdsfeld, one of the centres in Bad Sobernheim's northwest exclave, stands the Paul-Schneider-Gedenksäule in memory of the martyr Paul Schneider, who was born here.
Synagogue
About any mediaeval institutions, nothing is known, but there might have been a prayer room on hand in the earlier half of the 15th century, when there were four or five Jewish families in town. The modern Jewish community, too, began with a prayer room in the 17th or 18th century. Beginning in 1816, this was to be found in a private house (the Werner house at Marumstraße 20). As early as the late 1830s, the building police were threatening to close the roughly 25 m2 room as it had become too small for the swelling Jewish community. First, the community strove to secure a plot on Marumstraße (later the site of the Bottlinger house), but this proved to be too small for a new building. Only in 1858, amid great financial sacrifice, was a synagogue built on what is now called Gymnasialstraße, on a piece of land where once had stood a barn. It was a Late Classicist sandstone-block building with round-arched windows and a pyramid roof. The original building was – in comparison with the one that has been preserved – smaller by one window axis; this area was to be occupied by a schoolhouse. About the synagogue's consecration on 18 June 1858, performed by Chief Rabbi Dr. Auerbach together with the Sobernheim cantor and schoolteacher Alexander Cahn, a newspaper report from the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums survives from 19 June 1858, written by "Master Bricklayer S. Hadra":Sobernheim, 18 June 1858. On this day, the local Jewish community celebrated the consecration of its newly built House of God. This is, in relation to the not very numerous Jewish population, built very roomily, so that in the case of growth thereof by as many again, there would still not be a lack of room. The building itself is built in a suitable modern style. The community spared no expense furnishing its House of God in the worthiest way. They even enjoyed valuable donations and contributions from non-resident members. The consecration celebrations were conducted with great pomp. Many friends from near and far attended to participate on this festive day. The festive procession moved from the old prayer house to the new synagogue. Forth under the grand baldachin of the Chief Rabbis, Dr. Auerbach from Bonn and the local cantor and schoolteacher, Mr. Cahn, followed by the bearers of the Scroll of Law. Hereupon followed the choir that has been newly instituted here by Sobernheim’s young women and men, the officials who were invited to the festivities and other members of the community. The synagogue at this memorable celebration was adorned with leaves and wreaths of flowers by the teacher. Chief Rabbi Dr. Auerbach gave a deeply gripping sermon characterizing the day’s importance. On Saturday, the Jewish community’s schoolteacher and cantor Mr. Kahn preached on the theme “Build me a House of God and I shall live among you.” S. Hadra, Master Bricklayer.In 1904, the synagogue was thoroughly renovated and expanded towards the west. About the completion of this work and the synagogue's reconsecration on 11 and 12 November 1904, a magazine report from Der Israelit survives from 24 November 1904:Sobernheim. 14 November 1904. The 11th and 12th of November were high festive days for the local community, as on these days, the expanded and beautified synagogue was consecrated. To the festivities, many guests from here and elsewhere were invited and they showed up. The consecration service held on Friday afternoon, at which, among others, the mayor, the town executive, the Royal District School Inspector, the principal of the local Realschule and representatives of the schoolboards took part, was opened with the motet “Gesegnet sei, wer da kommt im Namen des Herrn” (“Blessed be He who Cometh in the Lord’s Name”), presented by the synagogue choir. Hereupon, the community’s schoolteacher, Mr. Berendt, read out, in an upliftingly expressive voice, Psalm 110. After the choir then sang Ma Tovu (מה טבו), leadership member Mr. Michel’s eldest daughter presented a prologue in exemplary fashion and handed the community head, Mr. M. Marum, the key to the holy ark. He then gave a speech thanking, in brief but heartfelt words, all those who had contributed to the completion of the building work. Upon this, Mr. Marum opened the holy ark and bestowed upon it its ceremonial function. While the choir sang Vaychi benisa (ויחי בנסע), leadership member Mr. Löb took out one of the Torah scrolls and handed it to Mr. Berendt, who with a festive voice spoke the following: “And this is the teaching that Moses set before the Children of Israel, and in this teaching is the Word that served Israel as a banner on its long wandering through history, around which it gathered, the Word, which was its guiding star in friendly and dreary days: Hear, O Israel, the Everlasting, our God, the Everlasting, is the only one.” After the choir and the community had repeated the last words in Hebrew, the Torah scroll was put into the holy ark amid song from the choir for that occasion. Deeply moving and seriously thought-out was Mr. Berendt’s celebratory sermon that followed about the Word of the prophet Isaiah: “ביתי בית תפלה יקרא לכל העמים” (“My house shall be a house of prayer and a house for all people”). After the consecration hereafter performed by him and the reading of the general invocation, the aaronitic blessing was then conferred in Hebrew and German and the consecrational song was presented by the choir. The celebratory service obviously left all participants with an impression fully matching the dignity of the celebration. After a short break, קבלת שבת took place (onset of Shabbat), at which our splendid House of God shone as surely as it had at midday in glorious electric light. On Saturday morning, the main service was held, whereupon the religious celebration concluded. At four o’clock in the afternoon, a banquet began in the hall at the “high castle”. This event, too, went off in the loveliest way, making the festival into a harmonic whole, honouring its organizers and giving all participants a lasting memory. To the following goes credit for the embellishment of the House of God: Mrs. Jakob Kaufmann née van Geldern, who by collections among the women made possible a magnificent parochet; Mr. Ferdinand Herz, who endowed a sumptuous shulchan cover (for the lectern); Mrs. Else Jakobi née Marum from Grünstadt and Mr. B. Steinherb from Aachen, who each donated a richly ornamented Torah mantle. The Family Jakob Marum from Karlsruhe gave a rare carpet that decorates the inside of the House of God.In 1929, the synagogue's roof was renovated. In August 1930, a memorial tablet to the fallen from Sobernheim in the First World War was put up at the synagogue. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the synagogue was demolished and desecrated. The prayer books were burnt. Somebody managed to save the Torah scrolls and the parochet. The memorial tablet to the fallen was broken to bits, but Alfred Marum safely gathered up the bits (he put it back together and on 15 October 1950, set it in the memorial at the graveyard, fractured though it still was; the Jewish worship community of the Bad Kreuznach and Birkenfeld districts replaced it with a replica of the original in January 2005). In 1939, the synagogue was sold to the town, who had in mind to turn the building into an atrium for the Gymnasium. In the Second World War, however, the synagogue was used as a storage room by the Wehrmacht. In 1953, after the war, the building was sold to the owner of the Schmidt department store and thereafter used for furniture storage. Intermediate floors were built inside. In 1971, the building was threatened with being torn down. A broad bypass road was, according to the plans then put forth, to lead right across the plot occupied by the synagogue. Only with great effort could the application to put the building under monumental protection be put through. The town and the owner objected, albeit unsuccessfully. In 1986, the building was once again sold, and then used for drink storage and stockpiling. On 9 November 1989 – the 51st anniversary of Kristallnacht – the Förderverein Synagoge Sobernheim e.V. (Sobernheim Synagogue Promotional Association) was founded. It set itself the goal of conserving the legacy of Jewish culture in Bad Sobernheim. Central to its purpose from the outset were the preservation and renovation of the synagogue. The House of God was to be led to a use that was wise and in line with its dignity. The use to which the building was to be led turned out to be as the new home for the town's public library, which would allow the space formerly used for worship to keep its original shape (the intermediate floors were to be torn out). In 2001, the town of Bad Sobernheim acquired the synagogue. Through a usage and maintenance agreement, the building passed into the promotional association's care. In 2002, the roof and the windows were repaired. The Family Marum's descendants donated a new Star of David for the roof. At once, several memorial events, concerts and even Jewish religious services took place inside, even though at first, it did not look very appealing. In connection with this, close contacts were developed between the promotional association, the Zentralwohlfahrtsstelle der Juden in Deutschland (Central Welfare Post of the Jews in Germany, represented locally by Max-Willner-Haus in Bad Sobernheim) and the Jewish worship community in Bad Kreuznach. In 2003, the first Jewish religious service in 65 years took place at the synagogue. Between 2005 and 2010, the restoration of the old synagogue was undertaken, and it was turned into the Kulturhaus Synagoge. This was festively dedicated on 30 May 2010. The address in Bad Sobernheim is Gymnasialstraße 9.
Jewish graveyard
The Jewish graveyard in Bad Sobernheim is believed to have existed since the early 19th century. Its earliest appearance in records was in the original 1825 cadastral survey. Rural cadastral names such as "Auf'm Judenkirchhof" or "In der Judendell", however, may mean that it has existed longer. If the Bad Sobernheim graveyard was only laid out in 1820 or thereabouts, it is unclear where the town's Jewish families would have buried their dead before that, although candidates include the central graveyards in Bad Kreuznach, Gemünden and Meisenheim. Registered as the graveyard's owner in 1826 was the horse dealer Philipp Werner (at the time, the Jewish community could not function as an incorporated body and thus could not own things). The graveyard was still in the Family Werner's ownership in 1860. In 1856, a field beside the Jewish graveyard was named that was in the Jewish community's ownership, which became the new annex to the graveyard (the new Sobernheim and Monzingen section). The oldest preserved gravestone is from 1829, bearing the aforesaid Philipp Werner's name. The last three burials were in the time of the Third Reich, shortly before the deportations began. Those buried were Ida and Hermann Wolf and also Jonas Haas. No further gravestones were ever placed. The graveyard's area is 6 979 m2, making it the second biggest in the Bad Kreuznach district. The graveyard is divided into four parts, the old and new Sobernheim sections, the Waldböckelheim section and the Monzingen section. Standing in the Monzingen section are gravestones from the Monzingen graveyard, which was levelled in 1938. The gravestones were transferred to Bad Sobernheim. In the Waldböckelheim section, members of the Jewish community in Waldböckelheim were buried in the 19th century. There was a relationship between Waldböckelheim and Sobernheim especially in the Family Marum: Anselm Marum the Younger was born in Waldböckelheim, but he later became leader of the Jewish community in Sobernheim. The old Sobernheim section is where the dead from Sobernheim were buried in the 19th century. Beginning in 1902, the new Sobernheim section was used. The first burial there was Sara Marum, who had founded the Marum stocking factory. In the middle, among the sections, stands the 1950 monument where the memorial tablet to the fallen from the First World War is set. This was to be found at the synagogue (see Synagogue above) until 1938, and it was replaced with a replica in 2005. There was another, smaller Jewish graveyard at the northwest edge of the town graveyard "Auf Löhborn", behind the chapel, that was laid out in 1925. This new burying ground was secured through community leader Leopold Loeb's efforts. Buried there were his wife's siblings and in 1930, Loeb himself. In 1937 – in the time of the Third Reich – the dead buried at this graveyard had to be removed and buried once again at the "Domberg" graveyard. Within the municipal graveyard, Jews were now "unwanted". During the time of the Third Reich, the "Domberg" graveyard was heavily defiled and ravaged. The worst destruction happened on Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), wrought by 10 or 15 men, mostly Brownshirt thugs. They threw the gravestones about and shattered stones and inscription tablets. Quite a few pieces of stone were rolled down the hill or thrown over into neighbouring fields. Parts of the graveyard (among them the left side of the Waldböckelheim section) were then or in the time that followed almost utterly removed. After 1945, the stones – wherever possible – were put back up, but this left some of the stones in the older sections no longer standing in their original places. Many bits of rubble could not be identified and therefore could not be placed. On 15 October 1950, the memorial was dedicated, and now remembers not only the local Jews who fell in the First World War but also those Jews from Bad Sobernheim who died. Even after 1945, the graveyard was defiled several times – at least four – the last time in January 1983, when some 40 gravestones were thrown about and heavily damaged. The plaque at the graveyard reads as follows:Jewish graveyards “Auf dem Domberg” in Sobernheim. In 1343, the first Jewish fellow townsfolk in Sobernheim were mentioned in documents. Their burial places are unknown. Likely their burials took place outside the town wall. In Napoleonic times about 1800, there was a new burial order. Thereafter, no more dead could be buried in residential areas. At about the same time as the graveyard “Auf Löhborn” was laid out, so was the Jewish graveyard “Auf dem Domberg”. The oldest gravestone comes from 1829. The graveyard is made up of three parts. In the oldest part, the dead are buried with their heads towards Jerusalem, thus eastwards. In the middle part of the graveyard, the dead were buried turned towards the synagogue, which can be seen well from the graveyard. Since the former Jewish graveyard at Monzingen was closed at the NSDAP’s instigation, the available stones from Monzingen were “symbolically” set up at the Sobernheim graveyard. Also worthy of mention is the tablet at the graveyard honouring the fallen Jewish soldiers from the First World War 1914-18. Beginning in 1930, Jewish families buried their dead at the town graveyard “Auf Löhborn”. On the NSDAP’s orders in 1933-34, exhumations of the buried Jews were carried out, and they were eventually buried at the Jewish graveyard “Auf dem Domberg”. With regard to the care of graves, Jewish people have different customs to Christians. After setting the gravestone, the rest of the dead should for ever be undisturbed. It is customary to plant ivy or periwinkle on the graves. When visiting a relative’s grave, one lays a stone on the gravestone, or on the anniversary of his death, a grave candle is lit. The graveyard is closed on all Saturdays as well as on all Jewish holidays. The Jewish graveyard lies on the Domberg (mountain) east of the town centre, not far from the road "Auf dem Kolben".
Museums
Bad Sobernheim is home to two museums. The Rheinland-Pfälzisches Freilichtmuseum ("Rhineland-Palatinate Open-Air Museum") has translocated buildings, old cattle breeds (Glan Cattle) and old equipment, showing how the people who lived in the countryside in Rhineland-Palatinate, in the Hunsrück and on the Nahe and other rural places lived and worked in bygone centuries. It is of importance well beyond the local region. The local history museum (Heimatmuseum) has pictures, sculptures and notes made by well known Bad Sobernheim artists such as Jakob Melcher, Johann von der Eltz and Rudolf Desch on display. Many magazines, documents and books by the spa founder and pastor Emanuel Felke can be found here. His works are presented on display boards. Also found here is an extensive collection about the region's geological history.
Palaeontology
Bad Sobernheim is also known as the discovery site for a number of fossils. Named after its main discovery site, a sand quarry in the outlying centre of Steinhardt, are Steinhardter Erbsen, or "Steinhardt Peas", sandstone concretions containing fossils, mostly plants. These ball-shaped sandstones contain plant and animal remnants that are roughly 30,000,000 years old, from the Oligocene. Wrapping the fossils inside one of these "peas" is baryte. The peas presumably formed inside hot springs that apparently were linked with a geological remoulding near Steinhardt and bore barium chloride. When plants and animals decay in an oxidizing environment, hydrogen sulphide forms, which reacts with barium chloride to form baryte. In the process, sand is locked around the fossils. Plant remnants like wood and conifer cones are mostly converted into baryte, and only leaves show up as imprints. In the pit of a former Bad Sobernheim brickworks, superb fossils of plants from Rotliegend times (Permian) some 290,000,000 years ago have been unearthed. The name of one of these species, Sobernheimia, recalls its discovery site. At times, whole phyla of horsetails and sequoias have come to light there. Fossil plants from Sobernheim are presented at the Palaeontological Museum in Nierstein. Moreover, small agate druses are now and then found within the town's limits. Other fossils have been found at a basalt quarry near Langenthal.
Sport and leisure
In Bad Sobernheim there are an adventure swimming pool, a 3.5 km-long Barfußpfad ("Barefoot Path") on the riverside flats with adventure stations, among them river crossings, one at a ford and another at a suspension bridge, as well as many cycle paths and hiking trails, tennis, golf and miniature golf facilities. There is also a campground.
Parks
In the inner town lies the Marumpark, once the family Marum's private garden. This family owned a stocking factory located in Bad Sobernheim from 1865 to 1982, which was later donated to the town. Near the middle stands a memorial stone to Arnold Marum, factory founder Sarah Marum's great-grandson.
Clubs
The following clubs are active in Bad Sobernheim:
Freundeskreis Partnerschaft Bad Sobernheim - Louvres — "circle of friends" for Bad Sobernheim-Louvres town partnership
Förderverein Synagoge e.V. — synagogue promotional association
Förderverein des katholischen Kindergartens Bad Sobernheim e.V. — kindergarten promotional association
Förderverein Sowwerummer Rosenmontagszug e.V. — Shrove Monday parade promotional association
Gemischter Chor "Edelweiß" Steinhardt e.V. — mixed choir
Kulturforum Bad Sobernheim — culture forum
Economy and infrastructure
Winegrowing and tourism
Bad Sobernheim belongs to the Nahe wine region. The winemaking appellation – Großlage – is called Paradiesgarten, while individual Sobernheim wineries – Einzellagen – are Domberg and Marbach. Winegrowing and tourism go hand in hand here. The Weinwanderweg Rhein-Nahe ("Rhine-Nahe Wine Hiking Trail"), the Nahe-Radweg ("Nahe Cycle Way") and the Naheweinstraße ("Nahe Wine Road") all run through the town's municipal area and on through the Verbandsgemeinde. Even today, agriculture still defines part of the region's culture, giving rise to, among other things, a great grape and fruit market in the town each autumn. Many winemakers also have gastronomical enterprises. The traditional grape variety is Riesling.
Established businesses
Among the more important enterprises in Bad Sobernheim are the following:
Hay, a manufacturer of automotive technology with roughly 1,300 employees at two plants, in Sobernheim and Bockenau;
Polymer-Chemie, an independent family business with roughly 300 employees, which serves as a link between resource-based manufacturers and the plastic-processing industry, compounding, refining and modifying polymers;
Ewald, an enterprise founded in 1886 by Carl Ewald in Sobernheim, which has specialized in making sheet and powder gelatine and gelatine hydrolyzates;
BAZ Spezialantennen, a manufacturer in antenna technology with focus on ferrite antennae for receiving low frequency, very low frequency, sferics, geophysical sferics and Schumann resonances; the firm was founded in 1994 in Bad Bergzabern with the head office moving to Bad Sobernheim in 2012.
Retailers
Bad Sobernheim's Innenstadtzentrum ("Inner Town Centre") stands on land once occupied by the Melsbach cardboard packaging factory, and is a big shopping centre with branches of Rewe, NKD and Netto as well as a café and two bakeries. On the town's outskirts are found the companies Real, Lidl and Aldi Süd.
Financial services
The Sparkasse Rhein-Nahe (savings bank) and the Volksbank Rhein-Nahe-Hunsrück both have branches in the town.
Healthcare and spa facilities
The therapeutic facilities founded by the Bad Sobernheim citizens Felke and Schroth are an important economic factor for the town. Listed here are some of the town's healthcare facilities:
Asklepios Katharina-Schroth-Klinik Bad Sobernheim – orthopaedic rehabilitation centre for scoliosis and other spinal deformities and for intensive scoliosis rehabilitation using Katharina Schroth's methods
Romantikhotel Bollant’s im Park & Felke Therme Kurhaus Dhonau
Hotel Maasberg Therme
Menschel Vitalresort (near Meddersheim)
Seniors’ residences: Seniorenresidenz Felkebad
Pharmacies: Kur-Apotheke at the marketplace and Felke-Apotheke at Saarplatz
Education
Bad Sobernheim has a state G8 Gymnasium, the Emanuel-Felke-Gymnasium. Moreover, there is a big school centre (Münchwiesen) that houses a primary school and a coöperative Realschule plus. Both schools at the school centre and the Gymnasium have all-day school. The folk high school rounds out the educational offerings for adults. Bad Sobernheim also has two Evangelical kindergartens, Albert-Schweitzer-Haus and Leinenborn. There are also one municipal kindergarten and a Catholic one belonging to the Catholic parish of St. Matthäus.
Libraries
At the renovated former synagogue, there has been since April 2010 the public municipal library, the Kulturhaus Synagoge. The two former libraries, the Evangelical parish library and the old municipal library, were then brought together at the old synagogue to form a new municipal library.
Media
Amtsblatt – public journal
Allgemeine Zeitung (AZ) – newspaper
Öffentlicher Anzeiger – flyer
Wochenspiegel – "Weekly Mirror"
Transport
Running by Bad Sobernheim is Bundesstraße 41. Serving the town is a railway station on the Nahe Valley Railway (Bingen–Saarbrücken). The bus route BusRegioLinie 260 Bad Sobernheim – Meisenheim – Lauterecken with a connection on to Altenglan runs hourly (every two hours in the evening and on weekends). The town lies within the area of the Rhein-Nahe-Nahverkehrsverbund (RNN; Rhine-Nahe Local Transport Association). Frankfurt-Hahn Airport lies some 30 km away from Bad Sobernheim as the crow flies.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
August Wiltberger (1850–1928), composer and seminary professor of Post-romanticism, honorary citizen of the town
Bruno Ernst Buchrucker (1878–1966), officer
Paul Robert Schneider (1897–1939), clergyman, member of the Confessing Church and victim of National Socialism, died at Buchenwald
Wilhelm Breuning (b. 1920), theologian and dogmatist
(1930–2009), computer scientist
Gerhard Engbarth (b. 1950), German storyteller, cabaret artist and musician, lives in Bad Sobernheim
Harro Bode (b. 1951), sailor
Elke Kiltz (b. 1952), politician
Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach (b. 1952), medical historian
Michael Klostermann (b. 1962), musician
Michaela Christ (b. 1966), singer
Guido Henn (b. 1970), musician
Udo Schneberger (b. 1964), pianist, organist and today music professor in Japan
Famous people associated with the town
Friedrich Wilhelm Utsch (1732–1795), hereditary forester to the Elector of Mainz, lived for a long time in Bad Sobernheim
Philipp Friedrich Wilhelm Oertel (1798–1867), writer, from 1835 Evangelical pastor and superintendent in Bad Sobernheim
Leopold Erdmann Emanuel Felke (1856–1926), pastor, representative of naturopathy (developed the Felke cure), active in Bad Sobernheim from 1915 to 1925 and also buried here, honorary citizen of the town
Katharina Schroth (1894–1985), physiotherapist; found in Bad Sobernheim is the Asklepios Katharina-Schroth-Klinik founded by her in 1961
Rudolf Desch (1911–1997), composer and professor, lived in Bad Sobernheim
Karl-Heinz Gottmann (1919-2007), medic and superior in a Buddhist order, lived and worked in Bad Sobernheim
Werner Vogt (1924–2006), "local scientist" and historian, lived in Bad Sobernheim
Wolfgang Stribrny (1935–2011), German historian, lived from 1997 until his death in Bad Sobernheim, received the town's "Golden Heart"
Mary Roos (b. 1949) (hit singer, actress) and Tina York (b. 1954) (hit singer), the sisters lived as children for a while in Bad Sobernheim
Giovanni Zarrella (b. 1978) (musician, moderator) and Jana Ina (b. 1976) (moderator, model), married on 3 September 2005 at Saint Matthew's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Matthäus)
Miriam Dräger (b. 1980), football referee, lives in Bad Sobernheim
Further reading
Werner Vogt: Bad Sobernheim. Schnell und Steiner, Regensburg 1999,
References
External links
Town’s official webpage
Verbandsgemeinde’s official webpage
"Rhineland-Palatinate Open-Air Museum" (Sobernheim)
Information about Sobernheim’s Jewish history – history and photographs of the former synagogue
Barfußpfad Bad Sobernheim ("Barefoot Path")
Local historical collection of pictures, postcards etc. from Bad Sobernheim
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Bad Kreuznach (district)
Districts of the Rhine Province
Holocaust locations in Germany
Spa towns in Germany |
4217057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langenlonsheim | Langenlonsheim | Langenlonsheim is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Bad Kreuznach district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Langenlonsheim-Stromberg, and is also its seat. Langenlonsheim is a state-recognized tourism community and a winegrowing village.
Geography
Location
Langenlonsheim lies between the southern edge of the Hunsrück and the Nahe. Lying 7 km away is the district seat, Bad Kreuznach, while Bingen am Rhein lies just under 10 km away. On the municipality's western outskirts, the Guldenbach flows by, while the Nahe flows by to the south. Langenlonsheim is well known for its good vineyards and wineries and its Qualitätsweine. Fertile loess soils and the region's warm climate have been defining factors for the village.
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, Langenlonsheim's neighbours are the municipalities of Laubenheim, Grolsheim, Gensingen, Bretzenheim, Guldental, Windesheim, Waldlaubersheim and Dorsheim. Grolsheim and Gensingen both lie in the neighbouring Mainz-Bingen district, whereas all the others likewise lie within the Bad Kreuznach district. Langenlonsheim also comes to within a few metres of two other neighbours: the municipality of Rümmelsheim in the northwest and the town of Bad Kreuznach in the southeast.
Constituent communities
Also belonging to Langenlonsheim is the outlying homestead of Forsthaus Langenlonsheim.
History
Even as long ago as Roman times, there was winegrowing in what is now Langenlonsheim. In 769, Langenlonsheim had its first documentary mention as Longistisheim. Over its long history, the village changed owners many times. Under French rule, Langenlonsheim became the seat of a mairie ("mayoralty") in 1800, to which five municipalities belonged. This arrangement persisted even after the French were driven out and the region was assigned under the terms of the Congress of Vienna to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1815, although it was thereafter known as a Bürgermeisterei (also "mayoralty"). In those days, the population was still very much engaged in agriculture as its main income earner.
Jewish history
Langenlonsheim had a Jewish community until sometime between 1938 and 1942. It arose sometime in the 17th or 18th century. The earliest mention of a Jewish family in the village – named Benedict – comes from 1685. In 1695 a Wendel Judt was named. In 1722, two Jewish families were named (Jud Benedict and Mayer), while in 1743 it was four (Hayum Benedict, Götz Benedict, Juda Kahn and Meyer). In 1790, the following Jewish household heads were named: Hayum Benedict (widow), Joseph Benedict, Nadan Benedict Maier, Gottschlag Jude, Benedict Joseph, Sükkind Juda, David Götz and Benedict Nadan. In the 19th century, the number of Jewish inhabitants developed as follows: in 1808 there were 45; in 1843, there were 42 (of all together 1,236 inhabitants); in 1858, 73; in 1895, 70. In 1808, the following Jewish families were listed (the names given in brackets were those borne after Napoleonic French rule ended): Israel Brill, Benoît (Benedict) Goetz, Gottschalk Kahn, Widow (?) Rebekka Kuhn, Widow (of Joseph Kaufmann) Schoene Kaufmann née Kuhn, Benoît (Benedict) Natt, Mayer Natt, Jacques (Jakob) Scheier (Scheuer), Moses Schweiss (Schweig), Widow Judith Stern, Seeligmann Stern. In the way of institutions, there were a synagogue (see Synagogue below), a Jewish school (a schoolroom at the synagogue), a mikveh and a graveyard (see Jewish graveyard below). To provide for the community's religious needs, a schoolteacher was hired, who also busied himself as the hazzan and the shochet (preserved is a whole series of job advertisements for such a position in Langenlonsheim from such publications as Der Israelit). Among the religion teachers were, about 1855 David Cahn from Mertloch, in 1857 Heinrich Hirschfeld from Dessau, in 1861 Julius Kappel (or Koppel) and in 1893 Michael Boreich. The Jewish household heads were active in various occupations, foremost in trading. There were several businesses and shops in Langenlonsheim belonging to Jewish families (businesses with domestic products and fertilizer, several wine dealer's shops, men's and women's clothing and bedding shops as well as livestock and grain dealerships). There were also Jewish bakers and butchers. The Jewish inhabitants were fully integrated into village life and played a lively part in public life and in the village's clubs, even as club founders and chairmen: Heinrich Natt and Siegmund Hirschberger were founding members in 1887 of the Verein für Leibesübungen 1887 Langenlonsheim e.V. (a club for physical exercise), while Siegmund Heymann, Siegmund Hirschberger, Carl Mayer and Emil Natt were, among other such endeavours, founding members in 1902 of the Langenlonsheim volunteer fire brigade. Two members of Langenlonsheim's Jewish community fell in the First World War, Unteroffizier Sally Natt (b. 7 July 1889 in Langenlonsheim, d. 26 September 1914) and Gefreiter Arthur Metzger (b. 6 November 1883 in Langenlonsheim, d. May 1915). Both names appear on the monument to the fallen in the First World War that stands before the general graveyard. All together, fourteen Jewish men were in wartime service; several came back highly decorated. About 1924, when there were still some 50 persons in the Jewish community (2.5% of the total population of some 2,000 inhabitants), the community leaders were Ludwig Mayer and Fritz Natt. Then living in each of Bretzenheim and Laubenheim were seven Jews. In 1932, the community leader was Carl Mayer. Tending the community's religious needs was Rabbi Dr. Jacob (Bad Kreuznach). About 1930, the following families were living in Langenlonsheim: Karl Mayer (wine dealer, Bingerstraße 2), Rudolf Mayer (men's and women's clothing, bedding and manufactured goods, Bingerstraße 11), Ludwig Mayer (livestock dealer, Hauptstraße 52), Fritz Natt (wine dealer, Hollergasse 28/corner of Weidenstraße), Moritz Weiss (butcher and livestock and wine dealer, Hauptstraße 24), Siegmund Heymann (domestic products, Hauptstraße 39), Carl Nachmann (wine and grain dealer, Hauptstraße 35), August Weiss (livestock dealer, Schulstraße 12), Gustav Kahn (plumber, Hollergasse 20) and the Family Blank (religion teacher, Kreuznacher Straße).
After 1933 (Langenlonsheim's Jewish population that year was 40), the year when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis seized power, though, some of the Jews moved away or even emigrated in the face of the boycotting of their businesses, the progressive stripping of their rights and repression, all brought about by the Nazis. In the 1939 Bad Kreuznach book of inhabitants (presumably presenting 1938 figures), five Jewish families are still listed: Karl Mayer, Rudolf Mayer, Fritz Natt, August Weiss and Moritz Weiss. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the synagogue was utterly demolished by Nazi brigands from within Langenlonsheim and without. The families of Fritz Natt, Karl Mayer, Karl Nachmann and Moritz Weiss had their houses invaded and destroyed as living spaces. Several Jews were mishandled and more than slightly injured. The Jewish men were taken away to Dachau concentration camp. After the first deportation on 10 April 1942, Langenlonsheim's last two Jewish inhabitants, August Weiss and his wife Isabella Weiss née Furchheimer, were deported on 25 April 1942. According to the Gedenkbuch – Opfer der Verfolgung der Juden unter der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft in Deutschland 1933-1945 ("Memorial Book – Victims of the Persecution of the Jews under National Socialist Tyranny") and Yad Vashem, of all Jews who either were born in Langenlonsheim or lived there for a long time, 50 were killed through Nazi persecution (birthdates in brackets):
Henriette Arnstein née Mayer (1866)
Selma Baumgarten née Kahn (1888)
Anny Blank (1895)
Lili Brück née Natt (1892)
Lotte Brück (1922)
Berthold Cahn (1871)
Else (Elsa) Groß née Mayer (1895)
Paul Groß (1883)
Hilde Hallgarten née Simon (1895)
Rosalie Herz née Mayer (1868)
Siegfried Hirschberger (1870)
Paula (Paulina) Jakobi née Natt (1876)
Elise Kahn née Natt (1862)
Gustav Kahn (1885)
Henriette Johanna Kahn née Weiss (1889)
Henriette Marx née Natt (1854)
Toni (Antoni) Marx née Weiß (1876)
Emilie Mayer (1883)
Erich Mayer (1888)
Fritz Mayer (1888)
Ida Mayer née Marx (1890)
Johanna Mayer née Heymann (1872)
Leiselotte Mayer (1910)
Ludwig Mayer (1864)
Richard Mayer (1922)
Rudolf Mayer (1885)
Jakob Nachmann (1880)
Isidor Natt (1871)
Paulina Natt (1876)
Rudolf Natt (1879)
Franziska Neuburger née Natt (1879)
Elisabeth Gertrud Schneider (1897)
Irma Schwarz née Nachmann (1900)
Regina Schweig née Natt (1870)
Selma Weil (1896)
Wilhelm Weil (1882)
August Weiss (1878)
Elisabetha Weiss née Michel (1883)
Else Weiss née Dornhardt (1914)
Isabella Weiss née Furchheimer (1878)
Klara Weiss (1885)
Kurt Weiss (1913)
Lina (Karoline) Weiss (1874)
Ludwig Weiss (1873)
Max Weiß (1887)
Max Weiss (1909)
Moritz Weiss (1880)
Sally Weiß (1908)
Sigmund Weiss (1882)
Helene Windecker née Weiss (1894)
On 1 September 2011, Gunter Demnig came to Langenlonsheim and laid 12 of his Stolpersteine in memory of Jews from Langenlonsheim who were murdered in the Holocaust.
Population development
Langenlonsheim's population development since Napoleonic times is shown in the table below. The figures for the years from 1871 to 1987 are drawn from census data:
Religion
Langenlonsheim has both an Evangelical and a Catholic church community. There was formerly also an important Jewish community before the Nazis destroyed it. The first place of worship built in Langenlonsheim was Saint Nicholas's Church (Sankt-Nikolaus-Kirche), built about 1200, which was later mentioned as Saint John's Church (Sankt-Johannes-Kirche) about 1475. In 1504, in the War of the Succession of Landshut, and again in 1540 when the village burnt, the church was damaged. In 1588, a new church was built to serve as the Evangelical parish church. New Baroque (1777) and Gothic Revival (1868) remodellings followed. The second place of worship built in Langenlonsheim was the synagogue, built about 1860, which was destroyed on Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938); its ruins were removed in 1958. The most recent house of worship built in Langenlonsheim has been the Catholic church, Saint John the Baptist's Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Johannes der Täufer), built in 1907 and 1908. As at 30 September 2013, there are 3,767 full-time residents in Langenlonsheim, and of those, 1,345 are Evangelical (35.705%), 1,305 are Catholic (34.643%), 4 are Lutheran (0.106%), 1 is Old Catholic (0.027%), 1 is Russian Orthodox (0.027%), 305 (8.097%) belong to other religious groups and 806 (21.396%) either have no religion or will not reveal their religious affiliation.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected by personalized proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman. The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Langenlonsheim's mayor is Bernhard Wolf.
Coat of arms
The municipality's arms might be described thus: Sable a fess countercompony azure and Or between five bunches of grapes reversed slipped of the last, three and two.
The composition of Langenlonsheim's arms is based on old 15th-century village seals. The fess countercompony (horizontal stripe with the two-row chequered pattern) was inspired by the arms formerly borne by the Counts of Sponheim, who held the area for many centuries. Their arms were actually a whole shield covered in this pattern. The fess stands between five charges, each one a bunch of grapes. These symbolize winegrowing's importance to Langenlonsheim. The tinctures sable and Or (black and gold) were inspired by the Palatinate's traditional arms. The arms have been borne since 1938.
Town partnerships
Langenlonsheim fosters partnerships with the following places:
Potton, Bedfordshire, England, United Kingdom since 1986
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate's Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Evangelical parish church, Naheweinstraße 96 – Late Gothic quire, about 1500, vestry, 1588, partly Romanesque; Late Baroque aisleless church, 1777, Classicist-Gothic Revival lengthening, 1867/1868, District Master Builder Conradi, Kreuznach
Saint John the Baptist's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Johannes der Täufer), Untere Grabenstraße – Late Gothic Revival aisleless church, 1907/1908, architect Josef Kleesattel, Düsseldorf
Friedhofstraße, graveyard – graveyard gate, Classicist, mid 19th century; M. Eich tomb, Neoclassical stele with relief, about 1924; Pies tomb, Historicized stele, about 1868/1872; Sara Muff tomb, stele with antique design, about 1862; Joh. Nic. Lorenz tomb, Gothicized stele, about 1861; M. Lorenz tomb, Stele crowned with an urn in a fenced-in complex, about 1900
Heddesheimer Straße – warriors' memorial 1914-1918, granite cube, about 1930
Heddesheimer Straße, graveyard – Family Müller (hereditary estate, Tesch) tombs: in a small complex, about 1865 and 1928; M. Müller tomb, Late Classicist grave column
Heumarkt 11 – three-sided estate; timber-frame house, partly solid, 18th or early 19th century
Hintergasse 21 – one-and-a-half-floor timber-frame house, partly solid, 16th century (?)
Hintergasse 22 – estate complex; one-and-a-half-floor timber-frame house, essentially from the 18th century, brickwork about 1900
Naheweinstraße 9 – former Mühle Kloninger (mill); four-wing complex, red-sandstone-block buildings, early to latter half of the 19th century
Naheweinstraße 90 – Baroque building with half-hip roof, timber framing plastered and slated, possibly from the earlier half of the 18th century
Naheweinstraße 97 – Closheim winery; Historicized brick building, marked 1867
Naheweinstraße 101 – former Gasthaus "Zum Hohenzollern" (inn); Late Classicist house, about 1860/1870
Naheweinstraße 109 – estate complex; plastered timber-frame house, 18th or early 19th century
Naheweinstraße 109 – Baroque timber-frame house, plastered, possibly from the 18th century
Naheweinstraße 112 – shophouse; timber-frame about 1700
Naheweinstraße 115 – estate complex; Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 18th century
Naheweinstraße 122 – estate complex; timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1585
Naheweinstraße 130 – three-sided estate; gateway arch marked 1711; Baroque building with half-hip roof, timber framing plastered and slated, marked 1843; Baroque side building, partly timber-frame
Naheweinstraße 131 – timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially possibly from the 18th century
Naheweinstraße 133 – three-sided estate; Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 18th century
Naheweinstraße 137 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, about 1700, gateway arch marked 1712
Naheweinstraße 142 – Evangelical rectory; stately Late Classicist façade, about 1840/1850
Naheweinstraße 143 – timber-frame house with access balcony, possibly from the 17th century
Naheweinstraße 169 – estate complex; timber-frame house, partly solid, earlier half of the 19th century
Naheweinstraße 195 – Höhn-Zimmermann winery; one-and-a-half-floor brick villa, mixed forms Late Classicist/Renaissance Revival, latter half of the 19th century; winepress marked 1797
Naheweinstraße 209 – former winery (?); long Gründerzeit plastered façade, about 1880/1890
Naheweinstraße 131–147 (monumental zone) – closed building structure with one- and two-floor houses, partly timber-frame or clinker brick façades
Jewish graveyard (monumental zone) – area with 46 gravestones from 1868/1869 to 1938 (see also below)
Jewish graveyard
Records bear witness to the Jewish graveyard in Langenlonsheim as far back as 1742. The graveyard's area comprises 2 521 m², and this is bordered by a wooden fence. Striking is the more lavish and bigger gravesite of the wine-dealing family Natt. The last burial at the graveyard took place in May 1938 (Regina Kahn née Sommer, d. 5 May 1938). Preserved here are 45 gravestones, some of which are heavily weathered or now only partially readable. All that is left of several is the pedestal. The graveyard lies in part of the Langenlonsheim forest rather far from the village itself (rural cadastral name "In den Judenkirchhofschlägen"). Not far off, but bordering both the forest and vineyards, lie the Waldhilbersheim (roughly 30 m away) and Windesheim (roughly 500 m away) Jewish graveyards.
Synagogue
At first, there was a prayer room available to Langenlonsheim's Jewish residents in one of the community's houses. One such place was mentioned in 1823. Beginning in the 1840s, the village's Jews wanted to build themselves a synagogue, and in 1856, Samuel Weiss managed to acquire a plot on Hintergasse (a lane) for just such a thing. It is believed that the synagogue was built about 1860, for the building is shown in the 1863 cadastral plan. It was a simple plastered building built out of brick and quarrystone. There was seating inside for roughly 50 worshippers, and there was a women's gallery. For some 70 years, the synagogue was the hub of Jewish life in Langenlonsheim. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the synagogue was overrun by Nazi thugs from within Langenlonsheim and without. Doors, windows and the indoor furnishings (pews, the bimah, cabinets, tables, chairs, the ark and so on) were broken up, the floor was torn out and the walls were damaged. The Judaica, including three Torah scrolls, three sets of silver ceremonial jewellery, two silver candlesticks, an eternal lamp, a menorah and more were destroyed or stolen. On 24 April 1940, Rudolf Mayer, a Jew still living in Langenlonsheim, was forced to sell the synagogue for only 427.50 ℛℳ to a non-Jewish private citizen as the Jewish community found itself undergoing dissolution. In 1950, the sale was annulled, whereupon there was a change in ownership. In 1958, the synagogue building was torn down. Another building was built on the plot. The synagogue stood where the building whose address is Hintergasse 30 now stands.
Regular events
Once each year, Langenlonsheim holds a wine festival and a kermis (church consecration festival).
Sport and leisure
Found in Langenlonsheim are an outdoor swimming pool, a football pitch and an aerodrome. This last facility, the Flugplatz Langenlonsheim, offers opportunities for gliding, motorized flight and balloon flight. The Verein Aero-Club Rhein-Nahe, which operates out of the aerodrome, is Rhineland-Palatinate's second biggest flying club and had 274 members in 2010. It arose from a merger of two former flying clubs in 2008, the Flugsportverein Bad Kreuznach and the Aero-Club Bingen-Langenlonsheim. In 2007, the wrestling club Langenlonsheimer SC merged with the football club from Laubenheim to form TSV Langenlonsheim/Laubenheim ("TSV" stands for Turn- und Sportverein – gymnastic and sport club). There are also a fitness path (called the Trimm-Dich-Pfad – the "Trim-Yourself Path") and a Nordic walking facility, which were restored in 2006 and furnished with new equipment.
Clubs
The following clubs are active in Langenlonsheim:
Aero-Club Rhein-Nahe e.V. — flying club
Angelsportverein Langenlonsheim/Laubenheim — angling club
Bauern- und Winzerverband — farmers' and winegrowers' association
BdP Pfadfinder-Förderkreis — scout/guide promotional association
DRK Ortsverband Langenlonsheim — German Red Cross, local chapter
Evangelische Frauenhilfe — Evangelical women's aid
Evangelischer Kirchenchor — Evangelical church choir
Evangelische Kirchengemeinde — Evangelical church community
Förderverein Kita Schatzkiste Langenlonsheim — daycare centre promotional association
Förderverein Regionale Schule im Nahetal e.V. — Regionale Schule promotional association
Förderverein Seniorenzentrum der VG Lalo e.V. — seniors' centre promotional association
Förderverein St. Johannes der Täufer Langenlonsheim-Laubenheim e.V. — Saint John the Baptist's promotional association
Freiwillige Feuerwehr Langenlonsheim 1902 — volunteer fire brigade
Freizeitmaler — leisure painters
Freunde und Förderer der Grundschule e.V. — primary school promotional association
Freundeskreis des evangelischen Kindergartens — Evangelical kindergarten promotional association
Gemischter Chor des KMGV 1877 e.V. Langenlonsheim — Kölner Männer-Gesang-Verein mixed choir
Hilfe für Tschernobyl e.V. Langenlonsheim — aid for Chernobyl
Karnevalfreunde — Shrovetide Carnival (Fastnacht) club
Katholischer Kirchenchor "Cäcilia" — Catholic church choir
Katholische Kirchengemeinde — Catholic church community
Landfrauenverein — countrywomen's club
Musikverein 1921 e.V. — music club
Partnerschaftskreis Langenlonsheim-Potton — Langenlonsheim-Potton partnership circle
Pierothchor — choir
Sängervereinigung — singers' association
Schützenverein 1963 e.V. — shooting sport club
Tani Projekt - Zukunft für Kinder in Kambodscha e.V. —
Tennis-Club-Rot-Weiß
TSV Langenlonsheim/Laubenheim — gymnastic and sport club
TV Langenlonsheim 1994 e.V. — gymnastic club
VdK Bretzenheim und Umgebung — social advocacy group local chapter (Bretzenheim and area)
Volksbildungswerk Langenlonsheim — "people's education"
Wanderfreunde Untere Nahe e.V. — hiking club
There is also an association of the village's clubs (Ortsvereinsring).
Economy and infrastructure
Economic structure
Over the years, an industrial park with firms in various fields has arisen. These include dye and lacquer production, above- and below-ground construction, wine bottling and processing, car dealerships, garden centres, fitter's shops, storage facilities and shipping companies.
Winegrowing
Langenlonsheim is considerably characterized by winegrowing and with 187 ha of planted vineyards is the Nahe wine region's biggest winegrowing centre after Bad Kreuznach, Guldental and Wallhausen. Langenlonsheim's website lists three wineries in the village. The village has also had three local ladies chosen as Wine Queen or Wine Princess: Carolin Klumb (Nahe Wine Queen 2011/2012), Maren Müller (Nahe Wine Princess 2005/2006) and Judith Honrath (Nahe Wine Queen 2001/2002 and German Wine Queen 2002/2003).
Transport
Bundesstraße 48 runs straight through the village, while the Autobahn A 61 (Koblenz–Ludwigshafen) is roughly 5 km away. Langenlonsheim can be reached by rail on the Nahe Valley Railway (Bingen–Kaiserslautern). Currently, no other railway serves Langenlonsheim station, although the now disused Hunsrückquerbahn once served the village, too. There is, however, talk of reactivating this railway as a quick transport link for Frankfurt-Hahn Airport, a former NATO military facility, Hahn Air Base, most of whose military functions ceased on 30 September 1993. Until 1 December 1938, a tramway ran from Bad Kreuznach Kornmarkt to Langenlonsheim railway station. The so-called Elektrisch ran in the early days (1911) as many as 20 times each day. At the former Kloningersmühle stop (on Langenlonsheim's outskirts), travellers from the Hunsrück could ride straight to Bad Kreuznach. Owing to shrinking ridership after the Second World War, the tram had to give way to the bus. The tracks and overhead wiring were removed.
Education
Scholastic endeavours are undertaken by the Grundschule Langenlonsheim (primary school) and the Realschule plus im Nahetal Langenlonsheim, where students can earn either the Hauptschule or the Realschule certificate.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Ernst Ludwig Pies (1885–1942), NSDAP Member of the Reichstag from Langenlonsheim
Willi Schweinhardt (1903–1978), politician and wine estate owner
Famous people associated with the municipality town
Matthias de Zordo (b. 21 February 1988 in Bad Kreuznach), German javelin thrower
References
External links
official webpage
Video portrait of Langenlonsheim
Bad Kreuznach (district)
Naheland
Holocaust locations in Germany |
4217073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Trio | Operation Trio | Operation Trio () was the first large-scale joint German-Italian counter-insurgency operation of World War II conducted in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which included modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was carried out in two phases within eastern Bosnia from 20 April to 13 May 1942, with Ustaše militia and Croatian Home Guard forces taking part on the Axis side. The aim of the operation was to target all insurgents between Sarajevo and the Drina river in eastern Bosnia. These included the communist-led Yugoslav Partisans and Serb nationalist Chetniks. Differentiating between the rank and file of the two insurgent factions was difficult, as even the communist-led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders.
Operation Trio consisted of two parts, Trio I and Trio II. Together they comprised one element of the Axis effort known as the Third Enemy Offensive () in post-war Yugoslav historiography. The joint Italian-Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina formed the other element. The Third Enemy Offensive forms part of the Seven Enemy Offensives framework in Yugoslav historiography.
The operation was of limited effectiveness due to several factors, including preemptive action by the Ustaše militia and Italian delays. The area of operations straddled the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation within the NDH, which led to mutual suspicion and lack of coordination. Both insurgent factions avoided fighting the Axis and NDH forces, instead focusing on fighting each other. After Operation Trio, the Partisan leader Josip Broz Tito, his Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan main force, consisting of the 1st and 2nd Proletarian Brigades, withdrew from their base of operations around Foča. After briefly reorganising around Zelengora mountain south-east of Foča, they moved their operations to western Bosnia for the remainder of 1942.
Operation Trio coincided with and contributed to the polarisation of the almost exclusively Serb rebels in eastern Bosnia into two groups: the Serb-chauvinist Chetniks and the multi-ethnic and communist-led Partisans. Encouraged by Chetnik propaganda against Croats and Bosnian Muslims and repelled by the sectarian left-wing policies and actions of the communists, many Serb peasant fighters were swayed to the Chetnik cause. Violent coups occurred against the communist leadership of all but one of the Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, and these detachments effectively defected to the Chetniks. Most of the surviving communist fighters from these detachments rejoined the Partisan forces, and many withdrew with Tito to western Bosnia during the Partisan Long March. Within a few weeks of the end of Operation Trio only 600 Partisan fighters were left in eastern Bosnia, comprising the Group of Shock Battalions and the Birač Partisan Detachment. All these forces sought refuge in the Birač region. The Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia, at best a confederacy of local warlords, was strengthened by mass defections from the Partisans. For a time they ruled large parts of the region, after making accommodations with the Ustaše regime in May and June 1942.
Background
Foča Republic
During Operation Southeast Croatia, Josip Broz Tito, his Supreme Headquarters and the 1st Proletarian Brigade commanded by Spanish Civil War veteran Konstantin "Koča" Popović, had withdrawn south to Foča, on the boundary between eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. With the help of Montenegrin Partisans, they established a liberated area around Foča and Goražde. This area, known as the "Foča Republic", was expanded by subsequent military operations. By late March, People's Liberation Councils had been established to govern 10 towns and 92 villages in the liberated area, but communist organisation in the area was limited and of poor quality.
Insurgent forces
At the end of 1941, there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, with about 7,300 fighters operating in the Majevica, Ozren, Birač, Romanija, Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas. In January 1942, the Romanija detachment had borne the brunt of Operation Southeast Croatia and had been effectively destroyed. Many Partisan fighters were Serb peasants who took to the forests and mountains to defend their families and villages against the Ustaše; few were ideologically committed to the Partisan cause. The Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia had not opposed the Axis offensive. Many had withdrawn across the Drina river into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid engagement with German and NDH forces.
Both the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia-Herzegovina were based in the area of operations, with Tito's Supreme Headquarters directly controlling the 1st Proletarian Brigade, and the General Staff, commanded by Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo, controlling the Partisan detachments in East Bosnia under the overall direction of the Supreme Headquarters.
In early January 1942, the Partisan Supreme Headquarters decided to permit fighters who were not willing to formally become Partisans to fight alongside Partisan units. These "volunteer detachments" were under the control of the Supreme Headquarters of the renamed People's Liberation Partisan and Volunteer Army of Yugoslavia, and were established from former Chetnik-aligned fighters as the Jahorina, Foča, Vlasenica, Srebrenica and Krajina Volunteer Detachments. The Krajina Volunteer Detachment consisted of refugees from that region who had fled to German-occupied Serbia to escape the Ustaše terror. Volunteer battalions and companies were also placed under the staff of the original Partisan detachments, with many of them absorbed as whole units with the addition of a communist cadre. Some volunteer detachments fought under their own leaders, and all volunteer detachments fought under the Serbian tri-colour flag.
In February 1942, Major Jezdimir Dangić and other former Royal Yugoslav Army officers (many of whom had allegiance to the Serbian puppet regime of Milan Nedić and/or Draža Mihailović) entered eastern Bosnia from occupied Serbia, where some of them had withdrawn to avoid Operation Southeast Croatia. They started to re-form Chetnik units in eastern Bosnia and began agitating against the Partisans on a "conservative, Serb-nationalist and anti-Muslim basis". Other Chetnik units crossed into eastern Bosnia from occupied Serbia and attacked the Partisans. They included the "Chetnik Proletarian Shock Brigade", a unit of 200 fighters under Captain Dragoslav Račić, and another group under Captain Milorad Momčilović.
The Partisan forces in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina initially consisted almost entirely of Serb peasants, and this made much of the rank and file of both Partisan and volunteer detachments highly susceptible to pro-Chetnik agitation, accommodations with Chetnik forces in the local area and hostility towards non-Serbs. The Partisan moves towards multi-ethnic recruiting, imposition of extreme left-wing policies and use of terror against "class enemies" made all the Partisan and volunteer detachments vulnerable to such agitation. Chetnik infiltrators were able to join detachments and turn the rank and file against their communist cadres. An example of this occurred in the Majevica Partisan Detachment on 20 February, when the communist staff were massacred by Chetniks at Vukosavci near Lopare.
The 2nd Proletarian Brigade was formed at Čajniče on 1 March from Partisan forces that had withdrawn from occupied Serbia after Operation Uzice. In early March the Partisans began collecting the most loyal fighters from each Partisan detachment into "Shock Companies" and established structures for the development of "Shock Battalions" and "Shock Brigades". At the same time, Partisan forces that had been dispersed by Operation Southeast Croatia were threatening the Tuzla-Doboj railway line. In mid-March the 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion was established at Srednje (outside Sarajevo), and by the end of the month the 2nd East Bosnian Shock Battalion had been established in Drinjača (near Zvornik); it incorporated the remaining 240 fighters of the Majevica Partisan Detachment.
The concentration of the most reliable fighters into proletarian brigades, shock battalions and shock companies weakened the integrity of the four remaining Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia, but enabled the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to concentrate its best forces in mobile units to undertake successful offensive operations against the Chetniks. They captured several towns in March, including Vlasenica and Srebrenica. Partisan operations were threatening the railway network throughout eastern Bosnia, including around Sarajevo, by the end of March. Many Bosnian Chetniks deserted to the Partisans, often joining as complete units under their previous Chetnik commanders. These former Chetnik units became units of the "Volunteer Army", which reached a strength of around 7,000–8,000 fighters by the end of March. Their loyalty and military value to the Partisans was very limited.
On 25 March the Partisan General Staff of Serbia advised the Partisan Supreme Headquarters that the Serbian Partisan movement had been "extinguished", largely as a result of Operation Uzice and subsequent operations by the German occupation forces and their Serb collaborators. This was a significant setback for the Partisan cause, as Tito had always considered that a return to Serbia was a necessary ingredient for a successful revolution.
Planning
Planning for Operation Trio and the associated Operation West-Bosnien in the Bosanska Krajina occurred during two Axis conferences in March 1942. During the initial conference at Opatija on 2–3 March, the NDH Chief of the General Staff Vladimir Laxa objected to an Italian proposal to involve the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Chetniks in the planned operations, and with the support of the Germans, this idea was initially shelved. Operation Trio was to be one of a series of counter-insurgency operations planned for eastern Bosnia, Herzegovina, Sandžak, Montenegro, western Bosnia and Lika. Despite this, the only operations that were actually conducted between March and June 1942 were Operation Trio, and a combined Italian-Montenegrin Chetnik offensive in Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina which is also associated with the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography.
Detailed planning and orders for Operation Trio were finalised at a conference in Ljubljana on 28–29 March 1942. Laxa, General Mario Roatta (the commander of the Italian Second Army), and General der Artillerie Paul Bader (the commander of German forces in the NDH) negotiated a compromise permitting temporary non-political agreements to be concluded with the Herzegovinian Chetniks, led by Dobroslav Jevđević, but not with any of the Bosnian Chetnik groups, whose leaders were Petar Baćović in the area of Foča and Jezdimir Dangić, who was aligned with the Serb collaborationist Milan Nedić.
Significant delays in finalising arrangements for Operation Trio were caused by disagreements regarding where it would commence, who would be in command, the involvement of Chetniks and NDH forces, how to deal with the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation, and what local authorities would be put in place as localities were cleared of insurgents. The NDH contributed to the mutual suspicion between the Germans and Italians. The Italian demands prevailed, because they were committing larger forces to the operation. The decision was ultimately made to target all insurgents in eastern Bosnia between Sarajevo and the Drina. Throughout the preparation for Operation Trio, the Italians looked for opportunities to cross over the demarcation line and expand their sphere of influence into eastern Bosnia to take advantage of German weakness in the NDH. Bader's final orders for the operation granted several key Italian demands, including military control over civil affairs in the area of operations, fair treatment of the local population, and treating non-resisting Chetniks as prisoners of war.
Bader was named tactical commander of the combined forces (known as Kampfgruppe Bader) committed to Operation Trio, but to appease the Italians the force was formally under the overall command of the Italian Second Army, commanded by Roatta. Kampfgruppe Bader consisted of the 718th Infantry Division (the only German division stationed in the NDH at the time), the Italian 22nd Infantry Division, 1st Alpine Division, 5th Alpine Division and 28 NDH battalions. Since 18 February, the 718th Infantry Division had been responsible for an area of operations bounded by the Sava and Bosna in the north, the Drina to the east and the German-Italian demarcation line to the south. Mainly because of lack of transport and firepower, the division had only conducted limited offensive operations against the Partisans between mid-February and mid-April.
The original planned start date of 15 April was pushed back when the Italians had problems moving to their start positions and later had trouble providing transport to establish lines of communication across the Adriatic. The operation was rescheduled to 25 April. Prior to the Ljubljana conference, the Ustaše authorities were concerned about negotiations between the German and Italian commanders and Dangić, and were particularly worried that the Germans would permit the Italians and Chetniks to use Sarajevo as a base. On 31 March the commander of the Ustaše Black Legion, Jure Francetić, launched a pre-emptive offensive primarily against Dangić's Chetniks. Francetić captured Vlasenica, Bratunac and Srebrenica, meeting limited resistance from the Partisans, and then scattered the more numerous Chetniks while inflicting significant losses.
In early April, Dangić travelled to Belgrade for discussions with representatives of Nedić and Chetnik leaders. He was arrested by the German authorities and sent to a prisoner-of-war camp in occupied Poland. Dangić was replaced by Stevan Botić. On 15 April 1942 the Wehrmacht commander in south-east Europe, Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Wilhelm List, issued an order forbidding Wehrmacht units to negotiate with any rebel groups. Only Abwehr (military intelligence) and police units were to maintain surveillance of such groups through informants and undercover agents.
After several months of increasing tension between the factions struggling for power within the insurgency, the first of the pro-Chetnik coups occurred, in the Ozren Partisan Detachment. It was sparked by the arrest and execution on 18 April of pro-Chetnik agitator Bogdan Jovićić by Vukmanović-Tempo and the newly formed 1st East Bosnian Shock Battalion. Fighting ensued between pro-Chetnik members of the detachment and the Shock Battalion. Vukmanović-Tempo then abandoned the Ozren Partisan Detachment, taking the detachment staff and remaining loyal Partisans with him.
Operation
On 18 April, Bader informed Roatta of the need to take action immediately to relieve the besieged Croatian garrison at Rogatica, and by 20 April was advising his superiors that the joint German-Italian operation had miscarried due to Italian inaction. In the wake of Francetić's offensive, the Germans pre-emptively moved to clear the area north of the demarcation line before the formal start of the operation. This advance towards the Drina from 20 to 30 April, coordinated with NDH forces, was the first phase of Operation Trio (Trio I). The 718th Infantry Division advanced from assembly areas in Sarajevo, Olovo and Tuzla, with the aim of relieving Rogatica and clearing the surrounding area of Partisans. The fighting became very confused, with the Chetniks, who were under attack from the Black Legion, avoiding the German units, who went past them to attack the Partisans. The Partisan main force avoided fighting the Black Legion, instead attacking the Chetniks from the rear while they were engaged against Francetić's troops. The Italian 5th Alpine Division Pusteria utilised Chetnik troops from the Sandžak as auxiliaries during their advance on Čajniče which coincided with the German-NDH advance towards the Drina. Rogatica was relieved without fighting on 27 April, and the combined force reached the Drina three days later.
More pro-Chetnik coups occurred in the second half of April. The first was in one of the remaining battalions of the Romanija Partisan Detachment, followed by all three battalions of the Zvijezda Partisan Detachment. The political commissars of every company were killed. By the start of May, coups had also occurred in battalions of the Kalinovik Partisan Detachment and the Foča Volunteer Detachment.
On 8–9 May 1942, another pro-Chetnik coup occurred in the recently created Zenica Partisan Detachment, and about 30 communists and their supporters were killed. About 100 remaining Partisan fighters from the Ozren and Zenica detachments were incorporated into the 3rd East Bosnian Shock Battalion.
The Italians believed the German-NDH preliminary operation had been designed to avoid the need to involve the Italians in clearing eastern Bosnia, thereby preventing them from expanding their sphere of influence. The second phase of the operation (known as Trio II or "Operation Foča") commenced on 7 May, and was a fairly minor joint operation to capture Foča and Kalinovik, but by then the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force had already evacuated Foča, which was captured on 10 May. After Italian complaints and political manoeuvrings, Roatta took over direct control of the operation on that day, but the fighting was already over. Despite their attempts to avoid fighting, the Partisans suffered significant losses.
Aftermath
After clearing the larger towns of the Birač region of Partisans and Chetniks, the Black Legion committed large-scale atrocities against Serbs and Jews in the region, including massacring about 890 people from Vlasenica after raping the women and girls.
Along with the three East Bosnian Shock Battalions, the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia-Herzegovina first attempted to cross the Bosna to follow the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and main force to western Bosnia, but instead retreated to Birač, where they joined forces with the Birač Detachment at the end of May. The Birač Partisan Detachment was the only Partisan or volunteer detachment in East Bosnia not to suffer a pro-Chetnik coup in March–May 1942. By June–July 1942, the Partisans in eastern Bosnia had been reduced to a strength of around 600 fighters.
In mid-May, Operation Trio was followed by the joint Italian-Chetnik offensive against Partisan detachments within the Italian zone of occupation in eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro, with similar effects: the Partisans lost almost all of the liberated territory in these areas. This offensive is also considered part of the Third Enemy Offensive in Yugoslav historiography. After Operation Trio, NDH forces remained south of the demarcation line between the German and Italian zones of occupation, in spite of protests from the Italians.
After Operation Trio and the joint Italian-Chetnik offensive, the Partisans formed three more Proletarian Brigades, consisting mainly of Montenegrins. Operation Trio contributed to the decision of the Partisan Supreme Headquarters to withdraw to western Bosnia in the Partisan Long March, which commenced in late June 1942.
While incurring significant casualties fighting the Black Legion, the Chetnik movement in eastern Bosnia benefited from the mass desertion of Partisans and the many pro-Chetnik coups in Partisan and volunteer detachments. Despite their lack of unity, the Chetnik movement thrived in eastern Bosnia for the remainder of 1942 because some Chetnik leaders made accommodations with the Ustaše regime and as many Chetniks and Partisans were unwilling to kill fellow Bosnian Serbs of the opposing faction.
See also
Resistance during World War II
Anti-partisan operations in World War II
Footnotes
References
Books
Articles
Further reading
Seven Enemy Offensives
Trio
Yugoslavia in World War II
Trio
Trio
Trio
Trio
Trio
1942 in Yugoslavia
Trio
Trio
1942 in Bosnia and Herzegovina
April 1942 events
May 1942 events |
4217093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan%20of%20Perak | Sultan of Perak | The Sultan of Perak (سلطان ڤيراق) is one of the oldest hereditary seats among the Malay states.
When the Sultanate of Malacca empire fell to Portugal in 1511, Sultan Mahmud Syah I retreated to Kampar, Sumatra, and died there in 1528. He left behind two princes named Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II and Sultan Muzaffar Syah. The former went on to establish the Sultanate of Johor. Muzaffar Syah was invited to rule Perak, and he became the first sultan of Perak.
Line of succession to the Perak throne
In contrast to the other Malay sultanates, the ruling dynasty of Perak utilises a somewhat complex order of succession.
The reigning Sultan appoints princes in the male line of descent from a Sultan to certain high princely titles. They are arranged in a strict order of precedence indicating the order of succession to the throne. As per ruling of 25 February 1953, the present hierarchy of titles and the corresponding order of succession is as follows:
(Crown Prince, currently Raja Jaafar)
(Deputy Crown Prince, currently Raja Iskandar Dzulkarnain)
(currently Raja Azlan Muzzaffar Shah)
(currently Raja Ahmad Nazim Azlan Shah)
(currently Raja Iskandar)
(vacant)
While titleholders are usually appointed for life, titles may be revoked in cases of proven incompetence or disability. On the death or promotion of an existing titleholder, the holder of the next most senior title succeeds him. The is the heir apparent, and succeeds the ruling sultan on his demise, whereupon the prince holding the title of becomes the new . The Raja Kechil Besar then becomes the . The new Sultan may then appoint his own nominee to the junior-most title made vacant by these successions.
The 2 most senior titleholders are confirmed by a majority vote of the representatives of the Perak State Legislative Assembly.
List of Sultans of Perak
Malacca Dynasty
Siak Dynasty
Timeline
Royal regalia
The Perak royal regalia consists of items that are said to have been with the Perak Sultanate from its inception, some of which pre-dating the Malacca Sultanate. The regalia is mainly used during the installation ceremony of Sultan of Perak and few other royal ceremonies.
Royal headress ()
Royal aigrette ()
Royal tiara
Royal sword Cura Si Manja Kini ()
Royal blade Taming Sari ()
Royal blade Sari Gading ()
– also known as 'Ball of Petrified Dew'. Given to Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah I on his installation as the first Sultan of Perak by Tok Temong, a local official.
- seal made of silver that is placed behind the right ear of the Sultan during installation. ceremony
Royal Musical Ensemble ()
– golden armlets worn by the Sultan and his consort around both arms during the installation ceremony.
– golden pendant that is worn around the neck of the Queen Consort during installation ceremony.
– golden brooch that is worn by the Queen Consort during installation ceremony.
Royal seal ()
Royal coat of arms ()
Royal umbrella ()
State umbrella ()
State spear ()
– decorative ornament worn around the neck of a tunic, believed to be a gift from the Emperor of China to Parameswara of Malacca.
– Betel leaves container. Originally presented to Tok Temong by Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah I on his installation as the first Sultan of Perak but later returned to be royal regalia of Perak.
Royal orders and decorations
The following is the orders, decorations, and medals given by Sultan of Perak. When applicable, post-nominal letters and non-hereditary titles are indicated.
The Most Esteemed Royal Family Order of Perak (): founded by Sultan Yussuf Izzuddin Shah in 1957. Conferred on members of the Perak and foreign royal houses.
The Most Esteemed Perak Royal Family Order of Sultan Azlan Shah (): founded by Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin Shah in 2000. Conferred on members of the Perak and foreign royal houses.
The Most Esteemed Azlanii Royal Family Order () founded by Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin Shah in 2010. Awarded in two classes :
First Class –
Second Class –
The Most Esteemed Perak Order of Sultan Azlan Shah (): founded by Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin Shah in 2000. Conferred for distinguished services to the Sultan of Perak.
The Most Esteemed Perak Order of Sultan Nazrin Shah (): founded by Sultan Nazrin Muizzuddin Shah.
The Most Illustrious Order of Cura Si Manja Kini (): founded by Sultan Idris Iskandar Al-Mutawakkil Alallahi Shah II in 1969 and later 1989. Awarded in four classes:
Grand Knight or Dato'Seri –
Knight or Dato' –
Commander or Ahli Paduka –
Member or Ahli –
The Most Valliant Order of Taming Sari (): founded by Sultan Idris Iskandar Al-Mutawakkil Alallahi Shah II in 1977. Awarded to military and police personnel in six classes :
Dato' Seri Panglima –
Dato' Pahlawanan –
Ahli Perwira –
Ahli Hulubalang –
Ahli Kesatria –
Ahli Perajurit –
The Most Illustrious Order of the Perak State Crown (): founded by Sultan Yussuf Izzuddin Shah in 1957. Awarded in four classes:
Knight Grand Commander or Dato' Seri –
Knight Commander or Dato' –
Commander or Ahli Paduka –
Member or Ahli –
The Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (): instituted by Sultan Yussuf Izzuddin Shah in 1951 as a reward for conspicuous gallantry and heroism. Awarded in a single class, originally a silver medal but now a four-pointed enamelled star. Bars may be awarded to signify subsequent acts of gallantry.
The Distinguished Conduct Medal (): instituted by Sultan Yussuf Izzuddin Shah in 1951 to reward conspicuous bravery. Awarded in a single class, bronze medal. Bars may be awarded to signify subsequent acts of bravery.
The Meritorious Service Medal (): instituted by Sultan Yussuf Izzuddin Shah in 1951 to reward meritorious public service in state employ. Awarded in a single class, bronze medal.
The Long Service Medal (): instituted by Sultan Idris Iskandar Al-Mutawakkil Alallahi Shah II in 1969 to reward long service in state employ of at least twenty-five years continuous duration. Awarded in a single class, bronze medal.
Genealogy
Sultan Muzaffar Shah II (1636–1654) — Marhum Jalilu'llah
Sultan Mahmud Iskandar Shah (1654–1720), né Raja Mahmud, son of Sultan Mudzaffar Shah and Puteri Fatimah Puteh, grandson of Raja Abdullah and Puteri Perak, Great grandson of Sultan Abdul Ghafor (Sultan Pahang 12) and Raja Bonda (daughter of Sultan Saiful Rijal, Sultan of Brunei)
Paduka Sri Tuanku Sultan Mansur Shah, Yang di-Pertuan Muda. + before 1720, having had seven sons :
Sultan Ala' ud-din Mughayat Ri'ayat Shah (1720–1728) — né Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Radin, Raja Muda,
Raja Kechil Bongsu.
Raja Kechil Ampuan. oo ca. 1750, Sultan Mahmud Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Muhammad Shah Aminu'llah, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Perak (d. 17 June 1773), third son of Sultan Muhammad Shah Aminu'llah, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Perak.
Sultan Muzaffar Shah III Johan Berdaulat Per Alam Jalalu'llah (1728–1742 and 1750–1754) — Marhum Hajiu'llah, né Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Inu, Raja Muda, of Bernam
Raja 'Abdu'l-Jalil
Raja Daha, Raja Kechil Muda. + after 1752,
Sultan Muhammad Shah (1742–1750) — Marhum Aminu'llah, né Raja Vishnu [Raja Bisnu]
Sultan Iskandar Zulkarnain Inayat Shah (1754–1765) — Marhum Kaharu'llah, né Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Iskandar, Raja Muda
Raja 'Abdu'l Rahman ibni al-Marhum Sultan Iskandar Zulkarnain . b. at Istana Merchu 'Alam, Pulau Indira Sakti, ca. 1755 (s/o Raja Budak Rasul).
Sultan Mahmud Shah II (1765–1773) — Marhum Muda, né Raja Saleh, Raja Kimas Raja Kechil Muda 1750, Heir Apparent (Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam) 1764. Removed his capital to Pasir Pulai, which he renamed Pulau Besar Indra Mulia. oo ca. 1750, the Raja Kechil Ampuan,
Raja Ibrahim — al-Marhum Sayong, Raja Bendahara. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Muda, and prom. Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir. Dead before 1786
Raja Mahmud, Raja Bendahara. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu Muda 1764, and prom. to Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir 1786. Although the designated heir, he refused to come to Sulong to be recognised as ruler, leaving the body of his grand uncle unburied for three months, thus forfeiting the succession in 1792.
Non dynastic descent
Sultan Ala ud-din Mansur Shah (1773–1792) — Marhum Sulong, né Raja 'Ala ud-din, Raja Bendahara
Raja Inu [al-Marhum Tengah], Raja Bendahara. Granted the title of Raja di-Hiler 1752, and prom. to Raja Bendahara 1773. m. (first) Raja Che' Puan Tengah, daughter of Raja 'Abdu'l-Hamid ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mansur Shah. m. (second) the Che Puan Bendahara, of Labu Kubang Lanih. He had issue, two sons and two daughters:
Raja 'Abdu'l-Rahman bin Raja Inu (s/o Che' Puan Tengah). m. Raja Long Irang Juma'at binti Raja Chulan (she was k. by her husband as she came up from her bath), daughter of Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Chulan bin Raja 'Abdu'l-Hamid, Raja Muda. He was k. by his father when about to run amok in the Palace.
Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Radin Shahidu'llah bin Raja Inu, Raja Muda . Granted the title of Raja Bendahara, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 1786. m. Raja Chu binti Raja Chulan ['Ungku Chu], Raja Che' Puan Besar, younger daughter of Raja Chulan bin Raja 'Abdu'l-Hamid, Raja Muda. He was k. in an attack by Inche' Sadan, at Fort Kepas, 1842, having had issue, one son and two daughters:
Raja 'Umar bin Raja Radin Shahidu'llah.
Sultan Ahmaddin Shah (1792–1806) — Marhum Bongsu, né Raja Ahmad, Raja Kechil Bongsu
Sultan Abdu'l-Malik Mansur Mu'azzam Shah (1806–1825) — Marhum Jamalu'llah, né Raja 'Abdu'l-Malik. Appointed to succeed his father three months after his death because the designated heir, Raja Bendahara Mahmud, would not come down to Sayong to be installed. Established his capital at Pasir Garam. Refused to accept Siamese sovereignty, but was forced to surrender to a large army sent by the Sultan of Kedah, on behalf of the Siamese King. Removed from exercising executive powers by the Sultan of Kedah, after 18 November 1818. Permitted to retain his titles for life, and forbidden from taking part in councils.
Raja Taj ud-din. Regent for his younger brother 1818–1825.
Sultan Abdu'llah Mu'azzam Shah (1825–1830) — Marhum Khalilu'llah, né Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja 'Abdu'llah, Raja Muda
Tuanku Ahmad Shah Johan Berdaulat Khalifatu'llah, Yang di-Pertuan Muda. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Tengah, prom. to Raja di-Hiler, and appointed as deputy ruler with the title of Paduka Sri Tuanku Yang di-Pertuan Muda 1806.
Sultan Ja'afar Safi ud-din Mu'azzam Shah (1857–1865) — Marhum Waliu'llah, né Raja Ngah Ja'afar. Granted the title of Raja Di-Hilir late 1826, prom to Raja Bendahara 1830, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 1841. Succeeded 1857.
H.M Sultan Abdullah Muhammad Shah II of Perak (1874–1877) — Marhum Habibu'llah, né Raja 'Abdu'llah, Raja Muda, b. 21 September 1842. Appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam, 1865. Went into rebellion and proclaimed himself Sultan, in opposition to Sultan Ismail, ca. 21 February 1872. Recognised as Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan together with the style of His Majesty, by the Treaty of Pangkor, 20 January 1874. Implicated in the murder of the British Resident J W W Burch. Deposed and exiled to the Seychelles on 30 March 1877, where he spent five years on the island of Félicité and before removing to Mahé. Allowed to return to Malaya and settled at Singapore 13 March 1895, later removed to Penang, before finally returning to Kuala Kangsar in 1912. Styled Ex-Sultan ‘Abdu’llah Muhammad Shah Habibu’llah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ja’afar Safi ud-din Mu’azzam Shah with the style of His Highness, after his abdication. A gifted artist and composer during his years of exile, including what became the Malaysian National Anthem in 1957.
Raja Chulan
Raja Zainal Azman
(6) Raja Izuddin Chulan Raja Kechil Bongsu
Raja Musa. Appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 12 January 1899. + 1906
Sultan Abdu'l-Aziz al-Mu'tasim Shah Billah KCMG, KBE (1938-1948) — Marhum Nik'matullah. b. 14 November 1887, Appointed as Heir Presumptive with the title of Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir, 1 August 1918 and Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam, 18 December 1918. Succeeded 14 October 1938. Proclaimed at Kuala Kangsar, 17 October 1938. Crowned at the Istana Iskandariah, Bukit Chandan, Kuala Kangsar, 4 March 1939. Rcvd: Silver Jubilee (1935), and Coron (1937) medals, and KC of the Order of the Crown of Siam (1924).
Raja Dato’ Musa, Raja Muda. b. 16 June 1919. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 15 October 1938, prom. to Raja Kechil Muda 1 January 1940, Raja Kechil Sulong 1945, Raja Kechil Besar 1953, Raja di-Hiler 30 June 1962, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 1 March 1963. Hon ADC to the Sultan 1948. Rcvd: SPMP, JP, PJK, DYTM. He died at London, 12 May 1983. Eleven sons :
a) (1) Commander DiRaja Dato’ Sri Raja Muda Ja’afar . b. 26 September 1941. Raised to the titles of Raja Kechil Tengah 3 February 1984, Raja Kechil Sulong 1998, and Raja Di-Hilir 10 March 1998. Rcvd: DK (15.4.1998), SPCM (19.4.1986), JSM. new Raja Muda 20 June 2014. Rcvd: DK (20.6.2014)
i) Raja Shah Azman
b) Captain Raja Kobat Saleh ud-din [Roger Kobat]. b. at Taiping, 30 January 1943. Two daughters
c) Raja Taj ud-din ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa (s/o Mariam).
d) Raja Saleh uz-Zaman ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa (s/o Mariam), educ. Malay Coll, Kuala Kangsar.
e) Raja ‘Ala ud-din ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa (s/o Mariam). Copyright©Christopher Buyers
f) Raja Dato’ ‘Abdu’l Aziz ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa (s/o Mariam) b. 1949, Rcvd: DPMP (23.4.2007), educ. Malay Coll, Kuala Kangsar. Two daughters and two sons.
g) Raja Shahrir uz-Zaman ibni al-Marhum Raja Muda Musa. b. 1950 (s/o Rafida), educ. Malay Coll, Kuala Kangsar.
h) Raja Muhammad Hatta . 3 children, 2 daughters
i) Raja ‘Abdu’l Rahman
j) Raja ‘Abdu’l Razak. Author and journalist.
k) Raja Muzafar Shah. Rcvd: PMP (2008). One daughter
Raja Ja'afar Billah
Raja Alang Iskandar Shah — Marhum Kuala Teja, Raja Bendahara (cre. 1841)
Raja Hasan
Raja Ngah Ja'afar.
Raja Kulop Muhammad Kramat, of Kuala Dipang
Raja Ismail
Raja Andak
Sultan Sir Idris Murshid al-Azzam Shah GCMG, GCVO (1887–1916) — Marhum Rahmatu'llah, né Raja Idris [Dris], Raja Muda,
Sultan ‘Abdu’l Jalil Nasir ud-din Muhtaram KCMG, OBE ( – 20 January 1916 - November 1918) — Marhum Radziallah
Sultan Yusuf Izz ud-din Rathiu’llah KCMG (15 January 1890 – 29 March 1948 – 4 January 1963) — Marhum Ghafarullah.
Sultan ‘Azlan Muhib ud-din Shah GCB, KStJ (19 April 1928 – 3 February 1984 – 28 May 2014). Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 19 August 1962, prom. to Raja Kechil Tengah 1 March 1963, Raja Kechil Sulong 1 January 1978, Raja Kechil Besar 1 August 1978, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 1 July 1983. Succeeded on the death of his uncle, 31 January 1984. Proclaimed at Ipoh, 3 February 1984. Crowned at Istana Kinta, Kuala Kangsar, 9 December 1985. Elected as Deputy Supreme Head of State with the title of Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agung, 9 February 1984. Installed at Istana Negara, Kuala Lumpur, 29 April 1984. Elected King of Malaysia with the title of Yang di-Pertuan Agung and style of Majesty, 2 March 1989. Crowned at Istana Negara, Kuala Lumpur, 26 April 1989. Left office and returned to Perak, 25 April 1994.
Sultan Nazrin Mu-izz ud-din Shah (27 November 1956 – 29 May 2014 - ). Granted the title of Raja Kechil Besar 16 February 1984, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 15 April 1987. Regent of Perak from 26 April 1989 to 25 April 1994 and from 27 January 2008 to 28 May 2014. Succeeded on the death of his father, 28 May 2014. Proclaimed in Kuala Kangsar, 29 May 2014. Crowned at the Balairong Seri, Istana Iskandariah, Bukit Chandan, Kuala Kangsar, 6 May 2015. Rcvd: DK, DKSA (18.4.2005), SPCM (19.4.1986), SPTS (19.4.1989), SPMP of Perlis, DK II of Selangor (13.12.2003), etc. m. at the Balai Istiadat, Istana Iskandariah, Bukit Chandan, Kuala Kangsar, 17 May 2007, Tuanku Zara binti Salim, Raja Puan Besar (b. at Ipoh, 22 March 1973), invested with the title of Raja Puan Besar 18 May 2007, rcvd: DKSA (18.5.2007), DKA.
(3) Raja Azlan Muzzaffar Shah. b. 14 March 2008, Raja Kechil Besar 20 Jun 2014, rcvd: SPMP, SPCM.
Raja Nazira Safya. b. 2 August 2011
Raja Dato’ Seri Ashman Shah, Raja Kechil Sulong. b. 28 December 1958. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 11 May 1987, and prom to Raja Kechil Tengah 10 March 1998, and prom to Raja Kechil Sulong 16 March 2010. Rcvd: SPCM (19.4.1988). He died following a severe attack of asthma, 30 March 2012
(4) Raja Dato’ Seri Ahmad Nazim Azlan Shah, Raja Kechil Sulong . b. 10 March 1994. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Tengah 18 March 2010. Rcvd: DKA II (24.4.2010). Raja Kechil Sulong 1.4.2012. Rcvd: SPCM
Raja Ziran @ Raja Zaid (died 1979)
(5) Raja Iskandar, Raja Kechil Tengah
Sultan Iskandar of Perak GCMG, KCVO (10 May 1881 – Nov 1918 – 14 October 1938) — Marhum Kadassallah
Sultan Idris II al-Mutawakil Allahahi Shah CMG (12 August 1924 – 5 January 1963 – 31 January 1984) — Marhum Afifu’llah. b. 12 August 1924, as Raja Iris Shah. Granted the title of Raja di-Hiler 10 May 1934, prom to Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir 15 October 1938, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 12 July 1948. Succeeded on the death of his cousin, 4 January 1963. Proclaimed 6 January 1963. Crowned at the Balarong Sri, Istana Iskandariah, Bukit Chandan, Kuala Kangsar, 26 October 1963.
Raja Dato’ Sri Yusuf ‘Izz ud-din Iskandar Shah al-Haj . b. at Istana Raja Muda, Teluk Anson, 1954. Rcvd: SPCM (1.7.1983), DSAP. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 1st March 1963, suspended for ten years 1978 but pardoned and reinstated 31st March 1979, prom to Raja Kechil Tengah 1st April 1979, prom to Raja Kechil Sulong 1st July 1983, and prom to Raja Kechil Besar 11th May 1987 (stripped of the title following a declaration of bankruptcy, 25th November 2006). m. Tengku Datin Sri Noor Hazah al-Hajjah binti Tengku ‘Abdu’l Aziz Shah (b. 7th November 1955), Presdt Malaysian Netball Assoc (MNA), daughter of Tengku ‘Abdu’l Aziz Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan ‘Ala ud-din Sulaiman Shah, Tengku Indra Setia di-Raja, of Selangor, by his second wife, Sharifa Hasnah binti Sayyid Zain Shahab ud-din. He had issue, two sons and three daughters:
Raja Muzaffar Idris Shah [Ariezz]. b. at Ipoh, 28th December 19XX
Raja Putra Muhamad Riza. b. at Ipoh, 13 December 1981
(2) Raja Dato’ Sri Haji Iskandar Zulkarnain . Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 3 February 1984, prom to Raja Kechil Tengah 11 May 1987, to Raja Kechil Sulong 10 March 1998, and to Raja Kechil Besar 18 March 2010. Rcvd: SPCM (1.7.1983), SSDK. new Raja Di-Hilir 20 June 2014. Rcvd: DK (20.6.2014)
Raja Nabil Imran.
Raja Idris Shah.
Raja Siff ud-din.
D.Raja Dato’ Sri Ahmad Shiff ud-din Shah [Tengku Tam], Raja Muda. b. 1930. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Sulong 1982, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam 3 February 1984. Rcvd: DK, SPCM (1.7.1983, DPCM), SPMK, JP. He died from heart failure, at the General Hospital, Kuala Trengganu, 12 April 1987 (bur. Royal Mausoleum, Bukit Chandan, Kuala Kangsar)
Raja Ain ul-Azam. Rcvd: AMP (19.4.2002).
Raja Najib ud-din
Raja Saif ul-Adian
Raja Khair ul-Annuar
Raja Muhammad Alwi
Raja Kamar Azhar
Raja Iskandar Muda
Raja Ismail Mudzaffar Shah
Raja Lope Ahmad
Raja Inu
Raja Zainal Rashid
Raja Muhammad Rashid
Raja Inu Muhammad Saleh, Raja Kechil Lasa
Sultan Shahab ud-din Ri'ayat Shah (1830–1851) — Marhum Safiu'llah, né Raja Chulan. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Muda 1786, prom. to Raja Bendahara, and appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Paduka Sri Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam, 1826. Succeeded 20 December 1830.
Raja Mahmud, dead at a young age.
Sultan Ali al-Mukammil 'Inayat Shah (1865 - 1871) — Marhum Nabiu'llah, né Raja Ngah 'Ali. Appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam, 1850. Succeeded, 20 March 1865. Installed 9 October 1865.
Raja 'Usman, Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir (s/o Raja Puteh Zalikha). Appointed as Heir Presumptive with the title of Raja Bendahara Wakil us-Sultan Wazir al-Kabir 3 July 1871, becoming the first to be so styled. Regent of Perak 1876. + 1876
Raja Muhammad bin Raja 'Usman, Orang Kaya-Kaya Imam Paduka Tuan.
Raja 'Umar
Raja Ngah Abu Bakar. b. February 1870.
Raja Mahadi
Raja Musa OStJ (1957). b. 24 March 1903 Rcvd: Defence (1945) and Coron. (1953) medals.
Raja 'Abdu'l-Aziz . b. 12 December 1940
Raja Muhammad Iskandar
Raja Ngah 'Ali, Raja Kechil Tengah. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Bongsu 1 October 1941, and prom. to Raja Kechil Tenah 15 July 1948. Hon. ADC to the Sultan 1948. He died 12 May 1955
Raja Othman
Raja Amin ud-din. Two daughters
(b) Raja Chulan
Raja 'Abdu'l-Rahman, Raja Bendahara. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Sulong Tua, prom. to Raja Kechil Bongsu 1825, and finally to Raja Bendahara 1826.
Sultan Abdu'llah Muhammad Shah I (1851–1857) — Marhum 'Atiku'llah, né Raja 'Abdu'llah. Granted the title of Raja Kechil Muda, prom. to Raja di-Hiler 1826, and finally Raja Bendahara late 1826.
Sultan Yusuf Sharif ud-din Muzaffar Shah (1877 - 1887) — Marhum Ghafiru'llah. Appointed as heir apparent with the title of Tuanku Raja Muda, Wakil us-Sultan, Wazir ul-Azam April 1875. Appointed as Regent of Perak with the style of His Highness, 30 March 1877. Crowned as Sultan, at Kuala Kangsar 11 May 1887.
See also
Agnatic seniority
Family tree of Malaysian monarchs
Family tree of Perak monarchs
Makam Al-Ghufran (Perak Royal Mausoleum)
Monarchies of Malaysia
Sultan of Johor
References
Perak
1528 establishments in Asia |
4217140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hande%20Yener | Hande Yener | Makbule Hande Özyener (born 12 January 1973), better known by her stage name Hande Yener, is a Turkish singer. She made her debut in the early 2000s, and since then has become a prominent figure of Turkish pop music with numerous songs that topped the music charts. Alongside her music career, she is also known for her choice of clothes and has renewed her image multiple times over the years. She has occasionally made changes in her music style as well; for a while, she started making electronic music, but this period was short-lived and she again returned to performing pop music. During her career, both her professional and personal life have been among the favorite subjects of columnists, and her rivalry and on and off feud with Demet Akalın were covered in the tabloids from time to time.
Yener was born in Kadıköy, Istanbul. After finishing her middle school she decided to go to a conservatory, but after facing objections from her family, she enrolled in Erenköy Girls High School. She left the school while in the second grade and got married. To achieve her dream of becoming a singer, she tried to get in contact with Sezen Aksu, and while she was working as a shop assistant she met Hülya Avşar who later introduced her to Aksu. She worked as Aksu's backing vocalist for a while, before working with Altan Çetin who helped her with preparing her first studio album, Senden İbaret, which was released in 2000. She later released the MÜ-YAP certificated album Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... (2002), followed by Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor (2004) and Apayrı (2006). These albums made her one of the successful artists inside Turkey in the 2000s. With the album Nasıl Delirdim? (2007), she shifted her style to electronic music and distanced herself from pop music for a while. During this period, which formed the first decade of her career, many of her songs became hits, including "Yalanın Batsın", "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma...", "Acele Etme", "Kırmızı", "Kelepçe", "Aşkın Ateşi", "Kibir" and "Romeo".
Although Yener's electronic songs received critical praise, she suffered commercial loss compared to her previous works, which resulted in several problems with her producing partners, causing a change in the production company and label twice. Hence, Yener's era of electronic music ended in a few years and with the pop album Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? (2010) she returned to pop music charts. The pop albums released in this phase of her career were often compared to her initial albums, and although they received mixed reviews in general, many of their songs, especially those from Mükemmel (2014) and Hepsi Hit Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (2016–17) topped the music charts in Turkey. Among these songs were "Bodrum", "Ya Ya Ya Ya", "Naber", "Sebastian", "Mor", "Bakıcaz Artık" and "Beni Sev".
Throughout her career, Yener has been influenced by a number of artists, including Madonna to whom her image, clips and performances were often compared. In the 2000s, she was one of the few artists who had an album that sold over 1 million copies in Turkey. In 2013, she was the Turkish singer whose music videos were viewed the most on YouTube. By the end of the 2000s, she was known as a gay icon inside Turkey, and made some statements demanding the advancement of LGBT rights in Turkey, but she became the target of criticism after being silent about LGBT issues in the following years. In the second half of the 2010s, she expanded the scope of her work and worked periodically as the operator of various night clubs. Yener has received five Golden Butterfly Awards, as well as four Kral Turkey Music Awards and has received various other awards and nominations.
Life and career
1973–99: Early life and career beginnings
Makbule Hande Özyener was born on 12 January 1973 in Kadıköy, Istanbul. She is the younger of Yıldız Yazıcı and Erol Özyener's (1934 – 30 December 2012) two daughters, being five years younger than her elder sister. Her first name was chosen as Makbule, after her paternal grandmother. She had an economically moderate family. Her mother, Yıldız, was a housewife, while her father, Erol, worked as a professional football player for a while, and later worked at Ford Otosan. Yener grew up in Erenköy, Kadıköy, and since an early age made it known that she wished to become a singer. After finishing middle school, she decided to go to a conservatory, but faced objections from her family, who sent her to Erenköy Girls High School instead. She left the school at the second grade, about which she later said: "My citizenship teacher was obsessed with me, on top of that I hated literature, I didn't even go to the exam sessions. My music grades were always 10 though." After her father fell ill with alcoholism, her parents divorced when she was 17 years old, and Yener later said that it caused her "great sufferings". She married customs broker Uğur Kulaçoğlu in 1990 in Fatih. In the same year, her son Çağın was born in October. As she got older, Yener and her husband Uğur began to have disagreements on various issues. The couple eventually divorced in 1994.
During this period, she began to meet music mentor Erdem Siyavuşgil, who said that she had the potential of becoming a soloist. Yener later began to take singing lessons and made numerous efforts to get in contact with Sezen Aksu. Subsequently, she began working as a sales representative at the Mudo store in Suadiye, knowing that many artists would pass by the store, and that way she could "reach Aksu through the celebrities" who would shop in the store. She later found Aksu's phone number, and left her notes everyday, asking her for a chance to become her backing vocalist, but did not receive any response. Many singers who came to the store, including Nilüfer, Şehrazat and Sertab Erener, left her wish for contacting Aksu unanswered. Yener started to lose her hope of becoming a singer, until she met Hülya Avşar, who promised her that she would make an appointment for her with Aksu. In April 1993, Yener met Aksu through Avşar's help, and performed the songs "Yalnızlık Senfonisi" and "Oyun Bitti" for Aksu during the meeting. After winning Aksu's favor, she began working for her and for two years served as her backing vocalist and assistant. In December 1994, she made her television debut as a vocalist in Cem Özer's program Laf Lafı Açıyor. To work in bars, she stopped working for Aksu and for a number of years performed at various places in Turkey. To prepare her first album, she contacted Aksu again and started the preparation process. With Aksu's recommendation, she signed a contract with DMC.
2000–03: Senden İbaret and Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma...
Hande Yener's first studio album Senden İbaret was produced by Ercan Saatçi and released by DMC on 31 May 2000. Thus Yener became the first female vocalist introduced to the market by DMC. The album's preparations lasted for a year, and its songs were written by Altan Çetin. Yener described the album's style as "neither Western nor Arabesque, just Turkish pop". Various Turkish newspapers started making predictions about the outcome of her collaboration with Altan Çetin, a well-known songwriter who had previously worked with İzel. Columnists said that Yener would "sit on İzel's throne", in response to which Yener said that she was different from İzel. Yener also made it clear that the album was initially meant to be prepared for İzel, but after she got into troubles with DMC, the original project was set aside. Senden İbarets lead single "Yalanın Batsın", became the first song for which a music video was released. The song became a hit inside Turkey in summer 2000 and successfully topped the music charts. Yener herself was surprised with the outcome saying: "I believed that I would succeed. But I was really surprised and immensely happy with the rapid development of everything." Hürriyet wrote that Yener had made a great debut and named her as one of the shining stars of the year. Following the release of a music video for "Yalanın Batsın", separate clips were also released for "Bunun Adı Ayrılık" and "Yoksa Mani". Yener was put in danger of freezing while filming the music video for "Bunun Adı Ayrılık". In 2000, she won the Best Newcomer award at the Golden Butterfly Awards, and the music video for "Yalanın Batsın" was awarded with the Best Music Video award together with Candan Erçetin's music video for "Elbette". At the award ceremony organized by Akademik Bakış magazine and later at the 2001 Kral TV Video Music Awards, Yener received the Best Female Newcomer award. Magazin Journalists Association chose her as the Promising Female Singer. Yener also appeared in the album Türk Marşları, prepared by Gendarmerie General Command together with Turkish pop singers and released at the end of 2000. She performed the song "Biz Atatürk Gençleriyiz" in the album. For her first EP, Extra, which was released in 2001, she included new versions of the songs from her first studio album Senden İbaret. Meanwhile, she made a guest appearance in one of the episodes of Show TV's series Dadı.
In the early 2002, Yener began a relationship with basketball player Kemal Tunçeri. She also appeared in the commercials for Ülker's Petit-Beurre. In February 2001, Yener announced that she was working on a new album, and her second studio album Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... was released in July by Erol Köse Production. Radioman Michael Kuyucu praised the album by describing it as "a perfect work by Yener, who showed the same success again", while Milliyets Naim Dilmener also noted that the album had made "a big noise" in the market upon its release as if it "has brought together the works of all the prominent female Turkish pop singers in one place". "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma..." became a hit and following the release of a music video for it, the songs "Şansın Bol Olsun", "Evlilik Sandalı" and "Küs" were turned into music videos as well. The album sold more than one million copies and received a platinum certification from MÜ-YAP. At the 2003 Kral TV Video Music Awards, Hande Yener won the Best Female Pop Artist award, and Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... was awarded as the Best-Selling Album. Magazine Journalists Association also chose "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma..." as the Song of the Year. In 2017, Hürriyet'''s music critics published a list of Turkey's Best 100 Albums, on which Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... ranked 81st. During that period, Yener played in the commercials for Filli Boya in June 2002, and in July presented one episode of the TV program Pazar Keyfi. From March to June 2003, she presented her own TV program Hande Yener Show on Star TV. In the same year, she dated businessman Moris Kohen for a while.
2004–06: Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor and Apayrı
Yener's third studio album was recorded in Hamburg and Istanbul, and was released under the title Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor in July 2004 by Erol Köse Production. Yener later said that she had become more professional while working on this album and "I listen to the songs while being played by guitar with all my soul and feelings, as a listener. If I like it myself, I'll give it a thumbs-up. I mean, questions like 'Does it become a hit, how much will it sell?' do not pop up in my head. I don't put myself in the mindset that we are preparing this album for Hande Yener. The team also worked with the same energy, very intensely, everyone put their most precious and valuable songs together for this album. All the songs they made were very successful and they were songs that could be considered classic in terms of quality. They just gave me the songs that matched with my style." The album was well-received and found successful by music critics. The hit songs "Acele Etme", "Kırmızı" and "Acı Veriyor" were all turned into music videos, followed by separate clips for "Armağan", "Hoşgeldiniz" and "Bu Yüzden". "Acele Etme", "Kırmızı" and "Acı Veriyor" became number-one hits on many radio's music lists. Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor sold 400,000 copies in 2004, and received a gold certification from MÜ-YAP. At an award ceremony organized by İstanbul FM, the album received the Golden Album award. From 20 to 21 August 2005, Yener gave concerts at Rumelihisarı with the help of Italian dancer and director Luca Tommassini.
For her fourth studio album, Yener chose "songs that were in harmony with her voice." The album, titled Apayrı, was released by Erol Köse Production in January 2006. Yener classified the album as an alternative pop album, and later discussed her change of music style in this album: "Some people are made unhappy when doing something new, they don't like it or think they don't need it. But in my opinion, my job is a work that requires change. As the technology progresses, the sound effects also change so quickly, it was indispensable that I had to be part of this change. I stand behind every album that I've ever made, but it's not possible to develop by making similar things again and again. The albums and clips I've made so far have caused surprise at first and then they have been accepted." Some critics described the album as a turning point in Yener's career and, compared to her previous albums, found European elements inside her new works, categorizing the album as not only a pop album, but also an album that consists of house, R&B, and rock songs as well. Some music critics reacted negatively to Yener's style change, while others found it successful. Hürriyets Tolga Akyıldız said that the album was based on the Western dance infrastructure. "Kelepçe", "Aşkın Ateşi" and "Kim Bilebilir Aşkı" were the songs from this album for which separate music videos were released. Apayrı sold 165,000 copies in 2006 and received a gold certification from MÜ-YAP. Apayrı won the Best Album award at the 2007 PowerTürk Music Awards. NTV later named Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor and Apayrı as the two of Turkey's best albums in the 2000s. In September 2006, Yener released another version of Apayrı in the form of an EP titled Hande Maxi. The song "Biraz Özgürlük" from this EP was turned into a music video, and received the Best Music Video award at the 2007 Kral TV Video Music Awards.
2007–09: Nasıl Delirdim?, Hipnoz and Hayrola?
Following Eurovision Song Contest 2007, the TRT committee contacted producer Erol Köse, asking him to clarify whether he's open to having Yener represent Turkey at the Eurovision Song Contest 2008, to which he agreed. After a while, the TRT announced that no bid was offered to anyone for the contest. Yener's producer Erol Köse said in a press release that the singer had received a preliminary offer to join the Eurovision from TRT, but as he had hastily reacted and announced it before TRT, they denied that they had given him such offer. Köse added that they had then rejected the informal proposal for Eurovision following the earlier events.
In May 2007, Yener's fifth studio album Nasıl Delirdim? was released. 72,000 copies were pre-ordered before its release, and Yener changed her music style to the electronic music with this album. Her transition from pop to electronic music brought out some negative reviews. She responded to the criticism by saying: "To make everyone happy is so hard, even impossible. It is not the right thing to do something that pleases everyone. First of all you need to please yourself and show your music quality. It doesn't really appeal to me to do something that's produced and consumed instantly." Music website Gerçek Pop gave the album 5 out of 5, and some critics gave positive reviews for the album. The song "Kibir (Yanmam Lazım)", written and composed by Sezen Aksu, was chosen as the album's lead single and a music video was released for it. The second music video was released for the song "Romeo", which was written for her then-boyfriend Kadir Doğulu, and he also appeared in the music video. Both of these songs became hits and topped music charts in Turkey. Just like the two previous albums, Nasıl Delirdim? was chosen by NTV as one of Turkey's best albums in the 2000s. İstanbul FM awarded the album as the Best Pop Album by a Female Artist. In August 2007, Yener became engaged to Kadir Doğulu.
In 2007, Yener had an argument with various other singers after she used the term "grocery music" and her name started to appear in court cases and lawsuits. Due to these arguments, her feud with Demet Akalın started and their fight became among the hot topic of tabloids for years. After being compared to Akalın in an interview, Yener made a response which eventually started the feud and said: "I do Western music, so I can not compete with those who make fantasy music. What Demet does is not similar to my style." Akalın continued the argument by saying: "If she does not like me, why is she after my works? It is obvious that she takes all the works that I don't like or refuse to do for herself." Yener subsequently took a case to the court asking for 50,000 on the grounds that Akalın had insulted her and attacked her verbally, but the court said that they did not find any insult in Akalın's words. Akalın later won 10,000 in the court in a case against Yener. At the same time, Serdar Ortaç talked about other singers, saying that he does not prefer "Neither Hande, nor Mustafa [Sandal]! Bengü is the best." to which Yener responded: "I'm not making music only for commercial purposes and I don't make a music that can't be understood. I don't want to be compared to those who make 'grocery music'." Yener's definition of grocery music to describe the songs that she found to be of poor quality came with responses from various people including Akalın, Bengü and Ortaç. Bengü found Yener's statements wrong and said: "If the most popular songs are grocery music based on what she said, then the songs that most probably fall in that category are her own songs." Istanbul Chamber of Groceries also reacted to Yener's statement, but the singer said that her description was only about music and she did not intended to humiliate grocery stores. As the feud and arguments about the grocery music continued to grow, Ortaç made fun of Yener's song "Romeo" at one of his concerts, to which Yener responded by saying, "Serdar needs to find himself a Romeo." Ortaç filed a lawsuit against Yener, stating that her words were implying that he was "gay-homosexual and undermined his personal dignity". He won the case and received 3,000 in compensation. Hürriyet chose the phrase 'grocery music' as one of the core words of 2007 and Sırma Karasu from Habertürk described the grocery music debate as one of the breaking points of Turkish pop music and said: "If the local pop has been taken outside of its cliché, it is with no exaggeration to say that it happened thanks to Yener's 2007 album Nasıl Delirdim? and her 'grocery music' polemic. ... Other musicians and singers saw how electronic music applies to our domestic audience thanks to Yener's courage." In later years Erol Köse confessed that he included Bengü in the feud to enhance her reputation and that he planned parts of the feud himself.
In the early 2008, Yener produced Kemal Doğulu's first single "1 Yerde" and also appeared in its music video. She then released the final music video from Nasıl Delirdim? for the song "Yalan Olmasın". She also presented an episode of Show TV's program Pazar Keyfi. In May 2008, her sixth studio album Hipnoz was released by Erol Köse Production. It sold 40,000 copies. During the same period she found the production company TPA (Turkish Pop Alternative) Production together with Kadir Doğulu. All of the songs in Hipnoz were written by Yener herself. Music critics reacted with both positive reviews and negative criticism to the album and wrote that the singer had moved away from pop music in this album. The song "Hipnoz" from the album ranked 10th on Billboard Türkiyes Türkçe Top 20. After the song's music video was released, news surfaced that it had been banned by RTÜK. Yener made it clear that the news were not true and the video had not been banned from radio and TV, describing the situation as a conspiracy against herself. However, the damage was already done and some channels refrained from broadcasting the music video. Later on, a document published by RTÜK revealed that no broadcast ban was applied to the clip. Events before and after this situation, caused Yener to end her contract with her production. As a result of further disputes, she terminated the album contract with the company by paying compensation, so that she left Erol Köse Production in a controversial manner.
On 1 November 2008, Yener signed a new album contract with Avrupa Müzik. In March 2009, her seventh studio album Hayrola? was released. She wrote seven songs in the album by herself, changed her style of writing and performed the songs with a more natural tone. Teoman was featured on the song "Arsız". Music critics found the album as an electronic music album with high quality and more successful than Hipnoz, but said it didn't have a song that could be as successful as "Romeo". According to MÜ-YAP, the album sold 37,000 copies by June 2009. The album's lead single, also titled "Hayrola?", ranked 3rd on Turkey's Official Music Charts and its music video was directed by Kemal Doğulu. The withdrawal of the second music video of the album caused problems between Yener and Avrupa Müzik. Yener issued a warning to the company, saying that the second clip of the album could not be withdrawn, and unilaterally terminated the contract. Avrupa Müzik later took the case to the court and demanded $10,000 from Yener for causing material damages and 50,000 for causing moral damages. As a result of the lawsuit, the court decided to pay Yener 20,000 from the company together with interest. In late 2009, Yener announced that she had been diagnosed with swine flu and had already prepared a song to leave it behind after her death, but it was later announced that she was getting better. For the 2010 New Year, she appeared on NTV's special program and together with Müslüm Gürses performed the song "Sorma Ne Haldeyim".
2010–13: Hande'ye Neler Oluyor?, Teşekkürler and Kraliçe
Hande Yener's announcement at the end of 2009 that she would make pop music again created a sensation in the Turkish press and caused critics to question the decision. Sadi Tirak from Hürriyet attributed her return to pop based on the understanding that she could not make a revolution with her current style. It was later claimed in the news that the reason she had set electronic music aside was due to the falling number of her concerts and album sales. However, Yener said these allegations were put forward by the producers, who aimed to make money, to try to punish her for trying a different style. She said that her return to pop music was because of her love for new changes, and that she had no desire to make an electronic album anymore. While the preparations were being done, in February 2010 she was forced to close her fan website handeyenerfanclub.com, after users began insulting her stylist Kemal Doğulu, which made Doğulu demand that it be closed immediately. Vatan later announced the title of the album's lead single, "Sopa". In April, Yener ended her relationship with her fiancé Kadir Doğulu, whom she had dated since 2006. In the same month, her eighth studio album, which she said she had made for "both listening and playing in the clubs", was released under the title Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? by Poll Production. All of the songs in the album were written by Sinan Akçıl. Music critics mentioned that Yener did not completely return to her old style with the album, and they had both positive and negative reactions to it.Hande'ye Neler Oluyor?s reception by critics: To promote the album, Yener appeared on Okan Bayülgen's program Medya Kralı in May 2010, but left it while it was airing live on TV. She later clarified that she left the program because "she could not make herself sing". The album sold 80,000 copies in the year it was released, and two of its songs, "Sopa" and "Bodrum", became hits. On Turkey's Official Music Chart, "Sopa" ranked fourth, while "Bodrum" rose to number one. The album's first music video was released for both the songs "Sopa" and "Yasak Aşk" in a combined format. Following the release of this music video, the songs "Bodrum" and "Çöp" were turned into music videos as well. İstanbul FM awarded "Bodrum" with the Best Lyrics, Song, and Composition award. "Çöp" was nominated for the Best Composition award at the 2011 Kral Music Awards. In September 2010, the remix album Hande'yle Yaz Bitmez was released, which included the remixed version of some of the songs found in Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? and the new song "Uzaylı". "Uzaylı" ranked third on Turkey's Official Music Chart. In December, Yener made a guest appearance in the New Year episode for Star TV's series Geniş Aile.
In April 2011, Yener appeared as the featured artist on two of Sinan Akçıl's songs from the album Kalp Sesi: "Atma" and "Söndürülmez İstanbul". In June 2011, after receiving the award for the Turkish Female Pop Music Soloist of the Year at the 38th Golden Butterfly Awards, she performed the song "Bana Anlat". The song was in fact part of her ninth studio album Teşekkürler, which was released in September 2011 by Poll Production. Released as a nutshell for her 11th year of career, she said the album's genre was primarily pop. Teşekkürler was released as a result of Yener's experimentation with her style in her earlier projects. All of the songs in the album were written and composed by Sinan Akçıl. Teşekkürler divided the minds of critics into two parts, some of whom described it as far-fetched and commented on how Yener had finally become a musician with a single and distinct style. "Bana Anlat", "Unutulmuyor", "Teşekkürler", "Havaalanı" and "Dön Bana" were the songs from this album for which separate music videos were released. Sinan Akçıl was also featured on the song "Teşekkürler". According to MÜ-YAP, the album sold 59,000 copies in the year it was released.
In March 2012 she played in a commercial for Morhipo together with Demet Akalın. In the commercial, they engage in a competition to reach a new product, while fighting and dragging each other on the floor. In April 2012, together with Seksendört, Yener released a new version of the song "Rüya", originally performed by the group Ünlü. In June, they released the remix album Rüya. "Rüya" was nominated as the Best Duet at the 2013 Turkey Music Awards, and won the Best Cover award at the award ceremony organized by Pal FM. Yener later performed the song "Kaderimin Oyunu" for the album Orhan Gencebay ile Bir Ömür, released in September in honor of Orhan Gencebay's 60th year of career. Her own studio album, Kraliçe, was released on 12 December 2012. All of the album's songs were again written by Sinan Akçıl. Music critics criticized Yener, saying that the singer should do good works again such as the ones found in her previous album.Kraliçes reception by critics: The album's lead single "Hasta", ranked second on Turkey's Official Music Charts and was the first song from the album to get a music video. Kraliçe won the Best Album award at the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Academy Awards, and Album of the Year award at the Magazine Awards, and sold 79,000 copies. Yener stopped the album's promotion after her father's death on 30 December 2012, and did not perform anywhere for about two months.
In March 2013, the Ukrainian group Kazaky, invited Yener to their concert in Istanbul by releasing a special video. Yener responded to the invitation by going to the concert and meeting Kazaky at the backstage. In May 2013, she released the single "Ya Ya Ya Ya", which was written by Berksan. "Ya Ya Ya Ya" and its remixed versions, along with remixed songs from the album Kraliçe, were released all together under the title Kraliçe + Ya Ya Ya Ya. "Ya Ya Ya Ya" became the fastest-rising work on Turkey's Official Music Video chart, rising from the 280th place to the first 25 and remained among the top tracks for weeks. The song became the ninth most-downloaded in Turkey in 2013 and the most played song on YouTube inside Turkey. The song also received the Best Single award at the 2014 Turkey Music Awards, and the Best Song and Best Video Clip awards at the 4th Pal FM Music Awards. In November 2013, Yener's mutual single with Volga Tamöz, "Biri Var" was released on Deezer, on the day the service celebrated its launch in Turkey. From 5 October to 17 November 2013, Yener appeared as a judge on ATV's music contest Veliaht, which ended after 6 weeks due to low ratings. The best songs from all of her albums were released under the title Best of Hande Yener in two separate parts by Poll Production, the first of which was released in November 2013, followed by the second one in January 2014.
2014–19: Mükemmel and Hepsi Hit
Yener's eleventh studio album Mükemmel was released by Poll Production in June 2014, and sold 50,000 copies in Turkey by the end of the year. Hürriyets Hikmet Demirkol viewed the album favorably, saying that it had "a new and different atmosphere" in it. Yener worked with Altan Çetin after years for this new album, and the song "Alt Dudak", written by Çetin, ranked second on MusicTopTR Official List and Yener performed it as the character of Juliet in the seasonal final of Arkadaşım Hoşgeldin. After three months of preparations, on 25 August Yener performed at Harbiye's Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre, and Berksan, Mehmet Erdem and David Vendetta also made appearances on the stage. The videos of this concert, were among Turkey's 2014 Google Trends, and parts of them were used to make the music video for "Naber", which ranked third on MusicTopTR Official List. The third music video from Mükemmel was released for the song "Hani Bana".
In March 2015, she appeared as a guest judge on the second season of İşte Benim Stilim. Her first appearance as a guest judge was in late 2014. Also in March, she appeared on Volga Tamöz's album No. 2, performing the songs "Sebastian" and "Eve Nasıl Geldim"; "Sebastian" ranked first on MusicTopTR Official List for three weeks. After the release of "Sebastian", Yener went on the Sebastian 2015 Tour inside Turkey and across Europe. The song also gave its name to the beach and night club operated by Yener in Yalıkavak and Bodrum from June 2015 to November 2016. She was also a partner in Karaköy and Beyoğlu branches of the clubs between December 2015 and April 2016. Akşam newspaper later claimed that Yener withdrew from the venues due to loss of money. The singer continued her musical career by publishing "Kışkışşş", inspired by a scene in the movie Sosyete Şaban (1985), and made a duet with Serdar Ortaç on the song "İki Deli". "İki Deli" was named by Hürriyets Naim Dilmener as "Hande Yener's worst song up to now". Nevertheless, the song ranked third on Turkey's music charts.
In January 2016, she directed Aylin Coşkun's music video for her song "Saftirik", which marked her first appearance as a music video director. The following month, she was verbally accused by Recep Güngör on Twitter, and after he sent messages to her home in Cihangir, she went to the police and made a criminal complaint. Güngör was later caught by police in front of Yener's house and according to the Constitution of Turkey was charged with "sexual harassment and disrupting the peace and tranquility of individuals". As a result of the trial, the court decided that Güngör, who was diagnosed with atypical psychosis, had no criminal responsibility as he was not able to perceive the legal meaning and consequences of the alleged offenses. In May, Yener appeared on Erol Evgin's album Altın Düetler, and together they performed the song "Sevdan Olmasa". The following month, Yener's 12th studio album, Hepsi Hit Vol. 1, was released and its lead single "Mor" topped Turkey's music charts for three weeks and won the Best Music Video award at the 43rd Golden Butterfly Awards. Music critics found songs on the album at an average level and compared some of them to the singer's old songs/ When referring to the album's title they argued that "not all of the songs were hit".
In January 2017, Yener performed at the Ülker Sports Arena during the half-time of the 2017 Turkey Basketball League All-Star's final. The following month she began to run the night club VIP Room in Arnavutköy. In June, her thirteenth studio album, Hepsi Hit Vol. 2, was released and she also opened the entertainment venue Neo in Çeşme. The album's lead single "Bakıcaz Artık", rose up to number two on Turkey's music charts. After the release of a music video for "Bakıcaz Artık", the songs "Benden Sonra" and "Vay" were also turned into music videos. Music critics restated the same criticism that the album's predecessor faced and again emphasized that not all of the songs in the album were hits; however, they generally praised the singer's collaboration with Mete Özgencil. According to a report by Telifmetre at the end of 2017, Yener was the Turkish artist with the most number of plays on radios and whose music videos were aired on music channels the most. However, Seren Serengil questioned the reliability of the report, and Yener shared a topless photo of Serengil on her social media accounts and made sarcastic comments about her. After that, the parties took their cases to the court, but a few months later they decided to reconcile and the lawsuits were withdrawn.
In 2018, Yener was featured on Aylin Coşkun's song "Manzara", which topped the music charts and its music video was directed by Yener herself. She also performed the song "Kış Güneşi" on Yıldız Tilbe's tribute album Yıldızlı Şarkılar. In the second half of the year, Yener released the deep house song "Beni Sev", which ranked second on Turkey's music charts, followed by her first English song "Love Always Wins". "Beni Sev" was well received by critics and was named one of the best songs of the year. The name of the song "Love Always Wins" is the same as the Love Wins slogan used in 2015 for the recognition of homosexual marriage in the US, and it brought back Yener's relationship with the LGBT movement back to the surface, and at the same time led to criticism as the singer had remained silent on LGBT issues for a long time. According to Telifmetre, Hande Yener was the female artist with the most number of streams in Turkey in 2018 with 154 different works. By the end of the year, Yener and fellow singer Demet Akalın reconciled after an 11-year feud which made them the subject of many tabloid news.
Yener continued her career by releasing four singles in 2019. Each of these songs had different styles and were considered as part of Yener's effort to renew her image during the differentiation process of the music industry. In February, she released the single "Aşk Tohumu". She was also featured on Australian singer Faydee's song "Gravity", which was released on the same day as "Aşk Tohumu". The electronic infrastructure of "Aşk Tohumu" was appreciated by music critics and was praised for bringing back memories of Yener's era of electronic music from a decade ago. Yener's other singles "Kuş", written by Altan Çetin, and "Krema", written by Mete Özgencil, were released in May and July respectively. While the song "Kuş" was defined as a more market-oriented work compared to "Beni Sev" and "Aşk Tohumu", it received less positive reviews. The song's music video was recorded in Zanzibar, Tanzania. The song "Krema" was found to be more alternative and received mixed reviews. Additionally, in 2019 Turkish rap music became more mainstream and the Turkish pop music market and its singers made an attempt to adapt to this new situation, among whom was also Yener. In addition to her musical works, Yener was a guest actress in the New Year's special episode of the TRT 1 series Kalk Gidelim at the end of the year.
2020–present: Carpe Diem
To mark the 20th anniversary of her professional music career, Yener released her fourteenth studio album Carpe Diem in 2020. Many singers and songwriters collaborated with Yener on this album, including Berksan, Devrim Karaoğlu, Mete Özgencil, Fikri Karayel, and Misha. Throughout 2020, she released the singles "Pencere" and "Bela", none of which were later included in the album. After experiencing delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the album was eventually released on 2 October 2020.
In July 2021, Yener revealed in an interview that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer a year earlier and talked about her subsequent treatment and recovery.
Artistry
Music style
Hande Yener's musical style, which includes change and innovation, has been interpreted by many critics in different ways and has been the subject of various articles. The singer, who aims to keep her name on the top by releasing hit songs every year, also says that she is often trying to keep her music style up-to-date with each new album and has changed her musical style from time to time by releasing a variety of different works. Despite these efforts, she has occasionally been accused of releasing the same kind of music in her albums over and over again. Yener's dramatic soprano voice was called "one of the most exciting voices of the 2000s" by Naim Dilmener of Hürriyet. Dilmener also mentioned that "after the 90s stars such as Yonca Evcimik, Aşkın Nur Yengi, Asya, and İzel faced a decline in their career in the 2000s, Yener made an ostentatious debut in [Turkey's] music markets and moved herself to the top with songs such as 'Kırmızı' and 'Acele Etme' which were written by Altan Çetin." Dilmener's viewpoint was supported by Mine Ayman, who on an interview with Best FM said that the rise in Yener's career happened over a short period of time due to her beautiful voice and good choice of songs.
Some of Yener's songs are against the idea of love, and are sung through the view point of an ex-lover who addresses her beloved with the lyrics. Hürriyets Sadi Tirak reacted to the lyrics "Kaybeden kim? E tabii ki sensin. (Who's the loser? Well, of course you are.)" in the song "Kaybol" (Mükemmel, 2014) by labeling them as "classic Hande Yener concept" and wrote that the content of Yener's songs are mutual with those of Demet Akalın in this aspect. The singer has written almost all the lyrics on several of her albums, but she has worked periodically with various songwriters such as Altan Çetin, Alper Narman, Fettah Can and Sinan Akçıl on most of her albums and described the songs written by them as "rebellious and hard like her own language". She also claimed that her aim was to change the stereotyped pop by "changing the meaning of its philosophy in popular culture and giving it a deeper meaning" and said that she was trying to draw the image of a strong woman in her songs.
Hande Yener, who is typically a pop singer, has changed her musical style many times over the years. She finds dance songs more suitable for the albums that she releases in summer. She started her career by placing fantasy pop songs in the albums Senden İbaret (2000), Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... (2002) and Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor (2004), and after becoming famous she changed her style with her 2006 album Apayrı, by turning into house music. Being inspired by the works of Madonna, Kylie Minogue and Robbie Williams, she set aside house music aside and began releasing works in the genres of electronic dance music, rock and R&B. She first picked up on electronic music with Nasıl Delirdim? (2007), and maintained this style on Hipnoz (2008) and Hayrola? (2009). Akşams Mehmet Özdoğan wrote that these electronic music albums were clearly inspired by and similar to Madonna's Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005). With her 2010 album Hande'ye Neler Oluyor?, she returned to making pop music and blended electronic and pop music together. In the albums Teşekkürler (2011) and Kraliçe (2012), she began collaborating with Sinan Akçıl. The effects of electronic music were seen in her pop albums Mükemmel and Hepsi Hit Vol. 1 (2016). In the second pop phase of her career since 2010, Yener has been repeatedly accused by many critics of releasing songs immensely similar to those of the first pop phase of her career.
Influences
Yener has said that she has been influenced by various artists while shaping her career. Before becoming famous, she was mostly inspired by Sezen Aksu about which she said: "I was always imitating Sezen Aksu, and especially I would keep singing her songs 'Sen Ağlama' and 'Hadi Bakalım'. Meeting her and working alongside her to enter the music industry had made me freak out." While describing the songs in her first studio album, she said: "Because I'm a fan of Jennifer Lopez, there are fast and intense songs in my album that wriggle people's souls."
The songs in her album Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... were found similar to those of Aksu's early career, and with the release of Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor she was described by many as "Ajda Pekkan of the future" as her music style in this album was compared to that of Aksu, as well as Pekkan. In response to comparisons, Yener said that she has been influenced by both of them and said: "I listened to foreign music for years. I started listening to Turkish music by listening to Ajda Pekkan and Sezen Aksu. I wanted to become a singer out of my love for them. They have had their influence on me, I accept it."
In 2004, she said that she didn't want people to get tired of her and that artists should be like Madonna to be listened to for years. Yener has described herself as a big fan of Madonna, and is inspired by her energy on stage and courage. In a statement given to MTV Turkey in response to the question "On the comments about you, the name Madonna appears in some way. Is it really a goal for you to be like Madonna?", she said: "They tried to link me to Sezen Aksu after my first album was released. Of course my idol is Madonna. Besides, it's very normal to be inspired by a world star like Madonna. I wish I could have access to great technology and power like her, but that's not possible. But believe me, I would do something in my own way, even if I were in a situation like that. What I'm impressed with is her energy on stage." European magazine Starstyle, described Yener in its 2006 list of the bests as "Turkish Madonna". In 2007 Demet Akalın, Ebru Destan and Serdar Ortaç referred to her as "Fake Madonna". As a result of these words, she entered into arguments with these people. In 2009, she again faced questions about her admiration for Madonna, about which she said: "She is the only living star in the world. I watch the documentaries and concerts of many artists. What I see in all of them is their work and dedication to this job. I also put 'I cannot do it.' aside, and started saying to myself 'You're gonna do it, you gotta do it. If you want this job, you must be accoutered.' Madonna's use of energy is very interesting to me. I'm trying to give something beyond the expectations in my concerts. Of course nobody can be like her. But at least I see the key that will make me rise." She has also said that Bülent Ersoy is among her idols.
Image
Hande Yener attracted attention in the Turkish press with her unusual outfits and her frequently changed image, and she became the topic of social media discussions from time to time. Yener, who likes to make changes in her image, stated that she wants to refresh her image regularly and follows the general trend of fashion in the world and aims to surprise her audience with a new look. She often caught the attention of the press with her shorts and swimsuits that she often wears on stage. She appeared before her audience with a different image in almost every album. In 2008, music critic Naim Dilmener responded to the comments surrounding Yener's electronic music and copying the image of Marilyn Manson by saying: "Her robotic music is, in simple words, bad. I don't find it strange if she pops up as one of the villains in Dünyayı Kurtaran Adam." In 2009, the pin-up models of the 1950s and 1960s were her most obvious source of inspiration based on which she chose her outfits. Kemal Doğulu, Yener's fashion consultant for many years, tried to create a new image for the singer by following fashion shows and new styles on magazines, and applying them to her style of music. In 2016, fashion designer Cemil İpekçi described Yener as the most frumpish dressed celebrity in Turkey.
Hande Yener has been compared to numerous people, especially Madonna, during various periods in terms of her appearance in music videos and image. When she released the album Apayrı in 2006, her image was compared to that of Sibel Kekilli, and hair slightly wavy hairstyle was found similar to that of Madonna's in the late 1970s. Some claimed that the music video for "Hayrola?" resembled Madonna's clips for the songs "Hollywood" and "Give It 2 Me". To those who found these similarities she said: "Humans look like each other. [...] Similarities do not bother me. 'Did you do it for the sake of similarity?' is the question that makes me go crazy. I dyed my hair brown and some said 'She has tried to look like Sibel Kekilli'." During the same period, Ebru Çapa who writes for Hürriyet, commented on the rumors about the similarities in Yener's work to others and said: "Let Hande Yener pray for her mother who gave birth to a pretentious daughter with an unadorned nature. Otherwise, with the release of this latest album, and the rain of criticism that has emerged in terms of 'similarities', she could have easily been worn out and fallen ill with schizophrenia."
In 2007, for her music video "Romeo" and in one of her concerts, she wore an outfit similar to the one worn by Jennifer Lopez at the 2006 Echo Music Prize. Since 2009, her image has been compared to that of Lady Gaga many times. She later said that she was tired of the comparisons. She rejected the existence of similarities with Gaga and said: "I did crazy things in my electronic music albums. There was no Lady Gaga back then." In 2013, Yener went on the podium with an outfit similar to one of Gaga's in a fashion week, about which she said: "All fashion designers around the world want to work with her. Even when she appears in the airport, she creates a phenomenon. She's a trend-making star." Throughout her career, Yener has also been compared to Björk, Cher, Katy Perry, Kim Kardashian, Kylie Minogue and Rihanna. Akşam later claimed that, for a period, Yener was referred as "Imitator Hande" due to these similarities. In 2010, her music video for "Sopa" was found similar to Cheryl's music video for "3 Words". In the same year, she had a performance on Beyaz Show with a balloon that was similar to the one used by Minogue on one of her shows, and similar scenes were also found between Yener's music video "Bodrum" and Minogue's music video "Slow". Yener was a nominee for the Female Music Star award at the Elle Style Awards in 2010 and 2014, but lost the first one to Şebnem Ferah and the second one to Atiye. In 2014, for the cover of Mükemmel she wore a golden glittering outfit similar to the one used by Rihanna in the music video for "Rude Boy". Previously in 2007, similar scenes were found between Yener's music video for "Kibir" and Rihanna's music video for "SOS".
Other ventures
Gay icon
In the late 2000s, Hande Yener was referred to as Turkey's gay icon, but the sincerity of her relationship with the LGBT movement in the late 2010s was questioned. After the release of Nasıl Delirdim? in 2007, Yener was asked questions about the fondness of gay people of herself. Yener responded by saying: "I think they are very good music listeners. Although they may criticize one heavily but fairly, they also appreciate good work in the right direction. Because they listen carefully, they understand music very well. They feel like a musician."; meanwhile she also said that there is a "nice bond" between gays. In the same year, in a survey conducted by KAOS GL, Yener became Turkey's top-rated gay icon. The magazine's editor Uğur Yüksel said that Yener's choice as a gay icon was due to the effective statements that she had made which attracted the favor of homosexuals. In 2008, Yener urged the politicians to solve the issues about homosexuals in Turkey to help with accelerating the negotiations about accession of Turkey to the European Union. Additionally, she said that she often went to gay bars during that period. Yener had a role as a gay icon in the Turkish LGBT film Kraliçe Fabrika'da (2008), during which she appears in a gay's dream and talks to him.
In 2009, she participated in the Istanbul Pride and made a statement on the rights of homosexuals in Turkey: "I do not think that homosexuals in Turkey are given the proper value they deserve. They act as if homosexuals don't exist. This is a very sad situation. They also have rights. Everyone needs to protect their rights." Emir Akgün of the Gmag magazine stated that the participation of Yener in the march was considered as "a clever ad for some people, and also quite intimate for others at the same time". Musician Bedük also commented on Yener's position as a gay icon by saying: "What you call icon doesn't pop up at a single time or with an album. I think it can be attributed to those who have destroyed the taboos, moved stones and those that have done something extraordinary for the community. It can be George Michael, Madonna, or Zeki Müren, but not Hande." Boğaziçi University LGBTI+ Studies Club announced in a statement that Yener had "stepped down from gay advocacy" after the Istanbul Pride 2009.
Yener's relationship with the LGBT movement and the questioning of this relationship came up again in 2018. In the second half of the year, she released her first English song "Love Always Wins". The name of the song is the same as the Love Wins slogan used in 2015 for the recognition of homosexual marriage in the US, and it brought back the questions surrounding Yener's relationship with the movement back to the surface, and at the same time led to criticism as she had remained silent on LGBT issues for ten years. Following the songwriter Mert Ekren's comments, in which he stated that he hated homosexuals, Yener's decision to continue working with Ekren gave rise to a number of reactions. Onur Baştürk from Hürriyet saw the choice for the song's title as an effort to promote Yener outside Turkey through the LGBT movement and criticized the singer by saying, "When it suits your work, 'love wins'. ... It's clear where you are making a reference to. Nobody's stupid." Asu Maro from Milliyet also commented on the song's title and wore, "It is very hard to believe that the name of the song was chosen by chance, obviously Yener still believes in her old position as a gay icon."
In the same period, Yener became the target of criticism from the LGBT movement after images and footage showing the singer İntizar being involved in an intimate relationship with another woman were leaked on the internet. Poll Production, which served as the production company for both İntizar and Yener, immediately terminated its contract with İntizar after the leak of the images and videos. Yener supported the production company's decision for dismissing İntizar, and as a result both the production company owner Polat Yağcı and Yener were labeled as homophobic and became subject of criticism. The company and Yener reacted to the criticism by issuing separate statements and arguing that the contract's termination was not related in any way to İntizar's sexual orientation, and the decision was only made because of the lack of trust between the two parties. In May 2019, a party which included a show making fun of Demet Akalın and Yener's feud and in which a number of drag queens had participated was cancelled due to the unauthorized use of Yener's name at the event. In a statement, Yener said that the party was not cancelled by her but through a warning issued by the production company based on their agreement on naming rights, and added: "I am always full of support and love for LGBT. ... [On this issue] I am constantly being subjected to injustice and slander. I want you to know that I love you, and the rest is a lie."
Philanthropy
Hande Yener says that she is keen to take on social responsibility projects and she especially cares about taking part in charitable activities involving children. In 2000, she appeared on a special episode of Late Night Show on MTV as part of a campaign to help the survivors of the 1999 İzmit earthquake. In the same year, she visited the Our Children with Leukemia Foundation and presented children with gifts. In August 2007, she joined the "Our Heart Beats On The Street" project for derelict animals and together with Ajda Pekkan, Candan Erçetin, Sezen Aksu and Yaşar performed at the Kuruçeşme Arena as a part of the project's campaign. In May 2009, a member of Leukemia and Cancer Patients Health Education Association appeared on Disko Kralı, and said that they had made efforts to organize a concert for the benefit of children with leukemia, but they did not receive any support. Yener promised to participate in the concert by calling the program, and took the stage at the concert. At the end of the same year, she participated in Olay TV's program Gecenin Rengi and contributed to a project organized for disabled people. In 2010, she joined the Greenpeace movement in Turkey and supported their anti-nuclear stance by asking the government to abandon its nuclear energy plans in Turkey. She took part in a video for Greenpeace's campaign, in which she stated: "I'm very uncomfortable with the nuclear plans in Turkey. When I think of nuclear energy, I can't think of anything positive: Chernobyl, nuclear leak, nuclear waste, nuclear weapons ..." At the end of the same year, she joined Radyo D's program "Language of the Forests, We are the Enemies of Fire" and planted a tree during the campaign, and performed a new version of her song "Bodrum" under the new title "Orman (Forest)". In December 2011, she took the stage at the "Pop for Van" concert organized by the Şişli Municipality in Istanbul for the assistance of the victims of the earthquake in Van. In 2012, she performed at an event to help needy students in Kuşadası. In July 2013, as a part of a project in Eastern Turkey called "Each Book, A World", which was founded to support six different schools, Yener appeared on the project's promotion day and played roles for children. In May 2014, she took part on the project Children Smile with Hope for the Future, organized by Hope Foundation for Children with Cancer, and appeared on the project's banners wearing a medical mask, and later on 20 September she organized a promotion day for the charity. On 1 August of the same year, she participated as a competitor in Star TV's program Eyvah Düşüyorum to assist the Tohum Autism Foundation. In June 2015, she distributed signatures in exchange for books in Mersin and Muğla for the school libraries in need.
Politics
Although Hande Yener stated that she followed politics closely, she did not take part in any political movement or event for many years. However, in 2013 she reacted to the urban development plan for Istanbul's Taksim Gezi Park by joining the Gezi Park protests at the Taksim Square. She also canceled her concerts because of the events. She then made a statement saying that she was "not involved in an organizations by any party". In July 2014, Yener and other artists from the same production company joined Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's campaign meeting for the presidential elections. The participation of Yener and other artists in the meeting was subject to negative criticism by the opponents of the Erdoğan government. Yener stated that her appearance in the meeting was an example of personal freedom and replied to the criticism by saying that the so-called freedom lovers were liars. In an interview in March 2015, she was reminded of the criticism, in response to which she said: "I find ourselves right to be free and to be free to communicate. Such a communication took place. Now that I'm one of the pop stars of this country, isn't viewing my participation in that meeting as improper a type of stuffiness?" In July, after the failed coup attempt occurred in Turkey, she became one of the signatories of an anti-coup bulletin alongside other celebrities and the next month, in the Yenikapı Rally Area, she joined the Democracy and Martyrs Rally, organized by the government of AKP and the opposition parties CHP and MHP. In April 2018, together with various other singers and actors, she went to Hatay to visit the Turkish soldiers who were in the Operation Olive Branch. In December 2019, Yener together with Demet Akalın and producer Polat Yağcı had a meeting with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Prevention of child abuse and violence against women were among the discussed topics during the meeting.
Achievements
Throughout her career, Hande Yener has received numerous awards and nominations. As of June 2015, she possessed 56 awards at her home. In the year she made her debut, she won two Golden Butterfly Awards, and in 2008 and 2011 received two more awards from the organization as the Turkish Female Pop Music Soloist of the Year. Her album Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... sold more than a million copies, making her one of the few artists with such sales figure in Turkey in the 2000s. After Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma..., her subsequent albums Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor and Apayrı earned commercial success, earning Yener certifications by MÜ-YAP. In 2007, at the award ceremony organized by İstanbul FM, she received the Best Female Pop Artist award.
Yener also received various nominations at the Kral Turkey Music Awards (formerly Kral TV Video Music Awards), but she only won four of these nominations. She was a nominee for the Best Turkish Act at the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards, but lost to Emre Aydın. In 2009, she was given the Honorary Award at the European Union Quality Awards. In 2013, she won the Best Stage Performance award at the 3rd Pal FM Music Awards. At the Siyaset Magazine Awards in 2007, 2011 and 2012, Yener received the Turkish Female Pop Music Artist award. With her songs "Yalanın Batsın", "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma...", "Kırmızı" and "Romeo", her name appeared on Sabahs list of the 2000s' Top Hot Summer Songs.
Discography
Senden İbaret (2000)
Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... (2002)
Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor (2004)
Apayrı (2006)
Nasıl Delirdim? (2007)
Hipnoz (2008)
Hayrola? (2009)
Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? (2010)
Teşekkürler (2011)
Kraliçe (2012)
Mükemmel (2014)
Hepsi Hit Vol. 1 (2016)
Hepsi Hit Vol. 2 (2017)
Carpe Diem (2020)
Afrodizyak'' (2023)
Filmography
Film
Television
Commercials
References
Further reading
External links
Hande Yener on Spotify
1973 births
Living people
Singers from Istanbul
Turkish pop singers
Turkish pop musicians
Turkish dance musicians
People from Kadıköy
21st-century Turkish singers
21st-century Turkish women singers
Golden Butterfly Award winners
Turkish lyricists |
4217193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meisenheim | Meisenheim | Meisenheim () is a town in the Bad Kreuznach district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, and is also its seat. Meisenheim is a state-recognized recreational resort (Erholungsort) and it is set out as a middle centre in state planning.
Geography
Location
Meisenheim lies in the valley of the River Glan at the northern edge of the North Palatine Uplands. The municipal area measures 1 324 ha.
Neighbouring municipalities
Clockwise from the north, Meisenheim's neighbours are Raumbach, Rehborn, Callbach, Reiffelbach, Odenbach, Breitenheim and Desloch, all of which likewise lie within the Bad Kreuznach district, except for Odenbach, which lies in the neighbouring Kusel district.
Constituent communities
Also belonging to Meisenheim are the outlying homesteads of Hof Wieseck, Keddarterhof and Röther Hof.
History
Meisenheim is believed to have arisen in the 7th century AD, and its name is often derived from the town's hypothetical founder "Meiso" (thus making the meaning "Meiso's Home"). In 1154, Meisenheim had its first documentary mention. Sometimes cited as such, however, is a document dated 14 June 891 from the West Frankish king Odo (for example by K. Heintz in Die Schlosskirche zu Meisenheim a. Gl. u. ihre Denkmäler in Mitteilungen d. Histor. Vereins d. Pfalz 24 (1900) pp. 164–279, within which p. 164, and by W. Dotzauer in Geschichte des Nahe-Hunsrück-Raumes (2001), pp. 69 & 72), but this document is falsified (cf. H. Wibel: Die Urkundenfälschungen Georg Friedrich Schotts, in Neues Archiv d. Ges. f. Ältere Dt. Gesch.kunde Bd. 29 (1904), pp. 653–765, within which p. 688 & pp. 753– 757). In the 12th century, Meisenheim was raised to the main seat of the Counts of Veldenz and in 1315 it was granted town rights by King Ludwig IV. On what is now known as Schlossplatz ("Palace Square"), the Counts of Veldenz built a castle, bearing witness to which today are only two buildings that were later built, the Schloss Magdalenenbau (nowadays called the Herzog-Wolfgang-Haus or "Duke Wolfgang House") and above all the ("Palace Church"), building work on which began in 1479. Both buildings were built only after the Counts of Veldenz had died out in 1444 and the county had been inherited by the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken. This noble house, too, at first kept their seat at Meisenheim, but soon moved it to Zweibrücken. From 1538 to 1571, Duke Wolfgang of Zweibrücken maintained in Meisenheim a mint, with one interruption, although this was then moved to Bergzabern. The Doppeltaler (double Thaler), Taler (Thaler) and Halbtaler (half Thaler) coins minted in the time when the mint was in Meisenheim remain among the highest-quality mintings from Palatinate-Zweibrücken.
In 1799, Duke of Zweibrücken Maximilian IV inherited the long united lands of the Electorate of Bavaria and the Electorate of the Palatinate. While these three states were now de jure in personal union, this did not shift the power structures on the ground at all, for Palatinate-Zweibrücken had already been occupied by French Revolutionary troops along with the other left-bank territories. After the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in 1815, the Congress of Vienna assigned the part of Palatinate-Zweibrücken lying north of the Glan, including Meisenheim, to the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg rather than Maximilian's Kingdom of Bavaria. From 1816 onwards, Meisenheim was the administrative seat of the of Meisenheim and an . In 1866 the Grand Duchy of Hesse inherited Hesse-Homburg but had to cede its territory to the Kingdom of Prussia later that same year following its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War. The town of Meisenheim itself was not wholly reunited until after the Second World War when state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded. Until then, the lands just across the Glan had been Bavarian (either as foreign territory or as another province within Imperial, Weimar or Nazi Germany) since the Congress of Vienna.
Jewish history
Meisenheim had a Jewish community possibly even as far back as the Middle Ages, after it was granted town rights in 1315. The first documentary mention of a Jew, however, did not come until 1551 when a "Jud Moses" cropped up in the record. He was selling a house on Schweinsgasse (a lane that still exists now). In 1569, the Jews were turned out of the town. After the Thirty Years' War, two Jewish families were allowed to live in the town. In 1740, the number of Jewish families was still supposed to be kept down to four, but this rule was often not upheld. The reasons given for these restrictions were mainly economic. …Fourteenthly, no more than four Jewish families should live and be tolerated in the local town; this rose under High Prince Gustav’s state government to 7 such, …which has not only caused the local grocers through the constant hawking and the butchers through shechita great harm and loss of sustinence, but also has already put many citizens and peasants to ruination, and furthermore still means that the little protection money that Your High-Princely Serene Highness draws from these people by far does not offset this harm, whereby Your High-Princely Serene Highness harms his truest subjects. If a few provisions have been indulged-in as a result of the hawking and shechita, bizarrely the butchers' guild article, then these Jews, as a dogged and naughty people, are not troubled by them, but rather begin their abuses anew after some time has gone by; we therefore ask, most humbly, that Your High-Princely Serene Highness most kindly deign to reduce the Jews here, to the citizenry’s greatest consolation, back to 4, by strengthening the provisions for the forbidden hawking and the butchers' guild article for excessive shechita. Following the 1740 decree, the Jews moved to nearby villages, still keeping themselves near the "market", which to them was a matter of survival, and which was of course also necessary for economic growth. The "grocers" and above all the butchers could thus not be wholly free of their competition, especially as the government knew enough to prize good taxpayers. This shift also applied across borders, and thus not only to the villages belonging to the canton of Meisenheim, but also to the bordering Palatine villages such as Odenbach. A more thorough analysis of this shift of town and country Jews appears in W. Kemp's review, and this work also contains a taxation roll of Jews in the canton of Meisenheim, showing the tax burdens borne by Jews living in the outlying villages of Medard, Breitenheim, Schweinschied, Löllbach, Merxheim, Bärweiler, Meddersheim, Staudernheim and Hundsbach. The modern Jewish community arose in the 18th century, According to a report from 1860, the oldest readable gravestone then at the Meisenheim graveyard bore the date 1725. Thus presumably Jews were then still allowed to live in the town. In the time of the French Revolution, there were fewer Jewish families, among whom was a butcher who was allowed to ply his trade in town. About 1800, it is clear that several families fled to the town to escape Johannes Bückler's (Schinderhannes's) crime wave. In the earlier half of the 19th century, the number of Jewish inhabitants grew sharply, mostly because of the arrival of newcomers from Jewish villages in the Hunsrück area. The number of Jewish inhabitants developed as follows: in 1808, there were 161; in 1860, 260; in 1864, 198 (12% of the population); in 1871, 160 (8.73% of 1,832 inhabitants); in 1885, 120 (7.05% of 1701); in 1895, 87 (5.01% of 1738); in 1902, 89 (5.01% of 1,777). Also belonging to the Breitenheim Jewish community were the Jews living in Breitenheim. In 1924 they numbered two. In the way of institutions, there were a synagogue (see Former synagogue below), a Jewish primary and religious school (present no later than 1826, and as of 1842 housed in the building at Wagnerstraße 13), a mikveh and a graveyard (see Jewish graveyard below). To provide for the community's religious needs, a primary and religious schoolteacher, alongside the rabbi, was hired, who also busied himself as the hazzan and the shochet (preserved is a whole series of job advertisements for such a position in Meisenheim from such publications as the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums). For a time, the hazzan's position was separate from the schoolteacher's. In the 19th century, a man named Benjamin Unrich worked as primary schoolteacher from 1837 to 1887 – 50 years. In 1830, he taught 32 children, in 1845, 46 and in 1882, 21. At either Unrich's retirement or his death in 1890, the Jewish primary school was closed, and thereafter Jewish schoolchildren attended the Evangelical school, while receiving religious instruction at the Jewish religious school. 1875 to 1909, the community's hazzan and religion teacher was Heyman de Beer. The last religion teacher, from 1924 to 1928, was Julius Voos (b. 1904 in Kamen, Westphalia, d. 1944 at Auschwitz). In 1924, he taught 15 children, but by 1928, this had shrunk to 7. After he left, the few school-age Jewish children left were taught by the schoolteacher from Sobernheim (Julius Voos earned his doctorate in Bonn in 1933, and between 1936 and 1943 he was a rabbi in Guben, Lusatia, then in Münster, whence he was deported to Auschwitz in 1943). Meisenheim was in the 19th century the seat of a rabbinate, with the rabbi bearing the title of the of Meisenheim in Hesse-Homburg times and ("District Rabbi") in Prussian times. Serving as rabbi were the following:
One member of Meisenheim's Jewish community fell in the First World War, Leo Sender (b. 12 July 1893 in Hennweiler, d. 20 October 1914). Also lost in the Great War was Alfred Moritz (b. 16 May 1890 in Meisenheim, d. 20 June 1916), but he had moved to Kirn by 1914. About 1924, when there were still 55 members of the Jewish community (3% of roughly 1,800 to 1,900 inhabitants), the community's leaders were Moritz Rosenberg, Simon Schlachter, Albert Kaufmann and Hermann Levy. The representatives were Louis Strauß, Levi Bloch, Albert Cahn and Siegmund Cahn. Employed as schoolteacher was Julius Voos. He taught at the community's religion school and taught Jewish religion at the public schools. In 1932, the community's leaders were Moritz Rosenberg (first), Simon Schlachter (second) and Felix Kaufmann (third). The community had since found itself without a schoolteacher. Instruction was then being given the Jewish schoolchildren by Felix Moses from Sobernheim. Worthy of mention among the then still active Jewish clubs is the Jewish Women's Club, which concerned itself with supporting the poor. In 1932 its chairwoman was Mrs. Schlachter.
In 1933, the year when Adolf Hitler and the Nazis seized power, there were still 38 Jews living in 13 families in Meisenheim. Thereafter, though, some of the Jews moved away or even emigrated in the face of the progressive stripping of their rights and repression, all brought about by the Nazis. Already by that year, intimidating measures were being undertaken: Shochet's knives were being seized by Brownshirt and Der Stahlhelm thugs. Several well known Jewish businessmen (grain wholesaler Hugo Weil, wine dealer Julius Levy, other livestock and grain wholesalers) were taken into so-called "protective custody". Jewish businesses were "Aryanized", the last ones in June 1938. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the synagogue sustained substantial damage, and worse, the Jewish men who were still in town were arrested. With the deportation of the last Jews living in Meisenheim to the South of France in October 1940, the Meisenheim Jewish community's history came to an end. According to the Gedenkbuch – Opfer der Verfolgung der Juden unter der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft in Deutschland 1933-1945 ("Memorial Book – Victims of the Persecution of the Jews under National Socialist Tyranny") and Yad Vashem, as compared against other data, critically examined and completed by Wolfgang Kemp, of all Jews who either were born in Meisenheim or lived there for a long time, 44 were killed during Nazi persecution (birthdates in brackets):
Ferdinand Altschüler (1865)
Thekla Bär née Fränkel (1862)
Hedwig de Beer (1887)
Klara de Beer (1889)
Cäcilia (Zili) de Beer (1891)
Sigmund Cahn (1874)
Ida Cahn née Kaufmann, Sigmund's wife (1885)
Adolf David (1879)
Julius David (1883)
Leo Fränkel (1867)
Julius Fränkel (1873)
Karl Josef Fränkel (1902)
Pauline Goldmann, née Fränkel (1864)
Frieda Hamburger, née Schlachter (1885)
Willy Hamburger, Sohn von Frieda (1911)
Albert Löb (1870)
Flora Löb née de Beer (1895)
Julius Maas (1876)
Martha Mayer née Fränkel (1866)
Georg Meyer (1894)
Selma Meyer, née Schlachter, Georg's wife, Simon's and Elise's daughter (1894)
Johanna Nathan née Strauss (1873)
Moritz Rosenberg (1866)
Auguste Rosenberg née Stern, Moritz's wife (1863)
Elsa (Else) Rosenberg, Moritz's and Auguste's daughter (1894)
Flora Sandel née de Beer (1884)
Justine Scheuer née Fränkel (1861)
Simon Schlachter (1858)
Schlachter, Elisabeth Elise, née Sonnheim, Simon's wife (1867)
Adele Silberberg née David (1871)
Simon Schlachter (1877)
Isidor (Juda, Justin) Stern (1893)
Walter Stern (1899)
Ida Strauss née Strauss (1862)
Isaac Julius Strauss (1866)
Isaac (called 'Louis/Ludwig') Strauss (1887)
Laura Strauss née Michel, Louis's wife (1883)
Lilli Strauss, Louis's and Laura's daughter (1924)
Rudolf Strauss, Louis's and Laura's son (1928)
Isidor Weil, Jakob's brother (1875)
Friederike 'Rika' Weil née Stein, Jakob's widow (1875)
Dr. Otto Weil, Jakob's and his first wife Therese née Schwartz's son (1894)
Hedwig Weil née Mayer, wife of Hugo Emanuel, Jakob's and his second wife Friederike née Stein's son (1911)
Alfred Abraham Weil, Hedwig's and Hugo's son (1936)
After 1945, the only Jews who came back to Meisenheim were one married couple, Otto David and his wife. Listed in the table that follows are the fates of some of Meisenheim's Jewish families:
In comparison with the list of victims, it comes to light that idyllic and introspective Meisenheim was gladly sought out by expectant mothers as a place to give birth. Those born in Meisenheim markedly outnumbered those who had moved there. Three persons, who indeed were also born in Meisenheim but whose lives did not centre around it, lived in Mannheim at a seniors’ home and thus were seized in the Saar/Pfalz/Baden-Aktion undertaken by the two Gauleiter Bürckel and Wagner and thereby sent to Gurs. They were Ferdinand Altschüler (76) and the sisters Ida and Johanna Strauss (79 and 68). Now standing in memory of many of those Jews who died or were driven out in the Shoa are so-called Stolpersteine, which were only laid in the town on 23 November 2007 after town council's unanimous vote in response to the Meisenheim Synagogue Sponsorship and Promotional Association chairman Günter Lenhoff's proposal.
Criminal history
Like many places in the region, Meisenheim can claim to have had its dealings with the notorious outlaw Schinderhannes (or Johannes Bückler, to use his true name). In early 1797, the already well known robber committed one of his earliest burglaries in Meisenheim. One night, he climbed into a master tanner's house and stole part of his leather stock, which he then apparently tried to sell back to the tanner the next day. In the spring of 1798, Schinderhannes went dancing several times at inns in Meisenheim.
Religion
Meisenheim's Evangelical Christians belong, as one of the church's southernmost communities, to the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland, while the Catholics belong to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trier. As at 30 November 2013, there are 2,764 full-time residents in Meisenheim, and of those, 1,739 are Evangelical (62.916%), 591 are Catholic (21.382%), 8 are Lutheran (0.289%), 1 belongs to the New Apostolic Church (0.036%), 41 (1.483%) belong to other religious groups and 384 (13.893%) either have no religion or will not reveal their religious affiliation.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman. The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Meisenheim's mayor is Gerhard Heil.
Coat of arms
The town's arms might be described thus: Per fess argent a demilion azure armed and langued gules and crowned Or, and gules a blue tit proper.
The charge in the upper field, the lion, is a reference to the town's former allegiance to the Counts of Veldenz, while the one in the lower field, the blue tit, is a canting charge for the town's name, Meise being the German word for “tit”. This, however, is not actually the name's derivation. Meisenheim was raised to town in 1315 by King Ludwig IV. From the 12th century onwards, the town was held by the Counts of Veldenz. The arms are based on the town's first seal from the 14th century. It already bore the two charges that the current arms bear. In the 18th century, there was another composition in the town's seal showing a lion above a bendy lozengy field (slanted diamond shapes of alternating tinctures) while the tit appeared on an inescutcheon. This change reflected a change in the lordship after the Counts of Veldenz died out in 1444 and were succeeded by the House of Wittelsbach, who bore arms bendy lozengy argent and azure (silver and blue). This pattern can still be seen in Bavaria’s coat of arms and flag today. The former arms, however, were reintroduced in 1935. The article and the website Heraldry of the World show three different versions of the arms. The oldest, seen at Heraldry of the World, comes from the Coffee Hag albums from about 1925. It shows the tit in different tinctures, namely argent and sable (silver and black). The arms with the Wittelsbach bendy lozengy pattern are not shown.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Altstadt (“Old Town”) (monumental zone) – Old Town with building begun in the 14th century within and including the 14th-century town wall, the Gießen (arm of the Glan, possibly an old millrace) with the tanning houses as well as the building before the former Obertor (“Upper Gate”) and Schlosskirche (“Palace Church”) (see also below)
Former Powder Tower (Pulverturm also called Bürgerturm) – round town wall corner tower, after 1315, later altered
Evangelical Schlosskirche (“Palace Church”), Schlossplatz 1 – former Knights Hospitaller church, Late Gothic hall church, 1479–1504, architect Philipp von Gmünd, 1766–1770 interior conversion by Philipp Heinrich Hellermann; breast wall with Late Gothic portal, marked 1484 (see also below)
Saint Anthony of Padua Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Antonius von Padua), Klenkertor 7 – former Franciscan monastery church: Baroque aisleless church, 1685–1688, architect Franz Matthias Heyliger, Baroque Revival tower, 1902, architect Ludwig Becker, Mainz (see also below)
Town fortifications – long sections, partly with allure, of the town fortifications begun before 1315, partly destroyed in 1689
Am Herrenschlag – Eiserner Steg (“Iron Footbridge”); iron construction with segmental arches, 1893
Am Herrenschlag 1 – Gelbes Haus (“Yellow House”), former Knights Hospitaller commandry; essentially from 1349 (?) or before 1489, conversion in early 18th century; stately timber-frame building with half-hip roof, towards the back a “shield gable” (that is, a gable that forms part of the façade). Furnishing; bridge to the Schlosskirche churchyard, estate gate complex
Am Herrenschlag 2 – Late Baroque house, partly slated timber framing, marked 1765
Am Untertor – Untertorbrücke (“Lower Gate Bridge”); three-arch sandstone bridge, possibly after 1784, put back in order after damage in 1811, widened in 1894
Am Untertor – Untertor (“Lower Gate”); three-floor town gate, 13th century and later
Am Wehr – town wall remnant with allure; 13th century and later
Am Wehr 2 – Gründerzeit sandstone-block building with knee wall, Late Classicist façade, 1879
Am Wehr 3 – former tanning house; quarrystone building, partly timber-frame, between 1768 and 1820
Am Wehr 4 – former tanning house; essentially from the latter half of the 19th century
Amtsgasse 1 – stately Baroque estate complex; building with hipped mansard roof, great barn, 1763–1765, architect Philipp Heinrich Hellermann (?)
Amtsgasse 2 – former Amtsgericht; Late Classicist sandstone-block building, 1865/1866
Amtsgasse 4 – plastered building with eaves facing the street, about 1822/1826
Amtsgasse 5 – three-floor Classicist house, marked 1833
Amtsgasse 7 – Classicist house, about 1822/1823
Amtsgasse 11 – timber-frame house, partly solid, 1631
Amtsgasse 13 – former Hunoltsteiner Hof; three-wing complex, 16th to 18th centuries; main wing, partly timber-frame, 16th century, Baroque side building, 1791–1721, timber-frame building above a columned hall
Amtsgasse 15 – Late Baroque house, marked 1752
Amtsgasse 19 – Late Baroque house, marked 1778; essentially possibly from the 17th century
An der Bleiche – sandstone arch bridge, latter half of the 19th century
Bismarckplatz 1 – railway station; Late Historicist sandstone-block building with tower, goods shed, side building, 1894
At Hammelsgasse 1 – Late Baroque door leaf, late 18th century
Hammelsgasse 3 – house, essentially before 1726, marked 1833
Hammelsgasse 5 – Baroque timber-frame house, before 1739
Hans-Franck-Straße – one-arch quarrystone bridge, marked 1761
Herzog-Wolfgang-Straße 9 – former agricultural school; Neoclassical plastered building, marked 1922/1923
Hinter der Hofstatt 9 – clinker brick building, Art Nouveau motifs, 1904
At Hinter der Hofstatt 11 – Classicist summer house, about 1830
Klenkertor 2 – Late Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, marked 1784, essentially possibly after 1686
Klenkertor 3 – shophouse, partly timber-frame, marked 1604, conversion in the late 18th century
Klenkertor 6 – inn „Zum Engel“; stately timber-frame building, possibly from the early 18th century
Klenkertor 7 – Catholic rectory; former Franciscan monastery, Baroque two-wing complex, marked 1716 and 1732, former monastery garden
Klenkertor 9 – inn with dwelling; two Baroque timber-frame houses with gables facing the street, partly solid, 1704 and 1714, joined in 1818
Klenkertor 16 – timber-frame house, partly solid, possibly from the 16th or 17th century
Klenkertor 20 – quarrystone barn, before 1768, conversion marked 1853
Klenkertor 26 – rich three-floor timber-frame house, marked 1618 and 1814
Klenkertor 30 – house, possibly from the 17th century and later
Klenkertor 36 – post-Baroque building with half-hip roof, 1822
Lauergasse 3 – Late Baroque house, marked 1770, essentially possibly older
Lauergasse 5 – Baroque house, marked 1739
Lauergasse 8 – Baroque house, essentially possibly from the early 18th century
Liebfrauenberg – sculpture group mother and child, 1937/1938, sculptor Arno Breker
Lindenallee 2 – Late Classicist house with knee wall, 1843
Lindenallee 9 – school, Heimatstil building with Renaissance motifs, 1908, Building Councillor Häuser, Kreuznach (see also below)
Lindenallee 21 – stately Late Historicist villa, 1911
Marktgasse 2 – Baroque timber-frame house, before 1761, conversion 1782
Marktgasse 3 – timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially possibly from the 16th century, conversion marked 1809
Marktgasse 5/7 – Classicist house, about 1830, essentially possibly from the 17th or 18th century
Marktgasse 9 – three-floor Late Baroque house, marked 1782
Marktplatz 2 – Mohren-Apotheke (pharmacy); three-floor Renaissance building, essentially from the 16th century
Marktplatz 3 – three-floor shophouse, essentially from the 16th century (?), conversion 1841
Marktplatz 4 – former market hall; long rich building with pitched roof, timber-frame, columned portico, possibly about 1550/1560 or from the 17th century
Marktplatz 5 – Late Classicist sandstone-block building, 1856
Mühlgasse 3 – former town mill; town wall tower/mill tower, great building with half-hip roof, essentially from the late 18th century, conversion marked 1860; three- to four-floor storage building, Rundbogenstil, 1897, with town wall tower, 14th century, wall remnants
Mühlgasse 6 – Baroque timber-frame house, plastered, marked 1705
Mühlgasse 8 – former stable (?), partly timber-frame, 18th century (?)
Mühlgasse 10 – barn, partly timber-frame, 18th/19th century
Mühlgasse 12 – house, essentially 1565 (?), timber-frame upper floor possibly from the 18th century
Mühlgasse 14 – former hospital; plastered building, before 1768, conversions in the 19th and 20th centuries, barn 1706
Obergasse 1 – Late Classicist house, marked 1852, essentially possibly older
Obergasse 2 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1720
Obergasse 3 – Kellenbacher Hof (estate); Late Gothic solid building with box oriel window and staircase tower, marked 1530
Obergasse 4 – so-called Ritterherberge (“Knights’ Hostel”); two- to three-floor pair of semi-detached houses, partly timber-frame (Baroque), essentially from the latter half of the 16th century; marked 1723
Obergasse 5 – Steinkallenfelser Hof (estate); Late Gothic solid building with staircase tower, about 1530, in 18th and 19th centuries made over
Obergasse 6 – pair of semi-detached houses, partly timber-frame, essentially Late Gothic (15th/16th century), façade made over in Classicist style about 1840
Obergasse 7 – former Reformed rectory; Late Baroque building, about 1760, timber-frame barn
Obergasse 8 – Fürstenwärther Hof (estate); 16th century; three-floor house, Late Classicist façade, 1855, Master Builder Krausch, side building 18th and 19th centuries
Obergasse 12 – Late Baroque house, before 1768
Obergasse 13 – Baroque timber-frame house, plastered, 1713, converted before 1823
Obergasse 15 – Baroque timber-frame house, 17th or early 18th century
Obergasse 16 – house, partly slated timber-frame, essentially before 1730, conversion in the early 19th century; hind wing on Marktgasse (“Market Lane”): timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially from the 17th century, conversion about 1800
Obergasse 17 – Renaissance timber-frame house, 16th century
Obergasse 18 – former mikveh; Art Nouveau house door
Obergasse 19 – so-called Inspektorenhaus (“Inspector’s House”); former Lutheran rectory, Renaissance timber-frame building with polygonal staircase tower, after 1588
Obergasse 21 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1728
Obergasse 22 – Late Gründerzeit house, clinker brick façade, 1906–1908, Master Builder Wilhelm
Obergasse 23 – timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially possibly from the 17th century, Late Baroque conversion (1764?)
Obergasse 25 – house with reliefs on windowsills, marked 1931
Obergasse 26 – Boos von Waldeck’scher Hof (estate); essentially from the Late Middle Ages; three-floor plastered building, staircase tower, marked 1669, conversion 1822
Obergasse 29 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 17th century
Obergasse 31 – house, marked 1612, essentially possibly Gothic (13th or 14th century?), conversion 1891, addition, partly timber-frame, about 1900
Obergasse 33 – inn „Zur Blume“; Late Baroque building with mansard roof, before 1768
At Obergasse 35 – Gothic window and corbels
Obergasse 41 – three-floor Baroque timber-frame house, about 1704
Obertor 13 – Art Nouveau villa, 1906/1907
Obertor 15 – former Bonnet brewery; whole rambling complex of Gründerzeit buildings with former malt house and storage building with four chimneys, commercial yard, Gothic Revival style elements, last third of the 19th century
Obertor 24 – villa; Late Gründerzeit building with hip roof, Renaissance Revival, three-floor tower, 1890–1893, architect Jean Rheinstädter, Kreuznach
Obertor 30 – former forester's house; one-floor Late Gründerzeit building with half-hip roof, 1898
Obertor 34 – Late Gründerzeit villa, 1896/1897
Obertor 36 – Historicized villa, 1906
Obertor 38 – villa, Historicized Art Nouveau, 1906
Rapportierplatz – running well, 1938, fountain bowl and post by Jordan, bronze figure by Emil Cauer the Younger
Rapportierplatz 4 – inn with dwelling, timber-frame house, partly solid, essentially from the late 16th century, in 1754 described as made over in Baroque
At Rapportierplatz 5 – portal, Baroque, marked 1718
Rapportierplatz 6 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 17th century, marked 1758
Rapportierplatz 7 – Late Baroque building with mansard roof, mid-18th century
Rapportierplatz 8 – three-floor timber-frame house, plastered, earlier half of the 19th century
Rapportierplatz 12/14 – three-floor Late Baroque house with knee wall, before 1768, conversion 1870
Rathausgasse 1 – former Lutheran Christianskirche (church); Late Baroque building with hip roof, 1761–1771, architect Philipp Heinrich Hellermann
Rathausgasse 3 – former barn, partly timber-frame, before 1550 (apparently 1495)
Rathausgasse 7, 9 – house, barn, mainly Baroque group of buildings, 18th century, building with half-hip roof, gateway with timber-frame superstructure, quarrystone side building
Rathausgasse 8 – house, essentially possibly Late Gothic (16th century?), made over in the 18th century, about 1820 and in the 20th century; stately timber-frame side building
Rathausgasse 10 – Baroque building with hipped mansard roof, 18th century
Raumbacher Straße, Alter Friedhof (“Old Graveyard”) (monumental zone) – laid out before 1829; gravestones from the 17th century to about 1900; surrounding wall
Raumbacher Straße 3 – house, Art Nouveau, 1906, architect Wilhelm
Raumbacher Straße 5 – bungalow, Art Nouveau motifs, 1906/1907
Raumbacher Straße 7/7a – one-and-a-half-floor pair of semi-detached houses, 1905
Raumbacher Straße 9/11 – pair of semi-detached houses; bungalow with mansard roof, Art Nouveau, 1907/1908
Behind Saarstraße 3 – summer house, Rococo, 1766
Saarstraße 3A – former synagogue; three-floor sandstone-block building, Rundbogenstil, 1866 (see also below)
Saarstraße 6 – stately Late Classicist complex with single roof ridge, about 1840
Saarstraße 7 – leprosarium's former chapel (?); marked 1745, made over about 1900; Late Classicist house, about 1850/1860, belonging to it?
Saarstraße 9 – villa, Renaissance Revival, 1893
Saarstraße 12 – post office; Heimatstil building with Expressionistic motifs, 1933, Postal Building Councillor Lütje
Saarstraße 16 – shophouse, three-floor Late Gründerzeit house, Renaissance motifs, 1898
Saarstraße 17 – villalike Late Historicist house, 1908–1910
Saarstraße 21 – former bank building; Late Gründerzeit house, Renaissance motifs, 1901/1902, garden architect Karl Gréus, carried out by architect Schöpper
Saarstraße 23 – Late Gründerzeit inn, Renaissance motifs, 1904
Inside Schillerstraße 4 – two Classicist doors, stairway
Schillerstraße 6 – former oilmill; Baroque timber-frame house, half-hip roof, 1693
Schillerstraße 8 – Late Gründerzeit house, Renaissance Revival, 1902
Schillerstraße 18 – former saddler's shop (?); one-floor workshop building with shop about 1900
Schlossplatz – on the town wall a relief of a warriors’ memorial 1914-1918, angel with trumpet, terracotta, sandstone, 1924, sculptor Robert Cauer the Younger
Schlossplatz 3 – former palace of the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken, Magdalenenbau (“Magdalene Building”) of the former palace; eight-sided staircase tower, 1614, architect Hans Grawlich, floor added in 1825; side wing, 1825, architect Georg Moller (see also below)
Schmidtsgasse 1 – three-floor timber-frame house, plastered, essentially from the 16th or early 17th century, conversion 1885
Schmidtsgasse 2 – one-and-a-half-floor magazine building, 1876
Schweinsgasse 7 – house with knee wall, essentially possibly from the 18th century, made over in Late Classicist style about 1830
At Schweinsgasse 12 – Classicist house door leaf, earlier half of the 19th century
Schweinsgasse 14 – former barn, essentially before 1768
Schweinsgasse 16 – house, 1905
Near Stadtgraben 7 – Classicist summer house, about 1820
Near Stadtgraben 9 – Classicist summer house, marked 1836
Untergasse 1 – Baroque timber-frame house, plastered and slated, possibly from the 17th century, marked 1716
Untergasse 2 – three-floor building with half-hip roof, essentially from the 15th century, west eaves side from the 17th and 18th centuries
Untergasse 8 – three-floor shophouse, timber-frame, essentially possibly from the latter half of the 16th century, possibly made over in the 18th century
Untergasse 10 – Baroque shophouse, marked 1724
Untergasse 12 – timber-frame house, partly solid, mid-16th century, Baroque makeover in the 17th century
Untergasse 15/17 – shophouse, marked 1658, made over in the 19th century, shop built in about 1900
Untergasse 18 – shophouse; three-floor Late Classicist sandstone-block building, 1872; belonging thereto Late Classicist house, mid-19th century
Untergasse 19 – timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1529, Baroque makeover in the later 18th century
Untergasse 20/22 – three-floor shophouse (pair of timber-frame semi-detached houses), essentially before 1768; volute stone with mason's mark, possibly 16th or 17th century
Untergasse 23 – former town hall; three-floor Late Gothic building with half-hip roof, partly slated timber framing, hall ground floor, about 1517, architect possibly Philipp von Gmünd; staircase tower 1580, newel 1652
Untergasse 24 – shophouse façade, building with hipped mansard roof, essentially before 1768, floor added about 1825
Untergasse 28 – three-floor shophouse; timber-frame, essentially from the earlier half of the 16th century
At Untergasse 29 – former house door and closet, 1797
Untergasse 32 – three-floor Late Baroque house, formerly marked 1787
Untergasse 33 – three-floor shophouse, late 17th century
Untergasse 34 – shophouse, timber-frame house with box oriel window, apparently from 1526, possibly rather from the latter half of the 16th or early 17th century
Untergasse 35 – three-floor shophouse; timber-frame, essentially before 1768, conversion in the 19th century
Untergasse 36/38 – shophouse; no. 36: essentially from the late 18th century, Classicist shop built in; no. 38: 1932, architect Wilhelm
At Untergasse 37 – house door; Rococo door leaf, about 1780
At Untergasse 39 – Classicist door leaves, about 1820; stone tablet with builder's inscription, 1817; wooden stairway, 1817
Untergasse 40 – three-floor Classicist house, 1822/1823
Untergasse 53 – three-floor shophouse, timber-frame, early 17th century
Untergasse 54 – three-floor timber-frame house, partly solid, polygonal staircase tower, about 1570/1580, portal marked 1775
Untergasse 55/57 – three-floor shophouse; two timber-frame houses combined under one roof, 16th century
Untergasse 56 – Baroque shophouse, 17th or 18th century
Untergasse 59 – timber-frame shophouse, partly solid, essentially possibly from the 18th century, conversion 1838
Untergasse 60 – shophouse, marked 1820; Baroque hind wing, 18th century
Untergasse 62 – three-floor shophouse, essentially from the 15th century (?), timber-frame possibly from the 18th century
Untergasse 66 – inn „Zum Untertor“ (“At the Lower Gate”); Baroque inn with dwelling, before 1768 (possibly from the 17th century)
Wagnergasse 1 – Classicist house, essentially about 1800
Wagnergasse 2 – Baroque house, before 1712
Wagnergasse 5 – timber-frame house, essentially before 1685, marked 1772
Wagnergasse 8 – former postal station; timber-frame house, partly solid, marked 1671, made over in Late Baroque marked 1780
Wagnergasse 11 – Late Classicist house, mid-19th century
Wagnergasse 13 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, 17th or 18th century
Wagnergasse 20 – Baroque timber-frame house, partly solid, mansard roof, marked 1743
Bridge, in the valley of the Glan – two-arch Baroque sandstone bridge, marked 1749
Summer house, Obern Klink – Late Baroque plastered building with upswept roof, 1766
Summer house, Im Bendstich – Late Baroque plastered building, apparently from 1793
Jewish graveyard, east of the Meisenheim–Rehborn road (monumental zone) – opened early in the 18th century, expanded in 1850, some 150 gravestones
Water cistern, on Kreisstraße 6 – sandstone-block front, marked 1899
More about buildings
Old Town
Meisenheim's Old Town is the only one in the area that can boast of continuous development, uninterrupted by war, fire or other destruction, since the 14th century. It also has an in places well preserved girding wall with a still preserved town gate, the Untertor (“Lower Gate”), the 1517 town hall, many noble estates and townsmen's buildings as well as a mediaeval scale for weighing freight carts. The town's oldest noble estate, the Boos von Waldeckscher Hof, was built about 1400. The building is today livened up by an event venue and can be visited.
Palatial residence
Left over from the Schloss (palatial residence), formerly held by the Counts of Veldenz and later the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken, extensively renovated in the 15th century but beset with fire in the 18th century and a round of demolition in the 19th, is only one major building, the Magdalenenbau, which was built in 1614 as a residence for Magdalena, the Ducal Zweibrücken widow, and considerably remodelled in the 19th century by the Landgraves of Hesse-Homburg. It is nowadays used by the Evangelical Church and hence also bears the name Herzog-Wolfgang-Haus (“Duke Wolfgang House”) after the Duke who lent the Reformation considerable favour.
Palace Church
The Evangelical Schlosskirche (“Palace Church”), a three-naved hall church, was built between 1479 and 1504. At the time of building, it stood right next to the Schloss and was the estate church, the town parish church and the Knights Hospitaller commandry’s church. Its Late Gothic west tower is shaped by rich stonemasonry. In the grave chapel, the 44 mostly Renaissance-style tombs of the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken and the rich Gothic rib vaulting bear witness to sculptors’ highly developed art; also often praised is the wooden Rococo pulpit. The organ restored in 1993/1994 on the west gallery with its Baroque console was completed in 1767 by the renowned Brothers Stumm, and was already at the time, with its 29 stops, 2 manuals and pedal, one of the most opulent works of organ building in the Middle Rhine region. Together with the organ at the Augustinian Church (Augustinerkirche) in Mainz, it is one of the biggest preserved instruments built by this Hunsrück organ-building family.
Catholic church
The Baroque Catholic parish church, Saint Anthony of Padua, has very lovely interior décor, parts of which were endowed by former Polish king Stanisław Leszczyński, who for a time during his exile lived in Meisenheim.
Former school
On Lindenallee, which was fully renovated amid great controversy in 2007, stands the stately old Volksschule (public school), which after serving 90 years as a school is now an “adventure hotel”.
Former synagogue
At first, there was a Jewish prayer room. In 1808, a synagogue was built on Lauergasse. After it grew too small to serve the burgeoning Jewish community in the 19th century, the community decided in 1860 to build a new synagogue at the town's bleachfield on what is now called Saarstraße. From the earliest time during which donations were being gathered comes a report from the magazine Der Israelitische Volkslehrer published in October 1860:Meisenheim. This time, the local community has celebrated a very nice matnat yad. After using considerable sums to expand and beautify the graveyard two years ago, and one year ago, for the rabbi’s maintenance, correspondingly voting for a payrise for him, it granted over the last few festive days the sum of 2,000 Rhenish guilders to build a new synagogue. The one used until now was at the time of its founding 52 years ago was reckoned on a much smaller membership and even about 12 years ago became bereft of light as its neighbouring properties on all sides were built up; so that, seen from the point of view of the demands for better taste, it lacked light, air and room. Anyone who knows the local community’s circumstances will not consider this willingness to make sacrifices slight and will not refuse the community’s goodwill the fullest approval. Of course, this sum is still not enough and it is hoped all the more that there will be outside help, as people here never stood idly by when a call for help came from outside. The earlier synagogue was torn down a few years later. The new building was to become a representative building. The financing – costs reached 15,200 Rhenish guilders – could be ensured with a bit of effort. On 3 August 1866, the consecration of the new synagogue, designed by architect Heinrich Krausch, took place. It had seating for 160 worshippers. It was equipped with, among other things, six Torah scrolls, elaborate Torah ornamentation, silver candlesticks, an organ and a library. The prayer books were kept in six lecterns. Outwardly, it was a six-axis aisleless building with a three-floor façade with twin towers. On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), the Meisenheim synagogue sustained considerable damage. All doors, windows and great parts of the galleries were reduced to rubble and a fire was set, although this was quickly quenched once the Brownshirt thugs realized that one of the neighbouring buildings was an SA house. The synagogue, however, was not torn down as so many others were, although the upper levels of the twin towers were removed in 1940. In the time of the Second World War, the building was mainly used as an industrial works, quite contrary to its originally intended purpose, and thereafter as a municipal storehouse. From 1951 on, it was a private storehouse for grain, fodder and fertilizer. In a conversion, the remnants of the women's galleries were torn out, the windows were walled up and upper floors were built inside. In 1982, the building was placed under monumental protection. In 1985, the Meisenheim Synagogue Sponsorship and Promotional Association was founded, which acquired the former synagogue the following year and had it restored. On 9 November 1988 – fifty years to the day after Kristallnacht – the former synagogue building was opened to the public as the Haus der Begegnung (“House of Meeting”). This new name corresponds to the literal meaning of the Hebrew term for “synagogue”: (beyt knesset, literally “house of assembly”). On the upper floor, as a visible reminder of the former synagogue, a glass window by the Israeli artist Ruth van de Garde-Tichauer was installed. The window was created with technical assistance from Karl-Heinz Brust from Kirn. The window's content is the return of the Twelve Tribes of Israel to Jerusalem based on the text from the Amidah (; Tefilat HaAmidah “The Standing Prayer”), also called the Shmoneh Esreh (; “The Eighteen”): “Sound the great shofar for our freedom; raise a banner to gather our exiles, and bring us together from the four corners of the earth into our land.” In a decision taken on 21 May 1997, the synagogue building received the protection of the Hague Convention as a cultural property especially worthy of protection. Since 1999, above the entrance, has been a Star of David made of Jerusalem limestone, endowed by the Bad Kreuznach district's partner town in Israel, Kiryat Motzkin. The former synagogue's address in Meisenheim is Saarstraße 3.
Jewish graveyard
The Jewish graveyard in Meisenheim was laid out no later than the early 18th century. The oldest preserved gravestone dates from 1725. In 1859, the graveyard was expanded with the addition of the “newer part”. The last burial that took place there was in 1938 (Felix Kaufmann). The graveyard has an area of 4 167 m2. In the graveyard's “older part”, gravestones are still standing at 105 of the graves, and in the “newer part”, this is so for a further 125 graves. The “newer part” is bordered on the east by a quarrystone wall. There is a great wrought-iron entrance gate. The graveyard lies outside the town to the east, east of the road from Meisenheim to Rehborn, in a wood called the “Bauwald”. It can be reached by walking about 200 m along a farm lane that branches off the highway.
Regular events
Mai'n Sonntag (shops open on Sunday), each year on the third Sunday in May
Heimbacher Brunnenfest, folk festival on the first weekend in July
Wasserfest (“Water Festival”), staged by the volunteer fire brigade
Mantelsonntag (shops open on Sunday), each year on the third Sunday in October
Weihnachtsmarkt (“Christmas Market”, with craft presentation at town hall)
Economy and infrastructure
Transport
In 1896, Meisenheim was joined to the railway network with the opening of the Lauterecken–Odernheim stretch of the Lauter Valley Railway. This section was absorbed in 1904 into the Glantalbahn, which was fully opened that year. Meisenheim's railway station was important to all resident industry. In 1986, though, passenger service between Lauterecken-Grumbach and Staudernheim was discontinued. Today, the station is only used as a stop on the adventure draisine journeys between Staudernheim and Kusel. Snaking through Meisenheim, mostly along the town's outskirts, is Bundesstraße 420.
Schools
Meisenheim has three schools:
Astrid-Lindgren-Grundschule (primary school)
Realschule plus in integrative form.
Paul-Schneider-Gymnasium, an extensive complex built in 1953 with adjoining boarding school, built as a successor to the town's former Progymnasium, the “Latin school”, which stood at the now likewise vanished Obertor (“Upper Gate”)
Healthcare
The Glantal-Klinik Meisenheim has two hospitals at its disposal. The Haus „Hinter der Hofstadt“ covers the demand for surgery, internal medicine and ambulant family medicine. The Glantal-Klinik is a centre for acute neurology, neurological rehabilitation, surgery and accident surgery, internal medicine and communication disorder therapy. Adjoining the clinic is a speech-language pathology centre.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Carl von Coerper (1854–1942), admiral and naval attaché
Heinrich Coerper (1863–1936), clergyman, founder of the Liebenzell Mission
Friedrich Karl von Fürstenwärther (1769–1856), Austrian field marshal-lieutenant and baron, from the House of Wittelsbach
Leopold von Fürstenwärther (1769–1839), Bavarian officer and baron, from the House of Wittelsbach
Frederick, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Vohenstrauss-Parkstein (1557–1597)
Karl Koehl (1847–1929), doctor and prehistorian, pioneer of Stone Age and Bronze Age research
Marco Reich (born 1977), footballer
Melitta Sundström (1964–1993); actually Thomas Gerards, entertainer
Famous people associated with the town
Stanisław Leszczyński (b. 20 October 1677 in Lwów, Poland [now Lviv, Ukraine]; d. 23 February 1766 in Lunéville, France) — King of Poland; between 1714 and 1718 often in Meisenheim
Ferdinand Heinrich Friedrich von Hessen-Homburg (b. 26 April 1783 in Homburg vor der Höhe; d. 24 March 1866 in Homburg vor der Höhe) — Last Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
Princess Elizabeth of the United Kingdom (b. 22 May 1770 in London; d. 10 January 1840 in Frankfurt) — also Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg; lady of the house at the Magdalenenbau (“Magdalene Building”) of the former palace
Friedrich VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg (b. 30 July 1769 in Homburg vor der Höhe; d. 2 April 1829 in Homburg vor der Höhe) — lord of the house at the Magdalenenbau of the former palace
Georg Moller (b. 21 January 1784 in Diepholz; d. 13 March 1852 in Darmstadt) — architect and town planner, responsible for, among other things, the Magdalenenbau
Johann Georg Martin Reinhardt (1794–1872), chairman of the Oberamt/district of Meisenheim from 1832 to 1872
Johann Christoph Beysiegel (1778–1843), goldsmith and silversmith as well as first lieutenant in the Landwehr (1819).
Hellmut von Schweinitz (1901-1960), writer and journalist, clergyman at the Evangelical Schlosskirche, 1947-1960, founder of the Meisenheimer Dichterwochen (“poet weeks”)
Further reading
Der „historische Stadtrundgang“. In: Meisenheim am Glan. (24 S.), (Hrsg.: Stadt Meisenheim am Glan), Seite 1-11
Udo Salomon, Meisenheim. Eine kleine Stadt und ihre Bewohner in den Spannungsfeldern der europäischen Geschichte. Verlag M. Ess, Bad Kreuznach 2015, .
Peter H. Kemp, Meisenheimer Jugend aus Saar-Lor-Lux. Berlin 2000. .
Peter H. Kemp, Kinnerzit & Jeunesse in Saare-Lor-Lux. In Moselfränkischer Mundart. Paris 2012. .
Werner Vogt: Meisenheim am Glan als Zweitresidenz der Wittelsbacher Herzöge und Pfalzgrafen von Zweibrücken. In: Jahrbuch für westdeutsche Landesgeschichte. 19, 1993, Seite 303-324.
References
External links
Meisenheim in the collective municipality’s webpages
Information about Meisenheim’s Jewish history with photos of the former synagogue
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Bad Kreuznach (district)
Naheland
Burial sites of the House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken
Holocaust locations in Germany |
4217197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byblos%20syllabary | Byblos syllabary | The Byblos script, also known as the Byblos syllabary, Pseudo-hieroglyphic script, Proto-Byblian, Proto-Byblic, or Byblic, is an undeciphered writing system, known from ten inscriptions found in Byblos, a coastal city in Lebanon. The inscriptions are engraved on bronze plates and spatulas, and carved in stone. They were excavated by Maurice Dunand, from 1928 to 1932, and published in 1945 in his monograph Byblia Grammata. The inscriptions are conventionally dated to the second millennium BC, probably between the 18th and 15th centuries BC.
Examples of the script have also been discovered in Egypt, Italy, and Megiddo (Garbini, Colless).
Description of the script
Fourteen inscriptions
The Byblos script is usually written from right to left; word dividers are rarely used. Ten inscriptions were described by Dunand in 1945, named a to j in their order of discovery. They are:
Two rectangular bronze tablets, documents c (16×11 cm) and d (21×12 cm), with 225 and 459 characters, respectively. Both tablets are inscribed on both sides. The characters were not made by scratching but by hammering chisels into the metal.
Four bronze "spatulas" (documents b, e, f, and i, with 40, 17, 48, and 84 characters, respectively). These spatulas have a more or less triangular shape with a "flower stem" handle at the sharpest angle of the triangle. They are about 5 by 9 centimeters and 1 mm thick. It is not known what their function was, but Dunand thinks they are "labels" attached to, for example, votive objects. All spatulas are inscribed on both sides, except spatula e (one side only). The writing is relatively sloppy. The text on the back side of spatula f is the only text known that reads from left to right. Spatulae b and i use short vertical strokes as word dividers.
Inscription on spatula e. The handle of the spatula has broken off; four possible reconstructions of the damaged leftmost character of the inscription are given.
Four fragments of stone steles: documents a, g, h, and j, with 116, 37, 7, and 13 characters respectively. The characters are carefully carved, with conspicuous interlinear baselines ("monumental style"). Dunand suggests that fragments h and j originally belonged to the same monument; the chemical composition of the limestone of both seems identical. The text on fragment g is written vertically, in five columns. Block j has vertical strokes, apparently as word dividers.
In 1978 Dunand published four more inscriptions on stone slabs, referred to as k to n, with approximately 28, 45, 10, and 20 signs, respectively. A four-line part of inscription l consisting of characters not elsewhere found in Proto-Byblian texts has been interpreted as an Egyptian dating formula in the hieratic script.
Photos and diagrams of all fourteen inscriptions are given by Sass.
Related inscriptions
At least four objects are known with traces of Proto-Byblian inscriptions. They have been studied by Malachi Martin. When such an object was later reused, the original text was largely erased and replaced by an inscription in Phoenician alphabetic characters. Several of these Phoenician inscriptions are dated to the 10th century BCE, which suggests that objects with Pseudo-hieroglyphs may have remained in use longer than is usually assumed.
One of these palimpsest objects is the bronze so-called Azarba‘al Spatula. On its seemingly empty back side many traces are still visible of a Proto-Byblian inscription that Dunand at first thought were random traces made by the engraver trying his stylus. Martin however identified a text of 31 signs in four lines, which he tried to interpret. He concluded that the inscription included seven cases of a consonant written twice, first in a “primitive” form (Egyptian hieroglyph, Proto-Sinaitic script), and then in the proper Proto-Byblian or Phoenician form, and he therefore called the script “mixed” or “developed” Pseudo-hieroglyphic. On the front side of the spatula an erased Proto-Byblian inscription is overwritten with a Phoenician text, but some fifteen signs of the original text are still visible.
Traces of Proto-Byblian characters are also visible on the Ahiram sarcophagus (five signs) and the Yehimilk inscription (at least 26 signs); clearly here too an older inscription was partly effaced and overwritten with a text in Phoenician alphabetic characters.
Finally, traces of ten Proto-Byblian characters are still visible between the lines of a monumental inscription in stone (the so-called “Enigmatic Byblos stone”) that has been found in Byblos. The later text is written in a script that seems intermediate between Pseudo-hieroglyphs and the later Phoenician alphabet: while most of the 21 characters are common to both the Pseudo-hieroglyphic script and the Phoenician alphabet, the few remaining signs are either Pseudo-hieroglyphic or Phoenician.
Martin has noted that a particular sequence of four Pseudo-hieroglyphs () appears again and again: it is visible on the Azarba‘al Spatula, the Enigmatic stone, and no less than three times on the Yehimilk inscription, where this sequence is overwritten each time with the city name Gubal (Byblos). This reminds one of the final part of the Ahiram inscription where those who "chisel away" a funeral inscription are cursed.
Isolated characters from the Byblos syllabary have also been found on various other objects, such as axes, a dagger, and pottery.
Sign list
Each cell in the adjoining table shows a sign (upper left), its Dunand code number (lower left, in red), its frequency (lower right), and indicates (upper right) whether it was used on tablets (T), spatulas (S), or monuments (M). Signs in different cells may actually be writing variants of a single sign; for example, in the top row the signs H6, G17, and E12 are probably the same sign.
Number of different signs
The ten main Pseudo-hieroglyphic inscriptions together contain 1046 characters, while the number of 'signs', that is different characters, is given by Dunand as 114. Garbini has noted that the latter number probably is too high, for two reasons. First, Dunand's sign list includes heavily damaged characters for which it is impossible to say whether they really constitute a new sign. Secondly, writing variants clearly existed, for example between the "monumental" style of the steles and the "linear" style of the spatulas and tablets. Taking these variants into account would reduce the total number of signs.
Garbini estimates the actual number of signs to be about 90. This number suggests the script to be a syllabary, where each character was pronounced as a syllable, usually a consonant-plus-vowel combination. If the number of consonants were between 22 (like the later Phoenician alphabet) and 28 (like Ugaritic) and if the number of vowels were three (the original Semitic vowels were a, i, and u) or four to six (if it included an e and o, or a mute vowel), then the total number of signs needed would be between 3×22=66 and 6×28=168, which is of the right order of magnitude for a syllabary.
Relation to other scripts
It has been observed that some signs, for example , look like modified common Egyptian hieroglyphs, but there are many others which do not. According to Hoch (1990), many of the signs seem to derive from Old Kingdom hieratic, rather than directly from hieroglyphic. It is known that from as early as 2600 BC Egyptian influence in Byblos was strong: Byblos was the main export harbor for cedar wood to Egypt, and consequently there was a considerable Egyptian merchant community in Byblos. Thus it is plausible that the syllabary was devised by someone in Byblos who had seen Egyptian hieroglyphs and used them freely as an example to compose a new syllabary that was better adapted to the native language of Byblos—just as in neighbouring Ugarit a few centuries later a cuneiform alphabet was devised that was easier to use than the complicated Akkadian cuneiform.
According to Brian Colless (2014), several signs resemble letters of the later Phoenician alphabet: , and as many as 18 of the 22 letters of the Phoenician alphabet have counterparts in the syllabary. This would entail that the latter was derived in some way from the syllabary. Colless believes that the proto-alphabet evolved as a simplification of the syllabary, moving from syllabic to consonantal writing, in the style of the Egyptian script (which did not normally indicate vowels). Thus, in his view, the inscriptions are an important link between the Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the later Semitic abjads derived from Proto-Sinaitic.
Attempts at decipherment
Dhorme (1946)
The corpus of inscriptions is generally considered far too small to permit a systematic decipherment on the basis of an internal analysis of the texts. Yet already in 1946, one year after Dunand published the inscriptions, a claim for its decipherment was made, by Edouard Dhorme, a renowned Orientalist and former cryptanalyst from Paris. He noted that on the back of one of the inscribed bronze plates was a much shorter inscription ending in a row of seven nearly identical chevron-like marks, very much like our number "1111111". He assumed this to be a number (probably "seven", though Dhorme took it to be 4×10+3=43 because four marks were slightly larger than the other three), and guessed that the backside inscription as a whole contained a dating of the inscription.
The word directly before the seven "1" marks consists of four different signs: . The first (rightmost) sign, damaged but recognizable, and the leftmost sign resemble the letters 'b' and 't', respectively, of the later Phoenician alphabet. Dhorme now interpreted the whole word ('b-..-..-t') as Phoenician "b(a) + š(a)-n-t", "in the year (of)" (Hebrew bišnat), which gave him the phonetic meanings of all four signs. These he substituted in the rest of the inscriptions, thereby looking for recognizable parts of more Phoenician words that would give him the reading of more signs. In the end he proposed transcriptions for 75 signs.
Sobelman (1961)
Harvey Sobelman did not try to find phonetic values for the various signs, but instead tried to determine word boundaries and find grammatical patterns, using linguistic techniques. Daniels' judgement is that Sobelman's "result should be taken into account in all future work on these texts."
Martin (1961-1962)
In 1961 and 1962 Malachi Martin published two articles, after an autopsy of all inscriptions then in existence (one tablet had been partly lost when Dunand had tried to remove its thick oxide crust). The first article was devoted to vague, half-erased traces of Proto-Byblian signs on several objects, already hinted at by Dunand. The clearest signs were on the back side of the Azarba‘al Spatula. Martin there saw parallels with Egyptian hieroglyphics, Phoenician consonantal signs, and also two presumed determinatives ("to pray, speak" and "deity, Lord (of)"). He identified four Semitic words, but refrained from an all-out translation. He also described the vague signs he detected on three stone monuments (the Yeḥimilk and Aḥiram inscriptions and the Enigmatic Stone).
In his second article, in two parts, Martin first presented corrections to Dunand's readings. Subsequently, he proposed a categorization of the various signs into 27 "classes". The signs in each class he considered either "identical", or "variants of the same fundamental type". Variants he attributed to the different writing materials (stone, metal), or achievement and freedom of individual engravers. His 27 classes seem to suggest that Martin thought it possible that the syllabary might be an alphabet, but he did not draw this conclusion explicitly. After publishing this part of his analysis he never published a sequel.
Mendenhall (1985)
In 1985 a new translation attempt was published by George E. Mendenhall from the University of Michigan. Many signs that reappear in the later Phoenician alphabet were assumed by Mendenhall to have a similar phonetic value. For example, the sign which in Phoenician has the value g (Hebrew gimel), is assumed to have the phonetic value ga. A sign which resembles an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning "King of Upper Egypt" is interpreted as "mulku" (Semitic for 'regal'; compare Hebrew mèlekh, 'king'), which furnished the phonetic reading mu. The latter example illustrates that Mendenhall extensively made use of the acrophonic principle, where the phonetic value of a syllabic sign is assumed to be equal to the initial sound of the (Semitic) word for the object that is depicted by the sign.
Mendenhall took the language to be very early ("Old Coastal") Semitic, from before the split between the Northwest Semitic (Phoenician, Hebrew) and South Semitic (Old South Arabian) language groups. He dated the texts to as early as 2400 BC. As noted earlier, James Hoch (1990) sees the source of the signs in Egyptian Old Kingdom characters (c. 2700–2200 BC) and so this West Semitic syllabary would have been invented in that period.
The translations proposed by Mendenhall are often cryptic: "Adze that Yipuyu and Hagara make binding. Verily, in accordance with that which Sara and Ti.pu established we will be surety. Further: with Miku is the pledge." (Spatula document F, which includes three witness marks). The text with the seven '1' marks, referred to above (Bronze Tablet C) is interpreted by Mendenhall as a marriage contract, where the marks are the "signatures" of seven witnesses. For Mendenhall, Document D (the longest text) is a covenant document between a king and his vassals. The decipherment should not be judged on the basis of Mendenhall's translations but on the plausibility of the texts his system reveals, and also whether his table of signs and sounds produces credible results on other inscriptions that were not included in his decipherment procedure.
Brian Colless (1992, 1998) supports Mendenhall's decipherment, and argues that the Megiddo signet-ring confirms it, reading (according to Mendenhall's identifications for the signs): "Sealed, the sceptre of Megiddo". This is just one indication that use of this script was not confined to Byblos. Inscriptions employing this West Semitic syllabary have also been found in Egypt.
Jan Best (2008)
In 2008 Jan Best, a Dutch prehistorian and protohistorian, published an article Breaking the Code of the Byblos Script. He focused on the long tablets c and d. Best, who before had presented readings of Linear A on the assumption that its signs generally had the same sound value as in Linear B, noted that, in turn, several Byblos signs were similar to Linear A signs. He thus read the sequences wa-ya and u-ya, which appear several times. Best identified them as the Semitic word wa, 'and', just like in Linear A.
Most Byblos texts do not have word dividers. However, just before the word wa a curved sign ")" was present several times. Best interpreted it as a punctuation mark, a "comma". He also interpreted the double "))" as a "semicolon", an "A"-shaped sign as a "colon", and a circle "O" as a "full stop".
On tablets c and d several sequences are present multiple times, and there are also many near-repeating sequences (where only one sign differs). These could be interpreted as spelling variants, especially of proper names.
Best started by assigning to several Byblos signs a phonetical value on the basis of their similarity with signs from Linear A (or occasionally Egyptian or Cretan hieroglyphs). If a longer sequence with one unknown sign could be interpreted as an appropriate Semitic word or name, this yielded a guess for the value of that unknown sign. For example the doublet wa-X-ya-lu / wa-X-ya-le he read as wa-ka-ya-lu/e, Akkadian waklu, 'overseers'. Thus proceeding, Best successively read some fifty signs. He found that the -u/-e ambiguity seen in wa-ka-ya-lu/e, which is also known in Linear A (where the same word is spelled sometimes ending in -u, sometimes in -e), was quite common on tablets c and d.
Best concluded that most Byblos syllables belong to four vowel sequences (like la, le, li, lu—an -o series -*lo seems to be absent). In addition there is an -im series (lim). In a few cases a different sign is used to indicate a long vowel (long lī vs. short li).
Tablet c, according to Best's interpretation, recorded gifts for the dedication of a temple built at Byblos for the Sun god Šuraya, the Indo-Arian equivalent of the Egyptian sun god Amon-Re. At the end of tablet c the conspicuous number 'seven' corresponds with the names of the seven men who oversaw the building project. The larger tablet d is similar, but more elaborate, recording the construction of a larger temple for Šuraya also at Byblos, for which there were no less than nine overseers. And stone monument a apparently records yet another building project, with three "overseers". The small spatulas are common votive presents (on spatula f the name of the Sun god Šuraya appears).
The language of the inscriptions is Northwest Semitic—Best emphasized the similarities in vocabulary, morphology, and syntax with 18th-century Akkadian. However, Byblian also had its own peculiarities, for example archaic uncontracted word forms where Akkadian has a contracted form, or a convention to sometimes write -a- as -a-ya- (like waka(y)alu > waklu, wa-ya = wa).
Several names in the texts are well-known from Akkadian archives, such as the names of two rulers, Yarimlim (III?), king of Aleppo, and Ammitaku (II?), a petty ruler at Alalakh; and among the seven dedicators on tablet c we encounter a name that sounds familiar: Ya-wa-ne Yu-za-le-yu-su, or 'the Greek Euzaleos'. Occasionally Hurrian loanwords (pi-ta-ki-, 'to build [a ritual building]', a Hurrian technical term) and proper names (Tišedal) are present, testimony of Hurrian influence. Best surmised that the building of the three temples for the Sun god, with rich temple gifts (gold, oil, rituals), may have been meant to propitiate the Egyptian pharaoh and to tempt him to support Yarimlim and Ammitaku against the Hittite king Hattusilis I who threatened to attack the region around 1650 BCE. Only a few years later would Hattusilis indeed capture Alalakh, Byblos was destroyed, and the Byblos script inscriptions became buried in its ruins.
Reviews of Best's 2010 book Het Byblosschrift ontcijferd (The Byblos Script deciphered) were somewhat mixed. The idea that the syllabic Linear A Script from Crete had a number of Semitic characteristics encountered some resistance among those scholars who specialised in Ancient Greek. These scholars tended to believe that Crete was linked with the origins of the Hellenistic culture.
Ihor Rassokha (2017)
Ihor Rassokha, professor of the Department of History and Cultural Studies of the Kharkiv National Academy of Municipal Economy wrote the article "Indo-European origin of alphabetic systems and deciphering of the Byblos script." He interpreted the Byblos alphabetic (abugida) script to be based on the Brahmi letters. As the result a conclusion has been made that the Byblos texts should be read in Sanskrit. It is generally accepted that in the Ancient East a spread of battle chariots happened together with the penetration of Indo-Aryans which led to the Indo-Aryan dynasties’ruling and the Indo-Aryan domination in the Hittite state and the Mitanni.
Literature
Best, Jan Het Byblosschrift ontcijferd - In het voetspoor van Willem Glasbergen 2010 ()
Best, Jan, 'Suruya in the Byblos Script Corpus', Ugarit-Forschungen 40 (2009), 135-41 (reprinted in Best (2017) pp. 65-72)
Best, Jan, 'Breaking the Code of the Byblos Script', Ugarit-Forschungen 40 (2009), 129-133 (reprinted in Best (2017) pp. 59-64)
Colless, Brian, "The Byblos Syllabary and the Proto-alphabet", Abr-Nahrain/Ancient Near Eastern Studies 30 (1992), 15-62
Colless, Brian, "The Canaanite Syllabary", Ancient Near Eastern Studies 35 (1998), 26-46.
Colless, Brian E., "The Origin of the Alphabet: An Examination of the Goldwasser Hypothesis", Antiguo Oriente 12 (2014) 71-104.
Daniels, P.T., "Pseudo-hieroglyphs of Byblos", in: P.T. Daniels & W. Bright (eds.), The World's Writing Systems (New York/Oxford, 1996), 29-30.
Dhorme, Édouard, 'Déchiffrement des inscriptions pseudohiéroglyphiques de Byblos', in: Syria 25 (1946–1948).
Dunand, Maurice, 'Spatule de bronze avec épigraphe phénicienne du XIIIe [actually: Xe] siècle', in: Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 2 (1938) 99–107. (Spatula with traces of Proto-Byblian writing)
Garbini, Giovanni, [review of Mendenhall's book], in: Rivista di Studi Fenici 16 (1988), 129-131.
Martin, Malachi, The Scribal Character of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vol. 1, Bibliothèque du Muséon 44, Publications Universitaires, Louvain, 1958
Martin, Malachi, The Scribal Character of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vol. 2, Bibliothèque du Muséon 45, Publications Universitaires, Louvain, 1958
Mendenhall, George E., The Syllabic Inscriptions from Byblos, Beirut, The American University (1985), Syracuse University Press (1986), .
Sobelman, Harvey, 'The Proto-Byblian inscriptions: a fresh approach', in: Journal of Semitic Studies 6 (1961) 226-245.
Thiollet, Jean-Pierre, Je m'appelle Byblos, H & D (2005), .
See also
Proto-Sinaitic
Phoenician
References
External links
website Jan Best
Bronze Age writing systems
Canaanite languages
Canaanite writing systems
Obsolete writing systems
Right-to-left writing systems
Syllabary writing systems
Undeciphered writing systems |
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