id
stringlengths 2
8
| url
stringlengths 31
206
| title
stringlengths 1
130
| text
stringlengths 16.4k
435k
|
|---|---|---|---|
4238935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfstein%2C%20Rhineland-Palatinate | Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate | Wolfstein () is a town in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Before 1 July 2014 it was the seat of the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, since then it is part of the Verbandsgemeinde Lauterecken-Wolfstein. Wolfstein is known for its two castle ruins, Neu-Wolfstein standing over the heart of the town, and Alt-Wolfstein standing at the narrowest spot in the Lauter valley at the town's northern entrance. Wolfstein is a state-recognized recreational resort (Erholungsort).
Geography
Location
The town lies in the North Palatine Uplands, in the so-called Königsland (“Kingsland”), between Idar-Oberstein and Kaiserslautern. The municipal area measures 1 377 ha, of which 644 ha is wooded. Also, 154 ha is given over to residential properties and transport facilities, 574 ha to agriculture and 5 ha is taken up by other uses and open water. Geographically, the municipal area belongs to the Glan-Alsenz mountain and hill country, which meets the Kaiserslauterer Senke (a depression) to the north. The town centre lies in the Lauter valley, cut narrowly into the land, between the steep slopes on either side of the Lauter, the Königsberg on the left bank and the Eisenknopf on the right. The Königsberg (not to be confused with the former East Prussian city) is the town's highest point at 568.4 m above sea level. Other selected elevations are as follows:
Lang-Heck (Roßbach) — 404.1 m
Neu-Wolfstein castle ruin — 238 m
Stahlhausen valley floor (southern town limit) — 196 m
Wolfstein railway station — 187.9 m
The town lies roughly 23 km northeast of Kusel, and 20 km northwest of Kaiserslautern.
Neighbouring municipalities
Wolfstein borders in the north on the municipalities of Lohnweiler and Heinzenhausen, in the northeast on the municipalities of Oberweiler-Tiefenbach and Einöllen, in the east on the municipality of Relsberg, in the southeast on the municipality of Niederkirchen, in the south on the municipality of Kreimbach-Kaulbach, in the southwest on the municipality of Rutsweiler an der Lauter and in the west on the municipality of Aschbach. Wolfstein also meets the municipalities of Hohenöllen, Eßweiler and Offenbach-Hundheim at single points in the northeast, southwest and northwest respectively.
Constituent communities
Wolfstein's Stadtteile are the main townsite, also called Wolfstein (1,792), Roßbach (178) and Reckweilerhof (11). The figures are populations as at 2007.
Town’s layout
Until 1905, the town's municipal area was limited to the area on the Lauter's left bank between Rutsweiler to the south, Lohnweiler to the north and Aschbach to the west. According to the original Bavarian cadastral survey (about 1840), Wolfstein's area measured 616 ha. In the 174 houses at that time lived 826 persons.
Spreading out from the old town (known as the Flecken, meaning “market town”) in the hollow, the settled parts of town lay in the 19th century on the slopes between the Tauchental (dale) and Schlossgasse (or Obergasse – a lane), on the narrow strips of land either side of Lauterstraße (or Untergasse) and on Hauptstraße (“Main Street”, but in an outlying neighbourhood). Worth mentioning are several old buildings in Wolfstein: the Evangelical church (1868, beside the town hall), the Catholic rectory (1845, outside town centre), the Evangelical rectory (1899, outside town centre), the court and prison building (1902/1903, outside town centre) and the former Kurhaus Lautertal (spa hotel, 1862, renovated in 1912, outside town centre).
With the expansion of Wolfstein's inhabited area, the old town's girding, mediaeval wall, which still stood in the early 19th century, had gaps knocked through it and eventually, along with both the town gates and the Bürgerturm (tower), it was torn down altogether.
It was not possible to expand Wolfstein onto lands over on the Lauter's right bank, for stretching for roughly 4 km between Kreimbach and Oberweiler was the village of Roßbach with, as it had then, its five Ortsteile: Stahlhausen, Roßbach (main centre), Mühle, Immetshausen and Kuhbrücker Hübel. The gap between Stahlhausen and the upper village, and the one between Immetshausen and Kuhbrücke, were used for farming. Any building work worthy of note within Roßbach's limits was never to be seen even as late as 1969. The number of houses there, beginning in 1900, hovered around 100.
In 1905, the Bavarian State Government – the Palatinate had belonged to the Kingdom of Bavaria since the Congress of Vienna – ordered the cession of the Kuhbrücker Hübel, with its railway station, seven houses on the slope side of Bahnhofsstraße (“Station Street”), seven others on Hefersweilerstraße, a few storage sheds next to the railway and the storehouse of the Consumvereine (“coöperatives”), to the town of Wolfstein. The decisive factor in favour of the amalgamation of this strip of land on both sides of the railway line, which had been opened in 1883, was economic considerations. For the goal of expanding the town's residential area, however, it was quite useless, for the slopes east of the ceded area on the valley floor still belonged to Roßbach. Thus, until the village of Roßbach in der Pfalz along with all its Ortsteile was merged into the town of Wolfstein in 1969, the town's foremost new building area remained the steep slope stretching up the Königsberg west of Hauptstraße (Bundesstraße 270), even after the Second World War (Röther Weg, Steinwiesen, Am Hang, Am Gericht, In der Trift, Bergstraße, Am Kirchpfad). Even this was hemmed in somewhat by the galleries at the chalk mine.
Beginning in 1970, work shifted to what had until recently been a self-administering, neighbouring village, and building began in Roßbach on formerly agricultural lands east of the railway line between Sandfeld (Immetshausen) and Eisenknopf (Schlettweg, Barbarossastraße, Habsburgerstraße, Kurpfalzstraße, Stauferstraße, Wingerstbergstraße, Hahnbach and Sandfeld). By 2000, 78 residential buildings had arisen here, mostly one- and two-family houses. The amalgamation increased Wolfstein's area by 616 ha to 1 377 ha.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Wolfstein amounts to 729 mm, which falls into the middle third of the precipitation chart for all Germany. At 46% of the German Weather Service's weather stations, lower figures are recorded. The driest month is April. The most rainfall comes in June. In that month, precipitation is 1.4 times what it is in April. Precipitation varies only slightly and is spread extremely evenly over the year. Only at 1% of the weather stations are lower seasonal swings recorded.
History
Antiquity
Archaeological finds from both the Old Stone Age and the New Stone Age on the Königsberg's and the Selberg's west flank, barrows in the Jungenwald (forest) at the town limits with Aschbach and Lohnweiler that have been explored and many finds of Roman coins with effigies of Roman emperors at the old Celtic settlement, which was once surrounded by a ringwall, on the Kreimberg at the town limit with Kreimbach-Kaulbach (known as the Heidenburg, or “Heathen Castle”) bear witness to the presence of people in what is now Wolfstein in prehistoric times and early historic times. Leading over the ridge of the Königsberg was the “Roman road”, one of the Palatinate's oldest settlement roads. Nevertheless, there was never any Roman settlement within what are now Wolfstein's limits.
Middle Ages
Until 1768, the river Lauter was a border, cleaving today's unified town into the town of Wolfstein on the one side, which was held by Electoral Palatinate, and the village of Roßbach on the other, which lay within territory held by the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken. The Reckweilerhof belonged as an either Ducal or Electoral fief to the holdings of the Offenbach am Glan Benedictine Monastery. These three centres, therefore, did not share a common history until that date, and accordingly, they are treated separately for the time up to the 18th century.
Wolfstein
Wolfstein was founded in 1275 on Habsburg King Rudolph I's orders, which called for a “fortified and free” town near his castle, “Woluisstein”, now known as the Alt-Wolfstein (“Old Wolfstein”) ruin. Rudolph forthwith granted the new town the same town rights and freedoms as the town of Speyer. As an “everlasting marketplace”, it was to be a sanctuary for commerce, trade and dealing. The first townsmen and -women came from the surrounding, much older villages.
Only for a few decades did the new town enjoy royal immediacy, whereafter it was passed time and again to and from various territorial lordships as a pledged holding. The almost endless chain of pledgings began as early as 1312 with the town's transfer to the Counts of Sponheim, and only ended in 1673 when the town passed to Electoral Palatinate. The Electoral Palatinate Amt (or Unteramt) of Wolfstein in the Oberamt of Kaiserslautern comprised the two court regions of Katzweiler and “Rothe am Seelberg” (Rothselberg).
Roßbach
The landholders in the Middle Ages (beginning in the 12th century) were the Counts of Veldenz. Far away from their small seat on the Moselle (Veldenz Castle), they owned considerable lands between the Alsenz, the Glan and the Nahe, among which was Honhelden daz ampt (1387), within which lay the settlements in question. Sometime about the middle of the 16th century, the Schultheiß’s seat was moved to Einöllen.
In the early 15th century, the Count’s only daughter (and indeed, only child) and sole heir wed Count Palatine Stephan of Zweibrücken from the House of Wittelsbach. After her father’s death in 1444, the now defunct (for a woman could not inherit the comital title, and there was no male heir) County of Veldenz passed by inheritance to her son, Ludwig I, who now bore the title Duke of Veldenz-Zweibrücken, thereby ushering in a long time of political stability for Roßbach. The village was spared the repeated transfers and pledgings that characterized the neighbouring town’s history at this time.
Reckweilerhof
Throughout the Middle Ages up until the beginning of the 19th century, noble feudal lords granted their vassals this estate for hereditary and proprietary use. The landholders at first were the Waldgraves and Raugraves of Grumbach, then the Counts of Veldenz (1387), and lastly, beginning in 1444, the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken, who were at the same time the guardians and patrons of all holdings belonging to the Offenbach Monastery, and (beginning in 1733) the Electors of the Palatinate.
The estate holders’ names from 1514 are known without any gaps in the record. They discharged their hereditary pledge to the monastery, receiving as a reward usage and grazing rights in the “lordly monastery woodlands”, “free lumber and firewood”, the “sheep meadow on the estate’s area as well as the municipal area of the market town of Wolfstein with its own herd of maximally 200 head” (1786).
Modern times
Wolfstein
The Amtskellerei, whose mostly noble Amtskeller were charged with executing princely orders, was to be found at Neu-Wolfstein Castle, and after that was destroyed in 1688 by King Louis XIV’s troops in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), at a small house beside the old town hall at the foot of the Schlossberg; beginning in 1753 it was at the great building before the outer town gate (today the town hall) built on Elector Karl Theodor’s (1742-1799) orders from Amtsgefällen – Amt taxes. By territorial swap between the Elector and the Duke of Zweibrücken in 1768, the places within the Schultheißerei of Einöllen (Einöllen, Hohenöllen, Tiefenbach, Oberweiler, Roßbach and Sulzhof) passed to Electoral Palatinate and were assigned to the Amt of Wolfstein.
The town’s days as an Electoral Palatinate holding came to an end when French Revolutionary troops occupied the lands on the Rhine’s left bank, including the town itself; by 1801, this territory had been annexed under the terms of the Treaty of Lunéville by the soon to be Napoleonic France. As early as 1797, Wolfstein became, in the course of administrative reform carried out by the French, a cantonal seat in the Arrondissement of Kaiserslautern and the Department of Mont-Tonnerre (or Donnersberg in German). Belonging to the canton were 32 municipalities with 8 mayors and roughly 8,000 inhabitants. The Mairie (“Mayoralty”) of Wolfstein comprised four municipalities with roughly 1,300 inhabitants; in the town itself lived 37 families and 311 persons. In 1814, the French withdrew from the Canton of Wolfstein.
Roßbach
From 1444 to 1768, the villagers of Roßbach were Ducal-Zweibrücken subjects. From this epoch, only a few noteworthy events are recorded:
The Roßbacher Weistum (1544 – a Weistum – cognate with English wisdom – was a legal pronouncement issued by men learned in law in the Middle Ages and early modern times) reported about yearly meetings of the Gemeinsmannen resident in Roßbach, Imzmannßhausen (about 1250: Ziermannshusen; today: Immetshausen), Melhausen (since vanished), Stohlhaussen (today: Stahlhausen) on Saint Dionysius’s Day (9 October) on the “Dionysiusberg (mountain) near the chapel to the saint, Dionysius” (today: Auf dem Mühlacker). The small house of worship was a chapel of ease in the parish of Tiefenbach, which found itself in the hands of the Order of Saint John from the early 15th century until the Reformation as a donation from the Counts of Veldenz. As early as 1528, Tiefenbach became a Reformed parish. The chapel was used into the 18th century for church services by Reformed worshippers, then also by Lutherans and Catholics. It was torn down in the 19th century, although the surrounding graveyard was still used as such until 1902. In the early 1930s, it was levelled during the building of the memorial square.
The Mühlarzt (“mill doctor”) Adam Silberwäscher from Baumholder built a gristmill with a millrace in 1604 on a “little stream up from the village called Roßbach”; it was the first mill recorded in Roßbach. It was, however, destroyed in the Thirty Years' War.
In 1695, Johannes Schwammbacher built a new gristmill downstream from Roßbach on the Lauter, “where none has ever stood before”. A new centre sprang up around the mill, Bei der Roßbacher Mühle (today: “In Mühlhausen” or “In der Hohl”).
Duke Christian IV of Zweibrücken transferred to Elector Palatine Karl Theodor the Schultheißerei of Einöllen. Five little villages were incorporated into the Unteramt of Wolfstein. The municipality of Roßbach comprised at this time 1,125 Morgen of cropland, 57 Morgen of meadows, 33 Morgen of vineyards, 10 Morgen of gardens and 137 Morgen of forest. Living in the village were 222 people. There were 42 houses, 1 church and 2 schools.
Reckweilerhof
From 1644 to 1788, the estate was run as an hereditary tenancy by the Amtsschultheiß at Odenbach am Glan and his heirs. After feudalism was abolished, the Ducal Württemberg Minister of State Emich Johann von Üxküll bought the estate for 22,500 Gulden. He let the estate in 1796 to Christoph Burckhardt, who transferred the running of the estate to his son Ludwig Karl Friedrich (born 1779). In 1817, Ludwig Burckhardt bought the estate, and ever since, it has been in the family Burckhardt’s ownership. Even today, Ludwig Burchhardt’s descendants, through his son Heinrich, still run the Hotel Reckweilerhof.
These statistics about the Reckweilerhof in the time just before the French Revolution are drawn from the 1786 Güterbestandsaufnahme (“Estate Inventory Record”):
Two-floor manor house; on 1st floor dwelling for “estate people”, on upper floor a spacious dwelling for the “lord of the manor”, three cattle stables, sheepcote for 300 head, a special dwelling for the shepherd, all together and under one roof; then barn, winepress house, vaulted cellar, herdsman’s house, bakehouse and 8 great pigsties; a well laid out seedling nursery.—52 Morgen of meadows, 4 Morgen of vineyards, 474 Morgen of cropfields and 19 Morgen of grazing fields. Estimated worth 22,000 Gulden.
Recent times
Kingdom of Bavaria times
After the new post-Napoleonic order imposed by the Congress of Vienna in 1814, Wolfsteiners became Bavarian nationals, which until 1918 meant the Bavarian king’s subjects; after monarchy was overthrown in 1918, they belonged to the Free State of Bavaria in the days of the Weimar Republic. Only in 1947, after the Second World War, did the Palatinate formally cease to be a Bavarian exclave, whereupon it was incorporated into the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The break with Bavaria was confirmed by referendum on 22 April 1956.
In the “Bavarian Rhine District” (Bayerischer Rheinkreis – that is, the Bavarian Palatinate), Wolfstein was grouped into the Landkommissariat of Kusel (from 1862 Bezirksamt and from 1939 Landratsamt).
To the Canton of Wolfstein in 1817 belonged 33 municipalities. The Bürgermeisterei (“mayoralty”) comprised the town with the Reckweilerhof, the municipalities of Einöllen (until 1900) and Roßbach (until 1905). From 1814 to 1832, the town administration was led by the physician Wilhelm Vogt as Oberbürgermeister.
After the 1849 Palatine Uprising, many people from the town emigrated to the United States. In connection with the 1832 Hambach Festival and the later Palatine Uprising, there is a story: On the republican-liberal citizenry’s side was the 23-year-old tanner’s son Jakob Krieger, who fled to the United States, where he founded a trade and banking company in Louisville. His daughter Amy married the Wolfstein banker Karl Otto Braun. On the other side was the State Procurator General at the court of appeal in Zweibrücken, Wolfstein-born Ludwig Schmitt, Heidelberger Romantik painter Georg Philipp Schmitt’s brother, and also Jakob Krieger’s cousin. Schmitt led the prosecution of the trials against the insurrectionists.
In 1852, the cantons were changed into district municipalities (Distriktgemeinden). On the district councils – 30 municipalities belonged to the Wolfstein district (Distrikt Wolfstein) – farmers held the majority, as the voting rather favoured those who were most heavily taxed. Of the 43 councillors in the Wolfstein district, 35 were farmers.
Monarchy came to an end in Bavaria with the last Bavarian king’s abdication in 1918 (he had reigned since 1913), after the First World War, in which 35 soldiers from Wolfstein and 19 from Roßbach fell.
Weimar Republic and Third Reich (1919-1945)
At the elections for the Weimar National Assembly and the Bavarian Landtag, the Social Democrats (SPD) earned roughly 34% of the vote in Wolfstein, about the same as the German Democratic Party (DDP), while the German People's Party (DVP) earned about 23% and the Bavarian People's Party (BVP) about 9% of the votes cast. By the time of the Reichstag elections in 1924, though, the SPD’s share of the vote had sunk to 9%, while the Nationale Rechte earned 34%, the Communists (KPD) 4%, the Völkischer Block 30%, the BVP 12% and the Freiwirtschaftsbund 11%. The 1930 Reichstag elections brought the “Hitler Movement” (NSDAP) 54% in Wolfstein (279 votes), the SPD 13% (68 votes), the Centre Party 4% (25 votes), the KPD 3% (18 votes), the DVP 4% (21 votes), the Wirtschaftspartei 15% (78 votes) and splinter parties 6% (27 votes). At the first town council election after the Nazis seized power in Germany (21 April 1933), the NSDAP won 8 of the 10 seats, and in the same year, town council bestowed honorary citizenship upon President Paul von Hindenburg, Reichskanzler – he did not yet bear the title Führer – Adolf Hitler and Reichsstatthalter Franz Ritter von Epp; the same honour was awarded to the local poet Pauline König.
On the Roßbach municipal council, too, the Nazis won a majority. Public servants such as police officials, municipal officials, field and forest rangers and the chief of waterworks were replaced with men who were true to the National Socialist ideology. The Party and its many organizations more and more came to define the town’s economic and cultural life. Thus, in 1933, the local singing clubs were merged into the “Westmark” singers’ association, the chamber of commerce, which had been founded in 1899, was dissolved in 1934 “under approval of all present” and the local Jugendleite (secular coming-of-age ceremony) was held on Confirmation Day, causing 189 people to leave their religious community. The town, which 100 years earlier had been associated with the struggle for democracy, was now welcoming, with a majority among its population, Nazi dictatorship. Once the Nazis’ goals had become manifest, however, it was too late to turn back. Wolfstein was largely spared any material destruction in the Second World War; however, the human toll was quite heavy: on Wolfstein’s war memorial to the fallen, built in 1930 at Neu-Wolfstein castle, a further 100 names now had to be chiselled; over in Roßbach, the 1931 war memorial bore 44 new names after the war.
Since 1945
Beginning in 1947, Wolfstein was part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate. On 7 June 1969, the until then self-administering municipality of Roßbach in der Pfalz was merged into the town of Wolfstein. Since 1971, the town has been the administrative seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Wolfstein.
Population development
Living in Wolfstein about 1600, according to the townsmen’s register in the Stattbuch (“town book”), which was begun in 1599, were some 150 people in 36 households. In 1618, there were 50 families with some 200 persons, but this is estimated to have dropped to only 50 inhabitants by the time the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) ended. The 1618 population level was once again reached in 1684. Thereafter, the population figures kept rising. No records of Roßbach's population from the 17th century are available. In 1885 – only “present” persons were counted, while soldiers and the wandering musicians for which the region was then famous were left out of the total – there were 471 inhabitants (95 houses, no rented dwellings, no multi-family houses with separated living areas; occupancy per dwelling 4.95 persons). In 1900, there were 577 inhabitants (Kuhbrücke 78, Immetshausen 55, Roßbach main centre 381, Stahlhausen 63). In 1905, after the Kuhbrücke had been transferred to Wolfstein, there were 489 inhabitants. In 1918 there were 466 in 100 dwellings. In 1925, there were 504 in 98 houses. In 1933, there were 483 and in 1939, 515 (263 male and 252 female). In 1969, just before amalgamation with Wolfstein, there were 541 inhabitants.
The following table shows population development over the centuries for Wolfstein, with some figures broken down by religious denomination:
The two separate figures for 1969 indicate numbers before and after Roßbach's amalgamation. The figures for Roßbach itself before amalgamation are as follows:
*42 households
Town’s name
The name “Wolfstein” has appeared in many different spellings over the ages: Woluisstein (1275), Wolffestein (1387), Wolffstein (1438), Wolfsstein (1477), Wolfstein (1824). Also, in the local dialectal speech, the town is called Wolschde.
The name “Roßbach” has likewise undergone spelling changes: Ruosbach (1024), Roßbach or Ruspach (1544), Roßbach (1558). In the local dialectal speech, the village is called Roschbach.
The name “Reckweilerhof” has undergone some more pronounced changes: Regewilre (1200), Reckweiler (1509), Rögswiller or Röchswiller (1600), Reckweylerhof (1777/1778), Röckweilerhof (1917) and now Reckweilerhof, or in the local dialectal speech, Reckwillerhof.
Religion
Before the Reformation, Wolfstein belonged to the parish of Zweikirchen, whereas Roßbach belonged to the parish of Tiefenbach. Only about the middle of the 15th century did Wolfstein get its own church in the town centre (on Wassergasse). This church, called St. Georg (“Saint George’s”), was the successor to the like-named chapel at Neu-Wolfstein Castle, where church services had been held until then.
As early as 1528, Tiefenbach became a Reformed parish with chapels of ease in Roßbach and Einöllen. After the rectory in Tiefenbach was destroyed, the parish seat was moved to Einöllen in 1670. In 1704, for the whole parish of Einöllen, a Lutheran parish came into being with its seat at Roßbach. Adding to the mixture after Duke Gustav Samuel Leopold's conversion (reigned 1718-1731) to Catholicism were a small number of Catholics, and thereafter, believers in the Reformed, Lutheran and Catholic faiths all lived in this town, not always without problems, although there was mutual tolerance. In 2012, the Catholics, who had until now been served by their own priest, were merged into the parish of Lauterecken.
Arising in Wolfstein about the middle of the 16th century, under the pledge-lords Schwickard von Sickingen's (1549-1562) and Georg Johannes I's (Palatinate-Veldenz, 1543-1592) influence, were a Reformed community and a Lutheran one alongside each other. The former belonged (along with Kreimbach, Rothselberg and Rutsweiler) to the parish of Zweikirchen with the chapel of ease on Wassergasse while the latter, to avoid disputes with the former, established its own chapel in Wolfstein. The clergyman's seat changed between Wolfstein, Roßbach and Eßweiler. This chapel was, on the occasion of the union of the Reformed and Lutheran faiths, sold in 1818, and the proceeds were used to build a rectory (Haus Adam, 1822).
After the ecclesiastical merger, the Protestant parish seat was moved from Zweikirchen to Wolfstein in 1823. Wolfstein thereby became the mother-church centre while Zweikirchen and Rutsweiler became branches. Roßbach belonged until 1844 to the parish of Einöllen, when it passed to Wolfstein. Between 1866 and 1868, the Evangelical church, which still stands now, was built. Today, the Protestant parish of Wolfstein comprises the mother-church centre of Wolfstein along with the Reckweilerhof and the branches of Rutsweiler an der Lauter with Selbachmühle and Oberweiler-Tiefenbach.
From the late 17th century, the Catholic parish of Wolfstein grew into a broad, scattered community taking in the villages of Rutsweiler, Kreimbach, Kaulbach, Olsbrücken, Neumühle, Katzweiler, Hirschhorn, Obersulzbach, Untersulzbach, Tiefenbach, Oberweiler and Roßbach, with all together 381 souls. For church services, they used the old Saint George's Chapel at the castle, and from time to time, in simultaneum, the Reformed church on Wassergasse. In 1776 they acquired the newly built, stylistically pleasing Baroque church on Obergasse.
Today (2000), the Catholic parish comprises Kaulbach (with a chapel of ease), Kreimbach, Roßbach, Rutsweiler an der Lauter, Rothselberg, Eßweiler, Schneeweiderhof, Oberweiler im Tal, Aschbach, Reckweilerhof and Oberweiler-Tiefenbach, with all together roughly 900 souls, half of whom live in Wolfstein/Roßbach.
The denominational shares of the population in Wolfstein in 1802 were as follows: roughly 66% Reformed, 22% Lutheran, 12% Catholic. In 2000 the figures were as follows: roughly 20.9% Catholic, 65.2% Protestant, 13.9% other.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Pfälzischer Verein für Innere Mission (“Palatine Association for Inner Mission”) established itself in Roßbach; since 1995 this has been the Evangelischer Gemeinschaftsverband e.V. (“Evangelical Community League”), which is now joined with the Evangelischer Gnadauer Gemeinschaftsverband e.V. (“Evangelical Gnadau Community League”) and is a member of the Diakonisches Werk of the Palatinate. As early as 1898, the members built themselves their own “clubhouse” with a meeting room and a dwelling for the (itinerant) preacher that the club hired and his family. Belonging to the broad missionary region are Bosenbach, Frankelbach, Hefersweiler, Hirschhorn (with its own mission hall), Lauterecken, Morbach, Niederkirchen, Olsbrücken, Reipoltskirchen, Relsberg, Seelen and Wörsbach.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 16 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
“FWG” is a voters’ group.
Mayor
Wolfstein's mayor is Herwart Dilly, and his deputies are Paul Schmelzer, Gerhard Spaugschuss and Christian Nickel.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: .
The town's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Or a wolf rampant sable armed and langued gules supporting a cramp of the last, between his head and tail three lozenges per chevron reversed of the last.
Town partnerships
Wolfstein fosters partnerships with the following places:
Verdun-sur-le-Doubs, Saône-et-Loire (Burgundy), France since 2000
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Wolfstein (main centre)
Saint Philip’s and Saint James’s Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Philippus und Jakobus), Schloßgasse 16 – aisleless church with half-hipped roof and onion tower, 1774–1776
Town centre, Am Ring, Enggasse, Im Eck, Mühlgasse, Schlossgasse (monumental zone) – enclosed-construction area within the former town wall, of which bits at the millrace and behind the building at Im Eck 11 are preserved; built-up area mainly from the 19th century with individual timber-frame houses, which go back as far as the 16th century, former Lutheran chapel (Im Eck 3/5), former Protestant rectory (Am Ring 6), former Catholic rectory (Am Ring 10), former town mill (Am Ring 24), former dyer’s house (Am Ring 8)
Protestant parish church, Am Ring 1 – Gothic Revival aisleless church, 1866–1868, architects Ferdinand Beyschlag, August von Voit, (1835), Emil Morgens, Kaiserslautern; Late Gothic Sacrament house
Alt-Wolfstein castle ruin (monumental zone) – hill castle, possibly about 1160/1170 founded by Frederick I Barbarossa, destroyed in 1504; ward and outer castle, neck ditch, keep, partly shrouded, wall remnants of the dwelling building, remnants of a gate complex
Alt-Wolfstein castle ruin (monumental zone) – outer walls of the spur complex, only outer walls preserved; begun between 1313 and 1323, destroyed in 1688 and 1713; warriors’ memorial 1930
Am Horst, graveyard – graveyard hall at the graveyard dating from 1612; wooden construction with hipped roof, renovation 1876; two epitaphs, 1613 and 1735
Am Ring 6a, Mühlgasse 1 – timber-frame house, partly solid, 17th century, in the back timber-frame workshop building; characterizes town's appearance
Am Ring 11 – former town hall; middle building, partly timber-frame, 1581, three-floor front building with two timber-frame upper floors, 1590, walkway arcade closed in 1811; in the back dance hall, 1608 or 1689
Am Ring 24 – Alte Stadtmühle (“Old Town Mill”); four-floor mill building, 1888, former bakehouse, commercial building; wedge-shaped, three-floor house, Swiss chalet style, 1909; characterizes street's appearance
Near Am Ring 52 – hall of mirrors, Baroque Revival, 1903
Bahnhofstraße 3 – bungalow, plastered building on stone-block pedestal, about 1903
Bahnhofstraße 16 – railway station; hewn-stone-framed stone-block building, goods shed, 1882, dispatcher's signal box with original safety technology, 1938
Hauptstraße 2 – former Amtskellerei (see above under Modern times); today the town hall, spacious Late Baroque building with half-hipped roof, 1753, architect Heinrich Heyler; vaulted cellar
Hauptstraße 28/30 – former Amt court; hewn-stone-framed sandstone-block building, Renaissance Revival, 1900; belonging thereto no. 30 prison: three-floor stone-block building, hipped roof, 1901
Hauptstraße 48 – chalk mine; underground chalk mine of the firm Otto Kappel, in operation from 1880 to 1967, since 1980 open to the public as an attraction (see also below)
Rathausplatz 2 – former school; sophisticated plastered building on pedestal, gable risalto, 1890/1891, architect embanking and section engineer Weil, Bamberg
Reckweilerhof
Reckweilerhof 9 and 11 – former Reckweilerhof estate; Quereinhaus (a combination residential and commercial house divided for these two purposes down the middle, perpendicularly to the street), marked 1752; dovecote, possibly from the late 18th century; armorial stone, marked 1602; silage shed, about 1930
Roßbach
In Mühlhausen 2/4 – Rossbacher Mühle (mill); three-floor quarrystone building, 1871, on old core (1695); so-called Altes Haus (“Old House”): one-floor complex with single roof ridge, partly timber-frame
Warriors’ memorial (monumental zone) – warriors’ memorial on the site of the earlier Saint Dionysius's Chapel (Dionysiuskapelle) and surrounding graveyard on the Dionysiusberg, stone architecture, 1931 by Karl Koch
Chalk mine
One witness to the town's industrial past is the Historische Besichtigungs-Kalkbergwerk (“Historic Visitable Chalk Mine”) in Wolfstein. A mine railway leads the visitor, with knowledgeable guidance, into the chalk mine at the Königsberg, where until 1967 chalk blocks were quarried underground and processed in town. All apparatus is still on hand in its original form. The chalk mine is held to be an industrial monument of special rank, and is unique in Germany.
Sport and leisure
Signposted paths open the Königsberg and its environs to the hiker. The Glan-Lautertal-Höhenweg, part of the Großer Westpfalzwanderweg (“Great West Palatinate Hiking Trail”) leads through the town's municipal area. Hiking destinations of particular note are the Laufhauser Weiher (pond), the Neu-Wolfstein and Alt-Wolfstein castle ruins, the Eisenknopf (peak) with its pavilion, the Zweikirche, the Heidenburg (“Heathen Castle”) on the Kreimberg, the Selberg (545 m above sea level) with its lookout tower and the gliderport near Eßweiler. Worth seeing in the town itself are the inn “Zur Alten Schenke”, which from 1590 to 1753 was the town hall, today's town hall, the former Amtskellerei, which was once an administrative centre, the Schlossplatz (“Castle Square”) with its Musikantenbrunnen, a fountain celebrating the local tradition of the Musikanten (see the Hinzweiler article – sections History and Famous people – for more about this), the remodelled Schlossgasse (“Castle Lane”) with its Eulenbrunnen (“Owl Fountain”) and the remodelling area around the Alte Mühle (“Old Mill”, on Mühlgasse).
The 112-kilometre-long Palatine Ridgeway (hiking trail) leads from Winnweiler by way of Rockenhausen to Wolfstein.
The Sport- und Freizeit-Center Königsland has games, sport and swimming with sporting grounds and a heated outdoor swimming pool. Other sporting facilities in Wolfstein are riding halls and other equestrian facilities (CJD), shooting facilities, tennis courts and a fistball court, among yet others.
Regular events
Whitsun:
Open-air theatre performance
Fireworks
Maikur (forest hike on Whit Monday)
Wolfsteiner Stadtfest, town festival before beginning of summer holidays, every other year, alternating with the next
Feuerwehrfest (“Fire Brigade Festival”), every other year, alternating with the foregoing
Herbstmarkt (“Autumn Festival”) in October
Roßbacher Zeltkerwe (“tent fair”) in August
Weihnachtsmarkt (“Christmas Market”), Saturday before the first day of Advent
Reitertage (“Riders’ Days”) held by the CJD of national importance, last weekend in June
Clubs
Of the 26 clubs in town at the turn of the 20th century, those worthy of mention are:
Musiker-Unterstützungsverein (“Musician Support Club”), for musicians who were ill or otherwise unable to work
Johannis-Verein, for people unable to work
Kriegerverein (“Warriors’ Club”), for supporting sick veterans and their families
Liberaler Verein (“Liberal Club”), for the promotion of national and liberal politics
Deutscher Flottenverein (Navy League)
Radfahrerverein (cycling)
Ziegenzuchtverein (goat breeding)
Today there are 25 clubs in town, the oldest of which is the Männergesangsverein 1858 e.V., a men's singing club. Roßbach's oldest club is the gymnastic club (Turnverein), founded in 1924.
Economy and infrastructure
Economic structure
In Electoral Palatinate times, handicrafts and smallhold agriculture defined the town's economic structure. The greater part of Wolfstein's inhabitants lived in poverty. In the late 18th century, improvement came with the mining of cinnabar-bearing stone that yielded quicksilver on the Princely-Electoral side of the Königsberg, a pursuit promoted by Prince-Elector Karl Theodor. Under the leadership brought by experienced professionals who had come to town, this mining reached its highest point between 1770 and 1790. Nevertheless, the mining lasted no longer than 30 years before coming to a complete end in the 19th century, with destitution and hardship as the upshot for the now jobless miners and their families.
While it was true that new ventures arose in the 19th century through Wolfstein citizens’ initiatives, such as chalk mining, coalmining, tanning, brewing, linen and cotton article manufacturing, bricks, and so on, these fell far short of employing everybody who sought a job. Thus, out of the need for a livelihood arose the Musikant business, not only in Wolfstein but also in many of the outlying villages. For a time, more than 750 professional musicians from the Canton of Wolfstein tried their luck “on the world’s roads”, in circus orchestras, on Siberian noblemen's estates, aboard pleasure boats and elsewhere. Within what is now the Verbandsgemeinde of Wolfstein, all together roughly 3,500 people were active as Musikanten.
In the early 20th century, the economic situation generally improved: for one thing, the Lauter Valley Railway (Lautertalbahn), which had been opened in 1883, made it possible for workers to commute to the nearby quarries or to jobs in Kaiserslautern, and for another, new commercial establishments in Wolfstein and across the river in Roßbach offered earning potential. These included the Pfälzische Schwerspatwerke Braun, Krieger u. Cie. (1902-1950; baryte works), the Pfälzische Bandagenfabrik Karl Otto Braun (1903; forerunner of Karl Otto Braun KG; bandages), the Zigarrenfabrik Felsenthal u. Co. (1910-late 1920s; cigars), the Industriewerke Roßbach and the Kort brothers’ brush factory (1896-1923). Likewise of importance, as early as the 19th century, was the family Martin's pottery business.
Currently, the greater part of Wolfstein's inhabitants work in the secondary sector of the economy (all figures are rounded): 1,200 persons, or 67% of the workforce, of whom 1,030 employees and 60 trainees are at KOB KG alone, Europe’s biggest bandage factory, which recently gave up part of its independence to coöperate with the biggest distributor of bandage material, Paul Hartmann AG. Only 240 employees actually live in Wolfstein. Most of the commuters who come to town come from places around the Königsberg, which speaks to the factory’s importance to the “Königsland” region's economic situation.
Working in the tertiary sector of the economy are 600 persons, of whom 330 persons, or 19% of the workforce, are in “not-for-profit organizations” (CJD, Verbandsgemeinde and town administration, ecclesiastical institutions, schools), 80 persons, or 4%, are in trade, credit business or transport and 180 persons, or 10%, are in other fields (senior citizens’ homes, hospitality, healthcare, etc.).
The share of workers in agriculture and forestry in the agrarian community of Roßbach in 1949 was still 46%. There were 84 operations, 28 of them full-time, but with relatively small working areas (all under 20 ha) and widely scattered plots of land.
In the town itself, farming, somewhat limited by the steep slopes and the lean soils, always played a subordinate role. Now, however, even the outlying centre of Roßbach is purely residential, although some 90 ha of its cropland and meadowland is worked by the CJD. The last full-time farming operation within Wolfstein's limits is run by the family Sonn at the Reckweilerhof.
Education
Schools
Information about schools in Wolfstein and Roßbach up until the early 18th century is full of gaps. It is known, however, that given the town's denominational makeup, with Reformed, Lutheran and Catholic believers, there were three denominational schools, one for each denomination. After the unification of the Reformed and Lutheran churches, and as a result of the swelling population, the class at the Protestant school was for a while more than 100-strong, all of whom had to be schooled in the little one-room schoolhouse next to the Reformed church. In response, Wolfstein acquired a building before the town gates in 1823, and converted it into a schoolhouse with two classrooms, and also two dwellings, one for the Protestant teacher and the other for the Catholic teacher. Also attending Catholic classes were Catholic children from Kaulbach, Rutsweiler, Roßbach and Oberweiler-Tiefenbach. About the middle of the 19th century, a Protestant teaching assistant was hired who took over classed for the girls in the then existing six school age groups. For the Catholic children, a third classroom was set up in the loft.
After the introduction of the 7th school year in 1856, the number of pupils grew to more than 200, bringing about the founding of a three-class “simultaneous” municipal school at which pupils were divided into three groups, lower (1st and 2nd year), middle (3rd and 4th year) and upper (5th to 7th year), and thereafter, Wolfstein's Catholic and Protestant schoolchildren learnt their lessons together. In 1892, a new schoolhouse with four classrooms next to the Protestant church was dedicated. In 1928, the eighth school year was introduced. Until the same was introduced over in Roßbach (once the new schoolhouse there had been opened), eighth-year pupils from Roßbach had to attend classes in Wolfstein.
The Roßbachers built a schoolhouse in the village centre in 1825, and until 1871, both Catholic and Protestant schoolchildren attended classes there given by one teacher in one room. Once the school had been expanded that year with the addition of a second classroom and a second teacher's dwelling, the two denominations were separated, although given the unbalanced numbers, first-year Protestant schoolchildren were assigned to the Catholic school. The two denominational schools were converted into a two-class “German Christian Communal School” in 1933, which in 1937 moved to a new schoolhouse “Auf dem Mühlacker” (“At the Mill Field”), which for the time was quite modern and extensively equipped.
Beginning in the 1962/1963 school year, all seventh- and eighth-year pupils from Roßbach, Rutsweiler, Kreimbach, Kaulbach, Frankelbach and Oberweiler-Tiefenbach were taught in grade-level-differentiated classes in Wolfstein, which led to great difficulties in allocating room for everybody. This was solved in 1965 with the move to the Volksschulhaus, said to be the “moment of the birth of the Mittelpunktschule (“midpoint school”, a central school, designed to eliminate smaller outlying schools) on the Königsberg”. Brought together here, beginning in the 1990/1991 school year, were all fifth- to tenth-year classes from 14 villages in the Verbandsgemeinde feeder area.
Currently serving the town's needs are Grundschule Wolfstein (primary school; feeder area: Aschbach, Einöllen, Kreimbach-Kaulbach, Oberweiler-Tiefenbach, Relsberg, Rutsweiler, Wolfstein) and, since 1998, the Regionalschule and (with some classes being phased out) the Hauptschule (feeder area: the Verbandsgemeinde).
Wolfstein's old schoolhouse was for a time used by BASF, the chamber of commerce and the CJD. It is foreseen that it will become the town museum and library, while Roßbach's old schoolhouse has already become a village community centre.
Higher learning
The Christliches Jugenddorf Wolfstein (CJD; founded in 1972) is a member if the Diakonisches Werk der Pfalz (a Christian youth charity) and is one of the institutions of professional training and clinical social work of the Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands (likewise abbreviated CJD). In their vocational preparation year, boys and girls aged 14 to 16 who have no Hauptschulabschluss are taken towards the professional training level. In the CJD's own workshops and external businesses, the CJD leads to a qualification in one of 15 different occupations in the industrial-technical, agricultural, gastronomical and sales fields. While in the Jugenddorf (“Youth Village”), a broad spectrum of tended lodgings is available to the youths. The administrative seat is the former town mill.
The Wolfstein branch location of the Kusel district folk high school offers courses for further training in data processing, applied data processing, foreign languages, fibre craft, cooking and many more.
Transport
Road
Running through Wolfstein is its main traffic artery, Bundesstraße 270, which leads from Pirmasens by way of Kaiserslautern (interchange with the Autobahn A 6 Saarbrücken–Mannheim) and Lauterecken (interchange with Bundesstraße 420) to Fischbach/Kirn (Nahe valley, interchange with Bundesstraße 41). The B 270 bypass road was opened to traffic after just under five years of construction on 17 November 2006.
The quickest road link to the district seat of Kusel goes by way of Rothselberg, Jettenbach and Altenglan (Landesstraße 370, 23.6 km). Running from the Reckweilerhof is Landesstraße 368 by way of Aschbach and other places in the heights and on into the Glan valley (Glanbrücken). From the Kuhbrücker Hübel, Landesstraße 384 (“Hefersweiler Straße”) opens the way to the places in the dales and in the heights around the Donnersberg.
Rail
Wolfstein also lies on the Lauter Valley Railway (Lautertalbahn), a single-tracked, 34-kilometre-long railway that links Wolfstein to Kaiserslautern Central Station and the Mannheim/Ludwigshafen – Saarbrücken long-distance services available there, as well as the local rail travel within the Palatinate. In the local town area, trains stop at Roßbach (Friedhof), Wolfstein (Bahnhof) and Reckweilerhof.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Friedrich Jakob Sander (1809–1876), musical instrument builder
Franz Schmitt (1816–1891), painter
Ernst Krieger (1867–1943), chess compositor
Pauline König (1868–1938), Palatine “homeland poet”, honorary citizen of Wolfstein.
Fritz Zolnhofer (1896–1965), painter
Friedrich Jossé (1897–1994), painter and graphic artist
References
External links
Town’s official webpage
Region Königsland (VG Wolfstein)
Visitable mine with mine railway and outdoor wine tasting
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Kusel (district) |
4239006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Burns%20Red | August Burns Red | August Burns Red is an American metalcore band from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, formed in 2003. The band's current lineup consists of lead guitarist John Benjamin "JB" Brubaker, rhythm guitarist Brent Rambler, drummer Matt Greiner, lead vocalist Jake Luhrs and bassist Dustin Davidson. The band was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2016 for Best Metal Performance for the song "Identity" from its 2015 release Found in Far Away Places, and again in 2018 for "Invisible Enemy" from Phantom Anthem (2017). The band has released ten studio albums to date; their latest, Death Below, was released on March 24, 2023.
History
Formation and Thrill Seeker (2003–2006)
August Burns Red was founded in March 2003 when all the members were attending high school. The original practice sessions of the band began in drummer, Matt Greiner's old egg house and basement on the Greiner family's farmland. After playing many local shows within Lancaster, they recorded their first EP, titled Looks Fragile After All with label CI Records in 2004.
Vocalist Jon Hershey eventually quit the band during the same year, which led to Josh McManness taking on the position as lead singer. After several months of playing with McManness, August Burns Red signed to Solid State Records in 2005. Hershey would later go on to form post-rock band Bells. August Burns Red released Thrill Seeker, their first full-length album, on November 8, 2005. In 2006, drummer Matt Greiner was endorsed by Truth Custom Drums following the release of the album.
Messengers (2006–2009)
McManness departed from the band in 2006, after only one tour. He was replaced by Jake Luhrs, then a resident of Montclair, New Jersey. Bassist Jordan Tuscan also left the band in 2006 for similar reasons as McManness. He was replaced by bassist Dustin Davidson, a friend of the band. The band's second album, Messengers, was released on June 19, 2007. Marking the debut for Luhrs fronting the group, it became the band's breakthrough album, reaching number 81 on the Billboard 200.
Throughout 2008, August Burns Red toured with several acts across North America and Europe to promote Messengers. From April to May they toured with As I Lay Dying and Misery Signals across the United States and Canada. In September and October of that same year, they headlined a tour with A Skylit Drive, Sky Eats Airplane, Greeley Estates, and This or the Apocalypse in the United States. The band also visited Europe for a month-long headlining tour in November, playing in Germany, Finland, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Republic Of Ireland, Northern Ireland, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and France.
After this series of tours, the band recorded two covers of popular songs. They recorded an instrumental version of the classic song, "Carol of the Bells" for the X Christmas compilation album, which was featured in trailers for the film, The Spirit, released Christmas Day 2008. They also recorded a cover of "...Baby One More Time" by pop singer Britney Spears for the Punk Goes Pop 2 compilation album, released in March 2009.
On February 24, 2009, the band released an EP, entitled Lost Messengers: The Outtakes. It contains material that is related or was decided not to be included in the final, mastered version of Messengers. August Burns Reds' first trip to the Middle East took place on March 6, 2009, with the band playing at the Dubai Desert Rock Festival. The band's last tour before their next album release took place in the United States, where they toured with metalcore band All That Remains throughout April and May.
Constellations (2009–2011)
To promote their upcoming album, August Burns Red released several new tracks and a music video during June 2009. The tracks Thirty and Seven, Existence, and Ocean of Apathy were all released on the 15th, 21st, and 29th, respectively. A music video for the song Meddler was also released during this month. On July 7, a week before the album's release, August Burns Red began streaming the full album on their Myspace profile for a limited time.
August Burns Red released their third full-length album, Constellations, on July 14, 2009. During the week of August 1, 2009, the album charted at spot 24 on the Billboard 200. Another United States tour was organized with August Burns Red headlining and support from Blessthefall, Enter Shikari, All Shall Perish, and Iwrestledabearonce. After this tour, the band joined a short tour in Australia with Architects in support of Australian band Parkway Drive. August Burns Red toured alongside Underoath and Emery in November and December 2009 as well.
The band released their first live CD/DVD, Home, on September 28, 2010. The group co-headlined an Alternative Press tour throughout November. On February 23, 2010, Constellations was nominated for the Dove Award for "Best Rock Album".
August Burns Red toured Australia and New Zealand in December 2010 on the No Sleep Til Festival. The band played alongside Parkway Drive, A Day to Remember, NOFX, Dropkick Murphys, Suicide Silence, Megadeth, Descendents, Gwar and many others.
Leveler and Sleddin' Hill (2011–2013)
On July 27, 2010, Brubaker stated that the band would be taking time off tour to write their next record. On February 12, 2011, the band announced via their official Facebook page that they had completely finished writing their new record and that they would be entering the studio on Valentine's Day. In March 2011, the band announced that the record was finished, and that it was (at that point) time for mixing. On April 5, 2011, August Burns Red revealed the name of the record as Leveler. On May 16, 2011, the band released the song "Empire" as a preview before its release. They also later premiered three other songs: "Internal Cannon", "Divisions", and "Poor Millionaire", on May 31, June 6, and June 14, respectively.
Leveler was released on June 21, 2011, in two forms; standard and deluxe. The deluxe version of Leveler contains four extra songs, including an acoustic version of the song "Internal Cannon". The album sold particularly well compared to their other releases, with 29,000 of its opening first week-copies being sold in the United States alone. These sales had the record land at position 11 on The Billboard 200 chart. After the release, August Burns Red took part on the main stage of the 2011 Vans Warped Tour.
August Burns Red headlined their own Leveler tour on the first quarter of 2012 with Silverstein, Texas in July, I the Breather and Letlive as support acts.
In 2012, August Burns Red embarked on a European tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Veil of Maya, and an American tour with Of Mice & Men and The Color Morale.
August Burns Red released their first Holiday album, entitled August Burns Red Presents: Sleddin' Hill on October 9, 2012.
On February 8, 2013, the band was officially announced as part of Warped Tour 2013 alongside Bring Me the Horizon, NeverShoutNever, Black Veil Brides, 3OH!3, Crizzly and Bowling for Soup.
Rescue & Restore (2013–2014)
On February 12, 2013, the band announced that they would be back in the studio the next week to commence recording on their new album. Carson Slovak (Century) and Grant McFarland (former This or the Apocalypse drummer) again oversaw the production of the album.
On May 5, they announced that the album, Rescue & Restore was set to release June 25, 2013.
The album debuted at No. 9 on the Billboard 200. This is the highest that they have reached on the chart. On August 30, they announced that they would release a documentary DVD titled Foreign & Familiar before the end of the year.
Lyrically, the release delved into topics such as depression, grief at the death of a loved one, and social tolerance. It also featured influences from progressive metal and thrash metal as well as more mellow, melodic rock music. Adam Gray of the band Texas in July appears as a guest musician.
Found in Far Away Places (2014–2016)
On August 5, 2014, it was announced the band had signed to Fearless Records and Found in Far Away Places would be available for pre-order on April 13, 2015, along with their new single "The Wake", with the album set to be released on June 29, 2015. The album would debut at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 chart.
The band embarked on the Frozen Flame Tour from January 22 to March 8, 2015, along with Miss May I, Northlane, Fit for a King and Erra, for 39 shows in Canada and the United States, sponsored by Rockstar Energy.
On December 7, 2015, August Burns Red was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best Metal Performance Category for their song "Identity".
On July 1, 2016, just over a year after its release, the band released an instrumental edition of Found in Far Away Places.
Phantom Anthem (2016–2018)
On November 21, 2016, a teaser for the Messengers 10th Anniversary Tour in Europe and the United States was uploaded to the band's Facebook page. The tour started on the January 4, 2017 with supporting artists, Protest the Hero, In Hearts Wake and '68. On July 26, 2017, August Burns Red announced their new album, Phantom Anthem, released on October 6, 2017. The first single from the album, "Invisible Enemy", premiered on the SiriusXM Liquid Metal show the same day as the album announcement. The album debuted at No. 19 on the Billboard 200 chart. On November 28, 2017, it was further announced that band had been nominated for another Grammy Award in "Best Metal Performance" for "Invisible Enemy".
On January 26, 2018, the band released a remixed version of Messengers, for the album's 10th-year anniversary via Solid State Records.
Guardians and Death Below (2019–present)
On June 14, 2019, the band released a remixed version of Constellations for the album's 10-year anniversary, once again via Solid State Records.
In 2019, the band embarked on the Constellations 10th Anniversary World Tour spanning from June 21 to December. The band will tour North America over the summer, go to Australia in October, and finish the tour in Europe in November and December.
On December 13, 2019, the band released an instrumental edition of Phantom Anthem.
On February 6, 2020, August Burns Red released their first single, "Defender", from their upcoming ninth studio album, Guardians, which was scheduled to be released on April 3, 2020, after which they were slated to embark on a full North American tour in support of Killswitch Engage. On February 26, the band released the second single of the album titled "Bones". On March 26, a week before the album release, the band released their third single "Paramount". The album debuted at No. 53 on the Billboard 200 chart. On December 15, the band released their cover of System of a Down's "Chop Suey!" on streaming music services.
For the 10th anniversary of the album Leveler, the band re-recorded it with guest musicians, alternate tunings, and new guitar solos. The anniversary edition was released on May 21, 2021, through the band's own label, ABR Records. On April 21, the same day as the announcement of the 10th anniversary edition, the band released a new version of "Poor Millionaire" featuring guest vocals from Ryan Kirby of Fit for a King. On May 6, they released a new version of "Pangaea", that features a guest guitar solo from Misha Mansoor of Periphery, as the second single from the 10th anniversary edition. On October 14, 2021, the band released a new song entitled "Vengeance". On March 25, 2022, the band announced that they had parted ways with Fearless Records and signed with SharpTone Records while also revealing that they were working on their ninth studio album with a teaser shared online. On November 1, the band announced their tenth studio album, Death Below, which was released on March 24, 2023. At the same time, they revealed the album cover and the track list. On November 3, the band released the first single "Ancestry" featuring Jesse Leach of Killswitch Engage and its corresponding music video. On January 25, 2023, the band unveiled the second single "Backfire" along with a music video. On February 22, one month before the album release, the band published the third single "Reckoning" featuring Spencer Chamberlain of Underoath along with an accompanying music video.
Artistry
Musical style and influences
August Burns Red is generally credited as a metalcore and melodic metalcore band, and has also been said to share progressive metal elements. The band's songs frequently feature highly melodic guitar riffs, technical or odd time signatures and breakdowns, with a variety of influences including Meshuggah, Symphony in Peril, Pelican, Slayer and The Dillinger Escape Plan, as well as Between the Buried and Me, Misery Signals and Hopesfall. Unlike other melodic metalcore vocalists, Jake Luhrs generally does not mix clean vocals with his screams, though he does include spoken word parts on occasion. For example, their track "Spirit Breaker" features Luhrs reading a letter. However, since Phantom Anthem, Luhrs has used clean vocals in some songs, most notably "Coordinates", "Lighthouse" and the band's cover of "Chop Suey!", while "Lighthouse" from their album Guardians featuring a clean-singing chorus. Clean vocals first made an appearance in the band's music in the form of guest appearances by Between the Buried and Me's Tommy Giles Rogers on "Indonesia", the seventh track from their 2009 album Constellations, and by A Day to Remember's Jeremy McKinnon on "Ghosts", the fifth track from their 2015 album Found in Far Away Places.
While the group has stated that they don't mind being classified as metalcore, Brubaker has grown a distaste for many of the genre's bands: "I feel like anyone who can pick up and play a guitar and learn to play a metalcore riff and any drummer who can learn to play a thrash beat over a breakdown is doing it. It's almost become very formulaic, and metal to me was never a formulaic genre." Musically, the group has incorporated instrumentals such as the cello and the violin while also featuring song elements such as classical music inspired interludes, pushing the boundaries of what is considered 'metalcore'. Many of their songs do not contain choruses, unlike other bands in the metalcore scene.
Band name
August Burns Red members have been asked about the origin of their band name on many occasions and have given numerous different stories. The most popular story behind the name is an incident involving Jon Hershey, the band's original vocalist, when he dated a woman named August who burned his dog Redd alive in his dog house.
However, it was later revealed in a radio interview that this meaning (along with others) was simply a comical story created by the members and that there is no actual meaning behind the band name. Drummer Matt Greiner stated in the interview that "we just came up with the name to come up with a name."
Christianity
For a significant part of the band's history, August Burns Red has widely been considered a Christian band. JB Brubaker mentioned in an interview with online magazine Shout!, that "Christianity is a religion, not a style of music" and he would "rather just let the music speak for itself.", and that he would rather let Christianity shine through the band's lyrics. Brent Rambler commented on the fact that "It is important to us that people know that we are indeed Christians... without having us stand up there and ram it down people's throats."
JB Brubaker responded to a 2015 interview question about the band's reaction to being labeled as a Christian metal band by explaining that the presence of Christianity varies in each of the members' lives, but then says, "We decided years ago that we were not going to be an
'evangelical band.' We're not onstage to bring people to God, that's not our purpose up there. Our number one purpose in ABR is to entertain." In a 2014 interview, Jake Luhrs responded to a similar question by saying, "No, we are not a Christian band because, in my eyes, and I'm a believer in Jesus Christ...that doesn't mean because all of us are Christians we are now a Christian band."
Since the members of the band are Christian, their beliefs are sometimes reflected in their writing and lyrics. However, these lyrics aren't meant to be religious but rather, positive and in songs such as "Fault Line", for the band's fans. Brent Rambler said in a 2016 interview, "We don't preach from stage, and we made the active choice that this band is about music, and being a positive influence. Since a lot of people correlate Christianity for positivity, that label has stuck with us."
Recently some of the members have stated in interviews that not all of the band are Christian. They have said that they now just hope to spread positive messages in their music and lyrics, whether they are perceived as spreading a Christian message or not. In a 2019 podcast, Matt Greiner stated that the band decided to drop their Christian label in 2012, after disputes within the band over what kind of message they were trying to spread, and whether their main intention was to make music or to spread a Christian message. Although the decision initially was met with disapproval by Greiner and Luhrs, members of the band continue to state that August Burns Red is not a Christian band.
Members
Current
John Benjamin "JB" Brubaker – lead guitar (2003–present)
Brent Rambler – rhythm guitar (2003–present)
Matt Greiner – drums, piano (2003–present)
Jake Luhrs – lead vocals (2006–present)
Dustin Davidson – bass, backing vocals (2006–present)
Former
Jon Hershey – lead vocals (2003–2004)
Josh McManness – lead vocals (2004–2006)
Jordan Tuscan – bass (2003–2006)
Touring musicians
Adam Gray (Texas in July) – drums (2016)
Michael Felker (Convictions) – vocals (2021)
Timeline
Discography
Thrill Seeker (2005)
Messengers (2007)
Constellations (2009)
Leveler (2011)
August Burns Red Presents: Sleddin' Hill (2012)
Rescue & Restore (2013)
Found in Far Away Places (2015)
Phantom Anthem (2017)
Guardians (2020)
Death Below (2023)
References
External links
Metalcore musical groups from Pennsylvania
American Christian metal musical groups
Heavy metal musical groups from Pennsylvania
Musicians from Lancaster, Pennsylvania
2003 establishments in Pennsylvania
Musical groups established in 2003
Solid State Records artists
Hassle Records artists
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Fearless Records artists
American musical quintets |
4239670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child%20labour%20in%20Botswana | Child labour in Botswana | Child labour in Botswana is defined as the exploitation of children through any form of work which is harmful to their physical, mental, social and moral development. Child labour in Botswana is characterised by the type of forced work at an associated age, as a result of reasons such as poverty and household-resource allocations. child labour in Botswana is not of higher percentage according to studies. The United States Department of Labor states that due to the gaps in the national frameworks, scarce economy, and lack of initiatives, “children in Botswana engage in the worst forms of child labour”. The International Labour Organization is a body of the United Nations which engages to develop labour policies and promote social justice issues. The International Labour Organization (ILO) in convention 138 states the minimum required age for employment to act as the method for "effective abolition of child labour" through establishing minimum age requirements and policies for countries when ratified. Botswana ratified the Minimum Age Convention in 1995, establishing a national policy allowing children at least fourteen-years old to work in specified conditions. Botswana further ratified the ILO's Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, convention 182, in 2000.
The ILO's International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) funded the country in regard to the Towards the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour programme (TECL) in Botswana. In 2004 the Programme Advisory Committee on Child Labour (PACC) was founded to overlook the Towards the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (TECL) in Botswana . Some studies have argumentative stances upon the dealing of child labour in Botswana. As stated by Eva Procek in her 2006 Discussion document on Child Labour in Botswana "explicit time-bound strategies to address child labour and worst forms of child labour specifically have not been developed".
Current findings of child labour in Botswana
The United States of Labour has carried out a study into the issue of child labour in Botswana and has reported findings. The United States Department of Labor in their 2018 Child Labor and Forced Labor Reports, for Botswana, has stated that “Botswana has made minimal advancement towards eliminating child labour in 2018”. The United States Department of Labor further states that "Botswana engages in the worst forms of child labor, including in commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor in cattle herding, and forced domestic work, each sometimes as a result of human trafficking". Gaps in the legal system alongside poorly directed social initiatives, as stated by The United States Department of Labor have resulted in contemporary accounts of child labour in Botswana.
Causes
The International Labour Organization accounts that Children "work for survival" and for other reasons which have repressed their ability to act freely. Underlying factors such as geographic location, demographics and poverty are some causes of child labour in Botswana.
Geographic
Botswana is a landlocked country situated in the south-west division of Africa. Sonia Bhalotra in her OECD SOCIAL, EMPLOYMENT AND MIGRATION WORKING PAPERS study states that due to "stagnated economic growth, HIV/AIDS, conflict, famine and poor hygiene has escalated the issue of child labour in Sub-Saharan Africa". The 2016 Global Estimates of Child Labour ILO report states that "one in five African Children face child labour". The report states that in the continent 72.1 million children work as labourers and 31.5 million work in hazardous conditions, with this being more than-twice the amount in comparison to other regions. Findings from the 2016 Global Estimates of Child Labour ILO report show that the agriculture sector across the continent accounts for 85% of child labourers, of many working in family enterprises and farms, primarily engaging in commercial farming or livestock herding. Further, traditional approaches in African communities have seen children leaving schooling to enter the workforce. This is seen in an African context to promote the development of life and physical skills contrary to western methodologies . An example of this can be seen through the rural Pare people of Tanzania, Sub-Saharan Africa, involving 5 year olds to tend crops.
Transmission to Botswana
A transmission of the child labour issues from an overall African context can be seen in Botswana. The United States Department of Labor states in their 2010 Worst Forms of Child Labour Report that a poor economic outlook for families and resource allocations influences the integration of Children in the labour force in many instances such where "parents from rural areas send their children to the city to live with wealthier families and to work as domestic servants". The report further establishes that many children are heavily engaged in hazardous forms of agriculture, where children "manage herds of livestock in isolated areas for days without proper food and shelter". Botswana is a key source and destination for commercial sexual exploitation of children. Impoverished children are forced as workers and trafficked to clientele through high-ways and truck drivers.
Communities
Botswana is home to many ethnic groups such to the San people and the Okavango Delta people. Matyas Baan in his article Realising Children's Rights in Botswana states that these communities are "disadvantaged and vulnerable due to being displaced remotely or considered as outcasts". The San community is a minority ethnic group, which is remotely located, distant from main-land services, which has led to social-protection issues in regards to children. Children of these communities have reduced access to services such as education and are open to take upon roles primarily in family enterprises and farms or to be exploited into sexual exploitation and trafficking.
Changing Demographics
Changes in demographics reflect changing social behaviours and actions of people to satisfy specific circumstances. Changes in demographics through intra-household resource allocation, parental investment and household requirements in Botswana has seen children work for individual and household needs, being excluded from schooling and uptaking “small scale entrepreneurship”. The Caldwell theory of wealth (1982), reflects how countries with upward net flow wealth, such through peasant farmers, are inclined for higher rates of reproduction to satisfy for old age care and political status. Higher reproduction rates greatly influence the investment of parents towards their children and their activities such as schooling. The limited distribution for household resources and wealth towards children gives rise to child labour. The impact of intra-household resource allocation can be investigated in the Okavango Delta People of Botswana. A 1992 study into five ethnic groups of the community reflect that out of 122 children 20 attended school, of which 15 had to travel 30 km or further, resulting in trade-offs to the local economies of herding, milking and graining. A study by John Bock in his Evolutionary demography and intra-household time allocation, has resulted in findings for the correlation of time and resource allocation in relation to Children education and participation in labour. The study shows how changing parental investment, marital status, availability of alternative productivity tasks, birth order and sex of children "have implications to understand child labour and time allocations and consequent welfare".
Poverty
Poverty is the condition where a community or individuals lack the access to basic necessities and financial resources to sustain a minimum standard of living. Botswana accounts for 36.7% of families living under the poverty datum line, which has seen the youth to be vulnerable. In 2012 the Minister of Labour and Home Affairs, Peter Siele, visited and talked to a 12 year old out-of-school worker about not attending school. The response recorded was “lehuma ke lone le le ntireleng gore ke tlogele sekolo, ke bolawa ke tlala” (poverty forced me out of school, I suffer from hunger). Negative macroeconomic indicators have influenced the inefficiencies of budget allocations towards children-based initiatives. Eva Procek in her 2006 Discussion document on child labour in Botswana investigates that children in rural and remote area's are vulnerable. Procek states that children of rural groups such as from the San community experience high levels of poverty due to high illiteracy rates, being prone to join the labour force early to support their households as they are "caught between conflicting cultural expectations". Issues of debt and financial constrains also result in children to uptake roles in the labour force.
Extent and Scope
The United States Department of State in their 2017 Botswana Human Rights report states that the widespread scale of the issue sees "children within the country engaging in the worst forms of labour" including: commercial sexual exploitation, agriculture and forced domestic work. The Ministry of Labour and Health accounts for 25000 Children under the age of 15 working on farms. A further 1500 are accounted for domestic work in wealthy households. Botswana further engages to be a source and destination for commercial trafficking of children, specifically through truck and highway clientele.
2005/2006 Labour Force Survey
The 2005/2006 labour force survey from the Central Statistics Office is an early study analysing the trends of the labour force in relation to children employment status in Botswana. The survey of 415,751 children saw that 72.4 percent were engaged in full time schooling, 21.2 percent were involved in the labour force alongside schooling and 2.6 percent were primarily working. A gender based analysis in the study shows that only 69.2% of males at the time were participating in schooling in comparison to the 75.1% of females. 39,170 children explicitly stated the reason for their employment with the two most prevalent reasons accounting for family assistance (62.8%), and personal financial needs (12.8%).
Source: Authors’ calculations based on CSO Labour Force Survey (2005/06)
Impacts
The impacts of child labour can be seen interlinked in affecting the welfare of many involved children . Impacts are seen through education and the consequents of poverty.
Education
In Botswana child labour "shares a negative correlation with education", as established by the Determinants of Child Labour and Schooling in Botswana report through the analysis of the labour force survey findings in 2005/2006. Further, 2016 UNICEF findings account for 9% of the child population of Botswana to be engaged in child labour, further showing that 16% of primary school aged kids are not attending school. Demographic impacts such as parental investment and location of residence further impact the ability to engage in schooling of children. School attendance is affected as secondary education rates are declining due to the tuition costs. For example, this is seen through a 35.7% net attendance out of 56.7% enrolled males.
Consequents of Poverty
The transmission of intergenerational poverty through the degraded economic outlook of Botswana, sees 2 out of 3 children missing secondary school. Emmanuel Bothale in his The Case for Children's Budgeting in Botswana uses The Poverty Map (Moseki, 2009) and UNDP Human development Reports (2009,2010) to account for a high cumulative poverty index of 22.9% in Botswana. Sexual exploitation and hygiene issues are a consequent of long-term poverty, as seen in the 2010 findings from the Botswana Press Agency. The agency carried out a ‘sex-study’ which established that girls resort to prostitution out of economic need and “to put food on the table. Further, communal poverty, has resulted in poor hygiene and health; for example, under 5 youth mortality, has increased by 0.5% (1990-2012). The prevalence of the poor hygiene has further seen the spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Poor preventative measures sees a 15.7% prevalence rate of HIV in 0-18 year old orphans.
Dynamics
There are government body and frameworks alongside social initiatives in place to address the issue.
Government Outlook
Between 2006 and 2008 the country had been in the process of formulating the National Action Programme towards the Elimination of Child Labour in Botswana, which was nationally endorsed in February 2008. This was drafted with the assistance of the International Labour Organization's (ILO) programme, Towards the Elimination of the worst forms of Child Labour. A Programme Advisory Committee on Child Labour (PACC), representing government departments, organised labour and business, and civil society, guides the development and implementation of the programme. The national government has developed policies in order to coordinate their response to the issue. The National Action Programme towards the Elimination of Child Labour in Botswana outline the governments approach to create legislation and policies around the issue to create awareness. The Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs sustainability plan is another policy which sees volunteers and government affiliates work as labour inspectors to report accounts of child labour to social workers and school teachers to better understand school attendance trends and employment status.
The government has established mechanisms to coordinate their response to the issue. The Human Trafficking Committee was established by the 2014 Anti-trafficking bill and is led by the Ministry of Defence, Justice, and Security (MDJS) to act as a reporting and referral mechanism. The Advisory Committee on Child Labour is another mechanism involving NGO volunteers and government officials to report issues to the government. The United States Department of State in their 2017 Botswana Human Rights report presents an argument that the mechanisms "have lacked efficacy due to scarce resources and inability to target rural areas".
Legal Framework
Botswana ratified the ILO Minimum Age Convention in 1995 (C138) and the ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (C182) in 2000. In addition, the country also ratified both the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child in 1995. Botswana's Employment Act is the principal law governing employment-related matters in Botswana. It aims to protect children against exploitation and hazardous employment, defined as any work that is dangerous to the child's health, development and morals. The United States Department of Labor in the 2018 Child Labour and Forced Labour Reports, for Botswana, states that "gaps exist in Botswana's legal framework to adequately protect children from child labor" as there is no compulsory age of education legislation, inconsistent to the standards set by the ILO.
Enforcement
The government has a framework to assist for the enforcement of law in through criminal and labour laws. The Ministry of Employment, Labour Productivity and Skills Development enforces child labour law's and policies and is further authorised by the Employment Act to conduct labour inspections. Findings from the United States Department of Labor account for 2335 labour investigations in Botswana for 2017, which had reduced from 4999 accounts in 2016. The Ministry of Defence, Justice, and Security facilitates the enforcement of criminal law in approach to child labour. In 2017 the Directorate of Public Prosecutions (DPP) accounted for 7 convictions in the ill-treatment of children but did not explicitly link causation to child labour.
Social Initiatives
Government funds social initiatives to address the issue of child labour are part of the framework aimed at the issue. In conjunction with resources from non-governmental organization's, these programs cater to create awareness for the issue and provide resources available to the community. The government funded Orphan Care Program subsidises school fees and provides meals to children to promote educational participation. Another program is the Needy Children and Needy Students program facilitated by the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development in aim to provide essential resources and meals to poor families.
Recommendations
Recommendations from government agencies and other bodies convey possible solutions to address the issue. The United States Department of Labor in their 2018 Worst Forms of Child Labour report states that amendment to the Employment Act will "reduce the gap between bodies and enforcement agencies to cater towards eliminating the issue alongside a minimum-age requirement for schooling. Eva Procek in her 2006 Discussion Document on Child Labour in Botswana states possible strategies to alleviate causes, such as poverty, through National Youth Policy grants and reviews in the literacy programmes "to prevent children falling into detrimental work". Emmanuel Bothale in his The Case for Children's Budgeting in Botswana states that budget allocations towards children and socially based initiatives are a "critical argument to improve upon the negative macroeconomic indicators". Further, more studies are required to enable full engagement to understand the true scope and extent of the issue.
References
Botswana
Labour
Labour in Botswana
Human rights abuses in Botswana |
4239941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata%20Steel%20Netherlands | Tata Steel Netherlands | Koninklijke Hoogovens known as Koninklijke Nederlandse Hoogovens en Staalfabrieken (KNHS) until 1996 or informally Hoogovens. was a Dutch steel producer founded in 1918. Since 2010, the plant is named Tata Steel IJmuiden.
The IJmuiden steelworks based in IJmuiden, Netherlands was built between 1920 and 1940, first producing iron, later steel, with hot and cold rolling producing flat products. In the 1960s the company diversified into aluminium production.
The company briefly merged its IJmuiden steel plant with German steel company Hoesch from 1972 forming the joint venture Estel but separated in 1982. In 1999, the company merged with the larger British Steel plc to create the Corus Group steel company. The aluminium production assets were sold off during the Corus period. In 2007, Corus Group was purchased by India-based Tata Steel and was renamed Tata Steel Europe in 2010.
In 2021, the company was split into a British (Tata Steel UK) and a Dutch (Tata Steel Netherlands) branch, these fall directly under the Indian parent company Tata Steel and Tata Steel Europe ceased to exist.
History
IJmuiden steelworks
1914-1945
In 1914 H.J.E. Wenckebach and J.C Ankersmit began planning the construction of a steelworks in the Netherlands, in 1916 Ankersmit departed for the USA, leaving Wenckebach to continue the work, and on 19 April 1917 Wenckebach presented his plans which included the establishment of three blast furnaces, a coking plant, and plants for using the by products of the process (coking gas and slag). In May 1917 a Comité voor oprichting van een hoogovenstaal- en walswerk in Nederland (Committee for establishing blast furnaces and steel rolling mill in the Netherlands) was set up, with the aim of creating steel works and rolling mills. The plan received support from the large industrial concerns and capitalists of the Netherlands, including Stork, Royal Dutch Shell, Steenkolen Handels-Vereeniging (SHV), Philips; Hendrikus Colijn, Frits Fentener van Vlissingen, and J. Muysken. Additionally, the Dutch state and the city of Amsterdam contributed 7.5 million and 5 million of the 30 million Dutch guilders required to fund the project.
On 20 September 1918 the company Koninklijke Nederlandsche Hoogovens en Staalfabrieken N.V. (KNHS) was created in The Hague. Wenckenbach was the Director, Geldolph Adriaan Kessler the secretary, and A.H. Ingen Housz the company's assignee.
One of the motivations for the creation of a steelworks was to end the country's reliance on imported steel. Since the country's resources of coal and iron ore were limited, a site suitable for import and export by sea was chosen, and IJmuiden was chosen over sites at Rotterdam and Moerdijk due to better ground conditions. The site was on the north bank of the North Sea Canal, outside its sea locks, and two harbours were built - the inner harbour opened in 1920, and the outer harbour in 1923.
By 1924 the first blast furnace, casting hall, coke plant, and an electricity generating plant powered by waste gases from the coke ovens and blast furnaces were ready, and the second of two blast furnaces, begun in 1919, became operational in 1926. Both blast furnaces were constructed to a design by American company Freyn, Brassert &Co.. The coking plant continued to be expanded throughout the 1920s and 30s, and after World War II. Coal tar, a by-product from coking, was used by the chemical works Cindu (Chemische Industrie Uithoorn), and cleaned coke oven gas was used in the site's power plant and in nearby municipalities. A brickworks (NV Phoenix Maatschappij voor Vervaardiging van Hoogovensteen), was built to use slag from the blast furnace to make building products, but the enterprise ceased in 1927. A third blast furnace started operation in 1930.
In 1928 the KNHS and Royal Dutch Shell set up a joint venture Mekog which was to manufacturer fertiliser using chemicals derived from coke oven gas. A second subsidiary was founded in 1930, an on-site cement factory established as a joint venture between KNHS and the Dutch concrete company Eerste Nederlandse Cement Industrie (ENCI): it was named Cementfabriek IJmuiden (CEMIJ) and manufactured cement using granulated furnace slag as an additive.
During the 1930s the plant was further developed, turning from raw iron production to steel production using open hearth furnaces; again Freyr, Brassert & Co. was chosen to supply the plant's design. A pipe foundry was opened in 1936, and in 1938 construction of a steel conversion plant using the Siemens-Martin (Open Hearth) process was begun. The first 60-ton capacity open hearth furnace opened 19 March 1939, additional furnaces were added during the 1940s and early 1950s, and the capacity of the furnaces increased - by 1956 the plant had six furnaces, each of 190-ton capacity. Construction of the plant's first rolling mill (Walserij West) was begun in the late 1930s. During the World War II occupation the mill was confiscated and shipped to Watenstedt (Salzgitter), Germany where it was installed in the Reichswerke Hermann Göring steel plant. After the war the mill was returned to the Netherlands and remained in operation until decommissioned in 1992.
The Van Leer company established a steel rolling mill (Walsbedrijven NV) at the IJmuiden site in the late 1930s; a plate mill began production in 1938, followed by a strip and profile mill in 1939. As built it was outdated, using second-hand equipment. The mill was built to supply the Van Leer company's own steel needs, and not as an independent commercial concern. In 1941, under the Nazi occupation during World War II, Van Leer's Jewish owner Bernard van Leer was forced to flee the country, and the mill was acquired by KNHS, and integrated into the rest of the IJmuiden site: it became known as Walserij Oost, remaining in use until 1953, and being replaced by the mills of Breedband NV.
During World War II the company was affected by the German occupation: in 1941 Vereinigte Stahlwerke had acquired 40% of the company from the shareholdings of the state and city of Amsterdam. The directors of the company Housz and Holtrop went into hiding in 1943. The mouth of the North Sea canal at IJmuiden was used as a base for the Kriegsmarine, and the steelworks itself was a strategic target for attack, and bombings and lack of raw materials brought production to a halt.
1945–1999
After the end of World War II reconstruction of the Netherlands began, and as part of this process investments were made in the steelworks. A separate company, Breedband NV, was established on 19 June 1950, receiving funding from both the state and the United States, under the Marshall Plan. The project introduced hot and cold rolling mills for thin plate, of 60 and 75 thousand tonnes per year capacity respectively, and a galvanising line. All three installations were operating by the end of 1953. During the same period architect Willem Marinus Dudok was commissioned to design a head office for the company in Velsen, which was completed 1953. The Breedband project moved Hoogoven's emphasis into flat rather than long products, which continued in later decades.
During the 1950s and 1960 the facilities were extended; the plants first oxy-steel converted was put into operation in 1958, a second cold rolling line was added in 1961, electrolytic galvanising machines were added in 1958, 1962, and 1967, and hot rolling capacity had increased to 1.6 million tonnes per year by 1965. On 4 May 1965 KNHS took over the company Breedband NV. Also in the post-war period an automated casting machine was installed in 1948, two new blast furnaces activated in 1958 and 1961, and a mill for steel rod and wire production was commissioned in 1964. The sixth blast furnace began operation in 1967, and a second oxy-steel plant in 1968. In 1969 a block mill capable of handling 45-tonne blocks, and another hot strip mill with a capacity of over 3.5 million tonnes a year were opened.
Labour relations at the plant were usually good; during the first two decades of the enterprise's existence the organisational structure was relatively simple, with limited hierarchies, and there were limited attempts at a benevolent social policy by the plant's management. Psychological testing of potential workers was gradually introduced, first for skilled workers, and after World War II for unskilled workers. Vocational training was slowly introduced after 1938. In the post-war period foreign workers from Italy, Spain, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Morocco began to be employed at the plant, and in the 1960s the practice of housing foreign workers in floating hotels was begun. Post-war there was no major industrial action until 1973, when 2,300 workers went on strike at the IJmuiden plant. During the Steel crisis there were no strikes, despite significant lay-offs.
In 1972 the first two blast furnaces were decommissioned. In the same year (1972) the IJmuiden steelworks (Hoogovens IJmuiden BV.) were formed into a 50:50 joint venture named Estel with Hoesch of Germany as the other partner, which merged its Dortmund steel plant into the concern. IJmuiden, with good access to seaborn raw materials, was to act primarily as a raw steel supplier to the plant in Germany, which was closer to a large market for finished steel products. The steel crisis of the 1970s prevented any positive expansion and the company was disbanded in 1982 when funding arrangements for the loss-making Dortmund plant could not be agreed.
After the demerger from Hoesch the company required restructuring and investment: the company was producing too much raw steel with not enough semi-finished product manufacturing capacity. This led to the installation of a continuous casting, hot rolling, and steel coating lines of the next decade. The Dutch state supported the process with a loan of 570 million guilders. The workforce was reduced by 3,000 (14%) over 4 years from 1982, with the company becoming profitable again in 1984. The subsidiary Demka was also closed.
The company's first continuous caster was put into operation in May 1980. In 1990 a production line for producing paint coated steel rolls was started. The third blast furnace was decommissioned in 1991.
In the late 1990s two blast furnaces were purchased by the Indonesian steel group Gunawan Steel Group and dismantled and shipped to its development in Malaysia, Gunawan Iron and Steel. The dismantling work was carried out by a Chinese contractor which was found to be paying its 120 Chinese workers less than the Dutch minimum wage, with poor safety conditions, with 14 accidents resulting in 2 fatalities due to falls from height. The Chinese contractor was fined for breaches of safety practice, and made to improve working conditions, as well as retrospectively paying its workers 15,000 guilders.
In 1996 the company changed its official name to Koninklijke Hoogovens. A new continuous caster was installed between 1998 and 2000.
In 1998 a joint subsidiary with Sidmar, named Galtec, was established at Sidmar's plant near Ghent, producing galvanised steel.
In 1998 Hoogovens employed around 23,000 people, and produced approximately 8 million tonnes of steel (and 450,000 tonnes of aluminium) per year, with sales of over $10 billion. The company's main products were rolled steel, including tinplate (thin gauge steel), coated steels, and aluminium extrusions. Production was distributed 20% in the Dutch market, 60% in the rest of Europe and 20% to the rest of the world.
Corus group 1999–2007
In June 1999 British Steel plc and Hoogovens announced that they intended to merge, which would make the combined company—provisionally named BSKH—the world's third-largest steel producer with an aggregate worldwide turnover of approximately €15.127 billion. Upon completion, Hoogovens shareholders would own 38.3% of the new company.
Because of the size of the two companies, and the extent of their competition within the European Economic Community, the merger required the approval of the Commission of the European Communities; this was granted in mid-July of the same year, and on 6 October 1999 the merger was completed. The new name for the joint company, Corus, had been announced the month before.
Because British Steel had been the significantly larger of the two companies in both workforce and market capitalisation, some observers characterised the merger as being more akin to a takeover of Hoogovens by British Steel. Analysts noted that expanding its market share in Europe by means of the merger would help insulate British Steel against the strength of the sterling relative to the euro, which had been harming British Steel's exports.
In 2000 a hot dip galvanising line Galtec 2, with a capacity of 400,000 tonnes per year of zinc coated coil began operation; it was the second to be produced as part of a joint venture with Sidmar. A joint venture (42.5%) Galstar LP with Weirton Steel for another galvanising line built in the late 1990s in Jeffersonville, Indiana, USA entered bankruptcy in 2001 having been closed due to poor demand after only 4 months in production.
Plans for the construction of an (€223 million) additional hot dip galvanising line and cold rolling mill were made in 2005, for an expected completion in 2008.
Tata Steel 2007–present
In 2007 Tata Steel acquired Corus and subsequently renamed it Tata Steel Europe in 2010.
In 2008 due to lack of demand the Corus steel group cut production by 20%; in IJmuiden one blast furnace was taken out of production.
In the period after the Financial crisis of 2007–08 (see Great Recession) the down turn led to significant job losses – 800 persons in 2009, and up to 2014 a further 1000 jobs. In the 2014/2015 financial year the IJmuiden site made a profit of c. €340million, resulting a 9.19% bonus to the workforce, then numbering c. 8000 to 9000 persons.
In 2021, Tata Steel Europe ceased to exists after it was split into a British and a Dutch branch. Tata Steel Netherlands (TSN) and Tata Steel UK fall directly under the Indian parent company Tata Steel. The plant itself is still named Tata Steel IJmuiden.
Aluminium production
In 1964 a joint venture with Hoogovens as major (50%) partner established an aluminium company Aldel in the north east of the Netherlands; the enterprised was backed by the state which guaranteed a long term supply of energy a low price: a large natural gas discovery had been made in the region. Mining company Billiton was the other partner in the venture, along with technical support from Alusuisse.
In 1970 the company acquired a shareholding in Sidal (Belgium), and in 1987 Kaiser Aluminium's European business was acquired; the acquisition made KNHS a major aluminium producer: by 1996 it had an aluminium smelting capacity of well over 10 million tonnes per annum.
Corus period
Divisions in the board of Corus arose in 2002 when the company announced it was to sell its profitable aluminium business to Pechiney for over £500 million; Corus's British division was making a loss at this time and the sale was seen by Dutch interests as being used to prop up the loss-making British interests with no backward investment in the European mainland side of the business. The board of Corus Netherlands vetoed the sale.
In 2006 Corus's aluminium rolling and extrusion facilities were sold to Aleris. In 2009 smelters in Delfzijl (Netherlands) and Voerde (Germany) were sold to Briand Investments B.V., an associate of Klesch, a large commodity trader. This ended the businesses' association with aluminium, leaving it primarily as a steel producer.
Subsidiaries and joint ventures
Demka, an earlier Dutch steel producer became a KNHS subsidiary in 1964, the company was shut down in 1984.
Mekog and CEMIJ were established at the IJmuiden site in 1928 and 1930, manufacturing fertiliser, and cement respectively, using steel production by products. CEMIJ was sold off in 1989. A shareholding in coal tar distillation plant Cindu (Chemische Industrie Uithoorn), then named Teerbedrijf Uithoorn, was acquired in 1927; the plant used tar produced as a by-product of coke production. In 2010 Cindu Chemicals BV was sold to Koppers Holding Inc. (Koppers).
The welded tubes factory in Zwijndrecht was acquired at the end of 1995 from Van Leeuwen Buizen (see also Van Leeuwen Pipe and Tube Group). In 2011 a €3million investment was made into the factory improving facilities for manufacturing tube steel for car chassis construction.
In 1983 the company, Sidmar and Phenix Works reached agreement on a joint venture SEGAL (Société Européenne de Galvanisation) at Ivoz-Ramet, Liège, Belgium which would produce hot dip galvanized steel for the car industry. The shares of the company were wholly owned by Corus by 2004.
Metal plating company Hille and Muller became a wholly owned subsidiary in 1997, after acquiring a 50% share acquired in 1988.
A 50% share in Belgian steelmaker Usine Gustave Boël (UGB) in La Louvière was acquired in 1997 (as a joint venture HB Holding,), with option to buy the remaining shares. The UGB subsidiary Fabrique de Fer de Maubeuge (FFM) was also acquired, and renamed 'Myriad'. Governmental financing for rescue investment in UGB La Louvière could not be agreed and the plant was sold to Duferco in 1999.
The company also participated in north sea gas exploration and extraction company Nordwinning Group (1960s), its interests were sold off in 1988.
Heritage
SIEHO (Stichting Industrieel Erfgoed Hoogovens, English: Hoogovens industrial heritage foundation) is dedicated to the history of the plant, and runs the Hoogovens Museum which is an affiliate of the European Route of Industrial Heritage. Corus Stoom IJmuiden (Steam Corus IJmuiden) operates steam trains on the rail network of the CIJmuiden and has workshop facilities on site.
See also
HIsarna steelmaking process, primary steel production process invented at Hoogovens
Tata Steel Chess Tournament, formerly the Hoogovens chess tournament, started 1938
Notes
References
Sources
partially reproduced at
also publisher as :
Chapter 4 : Koninklijke Hoogovens In Its Territory: A Bird's-Eye View, pp. 88–109
Chapter 5 : The "Social Becoming" Of Koninklijke Hoogovens Plc, pp. 110–174
External links
Official websites
Museums and heritage
, Corus IJmuiden steam
Images
Tata Steel Europe
Manufacturing companies of the Netherlands
Steel companies of the Netherlands
Manufacturing companies established in 1918
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1999
1999 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Dutch companies established in 1918 |
4240094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Microsoft | History of Microsoft | Microsoft is a multinational computer technology corporation. Microsoft was founded on April 4, 1975, by Bill Gates and Paul Allen in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Its current best-selling products are the Microsoft Windows operating system; Microsoft Office, a suite of productivity software; Xbox, a line of entertainment of games, music, and video; Bing, a line of search engines; and Microsoft Azure, a cloud services platform.
In 1980, Microsoft formed a partnership with IBM to bundle Microsoft's operating system with IBM computers; with that deal, IBM paid Microsoft a royalty for every sale. In 1985, IBM requested Microsoft to develop a new operating system for their computers called OS/2. Microsoft produced that operating system, but also continued to sell their own alternative, which proved to be in direct competition with OS/2. Microsoft Windows eventually overshadowed OS/2 in terms of sales. When Microsoft launched several versions of Microsoft Windows in the 1990s, they had captured over 90% market share of the world's personal computers.
As of June 30, 2015, Microsoft has a global annual revenue of US$86.83 (~$ in ) Billion and 128,076 employees worldwide. It develops, manufactures, licenses, and supports a wide range of software products for computing devices.
1975–1985: The founding of Microsoft
In late 1974, Paul Allen, a programmer at Honeywell, was walking through Harvard Square when he saw the cover of the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics that demonstrated the Altair 8800, the first microcomputer. Allen bought the magazine and rushed to Currier House at Harvard College, where he showed it to high school friend Bill Gates. They saw potential to develop an implementation of BASIC for the system.
Gates called Altair manufacturer Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), offering to demonstrate the implementation. Allen and Gates had neither an interpreter nor an Altair system, yet in the eight weeks before the demo, they developed an interpreter with the help of Monte Davidoff. When Allen flew to Albuquerque to meet with MITS, the interpreter worked and MITS agreed to distribute Altair BASIC. Allen moved to Albuquerque, Gates soon quit Harvard to join him, and they co-founded Microsoft there. Revenues of the company totalled $16,005 by the end of 1976.
Allen came up with the original name of Micro-Soft, a portmanteau of microcomputer and software. Hyphenated in its early incarnations, on November 26, 1976, the company was registered under that name with the Secretary of State of New Mexico. The first employee Gates and Allen hired was their high school collaborator Ric Weiland. The company's first international office was founded on November 1, 1978, in Japan, entitled "ASCII Microsoft" (now called "Microsoft Japan"), and on November 29, 1979, the term, "Microsoft" was first used by Bill Gates. On January 1, 1979, the company moved from Albuquerque to a new home in Bellevue, Washington, since it was hard to recruit top programmers to Albuquerque. Shortly before the move, 11 of the then-13 employees posed for the staff photo on the right.
Steve Ballmer joined the company on June 11, 1980, and would later succeed Bill Gates as CEO from January 2000 until February 2014. The company restructured on June 25, 1981, to become an incorporated business in its home state of Washington (with a further change of its name to "Microsoft Corporation, Inc."). As part of the restructuring, Bill Gates became president of the company and chairman of the board, and Paul Allen became executive vice president and vice chairman. In 1983, Allen left the company after receiving a Hodgkin lymphoma diagnosis, though he remained on the board as vice-chairman. This effectively ended the formal business partnership between Gates and Allen, which had been strained months prior due to a contentious dispute over Microsoft equity. Later in the decade, Gates and Allen repaired their relationship and together the two donated millions to their childhood school Lakeside. They remained friends until Allen's death in October 2018.
Microsoft's early products were different variants of Microsoft BASIC which was the dominant programming language in late 1970s and early 1980s home computers such as Apple II (Applesoft BASIC) and Commodore 64 (Commodore BASIC), and were also provided with early versions of the IBM PC as the IBM Cassette BASIC.
Microsoft also marketed through an Apple dealer in West Palm Beach, Florida two products for the Radio-Shack TRS-80. One was "Typing Tutor" which led the user through learning to use a keyboard. The other was authored by a professor at the University of Hawaii called "MuMATH" and had the ability to do mathematics in long integer math to avoid floating point numbers.
The first hardware product was the Z-80 SoftCard which enabled the Apple II to run the CP/M operating system, at the time an industry-standard operating system for running business software and many compilers and interpreters for several high-level languages on microcomputers. The SoftCard was first demonstrated publicly at the West Coast Computer Faire in March 1980. It was an immediate success; 5,000 cards, a large number given the microcomputer market at the time, were purchased in the initial three months at $349 (~$ in ) each and it was Microsoft's number one revenue source in 1980.
The first operating system publicly released by the company was a variant of Unix announced on August 25, 1980. Acquired from AT&T through a distribution license, Microsoft dubbed it Xenix, and hired Santa Cruz Operation in order to port/adapt the operating system to several platforms. This Unix variant would become home to the first version of Microsoft's word processor, Microsoft Word. Originally titled "Multi-Tool Word", Microsoft Word became notable for its use of "What You See Is What You Get", or WYSIWYG pioneered by the Xerox Alto and the Bravo text editor in the 1970s.
Word was first released in the spring of 1983, and free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World, making it one of the first programs to be distributed on-disk with a magazine. (Earlier magazine on-disk distributions included Robert Uiterwyk's BASIC in the May 1977 issue of Information Age.) However, Xenix was never sold to end users directly although it was licensed to many software OEMs for resale. It grew to become the most popular version of Unix, measured by the number of machines running it (note that Unix is a multi-user operating system, allowing simultaneous access to a machine by several users). By the mid-1980s Microsoft had gotten out of the Unix business, except for its ownership stake in SCO.
IBM first approached Microsoft about its upcoming IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC) in July 1980, shortly after Gates's mother began working on United Way's executive board with IBM CEO John Opel. On August 12, 1981, after negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a contract to Microsoft to provide a version of the CP/M operating system, which was set to be used in the IBM PC. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products for less than US$100,000, which IBM renamed to IBM PC DOS. The original CP/M was made by Gary Kildall of Digital Research, Inc. Due to potential copyright infringement problems with CP/M, IBM marketed both CP/M and PC DOS for US$240 and US$40, respectively, with PC DOS eventually becoming the standard because of its lower price. Thirty-five of the company's 100 employees worked on the IBM project for more than a year. When the IBM PC debuted, Microsoft was the only company that offered operating system, programming language, and application software for the new computer. The IBM PC DOS is also known as MS-DOS.
InfoWorld stated in 1984 that Microsoft, with $55 million (~$ in ) in 1983 sales,
In 1983, in collaboration with numerous companies, Microsoft created a home computer system, MSX, which contained its own version of the DOS operating system, called MSX-DOS; this became relatively popular in Japan, Europe and South America. Later, the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones after Columbia Data Products successfully cloned the IBM BIOS, quickly followed by Eagle Computer and Compaq. The deal with IBM allowed Microsoft to have control of its own QDOS derivative, MS-DOS, and through aggressive marketing of the operating system to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones Microsoft rose from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry. With the release of the Microsoft Mouse on May 2, 1983, Microsoft continued to expand its product line in other markets. This expansion included Microsoft Press, a book publishing division, on July 11 the same year, which debuted with two titles: Exploring the IBM PCjr Home Computer by Peter Norton, and The Apple Macintosh Book by Cary Lu.
1985–1994: Windows and Office
Ireland became home to one of Microsoft's international production facilities in 1985, and on November 20 Microsoft released its first retail version of Microsoft Windows (Windows 1.0), originally a graphical extension for its MS-DOS operating system. In August, Microsoft and IBM partnered in the development of a different operating system called OS/2. OS/2 was marketed in connection with a new hardware design proprietary to IBM, the PS/2. On February 16, 1986, Microsoft relocated their headquarters to a corporate office campus in Redmond, Washington. Around one month later, on March 13, the company went public with an IPO, raising US$61 million at US$21.00 per share. By the end of the trading day, the price had risen to US$28.00. In 1987, Microsoft eventually released their first version of OS/2 to OEMs. By then the company was the world's largest producer of software for personal computers—ahead of former leader Lotus Development—and published the three most-popular Macintosh business applications. That year the company purchased Forethought, the developer of PowerPoint and Microsoft's first major software acquisition on the 30th July 1987.
Meanwhile, Microsoft began introducing its most prominent office products. Microsoft Works, an integrated office program which combined features typically found in a word processor, spreadsheet, database and other office applications, saw its first release as an application for the Apple Macintosh towards the end of 1986. Microsoft Works would later be sold with other Microsoft products including Microsoft Word and Microsoft Bookshelf, a reference collection introduced in 1987 that was the company's first CD-ROM product. Later, on August 8, 1989, Microsoft introduced its most successful office product, Microsoft Office. Unlike the model of Microsoft Works, Microsoft Office was a bundle of separate office productivity applications, such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel and so forth. While Microsoft Word and Microsoft Office were mostly developed internally, Microsoft also continued its trend of rebranding products from other companies, such as Microsoft SQL Server on January 13, 1988, a relational database management system for companies that was based on technology licensed from Sybase.
On May 22, 1990, Microsoft launched Windows 3.0. The new version of Microsoft's operating system boasted new features such as streamlined graphic user interface GUI and improved protected mode ability for the Intel 386 processor; it sold over 100,000 copies in two weeks. Windows at the time generated more revenue for Microsoft than OS/2, and the company decided to move more resources from OS/2 to Windows. In an internal memo to Microsoft employees on May 16, 1991, Bill Gates announced that the OS/2 partnership was over, and that Microsoft would henceforth focus its platform efforts on Windows and the Windows NT kernel. Some people, especially developers who had ignored Windows and committed most of their resources to OS/2, were taken by surprise, and accused Microsoft of deception. This changeover from OS/2 was frequently referred to in the industry as "the head-fake". In the recent years, the popularity of OS/2 declined, and Windows quickly became the favored PC platform. 1991 also marked the founding of Microsoft Research, an organization in Microsoft for researching computer science subjects, and Microsoft Visual Basic, a popular development product for companies and individuals.
During the transition from MS-DOS to Windows, the success of Microsoft's product Microsoft Office allowed the company to gain ground on application-software competitors, such as WordPerfect and Lotus 1-2-3. Novell, an owner of WordPerfect for a time, alleged that Microsoft used its inside knowledge of the DOS and Windows kernels and of undocumented Application Programming Interface features to make Office perform better than its competitors. Eventually, Microsoft Office became the dominant business suite, with a market share far exceeding that of its competitors. In March 1992, Microsoft released Windows 3.1 along with its first promotional campaign on TV; the software sold over three million copies in its first two months on the market. In October, Windows for Workgroups 3.1 was released with integrated networking abilities such as peer-to-peer file and printing sharing. In November, Microsoft released the first version of their popular database software Microsoft Access.
By 1993, Windows had become the most widely used GUI operating system in the world. Fortune Magazine named Microsoft as the "1993 Most Innovative Company Operating in the U.S." The year also marked the end of a five-year copyright infringement legal case brought by Apple Computer, dubbed Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., in which the ruling was in Microsoft's favor. Microsoft also released Windows for Workgroups 3.11, a new version of the consumer line of Windows, and Windows NT 3.1, a server-based operating system with a similar user interface to consumer versions of the operating system, but with an entirely different kernel. As part of its strategy to broaden its business, Microsoft released Microsoft Encarta on March 22, 1993, the first encyclopedia designed to run on a computer. Soon after, the Microsoft Home brand was introduced – encompassing Microsoft's new multimedia applications for Windows 3.x., Microsoft changed its slogan to "Where do you want to go today?" in 1994 as part of an attempt to appeal to nontechnical audiences in a US$100 million (~$ in ) advertising campaign.
1995–2007: Foray into the Web, Windows 95, Windows XP, and Xbox
Microsoft continued to make strategic decisions directed at consumers. The company released Microsoft Bob, a graphical user interface designed for novice computer users, in March 1995. The interface was discontinued in 1996 due to poor sales; Bill Gates later attributed its failure to hardware requirements that were too high for typical computers, and is widely regarded as one of Microsoft's most unsuccessful products. DreamWorks SKG and Microsoft formed a new company, DreamWorks Interactive (in 2000 acquired by Electronic Arts which named it EA Los Angeles), to produce interactive and multimedia entertainment properties. On August 24, 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a new version of the company's flagship operating system which featured a completely new user interface, including a novel start button; more than a million copies were sold in the first four days after its release.
Windows 95 was released without a web browser as Microsoft had not yet developed one. The success of the web caught them by surprise and they subsequently approached Spyglass to license their browser as Internet Explorer. Spyglass went on to later dispute the terms of the agreement, as Microsoft was to pay a royalty for every copy sold. However, Microsoft sold no copies of Internet Explorer, choosing instead to bundle it for free with the operating system.
Internet Explorer was first included in the Windows 95 Plus! Pack that was released in August 1995. In September, the Chinese government chose Windows to be the operating system of choice in that country, and entered into an agreement with the company to standardize a Chinese version of the operating system. Microsoft also released the Microsoft Sidewinder 3D Pro joystick in an attempt to further expand its profile in the computer hardware market.
On May 26, 1995, Bill Gates sent the "Internet Tidal Wave" memorandum to Microsoft executives. The memo described Netscape with their Netscape Navigator as a "new competitor 'born' on the Internet". The memo outlines Microsoft's failure to grasp the Internet's importance, and in it Gates assigned "the Internet the highest level of importance" from then on. Microsoft began to expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. On August 24, 1995, it launched a major online service, MSN (Microsoft Network), as a direct competitor to AOL. MSN became an umbrella service for Microsoft's online services, using Microsoft Passport (now called a Microsoft account) as a universal login system for all of its web sites. The company continued to branch out into new markets in 1996, starting with a joint venture with NBC to create a new 24-hour cable news television station, MSNBC. The station was launched on July 15, 1996, to compete with similar news outlets such as CNN. Microsoft also launched Slate, an online magazine edited by Michael Kinsley, which offered political and social commentary along with the cartoon Doonesbury. In an attempt to extend its reach in the consumer market, the company acquired WebTV, which enabled consumers to access the Web from their televisions.
Microsoft entered the personal digital assistant (PDA) market in November with Windows CE 1.0, a new built-from-scratch version of their flagship operating system, designed to run on low-memory, low-performance machines, such as handhelds and other small computers. 1996 saw the release of Windows NT 4.0, which brought the Windows 95 GUI and Windows NT kernel together.
While Microsoft largely failed to participate in the rise of the Internet in the early 1990s, some of the key technologies in which the company had invested to enter the Internet market started to pay off by the mid-90s. One of the most prominent of these was ActiveX, an application programming interface built on the Microsoft Component Object Model (COM); this enabled Microsoft and others to embed controls in many programming languages, including the company's own scripting languages, such as JScript and VBScript. ActiveX included frameworks for documents and server solutions. The company also released the Microsoft SQL Server 6.5, which had built-in support for internet applications. In November 1996, Microsoft Office 97 was released, which is the first version to include Office Assistant. In 1997, Internet Explorer 4.0 was released, marking the beginning of the takeover of the browser market from rival Netscape, and by agreement with Apple Computer, Internet Explorer was bundled with the Apple Macintosh operating system as well as with Windows. Windows CE 2.0, the handheld version of Windows, was released this year, including a host of bug fixes and new features designed to make it more appealing to corporate customers. In October, the Justice Department filed a motion in the federal district court in which they stated that Microsoft had violated an agreement signed in 1994, and asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows.
The year 1998 was significant in Microsoft's history, with Bill Gates appointing Steve Ballmer as president of Microsoft but remaining as Chair and CEO himself. The company released an update to the consumer version of Windows, Windows 98. Windows 98 came with Internet Explorer 4.0 SP1 (which had Windows Desktop Update bundled), and included new features from Windows 95 OSR 2.x including the FAT32 file system, and new features designed for Windows 98, such as support for multiple displays. Microsoft launched its Indian headquarters as well, which would eventually become the company's second largest after its U.S. headquarters. Finally, a great deal of controversy took place when a set of internal memos from the company were leaked on the Internet. These documents, colloquially referred to as "The Halloween Documents", were widely reported by the media and went into detail of the threats that free software / open source software poses to Microsoft's own software, previously voiced mainly by analysts and advocates of open source software. The documents also alluded to legal and other actions against Linux as well as other open source software. While Microsoft acknowledged the documents, it claimed that they are merely engineering studies. Despite this, some believe that these studies were used in the real strategies of the company.
Microsoft, in 2000, released new products for all three lines of the company's flagship operating system, and saw the beginning of the end of one of its most prominent legal cases. On February 17, Microsoft released an update to its business line of software in Windows 2000. It provided a high level of stability similar to that of its Unix counterparts due to its usage of the Windows NT kernel, and matching features found in the consumer line of the Windows operating system including a DOS emulator that could run many legacy DOS applications.
On April 3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of United States v. Microsoft Corp., calling the company an "abusive monopoly" and forcing the company to split into two separate units. Part of this ruling was later overturned by a federal appeals court, and eventually settled with the U.S. Department of Justice in 2001. On June 15, 2000, the company released a new version of its hand-held operating system, Windows CE 3.0. The main change was the new programming APIs of the software. Previous versions of Windows CE supported only a small subset of the WinAPI, the main development library for Windows, and with Version 3 of Windows CE, the operating system now supported nearly all of the core functionality of the WinAPI. The next update to the consumer line, Windows ME (or Windows Millennium Edition), was released on September 14, 2000. It sported several new features such as enhanced multimedia abilities and consumer-oriented PC maintenance options, but is often regarded as one of the worst versions of Windows due to stability problems, restricted real mode DOS support and other issues.
Microsoft released Windows XP and Office XP in 2001, a version that aimed to encompass the features of both its business and home product lines. The release included an updated version of the Windows 2000 kernel, enhanced DOS emulation abilities, and many of the home-user features found in previous consumer versions. XP introduced a new graphical user interface, the first such change since Windows 95. The operating system was the first to require Microsoft Product Activation, an anti-piracy mechanism that requires users to activate the software with Microsoft within 30 days. Later, Microsoft would enter the multibillion-dollar game console market dominated by Sony and Nintendo, with the release of the Xbox. The Xbox finished behind the dominant PlayStation 2 selling 24 million units compared to 155 million overall; however they managed to outsell the GameCube which sold 21 million units. Microsoft launched their second console, the Xbox 360, in 2005 – which was more successful than the original. By 2017 the Xbox 360 had sold 84 million units but failed to outsell its main rival, the PlayStation 3, which sold 87 million units when discontinued. The console was also outsold by the Wii which introduced gesture control and opened up a new market for video games. Microsoft later used their popular controller-free Kinect peripheral to increase the popularity of the Xbox. This was very successful. Kinect was the fastest selling consumer electronics product in history. It sold 8 million units from November 4, 2010, to January 3, 2011, (its first 60 days). It averaged 133,333 units per day, outselling the iPhone and iPad over equivalent post-launch periods.
In 2002, Microsoft launched the .NET initiative, along with new versions of some of its development products, such as Microsoft Visual Studio. The initiative has been an entirely new development API for Windows programming, and included a new programming language, C#. Windows Server 2003 was launched, featuring enhanced administration abilities, such as new user interfaces to server tools. In 2004, the company released Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, a version of Windows XP designed for multimedia abilities, and Windows XP Starter Edition, a version of Windows XP with a smaller feature set designed for entry-level consumers. However, Microsoft encountered more turmoil in March 2004 when antitrust legal action would be brought against it by the European Union for allegedly abusing its market dominance (see Microsoft Corp. v. Commission). Eventually Microsoft was fined €497 million (US$613 million), ordered to divulge certain protocols to competitors, and to produce a new version of its Windows XP platform—called Windows XP Home Edition N—that did not include its Windows Media Player. Microsoft was also ordered to produce separate packages of Windows after South Korea also landed a settlement against the company in 2005. It had to pay out US$32 million and produce more than one version of Windows for the country in the same vein as the European Union-one with Windows Media Player and Windows Messenger and one without the two programs.
In guise of competing with other Internet Companies such as the search service Google, in 2005 Microsoft announced a new version of its MSN search service. Later, in 2006, the company launched Microsoft adCenter, a service that offers pay per click advertisements, in an effort to further develop their search marketing revenue. Soon afterward, Microsoft created the CodePlex collaborative development site for hosting open source projects. Activity grew quickly as developers from around the world began to participate, and by early 2007 commercial open source companies, such as Aras Corp. began to offer enterprise open source software exclusively on the Microsoft platform.
On June 15, 2006, Bill Gates announced his plans for a two-year transition period out of a day-to-day role with Microsoft until July 31, 2008. After that date, Gates will continue in his role as the company's chairman, head of the board of directors and act as an adviser on key projects. His role as Chief Software Architect will be filled immediately by Ray Ozzie, the Chief Technical Officer of the company as of June 15, 2006. Bill Gates stated "My announcement is not a retirement – it's a reordering of my priorities."
2007–2011: Microsoft Azure, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Microsoft Stores
Formerly codenamed "Longhorn" in the early development stages, Windows Vista was released to consumers on January 30, 2007. Microsoft also released a new version of its Office suite, called Microsoft Office 2007, alongside Windows Vista. Windows Server 2008 and Visual Studio 2008, the next versions of the company's server operating system and development suite, respectively, were released on February 27, 2008. Windows Vista was criticized for being heavy and needing large amounts of power to run the desktop widgets and the Aero theme. Many people continued to use Windows XP for many years after, due to its stability and low processing needs.
On December 19, 2007, Microsoft signed a five-year, $500 million (~$ in ) contract with Viacom that included content sharing and advertisements. The deal allowed Microsoft to license many shows from Viacom owned cable television and film studios for use on Xbox Live and MSN. The deal also made Viacom a preferred publisher partner for casual game development and distribution through MSN and Windows. On the advertisement side of the deal, Microsoft's Atlas ad-serving division became the exclusive provider of previously unsold advertising inventory on Viacom owned web sites. Microsoft also purchased a large amount of advertising on Viacom owned broadcasts and online networks, and collaborated on promotions and sponsorships for MTV and BET award shows, two Viacom owned cable networks.
In 2008, Microsoft wanted to purchase Yahoo (first completely, later partially) in order to strengthen its position on the search engine market vis-à-vis Google. The company rejected the offer, saying that it undervalued the company. In response, Microsoft withdrew its offer.
In 2009, the opening show of the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) was hosted by Steve Ballmer for the first time. In past years, it has been hosted by Bill Gates. During the show, Ballmer announced the first public Beta Test of Windows 7 for partners and developers on January 8, but also for the general public two days later. On June 26, 2009, Microsoft started taking pre-orders at a discounted price for Windows 7 which was launched on October 22, 2009. Windows 7 has several editions, which acknowledge the rise of netbook computers with reduced processing power.
On April 12, 2010, Microsoft launched their Kin phone line, a result of their acquisition of Danger Incorporated in 2008. The phones became available May 14, 2010, but were discontinued within two months because of poor sales.
On May 10, 2011, the company acquired Skype Technologies for US$8.5 billion (~$ in ).
2011–2014: Windows 8, Xbox One, Outlook.com, and Surface devices
Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft underwent a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012—the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopted the principles and concepts of the Metro design language. Microsoft previewed Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011. A developer preview was released on September 13, and was replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012. On May 31, 2012, the preview version was released. On June 18, 2012, Microsoft unveiled the Surface, the first computer in the company's history to have its hardware made by Microsoft. On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network Yammer. On July 31, 2012, Microsoft launched the Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail. On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows Server 2012.
In July 2012, Microsoft sold its 50% stake in MSNBC.com, which it had run as a joint venture with NBC since 1996. On October 1, Microsoft announced its intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look MSN, at the time of the Windows 8 launch that was later in the month. On October 26, 2012, Microsoft launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface. Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched. To cope with the potential for an increase in demand for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of "holiday stores" across the U.S. to complement the increasing number of "bricks-and-mortar" Microsoft Stores that opened in 2012. On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent Tracker.
The Kinect, a motion-sensing input device made by Microsoft and designed as a video game controller, was first introduced in November 2010, and was upgraded for the 2013 release of the eighth-generation Xbox One video game console. Kinect's capabilities were revealed in May 2013. The new Kinect uses an ultra-wide 1080p camera, which can function in the dark due to an infrared sensor. It employs higher-end processing power and new software, can distinguish between fine movements (such as a thumb movements), and can determine a user's heart rate by looking at his/her face. Microsoft filed a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan to make the viewing experience more interactive. On July 19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suffered its biggest one-day percentage sell-off since the year 2000 after its fourth-quarter report raised concerns among the investors on the poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet; with more than 11 percentage points declining Microsoft suffered a loss of more than US$32 billion. For the 2010 fiscal year, Microsoft had five product divisions: Windows Division, Server and Tools, Online Services Division, Microsoft Business Division and Entertainment and Devices Division.
On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia's mobile unit for $7 billion (~$ in ). Also in 2013, Amy Hood became the CFO of Microsoft. The Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) was launched in October 2013 and Microsoft was part of the coalition of public and private organizations that also included Facebook, Intel and Google. Led by World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more affordable so that access is broadened in the developing world, where only 31% of people are online. Google will help to decrease Internet access prices so that they fall below the UN Broadband Commission's worldwide target of 5% of monthly income. In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013, Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business into four new business divisions by function: Operating System, Apps, Cloud, and Devices. All previous divisions were diluted into new divisions without any workforce cuts.
In 2014, Microsoft exhibited a snapshot of their 1994 website as a twenty-year anniversary.
2014–2020: Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, Microsoft Edge and HoloLens
On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division. On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, with Bill Gates stepping down from the position, while continuing to participate as a technology advisor. On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion (~$ in ). The new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy. In May 2016, the company announced it will lay off 1,850 workers, taking an impairment and restructuring charge of $950 million (~$ in ). During the previous summer of 2015 the company wrote down $7.6 billion (~$ in ) related to its mobile-phone business and fired 7,800 employees from those operations. On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for its wildly popular flagship game Minecraft, for $2.5 billion (~$ in ).
On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub (part of the Surface family). On July 29, 2015, Microsoft released the next version of the Windows operating system, Windows 10. The successor to Windows Phone 8.1, Windows 10 Mobile, was released November 20, 2015. In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones selling 33 million units (7.2% of all), while a large majority (at least 75%) of them do not run any version of Windows Phone those other phones are not categorized as smartphones by Gartner in the same time frame 8 million Windows smartphones (2.5% of all smartphones) were made by all manufacturers (but mostly by Microsoft). Microsoft's share of the U.S. smartphone market in January 2016 was 2.7%.
On March 1, 2016, Microsoft announced the merge of its PC and Xbox divisions, with Phil Spencer announcing that Universal Windows Platform (UWP) apps would be the focus for Microsoft's gaming in the future. In June 2016, Microsoft announced a project named Microsoft Azure Information Protection. It aims to help enterprises protect their data as it moves between servers and devices. The server sibling to Windows 10, Windows Server 2016, was released in September 2016. In November 2016, Microsoft joined the Linux Foundation as a Platinum member during Microsoft's Connect(); developer event in New York. The cost of each Platinum membership is US$500,000 per year. Some analysts deemed this unthinkable ten years prior; however in 2001, then-CEO Steve Ballmer called Linux "cancer".
On January 24, 2017, Microsoft showcased Intune for Education at the BETT 2017 education technology conference in London. Intune for Education is a new cloud-based application and device management service for the education sector. Microsoft will launch a preview of Intune for Education "in the coming weeks", with general availability scheduled for spring 2017, priced at $30 (~$ in ) per device, or through volume licensing agreements. On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million (~$ in ).
In August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University, the water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The specific computer programs used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms. On October 8, 2017, Joe Belfiore announced that work on Windows 10 Mobile was drawing to a close due to lack of market penetration and resultant lack of interest from app developers. On October 10, 2018, Microsoft joined the Open Invention Network community despite holding more than 60,000 patents. On October 15, 2018, Paul Allen the co-founder of Microsoft died after complications of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. In November 2018, Microsoft agreed to supply 100,000 HoloLens headsets to the United States military in order to "increase lethality by enhancing the ability to detect, decide and engage before the enemy." In December 2018, Microsoft announced Project Mu, an open source release of the UEFI core used in Microsoft Surface and Hyper-V products. The project promotes the idea of Firmware as a Service. In the same month, Microsoft announced the open source implementation of Windows Forms and the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) which will allow for further movement of the company toward the transparent release of key frameworks used in developing Windows desktop applications and software. December also saw the company rebuilding Microsoft Edge as a Chromium-based browser; it was publicly released on January 15, 2020.
In January 2019, Microsoft announced that support for Windows 10 Mobile would end on December 10, 2019, and that Windows 10 Mobile users should migrate to iOS or Android phones. On February 20, 2019, Microsoft Corp said it will offer its cyber security service AccountGuard to 12 new markets in Europe including Germany, France and Spain, to close security gaps and protect customers in political space from hacking. In February 2019, hundreds of Microsoft employees protested the company's $480 million contract to develop VR headsets for the United States army, calling it war profiteering.
2020–present: Acquisitions, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows 11
On March 26, 2020, Microsoft announced it was acquiring Affirmed Networks for about $1.35 billion (~$ in ). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft closed all of its retail stores indefinitely due to health concerns. On July 22, 2020, Microsoft announced plans to close its Mixer service, planning to move existing partners to Facebook Gaming.
On July 31, 2020, it was reported that Microsoft was in talks to acquire TikTok after the Trump administration ordered ByteDance to divest ownership of the application to the U.S. On August 3, 2020, after speculation on the deal, Donald Trump stated that Microsoft could buy the application, however, it should be completed by September 15, 2020, and that the United States Department of the Treasury should receive a portion if it were to go through.
On August 5, 2020, Microsoft stopped its xCloud game streaming test for iOS devices. According to Microsoft, the future of xCloud on iOS remains unclear and potentially out of Microsoft's hands. Apple has imposed a strict limit on "remote desktop clients" which means applications are only allowed to connect to a user-owned host device or gaming console owned by the user. On September 21, 2020, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire video game company ZeniMax Media, the parent company of Bethesda Softworks, for about $7.5 billion, with the deal expected to occur in the second half of 2021 fiscal year. On March 9, 2021, the acquisition was finalized and ZeniMax Media became part of Microsoft's Xbox Game Studios division. The total price of the deal was $8.1 billion.
On September 22, 2020, Microsoft announced that it had an exclusive license to use OpenAI’s GPT-3 artificial intelligence language generator. The previous version of GPT-3, called GPT-2, made headlines for being “too dangerous to release” and had numerous capabilities, including designing websites, prescribing medication, answering questions, and penning articles. On November 10, 2020, Microsoft released the Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S video game consoles.
In April 2021, Microsoft announced it would buy Nuance Communications for approximately $16 billion (~$ in ). The acquisition of Nuance was completed in March 2022. In 2021, in part due to the strong quarterly earnings spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's valuation came to near $2 trillion. The increased necessity for remote work and distance education drove demand for cloud computing and grew the company's gaming sales.
On June 24, 2021, Microsoft announced Windows 11 during a Livestream. The announcement came with confusion after Microsoft announced Windows 10 would be the last version of the operating system; set to be released in the third quarter of 2021. It was released to the general public on October 5, 2021.
In early September 2021, it was announced that the company had acquired Takelessons, an online platform which connects students and tutors in numerous subjects. The acquisition positioned Microsoft to grow its presence in the market of providing an online education to large numbers of people. In the same month, Microsoft acquired Australia-based video editing software company Clipchamp.
In October 2021, Microsoft announced that it began rolling out end-to-end encryption (E2EE) support for Microsoft Teams calls in order to secure business communication while using video conferencing software. Users can ensure that their calls are encrypted and can utilize a security code that both parties on a call must verify on their respective ends. On October 7, Microsoft acquired Ally.io, a software service that measures companies' progress against OKRs. Microsoft plans to incorporate Ally.io into its Viva family of employee experience products.
On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced the acquisition of American video game developer and holding company Activision Blizzard in an all-cash deal worth $68.7 billion. Activision Blizzard is best known for producing franchises, including but not limited to Warcraft, Diablo, Call of Duty, StarCraft, Candy Crush Saga, Crash Bandicoot, Spyro the Dragon, Skylanders, and Overwatch. Activision and Microsoft each released statements saying the acquisition was to benefit their businesses in the metaverse, many saw Microsoft's acquisition of video game studios as an attempt to compete against Meta Platforms, with TheStreet referring to Microsoft wanting to become "the Disney of the metaverse". Microsoft has not released statements regarding Activision's recent legal controversies regarding employee abuse, but reports have alleged that Activision CEO Bobby Kotick, a major target of the controversy, will leave the company after the acquisition is finalized. The deal was closed on October 13, 2023.
In December 2022, Microsoft announced a new 10-year deal with the London Stock Exchange for products including Microsoft Azure; Microsoft acquired ~4% of the latter company as part of the deal.
In January 2023, CEO Satya Nadella announced Microsoft would lay off some 10,000 employees. The announcement came a day after hosting a Sting concert for 50 people, including Microsoft executives, in Davos, Switzerland.
In January 23, 2023, Microsoft announced a new multi-year, multi-billion dollar investment deal with ChatGPT developer OpenAI.
See also
History of Microsoft Windows
History of Microsoft Word
Microsoft litigation
Embrace, extend, and extinguish
References
External links
The History of Microsoft at Channel 9
Bill Gates Money In Realtime
Inside The Deal That Made Bill Gates $350,000,000 , Bro Uttal, Fortune, July 21, 1986, reprinted on March 13, 2011
The History of Microsoft and Bill Gates – Timeline, Rahul Vijay Manekari, February 2, 2013
Microsoft
Microsoft
History of the Internet
Business duos |
4240508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Rules%20of%20Northern%20Ireland%2C%202005 | List of Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland, 2005 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland in 2005.
1-100
Road Vehicles Lighting (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 1)
Employer's Liability (Compulsory Insurance) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 2)
Firearms (Appeals and Applications) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 3)
Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Commencement and Transitional Provisions) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 4)
Farm Nutrient Management Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 5)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Cross Compliance) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 6)
Salaries (Comptroller and Auditor General) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 11)
Employment Rights (Increase of Limits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 12)
Social Security (Claims and Payments and Payments on account, Overpayments and Recovery) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 14)
Social Security (Incapacity for Work) (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 15)
Social Security Pensions (Home Responsibilities) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 16)
Sweeteners in Food (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 18)
Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 19)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Winding Up, Deficiency on Winding Up and Transfer Values) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 20)
Rates (Regional Rates) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 21)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 22)
Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 23)
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 25)
Weights and Measures (Standards Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 26)
Weighing Equipment (Automatic Gravimetric Filling Instruments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 27)
Beef Carcase (Classification) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 28)
Registered Rents (Increase) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 29)
Food (Pistachios from Iran) (Emergency Control) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 30)
Energy (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 3) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 31)
Water Resources (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 32)
Social Security Revaluation of Earnings Factors Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 33)
Social Security Pensions (Low Earnings Threshold) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 34)
Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 35)
Salaries (Assembly Ombudsman and Commissioner for Complaints) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 36)
Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Prescribed Diseases) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 37)
Renewables Obligation Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 38)
Seeds (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 40)
Regulation and Improvement Authority (Consultation on Transfer of Staff) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 43)
Health and Personal Social Services (Quality, Improvement and Regulation) (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 3 & Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 44)
Diving at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 45)
Social Security, Child Support and Tax Credits (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 46)
Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 47)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 1 and Consequential and Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 48)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 49)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 51)
Organic Farming (Conversion of Animal Housing) (Amendment) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 52)
Tuberculosis Control (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 53)
Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000 (Continuance of Office of Commissioner) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 54)
Pension Protection Fund (Partially Guaranteed Schemes) (Modification) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 55)
Directors' Remuneration Report Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 56)
Companies (Summary Financial Statement) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 57)
Pneumoconiosis, etc., (Workers' Compensation) (Payment of Claims) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 59)
Road Traffic (Health Services Charges) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 60)
Companies (1986 Order) (Operating and Financial Review and Directors' Report etc.) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 61)
Statutory Maternity Pay (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 62)
Pharmaceutical Society of Northern Ireland (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 63)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 65)
Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 66)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 67)
Gas (Designation of Pipelines) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 68)
Financial Assistance for Young Farmers Scheme Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 69)
Dairy Produce Quotas Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 70)
Optical Charges and Payments and General Ophthalmic Services (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 71)
Dental Charges (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 72)
Employment Relations (2004 Order) (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 73)
Feeding Stuffs (Establishments and Intermediaries) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 74)
Colours in Food (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 75)
Smoke Flavourings Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 76)
Industrial Pollution Control (1997 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 77)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 78)
Crown Court (Prosecution Appeals) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 79)
Crown Court (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 80)
Guaranteed Minimum Pensions Increase Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 81)
Social Security Benefits Up-rating Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 82)
Pension Protection Fund (Eligible Schemes) Appointed Day Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 83)
Pension Protection Fund (Hybrid Schemes) (Modification) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 84)
Contracting-out, Protected Rights and Safeguarded Rights (Transfer Payment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 85)
Transfrontier Shipment of Waste (Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 90)
Pension Protection Fund (Multi-employer Schemes) (Modification) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 91)
Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes (General Levy) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 92 )
Register of Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 93)
Transfer of Employment (Pension Protection) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 94)
Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Dependency) (Permitted Earnings Limits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 95)
Social Security Benefits Up-rating Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 96)
Charges for Drugs and Appliances (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 97)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 98)
Regulation and Improvement Authority (Registration) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 99)
101-200
Local Government (General Grant) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 101)
Pensions Increase (Review) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 102)
Health and Personal Social Services (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 103)
Protection of Children and Vulnerable Adults (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 104)
Protection of Children and Vulnerable Adults (Definitions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 105)
Less Favoured Area Compensatory Allowances Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 106)
Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 107)
Pensions Appeal Tribunals (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) Rules 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 108)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 8) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 109)
Stakeholder Pension Schemes (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 110)
Access to Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (Commencement No. 3, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 111)
Legal Aid for Crown Court Proceedings (Costs) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 112)
Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings (Costs) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 113)
Pensions Regulator (Freezing Orders and Consequential Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 114)
Measuring Instruments (EEC Requirements) (Verification Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 117)
Weights and Measures (Passing as Fit for Use for Trade and Adjustment Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 118)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 119)
Social Security (Deferral of Retirement Pensions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 120)
Social Security (Graduated Retirement Benefit) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 121)
Social Security (Claims and Payments) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 122)
Social Security (Retirement Pensions etc.) (Transitional Provisions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 123)
Social Security (Inherited SERPS) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 124)
Child Support (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 125)
Pension Protection Fund (Entry Rules) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 126)
Pension Protection Fund (Reviewable Matters) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 127)
Pension Protection Fund (Maladministration) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 128)
Pension Protection Fund (Provision of Information) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 129)
Pension Protection Fund (Reviewable Ill Health Pensions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 130)
Pension Protection Fund (Valuation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 131)
Salmonella in Laying Flocks (Survey Powers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 132)
Education and Libraries (2003 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 133)
Statutory Maternity Pay (General) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 134)
Pension Protection Fund (PPF Ombudsman) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 135)
Pension Protection Fund (Pension Compensation Cap) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 136)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Modification of Pension Protection Provisions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 137)
Pension Protection Fund (Review and Reconsideration of Reviewable Matters) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 138)
Social Security (Claims and Payments) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 139)
Workmen's Compensation (Supplementation) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 142)
County Court (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 143)
Family Proceedings (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 144)
Equal Pay Act 1970 (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 145)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 146)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Levies) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 147)
Housing Benefit (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 148)
Pension Protection Fund (Compensation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 149)
Industrial Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 150)
Fair Employment Tribunal (Rules of Procedure) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 151)
Code of Practice (Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 152)
Prison and Young Offenders Centre (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 153)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation) (Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 154)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 155)
Seed Potatoes (Crop Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 156)
Criminal Appeal (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Rules 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 157)
Criminal Appeal (Retrial for Serious Offences) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 158)
Criminal Appeal (Prosecution Appeals) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 159)
Nursing Homes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 160)
Residential Care Homes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 161)
Magistrates' Courts (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 162)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 2) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 163)
Social Security Commissioners (Procedure) (Child Trust Funds) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 164)
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 165)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 166)
Statutory Paternity Pay and Statutory Adoption Pay (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 167)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Employer Debt) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 168)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Independent Trustee) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 169)
Personal and Occupational Pension Schemes (Indexation and Disclosure of Information) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 170)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Winding up, etc.) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 171)
Pensions Regulator (Notifiable Events) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 172)
Pensions Regulator (Contribution Notices and Restoration Orders) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 173)
Independent Health Care Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 174)
Nursing Agencies Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 175)
Children's Homes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 176)
Electricity Grants (Prescribed Purpose) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 177)
Care Tribunal Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 178)
Teachers' Superannuation (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 181)
Regulation and Improvement Authority (Fees and Frequency of Inspections) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 182)
Feedingstuffs (Zootechnical Products) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 183)
Medicated Feedingstuffs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 184)
Housing Benefit (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 185)
Children Order (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 186)
Gender Recognition Register (Northern Ireland) Regulations 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 187)
Statutory Sick Pay (General) and Statutory Maternity Pay (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 188)
Children Leaving Care (2002 Act) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 189)
Welfare Foods (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 190)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 3) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 191)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 3, Appointed Day, Transitional Provisions and Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 192)
Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes (Pension Liberation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 193)
Pension Protection Fund and Pensions Regulator (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 194)
Food Labelling (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 198)
Contaminants in Food (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 199)
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 200)
201-300
Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 201)
Domestic Energy Efficiency Grants (Amendment No. 4) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 202)
Criminal Justice Act 2003 (Retrial for Serious Offences) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 203)
Plant Health (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 204)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 205)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 206)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Transboundary Movements) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 209)
Materials and Articles in Contact with Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 210)
Road Transport (Passenger Vehicles Cabotage) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 212)
Unfair Arbitration Agreements (Specified Amount) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 219)
Children (Leaving Care) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 221)
Planning (Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 222)
Health and Personal Social Services (2001 Act) (Commencement No. 7) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 226)
Registration of Social Care Workers (Relevant Registers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 227)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Amendment) and Connected Provisions Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 229)
Health and Personal Social Services (General Medical Services Contracts) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 230)
Pharmaceutical Services and Charges for Drugs and Appliances (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 231)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Revocation) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 232)
Feed (Corn Gluten Feed and Brewers Grains) (Emergency Control) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 233)
Salaries (Assembly Ombudsman and Commissioner for Complaints) (No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 234)
Road Transport (Working Time) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 241)
Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 242)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 243)
Education (1998 Order) (Commencement No. 5) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 245)
Education and Libraries (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 246)
Motor Hackney Carriages (Belfast) (Amendment) By-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 248)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 249)
Plant Health (Wood and Bark) (Phytophthora ramorum) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 252)
M2 Improvements (Sandyknowes to Greencastle) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 255)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 256)
Street Works (Inspection Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 259)
Road Traffic Offenders (Prescribed Devices) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 263)
Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 264)
Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 265)
Public Angling Estate Byelaws (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 267)
Countryside Management Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 268)
Lands Tribunal (Salaries) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 269)
Public Service Vehicles (Conditions of Fitness, Equipment and Use) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 270)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Traceability and Labelling) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 271)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Deliberate Release) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 272)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 274)
Rabies (Importation of Dogs, Cats and Other Mammals) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 275)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas Designation Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 276)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Enforcement) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 277)
Information and Communication Technology Grant Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 278)
Work at Height Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 279)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 4) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 280)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 9 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 281)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 282)
Pension Protection Fund (Pension Protection Levies Consultation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 283)
Food (Chilli, Chilli Products, Curcuma and Palm Oil) (Emergency Control) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 284)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Amendment) and Connected Provisions (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 285)
Reporting of Prices of Milk Products Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 286)
Electricity and Gas (Determination of Turnover for Penalties) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 287)
Kava-kava in Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 288)
Student Fees (Amounts) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 290)
Contact Lens (Specification) and Sight Testing (Examination and Prescription) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 291)
General Ophthalmic Services (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 292)
Disability Discrimination Codes of Practice (Employment and Occupation, and Trade Organisations and Qualifications Bodies) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 293)
Industrial Training Levy (Construction Industry) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 294)
Building (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 295)
Dutch Potatoes (Notification) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 296)
Potatoes Originating in the Netherlands (Notification) (Revocation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 297)
Education (Student Support) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 298)
Social Security (Shared Additional Pension) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 299)
Hazardous Waste Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 300)
301-400
List of Wastes Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 301)
Education (School Development Plans) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 303)
Control of Major Accident Hazards (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 305)
Protection of Water Against Agricultural Nitrate Pollution (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 306)
Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings (Costs) (Amendment No. 2) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 307)
Education (Supplement to the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice) (Appointed Day) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 309)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Set-aside) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 310)
General Dental Services (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 311)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 4) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 314)
Children (Leaving Care) (2002 Act) (Commencement No. 2 and Consequential Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 319)
Planning (Hazardous Substances) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 320)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 5 and Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 321)
Education (Student Support) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 323)
Children (Leaving Care) Social Security Benefits Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 324)
Passenger and Goods Vehicles (Recording Equipment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 325)
Court Security Officers (Designation and Employment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 326)
Whole of Government Accounts (Designation of Bodies) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 327)
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 329)
Fish Health (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 330)
Housing Benefit (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 331)
Social Security (Students and Income-related Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 332)
Electricity Order 1992 (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 335)
Special Educational Needs and Disability (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 336)
Special Educational Needs and Disability (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 337)
Special Educational Needs and Disability Tribunal Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 339)
Education (Student Support) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 340)
Police Service of Northern Ireland (Complaints etc.) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 341)
Pension Protection Fund (PPF Ombudsman) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 342)
Pension Protection Fund (Investigation by PPF Ombudsman of Complaints of Maladministration) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 343)
Pension Protection Fund (Reference of Reviewable Matters to the PPF Ombudsman) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 344)
Employment Relations (2004 Order) (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 345)
Shrimp Fishing Nets Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 349)
Sea Fishing (Restriction on Days at Sea) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 350)
Education (Student Loans) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 351)
Planning (Amendment) (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 4) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 352)
Planning (Modification and Discharge of Planning Agreements) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 353)
Food Hygiene Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 356)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 357)
Misuse of Drugs (Designation) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 359)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 360)
Grammar Schools (Charges) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 361)
Social Security (Claims and Payments) (Amendment No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 362)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Winding Up) (Modification for Multi-employer Schemes and Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 363)
Pension Protection Fund (Entry Rules) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 364)
Education Student Fees (Approved Plans) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 367)
Health and Personal Social Services (Primary Medical Services) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 368)
General Medical Services Transitional and Consequential Provisions (No.2) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 369)
Seed Potatoes (Tuber and Label Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 370)
Special Educational Needs and Disability (Educational Institutions) (Alteration of Leasehold Premises) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 371)
Marketing of Potatoes (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 372)
Plant Health (Import Inspection Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 373)
Income-related Benefits (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 374)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Pensions Compensation Board Transitional Adaptations and Savings) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 375)
Industrial Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 376)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Equal Treatment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 377)
Pensions Regulator (Financial Support Directions, etc.) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 378)
Education (Listed Bodies) (Amendment) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 379)
Plant Health (Import Inspection Fees) (Wood and Bark) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 380)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Fraud Compensation Payments and Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 381)
Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 382)
Age-Related Payments Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 383)
Education (Special Educational Needs) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 384)
Honey (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 385)
Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges (Amendment No.2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 386)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Employer Debt, etc.) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 387)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 10) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 391)
Employer's Liability (Compulsory Insurance) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 392)
Social Security (Tax Credits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 393)
Employment Relations (1999 Order) (Commencement No. 8) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 394)
Conduct of Employment Agencies and Employment Businesses Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 395)
Food Labelling (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 396)
Control of Vibration at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 397)
Bankruptcy (Financial Services and Markets Act 2000) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 398)
Insurers (Winding-Up) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 399)
Foyle Area and Carlingford Area (Close Seasons for Angling) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 400)
401-500
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 401)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 402)
Motor Vehicles (Driving Licences) (Amendment) (Test Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 403)
Motor Vehicle Testing (Amendment) (Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 404)
Public Service Vehicles (Licence Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 405)
Goods Vehicles (Testing) (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 406)
Farm Nutrient Management (Amendment) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 407)
Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 408)
Motor Vehicle Testing (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 409)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 6) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 411)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Trust and Retirement Benefits Exemption) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 412)
Pension Schemes (Categories) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 413)
Social Security (Incapacity Benefit Work-focused Interviews) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 414)
Social Security (Incapacity) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 415)
Registration of Fish Buyers and Sellers and Designation of Fish Auction Sites Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 419)
Lay Visitors' Reports Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 420)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Administration and Audited Accounts) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 421)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 424)
Employment Equality (Sex Discrimination) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 426)
Planning (General Development) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 427)
Traffic Signs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 428)
Probation Board for Northern Ireland Victim Information Scheme 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 432)
Civil Partnership (Contracted-out Occupational and Appropriate Personal Pension Schemes) (Surviving Civil Partners) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 433)
Civil Partnership (Pensions and Benefit Payments) (Consequential, etc. Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 434)
Education (Student Loans) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 435)
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (Amendment No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 436)
Smoke Control Areas (Exempted Fireplaces) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 437)
Bovine Products (Restriction on Placing on the Market) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 439)
Tryptophan in Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 440)
Passenger and Goods Vehicles (Recording Equipment) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 441)
Pensions Ombudsman (Disclosure of Information) (Amendment of Specified Persons) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 442)
Social Security (Work-focused Interviews Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 443)
Housing Benefit (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 444)
Education (Student Support) (2005 Regulations) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 445)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 446)
Social Fund (Cold Weather Payments) (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 447)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 5) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 449)
Beef Labelling (Enforcement) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 450)
Animals and Animal Products (Examination for Residues and Maximum Residue Limits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 451)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 452)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 454)
Regulation and Improvement Authority (Inspection of Children, Records and Schools) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 455)
Eel Fishing (Licence Duties) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 456)
Social Security (Residential Care Homes, Nursing Homes and Independent Hospitals) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 458)
Housing Benefit (General) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 459)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 460)
Hazardous Waste (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 461)
List of Wastes (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 462)
Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 463)
Local Government (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 465)
Students Awards (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 466)
Protected Rights (Transfer Payment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 467)
Agriculture (Weather Aid 2002) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 468)
Taxis (Dromore) Bye-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 469)
Civil Partnership (Miscellaneous and Consequential Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 471)
Measuring Equipment (Liquid Fuel and Lubricants) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 472)
Legal Aid (Costs of Successful Unassisted Parties) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 473)
Legal Aid (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 474)
Food Labelling (Amendment No. 2) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 475)
Births, Deaths, Marriages and Civil Partnerships (Fees) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 478)
Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 479)
Courses for Drink-Drive Offenders (Experimental Period) (Termination of Restrictions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 481)
Civil Partnership Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 482)
Dissolution etc. (Pensions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 484)
Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 485)
Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures in Zoos) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 486)
Traffic Signs (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 487)
Salaries (Comptroller and Auditor General) (No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 489)
Housing Benefit (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 4) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 493)
Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (2005 Order) (Commencement and Transitional Saving) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 494)
Teachers' Superannuation (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 495)
Social Security (Inherited SERPS) (Amendments relating to Civil Partnership) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 496)
Family Proceedings (Amendment No. 2) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 497)
Family Proceedings (Civil Partnership: Staying of Proceedings) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 498)
Civil Partnership Proceedings County Courts Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 499)
Legal Aid in Criminal Cases (Statement of Means) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 500)
501-600
Legal Aid (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 501)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 502)
Access to Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (Commencement No. 4) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 503)
Prisoner Release Victim Information (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) Scheme 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 504)
Planning (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 505)
Social Fund Maternity and Funeral Expenses (General) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 506)
Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes (Civil Partnership) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 507)
Occupational Pensions (Revaluation) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 509)
State Pension Credit (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 513)
Company Directors Disqualification (Amendment) (2005 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 514)
Bovine Products (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 515)
Weights and Measures (Miscellaneous Foods) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 516)
Insolvent Companies (Disqualification of Unfit Directors) Proceedings (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 517)
Taxis (Strabane) (Amendment) Bye-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 518)
Welfare Foods (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 519)
Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Amendments to Subordinate Legislation) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 520)
Education (Listed Bodies) (Amendment) (No.2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 521)
Education (Recognised Bodies) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 522)
Health and Safety (Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 523)
Fishery Products (Official Controls Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 524)
Fair Employment (Specification of Public Authorities) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 525)
Plant Protection Products Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 526)
Civil Partnership (Treatment of Overseas Relationships) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 531)
Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Amendments to Subordinate Legislation) (No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 532)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation Scheme, Injury Benefits, Additional Voluntary Contributions and Compensation for Premature Retirement) (Civil Partnership) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. S.R. 2005 No. 533)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. S.R. 2005 No. 534)
Sheep and Goats (Records, Identification and Movement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 535)
Civil Partnership (Pensions, Social Security and Child Support) (Consequential, etc. Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 536)
Railways Infrastructure (Access, Management and Licensing of Railway Undertakings) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 537)
Contaminants in Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 538)
Social Security (Civil Partnership) (Consequential Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 539)
Financial Assistance for Young Farmers Scheme (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 540)
Social Security (Retirement Pensions and Graduated Retirement Benefit) (Widowers and Civil Partnership) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 541)
Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Relationships Arising Through Civil Partnership) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 542)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 7) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 543)
Social Security (Reciprocal Agreements) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 544)
Feeding Stuffs Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 545)
Feed (Hygiene and Enforcement) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 546)
Police Service of Northern Ireland Regulations 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 547)
Fisheries (Amendment) Byelaws (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 548)
Meat (Official Controls Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 549)
Income-related Benefits (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 550)
Provision of Health Services to Persons not Ordinarily Resident Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 551)
Non-Domestic Rating (Hardship Relief) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 552)
Rates (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 553)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 554)
Meat (Examinations for Residues) (Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 556)
Family Proceedings (Amendment No. 3) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 558)
Magistrates' Courts (Miscellaneous Amendments) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 559)
Family Proceedings Fees (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 560)
Supreme Court Fees (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 561)
Foyle Area and Carlingford Area (Licensing of Fishing Engines) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 562)
Misuse of Drugs and the Misuse of Drugs (Notification of and Supply to Addicts) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 564)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation Scheme and Injury Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. S.R. 2005 No. 565)
Street Works (1995 Order) (Commencement No. 7) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. S.R. 2005 No. 566)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Internal Controls) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 567)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Scheme Funding) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 5S.R. 2005 No. 568)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Investment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 569)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Regulatory Own Funds) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 570)
Employment Relations (2004 Order) (Commencement No. 4 and Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 571)
Official Feed and Food Controls Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 574)
Industrial Tribunals (Constitution and Rules of Procedure) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 578)
Fair Employment Tribunal (Rules of Procedure) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 579)
Social Security (Hospital In-Patients) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 580)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Cross-border Activities) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 581)
Social Security (Payments on account, Overpayments and Recovery) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 582)
Salmonella in Broiler Flocks (Survey Powers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 584)
Brucellosis Control (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 585)
Older Cattle (Disposal) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 586)
Dogs (Licensing and Identification) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 587)
Landfill Allowances Scheme (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 588)
Fire Services (Appointments and Promotion) (Revocation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (S.R. 2005 No. 590)
External links
Statutory Rules (NI) List
Draft Statutory Rules (NI) List
2005
Statutory rules
Northern Ireland Statutory Rules |
4240517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Rules%20of%20Northern%20Ireland%2C%202006 | List of Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland, 2006 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland in 2006.
1-100
Control of Noise at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 1)
Official Feed and Food Controls Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 2)
Food Hygiene Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 3)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Consultation by Employers) (Modification for Multi-employer Schemes) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 4)
Weighing Equipment (Non-automatic Weighing Machines) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 5)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Civil Partnership) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 6)
Rates (Regional Rates) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 S.R. 2006 No. 7)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 10)
Criminal Appeal (Retrial for Serious Offences) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 11)
Criminal Appeal (Prosecution Appeals) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 12)
Disability Discrimination (Code of Practice) (Schools) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 16)
Disability Discrimination (Code of Practice) (Further and Higher Education) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 17)
Feeding Stuffs and the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 18)
Police Service of Northern Ireland and Police Service of Northern Ireland Reserve (Full-Time) (Severance) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 19)
Personal Pension Schemes (Appropriate Schemes) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 20)
Insolvency (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 21)
Insolvency (2005 Order) (Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 22)
Insolvency (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 23)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 1989, Article 59A (Appointed Date) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 24)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (Prescribed Part) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 25)
Insolvency (Monetary Limits) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 26)
Access to Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2003 (Commencement No. 5) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 27)
Education (Student Loans) (Repayment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 28)
Higher Education (2005 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 30)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 32)
Insolvency Practitioners Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 33)
Drainage (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 34)
Measuring Instruments (EEC Requirements) (Verification Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 35)
Weights and Measures (Passing as Fit for Use for Trade and Adjustment Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 36)
Pensions (2004 Act and 2005 Order) (PPF Payments and FAS Payments) (Consequential Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 37)
Local Government (General Grant) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 S.R. No. 39)
Diseases of Animals (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 41)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 42)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Control of Vaccination) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No 43)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 44)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 8 and Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 45)
Disability Discrimination (Services and Premises) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 46)
Insolvency (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 47)
Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes (Consultation by Employers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 48)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Early Leavers: Cash Transfer Sums and Contribution Refunds) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 49)
Pension Protection Fund (Pension Compensation Cap) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 50)
Education (Prohibition from Teaching or Working with Children) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 51)
Less Favoured Area Compensatory Allowances Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 52)
Insolvency Practitioners and Insolvency Account (Fees) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 53)
Insolvency (Fees) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 54)
Insolvency (Deposits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 55)
Renewables Obligation Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 57)
Infected Waters (Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis) (Revocation) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 57)
Registered Rents (Increase) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 58)
Dairy Produce Quotas (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 60)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (Minor and Consequential Amendments) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 61)
Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Categories of Offences) Order 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 62)
Criminal Justice (Evidence) (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 63)
Tax Credits (Approval of Home Child Care Providers) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 64)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Republic of Ireland Schemes Exemption (Revocation) and Tax Exempt Schemes (Miscellaneous Amendments)) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 65)
Plant Health (Wood and Bark) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 66)
Road Traffic (Health Services Charges) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 67)
Police (Recruitment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 69)
Social Security (Preparation for Employment Programme 50 to 59 Pilot) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 70)
Social Security Pensions (Low Earnings Threshold) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 71)
Social Security Revaluation of Earnings Factors Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 72)
Taxis (Enniskillen) Bye-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 73)
Public Service Vehicles (Conditions of Fitness, Equipment and Use) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 74)
Employment Rights (Increase of Limits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 75)
Credit Unions (Limit on Membership) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 76)
Credit Unions (Limit on Shares) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 77)
Credit Unions (Deposits and Loans) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 78)
Legal Aid (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 79)
Legal Aid (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 80)
Organic Farming (Conversion of Animal Housing) (Amendment) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 81)
Plant Health Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 82)
Motorways Traffic (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 83)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Pension Protection Levies) (Transitional Period and Modification for Multi-employer Schemes) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 84)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Fraud Compensation Levy) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 85)
Information and Consultation of Employees (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 86)
Pneumoconiosis, etc., (Workers' Compensation) (Payment of Claims) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 87)
Local Government (Accounts and Audit) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 89)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Uncultivated Land and Semi-Natural Areas) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 90)
Social Security (Claims and Payments) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 91)
Pension Protection Fund (Risk-based Pension Protection Levy) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 92)
Companies (Audit, Investigations and Community Enterprise) (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provision) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 93)
Companies (1986 Order) (Operating and Financial Review) (Repeal) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 94)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 9) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. S.R. 2006 No. 95)
Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Prescribed Diseases) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 96)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 97)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 98)
Employment Code of Practice (Access and Unfair Practices during Recognition and Derecognition Ballots) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 100)
101-200
Employment Code of Practice (Industrial Action Ballots and Notice to Employers) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 101)
Health and Personal Social Services (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 103)
Social Security (Deferral of Retirement Pensions, Shared Additional Pension and Graduated Retirement Benefit) (Miscellaneous Provisions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 104)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 105)
Optical Charges and Payments (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 106)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 107)
Guaranteed Minimum Pensions Increase Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. S.R. 2006 No. 108)
Social Security Benefits Up-rating Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 109)
Social Security Benefits Up-rating Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 110)
Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Dependency) (Permitted Earnings Limits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 111)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 112)
Social Security (Deferral of Retirement Pensions etc.) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. S.R. 2006 No. 113)
Game Preservation (Special Protection for Irish Hares) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 114)
Lord Chancellor (Consequential Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 115)
Fish Labelling (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 116)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 117)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 118)
Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 119)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Trustees' Knowledge and Understanding) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 120)
Police Service of Northern Ireland Pensions (Pension Sharing) Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. S.R. 2006 No. 122)
Police Service of Northern Ireland Pensions (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 123)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 (Commencement No. 11) Order 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 124)
Judicial Pensions (Northern Ireland) (Widows' and Children's Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 125)
Judicial Pensions (Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 126)
Pensions Increase (Review) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 127)
Social Security (Young Persons) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 128)
Workmen's Compensation (Supplementation) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 131)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Levy Ceiling) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 132)
Social Security (Industrial Injuries) (Prescribed Diseases) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 133)
Working Time (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 135)
Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 136)
Companies (1986 Order) (Investment Companies and Accounting and Audit Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 137)
Companies (Summary Financial Statement) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 138)
Companies (Revision of Defective Accounts and Report) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 139)
Pension Protection Fund (Provision of Information) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 140)
Occupational and Personal Pension Schemes (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 141)
Statutory Sick Pay (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 142)
Charges for Drugs and Appliances (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 145)
Rates (Capital Values, etc.) (2006 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 146)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Member-nominated Trustees and Directors) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 148)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Modification of Schemes) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 149)
Social Security (Incapacity for Work) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 150)
Local Government (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 2 and Savings) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 151)
Police Service of Northern Ireland Pensions (Amendment No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 152)
Weighing Equipment (Automatic Catchweighing Instruments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 154)
Pension Protection Fund (General and Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 155)
Pension Protection Fund (Reviewable Matters and Review and Reconsideration of Reviewable Matters) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 156)
Weighing Equipment (Beltweighers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 157)
Social Security (Provisions relating to Qualifying Young Persons) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. S.R. 2006 No. 158)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation Scheme and Injury Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 159)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Cross-border Activities) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 160)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Payments to Employer) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 161)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Levies) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 162)
Teachers' Superannuation (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 163)
Zebra, Pelican and Puffin Pedestrian Crossings Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 164)
Plant Health (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 165)
Social Security (Incapacity Benefit Work-focused Interviews) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 167)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 168)
Social Fund (Application for Review) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 169)
Judicial Pensions (Spouses' and Children's Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 170)
Agriculture (2004 Order) (Commencement and Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 172)
Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 173)
Service Provision Change (Protection of Employment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 177)
Social Security (Persons from Abroad) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 178)
Welfare Foods (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 180)
Superannuation (Chief Electoral Officer for Northern Ireland) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 181)
Carriage of Explosives Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 182)
Domestic Energy Efficiency Grants (Amendment No. 5) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 183)
Social Security (PPF Payments and FAS Payments) (Consequential Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 184)
Seed Potatoes (Crop Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 186)
Seed Potatoes (Tuber Inspection Fees) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 187)
Superannuation (Agri-food and Biosciences Institute) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 188)
Gangmasters (Appeals) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 189)
Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 190)
Departments (Transfer of Functions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 192)
Legal Advice and Assistance (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 193)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Set-aside) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 200)
201-300
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 202)
Social Security (Electronic Communications) (Miscellaneous Benefits) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 203)
Quarries (Explosives) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 204)
Quarries Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 205)
Labour Relations Agency (Flexible Working) Arbitration Scheme Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 206)
Pharmaceutical Society of Northern Ireland (General) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 207)
Countryside Management (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 208)
Environmentally Sensitive Areas Designation (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 209)
Firemen's Pension Scheme Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 210)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 211)
Employment of Children (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 212)
Planning (Inquiry Procedure) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 213)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 214)
Planning (National Security Directions and Appointed Representatives) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 215)
Ceramic Articles in Contact with Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 217)
Planning (Application of Subordinate Legislation to the Crown) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 218)
Planning (General Development) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 219)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 220)
Planning Reform (2006 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 222)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Contracting-out) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 223)
Public Angling Estate (Amendment) Byelaws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 224)
Planning Appeals Commission (Decisions on Appeals and Making of Reports) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 225)
Whole of Government Accounts (Designation of Bodies) (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 S.R. 2006 No. 226)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Codes of Practice) (Early Leavers, Late Payment of Contributions and Trustee Knowledge and Understanding) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 231)
Agriculture (Weather Aid 2002) (Amendment) Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 232)
Planning Appeals Commission (Decisions on Appeals and Making of Reports) (No. 2) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 233)
Social Security (Income Support and Jobseeker's Allowance) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 234)
Gangmasters (Appeals) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 235)
Railways (Safety Management) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 237)
Planning (Claims for Compensation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 238)
Pharmaceutical Society of Northern Ireland (General) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 240)
Sales, Markets and Lairs (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 241)
Industrial and Provident Societies (2006 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 242)
Unauthorised Encampments (Retention and Disposal of Vehicles) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 243)
Unauthorised Encampments (2005 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 244)
Legal Aid in Criminal Proceedings (Costs) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 245)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 246)
Public Service Vehicles (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 247)
Public Service Vehicles (Conditions of Fitness, Equipment and Use) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 248)
Public Service Vehicles Accessibility (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 249)
Fire Services (Discipline) (Revocation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 250)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 251)
Education (Student Support) (2005 Regulations) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 252)
Pig Carcase (Grading) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 253)
Management of Health and Safety at Work (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 255)
Contaminants in Food Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 256)
Fire and Rescue Services (2006 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 257)
Community Benefit Societies (Restriction on Use of Assets) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 258)
Planning (Inquiry Procedure) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 259)
Lands Tribunal (Superannuation) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 260)
Employment Equality (Age) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 261)
Industrial Tribunals (Interest on Awards in Age Discrimination Cases) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 262)
Animals and Animal Products (Examination for Residues and Maximum Residue Limits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 263)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 264)
Lands Tribunal (Salaries) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 265)
Planning (Issue of Certificate) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 266)
Police Service of Northern Ireland and Police Service of Northern Ireland Reserve (Injury Benefit) Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 268)
Child Support (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 273)
Passenger and Goods Vehicles (Recording Equipment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 274)
Planning (Electronic Communications) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 276)
Industrial Training Levy (Construction Industry) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 277)
Plant Protection Products (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 278)
Waste Management Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 280)
Drainage Trusts (Dissolution) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 281)
Pension Protection Fund (Pension Sharing) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 282)
Motor Hackney Carriages (Belfast) (Amendment) By-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 284)
Planning (National Security Directions and Appointed Representatives) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 285)
Contracting Out (Functions Relating to Child Support) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 286)
Eggs (Marketing Standards) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 287)
Disability Discrimination (2006 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 289)
Planning (Conservation Areas) (Consultation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 290)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 291)
Belfast Health and Social Services Trust (Establishment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 292)
South Eastern Health and Social Services Trust (Establishment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 293)
Southern Health and Social Services Trust (Establishment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 294)
Northern Health and Social Services Trust (Establishment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 295)
Western Health and Social Services Trust (Establishment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 296)
Occupational Pension Schemes (Winding up Procedure Requirement) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 297)
Employer's Liability (Compulsory Insurance) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 298)
Sea Fishing (Restriction on Days at Sea) (Monitoring, Inspection and Surveillance) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 300)
301-400
Social Security (Students and Income-related Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 301)
Salaries (Comptroller and Auditor General) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 302)
Farm Subsidies (Review of Decisions) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 303)
Family Proceedings (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 304)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 2) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 305)
Education (Student Loans) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 307)
Divorce etc. (Pension Protection Fund) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 310)
Dissolution etc. (Pension Protection Fund) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 311)
Education (Student Support) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 312)
Police Service of Northern Ireland Reserve (Full-time) Severance Regulations 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 313)
Health and Personal Social Services (Primary Medical Services) (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 319)
Social Security (Lebanon) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 320)
Ozone Depleting Substances (Qualifications) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 321)
Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 328)
Education (Student Loans) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 329)
Seed Potatoes (Tuber Inspection Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 330)
Education (Student Loans) (Repayment) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 331)
Special Educational Needs and Disability (Northern Ireland) Order 2005 (Amendment) (Further and Higher Education) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 332)
Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges (Amendment No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 333)
Misuse of Drugs (Amendment) (No. 4) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 334)
Agriculture (Safety of Children and Young Persons) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 335)
Adoption of Children from Overseas and Intercountry Adoption (Hague Convention) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 336)
Removal, Storage and Disposal of Vehicles (Prescribed Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 337)
Penalty Charges (Prescribed Amounts) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 338)
Immobilisation and Release of Vehicles (Charge) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 339)
Gangmasters Licensing (Exclusions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 340)
Regulation and Improvement Authority (Fees and Frequency of Inspections) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 341)
Care Tribunal (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 342)
Motor Vehicles (Approval) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 343)
Work and Families (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 344)
Radioactive Contaminated Land Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 345)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Amendment No.2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 346)
Traffic Management (2005 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 347)
Planning (General Development) (Amendment No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 348)
Food (Emergency Control) (Revocation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 351)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 10 and Savings) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 352)
Insurance Accounts Directive (Miscellaneous Insurance Undertakings) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 353)
Partnerships and Unlimited Companies (Accounts) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 354)
Building (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 355)
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 356)
Employment Protection (Continuity of Employment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 357)
Gas Order 1996 (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 358)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 4) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 359)
Social Security (1998 Order) (Commencement No. 13) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 360)
Statutory Maternity Pay, Social Security (Maternity Allowance) and Social Security (Overlapping Benefits) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 361)
On-Street Parking (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 362)
Off-Street Parking (Amendment No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 363)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 3) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 365)
Teachers' Superannuation (Miscellaneous Amendments) (No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 366)
Criminal Justice (2005 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 368)
Collective Redundancies (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 369)
Insolvency (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 370)
Consumer Protection (Code of Practice for Traders on Price Indications) Approval Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 371)
Maternity and Parental Leave etc. (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 372)
Paternity and Adoption Leave (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 373)
Statutory Paternity Pay and Statutory Adoption Pay (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 374)
Penalty Charges (Exemption from Criminal Proceedings) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 376)
Limited Liability Partnerships (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 377)
Students Awards (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 378)
Social Security (Persons from Abroad) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 379)
Planning Reform (2006 Order) (Commencement No.2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 380)
Planning (Development Plans) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 382)
Education (Student Support) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 383)
Student Fees (Qualifying Courses and Persons) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 384)
Environmental Noise Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 387)
Social Security (1998 Order) (Prescribed Benefits) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 388)
Working Time (Amendment No.2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 389)
Superannuation (Chief Electoral Officer for Northern Ireland) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 393)
Northern Ireland Social Care Council (Social Care Workers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 394)
Employment Equality (Age) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 395)
Northern Ireland Social Care Council (Description of Social Care Workers) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 396)
Allocation of Housing and Homelessness (Eligibility) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 397)
Social Security (Incapacity Benefit Work-focused Interviews) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 398)
Traffic Signs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 399)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Management and Investment of Funds) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 400)
401-500
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 401)
Social Security (1998 Order) (Commencement Nos. 8 and 10) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 402)
Education (Supply of Student Support Information to Governing Bodies) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 403)
Gas (Designation of Pipelines) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 404)
Housing Benefit Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 405)
Housing Benefit (Persons who have attained the qualifying age for state pension credit) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 406)
Housing Benefit (Consequential Provisions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 407)
Motor Vehicles (Taxi Drivers' Licences) (Fees) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 408)
Pension Protection Fund (Levy Ceiling) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 409)
Health and Personal Social Services (Superannuation Scheme, Injury Benefits and Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 410)
Street Works (Reinstatement) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 412)
Magistrates' Courts (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 413)
Magistrates' Courts (Anti-social Behaviour Orders) (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 414)
Curd Cheese (Restriction on Placing on the Market) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 415)
Dangerous Wild Animals (2004 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 416)
Dangerous Wild Animals (Fees) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 417)
Food Benefit Schemes (2003 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 418)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (No 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 420)
Traffic Management (Proceedings before Adjudicators) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 421)
Further Education (Student Support) (Cross-Border Eligibility) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 422)
Employment Protection (Code of Practice) (Disclosure of Information) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 423)
Energy (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 424)
Manufacture and Storage of Explosives Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 425)
Feeding Stuffs (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 427)
Private Tenancies (2006 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 428)
Agricultural Wages (Abolition of Permits to Infirm and Incapacitated Persons) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 429)
Penalty Charges (Exemption from Criminal Proceedings) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 432)
Contracting Out (Functions Relating to Child Support) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 433)
Plant Health (Amendment No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 435)
Social Security (National Insurance Numbers) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 436)
Food Benefit Schemes (2003 Order) (Commencement) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 437)
Companies (1986 Order) (Small Companies' Accounts and Audit) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 438)
Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 S.R. 2006 No. 439)
Building (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 440)
Teachers' (Eligibility) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 441)
Salaries (Assembly Ombudsman and Commissioner for Complaints) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 442)
Rice Products (Restriction on First Placing on the Market) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 443)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Disclosure of Restricted Information) (Amendment of Specified Persons) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 444)
Housing Benefit (Consequential Provisions) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 449)
Motor Hackney Carriages (Belfast) (Amendment No. 2) By-Laws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 450)
Criminal Justice (2003 Order) (Commencement No. 3) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 451)
Housing Renewal Grants (Reduction of Grant) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 452)
Employment Equality (Age) (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 453)
Meat (Official Controls Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 454)
Student Fees (Amounts) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 455)
Public Interest Disclosure (Prescribed Persons) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 458)
Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Cross Compliance) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 459)
Pensions (2005 Order) (Codes of Practice) (Member-nominated Trustees and Directors and Internal Controls) (Appointed Day) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 460)
Insolvency Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1996 (Electronic Communications) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 461)
Housing Benefit (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 462)
Housing Benefit (Electronic Communications) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 463)
Rates (Amendment) (2006 Order) (Commencement No. 1) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 464)
Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 466)
Occupational Pensions (Revaluation) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 467)
Rates (Transitional Provisions) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 468)
Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002 (Addition of Listed Judicial Offices etc.) Order 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 469)
Disability Discrimination (2006 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 470)
Feed (Specified Undesirable Substances) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 471)
Welfare Foods (Amendment No. 2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 477)
Healthy Start Scheme and Day Care Food Scheme Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 478)
Immobilisation and Removal of Vehicles (Prescribed Conditions) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 479)
Children (Prescribed Orders – Isle of Man and Guernsey) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 480)
Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 481)
Water Abstraction and Impoundment (Licensing) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 482)
Water Resources (Environmental Impact Assessment) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 483)
Recovery of Health Services Charges (2006 Order) (Commencement) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 484)
Fishery Products (Official Controls Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 485)
Rules of the Supreme Court (Northern Ireland) (Amendment No. 3) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 486)
Criminal Appeal (Trial without jury where danger of jury tampering and Trial by jury of sample counts only) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 487)
Phosphorus (Use in Agriculture) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 488)
Nitrates Action Programme Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 489)
Salmonella in Turkey Flocks and Herds of Slaughter Pigs (Survey Powers) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 492)
Curd Cheese (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 493)
Motor Vehicle Testing (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 494)
Goods Vehicles (Testing) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 495)
Dangerous Wild Animals (2004 Order) (Commencement No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 496)
Dangerous Wild Animals (Fees) (No. 2) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 497)
Rates (Making and Levying of Different Rates) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 498)
Crown Court (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 499)
Local Government Companies (Best Value) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 500)
501-600
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 501)
EC Fertilisers Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 503)
Fair Employment (Specification of Public Authorities) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 504)
Recovery of Health Services Charges (Amounts) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 507)
Sheep and Goats (Records, Identification and Movement) (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 508)
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (Charges) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 509)
Social Security (Miscellaneous Amendments No. 5) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 510)
Grammar Schools (Charges) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 511)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment No.2) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 512)
Eel Fishing (Licence Duties) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 513)
Insolvent Partnerships (Amendment) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 515)
Rates (Automatic Telling Machines) (Designation of Rural Areas) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 516)
Fisheries (Amendment) Byelaws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 517)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Forestry) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 518)
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (Waste Management Licensing) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 519)
Carriage of Explosives (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 520)
County Court (Amendment) Rules (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 521)
Local Government (Accounts and Audit) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 522)
Social Security (Bulgaria and Romania) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 523)
Genetically Modified Organisms (Contained Use) (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 524)
Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment (Amendment) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 525)
River Lagan Tidal Navigation and General Bye-laws (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 526)
Laganside Corporation Dissolution Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 527)
Pension Protection Fund (Insolvent Partnerships) (Amendment of Insolvency Events) Order (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 529)
Recovery of Health Services Charges (General) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 536)
Farm Nutrient Management Scheme (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 537)
Welfare of Animals (Transport) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 (S.R. 2006 No. 538)
External links
Statutory Rules (NI) List
Draft Statutory Rules (NI) List
2006
Statutory rules
Northern Ireland Statutory Rules |
4240603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20Scotland%2C%202006 | List of Statutory Instruments of Scotland, 2006 | This is a complete list of Scottish Statutory Instruments in 2006.
1-100
Public Contracts (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/1)
Utilities Contracts (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/2)
Food Hygiene (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/3)
Older Cattle (Disposal) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/4)
Prisons and Young Offenders Institutions (Scotland) Amendment Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/5)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 12) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/6)
Bail Conditions (Methods of Monitoring Compliance and Specification of Devices) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/7)
Restriction of Liberty Order (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/8)
Mental Health (Recall or Variation of Removal Order) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/11)
Mental Health (Form of Documents) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/12)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/14)
Intensive Support and Monitoring (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/15)
Feeding Stuffs (Scotland) Amendment and the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/16)
Highland Council (Raasay) Harbour Revision Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/17)
Electricity (Applications for Consent) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/18)
Environmental Assessment (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/19)
Crofting Counties Agricultural Grants (Scotland) Scheme 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/24)
Ethical Standards in Public Life etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 (Codes of Conduct for Members of certain Scottish Public Authorities) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/26)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/27)
Private Landlord Registration (Information and Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/28)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) Order 2006 S.S.I 2006/29)
Primary Medical Services (Scotland) Act 2004 (Modification of the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/30)
Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 Commencement Order 2006 S.S.I 2006/31)
National Health Service (Constitution of Health Boards) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/32)
National Health Service (Variation of the Areas of Greater Glasgow and Highland Health Boards) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/33)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/38)
Police Grant (Variation) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/39)
Water Services etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/40)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 15) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/41)
National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/42)
Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (Licensing of Skin Piercing and Tattooing) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/43)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/44)
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Slaughter and Vaccination) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/45)
TSE (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/46)
Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/47)
Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/48)
Perth (Pilotage Powers) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/49)
Police Act 1997 Amendment (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/50)
Sea Fish (Prohibited Methods of Fishing) (Firth of Clyde) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/51)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Radioactivity in Sheep) Partial Revocation (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/52)
Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/55)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2005 Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/56)
Solway Firth Regulated Fishery (Scotland) Order 2006 S.SI. 2006/57)
Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing for Cockles) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/58)
Vulnerable Witnesses (Scotland) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3, Savings and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/59)
Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/60)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/61)
Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Designation of Partner Bodies) Order 2006 S.S.I 2006/63)
Housing Revenue Account General Fund Contribution Limits (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/64)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 17) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/66)
Council Tax (Electronic Communications) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/67)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/69)
Seeds (Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/70)
Water Services Charges (Billing and Collection) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/71)
Water and Sewerage Charges (Exemption and Reduction) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/72)
Sheep and Goats (Identification and Traceability) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/73)
Charities and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/74)
Act of Sederunt (Child Care and Maintenance Rules) Amendment (Vulnerable Witnesses (Scotland) Act 2004) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/75)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment) (Vulnerable Witnesses (Scotland) Act 2004) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/76)
NHS Education for Scotland Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/79)
Older Cattle (Disposal) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 82)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment) (Miscellaneous) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/83)
Road Traffic (NHS Charges) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/84)
Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 7) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/85)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Shorthand Writers in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/86)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No.2 ) (Fees of Shorthand Writers) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/87)
Additional Support Needs Tribunals for Scotland (Practice and Procedure) Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/88)
Local Government in Scotland Act 2003 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/89)
Prohibition of Smoking in Certain Premises (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/90)
Police Grant (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/91)
Non-Domestic Rate (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/92)
Prisons and Young Offenders Institutions (Scotland) Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/94)
Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005 (Consequential Amendments) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/95)
Police Act 1997 (Criminal Records) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/96)
Police Act 1997 (Criminal Records) (Registration) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/97)
101-200
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No. 1) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/101)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/102)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Order 2005 Partial Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/103)
Antisocial Behaviour etc. (Scotland) Act 2004 (Commencement and Savings) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/104)
Fish Labelling (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/105)
Transfer of Functions from the Strathclyde Passenger Transport Authority and the Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive to the West of Scotland Transport Partnership Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/106)
National Bus Travel Concession Scheme for Older and Disabled Persons (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/107)
Title Conditions (Scotland) Act 2003 (Rural Housing Bodies) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/108)
Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. (Scotland) Act 2000 (Specified Day) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/109)
Title Conditions (Scotland) Act 2003 (Conservation Bodies) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/110)
Transfer of Property, Rights and Liabilities from the Strathclyde Passenger Transport Authority and the Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive to the West of Scotland Transport Partnership Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/111)
Strathclyde Passenger Transport Area (Variation) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/112)
National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/113)
National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/114)
Civil Partnership Family Homes (Form of Consent) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/115)
Diligence against Earnings (Variation) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/116)
National Bus Travel Concession Scheme for Older and Disabled Persons (Eligible Persons and Eligible Services) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/117)
Beef Carcase (Classification) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/118)
Dairy Produce Quotas (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/119)
Provision of Water and Sewerage Services (Reasonable Cost) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/120)
Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/121)
National Health Service (Tribunal) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/122)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/123)
Non Domestic Rating (Rural Areas and Rateable Value Limits) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/125)
Water Environment and Water Services (Scotland) Act 2003 (Designation of Responsible Authorities and Functions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/126)
Water Environment (Consequential Provisions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/127)
Waste Management Licensing (Water Environment) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/128)
Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Consequential and Supplementary Amendments) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/129)
Title Conditions (Scotland) Act 2003 (Conservation Bodies) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/130)
National Health Service (Dental Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/131)
Functions of Health Boards (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/132)
Water Environment (Oil Storage) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/133)
Sight Testing (Examination and Prescription) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/134)
National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/135)
National Health Service (Primary Medical Services Performers Lists) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/136)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/137)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/138)
National Health Service (Service Committees and Tribunal) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/139)
Children (Protection at Work) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/140)
National Health Service (Charges to Overseas Visitors) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/141)
National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/142)
National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/143)
National Waiting Times Centre Board (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/144)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 16) (Scotland) Order 2005 Partial Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/145)
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/149)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/151)
Scottish Water (Allt an Lagain) Water Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/152)
Scottish Water (Unapool Burn) Water Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/153)
Gambling Act 2005 (Licensing Authority Policy Statement) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/154)
Sewerage Nuisance (Code of Practice) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/155)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/156)
Erskine Bridge (Temporary Suspension of Tolls) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/157)
Non-Domestic Rates (Levying) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/158)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2005 Amendment (No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/162)
Building (Forms) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/163)
Register of Sasines (Methods of Operation) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/164)
Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/166)
Water Services etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 3 and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/167)
Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 8) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/168)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 18) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/169)
Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Specified Persons for Financial Reporting Orders) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/170)
Mental Health Tribunal for Scotland (Practice and Procedure) (No. 2) Amendment Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/171)
Mental Health (Relevant Health Board for Patients Detained in Conditions of Excessive Security) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/172)
Renewables Obligation (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/173)
Civil Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/178)
Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/179)
Valuation and Rating (Exempted Classes) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/180)
Water Environment (Consequential and Savings Provisions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/181)
Community Justice Authorities (Establishment, Constitution and Proceedings) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/182)
National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/183)
Scottish Charity Register (Transitional) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/188)
Charities and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 3, Transitional and Savings Provision) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/189)
Risk Assessment and Minimisation (Accreditation Scheme) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/190)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 8) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/191)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 16) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/192)
Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 (Exclusions and Exceptions) (Amendment) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/194)
Avian Influenza (H5N1 in Wild Birds) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/196)
Act of Sederunt (Sheriff Court Bankruptcy Rules 1996) Amendment (UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/197)
Act of Sederunt (Sheriff Court Caveat Rules) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/198)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 2) (UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/199)
Act of Sederunt (Sheriff Court Company Insolvency Rules 1986) Amendment (UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/200)
201-300
Non-Domestic Rating (Electronic Communications) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/201)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Order 2005 Partial Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/202)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 14) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/203)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No. 2) (Financial Reporting Orders) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/205)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 3) (Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/206)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006 etc.) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/207)
Private Water Supplies (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/209)
Private Water Supplies (Grants) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/210)
Registered Social Landlords (Purposes or Objects) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/211)
Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement, Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/212)
Land Management Contracts (Menu Scheme) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/213)
Croft House Grant (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/214)
Further and Higher Education (Scotland) Act 1992 Modification Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/216)
Charities Accounts (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/218)
Charity Test (Specified Bodies) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/219)
Protection of Charities Assets (Exemption) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/220)
Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003 (Transitional and Savings Provisions) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/221)
Ceramic Articles in Contact with Food (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/230)
TSE (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/231)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 8 and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/232)
Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/233)
Criminal Legal Aid (Summary Justice Pilot Courts and Bail Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/234)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/235)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 13) (Scotland) Order 2005 Partial Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/236)
Avian Influenza (H5N1 in Wild Birds) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/237)
Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/239)
Plant Protection Products (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/241)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 13) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/242)
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No. 2 and Consequential Provisions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/243)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Quota and Third Country Fishing Measures) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/244)
National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/245)
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/246)
National Health Service (General Medical Services Contracts) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/247)
National Health Service (Primary Medical Services Section 17C Agreements) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/248)
Gaming Act (Variation of Fees) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/249)
Public Transport Users' Committee for Scotland Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/250)
Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/251)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/252)
Divorce (Religious Bodies) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/253)
Divorce and Dissolution etc. (Pension Protection Fund) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/254)
Parental Responsibilities and Parental Rights Agreement (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/255)
Maximum Number of Part-Time Sheriffs (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/257)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 11) (Scotland) Order 2005 Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/260)
Joint Inspections (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/263)
Seed Potatoes (Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/264)
Planning (National Security Directions and Appointed Representatives) (Scotland) Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/265)
Town and Country Planning (Listed Buildings and Buildings in Conservation Areas) (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/266)
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/268)
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Transitional Provisions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/269)
Town and Country Planning (Application of Subordinate Legislation to the Crown) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/270)
Regulation of Care (Applications and Provision of Advice) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/272)
Regulation of Care (Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/273)
Regulation of Care (Requirements as to Care Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/274)
Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 (Commencement No. 7 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/275)
Robert Gordon University (Establishment) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/276)
Designation of Institutions of Higher Education (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/279)
Crime (International Co-operation) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/281)
Sea Fishing (Marking and Identification of Passive Fishing Gear and Beam Trawls) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/284)
Police Pensions Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/285)
Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/286)
Act of Sederunt (Chancery Procedure Rules) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/292)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (Causes Relating to Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty Establishing the European Community) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/293)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 4) (Fees of Solicitors) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/294)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/296)
Scottish Water (Loch Braigh Horrisdale) Water Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/296)
Private Water Supplies (Notices) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/297)
Robert Gordon University (Scotland) Order of Council 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/298)
301-400
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No. 3) (Risk Assessment Orders and Orders for Lifelong Restriction) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/302)
Public Appointments and Public Bodies etc. (Scotland) Act 2003 (Treatment of Office or Body as Specified Authority) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/303)
Contaminants in Food (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/306)
National Health Service (Superannuation Scheme and Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/307)
Teachers' Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/308)
Human Tissue (Specification of Posts) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/309)
Approval of Research on Organs No Longer Required for Procurator Fiscal Purposes (Specified Persons) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/310)
Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/311)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment (No.2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/312)
Seed (Registration, Licensing and Enforcement) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/313)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/314)
Home Detention Curfew Licence (Prescribed Standard Conditions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/315)
Education (Student Loans) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/316)
Education (Assisted Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/317)
St Mary's Music School (Aided Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/318)
Plant Health (Potatoes) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/319)
National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/320)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/321)
Education (Appeal Committee Procedures) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/322)
Education (Graduate Endowment, Student Fees and Support) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/323)
Registration of Independent Schools (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/324)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/325)
Education (Student Loans for Tuition Fees) (Repayment and Allowances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/326)
Human Tissue (Removal of Body Parts by an Authorised Person) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/327)
Anatomy (Specified Persons and Museums for Public Display) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/328)
National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/329)
National Health Service (Discipline Committees) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/330)
Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2006 331)
Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003 (Commencement No. 9) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/332)
Education (Student Loans for Tuition Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/333)
Anatomy (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/334)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/335)
Avian Influenza and Influenza of Avian Origin in Mammals (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/336)
Avian Influenza (Slaughter and Vaccination) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/337)
Firefighters' Compensation Scheme (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/338)
Town and Country Planning (Application of Subordinate Legislation to the Crown) (Inquiries Procedure) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/339)
Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 (Anatomy Act 1984 Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/340)
Sea Fishing (Restriction on Days at Sea) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/341)
Firefighters' Pension Scheme Amendment (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/342)
Adults with Incapacity (Removal of Regenerative Tissue for Transplantation) (Form of Certificate) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/343)
Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 (Maintenance of Records and Supply of Information Regarding the Removal and Use of Body Parts) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/344)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/345)
Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/352)
East Lothian (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/359)
Scottish Water (Abhainn Dhubh) Water Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/360)
Scottish Water (Tomich Boreholes) Water Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/361)
Public Appointments and Public Bodies etc. (Scotland) Act 2003 (Treatment of Public Transport Users' Committee for Scotland as Specified Authority and Amendment of Specified Authorities) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/363)
Joint Inspections (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/365)
Electronic Communications (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/367)
Adults with Incapacity (Removal of Regenerative Tissue for Transplantation) (Form of Certificate) (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/368)
Perth and Kinross (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/370)
Moray (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/372)
Inverclyde (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/373)
East Dunbartonshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/374)
Dundee City (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/375)
Stirling (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/376)
South Lanarkshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/377)
Argyll and Bute (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/378)
Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Consequential Amendments) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/379)
Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 (Commencement No. 7) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/381)
Private Security Industry Act 2001 (Commencement No. 1) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/382)
Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing for Cockles) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/383)
Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006 (Consequential Modifications) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/384)
Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Supplementary Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/389)
Human Organ and Tissue Live Transplants (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/390)
East Renfrewshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/391)
Falkirk (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/392)
Angus (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/393)
Orkney Islands (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/394)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/395)
Act of Sederunt (Jurisdiction, Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments in Matrimonial Matters and Matters of Parental Responsibility Rules) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/397)
Designation of Institutions of Higher Education (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/398)
Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/399)
401-500
Student Fees (Specification) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/401)
Council Tax (Exempt Dwellings) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/402)
Robert Gordon University (Scotland) Amendment Order of Council 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/404)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause and Summary Application Rules) Amendment (Miscellaneous) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/410)
Act of Sederunt (Child Care and Maintenance Rules 1997) (Amendment) (Adoption and Children Act 2002) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/411)
Aberdeenshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/416)
Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/419)
Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 (Human Organ Transplants Act 1989 Transitional and Savings Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/420)
North Ayrshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/427)
East Ayrshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/428)
South Ayrshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/429)
TSE (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/430)
Road User Charging Schemes (Keeping of Accounts and Relevant Expenses) (Scotland) Regulations 2005 Revocation Regulations 2006 S.S.I. 2006/431)
Police, Public Order and Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/432)
Dumfries and Galloway (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/434)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No. 4) (Miscellaneous) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/436)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (Miscellaneous) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/437)
National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/440)
Water Services etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/445)
Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area) (City of Glasgow, Perth and Kinross Council, Aberdeen City Council, Dundee City Council and South Lanarkshire Council) Designation Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/446)
Northern Salmon Fishery District Designation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/447)
Cereal Seed (Scotland) and Fodder Plant Seed (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/448)
Plant Protection Products (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/449)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/450)
Pig Carcase (Grading) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/451)
Academic Awards and Distinctions (The Robert Gordon University) (Scotland) Order of Council 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/452)
Regulation of Care (Social Service Workers) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/453)
Scottish Schools (Parental Involvement) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/454)
Teaching Council (Scotland) (Legal Assessor) Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/455)
Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/456)
Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 (Consequential Modifications and Savings) (No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/457)
Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 3 and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/458)
Food (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Revocation Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/459)
Midlothian (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/460)
Robert Gordon University (Transfer and Closure) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/461)
Water Services and Sewerage Services Licences (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/464)
Environmental Noise (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/465)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Prescription of Offices, Ranks and Positions) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/466)
Race Relations Act 1976 (Statutory Duties) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/467)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/468)
Local Electoral Administration and Registration Services (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provision) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/469)
Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/470)
Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004 (Severance Payments) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/471)
Clackmannanshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/472)
Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act 2002 (Commencement No. 10) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/473)
Plant Health (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/474)
Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 (Consequential Modifications and Savings) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/475)
Fundable Bodies (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/480)
Highland (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/481)
Animal Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 1, Savings and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/482)
National Health Service Central Register (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/484)
Land Registration (Scotland) Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/485)
Community Right to Buy (Definition of Excluded Land) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/486)
Inshore Fishing (Prohibition of Fishing for Cockles) (Scotland) (No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/487)
Assynt – Coigach Area Protection Variation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/488)
Automated Registration of Title to Land (Electronic Communications) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/491)
501-600
Sea Fishing (Northern Hake Stock) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/505)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause, Summary Application, Summary Cause and Small Claim Rules) Amendment (Equality Act 2006 etc.) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/509)
Fife (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/510)
Aberdeen City (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/511)
Curd Cheese (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/512)
Construction Contracts (Scotland) Exclusion Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/513)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/514)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) (Fees) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/515)
Feeding Stuffs (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/516)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Scotland) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/517)
Police Act 1997 (Criminal Records) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/521)
Transfer of Functions to the Shetland Transport Partnership Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/527)
Regional Transport Strategies (Health Boards) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/528)
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/530)
Social Work Inspections (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/531)
North Lanarkshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 532)
Scottish Borders (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/533)
Building (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/534)
West Lothian (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/535)
Animal Health and Welfare (Scotland) Act 2006 (Consequential Provisions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/536)
City of Edinburgh (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/537)
Transfer of Functions to the South-West of Scotland Transport Partnership Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/538)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Sheriff Officers) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/539)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Messengers-at-Arms) 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/540)
Waste Management Licensing Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/541)
Rice Products (Restriction on First Placing on the Market) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/542)
EC Fertilisers (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/543)
Management of Offenders etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/545)
Glasgow City (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/546)
West Dunbartonshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/547)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 548)
Regulation of Scallop Dredges (Scotland) Revocation Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/549)
Renfrewshire (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/551)
Police (Minimum Age for Appointment) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/552)
Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Third Party Representations etc.) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/553)
Water Environment (Relevant Enactments) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/554)
Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/556)
Non-Domestic Rating (Telecommunications and Canals) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/557)
Na h-Eileanan an Iar (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/558)
Health Protection Agency (Scottish Health Functions) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/559)
National Health Service (Functions of the Common Services Agency) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/560)
National Health Service (Superannuation Scheme and Compensation for Premature Retirement) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/561)
Shetland Islands (Electoral Arrangements) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/562)
Register of Sasines (Application Procedure) Amendment Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/568)
Housing (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 4) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/569)
Home Energy Efficiency Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/570)
Scottish Charity Appeals Panel Rules 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/571)
Conservation of Salmon (Collection of Statistics) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/572)
Marriage (Approval of Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/573)
Civil Partnership (Attestation) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/574)
Registration Services (Fees, etc.) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/575)
Plant Protection Products (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/576)
Feeding Stuffs (Scotland) and the Feed (Hygiene and Enforcement) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/578)
Fishery Products (Official Controls Charges) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/579)
Meat (Official Controls Charges) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/580)
Farriers (Registration) Act 1975 (Commencement No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/581)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Agriculture) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/582)
Personal Injuries (NHS Charges) (Amounts) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/588)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2006 Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/589)
Personal Injuries (NHS Charges) (General) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/592)
Personal Injuries (NHS Charges) (Reviews and Appeals) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/593)
Sheep and Goats (Identification and Traceability) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/594)
Registration Services (Consequential Provisions) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/596)
Registration Services (Attestation and Authentication) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/597)
Registration of Births, Still-births, Deaths and Marriages (Prescription of Forms and Errors) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/598)
Water Services etc. (Scotland) Act 2005 (Commencement No. 5) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/599)
601-616
Less Favoured Area Support Scheme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/601)
Prohibition of Fishing with Multiple Trawls (No. 2) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/602)
National Health Service (Functions of the Common Services Agency) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/603)
Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (Licensing of Skin Piercing and Tattooing) Amendment Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/604)
Teachers' Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/605)
Welfare of Animals (Transport) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/606)
Police, Public Order and Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2006 (Commencement No. 2) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/607)
Bus User Complaints Tribunal Regulations Revocation Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/608)
Local Government (Discretionary Payments And Injury Benefits) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/609)
Police (Injury Benefit) (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/610)
London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006 (Commencement) (Scotland) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/611)
Public Appointments and Public Bodies etc. (Scotland) Act 2003 (Treatment of Office or Body as Specified Authority) (Scottish Legal Complaints Commission) Order 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/612)
Public Service Vehicles (Conduct of Drivers, Inspectors, Conductors and Passengers) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/613)
Environmental Impact Assessment (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/614)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/615)
Criminal Legal Aid (Scotland) (Prescribed Proceedings) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.S.I. 2006/616)
External links
Scottish Statutory Instrument List
Scottish Draft Statutory Instrument List
2006
Statutory Instruments
Scotland Statutory Instruments |
4240631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202000 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2000 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2000. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The National Park Authorities Levies (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 244 (W. 2))
Rheoliadau Ardollau Awdurdodau'r Parciau Cenedlaethol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 244 (Cy. 2))
The Water Undertakers (Rateable Values) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 299 (W.6))
Gorchymyn Ymgymerwyr Dŵ r (Gwerthoedd Ardrethol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 299 (Cy.6))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 349 (W. 7))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 349 (Cy. 7))
The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 350 (W. 8))
Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Deillio o'r Aifft (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 350 (Cy. 8))
The BG plc (Rateable Value) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No 352 (W. 10))
Gorchymyn BG plc (Gwerth Ardrethol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 352 (Cy. 10))
The Community Health Councils Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No.479 (W.20))
Rheoliadau Cynghorau Iechyd Cymuned Diwygio (Cymru)2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 479 (Cy.20))
The Council Tax (Reduction Scheme) and (Demand Notices Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 501 (W.21))
Rheoliadau'r Dreth Gyngor (Cynllun Gostyngiadau) a (Darpariaethau Trosiannol Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 501 (Cy.21))
The Railtrack plc (Rateable Value) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 555 (W.22))
Gorchymyn Railtrack plc (Gwerth Ardrethol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 555 (Cy.22))
The Local Authorities (Alteration of Requisite Calculations) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 717 (W. 24 ))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Newid Cyfrifiadau Angenrheidiol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 717 (Cy. 24 ))
The Revenue Support Grant (Specified Bodies) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 718 (W.25))
Rheoliadau Grant Cynnal Refeniw (Cyrff Penodedig) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 718 (Cy.25))
The Seeds (Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No.719 (W.26))
Rheoliadau Hadau (Ffioedd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 719 (Cy.26))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 792 (W. 29))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Newid Rhestri ac Apelau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 792 (Cy. 29))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Demand Notices) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 793 (W. 30))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 793 (Cy. 30))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Rate of Discount for 2000/2001) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No.825 (W.31)])
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Cyfradd y Gostyngiad ar gyfer 2000/2001) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 825 (Cy.31))
The Education (Education Standards Grants) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 834 (W. 32))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Grantiau Safonau Addysg) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 834 (Cy. 32))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Miscellaneous Provisions) (No. 2) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 908 (W. 39))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Darpariaethau Amrywiol) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 908 (Cy. 39 ))
The Financing of Maintained Schools (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 911 (W. 40))
Rheoliadau Ariannu Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 911 (Cy. 40))
The Docks and Harbours (Rateable Values) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 948 (W. 41))
Gorchymyn Dociau a Harbyrau (Gwerthoedd Ardrethol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 948 (Cy. 41))
The Dairy Produce Quotas (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 972 (W. 42))
Rheoliadau Cwotâu Cynhyrchion Llaeth (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 972 (Cy. 42))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 973 (W. 43))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 973 (Cy. 43 ))
The Pencoed College (Dissolution) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 974 (W. 44))
Gorchymyn Coleg Pencoed (Diddymu) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 974 (Cy. 44 ))
The Rates and Precepts (Final Adjustments) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 975 (W.45))
Gorchymyn Ardrethi a Phraeseptau (Addasiadau Terfynol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 975 (Cy.45))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Measures for the Recovery of the Stock of Cod)(Irish Sea) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 976 (W. 46 ))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau ar gyfer Adfer y Stoc Penfreision) (Môr Iwerddon) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 976 (Cy. 46 ))
The National Health Service (Dental Charges) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 977 (W. 47 ))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd Deintyddol) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 977 (Cy. 47 ))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 978 (W. 48 ))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 978 (Cy. 48 ))
The Local Authorities (Discretionary Expenditure Limits) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 990 (W. 51))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Terfynau Gwariant Dewisol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 990 (Cy. 51))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 992 (W. 52))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 992 (Cy. 52))
The Health Act 1999 (Fund-holding Practices) (Transfer of Assets, Savings, Rights and Liabilities and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 999 (W. 56))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd 1999 (Practisiau Deiliad-cronfa) (Trosglwyddo Asedau, Arbedion, Hawliau a Rhwymedigaethau a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2000. (S.I. 2000 Rhif 999 (Cy.56))
The Commission for Health Improvement (Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1015 (W. 57))
Rheoliadau'r Comisiwn Gwella Iechyd (Swyddogaethau) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1015 (Cy. 57))
The Council Tax (Liability for Owners) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1024 (W. 60))
Rheoliadau Treth Gyngor (Atebolrwydd Perchnogion i Dalu) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1024 (Cy. 60))
The Council Tax (Exempt Dwellings) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1025 (W. 61))
Gorchymyn Treth Gyngor (Anheddau Esempt) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1025 (Cy. 61))
The Health Act 1999 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1026 (W.62) (C.26))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd 1999 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1026 (Cy.62)(C.26))
The Local Government (Best Value) (Exemption) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1029 (W. 64))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Gwerth Gorau) (Eithrio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1029 (Cy. 64))
The Local Government (Best Value Performance Indicators) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1030 (W. 65))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dangosyddion Perfformiad Gwerth Gorau) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1030 (Cy. 65))
The National Health Service (Functions of Health Authorities and Administration Arrangements)(Wales) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1035 (W. 66))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Swyddogaethau Awdurdodau Iechyd a Threfniadau Gweinyddu) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1035 (Cy. 66))
The Persons Subject to Immigration Control (Housing Authority Accommodation) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1036 (W. 67))
Gorchymyn Personau sy'n Ddarostyngedig i Reolaeth Fewnfudo (Llety Awdurdodau Tai) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1036 (Cy. 67))
The Home Energy Efficiency Scheme (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1039 (W. 68))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Effeithlonrwydd Ynni Cartref (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1039 (Cy. 68))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Control Measures) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1075 (W.69))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Rheoli'r Gymuned) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1075 (Cy.69))
The Bro Morgannwg National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1076 (W. 70 ))
Gorchymyn Diwygio Gorchymyn Ymddiriedolaeth Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol Bro Morgannwg (Sefydlu) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1076 (Cy. 70 ))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1078 (W. 71))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Cymunedol ar gyfer Monitro â Lloeren) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1078 (Cy. 71))
The Homelessness (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1079 (W. 72))
Rheoliadau Digartrefedd (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1079 (Cy. 72))
The Allocation of Housing (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1080 (W. 73))
Rheoliadau Dyrannu Tai (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1080 (Cy. 73))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Quota and Third Country Fishing Measures) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1096 (W. 74))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Cymunedol ynghylch Cwotâu a Physgota gan Drydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1096 (Cy. 74))
The Valuation for Rating (Plant and Machinery) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1097 (W. 75))
Rheoliadau Prisio ar gyfer Ardrethu (Peiriannau a Pheirianwaith) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1097 (Cy. 75))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Physical Education) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1098 (W. 76))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Addysg Gorfforol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1098 (Cy. 76))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Science) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1099 (W. 77))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Gwyddoniaeth) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1099 (Cy. 77))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Mathematics) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1100 (W. 78))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Mathemateg) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1100 (Cy. 78))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Welsh) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1101 (W. 79))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Cymraeg) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1101 (Cy. 79))
The National Health Service Trusts (Originating Capital) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1142 (W.80))
Gorchymyn Ymddiriedolaethau Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Cyfalaf Cychwynnol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1142 (Cy.80))
The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1145 (W.81))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1145 (Cy.81))
The Welsh Development Agency (Financial Limit) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1147 (W.82))
Gorchymyn Awdurdod Datblygu Cymru (Terfyn Ariannol) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1147 (Cy.82))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Art) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1153 (W.84))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Celf) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1153 (Cy.84))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in English) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1154 (W.85))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Saesneg) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1154 (Cy.85))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Geography) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1155 (W.86))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Daearyddiaeth) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1155 (Cy.86))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in History) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1156 (W.87))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Hanes) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1156 (Cy.87))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Modern Foreign Languages) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1157 (W.88))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Ieithoedd Tramor Modern) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1157 (Cy.88))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Music) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1158 (W.89))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Cerddoriaeth) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1158 (Cy.89))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Attainment Targets and Programmes of Study in Technology) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1159 (W.90))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Targedau Cyrhaeddiad a Rhaglenni Astudio mewn Technoleg) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1159 (Cy.90))
The Electricity Supply Industry (Rateable Values) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1163 (W. 91))
Gorchymyn y Diwydiant Cyflenwi Trydan (Gwerthoedd Ardrethol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1163 (Cy. 91))
The Town and Country Planning (Blight Provisions) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1169 (W. 94 ))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Darpariaethau Malltod) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1169 (Cy. 94 ))
The St Clears-Pembroke Dock Trunk Road (A477) (Sageston-Redberth Bypass) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1172 (W.95))
Gorchymyn Cefnffordd Sanclêr-Doc Penfro (A477) (Ffordd Osgoi Sageston-Redberth) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1172 (Cy.95))
The Local Government (Best Value) (Reviews and Performance Plans) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1271 (W.97))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Gwerth Gorau) (Adolygiadau a Chynlluniau Perfformiad) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1271 (Cy.97))
The Dolgellau to South of Birkenhead Trunk Road (A494) (Improvement at Tafarn y Gelyn) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1283 (W. 98 ))
Gorchymyn Cefnffordd Dolgellau-Man i'r de o Birkenhead (A494) (Gwelliant yn Nhafarn y Gelyn) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif. 1283 (W. 98 )])
101-200
The Education (School Day and School Year) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1323 (W.101))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Y Diwrnod Ysgol a'r Flwyddyn Ysgol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1323 (Cy.101))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1422 (W.102))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau ac Offer) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1422 (Cy.102))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1707 (W. 114))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1707 (Cy. 114))
The National Health Service (Choice of Medical Practitioner) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1708 (W.115))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Dewis Ymarferydd Meddygol) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1708 (Cy.115))
The Relocation Grants (Forms of Application) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1710 (W.116))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adleoli (Ffurflenni Cais) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1710 (Cy.116))
The Education (Outturn Statements) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1717 (W. 117))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Datganiadau Alldro) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1717 (Cy. 117))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Form and Particulars and Welsh Form and Particulars) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1735 (W. 119 ))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflen a Manylion Rhagnodedig a Ffurflen a Manylion Cymraeg) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1735 (Cy. 119 ))
The Dairy Products (Hygiene) (Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1738 (W.121))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Llaeth (Hylendid) (Taliadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1738 (Cy.121))
The Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Exemptions for Disabled Persons) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1785 (W. 122 ))
Rheoliadau Gorchmynion Traffig Awdurdodau Lleol (Esemptiadau ar gyfer Personau Anabl)(Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1785 (Cy. 122 ))
The Disabled Persons (Badges for Motor Vehicles) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1786 (W. 123))
Rheoliadau Personau Anabl (Bathodynnau ar gyfer Cerbydau Modur)(Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1786 (Cy. 123 ))
The Colours in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1799 (W.124))
Rheoliadau Lliwiau mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1799 (Cy.124))
The Medical Food (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1866 (W.125))
Rheoliadau Bwyd Meddygol (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1866 (Cy.125))
The Education (Transition to New Framework) (New Schools, Groups and Miscellaneous) Regulations 1999 (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1867 (W.126))
Rheoliadau (Diwygio) Rheoliadau Addysg (Trawsnewid i'r Fframwaith Newydd) (Ysgolion Newydd, Grwpiau ac Amrywiol) 1999 (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1867 (Cy.126))
The Community Care (Direct Payments) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1868 (W.127))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Gofal Cymunedol (Taliadau Uniongyrchol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1868 (Cy.127))
The Foundation Subject (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1882 (W.129))
Gorchymyn Pwnc Sylfaen (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1882 (Cy.129))
The Meat Products (Hygiene) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1885 (W. 131 ))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Cig (Hylendid) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1885 (Cy. 131 ))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) Amendment (No.3) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1887 (W. 133 ))
Rheoliadau Diwygio (Rhif 3) y Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1887 (Cy. 133 ))
The Genetically Modified and Novel Foods (Labelling) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1925 (W. 134 ))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd a Addaswyd yn Enetig a Bwydydd Newydd (Labelu) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1925 (Cy. 134 ))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1938 (W. 136 ))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1938 (Cy. 136 ))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1939 (W.137))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1939 (Cy.137))
The Air Quality (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1940 (W. 138 ))
Rheoliadau Ansawdd Aer (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1940 (Cy. 138 ))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Additional Functions) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1941 (W.139))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1941 (Cy.139))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Functions) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1979 (W. 140 ))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1979 (Cy. 140 ))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Modern Foreign Languages) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1980 (W. 141 ))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Ieithoedd Tramor Modern) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1980 (Cy. 141 ))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) Amendment (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 1992 (W. 144 ))
Rheoliadau Diwygio (Rhif 2) y Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 1992 (Cy. 144 ))
The Changing of School Session Times (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2030 (W. 143 ))
Rheoliadau Newid Amserau Sesiynau Ysgolion (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2030 (Cy. 143 ))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Chargeable Amounts) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2041 (W. 147 ))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Symiau y Gellir eu Codi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2041 (Cy. 147 ))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Conservation Measures) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2230 (W. 148))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Cadwraeth y Gymuned) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2230 (Cy. 148 ))
The Meat (Disease Control) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2257 (W. 150 ))
Rheoliadau Cig (Rheoli Clefydau) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2257 (Cy. 150 ))
The Sheep and Goats Identification (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2335 (W. 152))
Rheoliadau Adnabod Defaid a Geifr (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2335 (Cy. 152))
The Companies (Welsh Language Forms) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2413))
Rheoliadau (Diwygio) (Ffurflenni Cymraeg) Cwmnïau 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2413))
The Local Authorities (Members' Allowances) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2492 (W. 159 ))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau Aelodau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2492 (Cy. 159 ))
The National Council for Education and Training for Wales (Interim Functions) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2539 (W. 162))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Cenedlaethol Cymru dros Addysg a Hyfforddiant (Swyddogaethau Interim) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2539 (Cy.162))
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 (Commencement No.1) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No.2540 (W.163) (C.70)])
Gorchymyn Deddf Dysgu a Medrau 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2540 (Cy.163) (C.70))
The Teacher Training Incentive (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2560 (W. 169 ))
Rheoliadau Cymhellion Hyfforddi Athrawon (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2560 (Cy. 169 ))
The Specified Risk Material (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2659 (W. 172 ))
Rheoliadau Deunydd Risg Penodedig (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2659 (Cy. 172 ))
The Education (Restriction of Employment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2906 (W. 186 ))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyfyngu Cyflogaeth) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2906 (Cy. 186 ))
The Local Government Act 2000 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2948 (W. 189 ) (C. 86 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol 2000 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2948 (Cy. 189 ) (C. 86 ))
The Home Energy Efficiency Schemes (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2959 (W. 190 ))
Rheoliadau'r Cynlluniau Effeithlonrwydd Ynni Cartref (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2959 (Cy. 190 ))
The Health Act 1999 (Commencement No.3) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2991 (W. 191)(C. 92))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd 1999(Cychwyn Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2991 (Cy. 191)(C. 92))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.1) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2992 (W. 192 ) (C. 93 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2992 (Cy. 192 ) (C. 93 ))
The National Health Service Bodies and Local Authorities Partnership Arrangements (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 2993 (W. 193 ))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Partneriaeth Cyrff Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol ac Awdurdodau Lleol (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 2993 (Cy. 193 ))
The Education (Exclusion from School) (Prescribed Periods) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3026 (W. 194 ))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwahardd o'r Ysgol) (Cyfnodau Rhagnodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3026 (Cy. 194 ))
The School Government (Terms of Reference)(Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3027 (W. 195 ))
Rheoliadau Llywodraethu Ysgolion (Cylch Gwaith) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3027 (Cy. 195 ))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3118 (W. 197 ))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) Diwygio (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3118 (Cy. 197 ))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) Amendment (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3119 (W. 198 ))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) Diwygio (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3119 (Cy. 198 ))
The Children's Commissioner for Wales (Appointment) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3121 (W. 199 ))
Rheoliadau Comisiynydd Plant Cymru (Penodi) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3121 (Cy. 199 ))
The Teachers (Compulsory Registration) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3122 (W. 200 ))
Rheoliadau Athrawon (Cofrestru Gorfodol) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3122 (Cy. 200 ))
201-300
The Dairy Produce Quotas (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3123 (W. 201 ))
Rheoliadau Cwotâu Cynhyrchion Llaeth (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3123 (Cy. 201 ))
The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3156 (W. 205 ))
Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Tanwyddau Awdurdodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3156 (Cy. 205 ))
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3230 (W. 213 ) (C. 103 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Dysgu a Medrau 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3230 (Cy. 213 ) (C. 103 ))
The Common Agricultural Policy Support Schemes (Modulation) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3294 (W. 216 ))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Modwleiddio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3294 (Cy. 216 ))
The Cattle (Identification of Older Animals) (Wales) Regulations 12000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3339 (W. 217 ))
Rheoliadau Gwartheg (Adnabod Anifeiliaid Hŷn) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3339 (Cy. 217 ))
The Mink Keeping (Wales) Order 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3340 (W. 218))
Gorchymyn Cadw Mincod (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3340 (Cy. 218))
The Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) (Butchers' Shops) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3341 (W. 219 ))
Rheoliadau Diogelwch Bwyd (Hylendid Bwyd yn Gyffredinol) (Siopau Cigyddion) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3341 (Cy. 219 ))
The Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3382 (W. 220 ))
Rheoliadau Cyfraniadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3382 (Cy. 220 ))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Telecommunications Apparatus) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3383 (W. 221 ))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Offer Telathrebu) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3383 (Cy. 221))
The Individual Learning Accounts (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3384 (W. 222 ))
Rheoliadau Cyfrifon Dysgu Unigol (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3384 (Cy. 222 ))
The Specified Risk Material (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3387 (W. 224))
Rheoliadau Deunydd Risg Penodedig (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3387 (Cy. 224))
The Fresh Meat (Beef Controls) (No.2) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2000 (S.I. 2000 No. 3388 (W.225))
Rheoliadau Cig Ffres (Dulliau Rheoli Cig Eidion) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2000 (S.I. 2000 Rhif 3388 (Cy. 225))
External links
Welsh SI List
2000
Welsh Assembly Statutory Instruments
2000 in Wales |
4240645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202006 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2006 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2006. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The Education (Information About Individual Pupils) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 30 (W.4))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth am Ddisgyblion Unigol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 30 (Cy.4))
The Food Hygiene (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 31 (W.5))
Rheoliadau Hylendid Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 31 (Cy.5))
The Tir Cynnal (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 41 (W.7))
Rheoliadau Tir Cynnal (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 41 (Cy.7))
The Public Rights of Way (Registers) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 42 (W.8))
Rheoliadau Hawliau Tramwy Cyhoeddus (Cofrestrau) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 42 (Cy.8))
Older Cattle (Disposal) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 62 (W. 11))
Rheoliadau Gwartheg Hŷn (Gwaredu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 62 (Cy. 11))
The Historic Buildings Council for Wales (Abolition) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 63 (W.12))
Gorchymyn (Diddymu) Cyngor Adeiladau Hanesyddol Cymru 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 63 (Cy.12))
The Ancient Monuments Board for Wales (Abolition) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 64 (W.13))
Gorchymyn (Diddymu) Bwrdd Henebion Cymru 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 64 (Cy.13))
The Feeding Stuffs (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 116 (W.14))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Anifeiliaid (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 116 (Cy.14))
The Waste (Household Waste Duty of Care) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 123 (W.16))
Rheoliadau Gwastraff (Dyletswydd Gofal o ran Gwastraff Cartref) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 123 (Cy.16))
The Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 124 (W.17))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Datblygu Cyffredinol a Ganiateir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 124 (Cy.17))
The Education (School Performance and Unauthorised Absence Targets) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 125 (W.18))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Perfformiad Ysgol a Thargedau Absenoldeb heb Awdurdod) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 125 (Cy.18))
The Assembly Learning Grants and Loans (Higher Education) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 126 (W.19))
Rheoliadau Grantiau a Benthyciadau Dysgu y Cynulliad (Addysg Uwch) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 126 (Cy.19))
The Plant Health (Import Inspection Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 171 (W.22))
Rheoliadau Iechyd Planhigion (Ffioedd Arolygu Mewnforio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 171 (Cy.22))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 8) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 172 (W.23)(C.2))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 8) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 172 (Cy.23)(C.2))
The Education Act 2002 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 173 (W.24))
Rheoliadau Deddf Addysg 2002 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 173 (Cy.24))
The Education (Determination of Admission Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 174 (W.25))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Penderfynu Trefniadau Derbyn) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 174 (Cy.25))
The New School (Admissions) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 175 (W.26))
Rheoliadau Ysgolion Newydd (Derbyniadau) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 175 (Cy.26))
The Education (Objections to Admission Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 176 (W.27))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwrthwynebiadau i Drefniadau Derbyn) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 176 (Cy.27))
The Education (Variation of Admission Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 177 (W.28))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Amrywio Trefniadau Derbyn) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 177 (Cy.28))
The Approval of Codes of Management Practice (Residential Property) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 178 (W.29))
Gorchymyn Cymeradwyo Codau Ymarfer ar gyfer Rheoli (Eiddo Preswyl) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 178 (Cy.29))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 179 (W. 30))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Control of Vaccination) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 180 (W. 31))
Rheoliadau Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau (Rheoli Brechu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 180 (Cy. 31))
The National Health Service (General Ophthalmic Services Supplementary List) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment and Consequential Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 181 (W.32))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Rhestr Atodol Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio a Diwygiad Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 181 (Cy.32))
The Local Authorities (Indemnities for Members and Officers) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 249 (W.37))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Indemniadau ar gyfer Aelodau a Swyddogion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 249 (Cy.37))
The Local Authorities (Alteration of Requisite Calculations) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 344 (W.41))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Addasu Cyfrifiadau Angenrheidiol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 344 (Cy.41))
The Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003 Commencement (Wales) (No. 4) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 345 (W.42) (C.8))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 357 (W.45))
Rheoliadau Cynllun Taliad Sengl a Chynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 357 (Cy.45))
The National Health Service (Primary Medical Services) (Miscellaneous Amendments) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 358 (W.46))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Sylfaenol) (Diwygiadau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 358 (Cy.46))
The General Medical Services Transitional and Consequential Provisions (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 360 (W.47))
Gorchymyn Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Chanlyniadol y Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 360 (Cy.47))
The Public Services Ombudsman (Wales) Act 2005 (Transitional Provisions and Consequential Amendments) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 362 (W.48))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ombwdsmon Gwasanaethau Cyhoeddus (Cymru) 2005 (Darpariaethau Trosiannol a Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 362 (Cy.48))
The Public Services Ombudsman for Wales (Jurisdiction and Transitional Provisions and Savings) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 363 (W.49))
Gorchymyn Ombwdsmon Gwasanaethau Cyhoeddus Cymru (Awdurdodaeth a Darpariaethau Trosiannol ac Arbedion) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 363 (Cy.49))
The Contaminants in Food (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 485 (W.55))
Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 485 (Cy.55))
The Functions of Local Health Boards (Dental Public Health) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 487 (W.56))
The General Dental Services and Personal Dental Services Transitional Provisions (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 488 (W.57))
The National Health Service (Personal Dental Services Agreements) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 489 (W.58))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services Contracts) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 490 (W.59))
The National Health Service (Dental Charges) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 491 (W.60))
The Seed Potatoes (Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 519 (W.63))
Rheoliadau Tatws Hadyd (Ffioedd) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 519 (Cy.63))
The Transition from Primary to Secondary School (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 520 (W.64))
Rheoliadau Trosglwyddo o'r Ysgol Gynradd i'r Ysgol Uwchradd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 520 (Cy.64))
The Official Feed and Food Controls (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 590 (W.66))
Rheoliadau Rheolaethau Swyddogol ar Fwyd Anifeiliaid a Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 590 (Cy.66))
The Local Government (Improvement Plans) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 615 (W.68))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Cynlluniau Gwella) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 615 (Cy.68))
The Feeding Stuffs and the Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 617 (W.69))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Anifeiliaid a Phorthiant (Samplu a Dadansoddi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 617 (Cy.69))
The Government of Further Education Corporations (Revocation) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 621 (W.70))
Rheoliadau Llywodraethu Corfforaethau Addysg Bellach (Dirymu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 621 (Cy.70))
The Homelessness (Suitability of Accommodation) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 650 (W.71))
Gorchymyn Digartrefedd (Addasrwydd Llety) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 650 (C.71))
The Dairy Produce Quotas (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 762 (W.72))
Rheoliadau Cwotâu Cynnyrch Llaeth (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 762 (Cy.72))
The Revenue Support Grant (Specified Bodies) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 764 (W.73))
Rheoliadau Grant Cynnal Refeniw (Cyrff Penodedig) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 764 (Cy.73))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 767 (W.74))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Dod o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 767 (Cy.74))
The Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005 (Commencement No.1 and Savings) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 768 (W.75) (C.18))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cymdogaethau Glân a'r Amgylchedd 2005 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 ac Arbedion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 768 (Cy.75) (C.18))
Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No.4 and Consequential, Transitional and Savings Provisions) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 842 (W.77))
Gorchmyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 4 a Darpariaethau Canlyniadol a Throsiannol a Darpariaethau Arbed) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 842 (Cy.77))
The Brucellosis (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 866 (W.78))
Gorchymyn Brwselosis (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 866 (Cy.78))
The Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 867 (W.79))
Gorchymyn Lewcosis Buchol Ensootig (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 867 (Cy.79))
The Children Act 2004 (Commencement No. 7) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 870 (W.80) (C.20))
Gorchymyn Deddf Plant 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 7) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 870 (Cy.80) (C.20))
The Staffing of Maintained Schools (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 873 (W.81))
Rheoliadau Staffio Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 873 (Cy.81))
The Single Education Plan (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 877 (W.82))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Addysg Sengl (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 877 (Cy.82))
The Care Standards Act 2000 and the Children Act 1989 (Abolition of Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 878 (W.83))
Rheoliadau Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 a Deddf Plant 1989 (Dileu Ffioedd) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 878 (Cy.83))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 9 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 879 (W.84)(C.21))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 9 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 879 (Cy.84)(C.21))
The Children Act 2004 (Commencement No. 6) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 885 (W.85) (C.23))
Gorchymyn Deddf Plant 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 6) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 885 (Cy.85) (C.23))
The Children (Private Arrangements for Fostering) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 940 (W.89))
Rheoliadau Plant (Trefniadau Preifat ar gyfer Maethu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 940 (Cy.89))
The Functions of Local Health Boards and the NHS Business Services Authority (Awdurdod Gwasanaethau Busnes y GIG) (Primary Dental Services) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 941 (W.90))
The Community Health Council (Establishment of Carmarthenshire Community Health Council, Transfer of Functions and Abolition of Llanelli/Dinefwr and Carmarthen/Dinefwr Community Health Councils) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 942 (W.91))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Iechyd Cymuned (Sefydlu Cyngor Iechyd Cymuned Sir Gaerfyrddin, Trosglwyddo Swyddogaethau a Diddymu Cynghorau Iechyd Cymuned Llanelli/Dinefwr a Chaerfyrddin/Dinefwr) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 942 (Cy.91))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 943 (W.92))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 943 (Cy.92))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance and Accounting) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 944 (W.93))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf a Chyfrifyddu) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 944 (Cy.93))
The National Health Service (Performers Lists) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 945 (W.94))
The General Dental Services and Personal Dental Services Transitional and Consequential Provisions (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 946 (W.95))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services Contracts and Personal Dental Services Agreements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 947 (W.96))
The Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 948 (W.97))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Ffioedd ar gyfer Ceisiadau a Cheisiadau Tybiedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 948 (Cy.97))
The Public Services Ombudsman for Wales (Standards Investigations) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 949 (W.98))
Gorchymyn Ombwdsmon Gwasanaethau Cyhoeddus Cymru (Ymchwiliadau Safonau) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 949 (Cy.98))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 950 (W.99))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 950 (Cy.99))
101-200
The Health Professions Wales Abolition Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 978 (W.101))
Gorchymyn Diddymu Proffesiynau Iechyd Cymru 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 978 (Cy.101))
The Local Government (Best Value Authorities) (Power to Trade) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 979 (W.102))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Awdurdodau Gwerth Gorau) (Pŵer i Fasnachu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 979 (Cy.102))
The Welsh Regional Flood Defence Committee (Composition) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 980 (W.103))
Gorchymyn Pwyllgor Rhanbarthol Amddiffyn Rhag Llifogydd Cymru (Cyfansoddiad) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 980 (Cy.103))
The Public Services Ombudsman (Wales) Act 2005 (Consequential Amendments to the Local Government Pension Scheme Regulations 1997 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1011 (W.104))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1035 (W.105))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Newid Rhestri ac Apelau) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1035 (Cy.105))
The Sheep and Goats (Records, Identification and Movement) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1036 (W.106))
Gorchymyn Defaid a Geifr (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1036 (Cy.106))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources and Sums for Personal Requirements) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1051 (W.107))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau a Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1051 (Cy.107))
The Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Amendment No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1052 (W.108))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Ffioedd Am Geisiadau a Cheisiadau Tybiedig) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1052 (Cy.108))
The Tuberculosis (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1053 (W.109))
Gorchymyn Twbercwlosis (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1053 (Cy.109))
The Bridgend (Brackla and Coity Higher) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1064 (W.110))
Gorchymyn Pen–y–bont ar Ogwr (Bracla a Choety Uchaf) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1064 (Cy.110))
The Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1226 (W.117))
Rheoliadau Enseffalopathïau Sbyngffurf Trosglwyddadwy (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1226 (Cy.117))
The Plant Breeders' Rights (Discontinuation of Prior Use Exemption) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1261 (W.118))
Gorchymyn Hawliau Bridwyr Planhigion (Dirwyn i Ben Esemptiad o Ddefnydd Blaenorol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1261 (Cy.118))
The Education (School Day and School Year) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1262 (W.119))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Y Diwrnod Ysgol a'r Flwyddyn Ysgol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1262 (Cy.119))
The Local Authorities (Standing Orders) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1275 (W.121))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Rheolau Sefydlog) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1275 (Cy.121))
The Education (Parenting Orders) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1277 (W.122))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gorchmynion Rhianta) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1277 (Cy.122))
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (Commencement No. 5) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1278 (W.123) (C.41))
Gorchymyn Deddf Ymddygiad Gwrthgymdeithasol 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 5) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1278 (Cy.123) (C.41))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 8 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1279 (W.124) (C.42))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 8 a Darpariaethau Troisannol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1279 (Cy.124) (C.42))
The Animal By-Products (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1293 (W.127))
Rheoliadau Sgil-gynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1293 (Cy.127))
The Education (National Curriculum for Wales) Disapplication of Science at Key Stage 4) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1335 (W.128))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol Cymru) (Datgymhwyso Gwyddoniaeth yng Nghyfnod Allweddol 4) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1335 (Cy.128))
The Education Act 2002 (Commencement No. 10 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1336 (W.129) (C.44))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2002 (Cychwyn Rhif 10 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1336 (Cy.129) (C.44))
The Education Act 2005 (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1338 (W.130) (C.45))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg 2005 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1338 (Cy.130) (C.45))
The Fish Labelling (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1339 (W.131))
Rheoliadau Labelu Pysgod (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1339 (Cy.131))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Additional Functions) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1341 (W.132))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1341 (Cy.132))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1343 (W.133))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1343 (Cy.133))
The Plant Health (Phytophthora ramorum) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1344 (W.134))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Phytophthora ramorum) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1344 (Cy.134))
The Products of Animal Origin (Third Country Imports) (Wales) (Amendment) (No.2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1349 (W.135))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Dod o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforion Trydydd Gwledydd) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1349 (Cy.135))
The Town and Country Planning (Miscellaneous Amendments and Modifications relating to Crown Land) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1386 (W.136))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Diwygiadau Amrywiol ac Addasiadau sy'n ymwneud â Thir y Goron) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1386 (Cy.136))
The Planning (National Security Directions and Appointed Representatives) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1387 (W.137))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio (Cyfarwyddiadau Diogelwch Gwladol a Chynrychiolwyr Penodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1387 (Cy.137))
The Planning (Listed Buildings, Conservation Areas and Hazardous Substances) (Amendments relating to Crown Land) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1388 (W.138))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio (Adeiladau Rhestredig, Ardaloedd Cadwraeth a Sylweddau Peryglus) (Diwygiadau sy'n ymwneud â Thir y Goron) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1388 (Cy.138))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1389 (W.139))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1389 (Cy.139))
The Transport (Wales) Act 2006 (Commencement) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1403 (W.140) (C.48))
Gorchymyn Deddf Trafnidiaeth (Cymru) 2006 (Cychwyn) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1403 (Cy.140) (C.48))
The Registration of Fish Buyers and Sellers and Designation of Fish Auction Sites (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1495 (W.145))
Rheoliadau Cofrestru Prynwyr a Gwerthwyr Pysgod a Dynodi Safleoedd Arwerthu Pysgod (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1495 (Cy.145))
The Salmonella in Broiler Flocks (Survey Powers) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1511 (W.147))
Rheoliadau Salmonela mewn Heidiau o Frwyliaid (Pwerau Arolygu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1511 (Cy.147))
The Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Compensation (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1512 (W.148))
Rheoliadau Iawndal Enseffalopathi Sbyngffurf Buchol (BSE) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1512 (Cy.148))
The Sheep and Goats Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE) Compensation (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1513 (W.149))
Rheoliadau Iawndal Enseffalopathi Sbyngffurf Trosglwyddadwy (TSE) Defaid a Geifr (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1513 (Cy.149))
The Street Works (Inspection Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1532 (W.150))
Rheoliadau Gwaith Stryd (Ffioedd Arolygu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1532 (Cy.150))
The Food Hygiene (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1534 (W.151))
Rheoliadau Hylendid Bwyd (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1534 (Cy.151))
The Housing Act 2004 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions and Savings) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1535 (W.152)(C.54))
Gorchymyn Deddf Tai 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 3 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol ac Arbedion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1535 (Cy.152)(C.54))
The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1536 (W.153))
The Residential Property Tribunal Procedure (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1641 (W.156))
Rheoliadau Gweithdrefn Tribiwnlys Eiddo Preswyl (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1641 (Cy.156))
The Residential Property Tribunal (Fees) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1642 (W.157))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlys Eiddo Preswyl (Ffioedd) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1642 (Cy.157))
The Plant Health (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1643 (W.158))
The Higher Education Act 2004 (Commencement No.2 and Transitional Provision) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1660 (W.159) (C.56))
Gorchymyn Deddf Addysg Uwch 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 a Darpariaeth Drosiannol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1660 (Cy.159) (C.56))
The Firefighters' Pension (Wales) Scheme (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1672 (W.160))
Gorchymyn Cynllun Pensiwn Dynion Tân (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1672 (Cy.160))
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No.4 and Consequential, Transitional and Savings Provisions) (Wales) (Amendment No.2) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1700 (W. 162) (C. 59))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 4 a Darpariaethau Canlyniadol a Throsiannol a Darpariaethau Arbed) (Cymru) (Diwygio Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1700 (Cy. 162) (C. 59))
The Plant Health (Export Certification) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1701 (W.163))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Tystysgrifau Allforio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1701 (Cy.163))
The Housing Health and Safety Rating System (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1702 (W.164))
Rheoliadau System Mesur Iechyd a Diogelwch ar gyfer Tai (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1702 (Cy.164))
The Private and Voluntary Health Care and Miscellaneous (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1703 (W.165))
Rheoliadau Gofal Iechyd Preifat a Gwirfoddol ac Amrywiol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1703 (Cy.165))
The Ceramic Articles in Contact with Food (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1704 (W.166))
Rheoliadau Eitemau Ceramig mewn Cyffyrddiad â Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1704 (Cy.166))
The Local Safeguarding Children Boards (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1705 (W.167))
Rheoliadau Byrddau Lleol ar gyfer Diogelu Plant (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1705 (Cy.167))
The Housing (Interim Management Orders) (Prescribed Circumstances) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1706 (W.168))
Gorchymyn Tai (Gorchmynion Rheoli Dros Dro) ( Amgylchiadau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1706 (Cy.168))
The Houses in Multiple Occupation (Specified Educational Establishments) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1707 (W.169))
Rheoliadau Tai Amlfeddiannaeth (Sefydliadau Addysgol Penodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1707 (Cy.169))
The Housing (Approval of Codes of Management Practice) (Student Accommodation) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1709 (W.171))
Gorchymyn Tai (Cymeradwyo Codau Ymarfer Rheoli) (Llety Myfyrwyr) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1709 (Cy.171))
The Bee Diseases and Pests Control (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1710 (W.172))
Gorchymyn Rheoli Clefydau a Phlâu Gwenyn (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1710 (Cy.172))
The Licensing of Houses in Multiple Occupation (Prescribed Descriptions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1712 (W.174))
Gorchymyn Trwyddedu Tai Amlfeddiannaeth (Disgrifiadau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1712 (Cy.174))
The Management of Houses in Multiple Occupation (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1713 (W.175))
Rheoliadau Rheoli Tai Amlfeddiannaeth (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1713 (Cy.175))
The Education (School Inspection) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1714 (W.176))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Arolygu Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1714 (Cy.176))
The Licensing and Management of Houses in Multiple Occupation and Other Houses (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1715 (W.177))
Rheoliadau Trwyddedu a Rheoli Tai Amlfeddiannaeth a Thai Eraill (Darpariaethau Amrywiol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1715 (Cy.177))
The Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1716 (W.178))
Rheoliadau'r Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Gwin) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1716 (Cy.178))
The Tir Gofal (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1717 (W.179))
Rheoliadau Tir Gofal (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1717 (Cy.179))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1749 (W.181))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1749 (Cy.181))
The Avian Influenza (Vaccination) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No 1761 (W.183)])
Rheoliadau Ffliw Adar (Brechu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1761 (Cy.183))
The Avian Influenza and Influenza of Avian Origin in Mammals (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1762 (W. 184))
The Home Loss Payments (Prescribed Amounts) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1789 (W.185))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Colli Cartref (Symiau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1789 (Cy.185))
The Local Health Boards (Establishment) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1790 (W.186))
Gorchymyn Byrddau Iechyd Lleol (Sefydlu) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1790 (Cy.186))
The Road Traffic (Permitted Parking Area and Special Parking Area)(County Borough of Conwy) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1791 (W.187))
Gorchymyn Traffig Ffyrdd (Ardal Barcio a Ganiateir ac Ardal Barcio Arbennig) (Bwrdeistref Sirol Conwy) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1791 (Cy.187))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) (Amendment) (No.2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1792 (W.188))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1792 (Cy.188))
The Assembly Learning Grants (European Institutions) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1794 (W.189))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Dysgu y Cynulliad (Sefydliadau Ewropeaidd) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1794 (Cy.189))
The Education (Fees and Awards) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1795 (W.190))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Ffioedd a Dyfarniadau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1795 (Cy.190))
The Sea Fishing (Northern Hake Stock) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1796 (W.191))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Stoc o Gegdduon Gogleddol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1796 (Cy.191))
The Standards Committees (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1849 (W.192))
Rheoliadau Pwyllgorau Safonau (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1849 (Cy.192))
The Contaminants in Food (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1850 (W.193))
Rheoliadau Halogion mewn Bwyd (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1850 (Cy.193))
The Kava-kava in Food (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1851 (W.194))
Rheoliadau Cafa-cafa mewn Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1851 (Cy.194))
The Fire and Rescue Services (Charging) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1852 (W.195))
Gorchmyn y Gwasanaethau Tân ac Achub (Codi Taliadau) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1852 (Cy.195))
The Assembly Learning Grants and Loans (Higher Education) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 1863 (W.196))
Rheoliadau Grantiau a Benthyciadau Dysgu y Cynulliad (Addysg Uwch) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 1863 (Cy.196))
The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2128 (W.198))
The Specified Diseases (Notification and Slaughter) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2237 (W.199))
Gorchymyn Clefydau Penodedig (Hysbysu a Chigydda) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2237 (Cy.199))
201-300
The Horses (Zootechnical Standards) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2607 (W.220))
Rheoliadau Ceffylau (Safonau Sootechnegol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2607 (Cy.220))
The Environmental Noise (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2629 (W.225))
Rheoliadau Sŵn Amgylcheddol (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2629 (Cy.225))
The Allocation of Housing (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2645 (W.226))
Rheoliadau Dyrannu Tai (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2645 (Cy.226))
Homelessness (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2646 (W.227))
Rheoliadau Digartrefedd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2646 (Cy.227))
The Paying Agency (National Assembly for Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2698 (W.230))
Rheoliadau Asiantaeth Dalu (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2698 (Cy.230))
The Commissioner for Older People (Wales) Act 2006 (Commencement) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2699 (W.231) (C.92))
Gorchymyn Deddf Comisiynydd Pobl Hŷn (Cymru) 2006 (Cychwyn) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2699 (Cy.231) (C.92))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2791 (W.232))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2791 (Cy.232))
The Curd Cheese (Restriction on Placing on the Market) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2792 (W.233))
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2796 (W.235))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2796 (Cy.235))
The Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005 (Commencement No. 2, Transitional Provisions and Savings) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2797 (W.236) (C.93))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cymdogaethau Glân a'r Amgylchedd 2005 (Cychwyn Rhif 2, Darpariaethau Trosiannol ac Arbedion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2797 (Cy.236) (C.93))
The Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2798 (W.237))
Gorchymyn Pysgota Môr (Gorfodi Mesurau Cymunedol ar gyfer Monitro drwy Loeren) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2798 (Cy.237))
The Fishing Boats (Satellite-Tracking Devices) (Wales) Scheme 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2799 (W.238))
Cynllun Cychod Pysgota (Dyfeisiau Olrhain Drwy Loeren) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2799 (Cy.238))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Form and Particulars) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2800 (W.239))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflen a Manylion Rhagnodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2800 (Cy.239))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2801 (W.240))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2801 (Cy.240))
The Pollution Prevention and Control (England and Wales) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2802 (W.241))
Rheoliadau Atal a Rheoli Llygredd (Cymru a Lloegr) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2802 (Cy.241))
The Avian Influenza (Preventive Measures) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2803 (W.242))
Rheoliadau Ffliw Adar (Mesurau Atal) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2803 (Cy.242))
The Youth and Community Work Education and Training (Inspection) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2804 (W.243))
Rheoliadau Addysg a Hyfforddiant mewn Gwaith Ieuenctid a Chymunedol (Arolygu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2804 (Cy.243))
Housing (Management Orders and Empty Dwelling Management Orders) (Supplemental Provisions) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2822 (W.245))
Rheoliadau Tai (Gorchmynion Rheoli a Gorchmynion Rheoli Anheddau Gwag) (Darpariaethau Atodol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2822 (Cy.245))
The Housing (Empty Dwelling Management Orders) (Prescribed Exceptions and Requirements) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2823 (W.246))
Gorchymyn Tai (Gorchmynion Rheoli Anheddau Gwag) (Eithriadau a Gofynion Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2823 (Cy.246))
The Selective Licensing of Houses (Specified Exemptions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2824 (W.247))
Gorchymyn Trwyddedu Dethol Tai (Esemptiadau Penodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2824 (Cy.247))
The Selective Licensing of Houses (Additional Conditions) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2825 (W.248))
Gorchymyn Trwyddedu Dethol Tai (Amodau Ychwanegol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2825 (Cy.248))
The Traffic Management Act 2004 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2826 (W.249) (C.97))
Gorchymyn Deddf Rheoli Traffig 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2826 (Cy.249) (C.97))
The Supply Of Student Support Information To Governing Bodies (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2828 (W.250))
Rheoliadau Cyflenwi Gwybodaeth Ar Gyfer Cymorth I Fyfyrwyr I Gyrff Llywodraethu (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2828 (Cy.250))
The Food (Emergency Control) (Revocation) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2830 (W.251))
Rheoliadau Bwyd (Rheolaeth Frys) (Dirymu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2830 (Cy.251))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment and Support Schemes (Cross Compliance) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2831 (W.252))
Rheoliadau Cynllun Taliad Sengl a Chynlluniau Cymorth y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Trawsgydymffurfio) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2831 (Cy.252))
The Plant Health (Import Inspection Fees) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2832 (W.253))
Rheoliadau Iechyd Planhigion (Ffioedd Arolygu Mewnforio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2832 (Cy.253))
The Community Care, Services for Carers and Children’s Services (Direct Payments) (Wales) Amendment Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2840 (W.256))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Gofal Cymunedol, Gwasanaethau ar gyfer Gofalwyr a Gwasanaethau Plant (Taliadau Uniongyrchol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2840 (Cy.256))
The Rice Products (Restriction on First Placing on the Market) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No.2923 (W. 260)])
The Sheep and Goats (Records, Identification and Movement) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2926 (W.261))
Gorchymyn Defaid a Geifr (Cofnodion, Adnabod a Symud) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2926 (Cy.261))
The Avian Influenza and Influenza of Avian Origin in Mammals (Wales) (No 2) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2927 (W.262))
The Feeding Stuffs (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2928 (W.263))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Anifeiliaid (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2928 (Cy.263))
The Seed Potatoes (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2929 (W.264))
Rheoliadau Tatws Hadyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2929 (Cy.264))
The Avian Influenza (Vaccination) (Wales) (No.2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2932 (W.265))
Rheoliadau Ffliw Adar (Brechu) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2932 (Cy.265))
The Street Works (Reinstatement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2934 (W.266))
Rheoliadau Gwaith Stryd (Adfer) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2934 (Cy.266))
The Seed Potatoes (Fees) (Wales) (No 2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2961 (W.267))
Rheoliadau Tatws Hadyd (Ffioedd) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2961 (Cy.267))
The Rice Products (Restriction on First Placing on the Market) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2969 (W.268))
The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2979 (W.270))
Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Tanwyddau Awdurdodedig) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2979 (Cy.270))
The Smoke Control Areas (Exempted Fireplaces) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2980 (W.271))
Gorchymyn Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Lleoedd Tân Esempt) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2980 (Cy.271))
The Specified Animal Pathogens (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2981 (W.272))
Gorchymyn Pathogenau Anifeiliaid Penodedig (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2981 (Cy.272))
The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2982 (W.273))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2982 (Cy.273))
The Introductory Tenancies (Review of Decisions to Extend a Trial Period) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2983 (W.274))
Rheoliadau Tenantiaethau Rhagarweiniol (Adolygu Penderfyniadau i Estyn Cyfnod Treialu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2983 (Cy.274))
National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2985 (W.275))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol) (Diwygio) (Cymru 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2985 (Cy.275))
The Children (Secure Accommodation) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2986 (W.276))
Rheoliadau Plant (Llety Diogel) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2986 (Cy.276))
The Radioactive Contaminated Land (Modification of Enactments) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2988 (W.277))
Rheoliadau Tir a Halogwyd yn Ymbelydrol (Addasu Deddfiadau) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2988 (Cy.277))
The Contaminated Land (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2989 (W.278))
Rheoliadau Tir Halogedig (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2989 (Cy.278))
The Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2992 (W.279) (C.106))
Gorchymyn Deddf yr Amgylchedd Naturiol a Chymunedau Gwledig 2006 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2992 (Cy.279) (C.106))
The Regional Transport Planning (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 2993 (W.280))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Trafnidiaeth Rhanbarthol (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 2993 (Cy.280))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3097 (W.281))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3097 (Cy.281))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3098 (W.282))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3098 (Cy.282))
The Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3099 (W.283))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Asesu Effaith Amgylcheddol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3099 (Cy.283))
The Independent Review of Determinations (Adoption) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3100 (W.284))
Rheoliadau Adolygu Penderfyniadau'n Annibynnol (Mabwysiadu) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3100 (Cy.284))
The Common Agricultural Policy Single Payment Scheme (Set-aside) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3101 (W.285))
Rheoliadau Cynllun Taliad Sengl y Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Neilltir) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3101 (Cy.285))
The Inspection of the Careers and Related Services (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3103 (W.286))
Rheoliadau Arolygu'r Gwasanaeth Gyrfaoedd a Gwasanaethau Cysylltiedig (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3103 (Cy.286))
The Healthy Start Scheme (Description of Healthy Start Food) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3108 (W.287))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Cychwyn Iach (Disgrifio Bwyd Cychwyn Iach) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3108 (Cy.287))
The Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 (Commencement No.4 and Consequential, Transitional and Savings Provisions) (Wales) (Amendment No.3) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3119 (W.289))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cynllunio a Phrynu Gorfodol 2004 (Cychwyn Rhif 4 a Darpariaethau Canlyniadol a Throsiannol a Darpariaethau Arbed) (Cymru) (Diwygio Rhif 3) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3119 (Cy.289))
The Diseases of Animals (Approved Disinfectants) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3166 (W.291))
Gorchymyn Clefydau Anifeiliaid (Diheintyddion a Gymeradwywyd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3166 (Cy.291))
The Meat (Official Controls Charges) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3245 (W.293))
Rheoliadau Cig (Ffioedd Rheolaethau Swyddogol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3245 (Cy.293))
The Cereal Seed (Wales) and Fodder Plant Seed (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3250 (W.294))
Rheoliadau Hadau Yd (Cymru) a Hadau Planhigion Porthiant (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3250 (Cy.294))
The Care Standards Act 2000 and the Children Act 1989 (Regulatory Reform and Complaints) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3251 (W.295))
Rheoliadau Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 a Deddf Plant 1989 (Diwygio Rheoleiddiol a Chwynion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3251 (Cy.295))
The Feed (Specified Undesirable Substances) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3256 (W.296))
Rheoliadau Bwyd Anifeiliaid (Sylweddau Annymunol Penodol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3256 (Cy.296))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No.9 and Saving) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3257 (W.297) (C.117))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 9 ac Arbediad) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3257 (Cy.297) (C.117))
The National Assembly for Wales (Returning Officers' Charges) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3268 (W.298))
Gorchymyn Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru (Taliadau Swyddogion Canlyniadau) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3268 (Cy.298))
The Avian Influenza (H5N1 in Poultry) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3309 (W.299))
The Avian Influenza (H5N1 in Wild Birds) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3310 (W.300))
301-400
The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3316 (W.301))
Rheoliadau Cynllunio (Adeiladau Rhestredig ac Ardaloedd Cadwraeth) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3316 (Cy.301))
The Local Government Act 2003 (Commencement No. 1 and Savings) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3339 (W.302) (C.120))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol 2003 (Cychwyn Rhif 1 ac Arbedion) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3339 (Cy.302) (C.120))
The Agricultural Subsidies and Grants Schemes (Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3342 (W.303))
Rheoliadau Cynlluniau Cymorthdaliadau a Grantiau Amaethyddol (Apelau) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3342 (Cy.303))
The Rural Development Programmes (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3343 (W.304))
Rheoliadau Rhaglenni Datblygu Gwledig (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3343 (Cy.304))
The Fishery Products (Official Controls Charges) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3344 (W.305))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion Pysgodfeydd (Taliadau Rheolaethau Swyddogol) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3344 (Cy.305))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Small Business Relief) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3345 (W.306))
Gorchymyn Ardrethu Annomestig (Rhyddhad Ardrethi i Fusnesau Bach) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3345 (Cy.306))
The Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3347 (W.307))
Rheoliadau Cyfraniadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3347 (Cy.307))
The National Health Service (Dental Charges) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3366 (W.308))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd Deintyddol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3366 (Cy.308))
The M4 Motorway (Junction 30 (Pentwyn) Slip Roads) (Trunking) Scheme 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3383 (W.309))
Cynllun Traffordd yr M4 (Slipffyrdd Cyffordd 30 (Pen-twyn)) (Peri bod Ffordd yn dod yn Gefnffordd) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3383 (Cy.309))
The Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3390 (W.310))
Gorchymyn Cynllunio Gwlad a Thref (Gweithdrefn Datblygu Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3390 (Cy.310))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Demand Notices and Discretionary Relief) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3392 (W.311))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Hysbysiadau Galw am Dalu a Rhyddhad yn ôl Disgresiwn) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3392 (Cy.311))
The Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Wales) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006 No. 3452 (W. 313))
Rheoliadau Anifeiliaid a Chynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Mewnforio ac Allforio) (Cymru) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) 2006 (S.I. 2006 Rhif 3452 (Cy. 313))
External links
Welsh SI List
2006
Welsh Assembly Statutory Instruments
2006 in Wales |
4240793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run%20%28Snow%20Patrol%20song%29 | Run (Snow Patrol song) | "Run" is a song by Scottish-Northern Irish alternative rock band Snow Patrol from their third studio album, Final Straw (2003). It was released in the United Kingdom on 26 February 2004 as the second single from the album. The song was conceived in 2000 by frontman Gary Lightbody after an accident he had during a bender. "Run" is described as a Britpop power ballad and was received with positive reviews by music critics, who compared it with Coldplay's "Yellow".
A music video, directed by Paul Gorewas, was released to promote the song; in it, band members use distress flares and motorcycles at night. An unreleased video, directed by Mark Pellington, was also filmed. The single reached the top five on the UK Singles Chart in 2004, and since it has appeared multiple times in the chart. Additionally, "Run" reached the Top 40 of Ireland, the Netherlands and the American Modern Rock Tracks.
"Run" has been covered by multiple artists, including Leona Lewis, who released it as a single in November 2008. Her performance received positive reviews and commercial success, topping the charts of Austria, Ireland, Portugal and the United Kingdom, where it became the fastest-selling download ever after it sold 69,244 copies in just two days.
Background
Snow Patrol's frontman, Gary Lightbody, conceived the idea of writing "Run" in 2000. In an interview with Michael Odell, from Q magazine, Lightbody explained the song was not written about "being a child", as he tended to say. He described: "I was on a massive bender and one night I was drinking in the bar of the Glasgow School of Art. I fell down a full flight of stairs. Jonny Quinn found me in the stairwell with blood coming out of my head ... I split my head open and my eye was closed and I lost a few teeth ... I wrote Run soon after on this little guitar I'd tried to smash up in my shitty little room near Hillhead. The words 'Light up, light up' gave me this sense of a beacon." Besides Lightbody, it was written by Quinn, Nathan Connolly, Mark McClelland and Iain Archer.
Composition
"Run" is a Britpop power ballad composed using common time in the key of C major, with a tempo of 72 beats per minute. It is written in the common verse–chorus form, and its chord progression goes Am–Fmaj7/A–Gsus4, it repeats once, and later it changes to Am–F6/C–Gsus4, which also repeats one time, and then the sequence restarts. Lightbody's vocal range performs from A3 to F5, and the song features bass guitar, cello, drums, guitars, viola and violins as its musical instruments. Adrienne Day wrote for Spin that "Run" includes "guitar riffs", whilst Joe Bosso described the song as "dark and moody".
A reviewer for Contactmusic.com commented about "Run". In its introduction includes a "trembling guitar", Lightbody's vocals as "velvet soft", and its refrain as "stirring stuff". Irish writer Peter Murphy called it a "strange hybrid", explaining it is "a lighter-waving anthem drenched in private grieving". Kevin Forest Moreau considered "Run" to has "plaintive lyrics, rigorous strumming, sweeping strings and a hook that yanks without reservation for the heartstrings of adolescent girls everywhere." Claire Simpson described it as an "angst-ridden guitar ballad".
Critical reception
"Run" received critical acclaim from music critics. Claire Simpson highlighted the track, Adrienne Day called the song "brilliant", and Jacky McCarthy, from Billboard, described it as "memorable", due to the band displays "a lush melody, soaring chorus and [Lightbody's] brooding vocals. Irish musician, Shane O'Neill, said he wept when he first heard it play." Andrew Beaujon added it to Spin playlist of "songs you need to know", and wrote it is "the year's most fantastically overblown Britpop power ballad." Mikael Wood from the same magazine compared "Run" to British band Coldplay song "Yellow", as he said it is a "pro-smoking epic [song that] challenges the cell-phone-waving majesty of 'Yellow'", a feeling Douglas Wolk of Rolling Stone had as well. Josh Modell of The A.V. Club commented it grabs the baton from "Yellow" and "takes it for a weepy, grandiose jog". John Murphy considered its "slow burning delights" replaced the piano chords of Coldplay's "Clocks", which, according to him, started to sound "annoying".
Marc Vera of Entertainment Weekly magazine described "Run"'s lyrics as "haunting of romantic distress", and its guitars as "walls [that] should put Coldplay on notice." Stephen M. Deusner of Pitchfork Media also compared "Run" to Coldplay and he wrote it "exists solely for its uplifting, if oddly fatalistic, chorus ... which will surely have concertgoers raising their lighters during the inevitable second-encore singalong." He continued saying it is an "unapologetically anthemic" in which throws in some schmaltzy strings at the climax that practically cry out to score the big smooch in some teen-friendly romantic comedy." Kevin Forest Moreau considered its lyrics as "unrestrained earnestness". Whilst an Uncut magazine reviewer marked it as a highlight, Devon Powers wrote for PopMatters it is "easy and lush", and Paul Nolan considered it "the perfect modern hymn to broken relationships".
Lisa Oliver of Stylus Magazine commented "Run" has "raw tenderness", and listeners should not "listen to it in public—unless openly weeping in front of colleagues or commuters is not a concern." Christian Carey of Junkmedia.org called it, along with another song of Final Straw ("Grazed Knees"), a "symphonic pop gem", and the "most memorable" track of the album. Steven Gozdecki of Neumu.net called it "centerpiece" of the album and a "brilliantly entrancing" tune, and also noted it is "the song that Coldplay dream of making". Gozdecki complemented with "[it is] a moving ballad that benefits from the absence of that other band's dreadful, Dave Matthews-esque voice and omnipresent electric piano." Natasha Perry considered it to be a song "that sends shivers down the spine with a haunting verse and uplifting chorus." A reviewer for Sputnikmusic compared it to Snow Patrol song "Chasing Cars" (2006), which was described as "beautiful".
Steve Hands for OHM commented "Run" is "the kind of rueful facing-up-to-life type anthem" and added it is a "decent stab" for radio stations like XFM and Virgin Radio, a reviewer of Contactmusic.com called it "shimmering", and Dom Gourlay of Drowned in Sound gave the song a rating of 8/10. Virgin Music listed "Run" 8 in their list of "Top pub sing-along anthems". It appeared at number 874 of "The Rock 1000" list of "best rock songs of all time", published by New Zealander radio station The Rock FM. Emma Taylor and Lorelei Sharkey, Em & Lo, listed "Run" at number 69 of their "Top 100 Breakup Songs of All Time", in their book The Ultimate Guide to Dumping and Getting Dumped. Along with the song "Same", "Run" is one of the favourite Snow Patrol songs of American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe member Tommy Lee.
Chart performance
After its release as single, "Run" entered the Irish Singles Chart when it debuted and peaked at number 25 on 29 January 2004. The song stayed within the top 50 for 5 weeks, and it left it on number 41. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted and peaked at number 5 on the UK Singles Chart, on 7 February 2004. The next week, the song fell to number 8, and managed to continue in the top 40 for another 4 weeks. In the United States, the song entered the top 30 of the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks charts, now titled Alternative Songs, at number 30 on 28 August 2004. On 30 October, it reached number 15, its peak position. The song left the chart on 25 December, after 19 weeks. In the Netherlands, "Run" debuted on 7 August 2004 at number 88 on the Single Top 100 chart. Two weeks later, the song rose to its peak position, at number 71, and stayed there for a week. The song dropped out the chart on 11 September of the same year. In 2005, it reentered the chart twice, on 19 February at number 95, and on 5 March at number 97. It also peaked at number 19 on the Dutch Top 40.
In 2007, "Run" re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 147. In 2008, British singer Leona Lewis covered the song in multiple radio and television programmes. After Lewis performed it on The X Factor, Snow Patrol's version re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 28. The next year, in October, the song debuted the German Singles Chart at number 92, whilst in November the song reentered the UK Singles Chart at number 63. In 2010, after Snow Patrol re-released "Run", it re-appeared on the Dutch Top 40 at number 22 for three weeks, on the Dutch Single Top 100 at number 75, and the UK Singles Chart at 133. In Belgium, it charted the Ultratip at number 8 in the region of Flanders, whilst in the Walloon Region at number 6 of the same chart.
Music video
The music video for "Run" was filmed in September 2003, in a remote area of the county of Kent. It was directed by Paul Gore, produced by Suzie Morton through the company Flynn Productions, photographed by Ben Smithard, and edited by Tony Kearns, and it premiered in October 2003. During filming, people from the area called the police, because they noticed several red distress flares were used at night, which were those Snow Patrol members used.
The video starts with Lightbody, who wears a dark coat, a grey polo neck sweater, and trousers. He sings as he pushes an old motorcycle across a farmer's field at dusk. As darkness falls, he abandons the bike and enters a wood. He walks through it, until he descends a short hill and stays in a stream. As the chorus begins, Lightbody lights a distress firelight, he moves it in circles as he sings. In a bridge behind him, two members from Snow Patrol light two flares and move them as well. When the chorus ends, Lighbody throws his flare to the water, in which it continues shining. Lightbody returns to the forest and he sings while he walks. Later, he ascends to a plain, where another two members ignite two distress firelights as the second verse ends. With the flares, they run and move them in circles, and then, they throw them to each other. Nathan Connolly, who wears a grey hoodie, appears riding the motorcycle Lightbody dumped. He drives it in zigzag with the other men. As the video ends, he goes to the stream, where the motorbike starts to throw smoke; Connolly gets off it, and it fires. The burning bike rolls downhill and it falls into the stream, where it sinks, with the fire being extinguished.
An unreleased music video directed by Mark Pellington was uploaded to his Vimeo.
Usage in other media
"Run" appeared in various television programs and films including One Tree Hill, Life as We Know It, Cold Case, Rescue Me, Doctor Who Confidential, Jericho, Mad Dogs and Bates Motel.
Katharine McPhee performed the song in the Smash episode "Publicity".
The song was included in the soundtrack to the film The Chumscrubber and the Top Gear compilation album The Ultimate Driving Experience.
The song was also used in a trailer for the 2006 action-adventure drama film The Guardian.
Track listing
7"
A. "Run" (Revised) – 5:56
B. "Post Punk Progression" – 3:23
10"
A. "Run" (Jacknife Lee Remix) – 7:27
B. "Run" (Freelance Hellraiser Remix) – 4:03
CD single and digital download
"Run" (Revised) – 5:57
"Post Punk Progression" – 3:21
Canada CD single
"Run" – 5:55
"Post Punk Progression" – 3:23
"Spitting Games" (2001 Country Version) – 4:16
"Run" (video) – 4:27
"Run"
"Run" (Live from Edinburgh) –
Run – EP
"Run" – 5:55
"Post Punk Progression" – 3:23
"Spitting Games" (2001 Country Version) – 4:16
Personnel
"Run" was recorded at Britannia Row, located in London, England, and The Diving Bell Lounge Studios, in Glasgow, Scotland. Credits adapted from "Run" liner notes.
Background vocals and Lead Vocals: Nathan Connolly, Gary Lightbody
Bass: Mark McClelland
Cello: James Banbury
Engineers: Michael Bannister, Dan Swift
Drums: Jonny Quinn
Guitars: Gary Lightbody, Nathan Connolly
Lyrics: Gary Lightbody
Mixer: Chris Lord-Alge, Snow Patrol
Musical composition: Iain Archer, Nathan Connolly, Gary Lightbody, Mark McClelland, Lee Potter ("Post Punk Progression"/"PPP" only), Jonny Quinn
Producer: Garret "Jacknife" Lee, Snow Patrol
Photography: Ernst Fischer
String arrangement: James Banbury
String arrangement assistant: Jeff McLaughlin
Viola: Bruce White
Violin: Alison Dodds, Fiona McCapra
Vocals: Gary Lightbody
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Leona Lewis version
British singer Leona Lewis covered "Run" on BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge on 31 October 2007. She later released the song as a single from Spirit: The Deluxe Edition in November 2008. At the time, "Run" was the UK's fastest-selling digital-only release ever, selling 69,244 copies in just two days. Upon its release as a single, Lewis performed "Run" on several televised shows, including The X Factor (UK),Top of the Pops and at the 80th Royal Variety Performance. She has also performed the song on the American and German versions of The X Factor, and it was included on the set list of her concert tours, The Labyrinth (2010), Glassheart Tour (2013) and I Am Tour (2016).
Background
Lewis first performed "Run" on the Live Lounge section of The Jo Whiley Show, where artists perform two songs: one song of their own and one by another artist, in an acoustic format. The performance was recorded at the BBC Maida Vale Studios, where Lewis was backed by a 14-piece band. The show's host Jo Whiley said that "people did cry". She referred to it as "the most famous cover" (from her show), stating that it is "always in demand and developed a life of its own." The day after Lewis's version appeared on the Live Lounge, it was requested over 8,000 times in the first 2 minutes of The Chris Moyles Show. As a result, her version was added to Radio 1's A List. Due to its popularity, Lewis recorded a studio version of the song in September 2008 for the re-release of her album Spirit. It was made available digitally in the United Kingdom on 30 November 2008.
"Run" was expected to be released as a single following Lewis's performance on the British The X Factor, but the single did not appear on any online music stores. It was believed that Lewis's record label, Sony, wanted to shift the sales towards the reissue of Spirit, which did return the album to number one. A spokesman for Lewis reported that the song "has never been scheduled for release as a single", but due to "overwhelming public demand", Lewis' management and record label decided to release it in the UK on 30 November. In the US, a radio edit of "Run" was released as a digital download on 16 December 2008.
Critical reception
Lewis's version of the song was critically acclaimed by music critics, although Snow Patrol guitarist Nathan Connolly admitted in November 2008 that he still had not heard her version: "Nothing against her, but I don't know if I'm going to endorse it either. It is what it is." The following month, Snow Patrol frontman Gary Lightbody described Lewis's version of the song as "phenomenal". He told the Scottish newspaper The Daily Record: Music Radar said that "The two versions couldn't be more different. Snow Patrol's rendering is dark and moody, while Leona Lewis's is big-time pop", and quoted Gary Lightbody as saying "That's what you want a song to do ... Different interpretations and meanings. Songs aren't monolithic, at least the good ones aren't. What Leona Lewis has done has touched hearts." Newsround highly praised Lewis' cover version, stating that "the full gospel choir and orchestra easily match Leona's powerful pipes – and remind listeners why the song made people cry when she first performed it on Radio 1's Live Lounge last year". "Run" received three stars out of five from Digital Spy, who said that Lewis "wrings every last drop of emotion out of Gary Lightbody's lyrics, channeling her inner Mariah for some almighty warbling at the crescendo". The Sentinel described the single as "so much better" than Snow Patrol's original song. "It's powerful, painful and the choir behind it takes it on to another level." Radio presenter James Daniels concurred, saying "Leona just takes it to a whole new level, which is a phrase I hate to use – but it's true".
Lewis's version of "Run" was featured in episodes of EastEnders, Doctors, the fourteenth episode of the first season of The Vampire Diaries titled Fool Me Once, and also featured in the ending scene of The Letters (2014).
Chart performance
The song reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart in its first week of release, due to download sales alone. "Run" remained on the top position the four weeks in total. On 7 December 2008, it entered the UK Singles Chart at number one, also on downloads alone, making it her 3rd number one. It had become the fastest-selling UK download ever after it sold 69,244 in just two days, a record it held until December 2009. By the end of the first week, download sales had reached 131,593, some 8,000 below the first week sales of "A Moment Like This". The single spent a second week at number one in the United Kingdom, before 2008's The X Factor winner Alexandra Burke charted with "Hallelujah". "Run" re-entered The Official UK Top 40 at 32 on 15 March 2009. As of January 2021, the song has shifted over 1.2 million copies and is certified x2 platinum in the UK.
"Run" became Lewis's fifth UK Top Five single; it follows "A Moment Like This" which peaked at number one in 2006 and "Bleeding Love" in 2007. In 2008, the double A-side "Better in Time"/"Footprints in the Sand" peaked at number two, while "Forgive Me" peaked at number five. As of December 2013, Lewis holds the record for British female solo artist with the most UK Top 5 singles, with eight. "Run" was certified x2 platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and BRIT Certified in January 2021, denoting shipments of more than 1.2 million copies. According to the Official Charts Company, the song had sold 832,000 copies in the UK as of January 2014.
The single has reached number one in Austria, Portugal, Ireland and UK. Also, peaked at 45 at the year-end charts in the UK. On 8 October 2010 "Run" re-entered the German charts again, after having been performed by a 14-year-old contestant on Das Supertalent. It placed at number 9, its highest position so far. After another 4 weeks, the song reached an even higher position, jumping from number 27 to number 3. In March 2011, the single spent its 52nd week at number 49 on the German Singles Chart, making it her first single to be on that chart for one year or longer, and the 41st single in general to do so. The single was placed a total of 94 non-consecutive weeks on the German charts.
Music video
The music video for "Run" was filmed in South Africa and was directed by Jake Nava. Lewis herself described the setting of the video as "an enchanted, haunted forest. It's picking up on different elements of the song." The video starts out with Lewis alone on a dusty trail, seemingly lost. She enters a dark forest and appears to be stalked by the viewer. In the final chorus, Lewis draws in the sun and the forest literally lights up, matching the lyrics of the song.
Live performances
Prior to Lewis recording her version of the song and releasing it as a single, she covered the song live on Jo Wiley's BBC Radio 1 show Live Lounge in November 2007. Wiley wrote on her website that although it was a "great" and "emotional" performance which caused members of the audience to cry, she felt that Snow Patrol's vocal could not be beaten. Lewis performed her studio recorded version of the song for the first time live on the fifth series of The X Factor (UK) on 15 November 2008. Lewis performed "Run" on Top of the Pops on 10 December 2008, and again the following day at the 80th Royal Variety Performance on 11 December 2008, which was held at the London Palladium. On 12 November 2009, Lewis was a special guest at Gary Barlow and Take That's Children in Need 2009 event called Children in Need Rocks the Royal Albert Hall. The singer performed "Run" and "Happy", the lead single from her second studio album, Echo (2009). She was a special guest performer at the eighth series semi-finals of German singing competition Popstars: Du & Ich in December 2009, where she sang the song. Lewis performed "Run" at the Rock in Rio festival held in Lisbon on 22 May 2010. The song was included as the second to last song on the set list of her debut concert tour, called The Labyrinth (2010). It was later included on the DVD release of the tour, The Labyrinth Tour: Live from the O2. Lewis performed the song in the encore section of the set list, along with "Bleeding Love".
On 18 October 2011, Lewis performed the song on the first live show of the second season of X Factor (Germany). The performance, accompanied by a full band a female choir, was described as being "lovely" by Robbie Daw for Idolator. As part of the promotion for her first EP called Hurt: The EP (2011), Lewis performed "Run" on the first-season finale of The X Factor (U.S.) on 22 December 2011, while a montage of highlights of the season were screened behind her. Season one judge Nicole Scherzinger was complimentary of Lewis's performance, saying "Leona blessed us with her beautiful voice." Lewis performed "Run" as the final song of her set at Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on 24 May 2012, and was joined on stage by the Hackney Community Choir. She opened with a cover of Diddy – Dirty Money's "Coming Home", who she was joined on stage with by Wretch 32, "Better in Time", "Come Alive", a new song which she premiered from the third studio album Glassheart (2012), "Bleeding Love" and "Collide". On 19 October 2012, Lewis performed the song on the Stand Up to Cancer telethon in the UK. Similar to her performance at Hackney Weekend, Lewis was accompanied on stage by The Big C Choir, which consists of people who have had or have cancer. She returned to the stage later on in the night to perform "Fingerprint", a track from Glassheart'''. "Run" was performed as the seventeenth and final song on the set list of Lewis's 2013 tour called the Glassheart Tour.
Track listing
Digital download (United States)
"Run" (Single Mix) –
Credits and personnel
Recording
Mixed at TwentyOne Studios, London.
Personnel
Songwriting – Gary Lightbody, Jonathan Quinn, Mark McClelland, Nathan Connolly, Iain Archer
Production – Steve Robson
Engineer – Jonathan Shakhovskoy
Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley
String arrangement – Wil Malone
Piano – Steve Robson
Hammond – Paul Beard
Bass – John Garrison
Drums and percussion – Karl Brazil
Guitar – Luke Potashnick
Background vocals – Alani Gibbon, Beverley Brown, Carmen Reece, Chris Ballin, Jewell Elliott, Joy Malcolm, Ladonna Harley Peters, Lauraine Bristol, Lincoln Jean-Marie, Marvin Cotterell, Vula Malinger
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Run'', Syco, Sony.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
Release history
Other versions
On 22 November 2008, a tribute act called "Ameritz" charted at No. 54 with a cover of this song. This prompted a spokesperson for Leona Lewis to declare that on 30 November, her version of the song would be released. This version moved up two places the next week, charting and peaking at No. 52.
The song was covered by Jennylyn Mercado in 2010 and appears on the album "Love Is...".
The song was covered by Tre Lux in 2006 and appears on the album "A Strange Gathering".
The song was covered by the pop classical group the Three Graces in Italian underneath the title "Si Accendera" on their 2008 self-titled debut album.
The song was covered by Sarah Lombardi in 2011 and appears on the album "Heartbeat".
The song was covered by Katharine McPhee in the 12th episode of the TV series "Smash", and subsequently released as a bonus track on the Target-exclusive deluxe edition of the "Smash" soundtrack.
The song was covered by Damian McGinty in 2012 and appears on the album "Damian McGinty".
A classical cover of the song was released by the band Eklipse on their album "A Night in Strings".
Covered by Josh Groban and Sarah McLachlan in concert, and on Groban's 2018 album "Bridges".
Johnny Jaymez released the song retitled 'Run (Light Up)‘ as a single in July 2018.
The song was covered by Cold in 2019 and appears on the album "The Things We Can't Stop".
On 12 December 2019 a cover by the X-Factor Celebrities was released in aid of Shooting Star Children's Hospices.
Sinéad O'Connor performed the song in April 2020 on Irish television station RTÉ.
References
External links
2000s ballads
2003 songs
2004 singles
2008 singles
Rock ballads
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Leona Lewis songs
Music videos directed by Jake Nava
Number-one singles in Austria
Pop ballads
Song recordings produced by Jacknife Lee
Songs written by Gary Lightbody
Snow Patrol songs
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Songs written by Iain Archer
Songs written by Jonny Quinn
Songs written by Mark McClelland
Songs written by Nathan Connolly
Fiction Records singles
Polydor Records singles
Syco Music singles |
4240946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorginak | Sorginak | Sorginak (root form: sorgin, absolutive case (singular): sorgina) are the assistants of the goddess Mari in Basque mythology. It is also the Basque name for witches, priests and priestesses, making it difficult to distinguish between the mythological and real ones.
Sometimes sorginak are confused with lamiak (similar to nymphs). Along with them, and specially with Jentilak, sorginak are said often to have built the local megaliths.
Sorginak used to participate in Akelarre. These mysteries happened on Friday nights, when Mari and Sugaar are said to meet in the locally sacred cave to engender storms.
Etymology
The etymology of the name is disputed. The common suffix -gin (actor, from egin: to do) is the only agreement.
One theory claims that sor derives from sorte (fortune), and hence it would be rendered as fortune-teller. Another states that sor is the radical of sor(tu) (to create), and hence sorgin means literally: creator.
Most common references to sorginak
Sorginak are often said to recite the following spell to travel to and back from the akelarre: Under the clouds and over the brambles, or variants of it. In many legends a failed witch (normally a man) says the spell inverted (Under the brambles and over the clouds) and arrives to the akelarre quite bruised.
Sorginak also chant the following:
Other variants of this song are also known.
Sorginak often are said to transform themselves into animals, most commonly cats. These cats are sometimes said to bother pious women that do not wish to go the akelarre. It has also been recorded that they collected monetary fines from the people that did not wish to go to their ecstatic gatherings or those witches that absented themselves from them.
Inquisitorial documents describe horrific practices of witches, like eating children or poisonings. But popular legends do not speak of these practices, instead mentioning kissing "the devil's arse" or an animal's genitals, occasional poisoning of crops, bothering modest women (in the shape of cats or other animals) and anointing their bodies with flying ointment (containing entheogenic, Solanaceous plants) to "fly" to and from the akelarre and perform other supposed feats.
Major persecutions against Basque witches
While in the late Middle Ages there are a handful of references to witchery, they are mostly fines for accusing someone of being one.
This changes in the 16th and 17th centuries with the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition and the pan-European witch panic that afflicted the Early Modern Age. Since being conquered by Castile in 1512–21, Navarre (and to a lesser extent areas of the Basque Country) suffered numerous inquisitorial processes, mainly against Jews and Muslims, but occasionally also against Basque sorginak. Particularly important was the 1610 process of Logroño that focused on the akelarre of Zugarramurdi. The previous year, in 1609, French judge Pierre de Lancre had initiated a massive process in Labourd, focusing mainly on Basque women and priests. He was eventually displaced but not without causing many deaths and much suffering. The witch panic extended beyond the frontier and accusations of witchcraft proliferated among the local population until the Spanish Inquisition intervened. The Logroño process ended with 12 people burnt at the stake (five of them symbolically, as they had died under the tortures inflicted in the process) and shattered Pyrennean Navarre and led also to a serious reconsideration of the Inquisition's attitude towards accusations of witchcraft. The Spanish and Italian Inquisition generally approached accusations of sorcery and witchcraft with skepticism and similar processes were rare in comparison to other European countries where no such centralised institution existed.
Places associated with sorginak
Throughout the Basque Country there are many places associated with sorginak, often also associated with Mari or other mythological characters. This is an incomplete list of the most famous ones:
Álava
Aramaio: the places of Abadelaueta, Anbotondo and Amezola, as well as an undetermined field at the Gorbea mountain are said to have been places of akelarres.
Maeztu: a woman from this village, Margarita Jauri, was one of the "witches" tried by the Inquisition in the case of the Zugarramurdi covenant. Though finally acquitted, she was so traumatised by the detention and torture that she committed suicide soon after her release.
Urizaharra: the field of Urkiza or Urkizo seems to have been the site of the local akelarre.
Biscay
Anboto peak is the well established principal home of Mari, also known as Anbotoko Sorgina (Witch of Anboto) and Anbotoko Damie (Lady of Anboto). Her home was said to be specifically in an unreachable cave known as Sorginkoba (witch's cave).
Dima: the farmhouse of Petralanda was the main site of the akelarre of Arratia Valley in the 16th century, according to inquisitional records.
Durango was the center of a medieval Beguine heresy that ended with 13 people burnt at the stake. Later, in the 16th and 17th centuries other inquisitional trials were held in this town.
Mañaria: the cave of Azkondo was the witches' meeting place, according to local legend. José Miguel Barandiaran also mentions that the cliffs between the field of Akelarre and the cave of Silibranka (a paleolithic site) were the playfield of demons.
Murueta: the place of Etxebartxuko-landa, according to local legend.
Muxika: several places attributed as akelarre-sites are called generically eperlanda (partridges' field).
Orozko: local legend points to Garaigorta mountain as site of the local akelarre Also the cave of Supelegor, in the karstic area of Itxina, is associated with witches and especially lamiak, and it is even considered one of the mansions of Mari herself.
Zalla: it is called "town of sorcerers"
Zeberio: the local witches went to the akelarre of Petralanda (in Dima) but also met locally at Hereinoza household.
Gipuzkoa
Andoain: an old bridge is said to have been built by witches.
Ataun: the sites of Txabaltxo (near a creek), Iraubeltz (a wood), Mendabiita (a bridge), Zelaun (a plain), a creek near the Artzate farmhouse, the spring of Negarregi and the place of Dantzaleku are all said to have frequented by sorginak. Additionally several local sites bear their name: Sorginiturri (witches' spring), Sorginpelota (witches' ball game), Sorginzulo and Sorgizuloeta (witches' niche and niches respectively).
Azkoitia: the farmhouse of Kimutxo.
Bergara: Itxu mountain was the local site of akelarres.
Errenteria: a woman from this village (now an industrial town), María Zozoaia, was one of the main accused in the process of Zugarramurdi. According to inquisitional records, they gathered in the field of Matxarena, that they called Atsegin Soro (pleasure orchard).
Hernani: the cave of Sorgintxulo, as recorded by Barandiaran.
Hondarribia: a local (but none-the-less brutal) series of inquisitorial trials in 1530 discovered that witches met at Jaizkibel mountain, near the hermitage of St. Barbara. Other sites that the accused declared to be their meeting places were: near the hermitage of St. Philip and St. James, or near the hermitage and castle of St. Telmo. Local popular legend instead says that the akelarres happened near one of the local bridges: either Mendelo, Puntal or Santa Engracia, during the feast of St. Agatha.
Lezo: Inquisitor Ugarte was supposedly poisoned by the local witches in this village in 1531.
Lizartza: near a fence at Aini mountain.
Mendaro: the house of Silerokua or Silerene once was inhabited by a witch that, typically, transformed herself as cat to bother more chaste women, legend says.
Oiartzun: witches met near the cliffs of Irantzi and Puilegi, according to legend.
Oñati: the cave of Gaiztozulo (evil hole) is said to be one of the main homes of Mari and her court of sorginak.
Pasaia: local woman Mari Zuloko was imprisoned in St. Sebastian, accused of witchery. Later she was stoned and expelled from her hometown, settling in Donibane-Lohitzune.
Tolosa: it is said that witches used to wash clothes near Ugartebide. They also met in Edar Iturri and Sorginerreka.
Zegama here goddess Mari, also often considered a witch, is known as Aketigiko Sorgina (witch of Aketegi mountain). It is also believed that she lives in Sorginzulo cave.
Labourd
Lapurdi was particularly shaken by the large-scale trials of 1609 led by Pierre de Lancre, who was convinced that most people in the country were witches.
Arcangues: the people of this village had the fame of all being witches.
Ascain: in the 1609 trials, the priest of this village was burnt at the stake as a witch.
Saint-Jean-de-Luz: Alakoandia field and the bridges that are between this village and Ciboure.
Hendaye: the local beach was the favorite site for the akelarre, specifically in a site then known as Lakua (the lake). In the 1609 trials it was declared by one of the accused that there was as many people in the local akelarre as stars are in the sky.
Lahonce: the apparently many witches of this village met in Sohouta (Soule).
Sare: several legends place witches as living in the houses of Egoainea, Ihartzegaraia and Larraburua. The local akelarre was sometimes celebrated at the Fikozelai field. Many local witches were tried in 1609, including several minors and the lady of Txantokorena household.
Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle: Pierre de Lancre lived here during the witch-hunt of 1609, in the castle of Amou, whose lord had asked for the trials to be initiated. According to the judicial records, the local akelarre took place either in the cemetery, in private houses or even in the castle of Amou itself, while the trial was active. What this means, if the record is true, is that it was done in the sight of de Lancre himself, which is very unlikely. Other unlikely akelarre-sites mentioned in the process are the hotel Barbarenena, on the very night when de Lancre was sleeping there, and in the home of maistre Segura, de Lancre's criminal advisor. Many local presumed witches were accused of plotting to kill de Lancre.
Urrugne: two local witches were executed by de Lancre here. Others managed to flee to Lower Navarre.
Ustaritz: in 1576 Marie Txorropike of the Ianetabarta household was burnt at the stake. Forty other supposed witches were also executed. Several people, including minors, were also processed here in 1609. The akelarre was celebrated at a site called Pagola.
Ciboure: a large number of people from this town were processed in 1609, including five priests.
Navarre
Large portions of Navarre were severely affected by an inquisitorial process in 1610, focused in the akelarre of Zurgarramurdi.
Abaurregaina: there's a local natural bridge named Sorginzubi (witches' bridge).
Altsasu: local legend states that Mari lives in the cave of Odabe, having by main servant a sorgina.
Araitz: the local witches met at Urrizola slope before flying to the akelarre.
Arantza: the cliff of Arrutxipi is said to have been the living place of sorginak in the past.
Areso: the cave of Uli, at Ulizar mountain, was the favorite site for the akelarre.
Auritz: the sites of Basajaunberro (probably modern Patxaranberro), near Ortzanzurieta mountain and Sorginarizaga, near Roncesvalles. Two witch-hunts affected this municipality: in 1525–27 and in 1575.
Bargota: Local priest Juanis de Bargota was also a famous witch. He had special relationship with a female witch of Biana, Endregoto (Lady Goto in Basque). Both were processed by the Inquisition in 1610 but, while Endregoto was burned at the stake, Juanis de Bargota avoided punishment by showing extreme repentance.
Baztan: Abbot Aranibar of Urdazubi made many people confess guilty of witchery by means of torture in 1610, including many children. In 1612 a civil process was initiated against 7 local women. The tortures inflicted in the towers of Jauregizar and Jauregizuri were so brutal that the accused women claimed insistently to be moved to Logroño, to be judged by the Inquisition itself, as a lesser evil. It seems that the site of Dutxuketa (in Elbetea) might have been a meeting place for the witches. There is also a dolmen called Sorginetxe (witch's home).
Bera: the local witches met apparently on Larrun mountain, along with their colleagues of Sara and Azkaine.
Bertizarana: according to the inquisitorial records, witches met at Nabarte village. In 1611, also impelled by Abbot Aranibar, there was a witch-hunt in Legasa. Graciana de Maribertizena and her daughter were tortured brutally and confessed to all asked.
Biana: a hill near the Las Cañas lagoon was apparently the site of the local akelarres, to which people came also from Logroño. Biana was also the hometown of Endregoto, the partner of famous male witch Juanis de Bargota, burnt at the stake in 1610.
Burgi: according to an inquisitorial process of 1569, witches met in Larraionoa and Los Linares, as well as on a barrage at the river.
Ergoiena: Arleze cave is said to have been used by witches. Putxerri cave (also Putterri or Bueitarri), in the Aralar range is said to be inhabited by genii that show themselves as animals, now red, now black, now white; another legend says it is a mansion of Mari and her sorginak, called in the area Putxerriko Damea (Lady of Putxerri).
Esparza: Inquisitor Avellaneda tells how he tried to dismiss the incipient belief in witchery contacted local witches here and was initiated by anointing their magic oil on all them. He then believed to have seen his partners to have done unbelievable feats. After that experience he retook his inquisitorial duties with even greater dedication. The processes that shattered the Salazar valley in 1532 and 1539 record a place called Soto de Tarragona, impossible to locate, as site of the local akelarre. Sometimes the hermit of St. Tirso has been named as place of sabbats as well.
Etxalar was also affected by the 1610 process. In the process, the field of Aranduriaretxa (also Urristilde or Sarueta) and the site of Larbure, were named as akelarre locations.
Garaioa: in 1525, local Martin Lizuain was burnt at the stake in Auritz. In 1577, accused by a 5-year-old boy, seven women were processed and acquitted. Two of them died during the tortures.
Hiriberri: the mountain of Petxuberro (also Petiriberro) is said to have been the site of the akelarre of the Aezkoa Valley.
Izaba: a possible akelarre is said to have taken place in Berin-pikua.
Ituren: the local akelarre apparently used to take place on the heights of Mendaur mountain, near the summit. The processes of 1525 and 1610 affected this village.
Itza: the peak of Oskia or Arkaitz is said to be meeting place for witches here.
Larraun: in Alli cave a nearby, where the dolmen of Akelar is located. Also in the field of Urrizolaegia.
Lerga: the site of Campoluengo.
Lesaka: in the process of 1610 was said that the local akelarre took place in the field of Kolunba.
Miranda de Arga: field of Baiona.
Otxagabia: Legend says that Joan I of Navarre was killed by the black magic of the Bishop of Troyes (who was effectively accused of witchery in 1308–13); since then this queen's ghost dwells in the Irati forest, seeking revenge. The local akelarre apparently took place in the main plaza of the village, though sometimes took place in Aboddibidea, deep in the mountains.
Pamplona: the capital of Navarre was affected by the trial of 1527.
Piedramillera: near Dos Hermanas twin peaks.
Erronkari: Bedagin-pikoa was the site of the local akelarre. The valley was affected by the persecution of 1532.
Ultzama: the mountains of Aldaun, Xuxurro, Urbilaga and Elizamendia have been said to be sabbatic sites.
Urdazubi: In the 1609 witch-hunt of Labourd, several accused declared to have celebrated the sabbat inside the church of this village. According to Barandiaran, all neighbours of Alkerdi, where there is an important Paleolithic cave-site, as considered to be witches.
Ziordi: Bekatu-Larre (field of sins) was apparently the site of local akelarres. This village was affected by inquisitorial processes in 1575–76 and 1610.
Zugarramurdi: Akelarrenlezea (cave of the akelarre) is just 500 meters away from the village. Actually witches met in the field of Berroskoberro outside the caves. This village was the focus of the largest and more infamous inquisitorial process, that took place in 1610 in Logroño. Seven people were burnt at the stake and other five were burnt symbolically, along with their remains (they had died during the process). A local legend says that all women of Azkar are witches.
Lower Navarre
Bidarray: Ebrain bridge, known also as Infenuko zubia (Hell's bridge) is said to have been built by lamiak or sorginak in a single night.
Saint-Michel: the people of this village have been traditionally considered witches as a whole. In other time they were nicknamed akelartarrak (akelarreans).
Iholdy: the local witches apparently washed clothes at Oxarti creek.
Soule
Alçay-Alçabéhéty-Sunharette: Arlegiko Kutxia (Arlegi's cross) is a place that was said that witches made appearances. Another site of akelarres is Artegaina. Near this place there's a cave named Ertzagainako karbia, where legend says a dragon once dwelt.
Chéraute: the witches of this village and that of Lahuntza met a some field near Mauléon.
References
Guía del Akelarre Vasco, José Dueso, ROGER Ed. 2001.
See also
Akelarre
Basque mythology
Basque people
Mari (goddess)
Witchcraft
Witch-hunt
Spanish Inquisition
Pierre de Lancre
Megalith
María de Zozaya
Brujería
Basque history
Basque mythology
Basque culture
European witchcraft |
4242030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom%20of%20navigation | Freedom of navigation | Freedom of navigation (FON) is a principle of law of the sea that ships flying the flag of any sovereign state shall not suffer interference from other states, apart from the exceptions provided for in international law. In the realm of international law, it has been defined as “freedom of movement for vessels, freedom to enter ports and to make use of plant and docks, to load and unload goods and to transport goods and passengers". This right is now also codified as Article 87(1)a of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
History
Development as a legal concept
Freedom of navigation as a legal and normative concept has developed only relatively recently. Until the early modern period, international maritime law was governed by customs that differed across countries’ legal systems and were only sometimes codified, as for example in the 14th-century Crown of Aragon Consulate of the Sea (; ; also known in English as the Customs of the Sea). These customs were developed and employed in local jurisprudence, often cases in prize courts regarding the capture of goods on the high seas by privateers. Under the Consolato customs (and other contemporary codes), "enemy goods can be captured on neutral ships and neutral goods are free on board enemy's ships." This established a framework under which neutral shipping was not inviolable in time of war, meaning navies were free to attack ships of any nation on the open seas, however the goods belonging to neutral countries on those ships, even if they were enemy ships, were not to be taken. This legal custom, which hereafter will be referred to as the consolato rule, was long observed by England (later Great Britain), France, and Spain, as major naval powers.
New theories about how to run the maritime world, however, started to emerge as time went on and maritime trade, travel, and conquest by the great European naval forces began to stretch beyond of European waterways.Two main schools of thought emerged in the 17th century. The first, championed most famously by John Selden, promoted the concept of mare clausum, which held that states could limit or even close off seas or maritime areas to access by any or all foreign ships, just as areas of land could be owned by a state, limiting foreign activity there. Other notable supporters of this idea included John Burroughs and William Welwod. In the larger geopolitical context, mare clausum was backed by the major naval and colonial powers of the day, including Spain and Portugal. As these powers extended their reach to the New World and across Africa and Asia, they wished to consolidate control over their new empires and access to trade and resources there by denying other countries access to the sea routes leading to these areas. By quite literally closing off access to the seas using their naval muscle, these states would profit handsomely from the growing maritime trade routes and foreign colonies.
Meanwhile, the Dutch Republic, the dominant European trade carrier, championed a different rule, known as mare liberum (free seas), summarized as "a free ship [makes] free goods." This meant that even enemy goods, always excepting contraband, were inviolate in neutral bottoms (i.e. hulls), making neutral ships off-limits for attack on the high seas. For the Dutch Republic, this was essential in order to secure the safety and viability of their extensive trade network. This concept was coined by Hugo Grotius, a Dutch jurist and a founding father of international law. Grotius advocated for a shift in maritime norms that would make the high seas free for transport and shipping, regardless of the country of origin of the ship. This would represent not only a change in law, but also a fundamental shift in the perception of the maritime realm as something not to be owned, as land is, but rather as a shared resource. Behind this concept is a liberal view of sovereign equality, in which all states have equal access to the high seas, and a view of an interdependent world connected by the sea.
As the dominant naval powers of Spain and Portugal weakened, and international trade increased, Grotius’ mare liberum concept would come to be the accepted custom governing sovereignty at sea.
From concept to custom to law
Freedom of navigation came to be embodied in bilateral treaties to become part of what would today be called international law. The earliest example of such a treaty is one concluded between King Henry IV of France and the Ottoman Porte in 1609, followed in 1612 by one between the Porte and the Dutch Republic. Once the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic had ended during which Spain defended their claim of sovereignty over the oceans against the Dutch claim of "freedom of the high seas," as developed in Hugo Grotius' Mare Liberum, the two concluded a treaty of commerce in which "free ship, free goods" was enshrined. The Dutch Republic subsequently concluded bilateral treaties with most other European countries, containing the "free ship, free goods" principle, sometimes resorting to the use of force to obtain that concession, as against England in the Treaty of Breda (1667) and again in the Treaty of Westminster (1674). England, however, also held fast to the consolato rule in relations with other countries, as did France, until in 1744 it relented and extended the privilege to the neutral Dutch.
The Dutch eventually established a web of bilateral treaties that extended the privilege of "freedom of navigation" to their ships through much of Europe. During the many 18th-century European wars they remained neutral, serving all belligerents with their shipping services. Great Britain, in particular, chafed under the arrangement, as it was the dominant naval power in the 18th century, and the Dutch privilege undermined the effectiveness of its naval blockades. Matters came to a head during the War of the American Revolution, when the Dutch, shielded by the 1674 Anglo-Dutch treaty, supplied both the Americans and the French. The British made extensive use of their "right of search" of Dutch ships, which led to the Affair of Fielding and Bylandt by which a British naval squadron, in peacetime, arrested a Dutch convoy despite the objections of its Dutch naval escort.
Soon afterward, the British abrogated the 1674 treaty, which might have meant the death of the "free ship, free goods" doctrine, but Empress Catherine II of Russia had taken up the torch around the same time. In March 1780, she published a manifesto in which (among other things) she claimed the "free ship, free goods" principle, as a fundamental right of neutral states. To defend that principle, she formed the First League of Armed Neutrality to which the Dutch adhered at the end of the year (which sparked the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War). The principles from her manifesto were soon adhered to by the members of the League and by France, Spain and the new American Republic also (even if, as belligerents, they could not become members of the League).
Nevertheless, as a principle of international law (apart from treaty law) "free ship, free goods" was soon again overturned by the practice of both sides in the French Revolutionary Wars of the turn of the 19th century. For instance, in the jurisprudence of the American courts of the early 19th-century, the consolato principle was universally applied in cases not covered by treaties. On the other hand, the US government made it a steadfast practice to enshrine the "free ship, free goods" principle in the treaties of amity and commerce it concluded with other countries (starting with the 1778 one with France and the 1782 one with the Dutch Republic).
In other words, the American view (following the British practice) was that at that time consolato was customary international law, which, however, could be superseded by treaty law on a bilateral basis. The US, however, earnestly strove for the substitution of consolato by "free ship" in customary law also.
That state of affairs came about when Britain finally gave up its resistance to the principles, first formulated by Empress Catherine in 1780, and acquiesced in the 1856 Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law, which enshrined "free ship makes free goods" and rejecting "enemy ship makes enemy goods." The Declaration was signed by the major powers (except the US) and it was soon adhered to by most other powers. The new rule (a combination of the "best" parts of Consolato and "free ship") became that a "neutral flag covers enemy's goods (except contraband); neutral goods are not liable to seizure under the enemy's flag."
While the concept as a whole became accepted international custom and law, the practice and implementation of freedom of navigation would during these years be developed through local jurisprudence and political decision-making. While local jurisprudence differed, usually a consensus view emerged over time. A key example is the issue of territorial waters. While there was agreement that a certain expanse of the seas from a state's shorelines would be under stricter state control than the high seas, the exact distance this control would extend from the shoreline was debated. However, over time through local governance and jurisprudence a general agreement emerged that territorial waters would extend three leagues or three miles from the shoreline. This norm- and custom-formation continued for centuries within the frame of mare liberum.
The UNCLOS and the modern understanding of freedom of navigation in international law
This culminated in 1982, when freedom of navigation became part of the broader body of laws of the sea currently embodied in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Article 87 of this convention explicitly codifies this concept, stating “The high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked” and lists “freedom of navigation” as the first of several rights for all states on the high seas. The drafting of UNCLOS clearly was in line with Grotius’ ideas of sovereign equality and international interdependence. All states were given a voice in the drafting of the convention, and the convention only came into effect with the consent and ratification of the party states. Implementation of UNCLOS connects the party states together across the shared space of the high seas.
Freedom of navigation as formulated in the UNCLOS, was a trade-off between the developed and the developing world. Where the developed world had an interest in maximizing their freedom to sail and explore the seas, the developing world wanted to protect their offshore resources and their independence. In other words, it was a conflict between understanding the seas through the principle of mare liberum that asserts the oceans to be open to all nations or mare clausum that advocates that the seas should be under the sovereignty of a state. The UNCLOS upheld freedom of navigation on the high seas but also invented different zones of sovereignty that limited the rules of foreign ships in these waters with concepts like internal waters and exclusive economic zones (EEZ). Additionally, navigation rights of warships were guaranteed on the high seas with complete immunity from the jurisdiction of any state other than the flag state.
The UNCLOS introduced a number of legal concepts that allowed freedom of navigation within and outside of the maritime jurisdictions of countries. These are right of innocent passage, right of transit passage, right of archipelagic sea lanes passage and freedom of the high seas. The right of innocent passage allows ships to travel in other countries' territorial seas if it is not prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of the coastal state. However, some countries like China requires warships to attain prior authorization before they enter Chinese national waters. Transit passage refers to passage through straits used for international navigation between one part of the high seas or an EEZ and another with more relaxed criteria for passage. The passage must be continuous and expeditious transit of the strait. With archipelagic sea lanes passage archipelagic states may provide sea-lanes and air-routes passage though their waters where ships can enjoy freedom of navigation.
American adherence to freedom of navigation
As previously noted, American advocacy for freedom of navigation extends as far back as a 1778 treaty with France, enshrining freedom of navigation as a legal custom on a bilateral level. In the 20th century, Woodrow Wilson advocated for freedom of navigation, making it Point 2 of his Fourteen Points (see Freedom of the seas). The US has not ratified the 1982 UNCLOS treaty, but it is a party to the preceding 1958 Convention on the High Seas. Despite its failure to formally ratify UNCLOS, the US now considers UNCLOS to be part of customary international law, and has committed to adhering to and enforcing the law.
Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs)
Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs) are closely linked to the concept of freedom of navigation, and in particular to the enforcement of relevant international law and customs regarding freedom of navigation. The drafting of UNCLOS was driven in part by states' concerns that strong national maritime interests could lead to excessive maritime claims over coastal seas, which could threaten freedom of navigation. FONOPs are a method of enforcing UNCLOS and avoiding these negative outcomes by reinforcing freedom of navigation through practice, using ships to sail through all areas of the sea permitted under UNCLOS, and in particular those areas that states have attempted to close off to free navigation as defined under UNCLOS and international law and custom.
FONOPs are a modern operational reinforcement of a norm that has been strengthening for nearly four hundred years. Freedom of navigation has been thoroughly practiced and refined, and ultimately codified and accepted as international law under UNCLOS, in a legal process that was inclusive and consent-based. FONOPs are outgrowths of this development of international law, based on sovereign equality and international interdependence.
United States Freedom of Navigation Program
The US Department of Defense defines FONOPs as "operational challenges against excessive maritime claims" through which "the United States demonstrates its resistance to excessive maritime claims". The United States has an institutionalized FONOPs program called the Freedom of Navigation Program, which undertakes many FONOPs around the world every year. The program publishes annual reports chronicling each year's FONOPs, and a listing of relevant foreign maritime claims.
The United States Freedom of Navigation (FON) Program was formally established under President Jimmy Carter in 1979. The program was reaffirmed by the administration of Ronald Reagan in 1983 in its Ocean Policy Statement. The Program has continued under all successive administrations since.
The FON Program challenges what the U.S. considers to be excessive territorial claims on the world's oceans and airspace. The position of the United States is that all nations must obey the international law of the sea, as codified in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The U.S. Department of State writes:
U.S. armed forces have conducted FONOPs in areas claimed by other countries but considered by the U.S. to be international waters, such as naval operations in the Gulf of Sidra in the 1980s; as well as in strategically important straits (such as Gibraltar, Hormuz, and Malacca).
One of the notable operations conducted as innocent passage and part of Freedom of Navigation program was performed by , during which, on February 12, 1988, she was "nudged" by the Soviet frigate Bezzavetnyy in an attempt to divert the vessel out of Soviet territorial waters.
Freedom of navigation and warships
A particular characteristic of many FONOPs, and in particular American FONOPs, is that they are undertaken by vessels of a national navy. This brings to the fore a hot debate over whether freedom of navigation extends to military vessels. Most notably, Chinese legal scholars and government policymakers argue that the right of freedom of navigation given to civilian vessels in foreign waters does not apply to military vessels. Because of this, some countries including China require warships to attain prior authorization before they enter their national waters. Given such understandings of freedom of navigation, US and other country's FONOPs undertaken with military vessels could be viewed as provocative or even bellicose. Other scholars have pointed out that the UNCLOS does not specifically mention freedom of navigation for warships outside of the high seas but that it has been practice between states to accept military activities at least within the EEZ.
Innocent passage versus FONOPs
The concept of innocent passage in international law and under UNCLOS refers as noted earlier to the right of a vessel to pass through the territorial waters of a foreign state under certain conditions. While related to FONOPs in that both innocent passages and FONOPs involve vessels traversing seas claimed by a foreign state, they differ in that if a vessel claims it is traversing under innocent passage terms, it implies a concession that the vessel is in fact traveling through territorial waters of another state. Both innocent passage and FONOPs challenge a state's imposed limitations on freedom of navigation in a maritime area, but innocent passage accepts that the area is within a state's waters, while a FONOP can be used to challenge a state's territorial claim to an area.
Criticism
There are many critics of FONOPs, with a wide breadth of criticisms regarding the efficacy, bellicosity, and legality of FONOPs. One group of critics argues that FONOPs are unnecessarily risky and lead to escalation. Chinese government responses to American FONOPs in the South China Sea fall under this category of criticism. A second group of critics argue that FONOPs are unnecessary, and that states should focus on the protection of their own ships rather than using ship operations to check other states' maritime claims. Still other critics argue that FONOPs are ineffective at their goal of limiting other states' maritime claims.
FONOPs in the South China Sea
According to BBC correspondents, the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea could potentially be a major geopolitical flashpoint. China has used land reclamation to expand disputed islands, and has built runways on them.
U.S. FONOPS in the South China Sea
In 2013 and 2014, the US conducted FONOPs in areas claimed by China, Taiwan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. During the presidency of the Obama administration there was an increase in attention on China and Asia in general leading to the pivot to Asia from 2012. This also was reflected in an increased number of FONOPs in the South China Sea. In 2015 the Obama administration authorized two FONOPs and three FONOPs were authorized in 2016. Several of the FONOPs that got most media coverage were the missions conducted by the guided-missile destroyers in 2015; and and in 2016.
Beginning in October 2015, as part of the U.S. FON Operations (FONOP) program, U.S. Navy ships have patrolled near the artificial islands China has created in the disputed Spratly and Paracel archipelagos to underscore the U.S.'s position that the artificial islands constructed by China are located in international waters. The sailed within 12 nautical miles of reclaimed-land islands (the so-called "Great Wall of Sand") in October 2015. The USS Curtis Wilbur sailed within of Triton Island in the Paracel Islands in January 2016, and the came within 12 nautical miles of Fiery Cross Reef in the Spratly Islands in May 2016.
In spring 2017, the Trump administration stopped FONOPs in the South China Sea hoping China might increase its pressure on North Korea over its missile launch tests. In summer 2017, it restarted FONOPs. After restarting the FONOPs in the South China Sea the Trump administration increased the number of FONOPs authorized. Trump authorized six FONOPs in 2017 and five operations in 2018. 2019 saw a record high number of U.S. FONOPs in South China Sea with a total of nine operations conducted.
May 2018 also saw the first FONOP with the participation of two U.S. warships. On May 27, 2018, a US Navy , , and a , , sailed within 12 nautical miles of the Paracel Islands, which are controlled by China. The FONOP came shortly after the Pentagon announced that it would disinvite the Chinese navy for its Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) exercise off Hawaii the same summer, which is a US flagship naval exercise. The FONOP was called a "serious infringement on China’s sovereignty" by China's defense ministry.
On September 30, 2018, the was undertaking a FONOP near the Gaven and Johnson Reefs in the Spratly Islands when the , approached to within of the Decatur, in what the US Navy termed "a series of increasingly aggressive maneuvers" This forced the Decatur to maneuver to avoid a collision.
In December 2018 China deployed naval forces to warn off the while it made a FONOP around the Paracel Islands without approval of the Chinese government. "The Southern Theatre Command organized navy and air forces to monitor the US vessel, and gave warning for it to leave", a statement by the Southern Theatre Command said in response to the U.S. FONOP. The Statement also called for the U.S. to properly manage its navy and air fleet to avoid miscalculations.
The U.S. FONOPs continued into 2020. The U.S. Navy conducted its first FONOP in 2020 on January 25 by sending the littoral combat ship past Chinese claims in the Spratly Islands. During the FONOP China sent two fighter-bombers scrambling overhead to intimidate the Montgomery, according to Chinese state media. The January 25 patrol was officially aimed at China, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Specifically, the Navy challenged the notion that innocent passage through claimed territorial waters requires previous notification.
On April 28, 2020, the Japan-based guided-missile destroyer conducted a freedom of navigation operation in the vicinity of Paracel Island chain off Vietnam. The PLA's Southern Theatre Command claimed its forces forced the USS Barry out of disputed Spratly Islands waters; a US Navy spokesman denied that Barry had been ejected by the PLA and stated "all interactions that occurred were in accordance with maritime norms". The operation was carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic which have seen accusation from both Beijing and Washington accusing each other of trying to take more military control over the South China Sea during the pandemic. The operation done by the USS Barry was followed up the next day on April 29 with a FONOP around the Spratly Islands done by . This was the first time the U.S. conducted two FONOPs within two days. The back-to-back missions has been seen by some as a new U.S. strategy under the Pentagon slogan "strategic predictability, operation unpredictability." After the FONOP by USS Bunker Hill a spokesperson from the United States Seventh Fleet responsible for carrying out the operations said: "The United States will fly, sail, and operate wherever international law allows—regardless of the location of excessive maritime claims and regardless of current events."
FONOPs done by non-U.S actors in South China Sea
In 2015 Australia confirmed that it had been conducting "routine" FONOP flights over disputed territory in the South China Sea.
In May 2017, Japan sent an and two destroyers on a three-month tour of the South China Sea, where they conducted exercises with an . This was Japan's biggest foray into the region since the Second World War.
In April 2018, three Australian naval vessels transited the South China Sea towards Vietnam and, along the way, met a 'robust' challenge from the Chinese navy.
At the June 2018 Shangri-La Dialogue, ministers from France and the UK jointly announced that their ships would sail through the South China Sea to continue to uphold the collective right to freedom of navigation. The announcement came after the UK and France announced separately in July 2017 and May 2018 respectively that they would increase their involvement in the South China Sea.
The Royal Navy also conducted what is believed to be a FONOP with , a 22,000-ton amphibious transport dock, in late August 2018 in the waters near the Paracel Islands. The FONOP conducted by Albion was unlike many U.S. FONOPs a traditional assertion of freedom of navigation on the high seas. Beijing denounced Albion mission because it sailed within its territorial waters around the Paracels without seeking prior approval. A spokesperson from the Royal Navy said that "HMS Albion exercised her rights for freedom of navigation in full compliance with international law and norms." The British FONOP has been seen by commentators as a signal that the Royal Navy is likely to be a regular party patrolling the South China Sea.
Chinese view of FONOPs in South China Sea
China views FONOPs in the South China Sea, and particularly those undertaken with military vessels, as provocative, as they assert that freedom of navigation does not apply to military vessels within foreign EEZ's and territorial waters. China also claims that FONOPs violate Chinese law, including the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone" and the "Declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China on the Baselines of the Territorial Sea". The Chinese Navy and Coast Guard often shadow foreign vessels on FONOPs.
See also
Innocent passage
Code for Unplanned Encounters at Sea
Danube River Conference of 1948
FONOPs during the Obama Administration
Freedoms of the air
Notes
1.The exception of contraband implies that the inviolability of neutral ships was never absolute, as the principle still admitted the right of visit and search by belligerents.
References
Sources
External links
Maritime Security: Freedom of Navigation (FON) Operations
Freedom of Navigation
Law of the sea |
4242304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20response%20to%20the%20Holocaust | International response to the Holocaust | In the decades since the Holocaust, some national governments, international bodies and world leaders have been criticized for their failure to take appropriate action to save the millions of European Jews, Roma, and other victims of the Holocaust. Critics say that such intervention, particularly by the Allied governments, might have saved substantial numbers of people and could have been accomplished without the diversion of significant resources from the war effort.
Other researchers have challenged such criticism. Some have argued that the idea that the Allies took no action is a myth—that the Allies accepted as many German Jewish immigrants as the Nazis would allow—and that theoretical military action by the Allies, such as bombing the Auschwitz concentration camp, would have saved the lives of very few people. Others have said that the limited intelligence available to the Allies—who, as late as October 1944, did not know the locations of many of the Nazi death camps or the purposes of the various buildings within those camps they had identified—made precision bombing impossible.
Allied states
United Kingdom
By 1939, about 304,000 of about 522,000 German Jews had fled Germany, including 60,000 to the British Mandate of Palestine (including over 50,000 who had taken advantage of the Haavara, or "Transfer" Agreement between German Zionists and the Nazis), but British immigration quotas limited the number of Jewish emigrants to Palestine. In March 1938, Hitler annexed Austria and made the 200,000 Jews of Austria stateless refugees. In September, the British and French governments allowed Germany the right to occupy and annex the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, and in March 1939, Hitler occupied the remainder of the country, making a further 200,000 Jews stateless.
In 1939, British policy as stated in its 1939 White Paper capped Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine at 75,000 over the next five years, after which the country was to become an independent state. The British government had offered homes for Jewish immigrant children and proposed Kenya as a haven for Jews, but refused to back a Jewish state or facilitate Jewish settlement, contravening the terms of the League of Nations Mandate over Palestine.
Before, during and after the war, the British government limited Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine so as to avoid a negative reaction from Palestinian Arabs. In the summer of 1941, however, Chaim Weizmann estimated that with the British ban on Jewish immigration, when the war was over, it would take two decades to get 1.5 million Jews to Palestine from Europe through clandestine immigration; David Ben-Gurion had originally believed 3 million could be brought in ten years. Thus Palestine it has been argued by at least one writer, once war had begun—could not have been the saviour of anything other than a small minority of those Jews murdered by the Nazis.
The British government, along with all UN member nations, received credible evidence about the Nazi attempts to exterminate the European Jewry as early as 1942 from the Polish government-in-exile. Titled "The Mass Extermination of the Jews in German Occupied Poland", the report provided a detailed account of the conditions in the ghettos and their liquidation. Additionally the Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden met with Jan Karski, courier to the Polish resistance who, having been smuggled into the Warsaw ghetto by the Jewish underground, as well as having posed as an Estonian guard at Bełżec transit camp, provided him with detailed eyewitness accounts of Nazi atrocities against the Jews.
These lobbying efforts triggered the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations of 17 December 1942 which made public and condemned the mass extermination of the Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland. The statement was read to British House of Commons in a floor speech by Foreign secretary Anthony Eden, and published on the front page of the New York Times and many other newspapers. BBC radio aired two broadcasts on the final solution during the war: the first at 9am on 17 December 1942, on the UN Joint Declaration, read by Polish Foreign Minister in-exile Edward Raczynski, and the second during May 1943, Jan Karski's eyewitness account of mass Jewish executions, read by Arthur Koestler. However, the political rhetoric and public reporting was not followed up with military action by the British government- an omission that has been the source of significant historical debate.
United States
Initially, America refused to accept Jewish refugees who were in need. Between 1933 and 1945, the United States accepted more refugees than any other country: around 132,000. It has faced criticism for not admitting more refugees.
In Washington, President Roosevelt, sensitive to the importance of his Jewish constituency, consulted with Jewish leaders. He followed their advice to not emphasize the Holocaust for fear of inciting anti-semitism in the U.S. Historians argue that after Pearl Harbor:
Roosevelt and his military and diplomatic advisers sought to unite the nation and blunt Nazi propaganda by avoiding the appearance that the United States was fighting a war for the Jews. They did not tolerate any potentially divisive initiatives nor did they tolerate any diversion from their campaign to win the war as quickly and decisively as possible....Success on the battlefield, Roosevelt and his advisers believed, was the only sure way to save the surviving Jews of Europe.
Historian Laurel Leff has written on modern day attempts by State Department historians to whitewash the indifference of certain US consular officials dealing with visa applications of Jewish refugees attempting to flee from Nazi Germany. She contends that the record of those diplomats was far worse than the State Department today is willing to admit, and presents a number of examples in which the actions of US officials directly prevented imperiled Jews from finding sanctuary in the United States even though immigration quotas had not been filled.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union was invaded and partially occupied by Axis forces. Approximately 300,000 to 500,000 Soviet Jews served in the Red Army during the conflict. The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee established in 1941, was active in propagandising for the Soviet war effort but was treated with suspicion. The Soviet press, tightly censored, often deliberately obscured the particular anti-Jewish motivation of the Holocaust.
Allied governments in exile
Poland
The Nazis built the majority of their death camps in German occupied Poland which had a Jewish population of 3.3 million. From 1941 on, the Polish government-in-exile in London played an essential part in revealing Nazi crimes providing the Allies with some of the earliest and most accurate accounts of the ongoing Holocaust of European Jews. Titled "The Mass Extermination of the Jews in German Occupied Poland", the report provided a detailed account of the conditions in the ghettos and their liquidation. Though its representatives, like the Foreign Minister Count Edward Raczyński and the courier of the Polish Underground movement, Jan Karski, called for action to stop it, they were unsuccessful. Most notably, Jan Karski met with British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden as well as US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, providing the earliest eyewitness accounts of the Holocaust. Roosevelt heard him out however seemed uninterested, asking about the condition of Polish horses but not one question about the Jews.
The report that the Polish Foreign Minister in-exile, Count Edward Raczyński sent on 10 December 1942, to all the Governments of the United Nations was the first official denunciation by any Government of the mass extermination and of the Nazi aim of total annihilation of the Jewish population. It was also the first official document singling out the sufferings of European Jews as Jews and not only as citizens of their respective countries of origin. The report of 10 December 1942 and the Polish Government's lobbying efforts triggered the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations of 17 December 1942 which made public and condemned the mass extermination of the Jews in German-occupied Poland. The statement was read to British House of Commons in a floor speech by Foreign secretary Anthony Eden, and published on the front page of the New York Times and many other newspapers. Additionally BBC radio aired two broadcasts on the final solution during the war which were prepared by the Polish government-in-exile. This rhetoric, however, was not followed up by military action by Allied nations. During an interview with Hannah Rosen in 1995, Karski said about the failure to rescue most of the Jews from mass murder, "The Allies considered it impossible and too costly to rescue the Jews, because they didn't do it. The Jews were abandoned by all governments, church hierarchies and societies, but thousands of Jews survived because thousands of individuals in Poland, France, Belgium, Denmark, Holland helped to save Jews."
During the occupation period, 3 million Polish Jews were killed. This represented 90 percent of the pre-war population and half of all Jews killed in the Holocaust. Additionally the Nazis ethnically cleansed another 1.8-2 million Poles, bringing Poland's Holocaust death toll to around 4.8-5 million people. After the war Poland defied both the wishes of the Allied and Soviet governments, allowing Jewish emigration to Mandatory Palestine. Around 200,000 Jews availed themselves of this opportunity, leaving only around 100,000 Jews in Poland.
Neutral states
Portugal
Portugal had been ruled from 1933 by an authoritarian political regime led by António de Oliveira Salazar which had been influenced by contemporary fascist regimes. However, it was unusual in not explicitly incorporating anti-Semitism in its own ideology. In spite of this, Portugal had introduced immigration measures which discriminated against Jewish refugees in 1938. Its rules on issuing transit visas were further tightened at the time of the German invasion of France in May–June 1940. Aristides de Sousa Mendes, the country's consul at Bordeaux, nonetheless issued large numbers of visas to refugees, including Jews, fleeing the German advance but was later officially sanctioned for his actions. Although few Jews were permitted to settle in Portugal itself, some 60,000 to 80,000 Jewish refugees passed through Portugal which, especially before 1942, was a major route for refugees fleeing the United Kingdom and the United States. A number of prominent Jewish aid agencies were permitted to establish offices in Lisbon.
Portugal's Ministry of Foreign Affairs received information from its consuls in German-occupied Europe from 1941 about the escalation of the persecution of Jews. The historian Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses writes that it was nonetheless considered insignificant:
Salazar's regime took limited steps to intervene on behalf of certain Portuguese Jews living in German-occupied Europe from 1943 and did succeed in saving small numbers in Vichy France and German-occupied Northern Greece. After lobbying from Moisés Bensabat Amzalak, a Jewish regime loyalist, Salazar also unsuccessfully attempted to intercede with the German government on behalf of the Portuguese Sephardic community in the German-occupied Netherlands. Alongside Spanish and Swedish diplomatic missions, the Portuguese Legation in Hungary also issued papers to some 800 Hungarian Jews in late 1944.
Spain
Francoist Spain remained neutral during the conflict but retained close economic and political links with Nazi Germany. It was ruled throughout the period by the authoritarian regime of Francisco Franco which had come to power with German and Italian support during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Paul Preston wrote that "one of Franco's central beliefs was the 'Jewish–masonic–Bolshevik conspiracy'. He was convinced that Judaism was the ally of both American capitalism and Russian communism". Public Jewish religious services, like their Protestant equivalents, had been forbidden since the Civil War. José Finat y Escrivá de Romaní, the Director of Security, ordered a list of Jews and foreigners in Spain to be compiled in May 1941. The same year, Jewish status was marked on identity papers for the first time.
Historically, Spain had attempted to extend its influence over Sephardic Jews in other parts of Europe. Many Sephardic Jews living in German-occupied Europe either held Spanish citizenship or protected status. The German occupation authorities issued a series of measures requiring neutral states to repatriate their Jewish citizens and the Spanish government ultimately accepted 300 Spanish Jews from France and 1,357 from Greece but failed to intervene on behalf of the majority of Spanish Jews in German-occupied Europe. Michael Alpert writes that "to save these Jews would mean having to accept that they had the right to repatriation, to live as residents in Spain, or so it seems to have been feared in Madrid. While, on the one hand, the Spanish regime, as always inconsistently, issued instructions to its representatives to try to prevent the deportation of Jews, on the other, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Madrid allowed the Nazis and Vichy puppet government to apply anti-Jewish regulations to people whom Spain should have protected". In addition, Spanish authorities permitted 20,000 to 35,000 Jews to travel through Spanish territory on transit visas from France.
Ángel Sanz Briz, a Spanish diplomat, protected several hundred Jews in Hungary in 1944. After he was ordered to withdraw from the country ahead of the Red Army's advance, he encouraged Giorgio Perlasca, an Italian businessman, to pose as the Spanish consul-general and continue his activities. In this way, 3,500 Jews are thought to have been saved. Stanley G. Payne described Sanz Briz's actions as "a notable humanitarian achievement by far the most outstanding of anyone in Spanish government during World War II" but argued that he "might have accomplished even more had he received greater assistance from Madrid". In the aftermath of the war, "a myth was carefully constructed to claim that Franco's regime had saved many Jews from extermination" as a means to deflect foreign criticism away from allegations of active collaboration between the Franco and Nazi regimes.
Sweden
Sweden remained neutral throughout the conflict but also retained close economic ties with Nazi Germany. German forces invaded and occupied Norway and Denmark in April 1940 while Finland entered into a de facto alliance with Nazi Germany from 1941 meaning that Sweden was drawn towards the Axis sphere of influence and German soldiers were even able to travel through its territory on leave from German-occupied Norway until 1943. Sweden itself had only a small Jewish population and had tightened its immigration policies in the interwar years which meant that few Jewish refugees had been taken into the country before the war. Swedish society remained highly conservative and introspective, although antisemitism remained marginal in national politics. In some circles, there was some sympathy for Nazi war aims and anti-communism as well as Nazi racial theories which overlapped with the Nordicism. Several hundred Swedish nationals volunteered to serve in the Waffen-SS and some were reported to have served as guards at Treblinka extermination camp.
In Sweden, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs received news about the policy of extermination. In a chance discussion in a train, the Swedish diplomat Göran von Otter was told of the extermination of Jews at Belzec extermination camp by an SS officer in August 1942. He reported the information to the Ministry in the hope that it would publicly condemn the atrocities, although no action was taken. Even so, the historian Paul A. Levine writes that "Swedish officials, and in fact much of the newspaper-reading public, had as much or more information about many details of the 'Final Solution' than their counterparts in other neutral or Allied countries". Although coverage varied by newspaper, there were widespread reports in the Swedish press of the extermination of Jews in German-occupied Europe throughout much of the subsequent period.
The authorities in German-occupied Norway began a series of operations in October 1942 to round up the country's small Jewish population, estimated at around 2,000. The news was reported in the Swedish press but the Ministry for Foreign Affairs was "rather slow to realise what was going on". Most Norwegian Jews were detained in the first operations but the Norwegian resistance did succeed in smuggling an estimated 1,100 Jews across the border into Sweden in the so-called Carl Fredriksens Transport. Subsequently, attitudes among Swedish officials began to change. After news of the imminent detention of Danish Jews was leaked, the Danish Resistance successfully evacuated 8,000 Danish Jews to Sweden, with the approval of the Swedish government, in October and November 1943. After American pressure, the Swedish government also despatched a diplomatic mission to Hungary in July 1944 to seek to use Hungary's peculiar diplomatic status to intercede on behalf of Hungarian Jews. Raoul Wallenberg ultimately issued several hundred visas and 10,000 protective passes with the aid of the Swedish chargé d'affaires in Budapest Per Anger but was detained after Soviet forces captured the Budapest and is thought to have been executed. In the final months of the war, the Swedish Red Cross was able to evacuate substantial numbers of political prisoners from German concentration camps in the so-called White Buses including a small number of Danish Jews interned in the Theresienstadt Ghetto.
In the post-war period, the Swedish government placed emphasis on its humanitarian actions to save Jews as a means of deflecting criticism of its economic and political relations with Nazi Germany. Historian Ingrid Lomfors states that this "sowed the seed of the image of Sweden as a 'humanitarian superpower'" in post-war Europe and its prominent involvement in the United Nations. Göran Persson, a former Swedish Prime Minister, founded the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance in 1998.
Switzerland
Of the five neutral countries of continental Europe, Switzerland has the distinction of being the only one to have promulgated a German antisemitic law. (Excluding European microstates, the five European neutral states were Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey.) The country closed its French border to refugees for a period from 13 August 1942, and did not allow unfettered access to Jews seeking refuge until 12 July 1944. In 1942 the President of the Swiss Confederation, Philipp Etter as a member of the Geneva-based ICRC even persuaded the committee not to issue a condemnatory proclamation concerning German "attacks" against "certain categories of nationalities".
Turkey
Turkey remained officially neutral and maintained diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany. During the war, Turkey denaturalized 3,000 to 5,000 Jews living abroad; 2,200 and 2,500 Turkish Jews were ultimately deported to extermination camps such as Auschwitz and Sobibor; and several hundred interned in Nazi concentration camps. When Nazi Germany encouraged neutral countries to repatriate their Jewish citizens, Turkish diplomats received instructions to avoid repatriating Jews even if they could prove their Turkish nationality.
Turkey was also the only neutral country to implement anti-Jewish laws during the war. Between 1940 and 1944, around 13,000 Jews passed through Turkey from Europe to Mandatory Palestine. More Turkish Jews suffered as a result of discriminatory policies during the war than were saved by Turkey. Although Turkey has promoted the idea that it was a rescuer of Jews during the Holocaust, this is considered a myth by historians. This myth has been used to promote Armenian genocide denial.
Latin American states
Most of the state in Latin America remained neutral for much or all of World War II. The region, in particular Argentina and Brazil, had historically received large numbers of European immigrants including significant numbers of Jews from Eastern Europe. Immigration restrictions were introduced in the 1920s and 1930s, however, in response to nationalist unrest and the Great Depression. Antisemitism remained common in many parts of Latin American society.
Brazil's foreign ministry, for example, ordered its consulates in Europe to deny visas to people of "Semitic origin" in the 1930s. These stipulations were followed by many Brazilian diplomats who held strong antisemitic views. However, some such as Luis Martins de Souza Dantas, Brazil's ambassador in Vichy France, actively disobeyed their instructions and continued to issue visas to Jews as late as 1941.
As neutral states, Latin American diplomats remained in German-occupied Europe for much of the conflict. Gonzalo Montt Rivas, Chilean consul in Prague, informed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in a report in November 1941 that "German triumph [in the war] will leave Europe freed of Semites". According to the historian Richard Breitman, his reports "reveal considerable access to the thinking of Nazi officials" which he speculates may have originated from Montt's friendly relations with the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Reich Security Main Office. Chilean diplomatic correspondence, including Montt's November dispatch, was regularly intercepted by British intelligence services and shared with their American counterparts.
Some Latin American Jews were living in Europe at the time of the Holocaust. Although warned on several occasions by the German authorities to repatriate its Jewish citizens, the Argentine regime refused to repatriate its approximately 100 nationals living in German-occupied Europe before the country severed diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany under Allied pressure in January 1944. All are believed to have been exterminated.
Vatican and Catholic Church
The pontificate of Pius XII coincided with the Second World War and the Nazi Holocaust, which saw the industrialized mass murder of millions of Jews and others by Adolf Hitler's Germany. Pius employed diplomacy to aid the victims of the Nazis during the war and, through directing his Church to provide discreet aid to Jews, saved thousands of lives. Pius maintained links to the German Resistance, and shared intelligence with the Allies. His strongest public condemnation of genocide was, however, considered inadequate by the Allied Powers, while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality. In Rome action was taken to save many Jews in Italy from deportation, including sheltering several hundred Jews in the catacombs of St. Peter's Basilica. In his Christmas addresses of 1941 and 1942, the pontiff was forceful on the topic but did not mention the Nazis by name. The Pope encouraged the bishops to speak out against the Nazi regime and to open the religious houses in their dioceses to hide Jews. At Christmas 1942, once evidence of the industrial slaughter of the Jews had emerged, he voiced concern at the murder of "hundreds of thousands" of "faultless" people because of their "nationality or race". Pius intervened to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942 to 1944.
When 60,000 German soldiers and the Gestapo occupied Rome in 1943, thousands of Jews were hiding in churches, convents, rectories, the Vatican and the papal summer residence. According to Joseph Lichten, the Vatican was called upon by the Jewish Community Council in Rome to help fill a Nazi demand of one hundred pounds of gold. The council had been able to muster seventy pounds, but unless the entire amount was produced within thirty-six hours had been told three hundred Jews would be imprisoned. The Pope granted the request, according to Chief Rabbi Zolli of Rome. Despite the payment of the ransom 2,091 Jews were deported on October 16, 1943, and most of them died in Germany.
Upon his death in 1958, Pius was praised emphatically by the Israeli Foreign Minister and other world leaders. But his insistence on Vatican neutrality and avoidance of naming the Nazis as the evildoers of the conflict became the foundation for contemporary and later criticisms from some quarters. Studies of the Vatican archives and international diplomatic correspondence continue.
Non-governmental organisations
International Committee of the Red Cross
The International Committee of the Red Cross did relatively little to save Jews during the Holocaust and discounted reports of the organized Nazi genocide, such as of the murder of Polish Jewish prisoners that took place at Lublin. At the time, the Red Cross justified its inaction by suggesting that aiding Jewish prisoners would harm its ability to help other Allied POWs. In addition, the Red Cross claimed that if it would take a major stance to improve the situation of those European Jews, the neutrality of Switzerland, where the International Red Cross was based, would be jeopardized.
Today, the Red Cross acknowledges its passivity during the Holocaust and has apologized for this.
Jewish organisations
Jewish issue at international conferences
Évian Conference
The Évian Conference was convened at the initiative of Franklin D. Roosevelt in July 1938 to discuss the problem of Jewish refugees. For ten days, from July 6 to July 15, delegates from thirty-two countries met at Évian-les-Bains, France. However, most western countries were reluctant to accept Jewish refugees, and the question was not resolved. The Dominican Republic was the only country willing to accept Jewish refugees—up to 100,000.
Bermuda Conference
The UK and the US met in Bermuda in April 1943 to discuss the issue of Jewish refugees who had been liberated by Allied forces and the Jews who remained in Nazi-occupied Europe. The Bermuda Conference led to no change in policy; the Americans would not change their immigration quotas to accept the refugees, and the British would not alter its immigration policy to permit them to enter Palestine.
The failure of the Bermuda Conference prompted U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, the only Jewish member of Franklin D. Roosevelt's cabinet, to publish a white paper entitled Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of this Government to the Murder of the Jews. This led to the creation of a new agency, the War Refugee Board.
Japan and Japanese-occupied Southeast Asia
In 1936, German-Japanese Pact was concluded between Nazi Germany and Japan. However, on December 6, 1938, the Japanese government made a decision of prohibiting the expulsion of the Jews in Japan, Manchukuo, and the rest of Japanese-occupied China. On December 31, Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka told the Japanese Army and Navy to receive Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Diplomat Chiune Sugihara granted more than 2,000 transit visas and saved 6,000 Jewish refugees from Lithuania.
Response after the Holocaust
Nuremberg Trials
The international response to the war crimes of World War II and the Holocaust was to establish the Nuremberg international tribunal. Three major wartime powers, the US, USSR and Great Britain, agreed to punish those responsible. The trials brought human rights into the domain of global politics, redefined morality at the global level, and gave political currency to the concept of crimes against humanity, where individuals rather than governments were held accountable for war crimes. Twelve were sentenced to death, ten were hanged, seven were sentenced to varying prison lengths and three were acquitted. Four organisations were ruled to be criminal – The Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD.
Genocide
Towards the end of World War II, Raphael Lemkin, a lawyer of Polish-Jewish descent, aggressively pursued within the halls of the United Nations and the United States government the recognition of genocide as a crime. Largely due to his efforts and the support of his lobby, the United Nations was propelled into action. In response to Lemkin's arguments, the United Nations adopted the term in 1948 when it passed the "Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide".
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Many believe that the extermination of Jews during the Holocaust inspired the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. This view has been challenged by recent historical scholarship. One study has shown that the Nazi slaughter of Jews went entirely unmentioned during the drafting of the Universal Declaration at the United Nations, though those involved in the negotiations did not hesitate to name many other examples of Nazi human rights violations. Other historians have countered that the human rights activism of the delegate René Cassin of France, who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1968 for his work on the Universal Declaration, was motivated in part by the death of many Jewish relatives in the Holocaust and his involvement in Jewish organisations providing aid to Holocaust survivors.
See also
Auschwitz bombing debate
History of the Jews during World War II
Holocaust victims
Kindertransport
Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust
Responsibility for the Holocaust
Riegner Telegram
Righteous Among the Nations
Role of the international community in the Rwandan genocide
Secondary antisemitism
Szmul Zygielbojm
Witold Pilecki
World War II
Notes
References
Bibliography
Breitman, Richard, and Allan J. Lichtman. FDR and the Jews (2013).
Further reading
External links
Rabbi Eliezer Melamed, The Great Democracies' Disgrace on Arutz Sheva.
Holocaust historiography
The Holocaust |
4242525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Church%20of%20England%20Measures | List of Church of England Measures |
This is a list of Church of England Measures, which are the legislation of the Church of England. Some of these measures may have been repealed. Since 1970, Measures have been made by the General Synod; prior to then they were made by its predecessor, the Church Assembly. Under the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919 (9 & 10 Geo. 5 c. 76), Measures have the same force as an Act of Parliament.
indicates that a Measure is available to view at legislation.gov.uk.
Church of England Measures
|-
| {{|Union of Benefices Measure 1921|church|3|17-08-1921|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to continue the operation of the Union of Benefices Act, 1919, for a further period of two years.}}
|-
| {{|Representation of the Laity (Amendment) Measure 1922|church|1|12-04-1922|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Rules for the Representation of the Laity contained in the Schedule to the Constitution of the National Assembly of the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Pluralities Act 1838 (Amendment) Measure 1922|church|2|04-08-1922|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to repeal Sections 52 and 53 of the Pluralities Act, 1838.}}
|-
| {{|Revised Tables of Lessons Measure 1922|church|3|04-08-1922|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Law relating to the Tables of Lessons contained in the Prayer Book.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices Act 1898 (Amendment) Measure 1923|note1=|church|1|14-07-1924|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Law relating to the Patronage of Benefices and to amend the Benefices Act, 1898.}}
|-
| {{|Union of Benefices Measure 1923|note1=|church|2|14-07-1924|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for Unions of Benefices outside the City of London, for disunions, alteration of boundaries and other purposes, and for matters incidental thereto.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Measure 1923|note1=|church|3|14-07-1924|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Law with regard to Ecclesiastical Dilapidations, and for other purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Bishopric of Blackburn Measure 1923|note1=|church|4|14-07-1924|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the foundation of a Bishopric of Blackburn.}}
|-
| {{|Diocese of Southwell (Division) Measure 1923|note1=|church|5|14-07-1924|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the Division of the Diocese of Southwell, the Foundation of a Bishopric of Derby, for the transfer of certain patronages to the Bishop of Southwell, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Diocese of Winchester (Division) Measure 1923|note1=|church|6|01-08-1924|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the division of the Diocese of Winchester, and for the Foundation of Bishoprics of Portsmouth and of Guildford.}}
|-
| {{|Interpretation Measure 1925|church|1|28-05-1925|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the construction of the Constitution of the National Assembly of the Church of England referred to in the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act, 1919, and for the construction and proof of Measures passed under that Act.}}
|-
| {{|Bishopric of Leicester Measure 1925|church|2|31-07-1925|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the foundation of a Bishopric of Leicester.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Boards of Finance Measure 1925|church|3|22-12-1925|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for the Powers, Duties and Constitution of Diocesan Boards of Finance.}}
|-
| {{|Brislington Parishes (Transfer) Measure 1926|church|1|26-03-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the parishes of Brislington Saint Luke and Brislington Saint Anne from the Diocese of Bath and Wells to the Diocese of Bristol, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Rural Deaneries of Pontefract and Hemsworth (Transfer) Measure 1926|church|2|26-03-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the Rural Deaneries of Pontefract and Hemsworth from the Diocese of York to the Diocese of Wakefield, to provide for additional honorary canonries in the Cathedral Church of Wakefield, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Parish of Manchester Division Act 1850 (Amendment) Measure 1926|church|3|29-04-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to sever the canonries in the Cathedral Church of Manchester from the benefices annexed thereto, and otherwise to amend the Parish of Manchester Division Act, 1850.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners Measure 1926|church|4|15-07-1926|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts, 1840 and 1841, and the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act, 1840, Amendment Act, 1885, and to make further provision for the augmentation of archdeaconries, for aiding the endowment funds of new bishoprics, for bishops' costs of legal proceedings, for the maintenance of Lambeth Palace, and the repair of other Episcopal Residences.}}
|-
| {{|First Fruits and Tenths Measure 1926|church|5|15-07-1926|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the extinguishment or redemption of first fruits and tenths.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions Measure 1926|church|6|04-08-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a system of Pensions for the Clergy (other than Diocesan Bishops), to provide for the transition from the Incumbents Resignation Acts, 1871 and 1887, to such system, and to effect changes in the constitution and management of the Clergy Pensions Institution.}}
|-
| {{|Episcopal Pensions Measure 1926|church|7|15-12-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for Bishops' Pensions.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Ecclesiastical Duties) Measure 1926|church|8|15-12-1926|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate and amend the law relating to the due performance of the Ecclesiastical Duties of Benefices, and to make provision for the Stipends of Curates appointed under the Measure and in certain other cases.}}
|-
| {{|Indian Church Measure 1927|church|1|23-11-1927|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the dissolution of the legal union between the Church of England and the Church of England in India, and to make provisions consequential thereon.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1927|church|2|23-11-1927|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure, 1926.}}
|-
| {{|New Dioceses (Transitional Provisions) Measure 1927|church|3|23-11-1927|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make temporary provision for representation in the House of Laity and the constitution of Diocesan Conferences upon the foundation of new bishopricks, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Provision for Unbeneficed Clergy) Measure 1928|church|1|02-07-1928|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act, 1840.}}
|-
| {{|Tithe (Administration of Trusts) Measure 1928|church|2|03-08-1928|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to regulate the administration of the trusts affecting tithe rent-charge and other rent-charges, rents and payments in lieu of tithe vested in Queen Anne's Bounty in trust for incumbents of benefices, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1928|church|3|03-08-1928|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure, 1926.}}
|-
| {{|Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1929|church|1|10-05-1929|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the better care of Parochial Registers and other Records in Ecclesiastical custody, and the establishment of Diocesan Record Offices.}}
|-
| {{|Representation of the Laity Measure 1929|church|2|10-05-1929|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Rules for the Representation of the Laity contained in the Schedule to the Constitution.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Dilapidations (Amendment) Measure 1929|church|3|10-05-1929|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Measure, 1923.}}
|-
| {{|Westminster Abbey Measure 1929|church|4|10-05-1929|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision as to the apportionment of the income of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster.}}
|-
| {{|Parsonages Measure 1930|church|1|20-03-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate and amend the Law relating to the sale, purchase and improvement of Parsonage Houses.}}
|-
| {{|Archdeaconry of Surrey Measure 1930|church|2|20-03-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the disannexation from the Archdeaconry of Surrey of the Canonry in Winchester Cathedral now annexed thereto; for the suspension of the said Canonry; and for the foundation of Canonries in the Cathedral Churches of Guildford and Portsmouth and the endowment thereof out of the corporate property of the Dean and Chapter of Winchester.}}
|-
| {{|Marriage Measure 1930|church|3|20-03-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable marriages to be solemnized in any church which is the usual place of worship of the persons to be married or of either of them.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Pensions of Church Estates Commissioners) Measure 1930|church|4|15-04-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable pensions to be granted to certain of the Church Estates Commissioners.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Sodor and Man) Measure 1930|church|5|15-04-1930|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to make additional provision for the Cure of Souls in parishes in the Diocese of Sodor and Man.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Older Incumbents) Measure 1930|church|6|04-06-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a system of Pensions for Older Incumbents, and for that purpose to amend the Incumbents Resignation Acts, 1871 and 1887, and the Clergy Pensions Measures, 1926 to 1928.}}
|-
| {{|Pluralities Measure 1930|church|7|01-08-1930|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the law relating to the holding of benefices in plurality, and for that purpose to extend the powers exerciseable under the Union of Benefices Measure, 1923.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Transfer of Rights of Patronage) Measure 1930|church|8|01-08-1930|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to regulate the transfer of the Rights of Patronage of Benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Episcopal Pensions (Sodor and Man) Measure 1931|church|1|27-03-1931|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to extend the Episcopal Pensions Measure, 1926, with modifications to the bishopric of Sodor and Man, and to make consequential provisions.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Loans for Church Training Colleges) Measure 1931|church|2|27-03-1931|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to make or guarantee loans for purposes in connection with Church of England Training Colleges.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Exercise of Rights of Presentation) Measure 1931|church|3|08-07-1931|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to regulate the exercise of rights of presentation to benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Channel Islands (Church Legislation) Measure 1931|church|4|08-07-1931|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision for the application to the Channel Islands of Measures passed by the Church Assembly.}}
|-
| {{|Channel Islands (Representation) Measure 1931|church|5|08-07-1931|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the representation of the Channel Islands in the House of Laity and in the Diocesan Conference of the Diocese of Winchester.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Provision for Unbeneficed Clergy) Measure 1928 (Amendment) Measure 1931|church|6|08-07-1931|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Provision for Unbeneficed Clergy) Measure, 1928.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals Measure 1931|church|7|08-07-1931|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish and to define the functions, powers, and duties of the Cathedral Commissioners for England, to make provision with respect to the constitutions, the property and revenues, the statutes of cathedral churches and the patronage of the canonries therein, and in certain cases with respect to the election of bishops by the chapters thereof, to enable the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to make grants for the benefit of cathedral churches, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Diocesan Boards of Patronage) Measure 1932|church|1|16-06-1932|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish Diocesan Boards of Patronage.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Purchase of Rights of Patronage) Measure 1933|church|1|29-03-1933|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Parochial Church Councils to purchase rights of patronage in certain cases.}}
|-
| {{|Wythenshawe Parishes (Transfer) Measure 1933|church|2|28-06-1933|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the parish of Northenden and parts of the parishes of Baguley and Timperley from the Diocese of Chester to the Diocese of Manchester, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Parish of Manchester Revenues Measure 1933|church|3|28-07-1933|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to allocate the Revenues of the Dean and Canons of the Cathedral or Collegiate and Parish Church of Manchester and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Sequestrations) Measure 1933|church|4|17-11-1933|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision with regard to the administration of the property of vacant benefices and to confer certain powers upon sequestrators appointed under the Benefices (Ecclesiastical Duties) Measure, 1926.}}
|-
| {{|Clerical Disabilities Act 1870 (Amendment) Measure 1934|church|1|22-06-1934|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clerical Disabilities Act, 1870, by enabling clerks in Holy Orders who have availed themselves of that Act to resume the position of officiating ministers.}}
|-
| {{|Banns of Marriage Measure 1934|church|2|31-07-1934|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend and declare the law relating to the publication of Banns of Marriage and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals (Amendment) Measure 1934|church|3|31-07-1934|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the law relating to Cathedral Churches.}}
|-
| {{|Diocese of Southwell (Transfer) Measure 1935|church|1|02-08-1935|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the Diocese of Southwell from the Province of Canterbury to the Province of York.}}
|-
| {{|Farnham Castle Measure 1935|church|2|02-08-1935|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the transfer to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of so much of Farnham Castle as has been provided for an episcopal house of residence for the Bishopric of Guildford and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1936|church|1|29-05-1936|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measures, 1926 to 1928.}}
|-
| {{|Union of Benefices (Amendment) Measure 1936|church|2|29-05-1936|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Union of Benefices Measure, 1923, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Widows and Dependants) Measure 1936|church|3|29-05-1936|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a scheme of pensions for the widows and dependants of the Clergy, and for that purpose to amend the Clergy Pensions Measures, 1926 to 1936.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals (Houses of Residence) Measure 1936|church|4|29-05-1936|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the disposal by sale and otherwise of houses of residence of Deans and Canons of Cathedral Churches or for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Powers) Measure 1936|church|5|29-05-1936|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to confer upon the Ecclesiastical Commissioners temporary power to give financial help for the provision of churches and other buildings for religious worship, and power to make better provision for the endowment of certain bishoprics: to amend and extend the provisions of the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts: and to amend the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Measure, 1926, as to payment by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of costs of certain legal proceedings.}}
|-
| {{|Queen Anne's Bounty (Powers) Measure 1937|church|1|18-02-1937|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a system of quarterly payments of income payable by Queen Anne's Bounty to incumbents of benefices, and to provide for the transfer to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners of funds held by Queen Anne's Bounty for the benefit of ecclesiastical corporations, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|House of Laity (Co-opted Members) Measure 1937|church|2|06-05-1937|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the House of Laity to co-opt certain persons to be members of that House.}}
|-
| {{|Southwark Cathedral Measure 1937|church|3|01-07-1937|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a Constitution and Statutes for the Cathedral Church of Saint Saviour, Southwark, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Marriage (Licensing of Chapels) Measure 1938|church|1|13-04-1938|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to remove doubts as to the power of bishops to license chapels in certain districts for the solemnization therein of certain marriages.}}
|-
| {{|Guildford Cathedral Measure 1938|church|2|13-04-1938|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the dignity and status of the Cathedral of the Diocese of Guildford from the Church of the Holy Trinity in Guildford to the Church of the Holy Spirit in Guildford and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Parsonages Measure 1938|church|3|23-06-1938|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate and amend the law relating to the sale, purchase and improvement of parsonage houses and of other property belonging to benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Powers) Measure 1938|church|4|23-06-1938|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to confer upon the Ecclesiastical Commissioners power to establish and fix parochial tables of fees for the performance of church offices and matters incidental thereto: to amend the Glebe Lands Act, 1888, and to make applicable to future sales under that Act the provisions of the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts as to improvement of annual value: to give additional powers to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners as to the application of money arising from the sale of property of a benefice under the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts or the Glebe Lands Act, 1888, and to enable them to rearrange charges on endowment of a benefice in favour of another benefice: to remove a doubt arising under the Union of Benefices Act, 1860: to enable to Ecclesiastical Commissioners to withdraw certain curate grants: to make provision for payment to the incumbents of benefices by regular quarterly instalments of such part of the income of their respective benefices as is received by them from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners: to give additional powers to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in relation to funds available for the endowment of benefices and in relation to curate funds: and to amend section two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act, 1850, as to the salaries payable to the Church Estates Commissioners.}}
|-
| {{|Liverpool City Churches Act 1897 (Amendment) Measure 1938|church|5|13-07-1938|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Liverpool City Churches Act, 1897.}}
|-
| {{|Faculty Jurisdiction Measure 1938|church|6|13-07-1938|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the law relating to the issue of faculties out of ecclesiastical courts; to make better provision for giving effect to faculties so issued; to authorise the sale of books in certain parochial libraries under a faculty; to authorise archdeacons to issue certificates in certain cases; and for other purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Queen Anne's Bounty (Powers) Measure 1939|church|1|28-04-1939|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to confer upon Queen Anne's Bounty additional powers relating to the application of augmentation moneys and securities, the abatement and extinguishment of charges upon benefices, and other matters connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Officers Remuneration Measure 1939|church|2|28-04-1939|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the establishment of tables of the fees to be taken by ecclesiastical officers as remuneration for the performance of their duties, including any duties imposed by Measures.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy (National Emergency Precautions) Measure 1939|church|3|28-07-1939|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to make regulations for the more effective exercise of the cure of souls in the event of war, and to enable the Ecclesiastical Commissioners and Queen Anne's Bounty to make financial provision in respect thereof.}}
|-
| {{|House of Laity (Postponement of Election) Measure 1939|church|1|14-12-1939|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to postpone the election of members of the House of Laity due to be held in the year 1940.}}
|-
| {{|Benefice Buildings (Postponement of Inspections and Repayment of Loans) Measure 1940|church|2|17-07-1940|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable Diocesan Dilapidations Boards to postpone quinquennial inspections of benefice buildings and repayment of loans during a period of emergency and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Dilapidations (Chancel Repairs) Measure 1940|church|3|17-07-1940|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable Diocesan Authorities at the request of Parochial Church Councils and with the consent of Queen Anne's Bounty to apply capital moneys in certain cases to the immediate repairs of chancels.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Reorganisation Committees Measure 1941|church|1|29-07-1941|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the appointment of Diocesan Reorganisation Committees and to define their powers and duties; to provide for deferring the restoration of damaged churches and parsonage houses, and for suspending the exercise of rights of presentation in certain cases; and to enable the Diocesan Boards of Finance to receive payments under the War Damage Act, 1941.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Powers) Measure 1942|church|1|29-04-1942|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to empower the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to pay certain grants on the sole authority of a resolution of the Commissioners.}}
|-
| {{|Loans (Postponement of Repayment) Measure 1942|church|2|06-08-1942|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to give Queen Anne's Bounty power during a period of emergency to postpone the repayment of principal moneys of loans made by them under certain Acts and Measures and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|New Parishes Measure 1943|church|1|04-02-1943|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments the New Parishes Acts, 1843 to 1884, to repeal such of the provisions of the Church Building Acts, 1818 to 1884, as authorise the formation of new ecclesiastical districts or as are obsolete, and to re-enact with amendments other provisions of the last mentioned Acts, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Episcopal Endowments and Stipends Measure 1943|church|2|04-02-1943|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for empowering the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to take over the endowments and property of any see, to pay to the bishop of the diocese an appropriate stipend, to provide for him a suitable residence, to accept responsibility in respect of certain stipends and other official expenses and to deal with any existing house of residence belonging to the see.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Education Committees Measure 1943|church|3|11-11-1943|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the appointment of diocesan education committees and to define their powers and duties; to provide for the consultation and co-operation of such committees with the trustees or owners and managers of church schools in regard to such schools; to make provision for the application of moneys received for war damage to church schools; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Reorganisation Areas Measure 1944|church|1|21-03-1944|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to authorise the making of new arrangements for the pastoral supervision of areas which have suffered war damage, or in which, by reason of causes attributable to the war or as a result of planning schemes, material changes in the number or situation of the population have occurred, or are likely to occur, and to amend in certain respects the Diocesan Reorganisation Committees Measure, 1941.}}
|-
| {{|Emergency Legislation Measure 1944|church|1|21-12-1944|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to the present national emergency.}}
|-
| {{|Episcopal Pensions Measure 1945|church|2|15-06-1945|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to establish a pension scheme for suffragan bishops; to provide for increased pension contributions by diocesan bishops; to enable provision to be made for the widows of bishops; and to amend in certain respects the existing Measures relating to clergy and episcopal pensions.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Disability) Measure 1945|church|3|15-06-1945|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for the cure of souls when through disability arising from age or infirmity (whether bodily or mental) an incumbent of a benefice is unable to discharge adequately the duties attaching thereto and to make provision for payment for the discharge of such duties and for the pension of such incumbent.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Commissioners (Curate Grants) Measure 1946|church|1|22-05-1946|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for the transfer to diocesan boards of finance of the administration of sums from the common fund of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners allocated for payments towards the stipends of curates assistant clergy deaconesses and lay helpers, and in connexion therewith to authorise the termination of existing grants payable for the purposes aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Supplementary Pensions) Measure 1946|church|2|22-05-1946|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the payment of supplementary pensions to certain persons in receipt of pensions under the Clergy Pensions Measures, 1926 to 1936, and the Clergy Pensions (Older Incumbents) Measure, 1930.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measure 1946|church|3|22-05-1946|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the filling of vacancies in benefices to be postponed for certain periods and to make provision for the performance of the ecclesiastical duties, the use of the houses of residence, the management of the property, and the application of the income of the benefices during those periods.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Discipline) Measure 1947|church|1|18-02-1947|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the law for the enforcement of Church discipline in the case of incumbents.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners Measure 1947|church|2|02-04-1947|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to promote the more efficient and economical administration of the resources of the Church of England by uniting the Corporation of the Governors of the Bounty of Queen Anne for the augmentation of the maintenance of the poor clergy, founded by charter under the Great Seal in the year 1704, and the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for England originally established in the year 1836 by the statute 6 and 7 William the Fourth, chapter 77.}}
|-
| {{|Parsonages (Amendment) Measure 1947|church|3|31-07-1947|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Parsonages Measure, 1938, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions Measure 1948|church|1|24-03-1948|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments, the Clergy Pensions Measures, 1926 to 1946, to limit the application of those Measures to clergy already ordained, to establish a new scheme of pensions for clergy hereafter ordained and their widows and children and to amend the Clergy Pensions (Older Incumbents) Measure, 1930 and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church Dignitaries (Retirement) Measure 1949|church|1|14-07-1949|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for the retirement of deans, provosts, archdeacons, canons, prebendaries and other church dignitaries if incapacitated by age or physical or mental infirmity, or if guilty of unbecoming conduct or neglect of duty, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Parochial Church Councils (Powers) (Amendment) Measure 1949|church|2|14-07-1949|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to the powers of Parochial Church Councils under the Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure, 1921, and to provide for related matters.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral Reorganisation Measure 1949|church|3|14-07-1949|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make better provision for the cure of souls by simplifying the procedure for the union of benefices and the holding of benefices in plurality, to restrict temporarily the exercise of rights of patronage in certain cases, to provide for the partial diversion of the endowment income of certain benefices, to amend the Pluralities Act, 1838, and the Reorganisation Areas Measure, 1944, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measure 1946 (Amendment) Measure 1949|church|4|16-12-1949|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measure, 1946.}}
|-
| {{|Reorganisation Areas Measure 1944 (Amendment) Measure 1949|church|5|16-12-1949|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Reorganisation Areas Measure, 1944.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Discipline) Measure 1947 (Amendment) Measure 1950|church|1|28-07-1950|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Incumbents (Discipline) Measure, 1947.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Education Committees Measure 1943 (Amendment) Measure 1951|church|1|21-03-1951|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Diocesan Education Committees Measure, 1943.}}
|-
| {{|Bishops (Retirement) Measure 1951|church|2|26-04-1951|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make provision for the voluntary or compulsory retirement of bishops if incapacitated by physical or mental disability, for voluntary retirement if a change of administration is desirable, and for temporary suspension, censure, or compulsory retirement in case of unbecoming conduct or neglect of duty, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Measures 1923 to 1929 (Amendment) Measure 1951|church|3|22-06-1951|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Measures, 1923 to 1929, by enabling Diocesan Dilapidations Boards to postpone inspections of benefice buildings and to simplify the procedure for authorising payments in respect of repairs in certain cases.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals (Appointed Commissions) Measure 1951|church|4|22-06-1951|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to empower the Church Commissioners to make payments towards the expenses of commissions appointed pursuant to section 17 of the Cathedrals Measure, 1931.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Stabilization of Incomes) Measure 1951|church|5|22-06-1951|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to stabilize income derived by benefices from certain endowments by providing for the transfer of such endowments to the general fund of the Church Commissioners, appropriating sums of money in lieu of the endowments so transferred and charging the general fund of the Commissioners in favour of the benefices concerned; and to amend the Glebe Lands Act, 1888.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England Pensions Board (Powers) Measure 1952|church|1|30-04-1952|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to the powers of the Church of England Pensions Board and to confer on the Board the status of a housing association and of a trust corporation.}}
|-
| {{|Union of Benefices (Disused Churches) Measure 1952|church|1|16-12-1952|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Union of Benefices Measure, 1923, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Stipends Funds Measure 1953|church|2|26-03-1953|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision in relation to diocesan stipends funds established by the Reorganisation Areas Measure, 1944, and the Pastoral Reorganisation Measure, 1949, and for that purpose to amend those Measures and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Discipline) and Church Dignitaries (Retirement) Amendment Measure 1953|church|3|06-05-1953|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Incumbents (Discipline) Measure, 1947, and the Church Dignitaries (Retirement) Measure, 1949, in relation to proceedings under those Measures in respect of social or political activities.}}
|-
| {{|Archdeaconries (Augmentation) Measure 1953|church|4|14-07-1953|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Church Commissioners to augment archdeaconries by annual sums payable out of their general fund and to repeal the provisions under which archdeaconries may be endowed out of canonries or benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measure 1953|church|5|29-10-1953|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to extend the duration of the provisions of the Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measures, 1946 and 1949, and to consolidate those Measures with amendments and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|New Housing Areas (Church Buildings) Measure 1954|church|1|18-03-1954|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Church Commissioners to make grants or loans in respect of church buildings in certain areas, having regard to recent housing development in those areas and the absence or insufficiency of suitable church buildings therein.}}
|-
| {{|Reorganisation Areas Measure 1944 (Amendment) Measure 1954|church|2|18-03-1954|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the provisions of the Reorganisation Areas Measures, 1944 and 1949, by extending the period of restriction of the exercise of patronage and the period within which proposals for reorganisation schemes may be received.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals (Grants) Measure 1954|church|3|18-03-1954|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable grants to be made directly to deans, provosts and canons residentiary under section twenty of the Cathedrals Measure, 1931.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions Measure 1954|church|4|30-07-1954|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for making the general fund of the Church Commissioners the source of pensions to Clergy and thereby increasing such pensions, and making them no longer contributory where they have been so, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Inspection of Churches Measure 1955|church|1|29-03-1955|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the establishment of schemes for the inspection of churches by architects at least once in every five years; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Education Committees Measure 1955|church|1|21-12-1955|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments certain provisions of the Diocesan Education Committees Measure, 1943, and the Diocesan Education Committees Measure, 1943 (Amendment) Measure, 1951; to provide for the validation and continuance of orders made under the provisions of those Measures and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Representation of the Laity Measure 1956|church|2|05-07-1956|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Rules for the Representation of the Laity, and in particular, to enlarge the subject matter of the Rules in certain respects.}}
|-
| {{|Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1956|church|3|05-07-1956|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments certain enactments relating to parochial church councils and parochial charities.}}
|-
| {{|Channel Islands (Church Legislation) Measure 1931 (Amendment) Measure 1957|church|1|17-07-1957|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Channel Islands (Church Legislation) Measure, 1931.}}
|-
| {{|Church Funds Investment Measure 1958|church|1|20-02-1958|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make better provision for the investment of certain funds of or connected with the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Church Schools (Assistance by Church Commissioners) Measure 1958|church|2|20-02-1958|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Church Commissioners to make payments for the provision of financial assistance for certain church schools; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Truro Cathedral Measure 1959|church|1|25-03-1959|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision for the government of the Cathedral Church of Truro, to repeal the Truro Chapter Act, 1878, and to repeal the Truro Bishopric and Chapter Acts Amendment Act, 1887, and to re-enact with amendments certain of its provisions.}}
|-
| {{|Vacancies in Sees Measure 1959|church|2|25-03-1959|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the guardian of the spiritualities of a see to act during a vacancy thereof in place of the bishop for the purposes of certain enactments and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Guildford Cathedral Measure 1959|church|3|25-03-1959|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to transfer the dignity and status of the Cathedral of the Diocese of Guildford from the Church of the Holy Trinity in Guildford to the Church of the Holy Spirit in Guildford, to constitute a Dean and Chapter of the Cathedral Church, to make provision for the government of the Cathedral Church and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1960|church|1|13-04-1960|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Parsonages Measure, 1938, and the New Parishes Measure, 1943, and to make further provision as to church land; to make further provision as to grants and payments by the Church Commissioners; to provide for the distribution of the tithe maintenance fund; to alter the title of the Church Estates Commissioner appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, to transfer to the Church Commissioners the property and certain functions of the Church Estates Commissioners and to make provision as to the pensions of the Church Estates Commissioners; to enable certain suffragan bishops to receive augmentation from the Clergy Pensions Institution; to provide for the transfer of rights of patronage within twelve months from the last institution or admission to the benefice; to abolish certain restrictions in respect of assurances of property to diocesan authorities; to dispense with the publication in the London Gazette of Orders in Council confirming schemes of the Church Commissioners; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Farnham Castle Measure 1961|church|1|02-03-1961|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to vest part of Farnham Castle in the Church Commissioners and to make provision for their powers in relation to the whole of Farnham Castle.}}
|-
| {{|Baptismal Registers Measure 1961|church|2|03-08-1961|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the annotation of parochial registers of baptisms in cases of persons legitimated after baptism, and for the issue of short certificates of baptism in certain cases, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions Measure 1961|church|3|03-08-1961|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments the Acts of Parliament and Measures of the Church Assembly relating to pensions for clergy and their widows and dependants and to the powers of the Church of England Pensions Board; to provide for increases in the pensions payable to clergy and for making the pensions payable to bishops no longer contributory; to provide for pensions which are not contributory for certain widows of clergy; to confer on the Church of England Pensions Board power to provide homes of residence for retired church workers and their wives and for the widows and dependants of deceased church workers; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Fees Measure 1962|church|1|03-07-1962|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision for the establishment of tables of ecclesiastical fees, to relieve certain clerks in Holy Orders from the liability to pay certain fees and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963|church|1|31-07-1963|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to reform and reconstruct the system of ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England, to replace with new provisions the existing enactments relating to ecclesiastical discipline, to abolish certain obsolete jurisdictions and fees, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals Measure 1963|church|2|31-07-1963|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to replace with new provisions the Cathedral Measures 1931 and 1934, and other enactments relating to cathedral churches; to repeal certain obsolete provisions relating to cathedral churches or to churches which are or have been collegiate churches; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners (Loans for Theological Colleges and Training Houses) Measure 1964|church|1|27-02-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Church Commissioners to make or guarantee loans to defray capital expenditure in connection with establishments for the training of men for the Ministry and of women for work in connection with the cure of souls.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents and Churchwardens (Trusts) Measure 1964|church|2|27-02-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to vest certain real and personal property held, acquired or administered upon charitable ecclesiastical trusts by incumbents and churchwardens jointly or severally and certain ecclesiastical corporations, in the diocesan authority and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Churchwardens (Appointment and Resignation) Measure 1964|church|3|27-02-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to regulate the number and qualifications of, and the time and manner of choosing, churchwardens of parishes; to regulate their admission to office; to provide for the resignation of churchwardens and for their vacating their offices in certain events; to regulate the qualifications of churchwardens of Guild Churches in the City of London; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Holy Table Measure 1964|church|4|15-04-1964|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable the Holy Table in a Church or Chapel to be immovable and to be made of any suitable material.}}
|-
| {{|Faculty Jurisdiction Measure 1964|church|5|15-04-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to enable ecclesiastical courts to vest privately owned parts of churches in the persons in whom the churches are vested; to amend the law relating to the issue of faculties out of such courts concerning the demolition of churches and works affecting monuments in private ownership; to empower bishops to make certain licensed chapels subject to the faculty jurisdiction of such courts; to declare the law relating to the jurisdiction of such courts over the curtilage of churches; to limit the duration of rights of sepulture; to make better provision for the enforcement of orders as to costs and expenses; to repeal and re-enact the Faculty Jurisdiction Measure 1938, with amendments; and for other purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy (Ordination and Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1964|church|6|10-06-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the law relating to the qualifications for Holy Orders and to the Form and Manner of Making, Ordaining and Consecrating Bishops, Priests and Deacons; and to amend the law relating to the revocation of licences granted to Ministers and to the occupations of Ministers.}}
|-
| {{|Vestures of Ministers Measure 1964|church|7|31-07-1964|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to regulate the vestures to be worn by Ministers at the times of their ministrations.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners Measure 1964|church|8|31-07-1964|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Church Commissioners Measure 1947 and certain other provisions relating to the Estates and Finance Committee and the Church Estates Commissioners.}}
|-
| {{|Prayer Book (Alternative and Other Services) Measure 1965|church|1|23-03-1965|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to authorise the use by way of experiment of alternative forms of Service deviating from the Book of Common Prayer and the use of forms of Service for use on special occasions; and to authorise minor variations in public prayer and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) (Continuance) Measure 1965|church|2|02-06-1965|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to extend the duration of section 1 of the Benefices (Suspension of Presentation) Measure 1953.}}
|-
| {{|Prayer Book (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1965|church|3|05-08-1965|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to authorise the approval of days of Special Observance; to enable a Bishop to authorise a Minister to dispense with the reading of Morning and Evening Prayer on certain days; to amend the rubrics at the beginning and end of the Communion Service in the Book of Common Prayer; and to extend the right to use the Book of Common Prayer in Latin to all universities and certain other places of learning.}}
|-
| {{|Prayer Book (Versions of the Bible) Measure 1965|church|4|22-12-1965|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to permit the use of any version of the Bible authorised by the Convocations with the concurrence of the House of Laity for portions of Scripture appointed to be read, said or sung in the Book of Common Prayer, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1967|church|1|22-03-1967|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961.}}
|-
| {{|Extra-Parochial Ministry Measure 1967|church|2|14-07-1967|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to authorise the Minister of a parish to exercise his ministry outside the parish for the benefit of persons on the electoral roll of the parish: and for licensing a Minister to exercise his ministry at or for the benefit of an institution without the consent of and without being subject to the control of the Minister of the parish.}}
|-
| {{|Overseas and Other Clergy (Ministry and Ordination) Measure 1967|church|3|14-07-1967|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make better provision for permitting overseas clergymen and certain other clergymen to exercise their ministry in the provinces of Canterbury and York, for enabling overseas bishops and certain other bishops to exercise episcopal functions in the said provinces, for the ordination of clergymen for ministry overseas, and for matters connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral Measure 1968|church|1|30-05-1968|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to make better provision for the cure of souls and for the use, preservation or disposal of redundant churches, to amend the law relating to pluralities, to enable certain pastoral functions of bishops relating to property to be delegated, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Prayer Book (Further Provisions) Measure 1968|church|2|18-12-1968|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to make further provision for amending the Book of Common Prayer and certain enactments relating to that Book and to the burial service.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1969|church|1|25-07-1969|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961 in respect of the entitlement to pension and rate of pension of clerks in Holy Orders who retire before the retiring age.}}
|-
| {{|Synodical Government Measure 1969|church|2|25-07-1969|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the vesting by Canon of the functions, authority, rights and privileges of the Convocations of Canterbury and York in the General Synod of the Church of England, and for the modification by Canon of the functions of the said Convocations when sitting separately for their provinces; to rename and reconstitute the Church Assembly as the General Synod, and to make further provision for the synodical government of the Church of England, and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Collegiate Churches (Capital Endowments) Measure 1970|church|1|24-03-1970|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide capital endowments for the Collegiate Churches of St. Peter in Westminster and St. George, Windsor.}}
|-
| {{|Sharing of Church Buildings Measure 1970|church|2|24-03-1970|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The National Assembly of the Church of England to extend the Pastoral Measure 1968 for the purpose of authorising sharing agreements in respect of consecrated churches and parsonage houses, and to provide for other matters arising out of the sharing of church buildings by the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners Measure 1970|church|3|17-12-1970|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to provide for the appointment of Church Commissioners as additional members of the General Purposes Committee and the Assets Committee of the Church Commissioners.}}
|-
| {{|Synodical Government (Special Majorities) Measure 1971|church|1|17-02-1971|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to authorise the General Synod of the Church of England to require special majorities for a scheme for a constitutional union or a permanent and substantial change of relationship between the Church of England and another Christian body, and for the exercise of powers to suspend the Standing Orders of the General Synod.}}
|-
| {{|Admission to Holy Communion Measure 1972|church|1|10-02-1972|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to provide for admission to the Holy Communion.}}
|-
| {{|Repair of Benefice Buildings Measure 1972|church|2|10-02-1972|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to provide for the repair of parsonage houses by Parsonages Boards and for the repair of other buildings belonging to a benefice; to make other provision for repairs and other works and matters relating to church buildings and land; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Benefices Measure 1972|church|3|10-02-1972|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to provide an additional ground for refusing to institute or admit a presentee to a benefice, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Deaconesses and Lay Ministry Measure 1972|church|4|09-08-1972|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable further provision to be made by Canon with respect to the ministry of deaconesses, licensed lay workers, readers and other lay persons.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pensions (Amendment) Measure 1972|church|5|09-08-1972|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to Amend the Clergy Pensions Measures 1961 to 1969.}}
|-
| {{|Synodical Government (Amendment) Measure 1974|church|1|09-07-1974|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for the amendment of the Constitutions of the Convocations of Canterbury and York; to amend Article 8 of the Constitution of the General Synod of the Church of England; and to make further provision with respect to the manner of voting in the General Synod.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (Amendment) Measure 1974|church|2|09-07-1974|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Worship and Doctrine) Measure 1974|church|3|12-12-1974|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable provision to be made by Canon with respect to worship in the Church of England and other matters prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer, and with respect to the obligations and forms of assent or subscription to the doctrine of the Church of England; to repeal enactments relating to the matters aforesaid; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1975|church|1|01-08-1975|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for empowering the Church Commissioners to make payments towards the stipend and expenses of the Bishop of Sodor and Man and to make further provision with respect to the pensions of Church Estates Commissioners and their widows.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Offices (Age Limit) Measure 1975|church|2|01-08-1975|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision with respect to the age limit for the holding of certain ecclesiastical offices.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals Measure 1976|church|1|25-03-1976|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make fresh provision with respect to the revision of the constitution and statutes of cathedral churches; and to amend section 42 of the Cathedrals Measure 1963.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Judges and Legal Officers Measure 1976|church|2|25-03-1976|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to regulate the age of retirement from the office of judge of an ecclesiastical court; to make provision for limiting the number of chancellorships to be held by one person; to make fresh provision with respect to the other legal officers of the Church of England; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1976|church|3|15-11-1976|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable provision to be made by Canon with respect to certain declarations made and subscribed and other matters required on ordination and admission to office in the Church of England and to repeal the enactments relating to those matters; to enable provision to be made by Canon with respect to licensing of assistant curates for fixed terms; to replace section 85 of the Pastoral Measure 1968; to dispense with periodical episcopal visitations of cathedrals; to amend section 1 of the Benefices (Sequestrations) Measure 1933; to amend the law relating to the burial of certain persons in parish burial grounds; to repeal section 13 of the Burnley Rectory Act 1890; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976|church|4|22-11-1976|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make fresh provision with respect to the means by which the clergy and certain lay persons engaged in the cure of souls are remunerated; to transfer glebe land to Diocesan Boards of Finance; to make provision with respect to the powers and duties of such Boards in relation to such land; to restrict the letting of parts of parsonage houses and to make other provision with respect to such houses; to amend the Diocesan Stipends Funds Measure 1953; to amend the law relating to sequestrations; to amend the law relating to the liability to repair certain chancels; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Vacation of Benefices) Measure 1977|church|1|30-06-1977|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision, including provision for the vacation of the benefice, where there has been a serious breakdown of the pastoral relationship between an incumbent and his parishioners or where an incumbent is unable by reason of age or infirmity to discharge adequately the duties attaching to his benefice, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Dioceses Measure 1978|church|1|02-02-1978|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for enabling alterations to be made in the diocesan structure of the provinces of Canterbury and York; to make further provision for enabling certain functions of diocesan bishops to be discharged by suffragan bishops; to abolish the power to commission suffragan bishops; to make provision for constituting separate synods for areas of a diocese; to make further provision with respect to the nomination of suffragan bishops; to make provision with respect to the discharge of the functions of certain diocesan bodies; and for purposes connected with those matters.}}
|-
| {{|Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1978|church|2|02-02-1978|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments certain enactments relating to the registration of baptisms and burials and to repeal some of those enactments without re-enactment; to make fresh provision in place of the Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1929 with respect to diocesan record offices, the deposit therein of certain parochial registers and other records in ecclesiastical custody and the care of such registers and records; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1978|church|3|30-06-1978|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to the special majorities required for the final approval of certain Measures; to make further provision with respect to the continuance in certain offices of persons in office at the commencement of the Ecclesiastical Offices (Age Limit) Measure 1975; to make provision for altering the financial year of the Church Commissioners; to amend Schedule 1 to the Church Commissioners Measure 1947; to provide for an additional member of diocesan boards of finance; to amend section 20 of the Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1978; to extend section 17 of the New Parishes Measure 1943; to make provision for facilitating the conveyance of ecclesiastical property in certain circumstances; to make provision for extending the Inspection of Churches Measure 1955 and schemes made thereunder; to amend section 43 of the Cathedrals Measure 1963 and sections 3 and 43 of the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976; to repeal so much of section 21 of the Queen Anne's Bounty Act 1714 as requires certain documents to be enrolled in the High Court.}}
|-
| {{|Deaconesses and Lay Workers (Pensions) Measure 1980|church|1|20-03-1980|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to empower the Church Commissioners to make payments for the provision or augmentation of pensions and related benefits for deaconesses, lay workers, their dependants and widows; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Diocese in Europe Measure 1980|church|2|30-06-1980|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for the representation in the General Synod of the Church of England of the diocese of Gibraltar in Europe when established; to amend Article 8 of the Constitution of the General Synod in relation to the said diocese; to empower the Church Commissioners to pay to the bishop and any suffragan bishop of the said diocese when established a stipend and his official expenses and to provide or assist with the provision of suitable residences for such bishops; to confer pension rights on bishops and other clergy who perform ecclesiastical service in the said diocese after its establishment; to extend the Deaconesses and Lay Workers (Pensions) Measure 1980 to the said diocese; and to amend the Overseas and Other Clergy (Ministry and Ordination) Measure 1967.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral (Amendment) Measure 1982|church|1|23-07-1982|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Pastoral Measure 1968 and make provision for enabling that Measure to be extended to the Isle of Man, to make provision for enabling a new body to be established to replace the Advisory Body for Redundant Churches and the Redundant Churches Fund and to amend section 5(3) of the Parsonages Measure 1938.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Pension (Amendment) Measure 1982|church|2|23-07-1982|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend sections 17 and 26 of the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961; to make further provision with respect to the membership of pensions schemes for church workers and with respect to the investment of moneys comprised in certain pension funds established by the Church of England Pensions Board; and for purposes connected with the matters aforesaid.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral Measure 1983|church|1|09-05-1983|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The General Synod of The Church of England to consolidate with minor amendments the Pastoral Measure 1968, the Pastoral (Amendment) Measure 1982 and related enactments, which are designed to make better provision for the cure of souls.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1983|church|2|09-05-1983|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The General Synod of the Church of England to amend the New Parishes Measure 1943, the Parsonages Measure 1938, the Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1956, the Ecclesiastical Judges and Legal Officers Measure 1976, and the Bishops (Retirement) Measure 1951; to make further provision with respect to the discharge of the functions of a bishop or archdeacon and the constitution of an Appeal Tribunal for the compensation of clergy; and to make provision for transferring a house and muniment room in Lichfield from the Registrar of Lichfield to the Diocesan Board of Finance; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Bishops (Retirement) Measure 1986|church|1|18-03-1986|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make fresh provision with respect to the resignation or retirement of archbishops and bishops and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Fees Measure 1986|church|2|18-03-1986|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to ecclesiastical fees and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Patronage (Benefices) Measure 1986|church|3|18-07-1986|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to patronage of benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Deacons (Ordination of Women) Measure 1986|church|4|07-11-1986|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for the ordination of women as deacons, and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Legal Aid and Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1988|church|1|09-02-1988|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision concerning legal aid; to enable marriages of housebound and detained persons to be solemnized by persons licensed under the Extra-Parochial Ministry Measure 1967; to make provision for the change of name of a see; to enable further provision to be made by Canon with respect to licences granted to ministers, deaconesses, lay workers and readers; to make provision with respect to the appointment of organists and choirmasters; to amend section 31 of the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, section 7 of the Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1956, section 7 of the Church Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1960, and section 3 of the Pastoral Measure 1983; to amend provisions of the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961 relating to the Clergy (Widows and Dependants) Fund; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church Commissioners (Assistance for Priority Areas) Measure 1988|church|2|03-05-1988|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by The General Synod of the Church of England to extend the power of the Church Commissioners to make grants or loans in respect of church buildings in certain areas which are not sufficiently supplied with suitable church buildings and to enable the Church Commissioners to make grants or loans to the Church Urban Fund.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Ecumenical Relations) Measure 1988|church|3|29-07-1988|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable provision to be made by Canon with respect to local co-operation between the Church of England and other Churches; to modify in certain cases restrictions imposed by the Overseas and Other Clergy (Ministry and Ordination) Measure 1967; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Pensions) Measure 1988|church|4|27-10-1988|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Pensions Measures 1961 to 1982, and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy (Ordination) Measure 1990|church|1|22-02-1990|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to impediments to admission into Holy Orders.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Cathedrals Measure 1990|church|2|26-07-1990|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision for the care and conservation of cathedral churches.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1991|church|1|25-07-1991|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision as to the care of churches and the lands and articles appertaining thereto and of documents of historic interest to the Church of England; to amend the law relating to the inspection of churches; to amend the law relating to ecclesiastical courts, commissions, judges and registrars; to make further provision as to the grant of faculties; to enable bishops to remove the legal effects of consecration; to repeal section 4 of the Parish Notices Act 1837; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Boards of Education Measure 1991|church|2|25-07-1991|note3=|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision as to Diocesan Boards of Education.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1992|church|1|06-03-1992|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to sequestration; to make further provision with respect to the appointment of new patrons; to make further provision with respect to the conduct of funeral services and rights of burial; to enable parochial church councils to hold advowsons; to amend the law relating to the resignation of incumbents; to amend the law relating to the tenure of office of diocesan chancellors and registrars; to clarify the law relating to archdeacons' visitations; to clarify the law relating to the appointment of rural deans; to amend the law relating to the appointment of canons in cathedral churches; to amend section 27 of the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847, section 11 of the Benefices Act 1898, sections 13, 16 and 17 of the New Parishes Measure 1943, section 5 of and the First Schedule to the Church Commissioners Measure 1947, sections 4 and 5 of the Diocesan Stipends Funds Measure 1953, section 12 of the Cathedrals Measure 1963, sections 55 and 56 of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963, section 1 of the Benefices Measure 1972, sections 3, 4 and 5 of the Cathedrals Measure 1976, sections 20, 23, 24 and 38 of the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976, the Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1978, section 2 of the Dioceses Measure 1978, sections 29, 54 and 68 of and Schedules 4, 6 and 7 to the Pastoral Measure 1983, section 9 of and Schedule 2 to the Patronage (Benefices) Measure 1986 and section 5 of the Church of England (Ecumenical Relations) Measure 1988; to repeal certain enactments which are no longer of practical utility; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Incumbents (Vacation of Benefices) (Amendment) Measure 1993|church|1|27-07-1993|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Incumbents (Vacation of Benefices) Measure 1977.}}
|-
| {{|Priests (Ordination of Women) Measure 1993|church|2|05-11-1993|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for the ordination of women as priests, and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Ordination of Women (Financial Provisions) Measure 1993|church|3|05-11-1993|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision as to the relief of hardship incurred by persons resigning from ecclesiastical service by reason of opposition to the ordination of women as priests, and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral (Amendment) Measure 1994|church|1|24-03-1994|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Pastoral Measure 1983, in so far as it relates to redundant buildings and land annexed or belonging thereto, in connection with financial matters, with the removal of the legal effects of consecration, with the discharge and modification of covenants and with the annual report of the Advisory Board for Redundant Churches; and to provide a new name for the Redundant Churches Fund.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Cathedrals (Supplementary Provisions) Measure 1994|church|2|21-07-1994|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision in connection with the care and conservation of cathedral churches.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Legal Aid) Measure 1994|church|3|21-07-1994|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with amendments the provisions concerning legal aid contained in the Church of England (Legal Aid and Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1988.}}
|-
| {{|Team and Group Ministries Measure 1995|church|1|28-06-1995|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to team and group ministries.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1995|church|2|19-07-1995|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make it lawful for Church of Ireland ministers to officiate in England; to provide for the appointment of lay canons in the Cathedral Church of Christ in Oxford; to enable the designation of archdeacon emeritus to be conferred; to amend the law relating to the resignation of deans, residentiary canons and archdeacons; to amend section 27 of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840, section 6 of the Church Commissioners Measure 1947, the Schedule to the Church Funds Investment Measure 1958, section 21 of the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961, sections 2, 3 and 27 of and Schedule 1 to the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963, section 20 of the Parochial Registers and Records Measure 1978, sections 9, 44, 51 and 87 of and Schedule 1 to the Pastoral Measure 1983, section 8 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1983 and section 6 of the Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1991; to amend certain enactments in connection with the procedure of the General Synod; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Pensions Measure 1997|church|1|21-03-1997|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision in relation to pensions and related benefits for certain persons who are or have been in the service of the Church of England and their widows, widowers and dependants.}}
|-
| {{|National Institutions Measure 1998|church|1|02-07-1998|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make better provision for the establishment and functions of the national institutions of the Church of England and for the management of the assets thereof; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals Measure 1999|church|1|30-06-1999|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to the constitution, statutes and administration of cathedrals.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Places of Worship Measure 1999|church|2|30-06-1999|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision in relation to the care of certain buildings used for or in connection with worship; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2000|church|1|28-07-2000|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to transfer certain functions of the Church Commissioners to diocesan bodies; to make provision for the performance of a rural dean's functions during a vacancy, absence or illness; to enable dioceses to re-name rural deans as area deans; to amend section 1 of the Consecration of Churchyards Act 1867; to amend section 12(10) of the City of London (Guild Churches) Act 1952; to amend the Schedule to the Church Funds Investment Measure 1958; to amend section 8 of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963; to amend section 21 of the Repair of Benefice Buildings Measure 1972; to amend section 4 of the Ecclesiastical Fees Measure 1986; to amend section 3 of the Patronage (Benefices) Measure 1986; to amend section 6 of the Church of England (Legal Aid and Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1988; to repeal certain enactments which are no longer of practical utility; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Churchwardens Measure 2001|church|1|10-04-2001|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make fresh provision with respect to churchwardens in the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Synodical Government (Amendment) Measure 2003|church|1|06-03-2003|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to synodical government and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Pensions) Measure 2003|church|2|06-03-2003|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for a General Purposes Fund of the Church of England Pensions Board and to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961 and the Pensions Measure 1977; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Discipline Measure 2003|church|3|10-07-2003|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to ecclesiastical discipline, to amend section 3 of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963 and section 5(5) of the Ecclesiastical Judges and Legal Officers Measure 1976, and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Stipends (Cessation of Special Payments) Measure 2005|church|1|24-03-2005|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to provide for the cessation of guaranteed annuities payable by the Church Commissioners to incumbents and certain other payments made to dioceses; to provide for the application of sums made available in consequence thereof; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Cathedrals (Amendment) Measure 2005|church|2|24-03-2005|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Care of Cathedrals Measure 1990 and the Cathedrals Measure 1999; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2005|church|3|24-03-2005|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Parsonages Measure 1938; to amend sections 6 and 11 of the Church Commissioners Measure 1947; to repeal section 7 of the Diocesan Stipends Funds Measure 1953; to amend section 8 of the Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1956; to amend section 20 of the Church Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1960; to amend the Repair of Benefice Buildings Measure 1972; to amend the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976; to amend the Pastoral Measure 1983; to make provision for the appointment of diocesan secretaries; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2006|church|1|11-07-2006|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Parsonages Measure 1938; to amend the Church Commissioners Measure 1947; to amend the Diocesan Stipends Funds Measure 1953; to amend section 2 of the Church Funds Investment Measure 1958; to amend section 7 of the Church Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1960; to make new provision for the powers of the Church Commissioners relating to Farnham Castle; to amend the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963; to amend Schedule 2 to the Synodical Government Measure 1969; to amend the Repair of Benefice Buildings Measure 1972; to amend the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976; to amend section 8 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1978; to amend the Pastoral Measure 1983; to amend the National Institutions Measure 1998; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Pastoral (Amendment) Measure 2006|church|2|11-07-2006|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable leases to be granted of parts of churches and of land belonging or annexed to a church and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Dioceses, Pastoral and Mission Measure 2007|church|1|30-10-2007|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to further the mission of the Church of England and, in particular, to make new provision, in place of the Dioceses Measure 1978 and section 8 of the Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1983, for reviewing the provincial and diocesan structure of the Church of England and for making reorganisation schemes, for the change of name of sees, and for the creation and filling of suffragan sees, for the nomination of suffragan bishops and the delegation of functions to them and to other persons in episcopal orders and for the discharge of functions of certain diocesan bodies; to amend the Pastoral Measure 1983 in respect of the making of pastoral schemes and orders and of schemes for the closure of churches for regular public worship; to enable a diocesan bishop, by order, to endorse and make provision for mission initiatives; to make new provision for mission and pastoral committees; to replace the Council for the Care of Churches with a body named the Church Buildings Council and make new provision for it; to make provision for the description of assistant curates and for their functions; to make other amendments to the Pastoral Measure 1983; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England Marriage Measure 2008|church|1|22-05-2008|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable persons to be married in a place of worship in a parish with which they have a qualifying connection; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Offices (Terms of Service) Measure 2009|church|1|02-04-2009|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make new provision for the terms of service of the holders of ecclesiastical offices; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England Pensions (Amendment) Measure 2009|church|2|02-04-2009|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to extend from 31st December 2011 to 31st December 2018 the expiry of the period within which the Church Commissioners may make capital payments towards the cost of lump sums and pensions due to be paid or payable under certain pension and superannuation schemes; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2010|church|1|18-03-2010|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure to amend the New Parishes Measure 1943; to amend section 6 of the Church Commissioners Measure 1947; to amend section 2 of the Church Funds Investment Measure 1958; to amend section 21 of the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961; to amend section 2 of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963; to amend the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976; to amend section 69 of the Pastoral Measure 1983; to amend Schedule 1 to the National Institutions Measure 1998; to amend section 24 of the Commons Act 2006; to make provision for gifts made to or for the benefit of the Church of England; to make provision for the status of corporate bodies of cathedrals and new provision with respect to canons in Christ Church cathedral; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Vacancies in Suffragan Sees and Other Ecclesiastical Offices Measure 2010|church|2|18-03-2010|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure to amend the law with respect to the appointment of suffragan bishops; and with respect to appointments to fill vacancies in certain ecclesiastical offices to which Her Majesty has the right of presentation.}}
|-
| {{|Crown Benefices (Parish Representatives) Measure 2010|church|3|18-03-2010|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure to make provision for the appointment of lay parish representatives to approve the selection of incumbents of certain Crown benefices.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Cathedrals Measure 2011|church|1|24-05-2011|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate, with corrections and minor improvements, the Care of Cathedrals Measure 1990, the Care of Cathedrals (Supplementary Provisions) Measure 1994 and the Care of Cathedrals (Amendment) Measure 2005, and related enactments.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Fees (Amendment) Measure 2011|church|2|24-05-2011|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision with respect to ecclesiastical fees; to amend the constitution of the Fees Advisory Commission and the provisions for certain annual fees; and for purposes connected therewith.}}
|-
| {{|Mission and Pastoral Measure 2011|church|3|24-05-2011|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with corrections and minor improvements the Pastoral Measure 1983 and Parts 3, 4, 5 and 6 and section 61 of the Dioceses, Pastoral and Mission Measure 2007, and related enactments which are designed to make better provision for the cure of souls.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England Marriage (Amendment) Measure 2012|church|1|19-12-2012|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Church of England Marriage Measure 2008 to widen the conditions for establishing the qualifying connections of persons intending to be married in certain cases and to provide for the form of banns of matrimony where the form set out in the Book of Common Prayer is not used and for the time of the publication of banns; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Diocese in Europe Measure 2013|church|1|26-03-2013|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make further provision for the Diocese in Europe.}}
|-
| {{|Clergy Discipline (Amendment) Measure 2013|church|2|26-03-2013|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2014|church|1|14-05-2014|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend section 67 of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840; to amend section 25 of the Burial Act 1857; to amend section 5 of the Episcopal Endowments and Stipends Measure 1943; to amend the Church Commissioners Measure 1947; to amend the Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1956; to amend the Clergy Pensions Measure 1961; to amend sections 2 and 3 of the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963; to amend section 3 of the Faculty Jurisdiction Measure 1964; to amend the Overseas and Other Clergy (Ministry and Ordination) Measure 1967; to amend the Synodical Government Measure 1969; to amend the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976; to amend the Incumbents (Vacation of Benefices) Measure 1977; to amend the Patronage (Benefices) Measure 1986; to amend the Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1991; to amend the Cathedrals Measure 1999; to confer power on chancellors to determine fees; to extend the powers of the General Cemetery Company; to make provision for Christ Church, Oxford; to make provision for the tenure of office of vicars general and surrogates; to amend the Dioceses, Pastoral and Mission Measure 2007; to make minor and consequential amendments to other enactments; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Bishops and Priests (Consecration and Ordination of Women) Measure 2014|church|2|23-10-2014|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for the consecration of women as bishops and for the continuation of provision for the ordination of women as priests; to repeal the Priests (Ordination of Women) Measure 1993; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (Amendment) Measure 2015|church|1|12-02-2015|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the Care of Churches and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1991 and the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Property Measure 2015|church|2|12-02-2015|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend the law relating to certain ecclesiastical land and personal property held for ecclesiastical purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Pensions) (Amendment) Measure 2015|church|3|12-02-2015|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to extend until 31 December 2025 the period within which the Church Commissioners may make capital payments towards the cost of lump sums and pensions due to be paid or payable under certain pension and superannuation schemes; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Safeguarding and Clergy Discipline Measure 2016|church|1|16-03-2016|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision about safeguarding children and vulnerable adults; and to amend the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Stipends Funds (Amendment) Measure 2016|church|2|16-03-2016|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable the capital account of a diocesan stipends fund to be invested on a total return basis.}}
|-
| {{|Statute Law (Repeals) Measure 2018|church|1|10-05-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to repeal certain enactments of ecclesiastical law which (except in so far as their effect is preserved) are no longer of practical utility.}}
|-
| {{|Pensions (Pre-consolidation) Measure 2018|church|2|10-05-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make amendments of provisions relating to Church of England pensions designed to facilitate, or which are otherwise desirable in connection with, the consolidation of the legislation on that subject.}}
|-
| {{|Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction and Care of Churches Measure 2018|church|3|10-05-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with corrections and minor improvements certain enactments relating to ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the care of churches and other places of worship.}}
|-
| {{|Mission and Pastoral etc. (Amendment) Measure 2018|church|4|10-05-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to amend and simplify certain provisions of the Mission and Pastoral Measure 2011, the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976 and the Patronage (Benefices) Measure 1986; to make minor clarificatory amendments; and for connected purposes.}}
|-
| {{|Legislative Reform Measure 2018|church|5|10-05-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable provision to be made for the purpose of removing or reducing burdens resulting from ecclesiastical legislation; and to enable provision to be made for the purpose of facilitating consolidations of ecclesiastical legislation.}}
|-
| {{|Ecumenical Relations Measure 2018|church|6|20-12-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision about ecumenical relations.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2018|church|7|20-12-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make miscellaneous provision relating to matters concerning the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Church Property Measure 2018|church|8|20-12-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with corrections and minor improvements the Parsonages Measure 1938, the New Parishes Measure 1943, the Parsonages (Amendment) Measure 1947, certain provisions of the Church Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1960 and the Endowments and Glebe Measure 1976 and certain other provisions relating to Church property.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England Pensions Measure 2018|church|9|20-12-2018|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to consolidate with corrections and minor improvements certain enactments relating to Church of England pensions.}}
|-
| {{|Church Representation and Ministers Measure 2019|church|1|04-07-2019|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision about Church representation and ministers.}}
|-
| {{|Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 2020|church|1|16-03-2020|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make miscellaneous provision relating to matters concerning the Church of England.}}
|-
| {{|Channel Islands Measure 2020|church|2|22-07-2020|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for enabling the attachment of the Channel Islands to the diocese of Salisbury; to make further provision for the application of Church Measures to the Channel Islands; and to make further provision for Church representation for the Channel Islands}}
|-
| {{|General Synod (Remote Meetings) (Temporary Standing Orders) Measure 2020|church|3|04-11-2020|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision enabling remote meetings of the General Synod.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Boards of Education Measure 2021|church|1|29-04-2021|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision about Diocesan Boards of Education.}}
|-
| {{|Cathedrals Measure 2021|church|2|29-04-2021|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision about the governance, management, property and financial affairs of cathedrals.}}
|-
| {{|Safeguarding (Code of Practice) Measure 2021|church|3|20-10-2021|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to make provision for a code of practice on safeguarding children and vulnerable adults.}}
|-
| {{|Diocesan Stipends Funds (Amendment) Measure 2023|church|1|29-06-2023|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the General Synod of the Church of England to enable money from the income account of a diocesan stipends fund to be given to other dioceses.}}
}}
See also
List of Church of England Instruments
Notes
References
Chronological Table of the Statutes
The Public General Acts and Church Assembly Measures (exact title varies) (various years)
External links
Measures of the General Synod
{{|Convocations of the Clergy Measure 1920|church|1|23-12-1920|maintained=y|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England declaring the Power of each of the Convocations of Canterbury and York to Amend the Constitution of the Lower House thereof.}}
{{|Parochial Church Councils (Powers) Measure 1921|church|1|01-07-1921|archived=n|A Measure passed by the National Assembly of the Church of England to confer powers on Parochial Church Councils and to amend the law relating to the parochial organisation of the Church of England, and for other purposes connected therewith.}}
Church of England ecclesiastical polity
Church of England legislation
Church of England lists
Marriage, unions and partnerships in England |
4242653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Omaha%2C%20Nebraska | North Omaha, Nebraska | North Omaha is a community area in Omaha, Nebraska, in the United States. It is bordered by Cuming and Dodge Streets on the south, Interstate 680 on the north, North 72nd Street on the west and the Missouri River and Carter Lake, Iowa on the east, as defined by the University of Nebraska at Omaha and the Omaha Chamber of Commerce.
Located just north of Downtown Omaha, the community includes some of the oldest neighborhoods in the city, including the Near North Side, Bemis Park, Saratoga and Florence. It is the site of the Mormon Pioneers' Winter Quarters and the Mormon Temple, a center of European immigration as well as the historically significant African-American community, and the birthplace of Malcolm X. Important landmarks in the community include the Bank of Florence, Prospect Hill Cemetery and the Fort Omaha Historical District.
In 2006, North Omaha became the focus of national attention after local State Senator Ernie Chambers introduced an amendment to divide the Omaha school system into three, which some observers suggested would have created de facto segregated school systems based on residential patterns. The measure was eventually repealed.
History
North Omaha has a recorded history extending to 1812 with the founding of Fort Lisa by Manuel Lisa. The area was home to Cabanne's Trading Post from the 1820s through the 40s, and in 1846 became home to two encampments that were some 3½ miles apart from one another: Cutler's Park and Winter Quarters. This whole area became part of what is now the city of Omaha, Nebraska.
When Omaha City was founded in 1854 the boundaries were around the present-day downtown core. Prospect Hill Cemetery, a North Omaha landmark, was founded on a high hill on the outskirts of Omaha in 1856, and with more than 15,000 burials it included many of the founding figures of Omaha, as well as soldiers from nearby Fort Omaha, immigrants, and many black people who worked throughout the city.
During the initial period of Omaha history there were a number of outlying towns surrounding it, many of which were located in present-day North Omaha, including Florence, East Omaha, and Saratoga, all of which were settled within a few years of Omaha. Scriptown was a land grab by early legislators of the Nebraska Territory who sought to award themselves for working for the new territory. Casey's Row was a small neighborhood of Black porters who worked for the local railroads. Squatter's Row was an area between North 11th and North 13th Streets, from Nicholas to Locust Streets, behind the Storz Brewery. For more than 75 years this area was inhabited solely by squatters. Before the city of Omaha extended north beyond Lake Street, mostly Irish settlers inhabited an area known as Gophertown, located north of Saratoga and south of Florence. The towns of Benson and Dundee, both in North Omaha, were suburbs of Omaha founded in the 1880s. Fort Omaha was a U.S. Army installation that was built starting in 1878, and was home to the Department of the Platte. Growth in North Omaha was spurred by the arrival of the Union Pacific Railroad and railyards to the east.
The older neighborhoods in North Omaha were all founded by 1900, including Bemis Park, Gifford Park, Gold Coast, Kountze Place, Miller Park, Walnut Hill and Orchard Hill.
The grand Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was a world's fair held in North Omaha from June through November 1898. It attracted more than 1,000,000 visitors to the area in and surrounding Kountze Park, which won the location over other areas, including the Miller Park neighborhood. The Expo featured many events in the community, including performances by Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show at the Omaha Driving Park, where it was founded several years prior. In 1909 Omaha University opened in the Redick Mansion in the Kountze Place neighborhood.
Perhaps the most important community, if not the most visible, in all of North Omaha was the Near North Side. This neighborhood was one of the first in Omaha, emerging in the 1860s as a home to the city's influx of German and Irish. In the later 19th century, they were joined by eastern European Jewish immigrants and African American migrants from the South. The bustling corridors of North 24th Street and North 16th Street were long the centers of important commercial and social activity.
From the 1920s through the 1950s North 24th Street was seen as a "Street of Dreams" where the city's African-American culture thrived. It was home to such important locations at the Dreamland Ballroom, and fostered a variety of social and political developments, including the founding of the Hamitic League of the World. Omaha had early chapters of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the National Urban League. The early years of noted Harlem Renaissance writer Wallace Thurman were spent in the Near North Side, and Jewish feminist author Tillie Olsen grew up in the neighborhood. During this period Malcolm X was born in the neighborhood.
After restructuring of railroads and the meatpacking industries, massive job loss resulted in poverty and social unrest. In the 1960s and 70s three major riots tore apart the North 24th Street corridor. One broke out after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968. With lower tax revenue because of job losses, the city had neglected many of the neighborhoods, leading to decreased police response times, decreased funding for education in the community, decreased support for youth and community programs, and other problems. A 1966 documentary film entitled A Time for Burning highlighted the racial tension which had been driving white flight from the community for the two previous decades. That film portrayed a young Ernie Chambers. A barber who later earned a law degree, in 1970 Chambers started his service as the longest serving State Senator in the history of Nebraska.
That year's Rice/Poindexter Case proved controversial as two leaders of Omaha's Black Panther Party were sentenced to life in prison for bombing a house in which a policeman was killed. Contention spread throughout the 1970s, when, according to one government agency, "Construction of the North Omaha Freeway, coupled with social unrest in the 1970s, greatly impacted the North Omaha area. One neighborhood experienced a 30 percent housing loss and major increase in crime." However, North Omaha has not seen another riot since 1970.
In the 1990s the Omaha Housing Authority demolished the Logan Fontenelle Housing Project in North Omaha. Built in the 1930s by the Works Progress Administration as improved housing for working families, by the late 20th century, the project was called "Little Vietnam" because of its association with gangs, violence and drug dealing.
Notable figures
North Omaha has been the birthplace and home of many figures of national and local import. They include Jewish-American author Tillie Olsen, who was a labor organizer in a packinghouse and wrote about women and the poor working class; Whitney Young, an important civil rights leader and later national director of the Urban League; the Nebraska State Senator Ernie Chambers; actor John Beasley; and actress Gabrielle Union. Malcolm X was born there in the early 1920s but his family moved away before he was a year old.
Singer Wynonie Harris, saxophonist Preston Love, Jack Coleman Jr., and drummer Buddy Miles all called North Omaha home. Businesswoman Cathy Hughes is from North Omaha. The community was also the native home of several sports stars, including Baseball Hall of Famer Bob Gibson, football player Johnny Rodgers, Pro Football Hall of Famer, Chicago Bears Gale Sayers, Houston Texans starting running back Ahman Green, Former lightweight, Former unified Super lightweight and current WBO welterweight champion Terence Crawford and basketball player Bob Boozer.
Landmarks
Due to its diverse history, North Omaha is home to numerous historical and modern landmarks. There are many buildings listed on the Registered Historic Places and designated Omaha Landmarks within its boundaries. These include the 1856 Bank of Florence, which is the oldest standing building in Omaha; the 1892 Florence Boulevard, part of H.W.W. Cleveland's grand boulevard scheme for Omaha, and; the 1897 the Sherman, the oldest standing apartment building in Omaha.
African-American community leader Jack Broomfield commissioned noted African-American architect Clarence W. Wigington to design the Broomfield Rowhouse in 1913 after the Easter Sunday Tornado ravaged much of North Omaha. This building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.
Architecture
Houses built in Queen Anne, Arts and Crafts, Romanesque Revival and Classical Revival styles in the late 19th century and early 20th century occupy several neighborhoods throughout Omaha. Greek Revival commercial buildings and a Spanish Renaissance Revival church represent the reverence many architects held for history. Buildings in the 20th century Prairie School and work by Thomas Rogers Kimball represented a more modern perspective. The area is also home to many modern developments.
Race relations
Because of its troubles, many residents of Omaha view the North Omaha community as violent, poor, and drug-riddled. A recent local news report stated the area was "71 percent Black". Despite positive activities directed at improving North Omaha over the years, including those listed above, local media tend to focus on dramatic stories of racial and economic strife within the community.
Controversy arose from a 2006 spoof aired by a local radio station in which a popular area radio DJ parodied a recent North Omaha tourism promotion campaign, reportedly saying on air, "Discover miles of mayhem, discover drive-bys, discover gang violence, discover North Omaha." The City Council fought against this portrayal, with North Omaha city councilman Frank Brown demanding an apology from the radio station because "the spoof paints all residents of north Omaha as criminals."
Historic racial tension
There have been a number of distinct events throughout the history of North Omaha that were caused by racial tension between African Americans and Caucasians throughout the city. Omaha had events in common with other high-growth, major industrial cities that attracted many new immigrants and migrants, including lynchings and a race riot in 1919, a period known as Red Summer because of riots of whites against blacks in numerous cities across the country, due to social tensions after World War I, including competition for jobs and housing. These took place most often between ethnic whites and blacks. Community members have been activists for civil rights from the 1920s through the 1970s; during the 1960s and 1970s, mass protests and grassroots activism became typical. Several bloody and destructive riots within the community took place in the late 1960s.
In the 20th century, some of this tension has been expressed in city policies and relations with the police force. In June 1968, the shooting of a black 14-yr. old teenager named Vivian Strong by a white Omaha police officer in the Logan Fontenelle Projects marked the first of a number of incidents between individual members of the African-American community in North Omaha and the Omaha Police Department. Since the late 1980s, there have been a number of gang-related clashes, as well.
Historic civil rights movement
The early phase of the civil rights movement in North Omaha goes back to at least 1912, when residents founded a local chapter of the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In 1928 the first Urban League chapter in the western United States was started in North Omaha. Both of these organizations continue today.
Some industrial unions in Omaha became forces of change, after having excluded blacks in a discriminatory way. Many blacks had worked at the stockyards and other industries in South Omaha. In the 1940s student and youth activism in North Omaha led to the creation of two unique groups: Creighton University's DePorres Club, started in 1947, and the Black Association for Nationalism Through Unity (BANTU), popular through the 1960s. In the summer of 1963, the Citizens Civic Committee for Civil Liberties rallied to demand change and equal rights for all African Americans in Omaha.
While the Omaha civil rights movement did not reach its stated goals of gaining a state law ensuring equal housing opportunities or a separate state law ensuring equal job opportunities, it was successful for raising awareness of the inequities facing African Americans in Omaha. From the film A Time for Burning to Senator Ernie Chambers' recent legislative action, the civil rights movement has had a significant legacy in Omaha. For instance, hiring practices were changed within the police department and city government, where African Americans have gained positions.
Community development
North Omaha has a range of important community-based organizations and government programs conducting community development, educational assistance and low-income housing. Additionally, a series of private and public ventures are developing local businesses in the community.
Housing
Path Concept Homes is a project that concentrates on urban development in the residential area between 25th and Parker; it is funded by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The PCH plan will serve as a template for other development projects to follow, providing homes which are good for the consumer-friendly and the environmentally conscious. These homes are required to be sold to low-income and minority families. Other organizations providing housing in North Omaha include Holy Name Housing Corporation, Family Housing Advisory Services, Inc. and Rebuilding Together Omaha.
Children and youth
A number of youth organizations and programs serve North Omaha children and youth. They include the North Omaha B.E.A.R.S. Youth and Sports club. BEARS is an acronym which stands for Building Esteem and Responsibility Systematically and the program combines sports with academics and social enhancement. The Hope Center and Hope Skate are programs aimed at meeting the recreational and social needs of the community's young people. The Safe Haven Community Center is a youth center located at 2895 Binney Street. The North Omaha Boys & Girls Club Jaguars Football Team, North Omaha Christ Child Center, YEP! (Youth Empowerment Program) and Girls Inc. serve the area as well. The NorthStar Foundation directs its efforts toward young males.
Health programs
North Omaha is home to several medical institutions. They include Creighton University Medical Center - Bergan Mercy, the University of Nebraska Medical Center, and Immanuel Medical Center. Charles Drew Health Center also provides a variety of social services to low-income community members, as do many community development programs, such as the historic Urban League of Nebraska; Heartland Family Services-FAST; New Community Development; and the Benson-Ames Alliance Community Plan, which is community-driven planning process for neighborhood revitalization.
North Omaha was affected by pollution and harmful emissions from the American Smelting and Refining Company (which later changed its name to official name to its acronym, Asarco). The windfall from their downtown Omaha plant led to more than in North Omaha being placed on the Superfund National Priorities List by the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2003, were cleaned.
Today North Omaha is the focus of the Lead-Safe Omaha Coalition. As is usual in older homes, there are sources of lead in older paints and other products which have been found to be harmful. The Coalition offers lead screenings and workshops on hazards of lead poisoning, safe home evaluations, lead-safe practices workshops, environmental certification training, HEPA vacuum rental, and the Information Resource Center on Lead to residents through North Omaha.
Economic development
The Omaha Star has long been a source of employment and positive news for citizens in North Omaha. The North Omaha Development Project is a project of the Greater Omaha Chamber of Commerce designed to "bring... business and community leaders together to find ways to positively impact the economic growth of the North Omaha community." It seeks to leverage city, federal and private sector funding to support public infrastructure and economic development. The North Omaha Business Park is located at 24th and Clark Streets the business park is "a joint effort of the Omaha Chamber and the City of Omaha... [It is] a 15 acre development on the former Logan Fontenelle Housing Projects site." It is home to several businesses, including Wes & Willy's, Cintas Corporation, Jobosh, Inc., and Armored Knights Company.
Culture
North Omaha is home to a wide variety of cultural institutions, events and activities that anchor the community. In the 20th century, North Omaha was home to several important cultural venues. They included the Druid Hall on Ames Avenue, where Maceo Pinkard performed frequently, and the Dreamland Ballroom was a historic venue that featured a wide range of national jazz talent, as well as local legends including saxophonist Preston Love. He said, "North Omaha used to be a hub for black jazz musicians, 'the triple-A league' where national bands would go to find a player to fill out their ensemble."
Early North Omaha jazz bands included Dan Desdunes Band, Simon Harrold's Melody Boys, the Sam Turner Orchestra, the Ted Adams Orchestra, and the Omaha Night Owls, as well as Red Perkins and His Original Dixie Ramblers. In 1931 Lloyd Hunter's Serenaders became the first Omaha band to record their music. A Lloyd Hunter concert poster can be seen on display at the Community Center in nearby Mineola, Iowa. Nat Towles was a renowned territory band leader based in Omaha. One of Omaha's most notable musicians of the 1940s was Anna Mae Winburn. As the leader of North Omaha's Cotton Club Boys, which included guitarist Charlie Christian, Winburn traveled the local region as a typical territorial band. Upon the advice of Jimmie Jewell, owner of the Jewel Building, Winburn left Omaha and hit the "big time" with the International Sweethearts of Rhythm.
North Omaha's musical culture also gave rise to several nationally and internationally reputable African-American musicians. Influential drummer Buddy Miles was friends with Love while they grew up and played together. They collaborated throughout their lives, and while they were playing with the greatest names in Rock and Roll, Jazz, R&B and Fund. Funk band leader Lester Abrams is also from North Omaha. Omaha-born Wynonie Harris, one of the founders of rock and roll, got his start at the North Omaha clubs and for a time lived in the now-demolished Logan Fontenelle Housing Project. Another notable local musician was Lomie Washburn. Born in North Omaha, she went on to write songs and sing backup with such legends as Chaka Khan, Rufus, Stevie Wonder and Aretha Franklin. She and many of the musicians from North Omaha have been inducted in the Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame.
North Omaha is home to several important annual events that help define and celebrate the community, its history, and its future. Native Omaha Days is a biennial North Omaha cultural tradition, reuniting members of the city's African-American community. The Days are commemorated with a variety of events, including the Evergreen Reunion, named after a town in Alabama from where many families' ancestors migrated. Other annual activities include the Juneteenth Parade, to mark Emancipation; the Fort Omaha Intertribal Powwow; the Omaha Blues, Jazz & Gospel Festival, Florence Days, and the Omaha North High School Homecoming, which includes a parade for the community. The Stone Soul Picnic is also an important annual event in the community.
Religion
With its long history of migration from other regions and immigration from other countries, North Omaha has developed a rich religious tapestry representing the range of faith in Nebraska today. The diversity includes its Mormon roots in Florence, as well as the historic locations of Jewish synagogues established by European immigrants in the Near North Side. Several African-American congregations are located in the area, including the historic St. John's African Methodist Episcopal Church and Salem Baptist Church. The Episcopal Church of the Resurrection on 30th Street by Miller Park is Nebraska's only fully integrated Episcopal parish. The Holy Family Catholic Church is the oldest surviving Catholic church in Omaha. St. Cecilia Cathedral, designed by Thomas Rogers Kimball, took more than fifty years to build. Evidence of the community's Jewish history can also been seen at the Pleasant Hill Cemetery or the Golden Hill Cemetery, while Christian burials have long been held at Forest Lawn Memorial Park and the historic poor cemetery called Potter's Field.
Education
Education institutions in North Omaha include Creighton University, Metropolitan Community College (Omaha) located at Fort Omaha, and the Charles B. Washington Branch of the Omaha Public Library, located at 2868 Ames Avenue. The area is served by Omaha Public Schools, including the local feeder school, Omaha North High Magnet School. Tech High School, once the largest technical education high school in the Western United States, was closed in 1983.
In 1909 Omaha University was founded along North 24th Street, and their football team once played on the field at Saratoga School. The Omaha Presbyterian Theological Seminary was once located in the heart of the Kountze Place neighborhood, closing in 1947.
Transportation
North Omaha has several main arterials. The major routes running north and south are Abbott Drive, North 16th Street (also called Sherman Avenue), North 24th Street (locally called "The Deuce"), North 30th Street, North 42nd Street, North 52nd Street, North 60th Street and North 72nd Street. Fontenelle Boulevard, Northwest Radial Highway, Military Road, Happy Hollow Boulevard, Country Club Avenue, John A. Creighton Boulevard and Saddle Creek Road each run north, south, east and west. Other important streets in the area include Burt and then Cuming Streets, which are the same street, and eventually earn the designation as Nebraska Highway 64 from North 27th Street west. Hamilton Street, Bedford Avenue,
Sprague Street, Ames Avenue, Sorenson Parkway, Fort Street, Martin Avenue, Forest Lawn Avenue and McKinley Street are all important, as well. Lake Street eventually becomes Maple Street, which also spurs off as Military Avenue, all in North Omaha.
Several streets in the area are named after locally, regionally, and nationally important individuals. One of the main thoroughfares is North 24th Street, which from Cuming Street on the south to Reed Street on the north, is commonly thought to represent North Omaha's greatest historical legacy and hope for the future. North 24th was addressed as Omaha's "Street of Dreams" because of the prosperity and hope it embodied for its early African American, Eastern European and Jewish residents.
Florence Boulevard, Lincoln Boulevard and Fontenelle Boulevard are three once-highly regarded components of Omaha's boulevard system that are located in North Omaha.
Several North Omaha traffic ways are named after military interests. They include Military Road, which is a historic road first laid out in 1854 by the US Army. It starts in North Omaha just off Hamilton at North 45th Street, where it is signed as Military Avenue. General John J. Pershing Drive was named after the successful World War I U.S. Army leader, and flows from East Omaha north by Florence, by the historic site of Fort Lisa and towards Blair. Similarly, Sherman Avenue, also known as North 16th Street, was named after William Tecumseh Sherman, the commander general of the U.S. Army in charge of the Indian Wars. Fort Street between North 30th and North 24th is named for Fort Omaha.
Sorensen Parkway, a modern contribution to the historic park boulevard system, was named after an Omaha mayor. It was built along an abandoned railroad bed and runs from North 72nd Street to North 30th Street, which is the historic Main Street of Florence. Sorensen is an example of a street in North Omaha which has been renamed; prior to 1996 Sorensen Parkway west of Northampton Boulevard was called Redick Avenue until 72nd Street. That year the city changed the name, and currently Sorensen Parkway travels beyond 72nd Street, continuing to the intersection of Blair High Road and North 90th Street, which is the start of Nebraska Highway 133. John A. Creighton Boulevard was named after the brother of Edward Creighton.
U.S. Highway 75 is a historic highway flowing along North 30th Street to become the North Expressway. This stretch of the highway was the source of much contention in when it was constructed in the 1970s and 80s. As a Nebraska state agency reports, "Construction of the North Omaha Freeway, coupled with social unrest in the 1970s, greatly impacted the North Omaha area. One neighborhood experienced a 30 percent housing loss and major increase in crime." Interstate 680 is the north bypass freeway that is a boundary for North Omaha. The Mormon Bridge is located on this stretch.
Other important streets in the area include Lake Street, Ames Avenue, Cuming Street, State Street, Abbott Drive and North 20th Avenue.
Geography
The historic founding, development and current identification of North Omaha is bound to its geography. Located west of the Missouri River and next to Carter Lake, North Omaha includes several streams, small lakes, cliffs, and artesian springs. One historic report identifies a sulphur spring at the "foot of Spencer Street", with another at the "foot of Grand Avenue". The foot is presumed to be where 16th Street meets Commercial Avenue.
Neighborhoods
In addition to its many historic neighborhoods, North Omaha has a number of substantial neighborhoods. In successive generations the area has been home to Irish, German, Jewish, Lithuanian and other European immigrants, as well as African-American migrants from across the Southeast. Their community in North Omaha has lasted more than 100 years.
Demographics
Statistics gathered from the 2000 United States Census for the North Omaha area show that by percentages, North Omaha has a population of 43,621 and is 59% African-American, 29% White, 5% Hispanic and 7% other.
In 2003, the African-American population in Omaha was estimated at 52,273 or 13.1 percent of the city's total estimated population of 397,713. African Americans are the largest minority group in Omaha, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.
See also
List of people from North Omaha, Nebraska
List of landmarks in North Omaha, Nebraska
Gallery
Related publications
Fletcher Sasse, Adam (2016) North Omaha History: Volume 1. Olympia, WA: CommonAction Publishing.
Fletcher Sasse, Adam (2016) North Omaha History: Volume 2. Olympia, WA: CommonAction Publishing.
Fletcher Sasse, Adam (2016) North Omaha History: Volume 3. Olympia, WA: CommonAction Publishing.
Alexander, C. (1981) Rebirth of the Inner City: The North Omaha Plan. Center for Environmental Structure.
(1992) The North Omaha Renaissance 2000 Plan. Ciaccio Dennell Group Inc.
(2004) Housing Study: Omaha Housing Authority—Population & Housing Demand Profile.
(n.d.) Multiethnic Guide. Greater Omaha Economic Partnership.
External links
North Omaha History website
North Omaha Development Project website
Empower Omaha Empowerment Network website
Loves Jazz and Art Center website
NorthOmaha.Com NorthOmaha.com website
The Omaha Star website
North Omaha - a photoset on Flickr
References
African-American history in Omaha, Nebraska
Neighborhoods in Omaha, Nebraska
Geography of Douglas County, Nebraska
Landmarks in Nebraska |
4242720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Donald | Ian Donald | Ian Donald (27 December 1910 – 19 June 1987) was an English physician who pioneered the diagnostic use of ultrasound in obstetrics, enabling the visual discovery of abnormalities during pregnancy. Donald was born in Cornwall, England, to a Scottish family of physicians. He was educated in Scotland and South Africa before studying medicine at the University of London in 1930, and became the third generation of doctors in his family. At the start of World War II, Donald was drafted into the Royal Air Force as a medical officer, where he developed an interest in radar and sonar. In 1952, at St Thomas' Hospital, he used what he learned in the RAF to build a respirator for newborn babies with respiratory problems.
In 1952 Donald became a reader at Hammersmith Hospital. He developed a device called the Trip Spirometer, which measured the respiratory efficiency of a neonate. In 1953, he improved its design and made a positive-pressure respirator device that was known as the Puffer. In September 1954, Donald was promoted to Regius Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Glasgow. While working at the Western Infirmary, he met Tom Brown, an industrial engineer who worked for Kelvin Hughes, which led to a series of collaborations between Western Infirmary clinicians and Kelvin Hughes' engineers. They designed and built a series of instruments that enabled the unborn to be examined with obstetric ultrasound, which allowed Donald to build the world's first obstetric ultrasound machine in 1963: the Diasonograph.
Donald also secured the construction of the Queen Mother's Maternity Hospital that was built next to the Royal Hospital for Children in Glasgow.
Life
Ian Donald was born to John Donald and Helen née Barrow Wilson in 1910. His father was a general practitioner (GP) who came from a Paisley medical family, his grandfather also a GP, and his mother a concert pianist. Donald was the eldest of four children; his siblings were Margaret, Malcolm, and Alison Munro, who later became a leading headmistress.
Donald attended Warriston School in Moffat, and he attended Fettes College, Edinburgh, for secondary education. However, Donald never completed his education in Scotland, as the family moved to South Africa due to his father's poor health. Donald continued his secondary education at Diocesan College in Rondebosch, where he studied the classics, music, philosophy, and languages. In 1927, Donald's mother and two of his siblings contracted diphtheria and his mother died of a myocardial infarction. Three months later, Donald's father died. Maud Grant, the housekeeper, was provided with a trust fund to care for the children. In the same year, Donald was awarded a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in arts and music at the University of Cape Town graduating with first-class honours.
In 1930, the family moved back to London and Donald matriculated at the University of London to study medicine at the St Thomas's Hospital Medical School. In 1937 he achieved a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery at St Thomas, becoming the third generation of doctors in Donald's family.
At the end of his graduate education, Donald married Alix Mathilde de Chazal Richards, a farmer's daughter from the Orange Free State. Donald retired on 1 October 1976. He was offered a consultancy at Nuclear Enterprises in Edinburgh, a position he held until 1981. After he fully retired, he moved to Paglesham. Donald passed away on 19 June 1987. He was survived by his wife, his four daughters and thirteen grandchildren. He is buried in the churchyard at St Peters Church in Paglesham, Essex.
Career
Donald started his postgraduate medical training at the end of the 1930s, and planned to specialise in obstetrics with a position in Obstetrics and Gynaecology at St Thomas. He started his residency in 1939.
Donald's medical career was interrupted by World War II, and in May 1942 he was drafted into the Royal Air Force as a medical officer. He was so successful in the role that he was mentioned in dispatches for bravery after he pulled several airmen from a bomber that had crashed and had set on fire while the bombs were in the airframe. In 1946 he was awarded an MBE for bravery. During his time with the RAF, Donald became aware of a variety of techniques involving radar and sonar.
In 1946, Donald completed his war service and returned to work at St Thomas. In 1949, he was appointed as a tutor in the department of obstetrics and gynaecology. By 1949, the National Health Service had been in operation for three years, and instead of the continual search for money for patient care, money now came from government taxes, so the hospital's role changed from a needs-based approach to a focus on research: as part of their remit, each doctor had to conduct a research project.
Negative-pressure respirator
In partnership with Maureen Young, a specialist in perinatal physiology, Donald conducted a study of respiratory disorders in infants. Donald's study included an examination of available medical respirators, and he was not satisfied with the design and efficiency of the current models. As Donald had an interest in mechanical and technological devices from his childhood, he decided to build a new respirator. By 1952, Donald and Young had built a new medical negative-pressure respirator that they demonstrated at a Physiological Society meeting in the Royal Free Hospital.
Trip spirometer
Later in 1952, Donald resigned his role at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School to take up a position as a reader at the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Royal Postgraduate Medical School located in Hammersmith Hospital. At the medical school, Donald continued his research into neonatal breathing disorders. He worked to improve the device that he and Young had built: the servo patient-cycled respirator . Later, he worked with Josephine Lord, a registrar, to build the Trip spirometer, later called the spirometer, whose purpose was to measure the respiratory efficiency of a newborn. As well as being a diagnostic device, Donald used it to make a quantitative determination of normal respiration with the goal of determining the physiology and pathology of neonatal pulmonary disease.
Puffer
In 1953, Donald published a review of best practices in neonatal resuscitation. While at the school, Donald worked on a third device: a positive-pressure respirator. Donald found that the negative-pressure device he had built with Young was not ideal, as it was complicated to set up, difficult to use, and required more than one person to operate; the servo respirator seemed to be ideally suited to the long-term treatment of babies with breathing difficulties. His rationale for creating a new device was based on the idea that a respirator that could be used with a mask applied to a child in a cot or incubator was needed. He built a positive-pressure respirator that was later known in Hammersmith Hospital as the Puffer. It sent a stream of oxygen mixture onto the baby's face and the device could be applied to an ailing infant in under a minute. After treating several infants, colleagues asked him to convert the device to treat adults, which he did with successful outcomes. The device was noticed by the British Oxygen Company, who wanted to commercially develop the positive-pressure respirator.
In May 1954, Donald delivered the Blair-Bell Lecture at the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. He spoke about atelectasis neonatorum (the partial collapse of an infant's lung) and how his respirator could improve managing the condition. In the same period he met John J. Wild in London, who had discussed the use of ultrasound with him. Wild had used pulse-echo ultrasound to visualize abnormal tissue in the human breast. In September 1954, Donald was appointed by Hector Hetherington to Regius Professor of Midwifery. Hetherington had to confirm the position with the Secretary of State for Scotland, as it was a government appointment and Donald was proud of his commission that was signed personally by the Queen. Although Donald was impressed by Hetherington, he made it a condition of his employment that Hetherington had to promise to build a new maternity hospital in Glasgow, which was done.
Obstetric ultrasound
Whilst Donald was Professor of Regius Midwifery at Glasgow University, he first explored the use of obstetric ultrasound in the 1950s in a collaboration with John MacVicar, a registrar and obstetrician in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Western Infirmary, and Tom Brown, an industrial engineer who worked for Kelvin & Hughes Scientific Instrument Company, developed the first contact compound sector scanner, and wrote an article in The Lancet: "Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound". The article contained the first published ultrasound image of a fetus.
The development of Donald's interest in ultrasound started when one of his patients introduced her husband to him. The patient's husband was the director of the boiler fabrication company Babcock and Wilcox, and he offered a tour of the plant to Donald, who accepted. The Renfrew company was a large user of industrial ultrasound that was used to check for crack and flaws in welds. Donald's purpose in making the visit to Renfrew on 21 July 1955 was to determine if the industrial detecting equipment could be used to differentiate types of tissue. He arrived at the plant with a number of fibroids and a large ovarian cyst taken from gynaecology patients. When Donald met Bernard Donnelly, an employee in the research department of the boilermaker, Donald asked him to demonstrate the device's use by taking an ultrasound image of the bone of his thumb. Donald experimented with the tissue samples along with a huge steak the company had provided for a control, and determined that ultrasound could be used to scan biological material. He stated:All I wanted to know, quite simply, was whether these various masses differed in their ultrasonic echo characteristics. The results were beyond my wildest dreams and even with the primitive apparatus of those days clearly showed that a cyst produced echoes only at depth from the near and far walls, whereas a solid tumour progressively attenuated echoes at increasing depths of penetration.When he returned to the hospital, Donald's goal was to find an ultrasound machine that he could continue to experiment with. He obtained a Kelvin Hughes Mark lIb supersonic flaw detector from William Valentine Mayneord at the Royal Cancer Hospital. While Mayneord had been experimenting with the machine in an attempt to image the brain, he had been unsuccessful in his efforts; Donald hoped he could replicate and improve upon his previous success. However, he found that when using the machine it could not produce echoes from less than 8 cm from the face of the transducer, making it almost useless for obstetric diagnostics. Donald experimented with balloons and condoms filled with water to widen the gap with little success. He was assisted by John Lenihan, a professor of clinical physics, who helped him form images, but the Mark IIb was insufficient for the task and the images produced were of very poor quality.
Experiments with A-mode scanner
In late 1956, Tom Brown, a research engineer with Kelvin & Hughes who had previously worked on an automatic flaw detector to test industrial products, became involved. Brown has learned from a colleague who had installed a specialist bulb in a Western Infirmary theatre, that Donald was using the flaw detector. Brown immediately looked up Donald and arranged a meeting. When they met, Brown noticed that the Mark lIb was not manufactured by Kelvin & Hughes, but instead had been manufactured under contract. He also noticed that the machine had been converted from using a double probe, one to produce pulses and one to receive the pulses, to a single probe. Not wanting to insult Donald by explaining why the machine was not working correctly, Brown offered to try and source another machine from somewhere. Brown phoned Alex Rankin, the man who collaborated with Brown on the automatic flaw detector for help and who later became director of the department of Medical Ultrasonics at the company. Rankin offered to gift the latest Mk IV flaw detector, which was subsequently forwarded to Glasgow Central station from the Barkingside Labs location for delivery to Brown. Rankin also spoke to the three directors at the company who decided to vote £500, a considerable sum in those days to support experiments.
The new machine considerably improved on the older machine with the difference being described as "chalk and cheese" by Donald. The Mk IV was a double transducer probe machine. At the same time, Brown found a Cossor oscilloscope camera that allowed images to be recorded on 35mm film. For Donald, the camera was particularly significant, as it enabled a record to be kept, an archive of images to be created that could be printed in published works. Donald set about establishing a framework of use for the device, how it could be used, what the information on the screen meant.
In 1956, the obstetrician John MacVicar was appointed as a registrar at the Western Infirmary and joined the team, By 1956 Donald and MacVicar became proficient with the machine after scanning 250 patients. For most of that period, they had tried to determine why particular scans produced a particular image. They discovered that if there was fluid in the abdomen, e.g. an ovarian cyst, there would be a clear gap in the image until the ultrasound reached the other side of the cyst. They then tried to distinguish between different ascites by matching images to particular type of ascites. They also investigated the shapes of images in the presence of uterine fibroids. Around that time, Edward Johnson Wayne of the Department of Medicine at the Western Infirmary had heard of Donald's research and was keen on a demonstration of the technique. Wayne invited Donald to use his detector on a woman who was dying from supposed stomach cancer. She was vomiting and losing weight rapidly; a barium x-ray had confirmed the diagnosis. Donald agreed with the diagnosis of ascites and applied the probe. They discovered that while they could use abdominal palpation to differentiate masses, Donald was using machinery to achieve the same result. MacVicar not knowing the background of the case, commented, "It looks like a cyst." Donald had to apologise to his colleagues, as the diagnosis of a cyst was preposterous. After a meeting to discuss the case, it was agreed that a laparotomy would be performed by Donald. To his surprise, he discovered it was a pseudomucinous cyst that filled the whole abdomen and was histologically benign.
Donald and MacVicar were pleased with the results from the machine and continued to experiment with how it could be used for diagnosis, but recognised that single dimension A-mode scanning was limited. The images produced by the device were still of poor quality and many still felt there was no future in the new machine. Donald learned of Douglass Howry's work in the United States, which found that an echo could only return to the probe and be recorded if the echo struck the reflecting surface at right angles as the laws of optics required. Brown felt that the A-scope presentation was incompatible with the nature of the problem, and that the image displayed did not correspond closely enough to the condition to enable a correct diagnosis. He believed that too much information was being returned in the image. For him, the problem was that there were many different echoes that were returned based on the number of body structures. Even the patient breathing or moving on the table affected the image. Brown saw this as a problem, and he planned to build a scanner that created an image that would be more useful for gynaecological diagnosis. Donald and Brown agreed to build a machine that used a rotating compound scanning search technique, like radar scanning a sector to increase the amount of echo information available.
Contact B-mode scanner
The solution proposed by Brown was to plot the position of the probe's echoes and create a two-dimensional picture. This type of device was known as a B-mode device. Unlike the A-mode device which used a single or double transducer and the function of depth to obtain a reading, the B-mode device uses a linear array of transducers that simultaneously scans a plane through the body that can be viewed as a two-dimensional image on a screen.
To start building the new scanner, Donald sent a letter to Ted Smith, a London-based salesman of Kelvin & Hughes, which became part of Smiths Industries. At the same time, Brown also approached deputy chairman Bill Slater, who sent him to see Bill Halliday, the company's chief research scientist for an opinion on building the machine. After Brown delivered his spiel to Halliday, it was several months before Brown received a reply in the form of a memo, which stated that £500 had been allocated by Smiths for the development and that Brown was able to spend half a day per week working with Donald.
The new B-mode scanner was also known as the bed-table scanner, and it was built out of an amalgamation of medical and industrial parts. Brown managed to scrounge an older Mark IV flaw detector in Glasgow along with a six-inch electrostatically-deflected cathode-ray tube taken from the company stores in Glasgow. From the company's Barkingside R&D department, Brown found an experimental weld-testing machine. Both these machines were dismantled for parts. To measure the position of the transducer, Brown selected an "X-Y" orthogonal measuring frame system: it was measured in place by a sine/cosine potentiometer that was used to calculate the position of the transducer from the angle of its rotations. However, it was an expensive piece of equipment that cost more than their £500 budget; Brown managed to find a damaged component and repaired it. The machine was built on top an old hospital bed and made extensive use of Meccano chains and sprockets. By late 1957, the first contact B-mode scanner was constructed and in clinical use by that year. The A-mode scanner was moved to the Royal Maternity Hospital at Rottenrow where James Willocks, who joined the team in 1958, and Tom Duggan, a physicist hired by Donald in 1959, began to investigate fetal development with the instrument.
The initial test of the device was an ultrasound of MacVicar's abdomen. In the same year, Donald started to experiment with taking images of pregnancy, and discovered that their original theories about ascites were correct.
In a landmark paper on 7 June 1958 published by Donald, McVicar and Brown discussed the development of the A-mode scanner and decisions that led to the B-mode scanner. Donald and McVicar also described the first successful diagnosis using obstetric ultrasound with the B-mode machine, which occurred when a woman patient was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the stomach using traditional clinical methods, palpation and by X-ray. Donald diagnosed the woman with an ovarian cyst and when the woman was sent for a Laparotomy, a large cyst was discovered and removed. The paper highlighted the importance of the instant feedback that was available from the operating room to improve the quality of the image. Also described in the paper was a description of testing of ultrasound on the brains of kittens to determine if there was any obvious changes in tissue structure: there was none. The team's enthusiasm in the success of the B-mode and the publication of the paper resulted in a change in attitudes in the medical community and more confirmed that medical diagnosis could be made.
Automatic scanner
Between 1958 and 1959, Donald became increasingly worried about scanning tissue deliberately to ensure he received sufficient detail, from fear of missing them. He and MacVicar had been trying unsuccessfully to image hydatidiform moles by increasing the amplification of the signal, which resulted in an increase of what Donald called "electronic grass". He stated:With high gain settings we were confronted with the danger of being deceived by "electronic grass". This danger now seemed so great that we decided to eliminate at least this error from over amplification and observer error by having an automatic scanner which would operate at a completely standardised speed.In 1958, Brown and the engineers at Hughes started work on the new automatic scanner. It was built to standardize the compound scanning process and to remove, as much as possible, operator bias from the results.
The probe was mounted in a steel ball connected to a column suspended from a gantry that oscillated. When it was at a 30° angle to the normal of the skin, sensed by what Brown described as "rather indelicate looking projections on either side of the ball", the motion was reversed and the gantry supporting the column moved about 15 mm, and the process was repeated. The scans could be done in the longitudinal plane, i.e. up or down the abdomen lengthways, rather than only across the width. The machine had to be capable of scanning all the different sizes and shapes of the female form, and not only did it need to deal with the convex shape of a woman's abdomen, but also with women who were ill, pregnant, very rotund, or had some other form of pathology. Brown designed this motion of maintaining contact with the body's surface by using another motor that would reposition the probe as required. It was coupled with a pressure sensitive switch that enabled the probe to stay in constant contact with the skin. The machine had two motors: one for vertical and another for horizontal movement. However, the climbing of steep curves of heavier women presented its own problem. A control circuit was created that could switch between the two motors. The final part was a joystick that allowed the initial position to be set on the body for the scan.
It was the only automatic scanner built due to funding problems and the complex nature of the machine, with regular maintenance needed to keep the valve electronics functional. In December 1959, Donald met with Slater at the Kelvin Hughes factory, who expressed a desire to withdraw due to the increasing and unmanageable costs; the original £500 allocated to the project had stretched into thousands of pounds and the company could no longer afford it. The running costs for the project were being met by the Scottish Endowments Hospital Trust, but did not provide funding capital expenditure. Donald consulted with Hetherington, who produced £750 as a temporary measure while other funds were sought. Donald then approached the Scottish Hospital Endowments Research Trust and the Department of Health for Scotland. Slater and Donald attended a lunch party with the trust, who provided a grant of £4,000. The Trust sought assistance from the National Research Development Corporation in London, who provided them an immediate grant of £4,000 that was later supplemented with additional funding, up to £10,000 over several years. The financial security was to last until 1965.
For much of this period, Donald used his position as Regius Professor and his personal charisma to sell the potential of the ultrasound machine. In 1959, Swedish obstetrician Bertil Sundén of Lund University, Sweden, visited Glasgow to find a subject for his MD thesis. Glasgow University had established links with Lund University since John Martin Munro Kerr's time. Lars Leksell of Lund had been experimenting with ultrasound since the 1950s, and had been using a Kelvin and Hughes supersonic detector for experimentation. Leksell's work was well known to obstetrics and gynaecology professor Alf Sjövall, who was friends with Donald and knew his work; as such, Sjövall sent Sundén to Glasgow. During the visit, Sundén wanted to reproduce Donald's work from scratch. Despite the fact that the automatic scanner was almost completed, Sundén wanted an exact copy of the machine which Donald had used to produce his first publications: a bed-table scanner. The result was an order for a new ultrasound machine costing £2,500. It was the first direct-contact scanning machine built in the world, and was a hybrid between the manually operated bed-table machine and the automatic scanner. The prototype became the basis for the Diasonograph, which became the first commercially produced machine in 1965.
Around this time, Donald gave a series of lectures in the US. In 1960 he, MacVicar, and Brown demonstrated their scanner at a medical exhibition in Olympia, London, England. During this period Donald and his team scanned hundreds of patients who were both pregnant and non-pregnant, and Donald found that fetal echoes were visible at an early stage, which led to the distinction between a case of threatened abortion and a case with a hydatidiform mole, both with bleeding. The image showed a speckled picture, whereas the fetus produced strong echoes floating in space containing liquid. Donald received many requests for differential diagnosis, so the work was moved to the X-ray department. Meanwhile, Donald noticed the very sharp echoes that were being produced at the sides of an infant's head, which led to the use of a hand-held probe and the A-mode scanner to detect the presentation of the fetus. Donald's ward sister at Rottenrow, Marjory Marr, used the technique to test doubtful cases in her antenatal ward and was able to tell Donald in advance where the fetus lay, which led Donald to think about measuring the distance between the echoes as an index of the head by using the biparietal diameter. Experiments proved the idea was feasible. Duggan created a ranging unit in which the distance between echoes could be calculated in centimetres and millimetres. James Willocks, a physician who worked with Donald in the same department at Rottenrow, undertook many hundreds of experiments using the new technique resulting in errors of less than 2% over 75% of cases. The use of serial measurements of the fetal head was the first study to use ultrasound to measure fetal growth. Donald presented the results of the experiments at a meeting of the Royal Society of Medicine on 12 January 1962.
By 1970, Donald could image fetal development during pregnancy using the Diasonograph, which led to new criteria diagnosing pregnancy failure, and resulted in his techniques being widely adopted as standard clinical practice in the 1970s.
Queen Mother's Maternity Hospital
The idea of a new maternity hospital had been on Donald's mind when he was asked what plans he had should he be appointed during his interview for being hired as a professor. He was in charge of a maternity unit at the Glasgow Royal Maternity and Women's Hospital that was colloquially known as Rottenrow, which was already very old and unfit for purpose.
Donald's first objective was to obtain the money to build the hospital. He contacted the Scottish Office repeatedly until he received funding but it was insufficient to build the whole hospital: a sum of £800,000 was needed. Donald then turned to Glasgow University to request more funding and it was secured by Hetherington. When the Western Regional Hospital Board decided to build the hospital in the grounds of the old Robroyston hospital in the north-east of Glasgow, Hetherington quietly stood up during the meeting and stated: "You must excuse me, gentleman, for you must know that if the proposal goes ahead the university can have no further interest in the project." The planning board reversed their decision and agreed to build the hospital in Yorkhill, next to the Royal Hospital for Children. In early 1958, Donald appointed the architect Joseph Lea Gleave, and together they produced a new design for a 112-bed maternity hospital.
Traditionally, maternity hospitals consisted of two wards: antenatal and postnatal. Antenatal wards were for undelivered patients, and postnatal for patients who were recovering from delivery. Wards were communal with privacy guaranteed by curtains. Deliveries would generally take place in the labour ward, and only complicated deliveries or Caesarean sections were taken to the operating theatre. Donald's plan was for a hospital with a central block with four wings. The central block had separate nursing, medical, and anaesthetic staff, a separate delivery room for each woman, and two operating rooms for complicated cases. The east wing had a separate room for each woman and was reserved for complicated cases. The other wings were shared among senior consultants with their own junior staff in small four- and six-bed wards. Antenatal and postnatal women were mixed. At the end of the hospital was the university department and tower block for residents and nursing staff.
Construction began in June 1960 and Donald appointed Marr to be the master of works, who would give progress reports to Donald each day. The name of the new hospital was chosen by Donald, who was a great admirer of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. The hospital was the first to have a separate ultrasound examination room.
In 1961, Donald wrote a detailed article in the Scottish Medical Journal for a series on hospital planning, in which he described the acute need for new maternity beds in Glasgow, the design of the new hospital, the reason the Yorkhill site was chosen, and why he believed that the increasingly rapid pace of medical research would make the new hospital obsolete within 25 years. The new hospital opened on 11 January 1964, with the first baby being delivered on 12 January 1964, and closed on 13 January 2010.
Health
For much of his life, Donald suffered from valvular heart disease as a result of him and his sister Margaret being infected with rheumatic fever when he was young. His sister had died from a mitral valve replacement surgery that was still in the early stages of development. In the autumn of 1961, Donald collapsed in New York with atrial fibrillation, and he traveled back to the Western Infirmary for treatment with a mitral valve replacement. The condition meant that he suffered many debilitating illnesses, heart attacks, and conditions like pressure sores, blot clots, and hematomas that led to further cardiac deterioration, necessitating a new operation.
Over four years, Donald underwent three major heart operations at Hammersmith Hospital. For the third operation, a mitral valve replacement was taken from a pig, with a homograft that was replaced with a Starr Edwards artificial valve in 1976. Donald published personal accounts of his second and third cardiac operations.
Bibliography
Awards and honours
Blair gold medal
Eardley Holland gold medal
Victor Bonney prize
Maternity prize of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine
First Honorary Life Member of the British Medical Ultrasound Society (1982) along with Tom Brown.
Notes
References
External links
"A short History of the development of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology"
Ian Donald Biography
The Diasonograph
1910 births
1987 deaths
Academics of the University of Glasgow
20th-century Scottish medical doctors
20th-century Scottish inventors
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Medical ultrasonography
People educated at Warriston School
People educated at Fettes College
People from Liskeard
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
Royal Air Force Medical Service officers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from Cornwall
Alumni of the University of London
University of Cape Town alumni
20th-century English medical doctors
20th-century British medical doctors |
4242826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Jam%20%28album%29 | Pearl Jam (album) | Pearl Jam is the eighth studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam, released on May 2, 2006 on J Records. It was Pearl Jam's first and only release for J Records, their last album issued by Sony Music. It was the band's first full-length studio release in almost four years, since Riot Act (2002). The band commenced work on Pearl Jam in November 2004 at Studio X in Seattle, Washington and finished in February 2006.
The music on the record was proclaimed as a return to the band's roots, with an emphasis on up-tempo songs with an aggressive sound. The song lyrics are mostly told from the point of view of characters and deal with the socio-political issues in the United States at the period, such as the War on Terror.
Pearl Jam was critically well received and a commercial success, debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 chart and eventually outselling the band's previous release, Riot Act. The album also produced three singles—"World Wide Suicide", "Life Wasted" and "Gone"—which were moderately successful. The band supported the album with a full-scale world tour in 2006. Writing for Kerrang!, George Garner called the album "criminally underrated".
Recording
Pearl Jam was recorded at Studio X in Seattle, Washington. The band began work on the album following the 2004 Vote for Change tour in November 2004, and again employed producer Adam Kasper, who worked with them on predecessor Riot Act. The recording sessions started in February 2005, and they worked on it off and on throughout the year, with the sessions being interrupted toward the end of the year when the band toured North America and South America. The album was completed in early 2006. Bassist Jeff Ament attributed the length of time recording to lead vocalist Eddie Vedder having a child and the band touring in the middle of recording. The album was mixed by Kasper at Studio X.
For the first time since 1993's Vs., the band members did not go into the recording sessions with any completed songs, only guitar riffs. Vedder admitted that the band "really went in with nothing". The band sat around playing music together and discussed the song arrangements, and in just one week had completed ten songs. Ament described it as a "real collaborative effort", and Vedder described it as "absolute democracy". Guitarist Mike McCready stated that the band members were feeling "fresh and energetic" and "were communicating better than ever". Toward the end of the sessions it came down to Vedder to finish up the material, with Ament observing that "the way the record started and the way that it finished is probably two different things." Regarding his lyric writing process, Vedder said that he wrote at least four different sets of lyrics for each song, with many going as high as eight. Vedder described as a process that demands "the patience of like a National Geographic photographer sitting underneath the bush in a tent", adding he would at times "figure out after eight, nine or eleven drafts that the first one was actually the one". A total of 25 songs were written before coming down to the 13 on the final track listing. Outtakes include "The Forest", later featured on Ament's 2008 solo album Tone, and "Of the Earth", which started being played live in 2010.
Pearl Jam's contract with Epic Records had ended in 2003, but the band was not ready to release an album without label backing. Independent label Epitaph Records was considered, but the band wanted a company that would guarantee a wide release. Manager Kelly Curtis signed a one-record deal with J Records - which ironically during production became, like Epic, a subsidiary of Sony Music after said company merged with J's parent company BMG. J had approached Pearl Jam as early as 2001, and had its first experiments with the band issuing the live album Live at Benaroya Hall in 2004. Vedder said J was picked as they searched for "somebody who'll allow us to be who we are and respects how we do things" and contributed with the "facilitation of getting the music out there". Gossard added the label did not input any time or creative constraints upon the band—"We didn't play them much music until it was basically done, and they were pleased. They weren't expecting us to do something that was unnatural for us."
Music and lyrics
A number of critics cited the album as a return to the band's roots. AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine said, "Nearly 15 years after Ten, Pearl Jam finally returned to the strengths of their debut with 2006's Pearl Jam, a sharply focused set of impassioned hard rock." Vedder said, "It's easily the best stuff we've done but also some of the hardest stuff. It's very aggressive, because again, it's kind of a product of what it's like to be an American these days. It's pretty aggressive, especially when you turn it loud." Gossard added that after many experimental albums, Pearl Jam was "like a coming together again in terms of accepting our natural strengths and also incorporating the best of our experiments".
The album begins with a number of up-tempo songs before expanding to a variety of tempos for its second half. Vedder attributed the faster and more aggressive songs to the band writing a lot of material that kept getting pared down, with the band leaving behind mid-tempo songs, while Ament suggested that it was because of the band balancing recording and touring which resulted in "physicality ... from being out on the road." The band attempted to create an environment in which McCready and drummer Matt Cameron could play much as they do live. Ament said that there was "a lot of honing of the guitars and vocals in the middle and toward the end", which resulted in the album sounding "more polished". On the overall feeling of the album, Ament said, "The band playing in a room—that came across. There's a kind of immediacy to the record, and that's what we were going for."
Current socio-political issues in the United States are addressed on the album, with Vedder claiming the record "deals with real content and the moral issues of our time", and crediting as inspiration both the frustration with George W. Bush being reelected, and the birth of Vedder's daughter—"Now that I see it as my daughter's planet, I'm even more (angry)." McCready said, "We all feel that we're living in tumultuous, frightening times, and that ranges from the Iraq war to Hurricane Katrina to wiretapping to anything that smacks of totalitarianism. And just bad political decisions being made. We feel that as Americans, and we're frustrated. So a lot of those feelings have come out in these songs." Vedder also added that among all the dark themes "the hope was going to be in the guitar solos. It was the guitars and drums going at it that was going to lift you out of the dark abyss that I had painted." The Iraq War is addressed in the songs "World Wide Suicide", "Marker in the Sand", and "Army Reserve". The lyrics of "World Wide Suicide" depict anger against the war. Other themes addressed on the album include alcohol use ("Severed Hand"), religion ("Marker in the Sand"), poverty ("Unemployable"), leaving everything behind to seek a fresh start ("Gone"), and loneliness ("Come Back").
Many of the songs are written from the point of view of a protagonist, which emerged from an early idea of turning the record into a concept album - as guitarist Stone Gossard explained, "we did consider using narration to thematically unify the album, but ultimately a less conceptual structure just felt right." Vedder added that using characters in the tracks helped with the themes, as the stories could "transmit an emotion or a feeling or an observation of modern reality rather than editorializing, which we've seen plenty of these days".
Vedder added that many songs were inspired by the death of fellow musician Johnny Ramone, whom he described as "the best friend I ever had on the planet". The lyrics of "Life Wasted" in particular were written after attending Ramone's funeral. Vedder said that "Gone" is about a man "needing to find a new life without his past, without his possessions, and not really looking for more possessions." Damien Echols, one of the three members of the West Memphis 3, co-wrote the lyrics to "Army Reserve". For the first time McCready contributed lyrics to a Pearl Jam album, writing the lyrics to the closing track "Inside Job". McCready said that he wrote the lyrics while touring in São Paulo as he "want[ed] this song to happen" despite Vedder not having done the lyrics yet, and added that the lyrical inspiration was the realization that "I had to go inside myself first before I could be open to outside ideas."
Packaging and versions
The album's cover art, photographed by Brad Klausen, depicts an avocado cut in half with the pit still in place. McCready said, "That symbolizes just kind of ... Ed's at the end of the process and said, for all I care right now, we've done such a good job on this record, and we're kind of tired from it. Let's throw an avocado on the cover. I think that's what happened, and our art director goes, hey, that's not a bad idea. I think we were watching the Super Bowl, and we had some guacamole or something." Because the album is self-titled, many fans refer to it as "Avocado" or "The Avocado Album." The cover was named in Pitchfork Media's top 25 worst album covers of 2006. The liner notes art features footage from the "Life Wasted" music video, directed by artist Fernando Apodaca. The photographs involve the band members with their skin decaying and animals crawling in and out of it, as Apodaca felt the songs, "Life Wasted" in particular, fit "my interpretation of the how fragile life is". The album was also issued on a double vinyl.
On the choice of a self-titled album, Vedder explained, "In the end, we thought there was enough there with the title of the songs, so to put another title on the album would have seemed pretentious. So, really, it's actually Nothing by Pearl Jam." During the making of the album Vedder considered the title Superun-owned, a play on Soundgarden's 1994 album, Superunknown. He explained, "We're un-owned. We want to remain un-owned."
Copies of the album were made available for pre-order through Pearl Jam's official website with different CD art and packaging than the retail version, and also a bonus disk featuring the band's show on December 31, 1992 at The Academy Theater in New York City. Pre-order campaigns were also set with iTunes, Amazon and Best Buy, each retailer receiving an exclusive behind-the-scenes or rehearsal clip shot by photographer Danny Clinch.
Release and promotion
The album was released on May 2, 2006. The Sony BMG merger lead to some problems in the international distribution, something the band took into consideration during the release of the self-published Backspacer three years later. While Pearl Jam is normally averse to press, to promote the album they performed the album songs on Sessions@AOL, and went to various television shows, including Saturday Night Live, Late Show with David Letterman, and Later... with Jools Holland. Vedder said the exposition happened because "it seem[ed] like a critical time to participate in our democracy." The band also decided to shoot their first conceptual music videos in eight years, "World Wide Suicide" and "Life Wasted".
Three singles were released from Pearl Jam. The lead single "World Wide Suicide" was made available through online music stores (backed with "Unemployable"), and also issued for free download on the band's website. "World Wide Suicide" entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 41, reached number two on the Mainstream Rock charts, and spent a total of three weeks at number one on the Modern Rock charts. Neither of the album's other commercially released singles, "Life Wasted" and "Gone", charted on the Hot 100, but the former placed on both the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts, while the latter placed on the Modern Rock chart "Big Wave" was featured in the 2006 Twentieth Century Fox movie, Aquamarine and on the soundtrack to the 2007 Columbia Pictures movie, Surf's Up.
Tour
Pearl Jam promoted the album with a tour across North America, Europe, and Australia in 2006. The tour originally had 69 concerts, which were then expanded with three gigs in Hawaii, one of them opening for U2's Vertigo Tour in Honolulu. The first leg of the North American tour focused on the Northeastern United States, and then the band moved to the Midwest and the West Coast for the tour's second leg.
Pearl Jam went on to tour Europe for its first time in six years. The band played a small secret show at the Astoria in London, and headlined the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006, despite having vowed to never play at a festival again after Roskilde. In an interview in advance of the band's return to the festival circuit, Gossard commented, "It seems like an era to trust that we're aware enough to get through those bigger shows. We have a heightened awareness of what needs to happen every night so people are as safe as they can possibly be." Vedder started both concerts with an emotional plea to the crowd to look after each other. He commented during the Leeds set that the band's decision to play a festival for the first time after Roskilde had nothing to do with "guts" but with trust in the audience. On September 19, 2006, at the Torino, Italy show at Palaisozaki, Pearl Jam played Pearl Jam in its entirety in order midway through its set. After Europe, the band headed to Australia and then finished the year with two shows in Hawaii. The official bootlegs on this tour were available only in digital form, in both MP3 and lossless FLAC formats. The band's shows at The Gorge Amphitheatre were released as part of the Live at the Gorge 05/06 box set. A DVD documenting the band's shows in Italy entitled Immagine in Cornice was released in 2007.
Reception
Commercial performance
Pearl Jam entered the UK charts at number five, the band's highest position there since 2000's Binaural, while it reached number two in the U.S., selling 279,564 copies in its first week. It was held off the top spot by the Tool album, 10,000 Days. As of July 2009, the album has sold 750,000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan. Pearl Jam is considered a comeback hit, outselling 2002's Riot Act—by 2009, 750,000 copies as opposed to Riot Acts 508,000—and ranking 90th in Billboards list of the 200 best-selling albums of 2006. It has been certified gold by the RIAA.
Critical response
According to Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 74, based on 28 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." The album was named in Rolling Stones top 50 albums of the year at number 13. Rolling Stone staff writer David Fricke gave Pearl Jam four out of five stars, calling it the band's best album in ten years. He said it's "the most overtly partisan—and hopeful—record of their lives", adding that it's "as big and brash in fuzz and backbone as Led Zeppelin's Presence." Erlewine gave the album four and a half out of five stars, saying that "Pearl Jam has embraced everything they do well, whether it's their classicist hard rock or heart-on-sleeve humanitarianism." Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+, saying that Vedder's "passionate howl seems more valuable now, pitted against the navel-gazing emo whine that's commandeered the landscape," and he went on to say that "in a world full of boys sent to do a man's job of rocking, Pearl Jam can still pull off gravitas." Jon Pareles of The New York Times said, "Now as ever, Pearl Jam takes itself seriously. But it delivers that seriousness not with the sodden self-importance of rock superstardom, but with the craft and hunger of a band still proving itself on the spot." PopMatters writer Michael Metivier gave the album a 9/10 rating and viewed it as a progression in "melody and songcraft" over the band's previous work, writing that it "more consistently achieves the grandeur, rage, and beauty they've always pursued, throughout its entirety".
Brian D. Schiller of Slant Magazine gave the album three and a half out of five stars. He stated that "the album is at best another good step toward their once great state and not a full return to it. What's true, though, is that it's the group's best full album since Vitalogy." Noel Murray of The A.V. Club ranked the album B+, considering it the "tightest Pearl Jam album in a decade", describing the album as a comeback "filled with straight-up, riff-a-riffic rock songs." Mojo gave the album three out of five stars. The review said, "[S]elf-titled with good reason: Pearl Jam sound reborn, vital." Kyle Anderson of Spin gave the album three out of five stars. He said that "rather than rage against the time machine, they seem to be having fun ... Pearl Jam are taking themselves less seriously, and it fits them like a snug flannel shirt." Mat Snow of The Guardian also gave the album three out of five stars. In the review he stated that Vedder "musters absolute conviction in writing and singing lyrics of male teenage angst." Snow observed, "And though few of these 13 numbers have the drama of tracks by the Who or Led Zeppelin, from whom the band draw much of their style, Pearl Jam play like men on a mission." David Raposa of Pitchfork called it the "most consistent effort the group's released since its second album," but he added that it "gets pretty boring pretty ... quick."
Track listingI "Inside Job" contains a brief instrumental hidden track at 6:35.II "Wasted Reprise" contains a reprise of "Life Wasted".
PersonnelPearl JamJeff Ament – bass guitar
Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, backing vocals
Stone Gossard – guitar
Mike McCready – guitar
Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, guitar, layout and design; credited as "Jerome Turner" for album conceptAdditional musicians and production'
Fernando Apodaca – art and sculpture, disc design
John Burton, Sam Hofstedt – engineering
Boom Gaspar – Hammond B3, piano, pump organ
Adam Kasper – production, recording, mixing
Gregg Keplinger, Aaron Mlasko, Steve Rinkov – drum technicians
Brad Klausen – cover photographs, layout and design
Jason Mueller – artistic facilitater, disc design
Pearl Jam – production
George Webb – guitar technician
Gary Westlake – optigan
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Singles
References
External links
Pearl Jam information and lyrics at pearljam.com
2006 albums
Albums produced by Adam Kasper
J Records albums
Pearl Jam albums
Albums produced by Stone Gossard
Albums produced by Eddie Vedder
Albums produced by Jeff Ament
Albums produced by Mike McCready
Albums produced by Matt Cameron |
4242991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Hendry | Jim Hendry | James Hendry (born July 27, 1955) is an American baseball coach and executive. He is a special assistant for New York Yankees general manager Brian Cashman, and is a former general manager of the Chicago Cubs.
Hendry was promoted to Cubs general manager on July 5, 2002, by former Cubs president/CEO Andy MacPhail. He worked for the Cubs from 1995 to 2011. Prior to his promotion to GM, he was named assistant GM and player personnel director on October 12, 2001, and previously the director of player development, in charge of both scouting and minor league operations. He was a coach for the Creighton Bluejays of Creighton University from 1984 to 1991.
Early life
Hendry graduated from Spring Hill College, where he majored in communications and journalism. He could not find a job in broadcasting and took a job as a high school teacher and baseball coach in Miami. This led to a job at Creighton University in 1983, and he was promoted to head coach in the middle of the 1984 season. Following Creighton's 1991 College World Series appearance, Hendry was named National Coach of the Year. He left Creighton later that year to become special assistant to then Florida Marlins GM Dave Dombrowski, and also coached minor league teams in 1993 and 1994. Jim has two kids, Lauren and John.
Tenure with Cubs
Hendry's tenure as general manager produced mixed results. In 2003, the Cubs made their first playoff appearance in the Hendry era, but just three years later, Hendry's Cubs had the worst record in the National League. One of his first moves provided fodder for critics and boosters alike: late in spring training 2002, he dealt Julián Tavárez and Dontrelle Willis to the Florida Marlins for pitchers Matt Clement and Antonio Alfonseca. The deal produced mixed results; Clement was the Cubs' most consistent pitcher in 2002 and continued to be valuable in 2003, while Tavarez's volatile behavior was a distraction to the Cubs in 2001. On the downside, Alfonseca struggled while a Cub, and the minor league pitcher traded to the Marlins was Dontrelle Willis, the 2003 Rookie of the Year.
The Cubs did not contend in 2002, and Hendry fired manager Don Baylor in July, replacing him with Iowa Cubs manager Bruce Kimm on an interim basis. The Cubs staggered to the end of the season in 2002, and Hendry purged several veterans from the roster. One veteran, Todd Hundley, a free agent acquisition before the 2001 season, struggled on the field, feuded with fans, and had even begun to tarnish the image of his father Randy Hundley, a member of the Cubs teams of the 1960s and 1970s. Hundley's large contract would have made trading him difficult, so the only way that he could leave the team would be if Hendry released him. Nevertheless, former Los Angeles Dodgers general manager Dan Evans, offered second baseman Mark Grudzielanek and first baseman Eric Karros. Grudzielanek and Karros were also high-priced veterans with their careers waning. But the two players managed productive seasons in 2003, also providing veteran leadership.
Hendry made his biggest splash in the 2002–03 offseason when he hired former San Francisco Giants manager Dusty Baker to manage the club just days after Baker's Giants lost in seven games to the Anaheim Angels in the World Series.
2003 Cubs: Only five outs away
The Cubs started 2003 well but stumbled after center fielder Corey Patterson injured his knee in June. A little more than two weeks after his injury, Hendry sent prospect Bobby Hill and veteran José Hernández to the Pittsburgh Pirates for a center fielder who could replace Patterson for the remainder of the season, Kenny Lofton. The Cubs also received third baseman Aramis Ramírez in the trade, ending the revolving door that had been at 3B ever since Ron Santo was traded to the White Sox. Ramirez blossomed into a star with the Cubs, and Lofton provided the spark at the top of the lineup that the Cubs needed.
The Cubs won the National League Central Division title in 2003, and beat Atlanta in the National League Division Series, their first postseason series victory since 1908. They then came within five outs from their first World Series appearance since 1945. They were up three games to one on the Florida Marlins in the NLCS and ended up losing the last three games, including the infamous Game 6 involving fan Steve Bartman followed by an error by Alex Gonzalez on a routine double play ball that would have ended the inning with the score 3-1 in favor of the Cubs.
The disappointment of 2004
After failing to close out the 2003 NLCS against the Florida Marlins, Hendry made several acquisitions, picking up first baseman Derrek Lee for Hee-seop Choi in a trade with the Marlins, acquiring catcher Michael Barrett in a three-way trade with the Oakland Athletics, giving up Damian Miller in the process and Montreal Expos, signing free agents LaTroy Hawkins, Todd Walker and Greg Maddux. On March 25, 2004, he sent prospect pitchers Juan Cruz and Steve Smyth to the Atlanta Braves for two minor leaguers, pitcher Andy Pratt and infielder Richard Lewis.
The Cubs were Sports Illustrated's preseason choice to win the World Series in 2004. Injuries to key players like Mark Prior, Sammy Sosa, Kerry Wood, Joe Borowski, and Alex Gonzalez hindered the Cubs during the early part of the season. On July 31, Hendry made a four-team deal with the Montreal Expos, Minnesota Twins and Boston Red Sox, sending Gonzalez and prospects Brendan Harris and Francis Beltrán to the Expos and prospect Justin Jones to the Minnesota Twins. In return, the Cubs received All-Star shortstop Nomar Garciaparra from Boston, along with prospect Matt Murton.
Garciaparra missed several games down the stretch because of an injury to his groin, forcing Hendry to sign Neifi Pérez off of waivers. Meanwhile, the Cubs' bullpen became a bigger and bigger source of concern. With Borowski out for the season, the Cubs made Hawkins the closer, and Hawkins struggled down the stretch, blowing two key games the last week of the season. The Cubs led the Wild Card race by games with nine to go before fading to three games behind the eventual Wild Card winner, the Houston Astros.
As the Cubs saw their lead in the Wild Card race disintegrate, the Cubs became mired in controversy regarding the treatment of the team by television announcers Chip Caray and Steve Stone. After the 2004 season, Chip Caray signed a deal to broadcast Atlanta Braves games (with his father, Skip Caray) while Stone eventually decided not to return as Cubs' color commentator. Meanwhile, slugger Sammy Sosa walked out on his team twice at the end of the season. The first time came during an extra-inning loss to the Montreal Expos at Wrigley Field when Sosa, who did not start because of back spasms, decided to leave the ballpark in the seventh inning to beat traffic on Lake Shore Drive back to his condominium at Lake Point Towers. With Sosa not on the bench available to pinch-hit, Baker called on Ramón Martínez to pinch-hit with the tying run on base in the 12th inning of a 7–6 loss. The second time came in the last game of the season when Sosa left the park moments after learning he wasn't in the starting lineup. When Sosa claimed he stayed until the seventh inning of the game, Hendry released a surveillance tape showing Sosa leaving the park shortly after the 1:20 first pitch.
As a result, the first priority of the 2004–2005 offseason was unloading Sosa. After in-depth talks with the New York Mets and Washington Nationals, the Cubs sent Sosa to the Baltimore Orioles, getting utility player Jerry Hairston Jr., second baseman Mike Fontenot and pitcher David Crouthers. Hendry then signed veteran Jeromy Burnitz to replace Sosa in right field. He signed middle reliever Chad Fox and traded Kyle Farnsworth to the Detroit Tigers for Roberto Novoa and minor-leaguers Scott Moore and Bo Flowers.
2006 Cubs: A season of disarray
After a sub-.500 season marred by injuries in 2005, the Cubs made few major moves going into the 2006 season.
Before the 2006 season, Hendry received a two-year contract extension from the Tribune Company. The biggest move was trading three young pitchers, Ricky Nolasco, Sergio Mitre, and Renyel Pinto to the Marlins for center fielder Juan Pierre. In November 2005, Hendry attempted to shore up his bullpen with relievers Scott Eyre and Bob Howry. The Cubs also signed free agent Jacque Jones to play right field. He signed injured free agent starter Wade Miller to a one-year, $1 million contract with $1 million in incentives. Hendry also re-signed journeymen players like Glendon Rusch and Neifi Pérez to multi-year deals. Again, injuries marred the 2006 season with Lee going down with a broken wrist just 14 games into the season. Mark Prior and Kerry Wood again went down with frequent injuries. Another factor in the Cubs' poor performance in 2006 was their finishing last in the major leagues in walks.
As the Cubs struggled into July, Hendry announced that he was going to evaluate the coaching staff's performance at the All-Star Break, causing many pundits to speculate that Baker, as well as coaches Gene Clines, Gary Matthews, Larry Rothschild and Dick Pole, were in jeopardy of losing their jobs. Hendry responded that he was not necessarily firing anyone and that he would not necessarily finish his evaluation over the four-day break. On July 26, Hendry announced manager Dusty Baker would stay on for the rest of the season. At the end of July Hendry traded Maddux to the Los Angeles Dodgers for shortstop César Izturis, and Walker to the San Diego Padres for pitching prospect José Ceda, both of which were announced after the deadline had actually passed, but were completed before the deadline. Wade Miller made his first start of the season on September 9, 2006, making five starts total and finishing the season 0–2 with a 4.57 ERA. He filed for free agency after the season and has subsequently re-signed with a contract extension.
On October 2, 2006, Hendry announced that the Cubs would not offer manager Dusty Baker a contract extension. The Cubs finished the 2006 season with 66 wins and 96 losses, finishing games behind division winner and eventual 2006 World Series Champions St. Louis Cardinals and last place in the National League Central Division. It was the first time the Cubs finished in last place during Hendry's tenure as general manager and the first time as a team since 2000.
Preparing for 2007
Hendry began a huge offseason spending spree starting on October 17, 2006, when Hendry hired veteran manager Lou Piniella to replace Dusty Baker as the Cubs manager for at least the next three seasons with a club option for a fourth season. On November 19, Hendry signed former Washington Nationals superstar Alfonso Soriano to an 8-year, $136 million contract to play outfield for the Cubs. Third baseman Aramis Ramírez opted out of his current contract and filed for free agency, but subsequently signed a new contract with the Cubs, a five-year $73 million deal.
In other moves, Hendry inked Wade Miller to an incentive-laden, one-year $1.5 million extension to stay with the Cubs. He also signed free agent second baseman and utility player Mark DeRosa (previously of the Texas Rangers) to a three-year, $13 million deal on November 14, 2006. On November 16, 2006. he completed a trade sending relievers David Aardsma and prospect Carlos Vásquez to the cross-town rival Chicago White Sox for left-handed setup man Neal Cotts. On December 6, 2006, the Cubs agreed to a four-year, $40 million deal with free agent pitcher Ted Lilly, who played the previous season for the Toronto Blue Jays, beating out the New York Yankees, while Hendry was being hospitalized for chest pains. On December 9, it was reported that Hendry signed free agent Jason Marquis to a three-year, $20 million contract. Marquis had last pitched for St. Louis. On December 15, the Cubs also announced their signing of backup first baseman and outfielder Daryle Ward. Hendry also signed outfielder/1B veteran Cliff Floyd, a Chicago native, to a one-year, $3 million deal on January 24, 2007. Hendry inked Mark Prior to a one-year, $3.575 million contract for 2007 as well.
The Cubs sent utility outfielder prospect Freddie Bynum to the Baltimore Orioles for a player to be named later (right-handed pitcher Kevin Hart). They selected former number-one Rule 5 draft pick Josh Hamilton from the Tampa Bay Devil Rays and immediately traded him to the Cincinnati Reds for cash considerations. In the draft, the Cubs also selected right-handed pitcher James Henderson from Washington, and lost: left-handed pitcher Edward Campusano to the Milwaukee Brewers, right-handed pitcher Lincoln Holdzkom to the Houston Astros, infielder Richard Lewis to the Kansas City Royals, and shortstop Jason Smith to Toronto.
By the start of Spring Training, Hendry spent $300 million in new contracts.
2007 season
With new ownership coming at the end of the 2007 season and with the Cubs falling in the standings in May and June, Hendry's chances of staying as the general manager remained an open question at midseason.
On May 28, 2007, Jim Hendry stated that his team was underachieving. At the time, the Cub had a 22–26 record and were five games behind division-leading Milwaukee.
After June 2, the Chicago Cubs went on to put up the best record in baseball as they chased after a playoff spot. Help arrived when Jim Hendry made it clear that the team was a buyer and not a seller with the acquisitions of Jason Kendall, Craig Monroe, and Steve Trachsel. On September 28, 2007, the Cubs clinched the National League Central for the first time since 2003 with an 84–76 record.
The Cubs were swept by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the first round of the 2007 NLDS. In October 2008, the Cubs extended Hendry's contract for an additional four years.
2008 season
Japanese superstar Kosuke Fukudome made his arrival to the U.S. and was signed by Hendry to a 4-year $48 Million contract to play right field. Fukudome began the season with strong play, but cooled down and left fans disappointed as the season wore on. Rich Harden was acquired from Oakland midway through the 2008 season and proved to be a key trade in their success. The Cubs led the Central Division nearly the entire year and ended with the best record in the National League (97 wins). However, against the Los Angeles Dodgers, they were once again swept in the NLDS.
Final years with the Cubs (2009–11)
Despite consistently having a team with one of the highest payrolls in baseball, the Cubs struggled in Hendry's final seasons with the club. From 2009 through 2011, the Cubs have had the 2nd, 1st, and 2nd highest payrolls in the National League respectively. Prior to 2009, Hendry signed enigmatic OF Milton Bradley to a 3-year/$30 million contract. The Cubs finished 2009 barely above .500 at 83-78 and Bradley was a major bust. He finished the year suspended by the team. In 2010, for most of the season they were one of the worst teams in baseball. Despite finishing the season strongly, they ended up at 75-87. In 2011, the Cubs once again possessed one of the worst records in baseball, finishing at 71-91, 25 games behind the first-place Cardinals.
Under Hendry's leadership, the Cubs drafted Javier Baez. Cubs chairman Tom Ricketts notified Hendry on July 22, 2011, that he wouldn't be retained as general manager. Hendry was allowed to remain with the team to help get the Cubs’ draft picks signed. He was relieved of his duties on August 19, 2011, and replaced on an interim basis by assistant general manager Randy Bush.
Hendry was the first general manager in Cubs history to oversee three postseason clubs (2003, 2007, 2008) and was the first Cubs general manager to lead the franchise to consecutive postseason berths since the 1930s. Under his tenure, the Cubs were 749-748. He was the third longest-serving general manager in the history of the club.
New York Yankees (2012–present)
On January 31, 2012, Hendry agreed to a multi-year deal to become a special assistant to Yankees GM Brian Cashman and is also listed as a special assignment scout.
References
External links
Jim Hendry Interview at Baseball Digest Daily
Jim Hendry on Baseball America's Executive Database
1955 births
Living people
Chicago Cubs executives
Creighton Bluejays baseball coaches
Major League Baseball executives
Major League Baseball general managers
New York Yankees scouts
Spring Hill College alumni
People from Dunedin, Florida
Sportspeople from Park Ridge, Illinois |
4243023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinpyeong%20of%20Silla | Jinpyeong of Silla | Jinpyeong (; 567? – 632, reign 579 – 632) was the 26th king of the Silla dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Jinpyeong followed in the footsteps of his predecessor, King Jinji, by reorganizing the central ruling system of Silla. Upon the onset of a multitude of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo, he sent emissaries to improve relations and strengthen ties between Silla and the Chinese dynasties Sui and Tang. He is also known for his promotion of Buddhism as a spiritual guide for the kingdom and encouraging Buddhist teachings.
Life
King Jinpyeong was born as Kim Baek-Jeong. His father, Crown Prince Dongryun, was the first son of King Jinheung. And his mother, Lady Mano, was the daughter of Galmunwang, Kim Reep Jong. Samguk Sagi described King Jinpyeong as someone: big in stature, has a notable face and possessed great determination and sharp intellect as a youth. His father, Prince Dongryun, died before being able to ascend the throne. Four years later, King Jinheung died, his second son, King Jinji ascended the throne and became the 25th King of Silla. After 3 years, King Jinji was overthrown and eventually died a year after, King Jinpyeong was then proclaimed as Silla's 26th ruler.
He married Queen Maya, the daughter of Galmunwang Bokseung, they had three daughters: Princess Cheonmyeong, Princess Deokman and Princess Seonhwa. He also had children with his concubines. Samguk Yusa says that he had another wife after Queen Maya, she's called Lady Seungnam who later on became his second Queen. According to Hwarang Segi, after Princess Deokman was nominated as King Jinpyeong's successor, Queen Seungnam gave birth to a son which put Princess Deokman's status as a successor at stake. However, her son died shortly for unknown reason. Queen Seungnam blamed Princess Deokman and Kim Yongchun for the death of her child. It is said that she was forced to leave the palace because of her severe jealousy which caused disturbance to the palace. Princess Deokman became the 27thruler of Silla after him. Princess Cheonmyeong's son, became the 29th ruler of Silla.
According to Samguk Yusa, his third daughter Princess Seonhwa, married King Mu of Baekje. (Historians considered this unlikely, given the hostilities between the rival kingdoms.)
Reign
Since King Jinpyeong was only 13 years old when he ascended the throne, Queen Dowager Sado, served as a regent until he reached the legal age. However, Queen Sado still refused to give him full control of Silla even after he reached the legal age. She appointed Noribu, as the Sangdaedeung and Hujik as the head of the Military. Noribu died on December of 588, Sueulbu became the next Sangdaedeung after him. King Jinpyeong relied heavily on these two chief officials to solidify his kingdom in both internal affairs and international relations. He also gave the rank of Galmunwang to his brothers Baekban and Gukban, to solidify his power in the court.
King Jinpyeong's achievement was the way he strengthened the Kingdom and improved the political system. He named himself, his wife and his younger siblings as people related to the Buddha which eventually made the entire royal family being seen as an especial household for the throne, completely different compared to the rest of the royal nobles.
He also built different departments for different political purposes, such as: The Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Ministry of Education.
Buddhism was embraced during this era, as King Jinpyeong actively sent envoys and monks to China to study and help in diplomatic relations. Buddhism in Silla developed as a strong, nation-protecting religion.
Year 594, King Jinpyeong sent a diplomat to Sui dynasty of China in order to establish a diplomatic relationship between their countries. Two years later, he sent Monk Damyook to Sui in order to study Chinese Buddhism.
Year 602, Amak Fortress was invaded by Baekje forces led by General Hae Su. As a result, King Jinpyeong sent thousands of soldiers to fight them back and built fortresses in Cheonsan, Sota and Wae Seok. However, King Mu of Baekje fought back by sending 40,000 troops to attack the said fortresses. Silla sent General Gunpoom and Mu Eun to fight them back. During the battle, Mu Eun fell into Hae Su's ambush and almost got killed but was saved by his son Gwisan and Chu Hang, however the two were both killed in the battle. The bravery they have shown in their death raised the morale of Silla's army as a result, Baekje forces had no other choice but to retreat.
Year 603, King Yeongyang of Goguryeo sent his General, Go Seung to attack the north side of Han Fortress. And so, King Jinpyeong retaliated by leading the army himself with 10,000 troops and succeeded.
Year 605, Silla attacked Baekje. However, Goguryeo attacked them as a result.
Year 608, King Jinpyeong ordered Monk Won-Gwang to write a letter to the Sui dynasty, asking them for assistance to attack Goguryeo, knowing that the Emperor of Sui wasn't happy about Goguryeo's refusal of paying tributes. When King Yeongyang heard of it, he attacked Silla and took over Woo Myeong fortress and captured 8,000 people of Silla.
Year 611, King Jinpyeong asked Sui again to attack Goguryeo again. July of the same year, Kajam fortress was invaded by the Baekje. The next year, Emperor Yang of Sui decided to attack Goguryeo with more than 1 million troops. However, Sui lost and retreated just few months after the attack. The Emperor of the Sui dynasty continued to attack Goguryeo for the next 3 years out embarrassment for their lost, but still ended up in failure.
Year 616, Baekje attacked Mosan Fortress but retreated right away.
Year 618, the Sui dynasty has fallen and was succeeded by the Tang dynasty . That same year, King Jinpyeong ordered Byeon Poom to take back Kajam fortress from the Baekje but failed to do so. After that loss, King Jinpyeong sent a diplomat to the new dynasty of Tang, in order to establish a diplomatic relationship between their countries.
Year 623, Baekje attacked Neuk Noh of Silla.
Year 624, Baekje surrounded 6 fortresses of Silla. General Nool Choi fought back bravely but was only able to take back 3 of those fortresses.
Year 625, King Jipyeong sent a messenger to Tang and told them that Goguryeo was blocking Silla's route from paying tributes to Tang. Emperor Taizong of Tang, asked Goguryeo to stop attacking Silla, which the King of Goguryeo heed to.
Year 626, Baekje conquered Jujae fortress of Silla and killed the official of Dong So. Silla decided to build Go Hyeo fortress to prepare for the future attack.
Year 627, General Sa Gyeol of Baekje, took 2 fortresses from the western part of Silla and capture its residence.
Year 628, Silla succeeded in taking Kajam fortress back.
Year 629, Kim Yongsu and Kim Seo Hyun, conquered Nangbi fortress of Goguryeo.
Because of non-stop wars against the Baekje and Gogurye, Silla became very poor and resulted to famine. Many families sold their children and lands.
May of 631, Chilseok and Seokpum planned a rebellion but their plan was discovered early and, as a result, Chilseok was beheaded in the marketplace along with his entire family. Seokpum was able to escape and run all the way to the Baekje border but the thought of his wife made him come back after exchanging clothes with a woodcutter, he was then arrested by the soldiers that were waiting for him at his house and was executed later on. On that same year, King Jinpyeong sent two beautiful women from Silla to the emperor of Tang, but they were sent back to Silla.
Year 632, King Jinpyeong died aged 66 after reigning Silla for 53 years. He was succeeded by his daughter Kim Deokman, who became Queen Seondeok later on, the first female ruler of Korea.
Reforms
King Jinpyeong continued to restructure and reorganize during his reign; in 581 he set up Wihwabu (hangul:위화부, hanja:位和府), an administrative department for managing government officials and personnel, and in 583 Seonbuseo (hangul:선부서, hanja:船府署), a department for the management of the country's navy. He established an independent era reign name in 584, the department Jobu (hangul:조부, hanja:調府) to oversee taxes and obligatory labor, and Seungbu (hangul:승부, hanja:乘府) to manage transport wagons and coaches. Three officials were appointed to manage the major three palaces in 585, and in 586 the department Yebu (hangul:예부, hanja:禮部) was established to oversee rituals and ceremonies. In 588, he placed Ichan Sueulbu (hangul:이찬 수을부, hanja 伊飡 首乙夫) as the highest government official of Sangdaedeung, and a special department that looked after foreign diplomats, Younggaekbu (hangul:영객부, hanja:領客府), was set up in 591.
The King also made reforms in the regional counties and prefecture system. A new district, Bukhansanju (hangul:북한산주, hanja:北漢山州), was created in preparation against attacks from Goguryeo in 604, and in 614 Ilseonju (hangul:일선주, hanja:一善州) was formed in preparation against Baekje.
In 622, King Jinji's son Kim Yong Chun was appointed as the first Naeseongsasin (hangul:내성사신, hanja:內省私臣), the official who managed the three major palaces. The reforms continued with the department of the Palace Guards Siwibu (hangul:시위부, hanja:侍衛府); the department Sangsaseo (hangul:상사서, hanja:賞賜署), which looked after national heroes and their families; and Daedoseo (hangul:대도서, hanja:大道署) which oversaw affairs regarding Buddhism.
Buddhism and relations with China
King Jinpyeong was a fervent advocate for Buddhism, and many monks made travels to China during his rule while serving diplomatic roles. The monk Jimyeong (hangul:지명, hanja:智明) who went to China's Chen dynasty in 585 to study Buddhism returned in 602 with emissaries, and the monk Wongwang (hangul:원광, hanja:圓光), who had gone to study in China in 589, also returned with emissaries in 600. The monk Damyuk (hangul:담육, hanja:曇育) also went to study under the Sui dynasty in 596, with emissaries and gifts sent from King Jinpyeong.
These emissaries to China including Buddhist monks were continuously sent during King Jinpyeong's reign, and the two countries remained on amicable terms. In 608, when Silla was under attack from Baekje and Goguryeo, King Jinpyeong asked for the Sui's aid, with requests written by the monk Wongwang. Sui complied and joined forces with Silla in their attacks of Goguryeo, and in 613 Emperor Yang of Sui sent emissaries to Silla who participated in Buddhist ceremonies held by Monk Wongwang at Hwangnyong Temple.
Diplomatic relations with China continued throughout the Sui dynasty and the following Tang dynasty. Gifts were sent with emissaries to Tang in 621 and the Emperor Gaozu sent silks, folding screens of art with an official statement in return. These diplomatic relations continued in the following years and Silla used this relation for asking for Tang's assistance against Goguryeo. Emperor Gaozu of Tang sent governors to both Silla and Goguryeo in 626 to bring about a truce between the two countries, albeit briefly.
Conflicts with Baekje and Goguryeo
Although King Jinpyeong focused on reinforcing defense by building forts and fortresses and strengthening the military system, Silla was in constant conflict with its two neighbors, Baekje and Goguryeo. In 602, Baekje troops attacked the fortress Amak (hangul:아막성, hanja:阿莫城) but were turned back, and in 603 Gogguryeo attacked the fortress at Bukhansan (hangul:북한산성, hanja:北漢山城) but were defeated when King Jinpyeong himself joined the battle.
Baekje continued with their attacks in 605, as did Goguryeo. King Jinpyeong sent the monk Wongwang to Sui with a request for aid against these attacks in 608. The aid from Sui came after Silla had lost many people and fortresses, and ultimately the joined forces failed in deterring Goguryeo attacks.
Conflicts with Baekje escalated in 611, when they attacked the fortress of Gajam (hangul:가잠성, hanja:椵岑城) and claimed it after a brutal battle of 100 days. Ongoing attacks included one on the fortress of Mosan (hangul:모산성, hanja:母山城) in 616, Neuknohyeon (hangul:늑노현, hanja:勒弩縣) in 623, and the three fortresses of Sokham (hangul:속함성, hanja:速含城), Gijam (hangul:기잠성, hanja:歧暫城), and Hyeolchaek (hangul:혈책성, hanja:穴柵城)in 624.
In 626 Baekje attacked the fortress of Jujae (hangul:주재성, hanja:主在城), and two additional fortresses were taken with many people taken hostage in 627. In 628, Silla defeated Baekje at the fortress of Gajam and in 629 generals Kim Yong Chun (김용춘), Kim Seo Hyeon (김서현), and Kim Yushin (김유신) conquered Goguryeo's fortress Nangbi (hangul:낭비성, hanja:娘臂城).
Later reign
The continuous battles with Baekje and Goguryeo took its toll on Silla and its people. Drought, famine, and disquiet spread through the country. The ruling nobility frequently held conflicting political views; when King Jinpyeong designated his daughter Princess Deokman as his heir the division grew even deeper, as many nobles were opposed to the idea of having a queen.
Political dissension reached its peak in May 631, when Ichan Chilsuk (이찬 칠숙) and Achan Seokpum (아찬 석품) plotted an uprising based on their opposition to having Princess Deokman as their next ruler. The revolt was discovered in advance and was stopped by Alcheon and Bidam; Chilsuk was beheaded in public and his relatives executed. Although Seokpum was able to escape, he later returned and was eventually captured and killed. With the rebellion put down, power was left mainly in the hands of the King's supporters (the most important of them was Kim Yushin, Commander in Chief of the Royal Army from 629), and it was in this political atmosphere that Princess Deokman was able to become Queen.
King Jinpyeong died in January 632, in the 54th year of his reign. He is buried in Bomun-dong, Gyeongju. His tomb was designated a historical landmark by the Korean government in 1969.
Legends
The King's Jade Belt
There is a story about King Jinpyeong's jade belt in the history Samguk Yusa, in which the belt is said to have been given by the heavens. In 579, when King Jinpyeong ascended to the throne, angels landed on the palace gardens and gave King Jinpyeong a gift from the Jade Emperor. King Jinpyeong always wore this belt in rituals and ceremonies in honor of the heavens. Along with the 9 story pagoda and statue of Buddha at Hwangnyong Temple, the jade belt is considered one of the three main treasures of Silla. After the fall of Silla, King Gyeongsun gave the belt to Goryeo's Taejo.
The Fire of Mojiak
The first record of coal in Korea is in the Samguk Sagi, where there is a description of a "fire burning under the ground of Mojiak (hangul:모지악, hanja:毛只嶽) for 9 months during the reign of King Jinpyeong in the year 609". It is assumed that Mojiak is the present region of Youngil, Gyeongsangbukdo, where brown coal is excavated.
Family
Father: Crown Prince Dongryun (동륜태자), son of King Jinheung
Mother: Lady Mano, family name Kim (만호부인 김씨)
Brother: Galmunwang Baekban (백반 갈문왕)
Brother: Galmunwang Gukban (국반 갈문왕)
Niece: Princess Seungman (승만공주), later Queen Jindeok
Wives and issue
Queen: Queen Maya (Hangul:마야부인, Hanja:摩耶夫人). Family name Kim, daughter of Galmunwang Bokseung (Hangul:복승갈문왕, Hanja:福勝葛文王) and Princess Songhwa (Hangul: 송화공주, Hanja: 松華公主) (daughter of Queen Dowager Jiso and Park Yeong-sil)
Daughter: Princess Deokman (Hangul:덕만공주, Hanja: 德曼公主). Becomes Queen Seondeok in 632.
Daughter: Princess Cheonmyeong (Hangul:천명공주, Hanja:天明公主). Future Queen Mother Munjeong (문정태후), wife of Kim Yongsu, mother of King Muyeol
Daughter: Princess Seonhwa (Hangul:선화공주, Hanja:善花公主 or 善化公主). Married of King Mu of Baekje, mother of King Uija of Baekje (There is constant debate over her identity.)
Second Queen: Queen Seungman, family name Sohn (hangul: 승만부인)
Daughter: Princess Yeonhwa (Hangul: 연화 공주 , Hanja: 姸花公主)
Concubine: Lady Mishil
Daughter: Princess Bohwa (Hangul: 보화공주 , Hanja: 寶華公主)
Concubine: Lady Boryang of the Seol clan (보량궁주 설씨; 604 – 670)
Son: Prince Borojeon (Hangul: 보로전군, Hanja: 寶路殿君)
Concubine: Princess Bomyeong (보명궁주), daughter of Queen Jiso and Gu Jin
In popular culture
Portrayed by Park Woong in the 1992 KBS TV series Samgukgi.
Portrayed by Choi Dong-joon in the 2005–2006 SBS TV series Ballad of Seodong.
Portrayed by Cha Du-ok in the 2006 SBS TV series Yeon Gaesomun.
Portrayed by Jo Min-ki, Baek Jong-min and Kang San in the 2009 MBC TV series Queen Seondeok.
Portrayed by Kim Ha-kyun in the 2012 KBS TV series Dream of the Emperor.
Notes
References
Park Eunbong (박은봉), Correcting Korean History Facts (한국사 상식 바로잡기) p23, Cum Libro Publishing Company, Seoul, 2007.
Lee Jeok (이적), Queen Seondeok(선덕여왕), AMH Book Linguistics & Literature, Seoul, 2009.
Park Young-gyu (박영규), Chronicles of the Silla Dynasty (신라왕조실록), Woongjin.com, Seoul, 2004. . p265-p287.
Lee Jongwook (이종욱), Hwarang Segi (화랑세기), Sonamu Publishing, Seoul, 2005.
Lee Jongwook (이종욱), Hwarang (화랑), Humanist, Seoul, 2003.
King Jinpyeong at Daum Culture Encyclopedia
Ilyon translated by Tae-Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz, Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea. Yonsei University Press, 1997.
삼국사기 신라 진평왕조 King Jinpyeong in Samguk Sagi (original text)
삼국사기 귀산 열전 Gwisan in Samguk Sagi (original text)
삼국사기 해론 열전 Haeron in Samguk Sagi (original text)
삼국사기 눌최 열전 Nulchoi in Samguk Sagi (original text)
Kings of Silla
Silla Buddhists
Korean Buddhist monarchs
6th-century monarchs in Asia
Queen Seondeok of Silla
6th-century Korean people
7th-century Korean monarchs |
4243040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Bay%20Electric%20Lines | East Bay Electric Lines | The East Bay Electric Lines were a unit of the Southern Pacific Railroad that operated electric interurban-type trains in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area. Beginning in 1862, the SP and its predecessors operated local steam-drawn ferry-train passenger service in the East Bay on an expanding system of lines, but in 1902 the Key System started a competing system of electric lines and ferries. The SP then drew up plans to expand and electrify its system of lines and this new service began in 1911. The trains served the cities of Berkeley, Albany, Emeryville, Oakland, Alameda, and San Leandro transporting commuters to and from the large Oakland Pier (the "mole") and SP Alameda Pier. A fleet of ferry boats ran between these piers and the docks of the Ferry Building on the San Francisco Embarcadero.
The East Bay Electric Lines became the Interurban Electric Railway (IER) in anticipation of the opening of the Bay Bridge Railway in January of 1939. This railway consisted of two tracks on the southern side of the lower deck of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, running from the East Bay to the San Francisco Transbay Terminal. SP IER transbay commuter train service ended in July 1941.
History
Before Electrification (1863–1911)
Prior to the formation of the East Bay Electric Lines (and later Interurban Electric Railway), commuter services by the Southern Pacific Railroad and predecessor Central Pacific Railroad were run entirely by steam traction. The first railroad to operate suburban services in the East Bay was the San Francisco & Alameda Railroad, which was formed on March 25, 1863.
Through a series of mergers with the San Francisco, Alameda, & Stockton Railroad Company and the prior San Francisco & Alameda Railroad, the San Francisco, Oakland, & Alameda Railroad (SFO&A) was formed in June of 1871. The SFO&A would be absorbed by the Central Pacific Railroad in August. With the merger with the Central Pacific, trains would terminate at the Oakland Mole (a long ferry pier into the San Francisco Bay), starting in January of 1882. Suburban commuter services by the Central Pacific would be operated in the same manner after Southern Pacific took over.
In 1902 the San Francisco, Oakland, & San Jose Railway (SFO&SJ) would build a three and a quarter long mile pier from Emeryville into the San Francisco Bay. The "Key Mole" as referred to by patrons would rival the Southern Pacific's Oakland Mole for speed and general service. The SFO&SJ interurban line was faster, quicker, cleaner, and quieter than the Southern Pacific's steam operations, which paled in comparison. Between 1902 and 1911, the appeal of the SFO&SJ, and later companies San Francisco, Oakland, & San Jose Consolidated Railway and Key System, would rival the Southern Pacific's steam operated commuter operations. After management changed hands in the Southern Pacific between Collis P. Huntington and Edward H. Harriman, the decline of revenue by the rivalry would force the Southern Pacific to electrify their lines in competition in 1911.
Electrification to Reorganization (1911–1934)
In 1911 Southern Pacific embarked on a task to double track and electrify its commuter lines. When the construction of catenary over the new lines was complete, Southern Pacific received a new fleet of 72 foot long steel interurbans from the American Car & Foundry Company in the later months of 1911. When the electrification of the lines was completed, a passenger could board an East Bay Electric Lines interurban from either the Oakland or Alameda Moles, and travel to Dutton Avenue, Thousand Oaks, Albany, Berkeley, and Downtown Oakland. Long term plans called for extensions to Richmond and San Jose (to presumably link up with Southern Pacific's other interurban subsidiary, the Peninsular Railway), which never materialized.
In addition to interurban service, streetcar service began in 1912 through various sections of the cities it served. A series of smaller streetcars by the Pullman Car Company also served these lines, until 1930. Between 1912 and 1930 there was little change to the services of the East Bay Electric Lines. However, in 1930 all streetcar services ceased in Oakland and Berkeley as they had failed to turn a profit due to the onset of the automobile and Great Depression. In 1934, the East Bay Electric Lines reorganized as the Interurban Electric Railway (IER), in anticipation of the completion of the San Francisco Bay Bridge.
Due to the advent of automobile service and the Great Depression, the IER was rapidly losing both money and patronage, so a franchise was granted to them for operation on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge to the new Transbay Terminal, in order to entice new patrons.
Bay Bridge Operation to Abandonment (1934–1941)
From the reorganization of the East Bay Electric Lines into the Interurban Electric Railway in 1934, the new IER had already begun plans to reroute service and maintenance facilities well before the Bay Bridge had been completed. The location of the approach to the Bay Bridge was located directly next to the Key System's trackage that led to the Key Mole. So, the Interurban Electric Railway began construction of a trestle over the Southern Pacific and Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe Railroad tracks in order to access this new area. Additionally, it was agreed that the IER and Key System should share a maintenance facility in the new Bridge Yard, so work began on a new facility and yard storage area for the two lines.
When completed, the new Bridge Yard would replace existing Key System tracks with a joint Sacramento Northern, Interurban Electric Railway, and Key System maintenance yard. Extra trains for Bay Bridge usage could also be stored here, but this practice was not used by the Sacramento Northern Railroad who preferred to utilize an existing yard.
The Interurban Electric Railway's new route also featured a fly-over bridge over Key System / Sacramento Northern tracks. From the Bridge Yard to the new Transbay Terminal, the three interurban lines would share two tracks. This required an extensive signaling system, so all trains were retrofitted with special signaling devices that warned of speed limit and the automatic block signaling. Electrification on the bridge would be at 1300 volts for the Sacramento Northern and Interurban Electric Railway, so all trains were also retrofitted to run on this voltage.
Beginning January of 1938, IER trains could now run across the Bay Bridge. Routes now terminated at the Transbay Terminal, but with a central stop at the 26th Street Station for transferring, instead of the usual Oakland and Alameda Moles. With the new addition of interurban service to San Francisco, patrons from Berkeley, Oakland, Alameda, and upper San Leandro could now ride into San Francisco. The IER saw a brief increase of patronage, but due to automobile competition and the fact that cars had been allowed to use the Bay Bridge since 1936, the IER could not compete. Between 1938 and 1940 the IER reduced services drastically in order to try and stay afloat, but could not.
On February 26, 1940, the IER applied to the Public Utilities Commission to abandon services. Interurban commuter services were no longer making money. On July 26, 1941, the Interurban Electric Railway ran its last interurban, and was shut down the following day.
Lines
The East Bay Electric Lines were originally designated mainly by the names of their principal streets. They received numbers for Bay Bridge service. The most significant changes occurred as the result of the removal of the Harrison St. bridge between Oakland and Alameda in December 1923, and the agreement with the Key System in March 1933, with the Bay Bridge plans in view, to abandon duplicating lines, on the basis of which company first served each area.
The Oakland 7th Street Line carried the most passengers, with the Berkeley Shattuck Avenue Line being second. Patronage was at a maximum about 1920 and had declined by about half by the time of Bay Bridge operation.
The SP seemed to prefer to have groups of their lines terminate at the same place. Three lines originally terminated at Thousand Oaks in Berkeley, two at 14th and Franklin in Oakland, and two at High St S. in Alameda. The IER had two lines terminate at Thousand Oaks and two lines at West Alameda.
Berkeley, California St Line - Thousand Oaks station at the intersection of Solano and Colusa Avenues (Colusa Wye) in Berkeley, via Colusa, Monterey, private right-of-way, California, Stanford to the upper platform of the Oakland 16th St Station, thence to Oakland Pier. Terminated March 1933.
Berkeley, Shattuck Ave Line (originally Berkeley Branch Railroad steam line) - Thousand Oaks station (Colusa Wye) in Berkeley, via Solano, private right-of-way, Northbrae Tunnel, Sutter, Henry, Shattuck (stopping at Berkeley Station), Adeline, Stanford to the upper platform of the Oakland 16th St Station, thence to Oakland Pier. Designated Line # 3 (local) and # 9 (express) for Bay Bridge service, re-routed direct to the bridge with no stop at Oakland 16th St Station. During Bay Bridge operation, the last train of the day (early morning) to leave San Francisco was extended from Thousand Oaks along the outer 9th St Line to Albany (San Pablo Ave) because there was no 9th St Line service at this time; this was the last IER service when terminated in July 1941.
Berkeley, 9th Street Line - Thousand Oaks station (Colusa Wye) in Berkeley, via Solano, Jackson, private right-of-way, 9th Street to private right-of-way to Stanford to the upper platform of the 16th Street Station in Oakland, thence to Oakland Pier. Designated Line # 5 for Bay Bridge service, re-routed direct to the bridge with no stop at Oakland 16th St Station. Terminated July 1941.
Berkeley, Ellsworth St Line - Ellsworth and Allston Way in Berkeley, via Ellsworth to Woolsey, Adeline, Stanford to the upper platform of the Oakland 16th St Station, thence to Oakland Pier. Line shortened one block to Bancroft Way in 1931. Terminated March 1933.
Oakland, 7th St, Dutton Ave Line (originally San Francisco and Oakland Railroad steam line) - Dutton Ave and Bancroft in San Leandro, through the neighborhoods of Eastmont (with freight service to the Chevrolet plant that became Eastmont Town Center decades later), Havenscourt, and Seminary, via Bancroft, Almond St, then private right-of-way to 90th Ave, then Blanche St to 82nd Ave, then private right-of-way to Ritchie Ave, then Beck St to 73rd Ave, then private right-of-way to Church St, then Beck St to 64th Ave, then private right-of-way to Seminary Ave, then Bond St to private right-of-way leading through Melrose and along the SP main line tracks through Fruitvale to 7th St, then 7th to Oakland Pier. Almond, Blanche, Beck, Bond (as far as Fremont Way) and the private rights-of-ways connecting them are all now part of Bancroft Ave, while the next private right-of-way is now Bancroft Way. Originally, regular trains operated only as far as Havenscourt and Beck, with a Suburban Connection train meeting every other train and operating to Dutton Ave. Starting in February 1924 all trains operated to Dutton Ave., but the last few cars of each outbound train were removed at Seminary Ave, then added to the front of the next inbound train. During rush hour an additional express train operated via Alameda Pier and the Lincoln Avenue line, stopping only at Park St N. (Alameda), crossing the Fruitvale Bridge, joining the 7th St line east of Fruitvale Station, and making limited stops to the end of the line. Designated Line # 2 (local) and # 7 (express) for Bay Bridge service, and re-routed via the upper platform of the Oakland 16th St Station. Starting in March 1939, all cars operated through to Dutton Ave. Terminated March 1941.
Alameda, Encinal Ave Line (originally South Pacific Coast Railroad steam line) - High St South, via Encinal, Central, Main, private right-of-way to Alameda Pier. Outbound trains arriving at High St South became inbound Lincoln Ave trains. Designated Line # 4 eastbound and # 6 westbound for Bay Bridge service, starting at West Alameda, via private right-of-way, Main, Central, Encinal, Fernside, private right-of-way, Fruitvale Bridge, private right-of-way alongside Fruitvale Ave to junction with 7th St line at Fruitvale Station. Terminated, January 1941.
Alameda, Lincoln Ave Line (originally San Francisco and Alameda Railroad steam line) - High St South, via Fernside, private right-of-way to Alameda Station at Park St, then Lincoln to 5th St, then private right-of-way to 4th St, Pacific, Main, private right-of-way to Alameda Pier. Outbound trains arriving at High St South became inbound Encinal Ave trains. Designated Line # 6 eastbound and # 4 westbound for Bay Bridge service, starting at West Alameda, via private right-of-way to Main, then Pacific to 4th St, then private right-of-way to 5th St., Lincoln to Alameda Station, private right-of-way, Fruitvale Bridge, private right-of-way alongside Fruitvale Ave to junction with 7th St line at Fruitvale Station. Terminated, January 1941.
Alameda via Fruitvale (Horseshoe) Line (originally Central Pacific Railroad steam line) - Alameda Pier (or other Alameda location on Lincoln Ave line) to Oakland Pier via Fruitvale Bridge. An important purpose of this line was to give Alameda residents access to main-line trains at Oakland Pier. Terminated, January 1939.
Oakland, 18th Street Line - 14th and Franklin Station, via Franklin to 20th, 20th (alternating with 21st) to West Street, then via diagonal private right-of-way to 18th Street, 18th to the upper platform of the Oakland 16th St Station, thence to Oakland Pier. In 1926, starting at Webster and 2nd St via Webster to 20th to Franklin and as before. Terminated March 1933.
Oakland via Alameda Pier Line (originally South Pacific Coast Railroad - steam line) - 14th and Franklin Station, via Webster, Harrison St bridge, to private right-of-way to Alameda Pier. Terminated December 1923.
Crosstown Streetcar Line - Oakland 16th St Station, via 18th St, then via diagonal private right-of-way to West St to 20th (alternating with 21st) to Franklin, through 14th and Franklin Station to Webster St to Harrison St bridge to private right-of-way to Mastick (Alameda) to 8th to Central to Encinal to Fernside to private right-of-way to Lincoln to Mastick and back. Alternate cars went around the Alameda loop in the opposite direction. Some service was to 14th and Franklin only. In December 1923, all service was cut back to the 14th and Franklin station. Terminated March 1926.
Mail trains - Starting in December 1923, mail trains, usually consisting of one box motor, loaded sacked mail several times a day at Oakland Pier and delivered it to Oakland 16th St Station and to Berkeley Station. Mail from Oakland Pier was also delivered to Alameda Station, using trains of cars being sent from Oakland Pier to the Alameda Shops for maintenance and repair. Terminated November 1938.
Equipment
Catenary Equipment and Substations
Electrification of the 52 or so miles of trackage began in early 1911, using No. 0000 grooved copper trolley wire, 7/16 inch messenger wires, and hanging loop catenary. Electrification was at 1200 volts direct-current, which allowed for higher speeds, faster acceleration, and less power loss. Substations located at the Tidal Canal (along Fruitvale Ave), Thousand Oaks, and West Oakland converted 1320 volt Alternating-Current into 1200 volts direct current. Catenary cross-arms were of a simple construction, using a center iron pole (painted black) and trolley cross-arms at either 60 or 120 feet of length to hold the catenary wiring.
There were different methods of the application of the towers to hold the catenary in certain settings on the lines. The East Bay Electric Lines had trackage over a series of estuaries and rivers, including the San Francisco Bay, which meant that due to the limitations of the infrastructure over these bodies of water the usual method of center-pole and cross-arm located in-between the double-track was given up, in favor of 65 feet tall iron poles in a lattice formation, that held up the catenary. Additionally, this style of catenary construction was applied on the four track segment of track that paralleled the Southern Pacific's mainline via Oakland.
Car-shops
In order to maintain its fleet of electric locomotives, the East Bay Electric Lines and later Interurban Electric Railway had two shops, the Alameda Shops and the Bridge Yard. The Alameda Shops were located at West Alameda, on the Oakland Estuary, and the Bridge Yard was the general maintenance yard for the Interurban Electric Railway and Key System just before the Bay Bridge.
Interurbans
American Car & Foundry Company Interurbans
To provide faster transportation on its commuter lines, Southern Pacific purchased steel interurbans from the American Car & Foundry Company (AC&FC). The first group of cars arrived in 1911 from the AC&FC and consisted of 40 powered passenger coaches (motors), 25 powered combination baggage-passenger cars (combos), and 50 unpowered passenger coaches (trailers), some with train controls and some without. They had large rectangular end windows, which proved to be a liability for train crews in accidents. Eventually, these rectangular end windows would be replaced with circular windows, reminiscent of portholes and similar to the Pennsylvania Railroad's MP54 electric suburbans. The circular windows however would not be applied to trailers, or trains that lacked train controls.
The first steel cars were 73 feet long, and were moderately heavy as they weighed 1562 pounds per running foot. However, they were light when measuring weight per passenger due to their high capacity of seating. The large seating of the interurbans (which sat 2 - 3 people per seat) allowed for a general capacity of 116 patrons.
When first acquired by the AC&FC, the interurbans were painted an olive green, which was standard among most passenger cars of the time. Eventually the interurbans were repainted a bright red, which led to many patrons calling the interurbans the "Big Red Cars". The color remained until abandonment.
After abandonment of electric service in the East Bay, most of the interurban cars went to the Pacific Electric, though some were deeded by the California Toll Booth Authority and used in Utah and Nevada during World War 2. Most were retired when Pacific Electric ceased service in 1961, though some remain preserved in museums such as the Western Railway Museum, Southern California Railway Museum, and Travel Town Museum.
Pullman Company Interurbans
Beginning in 1913, East Bay Electric commissioned the famous Pullman Car Company to produce a series of interurbans, similar to that of the American Car & Foundry Company's style construction. The style consisted of 10 motors, 4 combination cars, and 2 powered express-baggage cars (commonly known as box motors). These differed from the AC&FC's style because these new interurbans all featured the safer rounded windows in the front and backs in the original construction, and seated only 111 passengers.
After the abandonment of the East Bay Electric, all of these interurbans were sent to the Pacific Electric for conversion into the famous "Blimps" or "Red Cars". All were retired by 1953.
St Louis Car Company Interurbans
In addition to the AC&FC and Pullman built interurbans, the Southern Pacific commissioned the St Louis Car Company to produce more interurbans. These cars were identical to their predecessors, bearing the rounded windows at the front and backs. Only six motors were produced. These cars seated only 108 patrons.
All were scrapped.
Streetcars
The East Bay Electric Lines also operated a series of more suburban local services, which were served by a series of streetcars, smaller and slower than the interurbans.
Pullman Company Streetcars
The only company to manufacture streetcars for the East Bay Electric Lines was the Pullman car company. Twenty were manufactured, all featuring center-bay doors for boarding on low-platforms. The streetcars were meant for more local service, which also means they had a lower passenger seating limit, only 86 patrons.
In 1913 it was found that they had too many streetcars for the low demand of the line, so ten cars were sent to the Pacific Electric for operation there. However, two cars were brought back in 1919 due to a need for more streetcar services. In 1926, because of declining patronage, the streetcars were sent to rival Key System for operation on the subsidiary East Bay Street Railways (EBSR).
However, the EBSR was converting to one-man operation, which means that the motorman acts as the conductor too, and the streetcars were built for the traditional two man operation (meaning there would have been a motorman and a conductor). This led to their downfall, and in 1933 all were scrapped.
Operating Practices and Improvements
The usual operating practice was that the number of powered cars in a train was at least one more than the number of trailers. Trailers, with or without train controls, were always placed in the middle of trains; train controls on trailers were mainly used in assembling or disassembling trains. As ridership declined and trains became shorter, trailers were primarily used only during rush hour. Combos were used to carry checked baggage to and from main-line trains at Oakland Pier and to deliver bundled newspapers. They were usually put on the end of the train toward Oakland Pier, and most commonly on the 7th St Line as far as Havenscourt or Seminary Avenue. When plans for longer routes were not implemented, 21 of the ACF combos were changed to motors at the time they received their round end windows in the 1920s. Due to the heavy grades on the Bay Bridge, 10 trailers were changed to motors in 1938 when all the passenger-carrying cars were modified with automatic train control and other safety equipment for bridge operation. The California Toll Bridge Authority (TBA) funded these changes and received title to 58 cars in return. All cars carried the name "Southern Pacific Lines" until Bay Bridge service began, when the IER-owned cars were repainted with "Interurban Electric Railway Company".
Aftermath
Lines
Revival of Lines for Key System
The rival Key System assumed rights to some of the trackage and overhead wires of abandoned IER/SP routes. This had first occurred due to the 1933 consolidation. In March 1933, the abandoned California St line in Berkeley from about Ada and California Sts, up Monterey Avenue to Colusa Ave, was used for the Key's Sacramento St Line (H line) until abandonment in July 1941. In April 1941, a portion of the abandoned 7th St, Dutton Ave Line in East Oakland, from East 14th St to Havenscourt Boulevard, was used to extend the Key's 12th St Line (A Line) until October 1950, when this line was cut back to 12th and Oak Sts. In August 1941, a portion of the Shattuck Ave line in Berkeley, from about Dwight Way to the south end of the Northbrae Tunnel was used to extend the Key's Shattuck Ave Line (F Line). In December 1942, the F Line was extended through the tunnel to the intersection of Solano Ave and The Alameda. The F Line was abandoned in April 1958.
Key System streetcars also used the IER Shattuck Avenue tracks from Parker St to University Ave until abandonment in November 1948. During World War II the Key System used a portion of the 7th St, Dutton Ave Line tracks in Oakland on 7th St, from Broadway to Pine St, for streetcar service to a shipyard and most of the 9th St track of the 9th St Line for the Richmond Shipyard Railway.
Freight Service
SP freight service continued over parts of the 9th St, Shattuck Ave, 7th St and Lincoln Ave Lines. An excursion train pulled by a steam locomotive was operated over this track in April 1954, by the Bay Area Electric Railroad Association. By 1960, all except the part from the 9th St Line had been abandoned.
Infrastructure remnants
Although not a lot remains infrastructure wise of the old East Bay Electric, there are some very noticeable remains. The Northbrae Tunnel, which runs between Sutter St and Solano Avenue underneath the Fountain Roundabout, is one of the most physical remains of the SP/IER. The tunnel once was a main artery for the SP interurbans into Thousand Oaks, and was used by Key System well after abandonment of SP electric service.
Additionally, the elevated platforms of the IER still exist at Southern Pacific's 16th Street Station in Oakland. Although interurban service ceased to the elevated platforms in 1941, the platforms were never torn down and still remain today as a visible reminder of former IER service. However, both approach trestles to the elevated platform were demolished during abandonment. The trestle that crosses the Southern Pacific mainline however still exists, partially. The northbound portion of the trestle was formerly in use by the Oakland Terminal Railway, a Key System subsidiary meant to handle freight. Sections of the trestle have been cut down, such as large sections of the former double-tracked bridge, which was downgraded to single-track during the sixties and seventies, after switching motions were no longer required on the bridge. The southbound portion of the trestle was converted to a road after abandonment, and does not exist anymore aside from a 280 foot long section. Since 2011, the Oakland Terminal Railway has no longer used the trestle for a variety of reasons, most notably being a 4% grade and weight limits. A lack of customers caused the line to cease using the trestle. Since then there is no track access on either side, leaving it isolated from the national rail network.
Aside from the Northbrae Tunnel, 16th Street Station, and trestle, nothing else too visible remains. The Emeryville Greenway between 9th street and Stanford Ave is a section of former IER right of way that serviced the interurban line to Thousand Oaks.
Equipment
After the SP streetcar line was abandoned in 1926, all 12 cars were sold to the Key System.
After IER service ended, the TBA separated its 58 cars from the SP's 89 cars. In 1942, the TBA sold 6 motors for scrap in January and the remaining 52 cars to the Houston Shop Corp., which shipped them via the SP to Houston. One of the TBA trailers was wrecked in transit, so the SP replaced it with one of its trailers. The SP sent the 2 box motors to the PE, in March and April used 5 trailers for buildings in West Oakland, and stored their remaining 81 cars until they were requisitioned in July and September by the United States Maritime Commission for use in transporting workers to World War II shipyards: 20 trailers to a line in the Portland, Oregon, area and 61 cars to the PE in Southern California where some of them were in use until that system ceased operations in 1961. A few of the cars have been preserved:
See also
The Key System; another transbay commuter rail system that served the East Bay during the same era.
Footnotes
References
Issue No. 318. Reissued, combined with Issue No. 199, as
Reprinted as Issue No. 199.
External links
1927 Map of East Bay Electric Lines (almost maximum extent of lines: no Harrison St. Bridge or streetcar tracks on 8th St., Alameda)
Photos and maps of the red trains in the East Bay
"Electrification of Oakland Suburban Lines", Railway Age Gazette, September 13, 1912, pp.460-3
List of California street railroads
List of interurban railways
Defunct California railroads
Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiaries
Passenger rail transportation in California
Electric railways in California
Interurban railways in California
Public transportation in Alameda County, California
Rail transportation in Oakland, California
History of Oakland, California
1911 establishments in California
1941 disestablishments in California |
4243110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangquan | Yangquan | Yangquan ( ) is a prefecture-level city in the east of Shanxi province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hebei province to the east. Situated at the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau and the west side of the Taihang Mountains, known as "Rippling Spring" in ancient times. Yangquan occupies a total area of . According to the 2020 Census, Yangquan had a population of 1,318,505 inhabitants whom 1,037,456 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of 3 urban Districts plus Pingding County now being conurbated. Yangquan is a new industrial city of Shanxi province. It belongs to the warm temperate semi-humid continental monsoon climate zone. Yangquan City has jurisdiction over two counties and three districts.
Yangquan is the gateway of the Shanxi province, located in the middle of Taiyuan and Shijiazhuang, 100 kilometers apart. Yangquan is also located in the eastern developed areas and the central and western regions of the combination zone, and also located in the reasonable transport sector through Tianjin, Qingdao, Huanghua. There are the ninth pass and Niangzi pass of the Great Wall, the Cangshan tourist Scenic spot, the Guanshan Academy, the former residence of Shi Pingmei, the Liangjiazhai Hot Spring, and the Shinaoshan Forest Park.
In 2017, Yangquan achieved a regional gross domestic product of 67.2 billion yuan, an increase of 6.3 percent at comparable prices. Among them, the added value of the primary industry was 1.04 billion yuan, up 3.0 percent, the added value of the secondary industry was 32.04 billion yuan, an increase of 5.6 percent, and that of the tertiary industry was 34.12 billion yuan, an increase of 7.1 percent. The composition of the three industries was adjusted from 1.7 to 48.0 50.3 in 2016 to 1.5 to 47.7 50.8. The per capita regional GDP was 47790 yuan, or US$7078 at the average exchange rate in 2017.
Administrative divisions
Geography and climate
Yangquan has a rather dry, monsoon-influenced humid continental climate /semi-arid climate (Köppen Dwa/BSk), with cold and very dry winters, and hot, somewhat humid summers. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, and the annual mean is . The diurnal temperature variation, not exceeding in any month, is not large for provincial standards. More than 70% of the annual precipitation, which ranges from in the entire prefecture-level city (PLC), occurs from June to September; throughout the PLC, sunshine totals 2700–2900 hours annually, and the frost-free period lasts 130–180 days.
Location domain
Yangquan City is located in the east wing of central Shanxi Province, with geographical coordinates of 112 °5 °114 °4 east longitude and 37 °40 °40 °38 °31 °north latitude. It is located in the west of the middle of Taihang Mountain, north of Dingxiang County and Wutai County of Xinzhou, and east of Pingshan County and Jingxing County of Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province.
Southern Jinzhong Xiyang County, Jinzhong Shouyang County, Taiyuan Yangqu County;
It is about 106 kilometers long from north to south and about 42 kilometers from east to west.
the city has a total land area of 4559 square kilometers.
Geomorphology
Yangquan City is located on the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau and belongs to the eastern mountainous area of Shanxi Province.
The landforms in the territory are mainly mountainous areas, while the rest are hills and plains.
The mountains include nine mountains.
On the northern city boundary is the Niudaoling Mountains, which is located at the junction of Zhoushan and Taihang Mountains.
There are two mountains on the northwest boundary, which is the branch of Zhoushan.
The rest of the mountains are arranged in two rows, east and west.
The eastern train consists of four mountains, from north to south are the Baima Mountains, the Qiulin Mountains, the Mianshan Mountains and the Aishan Mountains. They belong to the middle of the Taihang Mountains, with peaks ranging from 700 to 1700 meters above sea level.
Taihang Mountain is the boundary mountain of Hebei and Jin provinces, its eastern slope is steep, the foothills meet with the North China Plain, which is less than 100 meters above sea level; the western slope is gently inclined, and the mountains and hills are undulating.
The western column consists of three mountains, namely, the Northern Mountains, the Southern Mountains and the Qiling Mountains.
They have gone deep into the interior of the Shanxi Plateau, although the altitude is higher, but the ground fluctuation is slower than that in the east.
Among the mountains, there are some intermountain basins, mainly Xiyan basin in the west, Yucheng basin in the middle and Pingding basin in the south.
Hydrology
Yangquan City, with the exception of 22 square meters in the west belongs to the Yellow River Basin, the rest belong to the Haihe River Basin.
There are more than 60 rivers in the territory, of which 34 have a watershed area of more than 10 square kilometers, and seven have a watershed area of more than 300 square kilometers and a river length of more than 30 kilometers, all of which belong to the Haihe River system.
Hutuo River and Mianhe River are the main rivers in the territory.
Hutuo River flows through the northern part of the city, is the Haihe River system of the five major rivers of the north source of the Ziya River, in the territory of the main tributaries are Wuhe, Longhua River, Shitang River and so on.
The Mianhe River is formed by the confluence of the Wenhe River and the Taohe River, distributed in the middle and south of the city; after leaving the country, it converges with the Gantao River (Songxi River) and flows into the Hutuo River.
There are also a number of rivers that leave the country directly.
History
Yangquan City has a long history, according to the 1950s from Pingding northwest jujube smoke, Daliangding and other places unearthed cultural relics, the Middle Paleolithic Age, there will be human survival and reproduction here.
During the Tang, Yu, Xia and Shang dynasties, Yangquan City was handed down to be the place of ancient Jizhou.
During the Spring and Autumn period, there was a hatred of Judah in Yuxian County.
Zhou Zhending king twelve years (457 years ago), Jinqing Zhibo extermination of feud; sixteen years (453 years ago), Han Zhao Wei three Jin, the city belongs to Zhao. Qin belongs to Taiyuan County.
At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, Shangai County was located in the city, and the county governance was in Xincheng Village, Pingding County, which belongs to Taiyuan County.
In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Shangai County belongs to Changshan State of Jizhou.
When the three Kingdoms, the north and south belong to Wei and state Leping County, Xinxing County.
The old system of Cao and Wei was used in the Western Jin Dynasty.
During the Sixteen Kingdoms of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, it belonged to Qian Zhao, Hou Zhao, ran Wei, Qian Yan, Qian Qin, Hou Yan, Northern Wei and other countries. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, the north and south belonged to Shiai County, Leping County, and Dingxiang County, Xinxing County, Wangzhou. After the whole territory belongs to the Eastern Wei Dynasty and the Northern Qi Dynasty. Sui in this Niangzi Wei Ze County, is Jingzhou, after the waste; in this county to buy the original Qiu County (later renamed Yu County), and Shiai County belong to Liaozhou.
In the early Tang Dynasty, the city belonged to the state, and later abandoned by the state. Shiai and Yuxian successively belonged to both prefectures and Taiyuan prefectures. In the first year of Tianbao (742), Shiai changed its name to Guangyang and moved to Guangyang Village.
The five dynasties belong to the late Tang Dynasty, the Post-Jin Dynasty, the Post-Han Dynasty and the Northern Han Dynasty.
In the Northern Song Dynasty, Taiping Xingguo four years (979), changed Guangyang County to Pingding County, the county administration moved back to Pingding Shangcheng, Li Ping Dingjun; Yu County belongs to the state; after that, Pingding County and Yu County both belong to Hedong Road.
Jin Shengping Dingzhou, Yuzhou, is Hedong Road, he Northeast Road.
Yuan belongs to Jining Road.
In the Ming Dynasty, Yuzhou was reduced to a county, and Pingding Prefecture belonged to Taiyuan House in Shanxi Province.
Qing Yongzheng two years (1724), pacified as Zhili Prefecture, the addition of Yu County, Shouyang County, is Shanxi Province.
At the beginning of the Republic of China, it was Pingding County and Yu County, which belonged to Jining Road in Shanxi Province and was directly under the jurisdiction of Shanxi Province. During the War of Resistance against Japan, Ping (Lubei) County, Ping (Ding) East County and Ping (Ding) West County, Yu County divided into Pen (County) Ping (Shan) County, Pen (County) Yang (qu) County, Pen (County) Shou (Yang) County; To the south of Zhengtai Railway, Ping (Ding) East and Ping (Ding) West two counties belong to the Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan Border region, and the northern counties belong to the Shanxi-Cr-Hebei Border region. During the War of Liberation, peace, Yu County gradually restored to the original establishment.
On May 4, 1947, Yangquan City was established as part of the original Pingding County, which was later renamed Yangquan Industrial and Mining area. Yangquan City (industrial and mining area) has been under the jurisdiction of the North China Joint Administrative Commission, the North China people's Government and Shanxi Province.
After the founding of New China, Yangquan City (initially industrial and mining area, resumed in 1952) several times by Jinzhong (Yuci) area (special agency), Pingding County, Yu County is Jinzhong (Yuci) area (special agency). It has set up urban areas, suburbs and mining areas.
In September 1983, the city administered the county system, and Pingding County and Yu County were assigned to Yangquan City. Yangquan City became a city with three districts (city, mine and suburb) under the jurisdiction of two counties (Pingding and Yu County) directly under the jurisdiction of Shanxi Province.
Natural resources
Water
The total amount of water resources in Yangquan City is 1.584 billion cubic meters per year.
Among them, the river runoff is 1.382 billion cubic meters per year (including 490 million cubic meters per year in this river and 892 million cubic meters per year in the outer area).
The amount of groundwater resources is 543 million cubic meters per year (including 435 million cubic meters per year for local groundwater resources and 108 million cubic meters per year for incoming groundwater resources in the outer area),
The repeated amount of river runoff and groundwater is 341 million cubic meters per year.
The per capita share of local water resources in Yangquan City is only 562 cubic meters per year, which is slightly higher than that of Shanxi Province, which is 546 cubic meters per year, less than 1 to 4 of the national per capita water resources of 2400 cubic meters per year.
It is only 1 to 8% of the world's per capita water resources.
Flora
Yangquan City has complex habitats and a wide variety of plants.
According to the Engler-Gilger classification system, there are 93 families and 437 species of common plants in China, including 5 families and 5 species of fungi and 4 families and 6 species of ferns.
There are 4 families and 11 species of gymnosperms, 80 families and 415 species of angiosperms (including 72 families and 360 species of dicotyledons and 8 families and 55 species of monocotyledons).
Among the families, the most species are Compositae, Leguminosae, Rosaceae and Gramineae, followed by Liliaceae, Umbelina, Labiatae, Chenopodiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Solanaceae and so on.
Among the plant variety resources, there are more than 160 species of medicinal plants, as well as a variety of food crops, oil crops and vegetable crops.
Yangquan City has 941000 mu of forest, accounting for 13.74% of the total area of Yangquan City, with another 22.05 million trees on the four sides, with a total wood volume of 550000 cubic meters.
In the forestland, the economic forest is 48000 mu.
There are 1.821 million mu of pastoral slope grassland, of which more than 90% are available, and the total output of grass is more than 100m kg.
Fauna
Due to the lack of forests and serious environmental pollution, there are few wild animals in Yangquan.
For example, "Pingding Zhou Zhi" recorded that in the Qing Dynasty, there were tigers and deer nearby. Nowadays, tigers have disappeared and deer can be found only at the Yao Ling Temple Forest Farm and other places with a small amount of artificial breeding.
In addition to wild animals, Yangquan City contains a large number of domesticated animals, such as pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, donkeys, mules, chickens, and rabbits.
Mineral resources
Yangquan City is rich in mineral resources, and as many as 52 kinds of mineral deposits have been proved, especially anthracite, pyrite and bauxite, which are famous for their large reserves, high grade and easy exploitation.
It is one of the largest anthracite production bases in China, one of the three bauxite production bases and one of the five pyrite production bases in China.
The territory contains a coal area of 1051 square kilometers, coal geological reserves of 10.4 billion tons, pyrite 250 million tons, bauxite 227 million tons.
The annual output of raw coal is 35 million tons, the annual production of pyrite is 2 million tons, and the annual output of bauxite clinker is 1.8 million tons.
There are also ceramic raw materials, kaolin, plastic clay, hard clay reserves of 177.409 million tons; feldspar reserves of 43.17 million tons; quartz reserves of 43.2 million tons; diopside reserves of 500 million tons.
Economy
In 2017, Yangquan achieved a regional gross domestic product of 67.2 billion yuan, an increase of 6.3 percent at comparable prices.
Among them, the added value of the primary industry was 1.04 billion yuan, up 3.0 percent, the added value of the secondary industry was 32.04 billion yuan, an increase of 5.6 percent, and that of the tertiary industry was 34.12 billion yuan, an increase of 7.1 percent.
The composition of the three industries was adjusted from 1.7 to 48.0 50.3 in 2016 to 1.5 to 47.7 50.8.
The per capita regional GDP was 47790 yuan, or US$7078 at the average exchange rate in 2017.
Consumer prices rose 1.4% year-on-year, with food prices falling 0.9%.
Retail prices rose 0.8%.
The ex-factory prices of industrial producers rose 8.1%, of which the prices of means of production and means of living rose by 7.7% and 7.7%, respectively.
The purchase price of industrial producers rose 14.8 percent.
25326 new jobs were created in cities and towns throughout the year.
11626 rural workers were transferred.
At the end of the year, the registered unemployment rate in cities and towns was 3.11%, below the provincial control target of 4.2%.
In 2017, investment in fixed assets in Yangquan City totaled 24.57 billion yuan, an increase of 6.6 percent over the same caliber.
Of this total, investment in the primary industry was 300 million yuan, down 88.8 percent; investment in the secondary industry was 14.97 billion yuan, up 51.3 percent; and investment in the tertiary industry was 9.3 billion yuan, down 11 percent.
According to the type of registration, the holding investment of the state-owned economy was 14.79 billion yuan, an increase of 29.4 percent.
By major sectors, industrial investment was 14.97 billion yuan, up 51.3 percent; infrastructure investment was 3.61 billion yuan, down 24.9 percent; and other investment was 5.99 billion yuan, down 28.2 percent.
In the whole year, 193 projects with investment in fixed assets (excluding real estate) were completed and put into production, with an investment rate of 53.0%, with a new fixed assets of 10.66 billion yuan and a utilization rate of 49.5%.
In 2017, the general public budget revenue of Yangquan City reached 5 billion yuan, an increase of 21.1 percent.
Of this total, tax revenue was 3.79 billion yuan, an increase of 38.5 percent. Domestic value-added tax, business tax, enterprise income tax, personal income tax, resource tax and urban construction tax totaled 3.09 billion yuan.
They increased by 76.9%, decreased by 99.0%, increased by 175.8%, increased by 56.0%, increased by 65.7% and increased by 19.3%.
The general public budget expenditure was 10.58 billion yuan, an increase of 10.5 per cent.
Of these, expenditure on agriculture, forestry and water services decreased by 1.2%, expenditure on education increased by 4.6%, expenditure on social security and employment increased by 18.8%, expenditure on health and family planning increased by 1.3%, and expenditure on energy conservation and environmental protection increased by 21.4%.
Spending on culture, sports and media increased by 1.8%, spending on urban and rural communities increased by 8.9%, and expenditure on public security increased by 1.0%.
In 2017, the per capita disposable income of urban permanent residents in Yangquan City was 29581 yuan, an increase of 6.4 per cent.
The per capita disposable income of rural permanent residents was 12963 yuan, an increase of 6.5 per cent.
The per capita disposable income of low-income households in cities and towns accounted for 20 per cent of the total households surveyed, up 8.2 per cent, while that in rural areas accounted for 20 per cent of the total households surveyed, accounting for 5553 yuan, an increase of 14.8 per cent.
Primary sector
In 2017, the planting area of crops in Yangquan City decreased by 1.5 per cent to 55000 hectares.
Of this total, grain planting area was 53000 hectares, down 2.5 percent, and oil planting area was 123.5 hectares, an increase of 32.4 percent.
Among the grain acreage, the corn acreage was 45000 hectares, down 3.4 per cent.
The total grain output for the whole year was 260000 tons, an increase of 0.4 percent.
Of this total, corn was 239000 tons, an increase of 0.2 per cent.
In 2017, Yangquan's total meat output was 21000 tons, an increase of 5.1 per cent.
Of this total, pork production was 16000 tons, up 4.7 per cent; beef production was 400 tons, up 70.2 per cent; and mutton production was 1000 tons, up 17.4 per cent.
Milk production was 6000 tons, down 18.2 per cent.
Egg production was 33000 tons, down 2.2 per cent.
The output of aquatic products was 701 tons, an increase of 12.8 percent.
In 2017, Yangquan City completed afforestation area of 3.7 thousand hectares, an increase of 21.1 percent, of which the artificial afforestation area was 3.3 thousand hectares, an increase of 18.8 percent.
Barren mountains and wasteland afforested an area of 3.3 thousand hectares.
By the end of 2017, the total power of agricultural machinery in Yangquan City was 331000 kilowatts, down 21.5 percent.
The area of mechanical cultivated land was 42000 hectares, down 0.7 percent, the mechanical sown area was 44000 hectares, and the mechanical harvest area was 17000 hectares, up 1.1 percent and 0.8 percent respectively over the previous year.
The total income of agricultural mechanization in the city reached 210 million yuan, an increase of 5.0 per cent.
Huayang New Material Technology Group (Chinese: 华阳新材料科技集团), until 2021 was known as Yangquan Coal Industry Group Company Limited, is a coal mining and energy company. Founded in 1950, transformed into a joint-stock company in 1999, headquartered in Yangquan.
Secondary sector
In 2017, the number of industrial enterprises above the scale of Yangquan reached 123, with an industrial added value of 21.7 billion yuan, an increase of 5.5 percent.
The raw coal output of industrial enterprises above scale was 51.326 million tons, an increase of 1.1 per cent.
Coal washing was 23.881 million tons, down 29.9 percent, and electricity was 12.55 billion kilowatt hours, up 27.7 percent.
In 2017, industrial enterprises above the scale of Yangquan achieved 73.91 billion yuan in main business income, an increase of 21.3 percent, and 4.01 billion yuan in profits and taxes, an increase of 91 percent. Of these, the total profits were-1.64 billion yuan, 180 million yuan more than the same period last year.
The tax reached 5.65 billion yuan, an increase of 44.1 per cent.
The "two funds" of enterprises occupied 14.47 billion yuan, down 9.7 percent, of which accounts receivable totaled 11.81 billion yuan, down 14.3 percent, and finished goods totaled 2.66 billion yuan, an increase of 18.8 percent.
There were 54 loss-making enterprises, with a loss of 43.9 percent, and a loss of 3.41 billion yuan, an increase of 30.7 percent.
In 2017, the added value of the construction industry in Yangquan reached 5.08 billion yuan, an increase of 6.2 per cent.
The total profits of general contracting and professional contracting enterprises with construction qualifications were 30 million yuan, down 83.9 percent, and the tax paid was 460 million yuan, an increase of 96.7 percent.
Tertiary sector
In 2017, investment in real estate development in Yangquan City totaled 3.03 billion yuan, down 52.7 percent.
According to the purpose of the project,
Society
Science
In 2017, the number of patent applications in Yangquan City was 1107, a decrease of 21.6 percent, of which the number of invention patent applications was 439, an increase of 7.6 percent.
The number of patents granted in the city was 360, a decrease of 5.7 percent, of which the number of patents granted for invention was 18, a decrease of 21.7 percent.
A total of 41 scientific research achievements at or above the municipal level were achieved in the whole year, including 37 at the municipal level and 4 at the provincial level.
In the whole year, a total of 154technical contracts were signed, with a total transaction value of 250 million yuan.
In 2001, 26 scientific and technological achievements were newly registered.
Won 4 provincial science and technology awards.
There are 1 enterprise technology center, 10 provincial enterprise technology center and 30 municipal enterprise technology center.
There are 42 high-tech enterprises in the city.
By the end of 2017, there were 2 ordinary colleges and universities in Yangquan City, with 67000 people trained in practical skills for farmers in the whole year.
Culture
By the end of 2017, there were 6 mass art centers, 6 cultural centers, 6 art performing groups and 6 public libraries in Yangquan City.
At the end of the year, there were 332000 cable TV subscribers.
A total of 6.21 million copies of Yangquan Daily were distributed throughout the year.
Medical and health
By the end of 2017, there were 1548 health institutions (including clinics and village clinics) in Yangquan City, with a total of 6957 beds.
There are 6 Maternal and Child Health Hospitals (stations and stations).
There are a total of 10162 health technical personnel in health institutions in the city.
Sports cause.
In 2017, Yangquan athletes won 36 gold, 33 silver and 53 bronze medals (including non-Olympic events) in major competitions at home and abroad.
The city sold 118 million yuan in sports lottery tickets, nearly double the previous year.
Infrastructure
In 2017, the total energy consumption of Yangquan City was 8.5951 million tons of standard coal, an increase of 2.87 percent over the previous year, and the gross domestic product of 10,000 yuan consumed 1.3130 tons of standard coal, down 3.21 percent.
For the whole year, industrial comprehensive energy consumption was reduced by 5.6588 million tons of standard coal, an increase of 0.7 per cent.
The energy consumption per unit product of the main energy-consuming industrial enterprises is as follows: the comprehensive energy consumption per ton of raw coal production is 6.27 kg standard coal / ton, down 10.6%, and the unit energy consumption of coking process is 147.74 kg standard coal / ton, down 3.6%.
The standard coal consumption of thermal power plant is 300.47 g standard coal / kWh, up 0.4%, and the comprehensive energy consumption per unit alumina is 422.14 kg standard coal / ton, up 3.0%.
In 2017, the total amount of electricity used by the whole society in Yangquan City was 8.29 billion kilowatt hours, an increase of 16.5 per cent.
Among them, electricity consumption in the primary industry was 60 million kilowatt hours, up 8.3 percent, and that in the secondary industry was 6.69 billion kilowatt hours, up 18.1 percent, of which industrial power consumption was 6.64 billion kilowatt hours, an increase of 18.0 percent.
Electricity consumption in the tertiary industry was 930 million kWh, an increase of 14.3 per cent, and that of urban and rural residents was 610 million kWh, an increase of 4.4 per cent.
The proportion of electricity consumption of primary, secondary, tertiary industry and urban and rural residents in the whole society was 0.8%, 79.6%, 11.4% and 8.2%, respectively.
Social security
By the end of 2017, 310900 people in Yangquan City had participated in basic old-age insurance for urban workers, an increase of 22300 over the previous year, and 440900 had participated in old-age insurance for urban and rural residents, an increase of 300 over the previous year.
386000 urban workers participated in basic medical insurance, 815600 urban and rural residents participated in basic medical insurance, 260000 participated in industrial injury insurance, an increase of 2200 over the previous year, and 251200 participated in unemployment insurance, the same as the previous year.
246700 people participated in maternity insurance, an increase of 900 over the previous year.
The minimum wage for three districts and two counties in the city is 1700 yuan in urban areas, mining areas and suburbs, and 1500 yuan in Pingding County and Yu County, an increase of 80 yuan over the previous year.
In 2017, Yangquan City had a total of 34300 urban minimum living security objects, a decrease of 999 over the previous year, and 40800 rural minimum living security objects, an increase of 217 over the previous year, and 6300 people were included in the five guarantees in rural areas.
A total of 245 million yuan of minimum guaranteed funds were disbursed throughout the year, an increase of 24 million yuan over the previous year.
By the end of 2017, there were three rescue stations in Yangquan.
A total of 28 social service institutions provide accommodation, the number of beds in old-age service institutions is 1995, the number of beds in various welfare homes is 350, and the number of adoptions is 102.
There are 576 community service facilities in cities and towns, including 90 comprehensive community service centers.
In the whole year, 199 million yuan of welfare lottery tickets were sold and 100000 yuan of donations were received from the community.
Transportation
In 2017, the added value of transportation, warehousing and postal services in Yangquan reached 5 billion yuan, an increase of 12.1 per cent. The mileage of highway lines is 5660.4 km at the end of the year, an increase of 2.2 km over the end of last year. For the whole year, the railway freight volume was 44.971 million tons, an increase of 3.7 percent, and the railway passenger volume was 2.64 million, an increase of 1.3 percent. The number of civilian vehicles in the city reached 217000 (including three-wheeled vehicles and low-speed trucks), an increase of 9.9 percent, of which 190000 were private cars, an increase of 11.3 percent. The number of cars was 134000, an increase of 10.9 percent, of which 126000 were private cars, an increase of 11.7 percent.
Aviation
Yangquan City is located between Taiyuan and Shijiazhuang, the urban area is about 140 kilometers away from Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport in the east, and about 100 kilometers away from Taiyuan Wusu International Airport in the west. There are a number of air ticket outlets in the city, quick and convenient to inquire and book flights. In 2016, the Yangquan City Terminal of Taiyuan Wusu International Airport officially opened, providing ticket purchase and airport shuttle services. In 2017, the Yangquan Terminal of Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport officially opened, providing ticket purchase and airport pick-up services.
Railway
China's first electrified railway double line, the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan railway, runs through the urban area.
In 2009, Yangquan North railway station was opened on the Shijiazhuang–Taiyuan high-speed railway. Most services to the older station were canceled leading to complaints from residents as it took 90 minutes by road to reach Yangquan North railway station from downtown Yangquan, and that journeys were less convenient.
Construction started in 2016 on the Yangquan–Dazhai railway. As well as carrying freight, it will allow faster journeys from downtown Yingquan to Yingquan North railway station as well as south to Dazhai. The first section, from Yangquan North to Yangquan East, opened in 2020.
Highway
The highway traffic has formed the highway network which runs through the east and the west, longitudinally through the north and south, the trunk and branch crisscross, the layout is reasonable, take the city as the center to radiate to two counties and three districts. East to Hebei, west to Taiyuan, south to Changzhi, north to five, extending in all directions. The first high-grade highway in Shanxi Province, Taijiu Expressway, passes through the border and runs through the Beijing-Shenzhen Expressway and the Beijing-Tianjin-Tang Expressway, which has greatly improved the investment environment in Yangquan and made it very convenient to go east and west. In 2013, Yangquan City, county and county access asphalt road, township access road, village access motor vehicles. Highway traffic is developing in the direction of wide roadbed, large tonnage and high speed. Yangquan Expressway is more developed. The Beijing-Shenzhen high-speed and the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan high-speed all connect with its main line too old high-speed. It is only an hour's drive from Taijiao Expressway across Yangquan to Shijiazhuang Airport or Taiyuan Airport, while it takes only more than three hours to get to Beijing via Taijiu Expressway and Jingshi Expressway. The 207 National Highway and 307 National Highway also pass through Yangquan, making the traffic of Yangquan Highway easy to reach all directions. Yangquan City bus terminal every day to Zhengzhou, Taiyuan, Shijiazhuang, Beijing, Jinzhong and other places of the bus.
Specialty
Walnut and their oil, pepper, dried cucumber, coal carving, casserole and vinegar is the specialty goods of Yangquan.
Tourism
Park
Nanshan Park, Taohe Park, Beishan Park, Yangquan Botanical Garden, City Central Park are the main park and tourist attractions.
Historical Site
Yangquan contains the ruins of the ancient city of Zhao Jianzi at the end of the Spring and Autumn period, the site of the garrison of Han Xin in the Han, Huaiyin, and Hou, and the site where the princess of Pingyang led the army to garrison Niangziguan in the Tang Dynasty.
In Dongfu Mountain, in the south of Pingding, Nu WA is said to have built a stove here to make up the sky, making the whole stone of Dongfu Mountain brown and red, floating but not sinking after it has been thrown into the water. Up to now, the cooker still exists, as well as the inscription of Lu Shen in the Ming Dynasty.
The Cang mountain, 60 kilometers north of the city, is said to have been hidden here by Zhao orphans in the Spring and Autumn period. There is a legend of the Canggu cave, and the name of the Cang mountain is interpreted here.
In addition, Yangquan also preserves many ancient cultural sites, such as the Northern Wei Grottoes, the cliff stone carvings of the Southern and Northern dynasties, the main hall of Lin Li Guandi Temple rebuilt in the Song Dynasty, and the ancient architectural groups since the Jin and Yuan dynasty.
Memorial site
The site of the pacified armed uprising led by the Chinese Communist Party in 1931 and the site of Shinao Mountain, the main battlefield of the "hundred League War" in 1940.
(100 Patriotic Education bases).
The Monument to the "hundred League War" (the main monument) is 40 meters high and is shaped like a sharp bayonet.
Peng Zhen inscribed on the front of the inscription: "brilliant achievements, forever in the annals of history";
On both sides are Xu Qian's inscriptions: "the martyrs who took part in the hundred League War are immortal." Bo Yibo wrote: "the hundred League War, the most brilliant page in the War of Resistance against Japan, will certainly go down in the annals of history and shine forever."
Cultural relics and monuments
In addition, there are many ancient temples and temples, stele inscriptions, ancient tombs and other cultural footprints.
Liangjiazhai Hot Spring, Yaolin Temple and Niangziguan Falls with medical value, and the rare wonders of large stalactite cave in the north, such as Lianhua Cave, Wuhuadong and so on.
Yao Lin Temple is located in Pingding County, Yangquan City, 20 kilometers south of the city, is a provincial forest park in Pingding County.
Notable people
Co-founder of Baidu; Robin Li (李彦宏) was born and raised in Yangquan.
Author of The Three-Body Problem; Liu Cixin (刘慈欣) was born and raised in Yangquan.
Twinned cities
Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England, United Kingdom
Mount Vernon, New York, United States
References
External links
Travel China Guide: Yangquan (English Version) |
4243144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moguer | Moguer | Moguer is a municipality and small city located in the province of Huelva, Andalusia, Spain. According to the 2022 census, it has a population of 22,623. Its surface area is , and its population density is .
The present site of Moguer had been home to many human settlements since antiquity. Nonetheless, the founding of the present municipality is generally dated from the establishment of the Señorío de Moguer ("Seigneury of Moguer") in 1333. The Santa Clara Monastery and a Franciscan convent that later became the Corpus Christi Hospital were founded four years later. From the 1330s, the population grew rapidly, turning Moguer into an important town with a strong, economy based in agriculture, fishing, and trade through the town's river port. Moguer played an important role in the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, with Columbus receiving important support from the abbess of the Santa Clara Monastery, Inés Enríquez, the cleric Martín Sánchez and the landowner Juan Rodríguez Cabezudo. The Niño brothers played an important role in the voyage, including providing the caravel Niña. Upon the returning from the Americas, the first of Columbus's vows was fulfilled by spending a night in the church of the Santa Clara Monastery. Today, Moguer and nearby Palos de la Frontera are home to the lugares colombinos, a tourist route of places associated with undertaking that voyage.
Moguer's river port continued to be an important site for seafaring and trade, exporting the local wines and other merchandise to the Americas, Russia and other European countries. Viticulture remained the economic engine into the early 20th century, when the chemical plant at Huelva and, above all, the development of the cultivation of the garden strawberry drove a new period of economic development and demographic growth. As of 2008, in the municipality are devoted to growing strawberries, 27.5 percent of the national total of , making Moguer Spain's leading municipality in this crop.
The municipality of Moguer is formed by the urban centres of Moguer and Mazagón, the agricultural zones with both irrigated and rain-fed crops, and forest areas composed of the Monte Público of the municipality of Moguer and of protected natural areas.
Besides being one of the lugares colombinos, Moguer is also known as the birthplace of poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature and author of Platero y yo.
Geography
Location
Moguer is in the southwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula, in the so-called Tierra Llana ("Flatland") of the province of Huelva. On the north it is bounded by the Río Tinto, the municipalities of Huelva, Niebla and San Juan del Puerto; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and Palos de la Frontera; on the west by the Río Tinto and Palos de la Frontera; and on the east by Almonte and Lucena del Puerto.
The urban centre of Moguer is located at 37° 16′ N, 6° 50′ W, at an altitude of , from the provincial capital Huelva, and from the Andalusian capital Seville. It is very close to Palos de la Frontera, and from the beaches of Mazagón; all of these are within the mancomunidad Moguer-Palos de la Frontera and the larger Comarca Metropolitana de Huelva. Its surface area is .
Road access
The main access to Moguer is from the north by means of the Autovía A-49/E-1 by way of the autonomic route. It can also be reached by the national N-422 and the provincial from Palos de la Frontera, the autonomic A-494 from the municipality of Almonte, and the autonomic A-486 from Lucena del Puerto.
The urban centre of Moguer is accessed from the A-494 by the avenues Hermanos Niño, Quinto Centenario, de la Virgen, and de América and from the Carretera de la Marisma by the Calle de la Ribera. The urban centre of Mazagón is accessed from the A-494 by the Avenida de los Conquistadores (west), and the Calle El Dorado, Avenida del Arroyo de la Miel, and Avenida de los Conquistadores (east).
Terrain
Moguer is located in sandy clay Pliocene–Quaternary land. It can be divided into three regions: countryside, wetlands or marsh, and coast. The Río Tinto and its marsh make up the predominant landscape of the northern part of the municipality. On the south are of virgin beaches and the sand hills and gullies of the Arenas Gordas. The rest of the territory is the countryside, cut by the streams Galarín and Montemayor, tributaries of the Río Tinto; other streams are the Arroyo de Angorrilla, Arroyo de la Monjas, Cañada del Peral and Arroys de la Grulla in the Domingo Rubio estuary, and the Arroyo de las Madres in the Las Madres lagoon. In some places, lower strata have worn away, leaving curved outcroppings known as cabezos (from the Spanish cabeza, head).
Climate
Being located near the coast of the province of Huelva, Moguer has a Mediterranean climate (transitional between subtropical and temperate) with an Atlantic influence. Moguer is among the warmest and sunniest cities in Europe. The temperature regime is maritime, with an annual average of , and the city receives 2,984 hours of sun annually.
July is the hottest month with some temperatures exceeding . January is the coolest, with lows of and highs of .
Demography
Prior to 1333, the population was distributed among several different places within the current municipality. With the establishment of the seigneury in 1333, the population began to concentrate in the current urban center, rising to 5,000 and fluctuating around that number until the 20th century.
Between 1900 and 1970 the population of Moguer remained around 7,000–8,000. Since 1970 there has been a growth to the current 22.061 (2021, INE), the largest population in Moguer's history. Of the 22.061 habitantes, 11.059 are male (50,13%) and 11.002 female (49,87%).
A detailed analysis of the demographics of Moguer can be found in the Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía (S.I.M.A.).
History
Origins
The origin of human settlement in Moguer is lost in the remoteness of history and is surrounded by legend, as is the case for all the lands near the mouth of the Río Tinto. The current municipality of Moguer was a focus of attraction for the people of the Iberian interior and of the eastern Mediterranean since ancient times, as evidenced by Neolithic, Phoenician and Roman archaeological remains. Between the years 150 BCE – 114 BCE Hispano-Romans established industries along the river Urium (Tinto), a natural route for travel and commerce used by various cultures over the course of history. Originally Urium was a Roman town with a tower for defense, built roughly between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE. Remains of amphorae, coins, bricks, tegulae with potter's marks and a fragment of 2nd-century CE Terra sigillata (a type of decorated pottery) confirm the existence of several Roman settlements with the limits of the present-day municipality of Moguer.
Middle Ages
With the arrival of Muslims the farmstead of Mogauar or Mogur belonged to the Taifa of Niebla. Surviving buildings from this period include the Almohad Castle of Moguer, the underground reservoir which is under the parade ground, the fountain known as the Fuente de Pinete, the Fuente de Montemayor, and archaeological remains of Arab settlements in the rural zones of Rendón, las Cacerías, and Manzote.
During the Reconquista, Moguer was conquered by the Order of Santiago around 1239–1240, along with other enclaves of historic Algarve, and annexed to Castile.
Señorío de Moguer
In 1333, the village of Moguer became the first seigneury in the area, granted by Alfonso XI of Castile to Alonso Jofré Tenorio, Staff Admiral (Almirante Mayor) of Castile. Under this nobleman, Moguer became a prosperous town. Besides the existing Almohad castle, Moguer acquired the Monastery of Santa Clara and a Franciscan convent. On his death, the seigneury passed to his daughter María Tenorio, wife of Martín Femández Portocarrero, and later to their son Alonso Femández Portocarrero, to whose lineage it would remain connected. The Casa de Portocarrero enlarged the town with the construction of the 15th-century San Francisco Convent; the old Franciscan convent became the Corpus Christi Hospital, a hospital for the poor.
The House of Portocarrero were Grandees, wealthy upper nobility, with close connections to the royal court. In 1375 the Señorío de Moguer became a majorat (). Like any feudal lords, the lords of Moguer exercised control over the municipal government. Moguer soon became a prominent Andalusian fishing town, thanks mainly to the Portocarrero's policy of attracting additional settlement.
The town of Moguer gained distinction for various services provided to the Crown by its successive lords. In 1369, Henry II of Castile granted it the title of Muy Leal ("Very Loyal"); in 1642, Philip IV of Spain designated Moguer a city, and gave its council the right to use the coat of arms of the Portocarrero; and in 1779, Charles III distinguished it again with the titles of Muy Noble and Muy Leal ("Very Noble" and "Very Loyal"). Because of this, Moguer is known as the "Very Noble and twice Very Loyal City" of Moguer.
Moguer and Columbus's first voyage
The economy of Moguer in the 15th century was based in agriculture, fishing, and mercantile activities.
in 1489 the Catholic Monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand granted a seguro (?) to ships arriving at the river port of Moguer from the Canary Islands, North Africa and Atlantic European countries. Beginning in the 15th century, Moguer had a loading wharf for loading and discharging merchandise, a carriageway, shipyards, and an alota that was, together with Huelva and Palos, among the most active on the Huelva coast.
Toward the end of the 15th century, the town had a population of about 5,000, and a city centre with several arterial roads, dominated by the Paris Church of Our Lady of Granada, the castle, the San Francisco convent and the Santa Clara monastery. There was much economic activity and the many ships visited the port. This was the situation of Moguer when it played a significant role in the first voyage of Christopher Columbus.
Moguer provided some of the sailors for the voyage, as well as the caravel, Niña, built in Moguer around 1488 and apparently owned by the Niño brothers of Moguer. On several occasions, Columbus came to Moguer seeking help. Ultimately, he gained the important support of the Niño brothers; the cleric Martín Sánchez; the landowner Juan Rodríguez Cabezudo (who took custody of Columbus's son Diego while Columbus went on his first voyage); and Inés Enríquez, abbess of the Santa Clara Monastery and aunt of King Ferdinand.
The Catholic Monarchs had ordered the towns of the Andalusian coasts to provide assistance to Columbus and by means of a commission directed the town of Moguer to comply with this provision. Columbus seized two boats in Moguer in the presence of the notary Moguer Alonso Pardo; these boats were later discarded as unsuitable on the advice of Martín Alonso Pinzón.
Later, upon his arrival from America, Columbus came promptly to the church of the Monastery of Santa Clara to fulfill a vow made when the Niña encountered a severe storm on the return voyage.
Early modern era
During the sixteenth century, the village went through an era of commercial prosperity centered on colonization of, and trade with, the Americas. Many moguereños participated in the discovery and evangelization of the new lands, among them Pedro Alonso Niño, discoverer of the coasts of Paria (Venezuela); Bartolome Ruiz, navigator, pilot on the "Famous Thirteen" expedition Francisco Pizarro and hence co-discoverer and of the Pacific; fray Antonio de Olivares, founder of the city of San Antonio, Texas; Alonso Vélez de Mendoza, leader of the group who repopulated the island of Santo Domingo (Hispaniola); the Franciscan Quintero, who accompanied the expedition of Hernán Cortés to Mexico; fray Andrés de Moguer, the first chronicler of Mexico; Diego García de Moguer, who took part with Ferdinand Magellan on the first trip around the world; and Juan Ladrillero, considered an independent discoverer of the Straits of Magellan.
The seventeenth century was a time of hardship for the Spanish monarchy, and Moguer could not escape this situation. The population decreased significantly. Nonetheless, the rise of Moguer in terms of relative importance was recognized in 1642 when Philip IV granted Moguer the title of a "city" (ciudad).
The eighteenth century was characterized by economic, political and technical stability. Land, controlled in large part by the local oligarchy, continued to be much in demand by moguereños, who purchased small tracts. As for commerce, the wine industry grew, supplying Cádiz and exporting to an expanding market in the Americas, Russia and other countries in Europe, as well as supplying the Spanish Royal Navy.
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused extensive damage in the city, leaving only the strongest buildings standing: part of the castle, the Santa Clara Monastery and the Chapel of the Hospital. Other buildings had to be rebuilt or restored—as was the Convent of San Francisco, rebuilt in the mannerist style—or built from scratch—as were the city hall, a masterpiece of civil Baroque, or the Parish Church of Our Lady of Granada, which retained only its original 14th-century tower. Because of the dramatic 18th-century increase in the population, this church was enlarged to cathedral proportions, with five naves, the highest and widest being the central nave. For wartime services to the Crown against England, in 1779 Charles III granted the City of Moguer the titles of Muy Noble and Muy Leal ("Very Noble" and "Very Loyal").
Contemporary history
The story of 19th-century Moguer is essentially that of 19th-century Spain. At the beginning of the century, Moguer was the most populous centre in its part of Spain (7,200 inhabitants) followed by Huelva. The French invasion during the Peninsular War left a general sense of provisionality and bewilderment. Briefly in the 1822 territorial division of Spain and then permanently in the 1833 division, a province was established with Huelva as its capital, despite a long and bitter verbal struggle to make Moguer the capital of the new politico-administrative unit. Moguer remained, however, as head of a new legal district (partido judicial) and notarial and registrational districts () having also comarcal courts, a court of first instance and an examining magistrates court (). Ecclesiastically, Moguer had been the seat of the vicarage of the same name since the mid-15th century and also core of a deanery (arciprestazgo) whose area was broader than the old parish, which only extended as far as Palos de la Frontera.
The end of noble and ecclesiastical territorial privileges had a strong effect on local economic structures, especially with respect to the Church. The First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) also left its mark with the construction of road and bridge over the Río Tinto, basic infrastructures for the development of the municipality. In 1899 Moguer had 8,523 inhabitants, of whom 99 percent were farmworkers. Wine remained Moguer's fundamental product and the river natural means to export that wine, although traffic to the river port had declined sharply due to silting that decreased the depth of the channel.
On 23 December 1881, poet Juan Ramón Jiménez—author of Platero y yo and winner of the 1956 Nobel Prize for Literature—was born in the house at number 1, Calle de la Ribera.
The centuries-old strategy of economic prosperity based on the wine industry was frustrated in the early 20th century by the infestation of phylloxera. The population began to decline unstoppably until the industrial development of Huelva in the 1960s and, most importantly, until the adoption of strawberries as a crop in the 1970s. Moguer is now Spain's principal producer of strawberries, which has led to great population growth in recent decades.
Now, in the early 21st century, the economy of Moguer is largely driven by the growth of strawberries and raspberries; the construction industry and service sectors are also strong.
Economy
In ancient times, the economy of Moguer and its region was based in fishing and seafaring. Moguer has been connected since ancient times to the principal ports of the Mediterranean and North African coasts. This activity continued through the Middle Ages.
In the Low Middle Ages, Moguer experienced economic growth through agricultural development (including the raising of livestock). Moguer thrived thanks to the cultivation of wheat, wine grapes, esparto, hemp, and other crops, as well as continued prosperity in fishing.
During the 15th century, this was supplemented by several industries relying on ovens: soap, bread, and bricks. This period also saw the growth of agricultural warehouses and mercantile enterprises for agricultural industries. Moguer also prospered through its role in discovery and trade with the Americas.
Nonetheless, Moguer was significantly affected by Spain's deep 17th-century economic crisis. In the 18th century economic activity began to grow again, especially the trade in wine. For decades, the largest customer for Moguer's wines was the Spanish Navy.
In the 19th century, wine continued to boom, with a considerable increase in land under cultivation and a spectacular development of vineyards. The arrival in the early 20th century of phylloxera, a disease affecting vinifera grapes, was very harmful to Moguer's vineyards, but the industry has since recovered to a significant degree through the use of resistant rootstock. Moguer now belongs to Denominación de Origen (DO) Condado de Huelva.
The loss of the vineyards was partially compensated by a growth in the chemical industry, but was only finally overcome with the cultivation of strawberries in recent decades, which has driven a new period of economic development and demographic growth. At the end of the 1970s the "Las Madres" estate of started growing Fragaria x ananassa—the garden strawberry—which spread rapidly through the municipality and the rest of the province. As noted above, Moguer is by far Spain's leading producer of strawberries. More recently, this has been supplemented by the cultivation of Rubus leucodermis (raspberries), and by a growth in construction, the service sector, and tourism.
The construction sector has benefited from the growth in agriculture, which has impelled a sharp increase in the number of construction companies and real estate firms in the town, which now constitute 15 and 19 percent of non-agricultural economic activity, respectively. The commercial sector has also greatly benefited from the agricultural growth, now constituting 43 percent of non-farm economic activity.
At the same time, recent development of the urban center of Mazagón for tourism has increased the number of hotels and other short-term accommodations to constitute 12 percent of the municipal economy.
Also noteworthy is the presence in the municipality of the aerospace sector, due to the activity of the National Institute of Aerospace Technology (I.N.T.A) in its facilities at the El Arenosillo Experimentation Center (CEDEA). This headquarters of the I.N.T.A. develops its activity in the investigation of renewable energies, experimentation of newly developed rockets, carrying out scientific experiments with sounding rockets and balloons, atmospheric investigations, development tests of different types of unmanned aircraft (Drones), up to 150 kg., from the platform, and carrying out R&D programs, durability studies and testing of components and solar energy systems. CEDEA is expanding its facilities with the construction of the Center for Testing, Training and Assembly of Unmanned Aircraft (CEUS) 33, with the specific function of scientific tests, technological development, training and assembly of large unmanned aircraft (Drones). tonnage (up to 15 tons), both air, sea and land, with high performance for exclusive R&D&i purposes, for civil uses. The CEDEA-CEUS group will become the best European Center of Excellence for Unmanned Systems (Drones), and an international reference for experimentation with unmanned vehicles.
Agriculture
The local economy has long been based in seafaring and fishing, but above all in agriculture: cereals and olives, then later wine grapes, strawberries, and raspberries have long been the basis of the economy. The strong current growth is based on crop irrigation, and primarily on strawberries and, secondarily, raspberries. These have been the economic engine underlying other activities. Other rain-fed farming continues in the traditional growing area near the town of Moguer, but is less profitable.
The irrigation has been made possible by community three groupings of growers: C.R. de Valdemar, C.R. de Palos and C.R. del Fresno.
The businessman Antonio Medina Lama began the first local experiments with growing strawberries on his "La Madre" farm in the late 1970s. Over the years, cultivation techniques were improved to the point of becoming the basis of the local economy. Berries are grown by intensive hydroponic methods in transparent plastic tunnels, on top of a black plastic base, using drip irrigation to supply water and nutrients.
As of 2008, in the municipality are devoted to growing strawberries, making Moguer Spain's leading municipality in this crop. Moguer's production is 27.5 percent of the national total of and 32.3 percent of the Andalusian total nearly all of which () is in the province of Huelva.
In the 2000s, production has diversified to include raspberries, Japanese persimmon and Northern highbush blueberry.
Administration and municipal infrastructure
Municipal buildings
The municipal hall (), known as the Casa Consistorial, is located in the Plaza del Cabildo, in the historic center of Moguer. Expansion of local government in recent years has been accommodated by new buildings, rather than by adding onto this small historic building. Social Affairs (Asuntos Sociales) is located on Calle Daniel Vázquez Díaz and Urban Planning (Urbanismo) on Calle Andalucía. The municipal archive also has a new facility, opened in 1994 in a portion of the San Francisco Convent. The most recent archives remain on the upper floor of the municipal hall.
Municipal politics
In the municipal and regional elections of 2019 the Gustavo Cuellar Cruz of left-of-centre Spanish Socialist Workers' Party-Andalusia (Partido Socialista Obrero Español-Andalucía, PSOE-A), was reelected to the mayoralty, which he has held since 2011.
The Municipal Corporation comprises 21 councillors. In the municipal elections of May 27, 2019, the left-of-centre Spanish Socialist Workers' Party-Andalusia (Partido Socialista Obrero Español-Andalucía, PSOE-A) won 12 council seats with 54.03 percent of the votes, while the People's Party (Partido Popular, PP) won 7 seats with 29.74 percent. The Asociación de Vecinos de Mazagón (AVEMA, the Neighborhood Association of Mazagón) won 2 seats and 12.3 percent of the votes.
The fourth Thursday of each month, at 20:00, the Council of Moguer holds its plenary sessions, open to the public at large. The sessions of the commission of government are on the first and third Friday of each month. The informative committees "Urban and Internal Regime", "Social Welfare", and "Economy and Development" are held on the first, second and third Thursday, respectively. Other components of local administration are the Municipal Culture Foundation, the Municipal Patronate of Sports and the company housing and land company "Envisur".
Security forces
The city of Moguer has three types of security forces:
The local police, headquartered in the Casa Consistorial, on the side facing Calle Obispo Infante, with about 30 officers.
The Civil Guard (Guardia Civil), with a barracks on the Avenida de la Constitución.
Civil defense (Protección Civil), in the Plaza 12 de Octubre, with a significant number of volunteers.
Judicial administration
Moguer is seat of legal district (partido judicial) number 6 of the province of Huelva, encompassing the towns of Moguer, Niebla, Bonares, Lucena del Puerto, and Palos de la Frontera. The court facilities are located on the Calle de San Francisco and consist of two courts of first instance and an examining magistrates court.
Health
Moguer has two health centres, both part of the Andalusian Health Service (Servicio Andaluz de Salud, SAS):
Health Centre of Moguer: Located on Calle Castillo, 6.
Health Centre of Mazagón: Located on Calle Buenos Aires, no number.
Education
The town has the following schools:
Nursery schools: Two municipal schools (C.A.S.E.I. Municipal El gato con botas ("Puss in Boots") in Moguer and C.A.S.E.I. Municipal El Farito (diminutive of Faro, "lighthouse") in Mazagón and the private El barquito de papel ("The Little Paper Boat") in Moguer.
Early childhood education and primary schools: Pedro Alonso Niño School, Virgin of Montemayor School, Zenobia Camprubí School (all in Moguer) and El Faro School in Mazagón.
Secondary schools: Juan Ramón Jiménez Institute of Secondary Education and Francisco Garfias Institute of Secondary Education in Moguer, El Faro Institute of Secondary Education in Mazagón.
Continuing education (Educación Permanente): Camarina Section in Moguer and El Vígia Section in Mazagón.
Sports
The municipality has two multi-sport centres (polideportivos):
Polideportivo de Moguer: Located on Avenida del V Centenario. It consists of two football (soccer) fields, one of albero (a type of soil also used in bullrings) and the other of artificial turf, with bleachers; a running track for athletics goes around the perimeter of the latter; four paddleball courts; an area of sand for beach volleyball; two covered pavilions with bleachers; two covered multi-sport facilities; six outdoor courts: two for futsal, two for tennis, and one each for basketball and volleyball; and an outdoor pool.
Polideportivo de Mazagón: Located on avenida de Santa Clara. It consists of one football (soccer) field of albero, with bleachers; a covered pavilion with bleachers; four outdoor courts: one for futsal, one for tennis, and two for basketball.
There are several teams that compete in these facilities. The most notable is the Club Balonmano Pedro Alonso Niño, which plays in the national first division for handball.
Natural areas
Over 60 percent of the Moguer municipality remains in a natural state. Only some of these natural areas have protected status. Among those that are unprotected are the Monte Público of the municipality of Moguer. The protected areas are:
Doñana Natural Park: Presents different coastal ecosystems: dunes, forests, lakes and wetland areas. of the park are within the municipality of Moguer. The park as a whole is considered the largest ecological reserve in Europe. Declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1994. In 2006 the park received 376,287 visitors.
Paraje Natural Laguna de las Madres y Palos. Located in the municipalities of Moguer and Palos de la Frontera; has a wide variety of animal and plant species.
Dehesa del Estero Domingo Rubio and corridor. Located adjacent to Doñana Natural Park, this pine meadow along the Domingo Rubio estuary has been designated a Site of Community Importance, and is the head of the Paraje Natural Estero Domingo Rubio. Flora include stone pine, with an understory including rockrose, mastic, palmetto. Fauna include wild boar, otters, grey and purple herons, northern shoveler ducks, cattle egrets, and chameleons
Marismas y Riberas del Tinto ("Marshes and banks of the Río Tinto"): Site of Community Importance.
Playas de Mazagón ("Beaches of Mazagón"): A grouping of beaches and the sand hills and gullies of the Arenas Gordas. Part of this area is protected as a Site of Community Importance, but the urban center of Mazagón also falls within this area.
Main sights
Santa Clara Monastery. Founded in 1337 by Alonso Jofre Tenorio. Listed as a Monumento nacional since 1931. The most important of the lugares colombinos (associated with the first voyage of Christopher Columbus) in Moguer; site of the fulfillment of one of Columbus's vows.
Casa Consistorial (Town Hall, late 18th century)
Birthplace House of Nobel Prize Juan Ramón Jiménez
Zenobia and Juan Ramón Jiménez House Museum . This 18th-century house conserves belongings, books and personal belongings of Juan Ramón
Moguer Castle, an Almohad building renovated and enlarged in the 14th century. Origins date back to a Roman villa. In its interior is an interesting cistern (aljibe) of two bays, believed to be Almohad
San Fernando Castle
Moguer Parish Cemetery. Includes the Panteón Zenobia y Juan Ramón ("Zenobia and Juan Ramón Jiménez Pantheon") and the Hermitage of San Sebastián. The Baroque hermitage was built between the 16th and 18th centuries, and is commonly known as the Capilla de Jesús ("Chapel of Jesus").
Santa Cruz de Vista Alegre Estate. Rural residence of Juan Ramón Jiménez; provides a panoramic view of Moguer.
Parish Church of Our Lady of Granada. Built in the 18th century on the ruins of the former Mudéjar 14th-century parish church.
Pinete Fountain (Fuente de Pinete): 13th-century Mudéjar fountain and temple, with four sides, two of them open, located in the old Camino Real de Seville.
Chapel of the Hospital of Corpus Christi. This Gothic–Mudéjar building was erected in the 14th century, as part of the first male monastery erected in Moguer, the old San Francisco Convent, later Corpus Christi hospital.
Puerto de la Ribera. Old river port which had a loading dock, dry dock and shipyards. The caravel La Niña was built here between 1487 and 1490.
Convent of St. Francis, begun in the late 15th century, but the church was not completed until the 1570s and the cloister until the 17th century. It is now the seat of the Municipal Historical Archives and Library Iberoamericana.
Montemayor Hermitage. The current building is a mix of 15th-, 18th-, and 20th-century work, due to repeated renovation.
Notable people
Many moguereños have distinguished themselves as mariners; others have distinguished themselves in the Church, politics, and the arts.
The Niño brothers were members of a renowned family of moguereño mariners, who participated actively in Christopher Columbus's Voyages.
On December 23, 1881 Juan Ramón Jiménez was born in the house at number 2, Calle de la Ribera de Moguer. A few years later his parents moved to an 18th-century house located in the finest part of the city, on the Calle Nueva.
Alonso Jofre Tenorio (?–1340), Grand Admiral of the Sea and first Señor (lord) of Moguer.
The Portocarrero family, an important noble family settled in Andalusia after the Reconquista; Señores of Moguer 1356–1703.
Cristóbal García del Castillo (c. 1458–1539), captain of the Royal Brotherhood of Knights of Andalusia (Real Hermandad de Caballeros de Andalucía). Founded the city of Telde on Grand Canary island.
Luis de Torres, Juan de Jérez, Juan de Moguer, Francisco García Vallejos, Juan Quintero, Juan Vecano, Juan Arraez, Alonso de Morales, Maestre Alonso, Bartolomé Roldán, Diego Leal, and others sailed with Columbus and the Niño brothers on the first voyage to the Americas.
Alonso Vélez de Mendoza (?–c.1511), commander of the Order of Santiago and explorer of the Brazilian coast.
Diego García de Moguer (1484–1554), pilot, explored the South American coast as far as the Río de la Plata and discovered the Chagos Archipelago and the island of Diego Garcia.
Diego Rodríguez de Lucero, priest and inquisitor of the Kingdom of Castile based in Córdoba between 1499 and 1507
Juan Ladrillero (1505–1559), pilot, independent discoverer of the Straits of Magellan.
Bartolomé Ruiz, pilot for the Famous Thirteen who accompanied Francisco Pizarro in the discovery of Peru.
Fray Andrés de Moguer (c.1500–1577), Dominican friar and first chronicler of the work of the friars of Santo Domingo in the en el virreinato de Viceroyalty of New Spain.
Felipe Godínez Manrique (1585–1659), playwright of the Spanish Golden Age; his plays were performed at Court and in the Americas.
Fray Antonio de Olivares (1630–1722), priest who traveled extensively in the Americas. Founder of San Antonio, Texas; first priest to perform a mass in Texas.
Luis Hernández-Pinzón Álvarez (1816–1891), a direct descendant of the Pinzón brothers of Palos and Admiral of the Spanish Navy in the era of Isabel II of Spain; commanded the Pacific squadron in the war against Peru for the control of guano resources.
Ildefonso Joaquín Infante y Macías (1813–1888), bishop of Tenerife 1877–1886.
La Parrala (Dolores Parrales, 1845–1914), flamenco singer to whom Lorca dedicated one of the poems in his Poema del cante Jondo.
Manuel Gómez Contioso (1877–1936), Salesian priest shot in Málaga during the Spanish Civil War, beatified by Pope Benedict XVI October 28, 2007, along with 497 other religious figures executed in the war.
Rafael Romero Barros (1832–1895), painter. Father and teacher of Julio Romero de Torres.
Manuel de Burgos y Mazo (1862–1946), Restoration-era politician, leader of the Liberal-Conservative Party in the province of Huelva during that period. Minister of Grace in the government of 1917; Minister of Justice in the government of 1919.
Alejandro Rodríguez Gómez ("Xandro Valerio", 1896–1966), poet known for his copla (meter), including "La Parrala" and "Tatuaje" ("The Tattoo").
Eulalia Ruiz de Clavijo (1904–2000), first female prosecutor in the Spanish courts.
Francisco Garfias López (1921–), winner of the National Prize for Poetry in 1971 with his poetry collection La Duda ("Doubt"). Also known as a scholar of the work of Juan Ramón Jiménez and editor of his work.
José Manuel Sierra Méndez (1978–), handball player, currently (as of 2010) playing for BM Valladolid, and a fixture of the Spain men's national handball team since the 2005 Mediterranean Games, in which he won a gold medal.
Craftsmanship and gastronomy
Moguer is heir to a rich artisanal tradition: coopering, bobbin lace, embroidery, saddlemaking, and the making of traditional Andalusian costumes, among other things.
Moguer's cuisine features cuttlefish (chocos) with beans, skate in paprika, school shark marinated in adobo, , bean clams (coquinas) and other species of clam (almejas), wedge sole, true sole, and croakers. Its fruity white wines and a wine made from oranges are produced under the Denominación de Origen (DO) Condado de Huelva.
Other characteristic products are a pastry known as "La Victoria", vermouth from the Sáenz cellars, and, of course, strawberries.
Culture and traditions
In addition to its monuments and its streets, the history of Moguer is reflected today in various festivities and celebrations that occur throughout the year.
The evening in honor of Our Lady of Montemayor, known in Moguer as Days of Our Lady, has been held on or around September 8 without interruption since the Late Middle Ages to worship Moguer's patron saint. At the end of August, a solemn novena begins in her honor in the Parish Church of Our Lady of Granada, to culminate with the Principal Function of the Institute and the procession of the Señora through the city's streets for the day of the Nativity of Mary, September 8. Meanwhile, for about five days, the festival continues in a more playful for in town fairground, which has more than 250 booths.
The Pilgrimage of Our Lady of Montemayor takes place every second weekend of May in the pine forests surrounding the shrine of the patron. On this weekend, thousands of pilgrims come to the precinct to venerate the "Queen of the Pinares (Pine forests)". At present there are eight filial brotherhoods (hermandades) spread over the provinces of Huelva, Seville and Madrid dedicated to the patron saint of Moguer, who also participate in this celebration.
Easter in Moguer has a special significance, as is evidenced by the various brotherhoods that process from Palm Sunday until Holy Saturday. Currently eight confraternities (cofradías) conduct the stations of penance: Hermandad de la Borriquita ("Brotherhood of the little donkey") on Palm Sunday, Holy Monday the Hermandad del Cristo de los Remedios ("Brotherhood of Christ of the Remedies"), Holy Tuesday the Hermandad del Cristo de la Sangre ("Brotherhood of Christ of the Blood'), Holy Wednesday the Hermandad del Cristo de la Victoria ("Brotherhood of the Victory"), Holy Thursday the Hermandad de la Oración en el Huerto ("Brotherhood of the prayer in the orchard"), Good Friday in the dawn hours the Hermandad de Padre Jesus ("Brotherhood of Father Jesus) and in the evening the Hermandad de la Veracruz ("Brotherhood of the True Cross"), and on Holy Saturday the Hermandad del Santo Entierro ("Brotherhood of the Holy Tomb").
The Romería del Rocío is a pilgrimage to the village of El Rocío on Pentecost weekend. It has a deep association with this community. It is believed that the Hermandad filial de Nª Sª del Rocío de Moguer ("Filial brotherhood of Our Lady of El Rocío de Moguer) dates from the end of the 17th century; documents from the 18th century attest to the celebration of this pilgrimage by faithful moguereños. Juan Ramón Jiménez in Platero y yo wrote an entire chapter about the Romería del Rocío:
Corpus Christi. On this occasion the entire route of the procession is dressed out in sedges and is filled with pilgrims and altars.
There are, throughout the year, other cultural activities related to the discovery of the Americas and to Juan Ramón Jiménez. On March 16 is the celebration of Columbus's fulfillment of his vow and the Santa Clara Monastery; Columbus's departure is celebrated on August 3, and the discovery itself on October 12. Juan Ramón is commemorated in several ways by the Fundación Juan Ramón Jiménez. Their highest award, the "Perejil de plata" ("Silver Parsley"), is given out annually, as is the "Premio Hispanoamericano de poesía Juan Ramón Jiménez" ("Juan Ramón Jiménez Prize for Hispano-American Poetry")
There is also an annual Festival de Cante Flamenco de Moguer ("Moguer Festival of Flamenco Singing"), organized by the Peña de Cante Jondo de Moguer on the second weekend in July.
Twin towns and sister cities
Moguer is twinned with the following cities:
Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain
Malgrat de Mar, Spain
Telde, Spain
San Antonio, USA
See also
Lugares colombinos
Notes
Further reading
Works in English
Washington Irving, extract from Voyages and discoveries of the Companions of Columbus about his visit to Moguer, Available online on Google Books.
Works in Spanish
——, Moguer 500 Años. Catálogo de la Exposición. (Iglesia de San Francisco de Moguer, 3 agosto – 2 septiembre 1992). Ayuntamiento de Moguer, 1992.
Álvarez Josué, Aurelio, Moguer en la época de Carlos III. Edición, introducción, notas y transcripción de documentos de Diego Ropero-Regidor. Col. "Biblioteca Nueva Urium", n° 1. Archivo Histórico Municipal; Fundación Municipal Cultura, Moguer, 2002. ()
Borda Camacho, Germán, Visiones de Pero Alonso Niño, descubridor de America. Ed. Archivo Histórico Municipal; Fundación Municipal Cultura, Moguer, 2001.
Díaz Domínguez, Manuel: Religiosidad popular en la ciudad de Moguer (1400–1936). Col. "Biblioteca Nueva Urium", n° 4. Archivo Histórico Municipal; Fundación Municipal de Cultura, Moguer, 2005.
Díaz Roca, José Antonio: Vida y semblanza de Fray Joaquín Infantes Macías. Fundación Municipal Cultura, Moguer, 2007.
Fernández Vial, Ignacio; Ollero Marín, Álvaro, Las tres carabelas. Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Huelva, 1998. ()
Fernández Vial, Ignacio, Los marinos descubridores onubenses. Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Huelva, 2004. ()
González Gómez, Antonio, Moguer en la Baja Edad Media. Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Huelva, 1976. ( )
González Gómez, Juan Miguel, El Monasterio de Santa Clara de Moguer. Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Huelva, 1978. ()
Moreno Orta, Juan Manuel, Eulalia Ruiz de Clavijo, primera mujer procuradora de los Tribunales en España. Col. "Biblioteca Nueva Urium", n° 3. Archivo Histórico Municipal; Fundación Municipal Cultura, Moguer, 2004. ()
Ropero Regidor, Diego. La "Niña II" Aventura transoceánica por la ruta del primer viaje colombino : historia y documentos Caja Provincial de Ahorros, 1987)
Ropero Regidor, Diego. Los lugares colombinos y su entorno. Fundación Ramón Areces, Madrid, 1992. ()
Ropero Regidor, Diego. Moguer y America en la era de los descubrimientos. Col. "Biblioteca Nueva Urium", n° 2. Archivo Histórico Municipal; Fundación Municipal Cultura, Moguer, 2003. ()
Vilaplana, María Asunción, La colección diplomática de Santa Clara de Moguer. Universidad de Sevilla. Secretariado de Publicaciones. Sevilla, 1975. ()
External links
Official website of the city council.
Moguer – S.I.M.A.
Foundation Juan Ramón Jiménez
Logbook. – Discovery of the site on Americas.
Web Doñana National Park – Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
Web Doñana National Park – Consejería de Medio Ambiente (Junta de Andalucía).
Brotherhoods and confraternities
Hdad. Ntro. Padre Jesús de Moguer
Hdad. Vera Cruz de Moguer
Hdad. Borriquita de Moguer
Agriculture
Saenz's Wineries (D.O. Condado de Huelva)
Freshuelva, producer of strawberries
Grufesa. Strawberry Cooperative Grufesa of Moguer.
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva |
4243200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Turkey | Education in Turkey | Education in Turkey is governed by a national system which was established in accordance with the Atatürk's Reforms. It is a state-supervised system designed to produce a skillful professional class for the social and economic institutes of the nation.
Compulsory education lasts 12 years. Primary and secondary education is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools, between the ages of 6 and 19. Secondary or high school education is not mandatory but required in order to then progress to universities. Turkey has over 200 universities as of 2022. ÖSYS, after which high school graduates are assigned to university according to their performance.
Turkey has 97% of primary school enrollment among all eligible children as of 2019. This number has significantly dropped with the Syrian refugee crisis. Many Syrian children left school during the crisis.
In 2002, the total expenditure on education in Turkey amounted to $13.4 billion, including the state budget allocated through the National Ministry of Education and private and international funds. The share of national wealth invested in educational institutions is higher in Turkey than average among OECD countries. Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey is the main national body of R&D in Turkey.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that when taking into consideration Turkey's income level, the nation is achieving 61.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education and 86.1% for secondary education.
History
After the foundation of the Turkish Republic the organization of the Ministry of Education gradually developed and was reorganized with the Law no 2287 issued in 1933. The Ministry changed its names several times. It fell under the Ministry of Culture (1935–1941) and was named Ministry of National Education, Youth, and Sports (1983–1989). Since then it has been called the Ministry of National Education. Before the Republic, education institutions were far from having a national character. Schools were organized in three separate channels which were vertical institutions independent of each other. The first and the most common in this organization were the district schools and madrasas based on the teaching of the Quran the Arabian language and memorizing, the second were the Reform schools and high schools supporting innovation and the third were the colleges and minority schools with foreign language education.
The Law of Integration of Education, no 430 was issued on 3 March 1924. With this law, the three separate channels were combined, the first one was closed, the second was developed and the third one was taken under the inspection and monitoring of the Ministry of Education. One of its aims was to apply secularism in the area of education. By the law for the Education Organization no 789 issued on 22 March 1926 the Ministry of National Education was given responsibility for defining the degrees and equalities of the public and private schools already opened or to be opened by a ministry other than the Ministry of National Education. This Law brought new arrangements such as "no school can be opened in Turkey without the permission and agreement of the Ministry of National Education" or "curricula shall be prepared by the Ministry of National Education". The vocational-technical education institutions formerly directed by local governments were put under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education.
In 1923–24, there were in Turkey, slightly more than 7,000 secondary school students, almost 3,000 high school students, some 2,000 technical school students and officially 18,000 medrese students of whom 6,000 are claimed to be actual students and the rest who registered to be excluded from military service. The population of Turkey was at that moment some 13–14 million.
On 1 November 1928, Law no 1353 introducing a new Latin-based alphabet was accepted. In 1931, the Turkish Association of History, and in 1932, the Turkish Language Association were established to protect Turkish from influences of foreign languages, improve it as science suggests and prevent misuse of the Turkish language. The Republican Turkish authorities initially had twelve education districts headed by people appointed by the ministry, but later gave more power to local authorities, with education directors appointed by provincial authorities.
there were 5,100 schools in 1923, this figure increased to 58,800 in 2001
there were 361,500 students in 1923, this number increased to 16 million in 2001
in 1923 12,200 teachers were employed, this number increased to 578,800 in 2001.
in 1924 there were 479 medrese (Islamic schools); on average each one of them had approximately 1 or 1.5 hoca (teacher). All medrese were closed down that year by the law of Tevhid-i Tedrisat.
In 1938 mobile courses for women were organized in order to support the further education of the rural female population. Youths who finished primary school as well women to the age of 45 were admitted to take part in these courses. A course lastet for 8 months and then the teachers travelled on to a next village. Between 1940 and 1974 almost 305,000 women took part in 13,429 courses. About 240,000 graduated from the courses with success.
Until 1997 children in Turkey were obliged to take five years of education. The 1997 reforms introduced compulsory education for eight years. New legislation introduced in March 2012 prolonged compulsory education to 12 years ().
In July 2017, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government presented a new curriculum for schools, inter alia removing evolution theory and adding the concept of jihad as part of Islamic law in books.
Pre-primary education
Pre-primary education includes the optional education of children between 36 and 72 months who are under the age of compulsory primary education. Pre-primary education institutions, independent nurseries, are opened as nursery classes and practical classes within formal and non-formal education institutions with suitable physical capacity. Services related to pre-primary education are given by nurseries, kindergartens, practical classes opened first and foremost by the Ministry of National Education and by day-centers, nursery schools, day care houses, child care houses and child care institutions opened by various ministries and institutions for care or education purposes based on the provisions of ten laws, two statutes and ten regulations. In the academic year 2001–2002, 256,400 children were being educated and 14,500 teachers were employed in 10,500 pre-primary education institutions.
Primary education
Primary school () lasts 8 years. Primary education covers the education and teaching directed to children between 6–14, is compulsory for all citizens, boys or girls, and is given free of charge in public schools. Primary education institutions are schools that provide eight years of uninterrupted education, at the end of which graduates receive a primary education diploma. The first four years of primary school is sometimes referred to as "First School, 1st Level" () but both are correct.
There are four core subjects at first, second and third grades which are Turkish, mathematics, (literally meaning "life knowledge"), and foreign language. At fourth grade, is replaced by science and social studies. The foreign language taught at schools changes from school to school. The most common one is English, while some schools teach German, French or Spanish instead of English. Some private schools teach two foreign languages at the same time.
Earlier the term "middle school" () was used for the three years education to follow the then compulsory five years at "First School" (). Now the second four years of primary education are sometimes referred to as "First School, 2nd Level" () but both are correct. Primary schools may be public or private. Public schools are free but private schools' admission fees change from school to school. Foreign languages taught at private schools are usually at a higher level than at public schools since most private schools prefer hiring native speakers as teachers.
There are five core subjects at sixth and seventh grades: Turkish, mathematics, science, social studies, and foreign language. At eighth grade, social studies is replaced by "Turkish History of Revolution and Kemalism" ().
In the academic year 2001–2002, 10.3 million students were being educated and 375,500 teachers were employed in 34,900 schools.
Secondary education
Secondary education includes all of the general, vocational and technical education institutions that provide at least three years of education after primary school. The system for being accepted to a high school changes almost every year. Sometimes private schools have different exams, sometimes there are 3 exams for 3 years, sometimes there's only one exam but it is calculated differently, sometimes they only look at your school grades. Secondary education aims to give students a good level of common knowledge, and to prepare them for higher education, for a vocation, for life and for business in line with their interests, skills and abilities. In the academic year 2001–2002 2.3 million students were being educated and 134,800 teachers were employed in 6,000 education institutions.
General secondary education covers the education of children between 15 and 17 for at least three years after primary education. General secondary education includes high schools, foreign language teaching high schools, Anatolian High Schools, high schools of science, Anatolia teacher training high schools, and Anatolia fine arts high schools.
Vocational and technical secondary education involves the institutions that both raise students as manpower in business and other professional areas, prepare them for higher education and meet the objectives of general secondary education. Vocational and technical secondary education includes technical education schools for boys, technical education schools for girls, trade and tourism schools, religious education schools, multi-program high schools, special education schools, private education schools and health education schools.
Secondary education is often referred as high school education, since the schools are called lyceum (tr: lise).
In public high schools and vocational high schools, students attend six classes each day, which last for approximately 40 minutes each. In Anatolian high schools and private high schools, the daily programme is typically longer, up to eight classes each day, also including a lunch period. All 9th graders are taught the same classes nationwide, with minor differences in certain cases. These classes are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geometry, world history, geography, religion & ethics, physical education, a foreign language (in most cases English), a second foreign language (most commonly German but could be French, Italian, Japanese, Arabic, Russian, or Chinese).
When students enter the 11th grade, they typically choose one of four tracks: Turkish language–mathematics, science, social sciences, and foreign languages. In vocational high schools, no tracks are offered, while in science high schools only the science tracks are offered. Different schools may have different policies; some, but not many, schools offer electives instead of academic tracks, giving students a wider range of options. For the 10th, 11th and 12th grade, the compulsory courses are: Turkish language, Turkish literature and republican history. In addition to that, students may be taught the following classes, depending on the track they choose and/or the high school they attend: mathematics, geometry, statistics, physics, biology, chemistry, geography, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economy, logic, arts and music, traffic and health, computer, physical education, first and second foreign language.
The students used to be given a diploma for the academic track they had chosen, which gave them an advantage if they wanted to pursue their higher education in the corresponding fields, as the University Entrance Exam scores were weighted according to the student's track. (e.g. A science student would have an advantage over a Turkish-Mathematics student when applying for Medicine). As of the 2010–2011 educational year, all high school students are given the standard high school diploma.
At the end of high school, following the 12th grade, students take a high school finishing examination and they are required to pass this in order to take the University Entrance Exam and continue their studies at a university. There are four score types for different academic fields, including but not limited to:
Turkish language–mathematics: international relations, law, education, psychology, economy, business management, and similar.
Science: engineering, computer science, medicine, and other science-related professions.
Social sciences: history, geography, and education.
Foreign languages: language/linguistics and language teaching.
International education
The International Baccalaureate has been available in Turkey since 1994 when the first school was authorized by the IB and 53 schools now offer one or more of the IB programmes.
Vocational education
Vocational and technical secondary education involves the institutions that both raise students as manpower in business and other professional areas, prepare them for higher education and meet the objectives of general secondary education. Vocational and technical secondary education includes technical education schools for boys, technical education schools for girls, trade and tourism schools, religious education schools, multi-program high schools, special education schools, private education schools and health education schools. In the academic year 2001–2002, 821,900 students were being educated and 66,100 teachers were employed in 3,400 vocational and technical secondary education schools.
According to Article 37 of Vocational Education Law no 3308, the Ministry of National Education is organizing vocational courses in order to prepare the people who have left the formal education system and do not possess the qualifications required for employment for any vacant positions in the business sector. Based on apprenticeship training programs, the Ministry of National Education pays the insurance premiums against occupational accidents, sicknesses during the vocational period and other sicknesses of participants attending courses in relation to their occupation. These participants may take experienced apprenticeship exams after the education they have received and the work they have performed are evaluated according to the Regulations for Evaluating the Certificates and Diplomas in Apprenticeship and Vocational Training.
People who work in the 109 branches mentioned in Law no 3308, have finished primary education and are below the age of 14 may receive training as candidate apprentices or apprentices. Law no 4702 gives apprenticeship training opportunity to those over 19. The period of apprentice training changes between 2–4 years depending on the nature of vocations.
Adolescents who have not attended the formal education system or left the system at any stage may take the experienced apprenticeship exam after 1 year of adaptation training, provided they had reached the age of 16 at the date when the said profession was included in the coverage of law. Those at the age of 18 may directly take the experienced apprenticeship exam, if a certificate is provided to prove that he/she is working in the related profession.
Those who graduate from vocational and technical secondary education institutions or from vocational and technical schools and institutions may take proficiency exam in their own professions.
Graduates of technical high school or of 4-year programs in vocational and technical schools and institutions are given a certificate to start businesses with the privileges and responsibilities of a proficiency certificate. In 2001, 248,400 apprentices were being educated and 5,100 teachers were employed in 345 vocational training centers.
International students
In recent years, Turkey has become a popular destination for international students. The main reasons are the affordable tuition fees compared to destinations of similar reputation such as Eastern Europe and easier accessibility for international students. Applicants can take the YÖS exam, Turkish university entrance exam for foreign students, or apply with international university admissions such as SAT or high school diploma.
The new system: 4+4+4
In March 2012 the Grand National Assembly passed new legislation on primary and secondary education usually termed as "4+4+4" (4 years primary education, first level, 4 years primary education, second level and 4 years secondary education). Children will begin their primary education in the first month of September following their sixth birthdays and will come to a close during the school year in which students turn 14 years old.
The primary education stages, which includes the first two stages of four years' education each, will entail four years of mandatory elementary education, followed by an additional mandatory four years of middle school education, in which students will be able to choose whether they want to study at a general education middle school or a religious vocational middle school, which are referred to as Imam Hatip schools. The new legislation includes the reopening of Imam Hatip middle schools.
Primary education establishments will be set up separately as independent elementary schools and middle schools.
Universities
Higher education includes all levels of institutions giving education past the secondary school level for a period of at least 17 years.
Higher education institutions include:
Universities
Faculties
Institutes
Higher education schools
Vocational higher education schools
Conservatories
Application and research centers
In the 1930s, at the suggestion of Albert Einstein, the Atatürk government hired over a thousand established academics, including world renowned émigré professors escaping the Nazi takeover in Germany. Most were in medicine, mathematics, and natural science, plus a few in the faculties of law and the arts. Germany's exiled professors served as directors in eight of twelve Istanbul's basic science Institutes, as well as six directors of Istanbul's seventeen clinics at the Faculty of Medicine.
In the academic year 2001–2002 there were 76 universities, 53 of which belonged to the state and 23 to foundations. In these institutions 66,700 personnel were working, 63,000 in state universities and 3,700 in others.
After the national university entrance examination organized by the national examining body students, if they succeed, continue with their studies at a university. Foreign students take the Yös exam or provide equivalent credentials approved by the Higher Education Council (YÖK).
Universities provide either two or four years of education for undergraduate studies, while graduate programs last a minimum of two years. Some universities also ask for an additional year of English preparatory study to be completed before the start of studies, unless an exemption examination is passed.
There are around 820 higher education institutions including universities with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state for public institutions that make up the bulk of the tertiary education system. There are 167 universities in Turkey, which are classified as either public or foundational (private) and 373,353 students were graduated from these universities in 2006. Public universities typically charge very low fees while private foundation universities are highly expensive with fees that can reach $30,000 per annum. Since 1998, universities have been given greater autonomy and were encouraged to raise funds through partnerships with industry.
The quality of education at the Turkish universities varies greatly, some providing education and facilities on par with internationally renowned schools (the technical universities are often compared with universities in the United States, and are regularly visited by the US Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and their engineering programs deemed substantially equivalent to comparable programs in the US.
Turkish universities actively participate in the Socrates – Erasmus program of the European Commission, aiming to increase student and academician mobility within the European Union, the European Economic Area countries, and other EU candidate states. An increasing number of Turkish university students complete a part of their studies abroad at other participating countries' universities, and Turkish universities receive students of the same status from abroad.
With the passage of law 2547, the rectors of all the public universities are appointed jointly by the faculty, Higher Education Council and the President of Turkey. The former president, Abdullah Gül, suggested that the system might be changed to eliminate the Higher Education Council and political influence.
Research
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) coordinates basic and applied research and development, acting on proposed policies by the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA). There are more than 60 research institutes and organizations. Turkey's R&D strengths include agriculture, forestry, health, biotechnology, nuclear technologies, minerals, materials, IT, and defence.
Private schools
In the Turkish education system, private schools may be grouped into four.
Private Turkish schools: In these schools, which are opened by real or corporate bodies of Turkish nationality, public education programs at pre-primary, primary and secondary education levels are given.
Private schools for minorities: These have been established in the Ottoman Empire period by Greek, Armenian and Jewish minorities and were placed under guarantee by the terms of the Lausanne Treaty. These schools are attended by students at pre-primary, primary and secondary education levels who belong to these minority classes and are of the Turkish nationality.
Private foreign schools: These are schools established during the Ottoman Empire by French, German, Italian, Austrian and American people who continue their activities under the terms of the Lausanne Treaty. Today these schools are attended by Turkish children.
Private international education institutions: They have been opened and are active as per the provisions in the amended article 5 of the Law no. 625.
There are many dershane in cities. They will transform into academic high schools in 2015, as the new law requires.
Religious education
De-establishment
In 1927, all courses concerning religion were excluded from the curriculum of primary, secondary, and high schools on the basis that non-Muslims also live in Turkey. Between 1927 and 1949, religious instruction was not permitted in schools. In 1949, the Ministry of Education allowed a course on religion in 4th and 5th grades of primary school.
Re-establishment
In 1956, as a result of multi-party democracy, a new government was established. Being more sympathetic towards the religious sentiments of society, this new government introduced a religion course into secondary schools. This time, if the parents wanted to exempt their children from the course, they had to apply to the school with a written request. After nearly ten years, in 1967, the religion course was introduced to the 1st and 2nd grades of high school. Students, however, were enrolled for the course with the written request of their parents. In 1975, the course was extended to the third (last) grade of the high schools. And, finally, following the military coup in 1980, the religion course became schools was also constitutionally secured. The exact title of the course was, "The Culture of Religion and Knowledge of Ethics."
In 1985, the Institute for Creation Research, a United States creationist group, helped advise Turkey's education minister Vehbi Dinçerler on how to introduce creationism in high schools. Turkish academics have stated that the resulting ignorance of evolution led to Turkey coming last in a survey that measured knowledge of evolution in 34 industrialised nations.
Currently, religious education courses begin at the 4th grade (age10) of primary school and continues throughout secondary and high schools. From the 4th to the 8th grade, classes consist of two hours per week. At the high school level, there is one hour of class per week Thus, a student who has graduated from high school receives 8 continuous years of religion courses. There are no fixed books for the course. Rather, each school decides which book to follow—provided that the book for each level is approved by the Ministry of Education. Nearly half of the content of these courses concerns religion and Islam (whom majority are Muslims) with remaining topics ranging from secularism to humanism and from ethical values to etiquette. The major world religions such as Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism are included in the content of the course.
Foreign languages
The most common foreign language is English, which in public schools is taught from 2nd grade (age 8) onwards through to the end of high school. In high school a second foreign language is introduced. However the number of lessons given in public schools is minimal compared to private schools, which begin teaching English in kindergarten, have two or three times as many English lessons in the timetable, and in many cases employ native speakers of English as teachers.
In 2011 the Ministry of Education, under pressure from the Prime Minister to improve the learning of English in Turkey, announced that the approach to language would be thoroughly revised, part of which would include a plan to hire 40,000 foreigners as language assistants in public schools. As a result of the poor standards achieved by the public system many students take an intensive English language "prep year" when entering university. These are offered by both state and private universities throughout Turkey.
In 2012, the Ministry of Education included Kurdish (based on both Kurmanji and Zazaki dialects) to the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on.
Later, the Ministry of Education also included Abkhaz, Adyghe, Standard Georgian, and Laz languages in 2013, and Albanian as well as Bosnian languages in February 2017.
In 2015, the Ministry of Education announced that as of the 2016–17 academic year, Arabic courses (as a second language) will be offered to students in elementary school starting in second grade. The Arabic courses will be offered as an elective language course like German, French and English. According to a prepared curriculum, second and third graders will start learning Arabic by listening-comprehension and speaking, while introduction to writing will join these skills in fourth grade and after fifth grade students will start learning the language in all its four basic skills.
Indoctrination
Turkish education system requires students to be educated on the basis of Turkish nationalism in Atatürk's thought (Atatürk milliyetçiliği) and aims to create individuals who are committed to laique, democratic values of Turkey.During Atatürk's presidency, schools to Turkefy the Kurds such as the Elazig Girls' Institute were set up. In the late 1990s, the National Security Council, which at the time was dominated by a secular military, demanded the administration of the Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan to carry out regulations aiming to curb rising Islamic fundamentalism.
Every weekday early in the morning student oath was to be sung by students until it was abolished in 2013. In every classroom, a portrait of Atatürk, lyrics of the National Anthem and text of Atatürk's Address to Turkish Youth are hung high up at the wall. In history lessons, nationalistic values are promoted and denialism of Armenian genocide is taught.
Criticism
Education
Constant alterations of education system in Turkey has caused controversy. In 2005 preparatory classes for foreign languages were abolished with only a few high school being exempt from. The examination system for entrance to high schools and universities has been constantly changed since the early 2000s. 17 thousand students getting full scores in first session of TEOG ("transition [exam] from basic education to secondary education") has also caused controversy. Counselor of Ministry of National Education Yusuf Tekin answered this concern by stating students who get full scores in both sessions must be treated as people actually taking the first place which 665 such students exist. Reduction of topics about Atatürk, downgrading in positive sciences teaching and promotion of religious content has drawn reactions.
School meals
In late 2010, a group of students brought food to school from home and shared their meal with each other in order to boycott the school canteen due to the rising prices which resulted in 3 students being taken into police custody. In early 2012, another school canteen was boycotted in a similar manner which resulted in one student being expelled from the school due to him "giving information to the press and distributing leaflets without obtaining permission from the school principality". In 2018, school canteens were criticised for selling banned products such as chocolate-covered wafer, cakes, and plastic toys which were designated to be unhealthy for children.
Textbooks
Although the government distributes free textbooks, there is a high demand for private textbooks due to the low quality of state-approved textbooks. The purchase of private textbooks is not obligatory, nevertheless, families feel compelled to buy them so that their children receive a better education. As of 2019, the total cost of private textbooks for a student can be about . The usage of private textbooks in schools is officially prohibited.
See also
Nation's schools
References
External links
OECD Education Policy Outlook: Turkey
Guide For International Students
Ministry of National Education
Population and Development Indicators, by the Turkish Statistical Institute, Prime Ministry of the Republic of Turkey (Turkish and English)
National Education Statistics Formal Education 2012– 2013
Information on education in Turkey, OECD - Contains indicators and information about Turkey and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries
Diagram of Turkish education system, OECD - Using 1997 ISCED classification of programmes and typical ages. Also in Turkish
Turkish Education: Same Old Religious Obsession, Only Worse Burak Bekdil, Gatestone Institute |
4243210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCC%20Fourth%20Assessment%20Report | IPCC Fourth Assessment Report | Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), was published in 2007 and is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, its potential effects, and options for adaptation and mitigation. The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken, produced by thousands of authors, editors, and reviewers from dozens of countries, citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies. People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which took six years to produce. Contributors to AR4 included more than 2,500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.
"Robust findings" of the Synthesis report include:
"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level".
Most of the global average warming over the past 50 years is "very likely" (greater than 90% probability, based on expert judgement) due to human activities.
"Impacts [of climate change] will very likely increase due to increased frequencies and intensities of some extreme weather events".
"Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries even if GHG emissions were to be reduced sufficiently for GHG concentrations to stabilise, due to the time scales associated with climate processes and feedbacks". Stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations is discussed in climate change mitigation.
"Some planned adaptation (of human activities) is occurring now; more extensive adaptation is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change".
"Unmitigated climate change would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt".
"Many impacts [of climate change] can be reduced, delayed or avoided by mitigation".
Overview
Like previous assessment reports, it consists of four reports:
Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis
Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
Working Group III: Mitigation
Synthesis Report
Global warming projections from AR4 are shown below. The projections apply to the end of the 21st century (2090–2099), relative to temperatures at the end of the 20th century (1980–1999). Add 0.7 °C to projections to make them relative to pre-industrial levels instead of 1980–1999. (UK Royal Society, 2010, p=10). Descriptions of the greenhouse gas emissions scenarios can be found in Special Report on Emissions Scenarios.
"Likely" means greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on expert judgement.
Sections
The report was released in four principal sections:
Contribution of Working Group I (WGI): Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.
Contribution of Working Group II (WGII): Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group III (WGIII): Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III: The Synthesis Report (SYR).
Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis
The full WGI report was published in March 2007, and last updated in September of that year. It includes a Summary for Policymakers (SPM), which was published in February 2007, and a Frequently Asked Questions section.
This section of the report, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, assessed current scientific knowledge of "the natural and human drivers of climate change" as well as observed changes in climate. It looked at the ability of science to attribute changes to different causes, and made projections of future climate change.
It was produced by 676 authors (152 lead authors, 26 review editors, and 498 contributing authors) from 40 countries, then reviewed by over 625 expert reviewers. More than 6,000 peer-reviewed publications were cited.
Before being approved, the summary was reviewed line by line by representatives of 113 governments during the 10th session of WGI, in January to February 2007.
On the issue of global warming and its causes, the SPM states that:
"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal."
"Most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations."
Very likely and likely mean "the assessed likelihood, using expert judgment" are over 90% and over 66%, respectively.
Observations
The report notes many observed changes in the Earth's climate including atmospheric composition, global average temperatures, ocean conditions, and other climate changes.
Changes in the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are all long-lived greenhouse gases.
"Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values."
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in 2005 (379 ppm) exceeds by far the natural range of the last 650,000 years (180 to 300 ppm).
The amount of methane in the atmosphere in 2005 (1774 ppb) exceeds by far the natural range of the last 650,000 years (320 to 790 ppb).
The primary source of the increase in carbon dioxide is fossil fuel use, but land-use changes also make a contribution.
The primary source of the increase in methane is very likely to be a combination of human agricultural activities and fossil fuel use. How much each contributes is not well determined.
Nitrous oxide concentrations have risen from a pre-industrial value of 270 ppb to a 2005 value of 319 ppb. More than a third of this rise is due to human activity, primarily agriculture.
Warming of the planet
Cold days, cold nights, and frost events have become less frequent. Hot days, hot nights, and heat waves have become more frequent. Additionally:
Eleven of the twelve years in the period (1995–2006) rank among the top 12 warmest years in the instrumental record (since 1880).
Warming in the last 100 years has caused about a 0.74 °C increase in global average temperature. This is up from the 0.6 °C increase in the 100 years prior to the Third Assessment Report.
Urban heat island effects were determined to have negligible influence (less than 0.0006 °C per decade over land and zero over oceans) on these measurements.
Observations since 1961 show that the ocean has been absorbing more than 80% of the heat added to the climate system, and that ocean temperatures have increased to depths of at least 3000 m (9800 ft).
"Average Arctic temperatures increased at almost twice the global average rate in the past 100 years."
It is likely that greenhouse gases would have caused more warming than we have observed if not for the cooling effects of volcanic and human-caused aerosols. See global dimming.
Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely the highest in at least the past 1300 years (including both the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age).
Ice, snow, permafrost, rain, and the oceans
The SPM documents increases in wind intensity, decline of permafrost coverage, and increases of both drought and heavy precipitation events. Additionally:
"Mountain glaciers and snow cover have declined on average in both hemispheres."
Losses from the land-based ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica have very likely (>90%) contributed to sea level rise between 1993 and 2003.
Ocean warming causes seawater to expand, which contributes to sea level rising.
Sea level rose at an average rate of about 1.8 mm/year during the years 1961–2003. The rise in sea level during 1993–2003 was at an average rate of 3.1 mm/year. It is not clear whether this is a long-term trend or just variability.
Antarctic sea ice shows no significant overall trend, consistent with a lack of warming in that region.
Hurricanes
There has been an increase in hurricane intensity in the North Atlantic since the 1970s, and that increase correlates with increases in sea surface temperature.
The observed increase in hurricane intensity is larger than climate models predict for the sea surface temperature changes we have experienced.
There is no clear trend in the number of hurricanes.
Other regions appear to have experienced increased hurricane intensity as well, but there are concerns about the quality of data in these other regions.
It is more likely than not (>50%) that there has been some human contribution to the increases in hurricane intensity.
It is likely (>66%) that we will see increases in hurricane intensity during the 21st century.
Table SPM-2 lists recent trends along with certainty levels for the trend having actually occurred, for a human contribution to the trend, and for the trend occurring in the future. In relation to changes (including increased hurricane intensity) where the certainty of a human contribution is stated as "more likely than not" footnote f to table SPM-2 notes "Magnitude of anthropogenic contributions not assessed. Attribution for these phenomena based on expert judgment rather than formal attribution studies."
Factors that warm or cool the planet
AR4 describes warming and cooling effects on the planet in terms of radiative forcing—the rate of change of energy in the system, measured as power per unit area (in SI units, W/m2). The report shows in detail the individual warming contributions (positive forcing) of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, other human warming factors, and the warming effects of changes in solar activity. Also shown are the cooling effects (negative forcing) of aerosols, land-use changes, and other human activities. All values are shown as a change from pre-industrial conditions.
Total radiative forcing from the sum of all human activities is about +1.6 watts/m2
Radiative forcing from an increase of solar intensity since 1750 is about +0.12 watts/m2
Radiative forcing from carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide combined is very likely (>90%) increasing more quickly during the current era (1750–present) than at any other time in the last 10,000 years.
Climate sensitivity
Climate sensitivity is defined as the amount of global average surface warming following a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations. It is likely to be in the range of 2 to 4.5 °C, with a best estimate of about 3 °C. This range of values is not a projection of the temperature rise we will see in the 21st century, since the future change in carbon dioxide concentrations is unknown, and factors besides carbon dioxide concentrations affect temperature.
Model-based projections for the future
Model projections are made based on an analysis of various computer climate models running within the different scenarios that were established in 2000 in the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (the "SRES scenarios"). As a result, predictions for the 21st century are as shown below.
Surface air warming in the 21st century:
Best estimate for a "low scenario" is 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F)
Best estimate for a "high scenario" is 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F)
A temperature rise of about 0.1 °C per decade would be expected for the next two decades, even if greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations were kept at year 2000 levels.
A temperature rise of about 0.2 °C per decade is projected for the next two decades for all SRES scenarios.
Confidence in these near-term projections is strengthened because of the agreement between past model projections and actual observed temperature increases.
Based on multiple models that all exclude ice sheet flow due to a lack of basis in published literature, it is estimated that sea level rise will be:
in a low scenario 18 to 38 cm (7 to 15 inches)
in a high scenario 26 to 59 cm (10 to 23 inches)
It is very likely that there will be an increase in frequency of warm spells, heat waves and events of heavy rainfall.
It is likely that there will be an increase in areas affected by droughts, intensity of tropical cyclones (which include hurricanes and typhoons) and the occurrence of extreme high tides.
"Sea ice is projected to shrink in both the Arctic and Antarctic ... In some projections, Arctic late-summer sea ice disappears almost entirely by the latter part of the 21st century."
Scenario-specific projections are based on analysis of multiple runs by multiple climate models, using the various SRES Scenarios. "Low scenario" refers to B1, the most optimistic scenario family. "High scenario" refers to A1FI, the most pessimistic scenario family.
Temperature and sea level rise in the various scenarios
There are six families of SRES scenarios, and AR4 provides projected temperature and sea level rises (excluding future rapid dynamical changes in ice flow) for each scenario family.
Scenario B1
Best estimate temperature rise of 1.8 °C with a likely range of 1.1 to 2.9 °C (3.2 °F with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.2 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [18 to 38 cm] (7 to 15 inches)
Scenario A1T
Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [20 to 45 cm] (8 to 18 inches)
Scenario B2
Best estimate temperature rise of 2.4 °C with a likely range of 1.4 to 3.8 °C (4.3 °F with a likely range of 2.5 to 6.8 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [20 to 43 cm] (8 to 17 inches)
Scenario A1B
Best estimate temperature rise of 2.8 °C with a likely range of 1.7 to 4.4 °C (5.0 °F with a likely range of 3.1 to 7.9 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [21 to 48 cm] (8 to 19 inches)
Scenario A2
Best estimate temperature rise of 3.4 °C with a likely range of 2.0 to 5.4 °C (6.1 °F with a likely range of 3.6 to 9.7 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [23 to 51 cm] (9 to 20 inches)
Scenario A1FI
Best estimate temperature rise of 4.0 °C with a likely range of 2.4 to 6.4 °C (7.2 °F with a likely range of 4.3 to 11.5 °F)
Sea level rise likely range [26 to 59 cm] (10 to 23 inches)
Selected quotes from the Working Group I Summary for Policymakers
"Both past and future anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium, due to the timescales required for removal of this gas from the atmosphere."
Reaction to Working Group I
In the weeks before publication of the first report, controversy broke out about the report's projections of sea-level change, which in the new report was estimated at less than previous estimates. The now-published text gives a warning that the new estimation of sea-level could be too low: "Dynamical processes related to ice flow not included in current models but suggested by recent observations could increase the vulnerability of the ice sheets to warming, increasing future sea level rise." The mid-points of the sea level rise estimates are within ±10% of those from the TAR; but the range has narrowed.
Lord Rees, the president of the Royal Society, said, "This report makes it clear, more convincingly than ever before, that human actions are writ large on the changes we are seeing, and will see, to our climate. The IPCC strongly emphasises that substantial climate change is inevitable, and we will have to adapt to this. This should compel all of us—world leaders, businesses and individuals—towards action rather than the paralysis of fear. We need both to reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases and to prepare for the impacts of climate change. Those who would claim otherwise can no longer use science as a basis for their argument."
U.S. Energy Secretary Samuel Bodman told a news conference that the report was "sound science" and "As the president has said, and this report makes clear, human activity is contributing to changes in our earth's climate and that issue is no longer up for debate." Kurt Volker, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for European and Eurasian Affairs, said, "We support the recent IPCC report, in which U.S. scientists played a leading role."
Based on the report, 46 countries in a "Paris Call for Action" read out by French President Chirac, have called for the creation of a United Nations Environment Organization (UNEO), which is to have more power than the current United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and is to be modelled after the more powerful World Health Organization. The 46 countries included the European Union nations, but notably did not include the United States, China, Russia, and India, the top four emitters of greenhouse gases.
Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
Working Group II's Summary for Policymakers was released on 6 April 2007. The full report was released 18 September 2007.
WGII states that "evidence from all continents and most oceans shows that many natural systems are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases".
Observations
Some observed changes have been associated with climate change at varying levels of confidence.
With a high confidence (about an 8 in 10 chance to be correct) WGII asserts that climate change has resulted in:
More and larger glacial lakes.
Increasing ground instability in permafrost regions.
Increasing rock avalanches in mountain regions.
Changes in some Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems.
Increased run-off and earlier spring peak discharge in many glacier and snow-fed rivers.
Changes affecting algae, plankton, fish and zooplankton because rising water temperatures and changes in:
ice cover
salinity
oxygen levels
water circulation
With a very high confidence (about a 9 in 10 chance to be correct) WGII asserts that climate change is affecting terrestrial biological systems in that:
Spring events such as the unfolding of leaves, laying of eggs, and migration are happening earlier.
There are poleward and upward (to higher altitude) shifts in ranges of plant and animal species.
WGII also states that the ocean has become more acidic because it has absorbed human-caused carbon dioxide. Ocean pH has dropped by 0.1, but how this affects marine life is not documented.
Attribution of changes
WGII acknowledges some of the difficulties of attributing specific changes to human-caused global warming, stating that "Limitations and gaps prevent more complete attribution of the causes of observed system responses to anthropogenic warming." but found that the agreement between observed and projected changes was "Nevertheless ... sufficient to conclude with high confidence that anthropogenic warming over the last three decades has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems."
Projections
WGII describes some of what might be expected in the coming century, based on studies and model projections.
Fresh water
It is projected with high confidence that:
Dry regions are projected to get drier, and wet regions are projected to get wetter: "By mid-century, annual average river runoff and water availability are projected to increase by 10–40% at high latitudes and in some wet tropical areas, and decrease by 10–30% over some dry regions at mid-latitudes and in the dry tropics..."
Drought-affected areas will become larger.
Heavy precipitation events are very likely to become more common and will increase flood risk.
Water supplies stored in glaciers and snow cover will be reduced over the course of the century.
Ecosystems
It is projected with high confidence that:
The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by a combination of climate change and other stressors.
Carbon removal by terrestrial ecosystems is likely to peak before mid-century and then weaken or reverse. This would amplify climate change.
Food
It is projected with medium confidence (about 5 in 10 chance to be correct) that globally, potential food production will increase for temperature rises of 1–3 °C, but decrease for higher temperature ranges.
Coastal systems
It is projected with very high confidence that:
Coasts will be exposed to increasing risks such as coastal erosion due to climate change and sea-level rise.
"Increases in sea-surface temperature of about 1–3 °C are projected to result in more frequent coral bleaching events and widespread mortality unless there is thermal adaptation or acclimatisation by corals."
"Many millions more people are projected to be flooded every year due to sea-level rise by the 2080s."
Objections to original WGII language
US negotiators managed to eliminate language calling for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, according to Patricia Romero Lankao, a lead author from the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). The original draft read: "However, adaptation alone is not expected to cope with all the projected effects of climate change, and especially not over the long run as most impacts increase in magnitude. Mitigation measures will therefore also be required." The second sentence does not appear in the final version of the report.
China objected to wording that said "based on observed evidence, there is very high confidence that many natural systems, on all continents and in most oceans, are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases". When China asked that the word "very" be stricken, three scientific authors balked, and the deadlock was broken only by a compromise to delete any reference to confidence levels.
Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change
Working Group III's Summary for Policymakers (SPM) was published on 4 May 2007 at the 26th session of the IPCC. The full WG III report was published online in September 2007.
The IPCC convened in Bangkok on April 30 to start discussions on the draft Summary, with the participation of over 400 scientists and experts from about 120 countries. At the full IPCC meeting on May 4, agreement was reached by the larger gathering of some 2,000 delegates. One of the key debates concerned a proposal to limit concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to between 445 parts per million and 650 parts per million to avoid dangerous climate change, with pressure from developing countries to raise the lower limit. Despite this, the figures from the original proposal were incorporated into the Summary for Policymakers. The Summary concludes that stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations is possible at a reasonable cost, with stabilization between 445 ppm and 535 ppm costing less than 3% of global GDP.
The WG III report analyses mitigation options for the main sectors in the near-term, addressing also cross-sectorial matters such as synergies, co-benefits, and trade-offs. It also provides information on long-term mitigation strategies for various stabilization levels, paying special attention to implications of different short-term strategies for achieving long-term goals.
Mitigation in the short and medium term (until 2030)
The Summary for Policymakers concludes that there was a high level of agreement and much evidence that "there is substantial economic potential for the mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions over the coming decades, that could offset the projected growth of global emissions or reduce emissions below current levels", taking into account financial and social costs and benefits. The technologies with the largest economic potential within this timescale are considered to be:
The IPCC estimates that stabilizing atmospheric greenhouse gases at between 445–535 ppm equivalent would result in a reduction of average annual GDP growth rates of less than 0.12%. Stabilizing at 535 to 590 ppm would reduce average annual GDP growth rates by 0.1%, while stabilization at 590 to 710 ppm would reduce rates by 0.06%. There was high agreement and much evidence that a substantial fraction of these mitigation costs may be offset by benefits to health as a result of reduced air pollution, and that there would be further cost savings from other benefits such as increased energy security, increased agricultural production, and reduced pressure on natural ecosystems as well as, in certain countries, balance of trade improvements, provision of modern energy services to rural areas and employment.
The IPCC considered that achieving these reductions would require a "large shift in the pattern of investment, although the net additional investment required ranges from negligible to 5–10%".They also concluded that it is often more cost effective to invest in end-use energy efficiency improvement than in increasing energy supply.
In terms of electricity generation, the IPCC envisage that renewable energy can provide 30 to 35% of electricity by 2030 (up from 18% in 2005) at a carbon price of up to US$50/t, and that nuclear power can rise from 16% to 18%. They also warn that higher oil prices might lead to the exploitation of high-carbon alternatives such as oil sands, oil shales, heavy oils, and synthetic fuels from coal and gas, leading to increasing emissions, unless carbon capture and storage technologies are employed.
In the transport sector there was a medium level of agreement and evidence that the multiple mitigation options may be counteracted by increased use, and that there were many barriers and a lack of government policy frameworks.
There was high agreement and much evidence that, despite many barriers (particularly in the developing countries), new and existing buildings could reduce emissions considerably, and that this would also provide other benefits in terms of improved air quality, social welfare and energy security.
Mitigation in the long term (after 2030)
The IPCC reported that the effectiveness of mitigation efforts over the next two or three decades would have a large impact on the ability to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gases at lower levels, and that the lower the ultimate stabilization levels, the more quickly emissions would need to peak and decline. For example, to stabilize at between 445 and 490 ppm (resulting in an estimate global temperature 2 to 2.4 °C above the pre-industrial average) emissions would need to peak before 2015, with 50 to 85% reductions on 2000 levels by 2050.
There was high agreement and much evidence that stabilization could be achieved by 2050 using currently available technologies, provided appropriate and effective incentives were put in place for their development, acquisition, deployment and diffusion, and that barriers were removed. For stabilization at lower levels the IPCC agreed that improvements of carbon intensity need to be made much faster than has been the case in the past, and that there would be a greater need for efficient public and private research, development and demonstration efforts and investment in new technologies during the next few decades. The IPCC points out that government funding in real absolute terms for most energy research programmes has been flat or declining for nearly 20 years, and is now about half the 1980 level. Delays in cutting emissions would lead to higher stabilization levels and increase the risk of more severe climate change impacts, as more of the current high-emission technologies would have been deployed.
Among the measures that might be used, there was high agreement and much evidence that policies that put a price on the cost of carbon emissions could provide incentives for consumers and producers. Carbon prices of 5 to 65 US$/t in 2030 and 15 to 130 US$/t by 2050 are envisaged for stabilization at around 550 ppm by 2100.
Synthesis Report
A draft version of the Synthesis Report, said to be subject to final copyedit, was published on 16 November 2007.
The six topics addressed in the Synthesis Report are:
Observed changes in climate and its effects (WGI and WGII).
Causes of change (WGI and WGIII).
Climate change and its impacts in the near and long term under different scenarios (WGI and WGIII).
Adaptation and mitigation options and responses, and the inter-relationship with sustainable development, at global and regional levels (WGII and WGIII).
The long term perspective: scientific and socio-economic aspects relevant to adaptation and mitigation, consistent with the objectives and provisions of the Convention [sic], and in the context of sustainable development (WGI and WGIII).
Robust findings, key uncertainties (WGI, WGII and WGIII).
The "Convention" mentioned in Topic 5 is the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The key findings from the AR4 Synthesis Report will be discussed Wednesday 13 December 2007 at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC COP 13—CMP 3) in Bali, Indonesia, which takes place 3–14 December (see UNFCCC home page).
Anthropogenic warming could lead to some impacts that are abrupt or irreversible
The SPM states that "Anthropogenic warming could lead to some impacts that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change."
"There is medium confidence that approximately 20–30% of species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if increases in global average warming exceed 1.5–2.5°C (relative to 1980–1999). As global average temperature increase exceeds about 3.5°C, model projections suggest significant extinctions (40–70% of species assessed) around the globe."
"Partial loss of ice sheets on polar land could imply metres of sea level rise, major changes in coastlines and inundation of low-lying areas, with greatest effects in river deltas and low-lying islands. Such changes are projected to occur over millennial time scales, but more rapid sea level rise on century time scales cannot be excluded."
Reception
The Fourth Assessment Report has been the subject of criticism. Skeptics of anthropogenic global warming contend that their claims are not sufficiently incorporated in the report. Others regard the IPCC as too conservative in its estimates of potential harm from climate change. The report has also been criticized for inclusion of an erroneous date for the projected demise of the Himalayan glaciers.
Related to the subject of global warming in general, the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report has been discussed by various bodies such as government officials, special interest groups and scientific organizations; see the article "Politics of global warming" for a thorough discussion of the politics surrounding the phenomenon, and the positions of the various parties involved.
The United Nations appointed an independent board of scientists to "review the workings of the world's top climate science panel" which reported in September 2010; see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change#InterAcademy Council review in 2010.
Response to AR4
Several science academies have referred to and/or reiterated some of the conclusions of AR4. These include:
Joint-statements made in 2007, 2008 and 2009 by the science academies of Brazil, China, India, Mexico, South Africa and the G8 nations (the "G8+5").
Publications by the Australian Academy of Science.
A joint-statement made in 2007 by the Network of African Science Academies.
A statement made in 2010 by the Inter Academy Medical Panel This statement has been signed by 43 scientific academies.
The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL, et al., 2009; 2010) has carried out two reviews of AR4. These reviews are generally supportive of AR4's conclusions. PBL (2010) make some recommendations to improve the IPCC process. A literature assessment by the US National Research Council (US NRC, 2010) concludes:Climate change is occurring, is caused largely by human activities, and poses significant risks for—and in many cases is already affecting—a broad range of human and natural systems [emphasis in original text]. ... This conclusion is based on a substantial array of scientific evidence, including recent work, and is consistent with the conclusions of recent assessments by the U.S. Global Change Research Program ..., the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Fourth Assessment Report ..., and other assessments of the state of scientific knowledge on climate change.
Projected date of melting of Himalayan glaciers
Some errors have been found in the IPCC AR4 Working Group II report. Two errors include the melting of Himalayan glaciers (see later section), and Dutch land area that is below sea level.
A paragraph in the 2007 Working Group II report ("Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability"), chapter 10 included a projection that Himalayan glaciers could disappear by 2035:Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world (see Table 10.9) and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate. Its total area will likely shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 km2 by the year 2035 (WWF, 2005).This projection was not included in the final summary for policymakers. The IPCC has since acknowledged that the date is incorrect, while reaffirming that the conclusion in the final summary was robust. They expressed regret for "the poor application of well-established IPCC procedures in this instance". The date of 2035 has been correctly quoted by the IPCC from the WWF report, which has misquoted its own source, an ICSI report "Variations of Snow and Ice in the past and at present on a Global and Regional Scale".
Rajendra K. Pachauri responded in an interview with Science.
Overstatement of effects
Former IPCC chairman Robert Watson said, regarding the Himalayan glaciers estimation, "The mistakes all appear to have gone in the direction of making it seem like climate change is more serious by overstating the impact. That is worrying. The IPCC needs to look at this trend in the errors and ask why it happened". Martin Parry, a climate expert who had been co-chair of the IPCC working group II, said that "What began with a single unfortunate error over Himalayan glaciers has become a clamour without substance" and the IPCC had investigated the other alleged mistakes, which were "generally unfounded and also marginal to the assessment".
Other
The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report featured a graph showing 12 proxy based temperature reconstructions, including the three highlighted in the 2001 Third Assessment Report (TAR); as before, and had both been calibrated by newer studies. In addition, analysis of the Medieval Warm Period cited reconstructions by (as cited in the TAR) and . Ten of these 14 reconstructions covered 1,000 years or longer. Most reconstructions shared some data series, particularly tree ring data, but newer reconstructions used additional data and covered a wider area, using a variety of statistical methods. The section discussed the divergence problem affecting certain tree ring data.
See also
Notes
References
Sources
The Fourth Assessment Report consists of the following reports from each of the three Working Groups, and a Synthesis Report. Additional reports and documents can be found at the IPCC's documents web page.
(Abbreviated as SPM-WG1, AR4)
(pb: ).
(pb: ).
(pb: ).
.
, (pb: , ).
.
. Statement website.
. Report website.
. Report website.
.
.
.
.
. Statement website.
. Statement website.
. Statement website.
. Low-resolution (2 Mb) or high-resolution PDF (25 Mb).
External links
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change home page
Ten-webpage summary of the Fourth Assessment Report SPMs by GreenFacts; the webpages as a self-contained
Commentary on the Working Group I Report:
The Guardian Article on US political pressure on WGI Report, 27 January 2007
UNEP.org Press release: Evidence of Human-caused Global Warming "Unequivocal", says IPCC, 2 February 2007
RealClimate blog — Commentary on Working Group I Summary for Policymakers, 2 February 2007
Videos:
From Science to Assessment: Overview of the IPCC AR4 Working Group I Report. A lecture given at Princeton University by Ronald Stouffer, Senior Research Meteorologist, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), 11 March 2008
Lessons from the Climate Wars: The Future of the IPCC. A lecture given at Princeton University by Gary Yohe, Woodhouse/Sysco Professor of economics at Wesleyan University and Director of the John E. Andrus Public Affairs Center at Wesleyan, 7 May 2008
Emissions Mitigation and Climate Stabilization. A lecture given at Princeton University by Jae Edmonds, Chief Scientist, Joint Global Change Research Institute, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 22 April 2008
How Would Climate Change Influence Society in the 21st Century? A lecture given at MIT by Rajendra Pachauri, 29 January 2008
2007 documents
Climate change assessment and attribution
Environmental reports
Report, 04
2007 in the environment |
4243217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism%20%28international%20relations%29 | Constructivism (international relations) | In international relations (IR), constructivism is a social theory that asserts that significant aspects of international relations are shaped by ideational factors. The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors.
In contrast to other prominent IR approaches and theories (such as realism and rational choice), constructivists see identities and interests of actors as socially constructed and changeable; identities are not static and cannot be exogenously assumed. Similar to rational choice, constructivism does not make broad and specific predictions about international relations; it is an approach to studying international politics, not a substantive theory of international politics. Constructivist analyses can only provide substantive explanations or predictions once the relevant actors and their interests have been identified, as well as the content of social structures.
The main theories competing with constructivism are variants of realism, liberalism, and rational choice that emphasize materialism (the notion that the physical world determines political behavior on its own), and individualism (the notion that individual units can be studied apart from the broader systems that they are embedded in). Whereas other prominent approaches conceptualize power in material terms (e.g. military and economic capabilities), constructivist analyses also see power as the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social relations among actors.
Development
Nicholas Onuf has been credited with coining the term constructivism to describe theories that stress the socially constructed character of international relations. Since the late 1980s to early 1990s, constructivism has become one of the major schools of thought within international relations.
The earliest constructivist works focused on establishing that norms mattered in international politics. Peter J. Katzenstein's edited volume The Culture of National Security compiled works by numerous prominent and emerging constructivists, showing that constructivist insights were important in the field of security studies, an area of International Relations in which realists had been dominant.
After establishing that norms mattered in international politics, later veins of constructivism focused on explaining the circumstances under which some norms mattered and others did not. Swathes of constructivist research have focused on norm entrepreneurs: international organizations and law: epistemic communities; speech, argument, and persuasion; and structural configuration as mechanisms and processes for social construction.
Alexander Wendt is the most prominent advocate of social constructivism in the field of international relations. Wendt's 1992 article "Anarchy is What States Make of It: the Social Construction of Power Politics" laid the theoretical groundwork for challenging what he considered to be a flaw shared by both neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists, namely, a commitment to a (crude) form of materialism. By attempting to show that even such a core realist concept as "power politics" is socially constructed—that is, not given by nature and hence, capable of being transformed by human practice—Wendt opened the way for a generation of international relations scholars to pursue work on a wide range of issues from a constructivist perspective. Wendt further developed these ideas in his central work, Social Theory of International Politics (1999). Following up on Wendt, Martha Finnemore offered the first "sustained, systematic empirical argument in support of the constructivist claim that international normative structures matter in world politics" in her 1996 book National Interests in International Society.
There are several strands of constructivism. On the one hand, there are "conventional" constructivist scholars such as Kathryn Sikkink, Peter Katzenstein, Elizabeth Kier, Martha Finnemore, and Alexander Wendt, who use widely accepted methodologies and epistemologies, and whose work has been widely accepted within the mainstream IR community and generated vibrant scholarly discussions among realists, liberals, and constructivists. These scholars hold that research oriented around causal explanations and constitutive explanations is appropriate. Wendt refers to this form of constructivism as "thin" constructivism. On the other hand, there are "critical" radical constructivists who take discourse and linguistics more seriously, and adopt non-positivist methodologies and epistemologies.A third strand, known as critical constructivism, takes conventional constructivists to task for systematically downplaying or omitting class factors. All strands of constructivism agree that neorealism and neoliberalism pay insufficient attention to social construction in world politics.
Theory
Constructivism primarily seeks to demonstrate how core aspects of international relations are, contrary to the assumptions of neorealism and neoliberalism, socially constructed. This means that they are given their form by ongoing processes of social practice and interaction. Alexander Wendt calls two increasingly accepted basic tenets of constructivism "that the structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and that the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature." This does not mean that constructivists believe international politics is "ideas all the way down", but rather is characterized both by material factors and ideational factors.
Central to constructivism are the notions that ideas matter, and that agents are socially constructed (rather than given).
Constructivist research is focused both on causal explanations for phenomena, as well as analyses of how things are constituted. In the study of national security, the emphasis is on the conditioning that culture and identity exert on security policies and related behaviors. Identities are necessary in order to ensure at least some minimal level of predictability and order. The object of the constructivist discourse can be conceived as the arrival, a fundamental factor in the field of international relations, of the recent debate on epistemology, the sociology of knowledge, the agent/structure relationship, and the ontological status of social facts.
The notion that international relations are not only affected by power politics, but also by ideas, is shared by writers who describe themselves as constructivist theorists. According to this view, the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material. This leads to social constructivists to argue that changes in the nature of social interaction between states can bring a fundamental shift towards greater international security.
Challenging realism
During constructivism's formative period, neorealism was the dominant discourse of international relations. Much of constructivism's initial theoretical work challenged basic neorealist assumptions. Neorealists are fundamentally causal structuralists. They hold that the majority of important content to international politics is explained by the structure of the international system, a position first advanced in Kenneth Waltz's Man, the State, and War and fully elucidated in his core text of neorealism, Theory of International Politics. Specifically, international politics is primarily determined by the fact that the international system is anarchic – it lacks any overarching authority, instead it is composed of units (states) which are formally equal – they are all sovereign over their own territory. Such anarchy, neorealists argue, forces States to act in certain ways, specifically, they can only rely on themselves for security (they have to self-help). The way in which anarchy forces them to act in such ways, to defend their own self-interest in terms of power, neorealists argue, explains most of international politics. Because of this, neorealists tend to disregard explanations of international politics at the "unit" or "state" level. Kenneth Waltz attacked such a focus as being reductionist.
Constructivism, particularly in the formative work of Wendt, challenges this assumption by showing that the causal powers attributed to "structure" by neorealists are in fact not "given", but rest on the way in which structure is constructed by social practice. Removed from presumptions about the nature of the identities and interests of the actors in the system, and the meaning that social institutions (including anarchy) have for such actors, Wendt argues neorealism's "structure" reveals very little: "it does not predict whether two states will be friends or foes, will recognize each other's sovereignty, will have dynastic ties, will be revisionist or status quo powers, and so on". Because such features of behavior are not explained by anarchy, and require instead the incorporation of evidence about the interests and identities held by key actors, neorealism's focus on the material structure of the system (anarchy) is misplaced. Wendt goes further than this – arguing that because the way in which anarchy constrains states depends on the way in which states conceive of anarchy, and conceive of their own identities and interests, anarchy is not necessarily even a self-help system. It only forces states to self-help if they conform to neorealist assumptions about states as seeing security as a competitive, relative concept, where the gain of security for any one state means the loss of security for another. If states instead hold alternative conceptions of security, either "co-operative", where states can maximise their security without negatively affecting the security of another, or "collective" where states identify the security of other states as being valuable to themselves, anarchy will not lead to self-help at all. Neorealist conclusions, as such, depend entirely on unspoken and unquestioned assumptions about the way in which the meaning of social institutions are constructed by actors. Crucially, because neorealists fail to recognize this dependence, they falsely assume that such meanings are unchangeable, and exclude the study of the processes of social construction which actually do the key explanatory work behind neorealist observations.
As a criticism of neorealism and neoliberalism (which were the dominant strands of IR theory during the 1980s), constructivism tended to be lumped in with all approaches that criticized the so-called "neo-neo" debate. Constructivism has therefore often been conflated with critical theory. However, while constructivism may use aspects of critical theory and vice versa, the mainstream variants of constructivism are positivist.
In a response to constructivism, John Mearsheimer has argued that ideas and norms only matter on the margins, and that appeals by leaders to norms and morals often reflect self-interest.
Identities and interests
As constructivists reject neorealism's conclusions about the determining effect of anarchy on the behavior of international actors, and move away from neorealism's underlying materialism, they create the necessary room for the identities and interests of international actors to take a central place in theorising international relations. Now that actors are not simply governed by the imperatives of a self-help system, their identities and interests become important in analysing how they behave. Like the nature of the international system, constructivists see such identities and interests as not objectively grounded in material forces (such as dictates of the human nature that underpins classical realism) but the result of ideas and the social construction of such ideas. In other words, the meanings of ideas, objects, and actors are all given by social interaction. People give objects their meanings and can attach different meanings to different things.
Martha Finnemore has been influential in examining the way in which international organizations are involved in these processes of the social construction of actor's perceptions of their interests. In National Interests In International Society, Finnemore attempts to "develop a systemic approach to understanding state interests and state behavior by investigating an international structure, not of power, but of meaning and social value". "Interests", she explains, "are not just 'out there' waiting to be discovered; they are constructed through social interaction". Finnemore provides three case studies of such construction – the creation of Science Bureaucracies in states due to the influence of the UNESCO, the role of the Red Cross in the Geneva Conventions and the World Bank's influence of attitudes to poverty.
Studies of such processes are examples of the constructivist attitude towards state interests and identities. Such interests and identities are central determinants of state behaviour, as such studying their nature and their formation is integral in constructivist methodology to explaining the international system. But it is important to note that despite this refocus onto identities and interests—properties of states—constructivists are not necessarily wedded to focusing their analysis at the unit-level of international politics: the state. Constructivists such as Finnemore and Wendt both emphasize that while ideas and processes tend to explain the social construction of identities and interests, such ideas and processes form a structure of their own which impact upon international actors. Their central difference from neorealists is to see the structure of international politics in primarily ideational, rather than material, terms.
Norms
Constructivist scholars have explored in-depth the role of norms in world politics. Abram Chayes and Antonia Handler Chayes have defined “norms” as “a broad class of prescriptive statements – rules, standards, principles, and so forth – both procedural and substantive” that are “prescriptions for action in situations of choice, carrying a sense of obligation, a sense that they ought to be followed”.
Norm-based constructivist approaches generally assume that actors tend to adhere to a “logic of appropriateness”. That means that actors follow “internalized prescriptions of what is socially defined as normal, true, right, or good, without, or in spite of calculation of consequences and expected utility”. This logic of appropriateness stands in contrast to the rational choice “logic of consequences”, where actors are assumed to choose the most efficient means to reach their goals on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis.
Constructivist norm scholarship has investigated a wide range of issue areas in world politics. For example, Peter Katzenstein and the contributors to his edited volume, The Culture of National Security, have argued that states act on security choices not only in the context of their physical capabilities but also on the basis of normative understandings. Martha Finnemore has suggested that international organizations like the World Bank or UNESCO help diffuse norms which, in turn, influence how states define their national interests. Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink have explored how norms affect political change. In doing so, they have stressed the connections between norms and rationality, rather than their opposition to each other. They have also highlighted the importance of “norm entrepreneurs” in advocating and spreading certain norms.
Some scholars have investigated the role of individual norms in world politics. For instance, Audie Klotz has examined how the global norm against apartheid developed across different states (the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe) and institutions (the Commonwealth, the Organization of African Unity, and the United Nations). The emergence and institutionalization of this norm, she argued, has contributed to the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa. Nina Tannenwald has made the case that the non-use of nuclear weapons since 1945 can be attributed to the strength of a nuclear weapons taboo, i.e., a norm against the use of nuclear weapons. She has argued that this norm has become so deeply embedded in American political and social culture that nuclear weapons have not been employed, even in cases when their use would have made strategic or tactical sense. Michael Barnett has taken an evolutionary approach to trace how the norm of political humanitarianism emerged.
Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink distinguish between three types of norms:
Regulative norms: they "order and constrain behavior"
Constitutive norms: they "create new actors, interests, or categories of action"
Evaluative and prescriptive norms: they have an "oughtness" quality to them
Finnemore, Sikkink, Jeffrey W. Legro and others have argued that the robustness (or effectiveness) of norms can be measured by factors such as:
specificity: norms that are clear and specific are more likely to be effective
longevity: norms with a history are more likely to be effective
universality: norms that make general claims (rather than localized and particularistic claims) are more likely to be effective
prominence: norms that are widely accepted among powerful actors are more likely to be effective
Jeffrey Checkel argues that there are two common types of explanations for the efficacy of norms:
Rationalism: actors comply with norms due to coercion, cost-benefit calculations, and material incentives
Constructivism: actors comply with norms due to social learning and socialization
In terms of specific norms, constructivist scholars have shown how the following norms emerged:
Humanitarian intervention: Over time, conceptions of who was "human" changed, which led states to increasingly engage in humanitarian interventions in the 20th century.
Nuclear taboo: A norm against nuclear weapons developed since 1945.
Ban on landmines: Activism by transnational advocacy groups led to a norm prohibiting landmines.
Norms of sovereignty.
Norms against assassination.
Election monitoring.
Taboo against the weaponization of water.
Anti-whaling norm.
Anti-torture norm.
Research areas
Many constructivists analyse international relations by looking at goals, threats, fears, cultures, identities, and other elements of "social reality" as social facts. In an important edited volume, The Culture of National Security, constructivist scholars—including Elizabeth Kier, Jeffrey Legro, and Peter Katzenstein – challenged many realist assumptions about the dynamics of international politics, particularly in the context of military affairs. Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber applied constructivist approaches to understand the evolution of state sovereignty as a central theme in international relations, and works by Rodney Bruce Hall and Daniel Philpott (among others) developed constructivist theories of major transformations in the dynamics of international politics. In international political economy, the application of constructivism has been less frequent. Notable examples of constructivist work in this area include Kathleen R. McNamara's study of European Monetary Union and Mark Blyth's analysis of the rise of Reaganomics in the United States.
By focusing on how language and rhetoric are used to construct the social reality of the international system, constructivists are often seen as more optimistic about progress in international relations than versions of realism loyal to a purely materialist ontology, but a growing number of constructivists question the "liberal" character of constructivist thought and express greater sympathy for realist pessimism concerning the possibility of emancipation from power politics.
Constructivism is often presented as an alternative to the two leading theories of international relations, realism and liberalism, but some maintain that it is not necessarily inconsistent with one or both. Wendt shares some key assumptions with leading realist and neorealist scholars, such as the existence of anarchy and the centrality of states in the international system. However, Wendt renders anarchy in cultural rather than materialist terms; he also offers a sophisticated theoretical defense of the state-as-actor assumption in international relations theory. This is a contentious issue within segments of the IR community as some constructivists challenge Wendt on some of these assumptions (see, for example, exchanges in Review of International Studies, vol. 30, 2004). It has been argued that progress in IR theory will be achieved when Realism and Constructivism can be aligned or even synthesized. An early example of such synthesis was Jennifer Sterling-Folker's analysis of the United States’ international monetary policy following the Bretton Woods system. Sterling-Folker argued that the U.S. shift towards unilateralism is partially accounted for by realism's emphasis of an anarchic system, but constructivism helps to account for important factors from the domestic or second level of analysis.
Recent developments
A significant group of scholars who study processes of social construction self-consciously eschew the label "constructivist". They argue that "mainstream" constructivism has abandoned many of the most important insights from linguistic turn and social-constructionist theory in the pursuit of respectability as a "scientific" approach to international relations. Even some putatively "mainstream" constructivists, such as Jeffrey Checkel, have expressed concern that constructivists have gone too far in their efforts to build bridges with non-constructivist schools of thought.
A growing number of constructivists contend that current theories pay inadequate attention to the role of habitual and unreflective behavior in world politics, the centrality of relations and processes in constructing world politics, or both.
Advocates of the "practice turn" take inspiration from work in neuroscience, as well as that of social theorists such as Pierre Bourdieu, that stresses the significance of habit and practices in psychological and social life - essentially calling for greater attention and sensitivity towards the 'every day' and 'taken for granted' activities of international politics Some scholars have adopted the related sociological approach known as Actor-Network Theory (ANT), which extends the early focus of the Practice Turn on the work of Pierre Bourdieu towards that of Bruno Latour and others. Scholars have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological agency.
Notable constructivists in international relations
Emanuel Adler
Michael Barnett
Thomas J. Biersteker
Mark Blyth
Jeffrey T. Checkel
Martha Finnemore
Ernst B. Haas
Peter M. Haas
Ian Hacking
Ted Hopf
Peter J. Katzenstein
Margaret Keck
Judith Kelley
Friedrich Kratochwil
Richard Ned Lebow
Daniel H. Nexon
Qin Yaqing
Nicholas Onuf
Erik Ringmar
Thomas Risse
John Ruggie
Chris Reus-Smit
Kathryn Sikkink
J. Ann Tickner
Ole Wæver
Alexander Wendt
See also
Constructivism (philosophy of science)
Constructivism (psychological school)
English school of international relations theory
International legal theories
Logic of appropriateness
References
External links
Read an Interview with Social Constructivist Alexander Wendt
Constructivism (international relations)
International relations theory |
4243226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Australia | Environmental issues in Australia | Environmental issues in Australia describes a number of environmental issues which affect the environment of Australia. There are a range of such issues, some of the relating to conservation in Australia while others, for example the deteriorating state of Murray-Darling Basin, have a direct and serious effect on human land use and the economy.
Many human activities including the use of natural resources have a direct impact on the Australian environment.
These issues are the primary concern of the environmental movement in Australia.
Climate change
Climate change is now a major political talking point in Australia in the last two decades. Persistent drought, and resulting water restrictions during the first decade of the twenty-first century, are an example of natural events' tangible effect on economic and political realities .
Australia ranks within the top ten countries globally with respect to greenhouse gas emissions per capita.
The current federal and state governments have all publicly stated their belief that climate change is being caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Vocal minority groups within the population campaign against mining and coal-fired power stations in Australia, and such demonstrations are widely reported by the mainstream media. Similarly, vocal minority groups concurrently oppose wind energy schemes, despite being 'carbon neutral', on the grounds of local visual and noise impact and concern for the currently high cost and low reliability of wind energy.
Despite the publication of the Garnaut report and the Green Paper on the proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, public belief in anthropogenic climate change has noticeably eroded following the leaking of e-mails from the University of East Anglia's Climate Research Unit.
There is claimed to be a net benefit to Australia in stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq in line with the prevailing political stance. Public disagreement with this opinion is generally dismissed as expression of vested interests, for example from the coal industry.
Energy use
Most of Australia's demand for electricity depends upon coal-fired thermal generation, owing to the plentiful indigenous coal supply, limited potential electric generation and political unwillingness to exploit indigenous uranium resources (although Australia accounted for the world's second highest production of uranium in 2005 to fuel a 'carbon neutral' domestic nuclear energy program.
Australia does not require its vehicles to meet any fuel efficiency standards, in spite of its emissions reduction target under the Paris Agreement.
Conservation
Conservation in Australia is an issue of state and federal policy. Australia is one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world, with a large portion of species endemic to Australia. Preserving this wealth of biodiversity is important for future generations.
A key conservation issue is the preservation of biodiversity, especially by protecting the remaining rainforests. The destruction of habitat by human activities, including land clearing, remains the major cause of biodiversity loss in Australia. The importance of the Australian rainforests to the conservation movement is very high. Australia is the only western country to have large areas of rainforest intact. Forests provide timber, drugs, and food and should be managed to maximize the possible uses. Currently, there are a number of environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on saving the environment, one such campaign is the Big Switch.
Land management issues including clearance of native vegetation, reafforestation of once-cleared areas, control of exotic weeds and pests, expansion of dryland salinity, and changed fire regimes. Intensification of resource use in sectors such as forestry, fisheries, and agriculture are widely reported to contribute to biodiversity loss in Australia. Coastal and marine environments also have reduced biodiversity from reduced water quality caused by pollution and sediments arising from human settlements and agriculture. In central New South Wales where there are large plains of grassland, problems have risen from—unusual to say—lack of land clearing.
The Daintree Rainforest, a tropical rainforest near Daintree, Queensland covering around 1200 square kilometres, is threatened by logging, development, mining and the effects of the high tourist numbers.
There are some government programs in Australia which are the opposite of conservation (such as killing wildlife); an example of this is shark culling, which currently occurs in New South Wales and Queensland.
Native fauna
Over a hundred species of fauna are currently under serious threat of extinction. The plight of some of these species receives more attention than others and recently the focus of many conservation organisations has been the critically endangered northern hairy-nosed wombat, the endangered Tasmanian devil, northern tiger quoll, south eastern red-tailed black cockatoo, southern cassowary, Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle, Leadbeater's possum and southern corroboree frog.
Australia has a poor record of conservation of native fauna. The extinction of Australian megafauna is attributed to the arrival of humans and since European settlement, 23 birds, 4 frogs, and 27 mammal species are also known to have become extinct.
Marine conservation
One of the notable issues with marine conservation in Australia is the protection of the Great Barrier Reef. The Great Barrier Reef's environmental pressures include water quality from runoff, climate change and mass coral bleaching, cyclic outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish, overfishing, and shipping accidents. The government of Queensland currently kills sharks in the Great Barrier Reef using drum lines, causing damage to the marine ecosystem.
In 2021 Australia announced the creation of 2 national marine parks in size of 740,000 square kilometers. With those parks 45% of the Australian marine territory will be protected.
Whaling
Whaling in Australia took place from colonisation in 1788. In 1979 Australia terminated whaling and committed to whale protection. The main varieties hunted were humpback, blue, right and sperm whales.
Shark culling
Western Australia culled sharks in 2014, killing dozens of tiger sharks and causing public protest. Later that year it was abandoned, and the government of Western Australia continued to shoot and kill sharks it believed to be an "imminent threat" to humans from 2014 to 2017; this policy was criticized by senator Rachel Siewart for being environmentally damaging.
From 1962 to the present, the government of Queensland has killed sharks on drum lines and shark nets, a process that also kills other animals such as dolphins and dugongs. From 1962 to 2018, Queensland's "shark control" program killed roughly 50,000 sharks, including sharks in the Great Barrier Reef. Queensland's shark-killing program has been called "outdated, cruel and ineffective".
New South Wales has a shark net program that kills sharks as well as other marine life. Between 1950 and 2008, 352 tiger sharks and 577 great white sharks were killed in the nets in New South Wales – also during this period, a total of 15,135 marine animals were killed in the nets, including whales and turtles. There has been a very large decrease in the number of sharks in eastern Australia in recent years, and the shark-killing programs in Queensland and New South Wales are partly responsible for this decrease.
Jessica Morris of Humane Society International calls shark culling a "knee-jerk reaction" and says, "sharks are top order predators that play an important role in the functioning of marine ecosystems. We need them for healthy oceans."
Oil spills
While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon Valdez in the country, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills . Spills remain a serious threat to the marine environment and Australian coastline. The largest spill to date was the Kirki tanker in 1991 which dropped 17,280 tonnes of oil off the coast of Western Australia.
In March 2009, the 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred, where 200,000 litres were spilled from the MV Pacific Adventurer spilling more than 250 tonnes of oil, 30 tonnes of fuel and other toxic chemicals on Brisbane's suburban beaches. Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst environmental disaster Queensland has ever seen".
Ocean dumping
A serious issue to the Australian marine environment is the dumping of rubbish from ships. There have been a number of cases, particularly involving the navy of Australian and other countries polluting Australian waters including the dumping of chemical warfare agents. Recently documented cases include the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan in 2006 which was found to be dumping rubbish off the shores of Moreton Island. In Victoria, a large number of toxic drums containing 1,2-Dichlorobenzene xylenol, a substance very toxic to aquatic creatures washed up on beaches during May 2009 presumably fallen off a passing container ship.
Invasive species
Australia's geographical isolation has resulted in the evolution of many delicate ecological relationships that are sensitive to foreign invaders and in many instances provided no natural predators for many of the species subsequently introduced. The introduction and prolific breeding of animal species such as the cane toad (Rhinella marina) and rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) had greatly disrupted native species populations. Introduced species in Australia are problematic in that they may outcompete or, in the case of the can toad, red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral domestic cats (Felis catus), directly kill native species. Rabbits in Australia along with feral beasts of burden disrupt native species by destroying vulnerable habitat requiring drastic pest-exclusion measures such as the Rabbit-proof fence. The cane toad invasion is particularly concerning due to them having few predators and apart from extensively outcompeting native species their toxicity kills thousands of native apex predators each year. The threat of the ongoing cane toad invasion has seen the establishment of a national taskforce despite its potential range being limited to the north of the continent. Likewise Tasmania takes the threat of the species so seriously that it has a government sponsored taskforce to prevent fox populations from taking hold on the island. The species has single-handedly caused the extinction of several native species on the mainland.
Australia is also vulnerable to invasive weeds. Controlling the invasion of prickly pears in Australia is one of the success stories of invasive species control. The government maintains a Weeds of National Significance (WONS) list of problematic plant species.
Land degradation
According to Jared Diamond, "Australia's number-one environmental problem [is] land degradation". Land degradation results from nine types of damaging environmental impacts:
Clearance of native vegetation
Overgrazing by sheep
Rabbits
Soil nutrient exhaustion
Soil erosion
Man-made droughts
Weeds
Misguided governmental policies
Salinization
Logging and woodchopping
Clearcutting of old growth forests is continuing in parts of Australia. This often involves the destruction of natural ecosystems and the replacement with monoculture plantations.
Australia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.22/10, ranking it 46th globally out of 172 countries.
Land clearing
In the prehistory of Australia the Indigenous Australians used fire-stick farming which was an early form of land clearing which caused long term changes to the ecology. With European colonisation land clearing continued on a larger scale for agriculture – particularly for cattle, cotton and wheat production. Since European settlement a total of 13% of native vegetation cover has been lost. The extinction of 20 different mammals, 9 bird and 97 plant species have been partially attributed to land clearing. Land clearing is a major source of Australia's greenhouse gas emissions, and contributed to approximately 12 percent of Australia's total emissions in 1998.
The consequences of land clearing include dryland salinity and soil erosion. These are a major concern to the landcare movement in Australia.
The clearing of native vegetation is controlled by Federal laws (indirectly), State law and local planning instruments. The precise details of regulation of vegetation clearing differ according to the location where clearing is proposed.
Soil salinity
Soil salinity affects 50,000 km² of Australia and is predominantly due to land clearance.
Waterway health
The protection of waterways in Australia is a major concern for various reasons including habitat and biodiversity, but also due to use of the waterways by humans.
The Murray-Darling Basin is under threat due to irrigation in Australia, causing high levels of salinity which affect agriculture and biodiversity in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. These rivers are also affected by pesticide run-off and drought.
Australian waterways facing environmental issues
Rivers and creeks in urban areas also face environmental issues, particularly pollution.
Victoria
Port Phillip (contamination – silt; sediment; toxins; household chemicals; garden chemicals; E. coli; litter; flotsam and jetsam)
Yarra River (contamination – E. coli; litter – 13 traps; logging; erosion; salinity)
Maribyrnong River (contamination – arsenic and heavy metals; litter – 1 trap)
Mullum Mullum Creek (contamination – E. coli; litter)
Murray River (salinity, erosion)
New South Wales
Parramatta River (contamination – dioxins, arsenic, coal tars, chromium, lead and phthalates)
Darling River (salinity, erosion)
Murray River (salinity, erosion)
Cooks River (pollution, algal blooms)
Queensland
Bremer River (water grading F – lowest possible)
Brisbane River
Oxley Creek (water grading D)
Bulimba Creek (threatened species due to land degradation; pollution; litter)
South Australia
River Torrens (contaminants – E. coli; algal bloom)
Water use
Water use is a major sustainability issue in Australia. Water is becoming a very very big problem for not only Australia but worldwide as where there are droughts occurring more often and only having limited use of the water and then there are even places that don't have any water at all such as India etc, we need conserve our water for the future and get more access to the water since we only have roughly 5% access to it.
Urbanisation
Australia is one of the most urbanised countries in the world. Many Australian cities have large urban footprints and are characterised by an unsustainable low density urban sprawl. This places demand on infrastructure and services which contributes to the problems of land clearing, pollution, transport related emissions, energy consumption, invasive species, automobile dependency and urban heat islands.
The urban sprawl continues to increase at a rapid rate in most Australian cities, particularly the state capital cities, all of which (with the exception of Hobart) are metropoleis. In some centres, such as Sydney and Greater Western Sydney, Greater Melbourne and South East Queensland large metropolitan conurbations threaten to extend for hundreds of kilometres and based on current population growth rates are expected to become megacities in the 21st century. Most Australian cities population growth is a result of migration in contrast to the Birth rate and fertility rate in Australia, which is contributing to the ongoing trend of urbanisation.
In recent years, some cities have implemented transit-oriented development strategies to curb the urban sprawl. Notable examples include Melbourne 2030, South East Queensland Regional Plan and the Sydney Metropolitan Strategy. There are also population decentralisation programs at state and federal levels aimed at shifting populations out of the major centres and stemming the drivers to rapid urbanisation. Albury-Wodonga was part of the federal government's program of decentralisation begun in the 1970s, which has at times had relocation policies for immigration. The Victorian government has run a decentralisation program since the 1960s, having had a ministerial position appointed and ongoing promotional and investment programs for stimulating growth in Regional Victoria. However policy has swung over the decades, primarily due to local development priorities and agendas and a lack of federal co-ordination to the problem.
Issues include large quantities of e-waste and toxic waste going into landfill. Australia does not have restrictions on the dumping of toxic materials that are common in other countries, such as dumping Cathode Ray Tubes which leach heavy metals into water catchments. Due to the lack of sufficient sites for toxic waste disposal large quantities of toxic waste are trucked between states to remote dumping grounds or exported overseas in ships.
Mining issues
Australia has the largest reserves of uranium in the world and there has been a number of enquiries on uranium mining. The anti-nuclear movement in Australia actively opposes mining and seeks to prevent the construction of nuclear power plants.
At least 150 leaks, spills and licence breaches occurred at the Ranger uranium mine between 1981 and 2009.
Controversial land use projects
The following is a list of development projects that have been controversial due to concerns of environmental effects. This list includes projects required to submit an Environmental Effects Statement.
See also
Conservation in Australia
Flora of Australia
Invasive species in Australia
Land clearing in Australia
List of environmental issues
List of threatened flora of Australia
Litter in Australia
Recycling in Australia
Timbarra Gold Mine – a highly controversial gold mine
World Uranium Hearing
Notes and references
External links
Australian Environment Portal
Envirotalk – Australia's largest environmental discussion forum
Environment Victoria |
4243256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Colombia | Environmental issues in Colombia | Environmentally, Colombia is a mega-diverse country from its natural land terrain to its biological wildlife. Its biodiversity is a result of its geographical location and elevation. It is the fourth largest South American country and only country in South America to have coasts on the Pacific and Caribbean Sea. Colombia's terrain can be divided into six main natural zones: The Caribbean, the Pacific (including Choco's Biogeographic rainforest), The Orinoco region, The Amazonia region, the Andean region, and the Insular region. 52.2% of the environment is predominately the Andes, Amazon, and Pacific Basins, followed by the Orinoco basin 13.9%, the Andes and the Caribbean. The Tropical Andes, Choco, and the Caribbean are considered biodiversity hotspots which puts these areas at high risk of concentration of colonizing activities. Colombia host over 1800 bird species and at least one new species are detected every year. Decades of civil war and political unrest have impeded biological and environmental research in Colombia. The political unrest in Colombia catalyzes the alteration of land patterns through the cultivation of coca and opium crops, the redirection of extractive activities, and land abandonment in some areas.
There are many environmental issues in Colombia. Issues include deforestation, soil erosion, illicit drug crops grown in national natural reserves by mafias (not peasants), pollution on major bodies of water by corporations (backed up by unregulated / unsupervised policies and by the corruption of local and federal authorities) among others.
There is soil and water quality damage from contamination by the use of chemicals in the coca-refining process, spillage of crude oil into the local rivers as a result of guerrilla sabotage of pipelines, overuse of pesticides, and air pollution (especially in Bogotá) from vehicle emissions. Natural hazards include highlands subject to volcanic eruptions, occasional earthquakes, and periodic droughts.
Deforestation
Colombia loses 2,000 km2 of forest annually to deforestation, according to the United Nations in 2003. Some suggest that this figure is as high as 3,000 km2 due to illegal logging in the region.
Deforestation results mainly from logging for timber, small-scale agricultural ranching, mining, development of energy resources such as hydro-electricity, infrastructure, cocaine production, and farming. Around one-third of the country's original forest has been removed as a result of deforestation.
Deforestation in Colombia is mainly targeted at primary rainforest which covers more than 80% of Colombia. This has a profound ecological impact in that Colombia is extremely rich in biodiversity, with 10% of the world's species, making it the second most biologically diverse country on Earth.
A national and regional deforestation study in Colombia found a total loss of 5,116,071 ha of forest between 1990 and 2005 which indicates an annual deforestation rate of 341,071 ha. This concludes the national rate of deforestation equals to 0.62%. Higher deforestation rates are found in flatter areas around rural locations where protected areas are more present. Even though majority of ecosystems in the Amazon, the Choco, and the Orinoco remain intact, 71% of original forest in the Andes has been wiped out. Forest conversion has the highest probability in the Andean and Caribbean territory, although tropical forest in the Pacific and Amazon lowlands continue to be exterminated. The ecosystems most vulnerable to deforestation ranked: the plains in northern Amazonia, the humid high, sub, and mid-altitude Andean forests, the tropical high and low land forests in the Caribbean and the Magdalena tropical forest plains. Deforestation is happening more frequently in flatter zones, where cattle density and rural population are low. Illicit crop cultivation has been recorded a main driver of deforestation in Colombia. The globalized economy has extended new engenders of deforestation, such as biofuel production, mining, and hydrocarbon extraction. At the national level, rate of rural population, protected areas, cattle practicing, and slope, are deforestation drivers. Forest eradication is a crucial environmental issue given the biodiversity and ecosystems these forests provide and all the life that can be potentially lost. The concurrent forested areas predominately exist on less fertile soil and are distant from roads.
Amazonian deforestation
In Colombia, majority of forests are contained within the Amazonia. The population of this region is sparsely populated engendering the zone to be concentrated by deforestation and high levels of extractive activities. In the Colombian Amazonia from 1990 to 2005 there was a forest loss of 1,886,769 ha (3.9%) with an annual rate of 0.49%. Deforestation in this region is accounted to population and land use. The Amazonia possess a low populated area with small scale agriculture (including illegal crops), and cattle ranching. Fires in the Amazon also remain as a catalyst of deforestation which is an indicator of slash and burn activities associated with exploitation of natural resources. Study results suggest deforestation in the Amazonia often takes place in unoccupied rural territory where an influx of “colonist population move freely and colonization hotspots using the river” are created.
Deforestation in the Orinoco
Majority of the Orinoco is composed by grasslands and pastures areas with small-scale agriculture, forest with extensive river networks and a small population. A major threat to this region is deforestation, and deforestation is a critical menace to biodiversity. From 1990 to 2005, 507,337 ha that is 3.2% of the Orinoco forest disappeared at an annual rate of 0.83%. Causes of deforestation in this region range from land use for agriculture, illicit crops, and mining to slope elevation. Like the Amazonia, the Orinoco is scarcely populated and has a small-scale agriculture (including illicit cropping), and cattle grazing. Deforestation is highly affected by both legal and illegal cropping, and by mining that negative impacts mountain forest at higher lands of the basin. Over the last 10 years the Orinoco along with the Amazonia has been subjected to greater pressures from bio-fuel companies.
Caribbean deforestation
The Caribbean forest significantly has been transformed into an area of fragments of dry forest with pastures scarce of vegetation. During the fifteen-year period (1990–2005) 753,893 ha of forest were lost that is 5% of the Caribbean forest at an annual rate of 1.92%. In Colombia, cattle grazing productivity is the highest in this region, this practice plus its use of slash and burn activities influence deforestation. Land tenure and illicit cropping also prompt deforestation in this area. When land becomes scarce highland areas provide opportunity for agriculture expansion and forest removal. Three deforestation hotspots were found in the Caribbean: the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, San Lucas, and Perija, where slopes are wetter and steeper and flat land is occupied by cattle grazing or agricultural operations indicating that wetter and steeper municipalities had higher forest loss.
Pacific deforestation
The Pacific is regarded as one of the wettest zones in the world holding an annual precipitation of 4,000 mm up to more than 10,000 mm in some areas, the climate ranges from humid to superhumid, the population is sparse, and this region is recognized as one of the world's most biologically and culturally diverse areas composed by various Afro-Colombians, and indigenous peoples. In a fifteen-year period, the Pacific experienced one of the highest deforestation rate loss of 472,863 ha about 6.32% of forest loss at an annual rate of 0.42%. Logging has occurred in the region for decades, but over the last ten years, pressures from bio-fuel companies have intensified.
Andean deforestation
The Andes is of particular interest because of its known importance as a biodiversity hot spot, as a provider of water to a grand human population, and its vulnerability to climate change and deforestation. The Andean forest stand as the second most fragmented natural habitat In Colombia. Recent causes of deforestation in this region has shifted to illicit crops and cattle grazing. From 2007–2010, 340,842 Ha of forest were lost, while 633 Ha of illicit crops and 225,279 Ha of pastures were added. The Deforestation rate of 0.67% found in the Colombian Andes is higher than the average deforestation rate reported for South American forests 0.38%. However, low lands in this region experience deforestation at higher rates than mountain lands because the population is mainly concentrated in mountain top areas. From 1990 to 2005 montane forests went from 7,335,125 ha to 6,405,591 ha (0.63%), and for lowland forest change from 3,671,768 ha to 3,123,369 ha (0.75%). Throughout the decades, deforestation in the Colombian Andean zone has only accelerated (Vina). By 1998, 69% of the Andean forest and 30% of the lowland Andean forests were cleared. In 2000 the remaining natural cover in Los Andes was 39%, that means that over 60% of its natural coverage has been lost and today this region continues to through natural resource extraction including exploitation, settlement and deforestation. Deforestation was mostly accounted to cropping 32% and cattle ranching activities for its remaining. In the montane forest deforestation was affected by land tenure of small parcels, road, water presence, and temperature. In the lowlands deforestation was associated with population, crops (licit and illicit), protected areas and temperature. The introduction of the oil industry in the 1990s and its promise of high wages has generated deforestation and migration of local farmers who abandoned their pasture maintenance to enter the extraction industry.
Colombia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.
Biodiversity loss
Birds loss in Los Andes
Colombia holds 18% of the world's bird species. The Andes alone is one of the most diverse areas in the world. However, bird species specifically in the San Lucas Andean mountain ranges are endangered. The absence of government protection from armed conflict in San Lucas has facilitated the cultivation of coca crops and deforestation, which has resulted in local biodiversity loss. In some areas in the Western Andes concentrations of endemic threatened birds reached 46 species in certain areas. Neotropical birds especially from higher elevations are more prone to extinction. A study done in a 3000 ha reserve in Los Andes that conserves an extensive amount of endemic and small ranged bird species found 227 species in the region nine that pronounced threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature four of these are endemic species to Colombia: the Munchique Wood-wren, the Chestnut-bellied Flowerpiercer, the Yellow-eared Parrot, the Magdalena Tapaculo, the Bicoloured Antvireo, the Tanager Finch, the Ruddy Pigeon, the White-capped Tanager, and Red-bellied Grackle.
Wildlife trafficking
The black market of animal trafficking is considered the second biggest threat to biodiversity in Colombia and the third most lucrative illegal enterprise. Colombia has a seventy-year history of animal smuggling, in some cases impoverished families from the country side amplify their income by selling mafia groups lizards, monkey, and parrots. International smuggling entities tend to be involved in the business of smuggling other trades because they are specialized in smuggling routes. Experts approximate that in 2003 6,000,000 animals were illegally exported from Colombia, 200,000 of these are primates destined for laboratories and research centers. Colombian drug lords are known to have private zoos with endangered species engendering a demand of exotic creatures. Colombia has an animal trafficking policy of six months to three years of jail but no one has served such sentence. During the first months of 2012, enforcement officers rescued more than 46,000 animals including birds and reptiles heading for the illegal international trade.
Sloths
The biggest threat to sloth's survival in Colombia is the destruction and fragmentation of their habitat. Three types of sloths’ species are distinguished in Colombia: the brown-throated three-toed sloth, Bradypus variegatus which inhabits the Pacific and Amazonian lowland rainforest and the Caribbean, the Hoffman's two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni prevails in the north along with the B. variegatus, in the Pacific rainforest and the Caribbean savanna dry forest, but it is also found in Andean montane forest, and the southern two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus who is native in the south with B. variegatus, sharing the lowland Amazonian rainforest, but this specific species has been studied little in Colombia. Habitat for these species is limited primarily by the ongoing deforestation with in natural forest. The continuous expansion of agriculture, ranching, and urbanization are a direct threat to sloths’ survival. Frequently, sloths die in large numbers in accidents related to the destruction of natural forests that go underreported by the media and lack attention from wildlife agencies and police. All three-different species have a different rate and specific threat to their survival but collectively habitat loss – deforestation is pivotal. Deforestation facilitates the illegal trade of sloths as they are usually caught by young children who take them from deforested areas and sell them to traffickers. Poachers also take hundreds of young two-and three-toed sloths from their mothers. The Colombian Ministry does not recognize the three-sloth species as being in threat of extinction mainly because there is no long-term study that represents the estimate of the total sloth population to demonstrate cause of concern.
Air pollution
In 2019, 37% of greenhouse gases generated in Colombia came from transportation, and only 1.2% of the quarter-million new vehicles registered that year were electric or hybrids.
Bogotá
Colombia's capital city, Bogotá, is the country's largest population center. With over 7 million people, it is also one of the biggest cities in Latin America. Bogotá also has the highest rate of air pollution in Colombia and it has surged most recently as a result of the expansion of cars in the city. Air pollution has been monitored in Bogotá since 1967, but it was not until 1990 that monitors were widely spread through the city. A study conducted by the Secretary of Health of the District in collaboration with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) concluded that 70% of air pollution is attributed to vehicles, it was also identified that bricks, battery plants and others were crucial pollution sources as well. This study concluded a nexus between air pollution and respiratory health by relating air pollutants with the number of daily respiratory admissions. Statistics from the Secretary of Health demonstrated that between 1998 and 1999 about 9.6% of visits to hospitals were related to respiratory issues this percentage was higher for infant visits to the doctor associated to Acute Respiratory Illnesses 24.3%. Monitoring stations reveal that half of the areas with monitoring stations are surpass emission limits considered safe by the WHO, Particulate Matter (PM10) and ozone levels are the leading problem.
Medellín
Medellín is the second city in Colombia with the worst air quality, and within the city, Downtown Medellin is one of the most contaminated areas by car emissions. Low quality gasoline and diesel are considered a main source of air pollutants. Medellin's shift toward urbanization, has increased the number of vehicles and thus extended the use of fossil fuels. Areas known for heavy traffic are monitored by meters that measure the amount of air pollution. Some of the sectors that have been recognized with the highest levels of pollution within the metropolitan area are: Itagüí-Ditaires, Politécnico Jaime Isaza-Cadavid, and Downtown Medellín (particularly the Miguel de Aguinaga building and San Antonio Park). Downtown Medellin's pollution rates exceed the norm established by the WHO of being a risk to human health.
Cali
Cali is the capital of Valle del Cauca municipality, and one of the city's of greatest concern in terms of air pollution in Colombia together with Bogotá and Medellin. City authorities launched the "Clean Air for Cali Program" to reduce atmospheric contamination; the program deals with emissions and their health impacts, improving air quality monitoring, implementation of measures to reduce contamination, and the cost-benefit evaluation those measures. Air quality reports are publicly available.
Water pollution
Colombia is well endowed with rich water resources with a national average fresh water supply of more than 2,100 cubic kilometers. This is several times larger when compared to other Latin American countries like Argentina and Mexico. But Colombia is facing a serious problem of water pollution. This is limiting their use of abundant water resources for water supply, recreation and ecological benefits.
Toxic and pathogenic pollution
Rivers such as Bogotá, Cali, Combeima, Otún, Medellín, de Oro, Pamplonita, and Pasto which are one of the important water resources of Colombia are highly contaminated due to direct discharge of untreated effluents, pathogens and various other toxic substances primarily discharged by the agricultural sector, industrial sector and the mining sectors. These contaminants may result in cumulative and persistent consequences. Crude oil spills due to the acts of sabotage by leftist guerrilla squads, have become another cause of water pollution in the country.
Mining sector
Colombia is one of the largest producers of gold in Latin America. It has recently increased its production, especially in the Departments of Antioquia, Chocó, Bolívar and Córdoba, which in 2014 produced 90% of Colombia's gold. Most of this production comes from artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM). The artisanal gold mining sector in Colombia has 200,000 miners officially producing 30 tons Au/a. The impact of gold mining on the environment mainly depends on the location of the metal and the methods used to extract it.
Gold mining activities require high volumes of water to obtain the metal and this leads to an alteration in surface and underground water bodies. Rivers are affected as many local mines discharge untreated waters and tailings directly to waterways. When rivers like Magdalena and Cauca reach Antioquia, they receive polluted loads caused by mining activity from tributaries from the Northeast and Bajo Cauca regions. In addition to the local mines, informal mining operations add to the water pollution by directly discharging many pollutants like suspended sediment, organic matter, acid drainage, metals, grease, oils and fuels into the waterways.
The major health risk from artisanal mining is mercury exposure.
Among the emissions from artisanal mining, two thirds are released locally into soil and water near mining operations, and a third is released into the atmosphere, where it can potentially attack people far from mining sites too. Artisanal mining is the largest single source of atmospheric mercury. Pollution due to Mercury can occur in two ways- a) through Air and b) through Water. Mercury vapors in the air around amalgam burning sites can be alarmingly high and almost always exceed the WHO limit for public exposure of 1,000 nanogram/cubic meter. This risks the health of workers but also those in the communities surrounding the processing centers. Exposure to levels of mercury vapors above 1,200,000 nanogram/cubic meter can be fatal.
Water pollution due to mercury has become one of the biggest concerns in recent years. Artisanal and small-scale gold miners use mercury to extract gold in developing nations worldwide, contributing an estimated 30% of global mercury emissions annually. Colombia is the world's highest per capita mercury polluter. The total mercury release/emissions to the Colombian environment can be as high as 150 tons/a. In the case of Antioquia, the total amount of mercury used in the Northeast and Bajo Cauca regions is around 93.4 tons/annum.
Water pollution due to mercury contamination
Studies conducted in the Department of Cordoba showed that mercury levels in fish species in the basin of San Jorge river exceed the specified threshold (200 ng/g) for populations at risk established by World Health Organization. Few other studies show mercury contamination in plants, fish and sediments in some water bodies in the region of Mojana. In the region of Ayapel, significant concentrations of mercury in water, plants, fish and sediments swamp was found. Sources suggest that all the metal contaminations can be attributed to the mining activities on the main gold zone of Colombia and San Jorge River basin.
Human exposure and risk assessment
In placer mining, mercury is added to the material extracted from the alluvial deposits. Excess mercury is discharged into adjacent waterways along with other residues of the ore which enters into the local ecosystem. Mercury grows into a greater threat to health as it moves through the aquatic food chain. In the aquatic environment, the elemental “quicksilver” form of mercury is taken by the bacteria and algae and is converted into the far more dangerous methylmercury. As methylmercury travels up the food chain, from algae to plankton to small fish to big fish, it becomes progressively more concentrated. When humans consume fish that contains methyl mercury, it is absorbed into the human body through gastrointestinal system. Mercury can enter the brain and cross the placenta. Once methylmercury enters the human body, it is relatively difficult to eliminate methylmercury from the body as it is bound to proteins. The effects of methylmercury on developing fetus were tragically demonstrated in Minimata, Japan. Children born to mothers who consumed mercury-contaminated fish suffered devastating birth defects, particularly those affecting the nervous system.
When humans consume contaminated fish, they suffer neurological damage and autoimmune disorders. In addition, methylmercury can cause IQ loss, delayed speech and other neuro-developmental deficits among children when exposed. Early life exposures are the most harmful as they can damage the whole brain. Later life exposures may result in localized damage to the cerebellum, visual cortex, and motor strip. In adults, these exposures can lead to visuospatial problems and effects on executive functioning, memory and mood.
Prevention
Colombian government has been putting effort to reduce mercury usage levels. The adoption in July 2013 of Law 1658 to reduce and eliminate mercury use is an important step. It aims to phase out the use of mercury in all production processes within ten years and in mining within five years.
Awareness has to be brought in miners regarding the risks involved in using mercury. In addition to the awareness, miners should be introduced to new techniques that minimize mercury use or provided with safer alternatives that can replace mercury amalgamation.
According to Sam Spiegel, a lecturer in international development at the University of Edinburgh, “efforts to lower mercury emissions should aim to support miners and their livelihoods by supplying access to better technology’’. This does not mean completely eliminating mercury but rather using it more efficiently.
A practical guide published by ASGM in 2011 on how to reduce mercury uses, UNEP recommends limiting mercury use with improved practices and moving towards mercury-free technologies that either boost or maintain miner income while protecting the health and the environment.
The economic interests of the miners should also be safeguarded while protecting health and environment.
Currently, the Government of Antioquia, Corantioquia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia and BioRedd are developing programs to help informal miners to improve their mining circuit and are introducing technologies that avoid mercury use in their process. They presented a proposed plant design that eliminates the use of mercury by replacing gravity concentration processes taking advantage of the characteristics of the treated material.
Recently, many companies have started re-evaluating gravity systems as they are relatively simple and that they produce little environmental pollution and also due to the increased costs of flotation reagents. They proved to be effective as they significantly reduce mercury use. They are proving to miners that with technical support and using alternatives to mercury they are able to recover more valuable material than they do at present.
Government response
New environmental protection legislation was enacted in 1991, including the creation of specially protected zones, of which more than 200 were created in the early 1990s, mostly in forest areas and national parks. As a result of this charter, the Ministry of the Environment was established in 1993, merging with the housing and drinking water division of the Ministry of Economic Development, Housing, and Potable Water in 2003.
As of April 5, 2018, Colombia's highest court has declared that the government of Colombia is responsible and must take urgent action to protect its Amazon Rainforest. This 4-3 ruling has also recognized the Amazon as an "entity subject of rights", which means the Amazon Rainforest has the same legal rights as a human being. The court ordered the local and national government, the environment and agriculture ministries and environmental authorities to come up with action plans within four months to combat deforestation in the Amazon. In 2019, however, the government spent 21% less on environmental protection than it had the previous year. This was one of the conclusions of a 333-page report, "Estado de los recursos naturales y del ambiente," released by the government's Contraloría General in 2020.
On November 24, 2016, FARC and the Colombian government signed a peace agreement. This was expected to give the government more control to regulate illegal logging and deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, allowing the government to avoid expenses caused by environmental degradation. The savings were estimated at about COP $7.1 billones annually (US $2.4 billion at the exchange rate at that time).
The government of Colombia has launched the Amazon Vision Project. The Project, with the financial backing of Norway, Germany, and the United Kingdom, aims to completely eradicate deforestation of Colombia's Amazon by 2020. In the Climate Summit of 2015, Colombia, Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom signed a Joint Declaration to strengthen collaboration on the climate and forests in Colombia. Norway has committed to a total of 1.8 billion Norwegian crones to Colombia within 2020. The project has been adopted as a national policy and priority in the new National Development Plan 2014-2018. The inclusion of the Program in this PND meant that for the first time in the country there is a framework for development policy that promotes green growth strategies with concrete goals of education of consequences of deforestation and goals of conservation and sustainable use for the Amazon region, offering the opportunity to influence national policies by inserting specificities of the Amazon region that help the region reduce deforestation. The project aims to improve forest governance, plan a sustainable sector development, begin environmental governance with indigenous people and enable conditions for the environment to thrive.
See also
Animal rights in Colombia
Illegal drug trade in Colombia
List of invasive species in Colombia
References
External links
Colombian Ministry of Environment |
4243261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20in%20British%20television | 2005 in British television | This is a list of British television-related events in 2005.
Events
January
1 January
Sky takes over production of Five News from ITN. The first scheduled Sky produced news programme had been due to air on 3 January, but two shorter bulletins for 1 and 2 January are hastily added to provide updates following the 2004 Boxing Day Indian Ocean tsunami.
Fox Kids UK finally rebrands to Jetix, as part of a global rebranding package by ABC Cable Networks Group. The first programme shown is Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!.
5 January – Desperate Housewives makes its initial UK debut. Overnight figures indicate it achieves an audience of 4.4 million viewers.
8 January – Jerry Springer: The Opera, featuring Jesus, Mary and God as guests on The Jerry Springer Show, airs on BBC Two, despite protests from Christian Voice and other groups.
10 January
Christian Voice confirms plans to launch a private blasphemy prosecution against the BBC for screening Jerry Springer: The Opera. The group subsequently attempts to prosecute BBC Director-General Mark Thompson, but their bid is rejected by the High Court. An attempt to overrule that decision is also rejected in December 2007.
Vote for Me, a contest to find an independent Parliamentary candidate, makes its debut on ITV.
11 January – Debut of the six-part BBC Two documentary series Auschwitz: The Nazis and 'The Final Solution' which tells the story of Auschwitz concentration camp. The final part is aired on 15 February.
14 January – ITV's Vote for Me contest is won by former lawyer and convicted fraudster Rodney Hylton-Potts, who presents a "cabbies manifesto" that includes halting immigration, scrapping the Human Rights Act and legalising all drugs. However, the programme is soon caught up in controversy because of the winning candidate's extreme political views. Hylton-Potts goes on to stand against Conservative leader Michael Howard as a candidate for Folkestone and Hythe at the general election, but comes in seventh place and loses his deposit.
21 January – The auction channel bid-up.tv is rebranded as bid.tv.
23 January – Happy Mondays dancer Mark Berry, known professionally as Bez wins the third series of Celebrity Big Brother.
26 January – Debut of The Rotters' Club on BBC Two, a three-part adaptation of Jonathan Coe's novel of the same name about growing up in 1970s Birmingham, and written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais.
27 January – Holocaust Memorial Day and the 60th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz concentration camp are observed in the UK. BBC Two and BBC News 24 air Auschwitz Remembered, a special news programme providing coverage of memorial events.
February
3 February – An audience member on the evening's edition of Question Time uses the show's final question to propose to his girlfriend, who says yes. It is the first time a marriage proposal has occurred on the programme in its 25-year history.
8 February – Teachers' TV, run by the Department for Education and Skills, launches on Sky Digital (channel 686) and Freeview.
9 February – The Africa-based BBC journalist and producer Kate Peyton is killed in a shooting incident in Mogadishu, Somalia while reporting on that country's nascent peace process.
16 February – The first series of the UK version of The Apprentice debuts on BBC Two.
18 February – Adele Silva will reprise her role as Emmerdale temptress Kelly Windsor five years after leaving the series, it is reported.
19 February – EastEnders celebrates its 20th anniversary on the air, airing a special episode in which Dirty Den Watts is killed by his new wife Chrissie. 14.34 million watch the episode (shown on 18 February). It is the UK's second highest rated programme of 2005 (the first is an episode of Coronation Street three days later).
21 February – MasterChef relaunches as MasterChef Goes Large.
22 February – Eamonn Holmes announces he will step down from his role as a GMTV presenter after twelve years.
23 February – UKTV Style Gardens, a channel dedicated to gardening programmes, launches.
24 February – ITV airs another episode of its police drama The Bill to feature a storyline in which characters are killed off in a fire at Sun Hill police station. Computer generated imagery is used because producing a real explosion and fireball ripping through the station corridors is not possible.
26 February – Sound TV, known pre-launch as The Great British Television Channel, launches on Sky Digital (588). It closes in the Autumn.
March
3 March – Irish Taoiseach Bertie Ahern opens RTÉ's new studios in London, based at Millbank opposite the Houses of Parliament.
4 March – Channel 4 signs a £1m deal with Appletiser to sponsor repeat episodes of Friends during 2005.
5 March – Cat Deeley presents her final edition of CD:UK, after 6 years.
10 March – BBC One airs an edition of Question Time from Changhai, China, as part of the BBC's China Week.
11 March – BBC One airs the tenth Comic Relief fundraiser. Highlights include a crossover between Antiques Roadshow and The Vicar of Dibley, as well as specials of Little Britain and Blind Date.
17 March – ITV signs up Jerry Springer to present a daytime talk show to replace Trisha.
19 March – Ahead of the return of Doctor Who later in the month, BBC Two airs a "Doctor Who Night", with three programmes celebrating the series. The Story of Doctor Who features cast and crew, including Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy discussing the original series. Some Things You Need to Know About Doctor Who provides a bitesize guide to the programme. Finally John Humphrys presents a Doctor Who special of Mastermind in which fans answer questions about the series.
20 March
BBC Director General Mark Thompson announces BBC staff of 27,000 will be cut by 3,780.
Actress Kim Medcalf, who plays Sam Mitchell in EastEnders speaks to the Sunday Mirror about her decision to leave the series, and her plans to focus on stage acting. Her final scenes will be filmed in May and her final onscreen appearance will be in November.
23 March – Five announce plans to move its Trisha Goddard show to a morning slot from April to rival ITV's forthcoming The Springer Show.
26 March –
Nine years after its last new episode and sixteen years since its last regular run, Doctor Who returns to BBC One for a new series, the twenty-seventh in total since 1963. Christopher Eccleston and Billie Piper star. An average 10.81 million viewers, over 40% of the watching audience, tune in, winning its timeslot and making it No. 3 BBC show and No. 7 across all channels for the week. The premiere episode of the revival, "Rose", written by Russell T Davies, goes on to become the UK's seventh highest rated programme of 2005.
Gordon Hendricks, performing as Elvis Presley wins the sixteenth and final series of Stars in Their Eyes. He is the second Elvis impersonator to win the contest. Stars in Their Eyes continues until the following year, with a final junior series and a number of celebrity specials.
30 March
As a test trial, the small Welsh towns of Ferryside and Llansteffan have their analogue television signals switched off. The trial proves a success and the digital switchover fully begins two and a half years later in Cumbria.
Only days after his having debuted as the Ninth Doctor, the BBC announces that Christopher Eccleston will be leaving Doctor Who after only one season.
April
1 April – Thomasina Miers wins the 2005 series of MasterChef Goes Large.
2 April – Digital channel BBC Four broadcasts a live re-make of the famous 1953 science-fiction drama The Quatermass Experiment. The production is the first live drama broadcast by the BBC for over twenty years, and draws BBC Four's second highest audience to date, with an average of 482,000 viewers.
4 April – BBC Four airs Speak No Evil – The Story of the Broadcast Ban, a documentary recalling the 1988 broadcasting restrictions imposed by the Government of Margaret Thatcher on organisations in Northern Ireland believed to support terrorism.
5 April – It is reported that Ofcom may fine ITV Central for broadcasting a pre-recorded late Central News bulletin for the East Midlands.
8 April – 13.03 million viewers watch Ken Barlow tie the knot with Deirdre Rachid on Coronation Street, one day before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Camilla Parker Bowles (7.36 million viewers watch). The scheduling move echoes Ken and Deirdre's first wedding, which occurred two days before Charles's wedding to Diana in 1981, and which also beat the Royal wedding in the television ratings.
11 April – ITV Day launches on ITV1.
14 April – The BBC removes advice from its website warning that Doctor Who is too scary to be watched by children under the age of eight, describing the statement as "a mistake".
16 April – David Tennant is announced as the Tenth Doctor.
18 April – Launch of the teleshopping channel iBuy.
27 April – Eamonn Holmes presents his final edition of GMTV after twelve years with the broadcaster.
28 April – BBC One airs a special election edition of Question Time, featuring the leaders of the three main political parties. Tony Blair (Labour), Michael Howard (Conservative) and Charles Kennedy (Liberal Democrats) are each questioned for 30 minutes by the audience.
May
3 May – The Sun reports that Labour Party chiefs are concerned that the 5 May episode of EastEnders in which Dot Cotton learns to drive could distract viewers from voting.
4 May – Tim Campbell, a 27-year-old transport manager with London Underground, wins the first series of The Apprentice. His prize is a £100,000 job with Sugar's firm, Amstrad.
5–6 May – Coverage of the 2005 general election is shown on British television. The Labour Party attains a third successive general election victory.
7 May – Family Affairs wins Best Storyline at the British Soap Awards for a story in which a couple discover a family friend has been abusing their daughter.
9 May – Corpus Christi College, Oxford wins the 2004–05 series of University Challenge, beating University College London 250–140.
13 May – To celebrate the 80th birthday of Queen Elizabeth II in 2006, Rolf Harris is to create an oil portrait of her as part of a special edition of his BBC One show Rolf on Art, it is announced. The programme airs on New Year's Day 2006.
16 May –
BBC Weather relaunches, changing from 2D to 3D graphics.
ITV launches Love Island, a rival to Big Brother. This appears to be a ratings flop.
19 May – Eammon Holmes has signed a deal with Sky News to present their early morning programme Sky News Sunrise, it is reported.
21 May – Greece's Helena Paparizou wins the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest with "My Number One".
23 May – Over one-third of BBC staff join a strike in response to proposed job cuts at the corporation.
26 May – BBC One airs a special edition of Question Time from Paris, France, ahead of the French referendum on the European Constitution.
29 May – BBC One airs the final edition of Breakfast with Frost after a twelve-year run.
30 May –
STV launches across Scotland replacing the previously separate services of Scottish and Grampian.
Fifi and the Flowertots a new stop motion animated series for children created by Keith Chapman the creator of Bob the Builder begins its screening on Five.
31 May – David Easter, who plays villain Pete Callan in Family Affairs, is to leave the series in September, it is announced.
June
18 June – Christopher Eccleston's final episode of the Ninth Doctor in Doctor Who, "The Parting of the Ways", is broadcast on BBC One. David Tennant becomes the Tenth Doctor in the same episode.
20 June – Former nightclub owner Fran Cosgrave and presenter Jayne Middlemiss win the first series of Love Island.
25 June – The Girl in the Café, a comedy-drama by Richard Curtis made as part of the global Make Poverty History campaign, is shown by both BBC One in the United Kingdom and HBO in the United States on the same day.
26 June
Countdown presenter Richard Whiteley dies at Leeds General Infirmary following a short illness. His final episodes air between 28 June and 1 July.
CBeebies airs the last ever episode of children's show Balamory.
July
1 July – Channel 4 broadcasts the last episode of Countdown hosted by Richard Whiteley.'
2 July – Broadcast of Live 8, a string of benefit concerts, in the G8 states and South Africa. They are timed to precede the 31st G8 summit being held at the Gleneagles Hotel in Auchterarder, Scotland from 6–8 July; they also coincide with the 20th anniversary of Live Aid.
4 July – The BBC apologises to viewers after a computer malfunction causes its new 3D weather graphics to freeze.
7 July
Regular programming is suspended by major networks to provide ongoing news coverage after a series of co-ordinated terrorist bombings strike London's public transport system during the morning rush hour.
BBC One airs an edition of Question Time from Johannesburg, South Africa as world leaders convene for the 31st G8 summit in Scotland, and following the Live 8 concerts.
8 July – The Animals of Farthing Wood airs on CBBC for the very last time but continues to air on RTÉ2 in Ireland.
12 July – BBC One airs the 250th episode of Holby City.
17 July – After forty-one years broadcasting on BBC One, music show Top of the Pops is switched to BBC Two due to declining audiences. This is not enough to save it, and it is axed the following year.
19 July – Jessie Wallace confirms she will leave EastEnders at the end of the year, having played Kat Slater since 2000.
August
1 August – BBC Broadcast, formerly Broadcasting & Presentation, and responsible for the playout and branding of all BBC Channels, is sold to Creative Broadcast Services, owned by the Macquarie Capital Alliance Group and Macquarie Bank. It is renamed Red Bee Media on 31 October.
2 August – Five announces its soap, Family Affairs will be axed at the end of the year.
4 August – BBC One airs Sinatra: Dark Star, a documentary investigating rumours of Frank Sinatra's links to organised crime.
12 August – Anthony Hutton wins series six of Big Brother.
17 August – ITV announces plans to launch a children's channel to rival CBBC.
22 August – Peppa Pig makes its debut in the United States, on Cartoon Network's Tickle U programming block, re-dubbed with American voice actors. This turns out to be a flop, so Nick Jr airs the original British version.
September
3 September – After several revamps and presenting changes, BBC One airs the final edition of its children's entertainment series The Saturday Show.
5 September – Pitt & Kantrop debuts on BBC1
7 September –
The BBC and ITV announce plans to launch Freesat, a Free-to-air satellite television series to rival Sky.
Channel Five airs The Spy Who Stole My Life, a television documentary about conman and imposter Robert Hendy-Freegard, who masqueraded as an MI5 agent.
8 September – Faze TV, a British digital channel aimed at gay men, cancels its launch after failing to secure sufficient funding to deliver "sufficient quality."
11 September – BBC One launches Sunday AM, a Sunday morning current affairs programme presented by Andrew Marr.
12 September – In an interview with The Guardian, the BBC Director of News and Current Affairs Helen Boaden defends the broadcaster's decision to stick with initial reports of a power surge on the London Underground on the morning of 7 July until actual events could be corroborated, saying it was the right thing to do. "Some of our competitors talked immediately of 90 dead. They talked about three bus bombs. That was off a range of various wire services and it was complete speculation and we wouldn't go with that. We would be careful – we would try to check things out."
19 September – The most famous children's classic television character Muffin the Mule (who has disappeared from TV screens for a very long time) is back with a brand new 2D animated series on BBC Two.
20 September – After seven and a half years, Emmerdale sees a new sequence to the opening titles of the series, with the same 1998 theme music alongside another helicopter montage, this time marginally slower and without the actors and the closing credits are generic ITV Network style credits over a continuous shot of the village, again from a helicopter, but filmed from a different angle. On the same evening, BBC One airs Derailed, a docudrama dealing with the 1999 Ladbroke Grove rail crash.
22 September – ITV airs a second live episode of The Bill to mark the broadcaster's 50th year on air.
23 September – It is announced that Des Lynam will succeed Richard Whiteley as presenter of Channel 4's Countdown, with his first episode airing on 31 October.
25 September – ITV1 airs an episode of A Touch of Frost called "Near Death Experience" to mark the broadcaster's 50th year on air. On the same evening, BBC One airs the network premiere of the 2003 Christmas-themed romantic comedy film Love Actually starring Hugh Grant, Liam Neeson, Colin Firth, Laura Linney, Emma Thompson and Mr. Bean star Rowan Atkinson.
26 September – The BBC is censured by Ofcom for its coverage of the London bombings on 7 July. Of particular concern to them was an incident in which footage of a man being carried by stretcher into the Royal London Hospital was shown as a BBC News 24 presenter commentated "Let's just take a look at some of the pictures coming from the Royal London." Ofcom concludes that "the pictures were used generically and the commentary did not reflect the seriousness of the images being transmitted". Channel 4 News is also criticised for not "fully reflecting the enormity of the images being reflected", although it had not breached the Ofcom regulations as the images were not used casually. ITV News is not criticised, however, because it provided a "clear narrative context [with] sensitive accompanying reporting".
26–27 September – No Direction Home, Martin Scorsese's documentary on Bob Dylan, receives its broadcast premiere on BBC Two in the UK, under the Arena banner.
30 September – CBBC identity relaunched, with its second marketing campaign since the launch of the CBBC Channel.
September – ITV celebrates its 50th anniversary with a collection of special programmes, under the name ITV 50.
October
3 October
BBC Four airs Our Hidden Lives, a dramatisation of the novel of the same name by Simon Garfield that explores the lives of four people on 8 May 1945 as World War II comes to an end. The film stars Richard Briers, Sarah Parish, Ian McDiarmid and Lesley Sharp, and is the centrepiece of the BBC's Lost Decades season.
Live action Icelandic health and fitness based kids' TV show LazyTown makes it debut on both CBeebies & Nick Jr.
5 October – The 6am CBeebies programming block on BBC Two ends and is replaced by an hour of Pages from Ceefax.
8 October – BBC One airs the 500th episode of Casualty.
10 October – More4, a digital channel from Channel 4 offering factual content, launches.
24 October – Sky News moves to new studios, with a new schedule and on-air look.
25 October – The relaunched Doctor Who is the major winner at the annual National Television Awards in the UK, taking the Most Popular Drama award, with its stars Christopher Eccleston and Billie Piper winning Most Popular Actor and Most Popular actress.
27 October–16 December – Bleak House, a 15-episode adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel of the same name designed to capture a soap opera-style audience by using Dickens's original serial structure in half-hour episodes, is broadcast on BBC One.
28 October – Sheffield based rock band Arctic Monkeys make their first appearance on BBC Two's Later...with Jools Holland.
31 October
Sky3 is launched on British digital terrestrial and satellite platforms. On the same day Sky Mix is rebranded as Sky Two, and Sky Travel ceases transmission on Freeview.
The first episode of Countdown hosted by Des Lynam airs, as does the first episode of Deal Or No Deal, reviving Noel Edmonds's TV career on Channel 4.
November
1 November – ITV4, a digital channel aimed at men, is launched in the UK. It is launched on Sky Digital Channel 120 on 7 November.
3 November – A special edition of Question Time featuring David Cameron and David Davisthe two candidates in the forthcoming Conservative Party leadership election.
7–28 November – BBC One broadcasts ShakespeaRe-Told, a series of four adaptations of William Shakespeare's plays based in 21st century Britain. The plays in order are Much Ado About Nothing, Macbeth, The Taming of the Shrew, and A Midsummer Night's Dream.
11 November – EastEnders is the first British drama to feature a two-minute silence. This episode later goes on to win the British Soap Award for 'Best Single Episode'.
16 November – Lucy Ratcliffe wins the first cycle of Britain's Next Top Model, securing for herself a modelling contract among other prizes.
17 November – Little Britain moves to BBC1 due to it being a success on BBC3, kicking things off with the first episode of the third series. Tom Baker provides this evening's continuity announcements on BBC1.
18 November –
BBC One broadcasts this year's annual Children in Need appeal. It contains several highlights including Catherine Tate in EastEnders, the BBC Newsreaders performing Bohemian Rhapsody, and a brand new Doctor Who adventure. The first to fully star David Tennant as the Doctor, the 7-minute episode directly follows on from "The Parting of the Ways" and directly leads on to "The Christmas Invasion".
It is announced that Five has bought a stake in DTT's pay-TV operator, Top Up TV.
22 November – Producers of ITV's I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! confirm that contestant Elaine Lordan will not be returning to the show following a stay in hospital. She had twice collapsed on the set of the jungle-based reality show, but has been given a clean bill of health by doctors.
28 November – The actress and I'm a Celebrity contestant Kimberley Davies is taken to hospital with a suspected fractured rib after she is injured in a stunt that goes wrong. Davies had jumped from a helicopter as part of one of the series' "bush tucker trials" when the incident occurred. Responding to criticism that it had not taken the correct safety precautions, ITV says that Davies was given a full safety briefing before she performed the stunt.
29 November – Kimberley Davies withdraws from I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!.
December
2 December – BBC Three's weeknight news bulletin The 7 O'Clock News is broadcast for the final time. It is axed following a report into the BBC's digital output claims that the show "achieves nothing and attracts tiny audiences".
3 December – ITV1 screens the British terrestrial television premiere of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second film in the Harry Potter series. Overnight viewing figures indicate it is watched by an audience of eight million (a 37% audience share). The evening's edition of The X Factor, screened after Chamber of Secrets, is watched by 9.7 million viewers (a 42% audience share), giving ITV1 its best ratings since February 2002.
5 December – Carol Thatcher wins the fifth series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!.
7–16 December – Space Cadets is shown on Channel 4, a hoax reality TV show where the contestants believe they are in a Space Shuttle orbiting Earth, when in fact they are in a set in a disused aircraft hangar in Suffolk.
10 December – Westlife's version of "You Raise Me Up" is voted the 2005 Record of the Year by ITV viewers, the fourth time the Irish boy band have won the title.
11 December – Cricketer Andrew Flintoff is named as this year's BBC Sports Personality of the Year.
15 December – Sir Trevor McDonald makes his final ITN news broadcast after over 25 years. As a tribute, the closing theme tune for the News at Ten Thirty tonight is replaced with the News at Ten theme used from 1992 to 1999, McDonald having presented the show during that time.
17 December – Cricketer Darren Gough and dancing partner Lilia Kopylova win the third series of Strictly Come Dancing. Shayne Ward wins the second series of The X Factor on the same evening.
19 December – Rolf Harris unveils his portrait of the Queen at Buckingham Palace.
21 December – The BBC is to trial a three-month experiment in which its Saturday morning schedules for BBC One and BBC Two will be swapped. The changes, taking effect from January 2006, are being implemented because of frequent scheduling changes caused by big events and breaking news stories, and will mean children's programming will be absent from BBC One's Saturday morning lineup for the first time since 1968. This was not enough to save them and the Saturday morning children's programmes were axed six months later.
23 December – The ITV News Channel closes.
25 December –
BBC One airs the network television premiere of Toy Story 2.
BBC One airs the Doctor Who Christmas Special, "The Christmas Invasion"; this episode marks David Tennant's first full-length story as the Tenth Doctor.
Shane Richie and Jessie Wallace leave EastEnders when their characters Alfie and Kat Moon depart for America.
29 December – The last edition of Click Online broadcast under its original title before it is renamed Click.
30 December
Five airs the final episode of its soap Family Affairs.
BBC One airs the network television premiere of Insomnia.
Debuts
BBC One
1 January – Star Spell (2005)
3 January – BB3B (2005)
7 January – According to Bex (2005)
21 January – 29 Minutes of Fame (2005)
13 March – Supervolcano (2005)
26 March – Doctor Who (2005–present)
27 March – Fingersmith (2005)
6 June – Gordon the Garden Gnome (2005)
25 June – The Girl in the Café (2005)
5 September – Pitt & Kantrop (2005-2007)
6 September – Medium (2005–2011)
9 September – The Green Green Grass (2005–2009)
11 September – Sunday AM (2005–2021)
27 September – Love Soup (2005, 2008)
27 October – Bleak House (2005)
30 October – Rocket Man (2005)
7 November – Shakespeare Re-Told (4 eps – Much Ado about Nothing / Macbeth / The Taming of the Shrew / A Midsummer Night's Dream) (2005)
BBC Two
7 January – Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife (2005–2006)
26 January – The Rotters' Club (2005)
16 February – The Apprentice (2005–present)
21 February – Around the World in 80 Treasures (2005)
27 February – Help (2005)
5 May – The Robinsons (2005)
10 May – The Monastery (2005)
30 May – Springwatch (2005–present)
5 June – Mock the Week (2005–present)
6 July – To the Ends of the Earth (2005)
21 July – Extras (2005–2007)
22 July – Coast (2005–2015)
3 October – LazyTown (also on Nick Jr) (2005–2020, UK broadcast)
22 October – American Dad! (2005–present)
8 November – Autumnwatch (2005–2022)
15 November – Rome (2005–2007)
13 December – Magnificent 7 (2005)
BBC Three
11 January – Ideal (2005–2011)
16 January – Twisted Tales (spin-off from Spine Chillers) (2005)
13 March – Casanova (2005)
20 September – Tittybangbang (2005–2007)
23 October – Funland (2005)
BBC Four
2 March – Kenneth Tynan: In Praise of Hardcore (2005)
19 April – Twenty Thousand Streets Under the Sky (2005)
19 May – The Thick of It (2005–2012)
ITV (1/2/3/4)
1 January – Scream! If You Want to Get Off (2005)
5 February – Toonattik (2005–2011)
12 February – New Captain Scarlet (2005)
27 February – The Walk (2005)
6 March – Falling (2005)
20 March – Diamond Geezer (2005; 2007)
27 March – Colditz (2005)
2 April – Hit Me Baby One More Time (2005)
10 April – Malice Aforethought (2005)
11 April –
ITV Day (2005–2006)
King Arthur's Disasters (2005–2006)
15 April – Splash Camp (2005)
23 April – Celebrity Wrestling (2005)
16 May – Love Island (2005–2006)
13 June – Cash Cab (2005–2006)
4 July – The Jeremy Kyle Show (2005–2019)
9 July – Grandma Jane's Garden Adventures (2005–2010)
5 September – Marian, Again (2005)
14 September – The Golden Hour (2005)
24 September – Afterlife (2005–2006)
29 September – Mike Bassett: Manager (2005)
10 October – Vincent (2005–2006)
19 October – Cold Blood (2005–2008)
12 December – Secret Smile (2005)
18 December – Wallis & Edward (2005)
Channel 4
5 January – Desperate Housewives (2004–2012)
10 January – Come Dine with Me (2005–present)
11 February – Nathan Barley (2005)
7 March – Coach Trip (2005–2006, 2009–2012, 2013–present)
10 May – Bring Back... (2005–2009)
27 May – 18 Stone of Idiot (2005)
3 June – 8 Out of 10 Cats (2005–present)
7 June – Sugar Rush (2005–2006)
1 August – The House of Obsessive Compulsives (2005)
31 August – It's Me or the Dog (2005–2008 Channel 4, 2008–2012 Sky)
29 September – Elizabeth I (2005)
30 September –
Spoons (2005)
Rock School (2005/6)
22 October – Power Rangers: SPD (2005)
31 October – Deal or No Deal (2005–2016)
8 November – Rajan and His Evil Hypnotists (2005)
15 November – The Ghost Squad (2005)
20 November – Not Forgotten (2005–2009)
27 November – The Queen's Sister (2005)
More4
10 October – Launch of More4 News on new digital channel More4 (2005—2009).
MBC 2 & MBC 4
2005-present – Scoop with Raya
Five
30 May – Fifi and the Flowertots (2005–2010)
9 June – House (2004–2012)
9 September – Swinging (2005–2006)
Cartoon Network UK
11 April – What's New, Scooby-Doo? (2002–2005)
9 May – Hi Hi Puffy Ami Yumi (2004–2006)
6 June – Battle B-Daman (2005–2006)
1 November – Robotboy (2005–2008)
Boomerang UK
1 November – Camp Lazlo (2005–2008)
Playhouse Disney UK
11 April – Higglytown Heroes (11 April 2005 – 7 January 2008)
3 October – Little Einsteins (2005–2010)
Nickelodeon UK
3 January – Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide (2004–2007)
4 April –
Unfabulous (2005–2008)
Zoey 101 (2005–2008)
Nicktoons UK
14 January – My Life as a Teenage Robot (2005–2007)
Jetix UK
1 January – Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! (2005–2008)
Channels
New channels
Defunct channels
Rebranded channels
Television shows
signifies that this show has a related event in the Events section above.
Changes of network affiliation
All these WWE shows became exclusive to Sky Sports
Returning this year after a break of one year or longer
Muffin the Mule (1946–1955, 2005–2006)
Doctor Who (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–present)
Mr. Benn (1970–1972, 2005)
Roobarb and Custard Too premieres (1974 BBC, 2005–2013 Channel 5)
Willo the Wisp (1981–1984, 2005)
Fireman Sam (1987–1994, 2005–2013)
The Two Ronnies Sketchbook sequels to take over from The Two Ronnies (1971–1987, 1991, 1996, 2005)
Family Guy (1999–2002, 2005–present)
Continuing television shows
1920s
BBC Wimbledon (1927–1939, 1946–2019, 2021–present)
1930s
The Boat Race (1938–1939, 1946–2019)
1950s
Panorama (1953–present)
What the Papers Say (1956–2008)
The Sky at Night (1957–present)
Blue Peter (1958–present)
Grandstand (1958–2007)
1960s
Coronation Street (1960–present)
Songs of Praise (1961–present)
Top of the Pops (1964–2006)
Match of the Day (1964–present)
The Money Programme (1966–2010)
1970s
Emmerdale (1972–present)
Newsround (1972–present)
Last of the Summer Wine (1973–2010)
Arena (1975–present)
One Man and His Dog (1976–present)
Top Gear (1977–2001, 2002–present)
Grange Hill (1978–2008)
Ski Sunday (1978–present)
Antiques Roadshow (1979–present)
Question Time (1979–present)
1980s
Children in Need (1980–present)
Postman Pat (1981, 1991, 1994, 1996, 2004–2008)
Timewatch (1982–present)
Countdown (1982–present)
The Bill (1984–2010)
Thomas & Friends (1984–2021)
EastEnders (1985–present)
Comic Relief (1985–present)
Casualty (1986–present)
ChuckleVision (1987–2009)
This Morning (1988–present)
The Simpsons (1989–present)
1990s
Have I Got News for You (1990–present)
Room 101 (1994–2007, 2012–2018)
Stars in Their Eyes (1990–2006, 2015)
Heartbeat (1992–2010)
Time Team (1994–2013)
Top of the Pops 2 (1994–2017)
Hollyoaks (1995–present)
Arthur (1996–present)
Never Mind the Buzzcocks (1996–2015)
Silent Witness (1996–present)
Midsomer Murders (1997–present)
South Park (1997–present)
King of the Hill (1997–2010)
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (1998–2014)
Bob the Builder (1998–present)
Bremner, Bird and Fortune (1999–2010)
British Soap Awards (1999–2019, 2022–present)
Ed, Edd n Eddy (1999–2009)
SpongeBob SquarePants (1999–present)
Holby City (1999–2022)
My Parents Are Aliens (1999–2006)
2000s
Doctors (2000–present)
Big Brother (2000–2010, 2011–2018)
The Weakest Link (2000–2012, 2017–present)
The Kumars (2001–2006, 2014)
Popworld (2001–2007)
Real Crime (2001–2011)
Flog It! (2002–2020)
Foyle's War (2002–2015)
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (2002–present)
Harry Hill's TV Burp (2002–2012)
Spooks (2002–2011)
Daily Politics (2003–2018)
Peep Show (2003–2015)
All Grown Up! (2003–2008)
Tiny Pop (2003–2008)
New Tricks (2003–2015)
Politics Show (2003–2011)
QI (2003–present)
The Royal (2003–2011)
PointlessBlog (2003–2007)
This Week (2003–2019)
Strictly Come Dancing (2004–present)
Doc Martin (2004–2022)
Sea of Souls (2004–2007)
Supernanny (2004–2008, 2010–2012)
Shameless (2004–2013)
The X Factor (2004–2018)
Ending this year
Births
Deaths
See also
2005 in British music
2005 in British radio
2005 in the United Kingdom
List of British films of 2005
References
External links
List of 2005 British television series at IMDb |
4243367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Hein | Brandon Hein | Brandon Wade Hein (born February 17, 1977) was sentenced to life imprisonment without possibility of parole for his involvement in the 1995 stabbing murder of 16-year-old Jimmy Farris, the son of a Los Angeles Police Department officer.
Hein and two other youths who were present when the murder took place, as well as the actual killer, and were convicted under the felony murder rule because the murder was committed during the course of a felony – the attempted robbery of marijuana kept for sale by Farris's friend, Michael McLoren.
Under the felony murder rule, any participant in a felony is criminally responsible for any death that occurs during its commission. In 2009, Hein's life sentence was commuted to 29 years to life.
A documentary film called Reckless Indifference was made about the murder, trial and resulting prison sentences. Hein was the only defendant interviewed in the film and has received the bulk of media attention, while equally heavy sentences were handed out to other defendants. His conviction has courted much controversy, as some feel that the life sentence was overly harsh and politically motivated, while others feel that his involvement justified the sentence.
On May 2, 2017, a book chronicling the Farris case, "One Cut" by Eve Porinchak, was released by Simon & Schuster.
In October 2019, Hein was granted parole. He is expected to be released from prison by summer 2020.
Fistfight and murder
On May 22, 1995, five youths ranging in age from 15 to 18 were drinking alcohol and cruising in a pickup truck around Agoura Hills, a suburban town in Los Angeles County, California. Less than an hour before the stabbing, one of the five, Jason Holland, 18, grabbed a wallet from an unlocked vehicle in the parking lot of a public park, an act witnessed by the wallet's owner, a mother playing in the park with her children. Shortly thereafter, she recognized the truck and confronted the five, demanding and receiving her wallet back in the face of their threats and intimidation. This theft and intimidation was used to support the prosecution's contention that the five were still acting in concert at the time of the murder.
Looking for marijuana, the five drove to the home of Michael McLoren, who was known to sell marijuana from a desk drawer in a ramshackle one-room "fort" in his backyard. A key factor in the murder trial was whether the five intended to buy marijuana or to steal it. McLoren, 17, and his friend, Jimmy Farris, 16, were in the yard outside the fort when four of the five youths hopped the fence, with Micah Holland, 15, leading the way. Micah entered the fort and Anthony Miliotti, 17, physically the largest of the group, stood in the doorway. Their entry to the property drew an additional charge of burglary.
Jason Holland testified he was drunk and lagging behind the others and did not see how the argument between his brother Micah and McLoren started. As he entered, the two dropped their heads and started fighting. Brandon Hein, 18, jumped into the fight, as did Jason, who says he was trying to get the bigger McLoren off his brother Micah's back. Jason opened a folding pocketknife and "pricked" McLoren twice in the back to get him off his brother, then stabbed him in the chest. When Farris entered the fort to help McLoren, Jason stabbed him twice and Hein punched him in the head and face. McLoren survived his wounds but Farris died in the emergency room. When Jason Holland learned from his mother that he was wanted for murder, he went into hiding but several weeks later voluntarily surrendered.
The following description of the fight and stabbing is from the "Summary of Facts and Proceedings" in the January 29, 2001 California Court of Appeal findings. Note that the term "appellants" excludes Christopher Velardo, 17, owner of the pickup truck, who remained in the truck throughout the incident and was tried separately.At approximately 7:00 p.m. McLoren and Farris were in the McLoren backyard in the immediate vicinity of the fort. Without permission or invitation, all appellants as a group entered the McLoren backyard by hopping over a fence. Micah Holland (Micah) and Miliotti entered first. Jason and Hein followed approximately ten to fifteen feet behind Micah and Miliotti. Micah immediately entered the fort and Miliotti stood in the doorway. Appellants did not have permission or invitation to enter the fort. There had not been prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana between McLoren and appellants.
Appellant Jason was carrying a folding pocketknife. There is no evidence that appellants Micah, Hein, or Miliotti carried weapons or that any of them knew Jason carried a pocketknife.
Appellant Micah unsuccessfully attempted to pull open the locked desk drawer. Next, appellants Micah and Hein, in a threatening manner, shouted words demanding that McLoren turn over the key to the locked desk drawer. Appellant Micah, when threatening McLoren and demanding the key, shouted, “Give me the key fool” and “Give me the key, ese. You want shit with Gumbys, ese?” McLoren refused to relinquish the key.
Appellants Micah, Jason and Hein then verbally and physically assaulted McLoren. The intensity and violence of the battle escalated. McLoren held Micah face down on a bed and elbowed him about the back and neck. Jason attempted to pull McLoren off of Micah. McLoren kicked Jason in the face. McLoren then heard appellant Jason say, “Let's get this fucker.” While being held in a headlock, McLoren twice felt sharp, debilitating, pulsating sensations, which later proved to be multiple stab wounds. Jason admitted stabbing McLoren.
After McLoren was stabbed, Farris entered the fort and became involved in the melee. Farris confronted Jason, who turned and, without hesitation, stabbed Farris twice in the torso. Immediately thereafter, McLoren observed Hein beating Farris in the head and face with his fists. Farris did not resist or otherwise defend himself from the blows administered by Hein.
Both McLoren and Farris broke away from the fight and ran to McLoren's house. They each reported to McLoren's mother that “. . . they (appellants) came to get our stuff . . .” and had stabbed them. Mrs. McLoren saw a stab wound in the center of Farris’ chest.
Witnesses observed appellants together leaving the McLoren yard, being met by
the Velardo pickup truck and driving away in Velardo's pickup truck. A witness testified that he observed the four appellants on the street as they left the McLoren backyard apparently talking among themselves and smiling.
Charges
Christopher Velardo, 17, who remained outside in the truck throughout the incident, was charged and tried separately.
Micah Holland, 15, Brandon Hein, 18, and Anthony Miliotti, 17, as well as the actual killer Jason Holland, 18, were charged with burglary, attempted robbery, and murder committed during the course of a burglary and an attempted robbery, and with attempted willful, deliberate, premeditated murder of McLoren.
All four were charged with felony murder because the murder was committed during the course of a felony, the alleged attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana.
California law allows felony murder charges to be "enhanced" by special circumstances if the murder is committed during the commission of certain other crimes, among them robbery and burglary. The special circumstances of robbery and burglary were both alleged in this case. Murders under special circumstances require the imposition of the death penalty or life without possibility of parole.
Trial
The severity of the charges polarized the small town of Agoura Hills and attracted international attention.
The case was heard in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County in Malibu, California, with Judge Lawrence Mira presiding.
The issue of the defendants' intent when entering the McLoren property and during the events at the fort was critical and hotly contested throughout the trial. The defendants said they had gone to the fort to buy, not steal, marijuana that day, so there was no burglary or attempted robbery. McLoren, testifying as a prosecution witness under promise of immunity from prosecution on drug charges, said there had been no prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana.
Testimony about the earlier wallet theft was introduced, with Judge Mira instructing the jury that it could be considered only to determine if it tended to show the criminal intent required for the offenses charged later that day.
The prosecution said that both incidents were alike, in that they were theft-type offenses involving group action and intimidating conduct by members of the group.
Extensive media coverage before the trial had suggested that the defendants were members of Gumbys, a local street gang. In pre-trial proceedings, Judge Mira found that there was insufficient evidence that the defendants were gang members and excluded any evidence of gang membership. Notwithstanding this ruling, during cross-examination the prosecution twice asked Jason Holland about Gumbys, including asking him if he was a member. Judge Mira instructed the jury to ignore these questions. During closing arguments, the prosecution again strongly suggested the existence of gang activity. These suggestions of gang activity were brought up in the defendants' later appeal as prejudicial misconduct that deprived them of their right to a fair trial.
Jason Holland admitted stabbing both McLoren and Farris.
On May 28, 1996 the jury found the four defendants guilty of burglary, attempted robbery, and murder committed during the course of a burglary and an attempted robbery, that is, felony murder. In addition, Jason Holland was convicted of assault with a deadly weapon. The jury also found the allegations of special circumstances to be true, and found the murder, burglary and attempted robbery to be of the first degree.
Sentences
The four were sentenced to state prison as follows:
Jason Holland - life without possibility of parole plus eight years.
Brandon Hein - life without possibility of parole plus four years.
Tony Miliotti - life without possibility of parole plus four years.
Micah Holland - 29 years to life.
Christopher Velardo pleaded guilty separately to voluntary manslaughter and conspiracy to commit robbery and was sentenced to eleven years. Velardo was released from prison in 2000.
Supporters
The case attracted international attention and support, due largely to media coverage of the charges, the application of the felony murder rule, and the long sentences imposed.
Director William Gazecki made a documentary film called Reckless Indifference about the murder, trial and resulting prison sentences.
In his film, Gazecki argues that the defendants received an unfair trial and overly harsh sentences.
A bill by former California state senator Tom Hayden to revise California's felony murder rule died in the Senate.
Actor Charles Grodin wrote and directed a sympathetic play, The Prosecution of Brandon Hein.
In 2005 Gazecki was a guest speaker at California State University Los Angeles, where his film was shown to Soren Kerk's sociology class with the question in mind, "What is Justice?"
Detractors
Although the crime occurred outside his jurisdiction (in Los Angeles County, not in the city of Los Angeles), Los Angeles police chief Willie Williams wrote to Judge Mira recommending the maximum punishment for all four defendants: life in prison without the possibility of parole.
In an interview with Farris' parents his mother asks, ”How much is too much time for killing someone? For taking away and changing our lives completely, forever?”
Controversy
Supporters of the defendants as well as opponents of the felony murder rule have expressed various concerns and criticisms.
Regarding the charges
According to William Gazecki and other critics, the prosecutor's office was spurred to lay the heaviest possible charges by the victim's father, an LAPD officer; and says that if the victim had not been a police officer's son the felony murder rule would never have been applied. In a CBS 60 Minutes II segment, a spokesman for the defendants' families charges that the boys were punished not for what they did, but for who was killed. The spokesman says, "It's about a police officer's son who died. And the only way they could convict all these kids was use the felony murder rule." James Farris Sr., the victim's father, says "The fact that I'm a policeman has nothing to do with anything. I just happen to be a policeman whose son was murdered. That's it."
The felony murder rule itself has been criticized as unjust and offensive to the basic notion of fairness, since all participants in the underlying felony are punished equally regardless of their role, or lack of a role, in the murder. Supporters of the rule regard it as an example of strict liability, whereby a person who chooses to commit a crime is considered absolutely responsible for all the possible consequences of that action.
The application of the felony murder rule in this case was also questioned by those who did not agree that an underlying felony, the attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana, had actually taken place.
Regarding the trial
Critics have accused the Los Angeles district attorney's office of being less interested in justice than in making up for their embarrassing high-visibility loss in the murder trial of O. J. Simpson a few months earlier.
The fact that the victim's father was an LAPD officer also generated suspicions that the district attorney's office was pressured for convictions, with Farris Sr. supposedly enjoying extraordinary access to authorities and attorneys, and using his influence to gain favors for the prosecution. Farris says in the film he never was present while prosecutors interviewed witnesses, while Deputy District Attorney Jeff Semow says that Farris "may have been present."
To prove felony murder, the prosecution had to prove that an underlying felony had taken place, the attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana. On the witness stand as a prosecution witness, McLoren testified that there had been no prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana. Before he testified, the prosecution had given him immunity from prosecution for selling drugs, a fact not known to the jury.
Extensive pre-trial media coverage available to the pool of potential jurors suggested that the defendants were gang members. Judge Mira found that there was insufficient evidence of gang membership, and ruled that no evidence of this type was allowed in the trial. Notwithstanding this ruling, the prosecution several times asked questions about gang membership or otherwise suggested to the jury the existence of gang activity. After each suggestion, the judge instructed the jury to ignore it, a process likened by some critics to "trying to unring a bell". Interviewed in Reckless Indifference, Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz says the prosecutors "terrorized" the jury into believing the defendants were violent gang members.
Regarding the sentences
The sentences – 29 years to life for Micah Holland, life without possibility of parole for Hein, Miliotti, and Jason Holland – have been widely criticised as out of proportion to the nature of the crimes. Dershowitz calls the sentence "disproportional, outrageous, unconstitutional and immoral."
Appeals
State appeals
An appeal of the convictions and sentences to the California Court of Appeal for the Second District charged prosecutors with misconduct and presenting inadmissible evidence, including alleging that the defendants belonged to the Gumbys street gang. Among other things, the appeal also alleged that it was improper to present the earlier wallet theft to the jury; that the prosecution engaged in egregious personal attacks on defense counsel; and that the verdicts were inconsistent. It further alleged juror misconduct, judicial bias, and faulty instructions to the jury.
Defending the sentences, Deputy District Attorney Victoria Bedrossian argued that while only Jason Holland wielded the knife, the defendants acted "in concert."
"Each appellant was a major participant who acted with reckless indifference to Jimmy Farris' life," Bedrossian said. "The sentences in this case do not offend fundamental notions of human dignity and the penalties in this case should not be changed."
On 29 January 2001 the California Court of Appeal ruled that "In order to warrant reversal, it must be determined that the alleged misconduct has prejudiced appellants’ right to a fair trial. In this case, the evidence against appellants was overwhelming." The Court affirmed the convictions and sentencing of Jason Holland, Brandon Hein and Micah Holland. The special circumstance finding against Anthony Miliotti, who stood and watched, was struck from the record and his crime reduced to second-degree murder, and his case sent back to the trial court for resentencing, resulting in a new sentence of nineteen years to life.
The California Supreme Court denied petitions for review on April 25, 2001.
Hein filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the United States Supreme Court, which was denied on October 1, 2001.
A petition for a writ of habeas corpus with the California Supreme Court was filed on September 23, 2002, which was summarily denied on May 12, 2004.
Federal appeals
Following exhaustion of their appeals in state court, Hein, Miliotti, Micah and Jason Holland filed individual Petition for Writ of Habeas Corpus in the United States District Court for the Central District of California in May and July 2004. The petitions raised identical, overlapping, and separate claims: Brady violations, prosecutorial misconduct, ineffective assistance of counsel, improper exclusion or admission of evidence, juror misconduct, judicial misconduct, cruel and unusual punishment, and arbitrary and capricious sentence reduction. On April 3, 2007, the United States magistrate judge assigned to the case filed a joint Report and Recommendation, recommending that the petitions be denied. All four appellants filed objections to the Magistrate's report, but the United States District Judge adopted the Report and Recommendation without modification. Each appellant then requested a Certificate of Appealability to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which were all granted in whole or in part by the District Court. On January 17, 2008, the Ninth Circuit Court granted a motion to consolidate the appeals of the four appellants.
On October 7, 2009 the appeals were heard by a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Attorneys for the four alleged false testimony by McLoren and misconduct by the prosecution, including failure to disclose evidence favorable to the defense.
On April 12, 2010 the appeals were denied, with the court acknowledging some instances of prosecutorial misconduct but saying their combined effect, along with the nondisclosure of McLoren's immunity, was not sufficient to render the trial fundamentally unfair.
On May 26, 2010 attorneys for Hein, Miliotti, and Jason Holland filed a "Joint Petition for Rehearing En Banc." Attorneys for Micah Holland filed a separate "Petition for Rehearing En Banc." In the petitions, the attorneys argue that the April 12 opinion by the three-judge panel "conflicts with a well-settled body of law within the Ninth Circuit," and that "En banc review is necessary to secure and maintain the uniformity of this Court's decisions."
On July 16, 2010, the three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court issued an order stating that "The full court has been advised of the petitions for rehearing en banc and no judge has requested a vote on whether to rehear the matter en banc. The petitions for panel rehearing and the petitions for rehearing en banc are denied."
On November 15, 2010, attorneys for the four petitioners filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States. The petition was denied on April 18, 2011.
Commutation to 29 years to life with the possibility of parole
On March 17, 2009, Hein's sentence was commuted by Governor Schwarzenegger, from life without possibility of parole plus four years, to 29 years to life with the possibility of parole. Hein's "Initial Suitability Hearing" is scheduled for October 30, 2019.
Current status
Brandon Hein, Micah Holland, and Jason Holland remain in prison. Their legal appeals have been exhausted. Miliotti appeared before the Board of Parole Hearings on April 28, 2011. The board found that Miliotti was "not yet suitable for parole and would pose an unreasonable risk of danger or a threat to public safety if released from prison," and gave him a ten-year denial. However, under Marsy's Law, a life inmate who is denied parole may, in three year intervals, request that his or her hearing be moved to an earlier date.
Miliotti filed a petition to advance which was approved and his next hearing was advanced from ten to seven years. His "Subsequent Parole Consideration Hearing" took place on March 8, 2018. The parole board found that, "Mr. Miliotti does not pose an unreasonable risk of danger to society or threat to public safety and is therefore suitable for parole."
On December 24, 2018, Governor Edmund G. Brown, Jr. commuted Jason Holland's sentence, from life without the possibility of parole plus eight years, to 30 years to life.
Micah Holland appeared before the Board of Parole Hearings on March 13, 2019. He was denied parole and given a seven year denial.
Bill under consideration would require re-sentencing
As of August 16, 2018, a bill which would reduce the broad scope allowed in charging "special circumstances" has been approved by the California Senate and awaits action by the Assembly. The bill would restrict the charging of special circumstances to only those who actually commit murder or who are directly involved, and would require re-sentencing of offenders such as Hein.
See also
Felony murder and the death penalty
References
External links
Hein's web site - "Life in Prison: The Felony Murder Rule in California"
Brandon Hein blog maintained by his parents
YouTube - CBS 60 Minutes news article on Brandon Hein
Brandon Hein Case - Newspaper Articles
Living people
American people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by California
American murderers of children
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California
1977 births
Place of birth missing (living people) |
4243372 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almonte%2C%20Spain | Almonte, Spain | Almonte is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, in southwestern Spain. According to the 2022 census, it had a population of 25,448 inhabitants, ranking third within its province, just after Huelva, the capital city and Lepe. With its 859.21 km2 (33174 sq mi), it is the 19th largest municipality in Spain, with a population density of 27/km2. Its elevation is 75 m (246 ft) over sea level and it is 50 km far from Huelva.
Almonte is recognised worldwide thanks to the village of El Rocío, which had a great influence in the American Wild West culture and hosts one of the most popular pilgrimages in the world. Most of the Doñana National Park, which is Europe’s largest natural reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and the longest beach in Spain, which includes the popular Matalascañas beach, are also in Almonte. Moreover, it is one of Spain's top organic fruit exporters and the first blueberry exporter in Europe.
History
Prehistory
The region of Tartessia existed since the Chalcolithic, with river Tartessos (later renamed Baetis by Romans). There are remains left from the Bronze Age in Almonte, including Tartessian metallic tools by the San Bartolomé stream, in the northern part of Almonte's territory. It is thought that this Tartessian village had two different golden ages, one of them during the Chalcolithic and another one during the late Bronze Age, from the 9th and 6th centuries BC. The typical architecture from that age included the oval-shaped huts dug on the ground and made of sticks and mud. This settlement may have had an active trading with Greeks and phoenicians and was called San Bartolomé de Almonte, next to the current town and the ancient (Ligustinian Lake), which covered most of the territory between Seville and Cádiz, and dried completely in 700BC.
Ancient history
There are also remains of Roman presence in the area, with an ancient settlement called Alostigi which existed during the 5th century BC and could have been located where the current town of Almonte is. Archaeologists George Bonsor and Adolf Schulten, in their search for Atlantis, discovered remains of a garum fishing factory and a settlement near Cerro del Trigo (Spanish for wheat hill), which is nowadays part of Doñana. At least 15 other factories have been found throughout Almonte's coast, along with a Roman necropolis and coins dating from centuries 5th and 2nd BC.
The above-mentioned Ligustinian Lake, which was used for sea trading by Tartessian people, had been drying over time until becoming the current Guadalquivir's delta as the only major navigable connection to the Atlantic.
Middle Ages
The current town of Almonte was officially established during the 8th century AD with the name of Al-Yabal (literally, "the Mount") and was part of the Taifa of Niebla. The Umayyads were the first to tame and breed the wild horses which had inhabited the area for centuries, and were later registered as a protected species.
Almonte was reconquered by the nordics at the beginning of the 13th century, being taken over by the Crown of Castile, as a protectorate. After a major Muslim rebellion, the territory was absorbed by the Kingdom of Seville.
King Alfonso X "The Wise", wrapped up in the legend of a hunter who found the Virgin Mary deep within Woods of Las Rocinas, ordered to build in 1270 the first sanctuary devoted to Saint Mary of Las Rocinas, later becoming the worldwide-known Virgin of El Rocío. The statue of the Virgin of El Rocío is an anonymous gothic carved wood sculpture dating from the 12th century. The current version has sufferend some remodelling during the Baroque period.
In 1335, nobleman becomes owner of Almonte, which was already independent from the County of Niebla, established in 1369. In the 14th century, Almonte and Niebla went to war for territorial reasons. The conflict ended when the Duke of Medina Sidonia established the frontiers, becoming owners of Almonte, while being at the same time Counts of Niebla and Sanlúcar, neighbouring town.
Modern history
Trading flourished in Almonte during the discovery of America, when Christopher Columbus set sail from the neighbouring port of Palos de la Frontera and goods were transported from Seville. Olive oil was the main export from Almonte and the bustle of traders boosted the interest towards the Virgin of El Rocío and its sanctuary and picturesque village in the middle of the woods. Almonte exerted cultural influence over the American colonies, especially in the Wild West architecture and horse breeding. The typical sandy unpaved roads and the wooden hitching rails to tie horses up were already present in the village of El Rocío and most likely exported to the United States. The Mustang horse breed was also brought over from the surrounding areas, its name being derived from the Spanish "mostrenco" (meaning "wild"), a term which also applies to a local (cow breed from Almonte).
In the 16th century the duke purchased the surrounding woods of Las Rocinas, named after the homonymous stream that ends at the village of El Rocío, doubling its territory and becoming a coastal municipality. These woods would later become a Royal forest by order of the King and later renamed Doñana after the duchess of Medina Sidonia, Doña Ana de Silva. The Spanish monarchs would visit Doñana on a regular basis and finally established an official residence in the (Palace of Doñana).
In 1583 Almonte purchased Doñana from the duke and the locals could finally expand farming, agricultural and fishing activities there. Landowners would manage the economy up to the 19th century, when the population was about 1,500 people.
In 1598 the Virgin was taken to Almonte for the first time ever, and later this displacement became usual every time the town faced a crisis (from natural disasters to wars). This same year, a Confraternity is officially established, the Hermandad Matriz (Spanish for Matrix Confraternity). "Saint Mary of Las Rocinas", official name for the Virgin of El Rocío became patron saint of Almonte in 1653 and different surrounding towns affiliated to the Hermandad Matriz, becoming filial confraternities, the oldest ones being Villamanrique, Pilas, La Palma, Moguer and Sanlúcar. Over time, national and international confraternities would follow, including Belgium, Japan or Australia.
The Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 swept away the entire Atlantic coast, including great parts of the city of Huelva and several fortified towers built on the coast to defend the shores. At least six of these towers were in Almonte and still remain standing, except for Torre de la Higuera (literally "fig tree tower"), which is upside down and is often referred to as a touristic symbol for the town. The sanctuary of El Rocío was damaged too and had to be rebuilt.
During the 18th and 19th centuries people from Almonte made a living with agricultural (chiefly olive grove and vineyard) and farming activities (horse, goat, sheep, pig and bees). Being one of the most extense municipal territories in Spain, its inhabitants have never lacked resources.
In 1810, during the war against France, French captain Pierre D'Oisseaux was executed in Almonte. The event brought about a response involving 1,000 French soldiers heading towards the town from the city of Seville. Unable to resist such an attack, the locals took the Virgin to town, praying for her intervention. The French troops would never arrive at Almonte and turned around at the time they were next to the neighbouring town of Pilas. People then decided to show their gratitude by celebrating an annual vow called "El Rocío Chico" (literally, the "small Rocío") every August. Several lands and properties were privatised and sold during the Spanish confiscation throughout the 19th century, boosting the number of farmers and landowners.
From 1949 on, it was established that the Virgin would be taken from her sanctuary in El Rocío to Almonte every seven years, spending nine months there. This event attracts hundreds of thousands of people to town, prompting a sophisticated security plan involving police, first aid rooms and ambulances, helicopters and firemen to ensure the festivity goes on correctly.
Within the 1940s large-scale reforestation policy in Spain, more than 30,000 hectares in Almonte were replanted with several species of blue gum, redgum, guayule, wattles and cypress. Other local species were also planted, like stone pine. 13 km south of Almonte, half between the town and the sea, a forest settlement called "Los Cabezudos" (Spanish for "the hillocks") was established. It had a school, church, doctor and several shops, being ahead of neighbouring towns regarding agricultural technology and drainage for its 300 inhabitants. These were engineers and foresters along with their families, whose job included wood, oil and cellulose extraction from trees in the factories.
Eminent people have visited the area over time, including the former Queen of Spain, who landed her helicopter in Cabezudos on her way to El Rocío in 1983. Cabezudos started to depopulate in the late 60s, ending up completely uninhabited in the late 80s. Most of the people moved to Almonte, the core town. Nowadays, Cabezudos is a ghost town in ruins within the surroundings of Doñana National Park and is therefore protected. A consensus on whether new uses can be given to the houses is currently held.
Almonte is internationally recognised today thanks to its emblematic village of El Rocío, the Doñana National Park (the largest nature reserve in Europe), its wide 50 km-length sandy beach (the longest in Spain) and its organic berry industry (one of the top exporters in Europe).
Demographics
Almonte's population boosted in the 60s, when foresters and their families left the forest settlements in the surrounding areas. Another boom started in the 2000s, due to the massive arrival of immigrants from 59 different nationalities, mainly Romania and Morocco. They make up nearly 20% of the total population (almost 5,000 people).
Almonte overtook Isla Cristina in 2007, becoming 3rd within the province's population rank, just after Huelva, the capital city and Lepe. Part of this increase is due to Matalascañas, Almonte's summer resort, which has a permanent population of nearly 3,000 people and the village of El Rocío, with around 1,700 inhabitants. Almonte's population increased by 1.19% per year between 2011 and 2014.
During the coronavirus pandemic, Almonte ranked 4th in population growing, just after Huelva, Palos and Lepe. This may have been due to people moving from big cities to the coast, looking for nature and less crowded places. Regarding the transient migrant population, which often goes beyond 15,000 people, cohabitation has developed with relative normality. In 2022 crime rate decreased by nearly 14%, with an average of 62 robberies, 40 burglaries and 3 car thefts; nearly all of them without violence.
Government and politics
Almonte's local government manages the three main urban areas in the municipality (town of Almonte, village of El Rocío and Matalascañas resort). This is a chart with the mayors in charge over the last hundred years.
The local government is made up of 21 councillors. Since democracy was established in 1978, PSOE is the one which has been in power for the longest time, while mayor Francisco Bella was its party chair. After two decades of political stability with Bella, who won in a five-term streak, there were two terms in which political parties of opposite ideologies teamed up to prevent Bella from regaining the government, even though he won the elections again. From 2011 to 2015, right-wing PP ruled with the cooperation of left-wing IU. The latter, at a regional level, sanctioned the two councillors who made it possible for PP to govern Almonte. In 2019, Bella won the elections again, this time with Ilusiona, his new political project. 61.63% of the adult population voted (10,153 people). There were 6,321 abstentions (38.7%). Ilusiona was the most voted party, with 3,513 votes, followed by PSOE (2,154) and PP (1,403). These two opposite parties and local party Mesa de Convergencia teamed up and Rocío del Mar Castellano (Mesa's candidate), with only 2 out of the 21 councillors, was invested mayoress. In the 2023 elections, Bella got a clear majority of votes, achieving a historical assignment of 12 councillors, which will allow him to lead a stable government that has an opportunity to manage such a demanding and complex administration as that of Almonte.
Owing to its extension and population increase over the second half of the 20th century, the government has faced multiple environmental, economic, social and demographic challenges. These include the waste derived from tourism that ends up polluting the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, including ditches, beaches and woods. During certain holidays, as in the summer, Matalascañas hosts more than 200,000 temporary inhabitants, mainly people from Seville and neighbouring towns, while more than one million people gather at El Rocío when the pilgrimage takes place in May. Almonte's urban core also hosts more than 200,000 people when the Virgin arrives and leaves every 7 years. Being one of the top organic fruit exporters in Europe, many paths, trails and even roads in Almonte are constantly used by all kind of agricultural vehicles of all sizes, make it difficult for hikers and bikers to enjoy nature in certain zones. There are nearly 15,000 seasonal workers as well, and many of them live in shacks or prefabricated modules, also endangering natural spaces. The international protected status of the Doñana National Park brings about constant agreements and polemics between Almonte's local government, regional government of Andalusia, the Spanish government and the European Union, mostly regarding sustainable watering of organic crops, pollution, hunting, etc.
Another main issue in the area is water. In spite of being a humid zone, illegal crops still remain in the area extracting subterranean water from the national park aquifer. Politicians often have to deal with European sanctions and create local legislation to control it. A desalination plant has also been proposed for watering crops and a water councillorship may be created in the near future.
Tourism and transport is another main issue that politics focus on. Being a main regional hub for neighbouring towns regarding work, leisure and holidays, more scheduled intercity transport is needed. Regular bus lines already operate to El Rocío and Matalascañas, but there is still need for transport with other towns concerning health services, leisure activities, etc.
In spite of having exceeded a population of 25,000 people, there are only three public health centres in the municipality, the main one in Almonte. Long queues and deficient attention are more frequent over time. The large migrant population contributes to the need of a new healthcare facility in town.
Geography
Boroughs
The urban area of Almonte has an extension of 3.2 km2 and a perimeter of 10.7 km. It can be divided into the following districts:
The Centre
The business and political centre has ended up being located in the north part of town, for the urban area has expanded more quickly towards the south. In this zone there is the town hall (a 17th-century building), the main square and the church (15th century), the museum, the theatre, the library, the music school, art gallery Jorge Camacho, the main fishmonger's, the court, the "Casino de La Paz" (social club and restaurant), the post office and the tourism office.
Northern area
This northern area has been expanded since the 60s and 70s and has been built around the road that exits town and head towards the northern part of Huelva, a mountain range. There are extense boulevards and wide pavements where many people walk and practice outdoor sport. The main sport centre is located here, with an area of 43,561m2, along with the two high schools, the park "Alcalde Mojarro" (46,500m2), the Wine Museum and the CIECEMA (a scientific centre which includes a high-tech astronomic observatory) and a rubber factory.
Western area
The western area of town has been growing since the 60s, when the urban area reached and overtook the road A-484 which comes from neighbouring town Bonares and was meant to end in Cádiz, turning a section of that road into an avenue called "Carretera del Rocío". This has become the main business street, being more than 1 km long and almost 30 metres wide. A roundabout with a statue of Alfonso X "The Wise" on top was installed in the late 2000s, breaking gridlock that worsened at rush hour with people getting in and out the town centre. Many restaurants, digital shops and other businesses have been opened in this avenue. The western zone also includes the health centre and several monuments like the one devoted to historian Lorenzo Cruz, the Winery Chimney Tower, the Discovery of America, the Bulls and the Sea Gate, the "Fuente de las Damas" park (which includes a cultural centre and a monument of an oil mill), two of the 5 petrol stations in the municipality and the bus station.
Eastern area
This area starts at the famous roundabout with the Monument to the Mares and includes the fairground, the Plaza de España square, the Padel centre, the Official Language School, the Flamenco school and the elderly's care home.Many grocery shops, cafés and other businesses are also here. It has wide streets with tree-covered pavements. It ends with the morgue and cemetery, 1 km far from town and road A-474 towards Seville.
Southern area
This is the area which has been growing the fastest. It includes the industrial estate "El Tomillar", with around 150 multipurpose units, another sport centre, a petrol station, the "Blas Infante" and the "Clara Campoamor" parks and a centre for public access to the Internet. This district is especially crowded in spring, during the pilgrimage of El Rocío, since its main street "Camino de Los Llanos" leads the way out of town towards the village of El Rocío. It is also a hot spot during the arrivals and leaves of the Virgin of El Rocío every seven years.
El Rocío and Matalascañas
The village of El Rocío, 15 km to the south, is a rectangular unpaved town next to a marsh, just in the limits of the Doñana National Park. All the streets are straight, except for the ones surrounding the sanctuary in the southern part. It has little more than 1,000 permanent inhabitants and basic services of education, health, police, etc. Its picturesque architectural style and horse culture was brought over to the American Wild West during the Age of discovery.
Finally, 26 km south from Almonte, in the Atlantic coast, the Matalascañas resort was built during the 50s. It consists of an urban area 4 km long and 1 km wide along the coast. Around 3,000 inhabitants live here permanently. From west to east, it starts with a lighthouse and the business centre. It consists mainly of detached one-floor houses with big gardens and swimming pools, most of them are taken for rent during the summer holidays. There are also tall residential flats, many 4-star hotels and restaurants, a golf course and wide turf spaces with a cycle lane throughout town.
Physical location
Almonte, as a municipality, is one of the largest in Spain and is located in southeastern Huelva, as part of the Costa de la Luz, which stretches from the Guadiana River to Tarifa, the southernmost point in Spain. Almonte's coast is the longest in Spain, with a 50 km straight uninterrupted sandy beach, from the archaeological ruins of the Torre del Río de Oro (literally, Tower of the Gold River) up to the Guadalquivir River. 28 of these 50 kilometers are protected as part of the Doñana National Park, and only 4 are urbanised, the ones at Matalascañas resort. Most of this coast is made up of semi-fossil dunes with low vegetation, without any rocky structure or cliff. The sand is light in colour and fine. However, along several kilometers between “Torre del Oro” and “Cuesta Maneli”, a 100-metre high dune cliff can be found. It’s “El Asperillo” and it’s the highest dune cliff in Europe, declared a Natural Monument of Andalusia.
Almonte is bordered by Bollullos to its north, Hinojos to its east, river Guadalquivir and Sanlúcar de Barrameda to it southeast, Rociana and Moguer to its west and the Atlantic Ocean to its south. It is located in the northern part of its municipality, 15 km north from the village of aldea del Rocío and 26 km from its coastal resort, Matalascañas.
Climate
This area has a combination of mediterranean and oceanic climate, due to its location near the limits of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Being an extense territory, it has a variety of microclimates and an average temperature of 17 °C (62.6 °F). It has warm summers and winters, without the extreme variations that can be found in landlocked provinces of Spain. Rain is not usual, barely reaching 700mm a year.
Within Doñana, there is certain humidity in winter and little rain in summer, being a spot where polar fronts and subtropical high pressures combine. In Spring and Autumn, torrential rain may occur, while anticyclones may appear in winter.
Even though Almonte's average temperature is mild due to oceanic influence, there are heavy storms in the coast during winter which leave important damages to the seafront structures, like restaurants and pavements. The council spends large quantities of money to rebuild certain zones, sometimes more than a million euros.
Almonte received in 2022 an investment of more than 170 million euros to build PV pannels. These will be installed by American company Matrix Renewables and Spanish Rolwind, with more than 115,000 cutting-edge photo-voltaic cells which will make the area get on top position regarding renewable sources at a European level.
In 2022 the Spanish government announced an investment of more than 365 million euros to restore part of the Doñana National Park. The meeting between the Minister of Environment and the mayoress of Almonte was held at Almonte's theatre "Salvador Távora" the 30th of November 2022. The plan will focus on watering, biodiversity, territory and environmental awareness. Besides, the Regional Government of Andalusia, announced an investment of 900 million euros exclusively for sanitation and drainage.
Flora and fauna
In the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, several species, including endangered ones, can be found. Regarding flora, there is typical mediterranean scrub (sabins, bulrush, eucalyptus, pines, reeds, wattles, cork oaks, ferns, crowberries, palmettos, sedges, rosemary, brooms, thyme, junipers). Fauna includes the precious Iberian lynx, deers, wild boars, foxes, herons, mongooses, rabbits, ducks, eagles, hawks, griffon vultures, eels, pikes, snakes, lizards, and chameleons. Likewise, there are extensive areas of pine repopulated in the 1950s and of underbrush (with rockrose and multiple species of aromatics). Throughout its 122,000 hectares, microclimates and very different areas appear, from jungles in the purest tropical style to desert dunes, including wetlands, beaches, meadows, etc. Almonte was declared in July 2022 “Hub of European Biodiversity” by the World Biological Corridor, an international project with scientists, universities and different organisations involved.
Culture
Inhabited since prehistoric times and having reached the Atlantic coast with its territorial expansion during the Middle Ages, Almonte has its own definite customs and a rich heritage. Some of them are worldwide-known, as explained in the historical section. Different civilisations, from Tartessians to the nordics, without forgetting Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Visigoths and Muslims have all shaped the traditions that settled over the centuries, usually focused on its privileged natural resources. Nowadays, these cultural and natural elements still attract around a million people from all over the world, from tourists who enjoy its extensive shorelines to the highest personalities of the country, such as the presidents of the government and the Monarchy, who visit Almonte regularly and even have an official residence in there.
Historical heritage
From the Bronze Age to modernity, a wide variety of historical elements can be found in Almonte. They include the following:
Holocene fossil footprints and marks
In Almonte's shore, nearby "Pichilín" restaurant, several extinct ungulate's tracks were found on the clay substratum that lies beneath the sand. They date back from 100,000 BC. They can be observed only when the tide is low and the sand moves back. There is an environmental association called "Parque Dunar", which organises free guided tours that include historical and geological commentaries and a voluntary litter collection. In a recent research published by Quaternary Science Reviews and carried out by the University of Huelva, it has been confirmed that the humanoid footprints belong to Neanderthals.
Tartessian metallic remains
As mentioned in the history section, there are remains of a settlement of 40 hectares, with pottery and metallic tools (gold, silver, cupper and lead) nearby the San Bartolomé stream, as well as a 3-metre high oven. Almonte was one of the two main silver producers and traders in the area, along with Huelva.
Roman fishing factory at "Cerro del Trigo
These ruins can be observed inside the Doñana National Park. Adolf Schulten and Jorge Bonsor were searching for the legendary capital of Atlantis when they discovered them. But they were overlooked, as the archaeologists were frustrated for not being able to find Atlantis. Scientists from the university of Huelva reaffirmed in 1999 that it was a garum factory from the 2nd century AD, buried 18 feet under a dune. Amphoras and other recipients used to ferment fish could be recovered, being the most important discovery out of the 16 archaeological places found in the coast. Archaeologists are still finding remains today, including ovens and necropolises.
Fortified towers along the coast
King Philip II of Spain ordered the construction of a series of watchtowers during the 16th century to prevent invasions from the sea, given the multiple wars that Spain was waging at that moment. At least six of these towers are located within Almonte's territory. These are, from east to west: Torre del Río de Oro, Torre del Asperillo, Torre de la Higuera, Torre Carbonero, Torre Zalabar and Torre San Jacinto. All of them are declared Bien de Interés Cultural, a protected cultural status in Spain. The three first towers are in ruins, while the last three can be observed as they originally were. One of the watchtowers, Torre de la Higuera (literally, "Tower of the Fig Tree") is located at the beginning of the Matalascañas resort and has become a symbol for Almonte, often appearing in postcards and other touristic elements.
Church and town hall
From centuries 15th and 16th, respectively. There may have been a secret subterranean tunnel connecting both buildings, but it was never searched for. The current church is a Baroque extension of the original building, from which a chapel has remained untouched, containing a tombstone of a girl from the 6th century. The original building of the town hall had a single floor and was remodeled in 1612, being a second floor added six years later. A third floor completed the building in 1927.
World War II bunkers
There are several bunkers from World War II in the shore next to the delta of river Guadalquivir in different coastal points. A programme called "Descubre tus fortalezas" (literally "Discover your fortresses") organises guided tours to these remains, with historians, architects and archaeologists participating. The bunkers were built by order of Franco in 1943 in fear of being invaded by the allied troops during the North African campaign.
Almonte's flute and tabor
They are part of the musical tradition in Almonte and can be heard at any moment, but especially during the Pilgrimage of El Rocío. The typical flute is called "gaita rociera" and is made of high-quality wood. The drum is called "tamboril rociero" and is typically painted with the Andalusian flag. Handmade one tend to be rather expensive.
Wineries and oil mills
In the first half of the 20th century, there were 58 wineries and 10 oil mills in Almonte. Many of them have been restored and are currently used as either public offices or museums, restaurants, etc. Others are in ruins, but can be identified by their typical towers. Wineries emerged after the Spanish confiscation, using former religious buildings. During the 60s, Almonte stood out for its solera wine.
Palace of "El Acebrón
Nearby the stream of La Rocina, 5 km away from El Rocío, there is a neo-classical palace embedded in the woods, within the surroundings of the Doñana National Park. It was finished in 1961 as the private residence of eccentric aristocrat Luis Espinosa Fontdevila, whose initials are printed in relief on the front. After all the sumptuous parties and expensive works to complete the palace and its garden, he ended up broke, so he sold all the area to the government, which used it to plant eucalyptus and use its wood. The stairs that lead to the entrance door are made of the remains or a Roman road and red marble stairs lead to the second floor. A two-headed eagle decorates the stone chimney. Today it has become a centre for visitors, hosting a museum about the customs of the traditional inhabitants of the area. It includes mockups of the traditional huts and information about hunting, fishing, farming and modern uses of nartural resources. The rooftop terrace offers fantastic views of the pine woods. Along with the palace, visitors can hike using a circular wooden path deep within the woods, passing by a beautiful lake.
Local festivities
Almonte has a wide variety of traditional festivities and holidays, many of which are related to the Doñana National Park and the economic activities carried out over the centuries all along the municipality, from the northern town to the southern coast. Some of these customs date back to the Tartessian age. Although some of the most popular traditions have a religious origin, only a small percentage of the population in Almonte currently declare themselves religious and it is unusual to attend mass, as the average population in Spain.
Romería de El Rocío
It is the most popular holiday in Almonte, declared an International Touristic Holiday by the Spanish government in 1980 and gathering more than one million people in town. These visitors include pilgrims from around 120 national and foreign filial confraternities, which get to the temple of El Rocío from different points over the world, walking or by horse or car, to worship Almonte's patron saint, the Virgin of El Rocío. It is a 12th-century anonymous gothic wooden carved sculpture. From the 60s on, the number of regular visitors boosted, reaching its peak at a religious level with the visit of Pope John Paul II in 1993. In order to successfully organise such a massive event, a security planning called "Plan Romero" has been executed since 1983. These preventive measures are carried out by the town hall, the regional government and Almonte's confraternity in a synchronous way in Seville, Huelva and Cádiz, the three main provinces from which the confraternities come. It involves more than 6,000 professionals (police, medical services, firefighters, etc.) and AML and GPS technologies, becoming one of the most expensive security deployments in Europe. The confraternities that have been affiliating to Almonte over the last centuries include include Madrid (1961), Barcelona (1969), Toledo (1986), Valencia (1991), Gijón (1998), Argentina (1993), Brussels (2000) or Australia (2000s). Besides the religious aspect, there's a strong cultural and festive interest and many visitors who are not into any religious feelings and do not participate in the religious part, in spite of being part of the pilgrimage. There's an environmental interest too, for the last part of the journey to the village is through the Doñana National Park, the largest natural reserve in Europe. The holidays take an entire week for the local people of Almonte, with two key days: Wednesday, when the "Hermandad Matriz" (Almonte's confraernity) makes the pilgrimage from Almonte to El Rocío and Monday, when the Virgin is taken out from the temple to tour the village.
La Venida de la Virgen
From 1589 on, the virgin has been taken from El Rocío to Almonte on a round trip each 7 years, staying in Almonte for 9 months. During these months, it tours the streets twice, after the arrival and then before leaving. The streets of Almonte are decorated with handmade white flowers and many lights, rosemary and fronds and arches. A huge structure called "Ephemeral Cathedral of Almonte" is also built on the main square. Nearly 200,000 people gather in the town during these special days when the Virgin tours the streets. The places involved in the route are completely closed to traffic and the entire town gets under a kind of siege with high security measures involving police, firefighters, helicopters and ambulances ready to act. Although originally a religious event, it is now a leisure festivity that brings a great economic benefit to the town, with dozens of businesses temporarily becoming pubs, cafés and restaurants exclusively during the nine months that the Virgin stays in town.
Saca de las Yeguas
The "Gathering of the Mares" is an annual livestock event that has been celebrated in Almonte for more than 500 years. It takes place each 26 June. The breeders, horsemen called "yegüerizos" get deep into the Doñana National Park to gather the semi-feral horses and take them out from the woods, swamps, meadows and marshes to Almonte, where they are sheared, cleaned and chipped before being sold. Early in the morning, thousands of horses are led to El Rocío, where they first gather in front of many visitors that attend the event. Later on, they head towards the town of Almonte, 15 km to the north, where they arrive at in the evening. There the horses parade through the crowded streets until they reach the livestock enclosure "Huerta de la Cañada", a fenced outdoor area in the northern outskirts of town. Next day "la tusa" is carried out, which is the process by which the horses are cleaned and sheared in order to be sold. The following days the town fair is held, and several activities are carried out regarding the horses. These include a morphological evaluation of the royal pattern of the mares and new foals of the ancient Marismeño breed, which is endangered and genetically related to the American Mustang horse. There are also photo contests and a horse race. When the fair ends, the horses which have not been purchased get back to the wild.
Feria de Almonte
It is an annual event whose origins can be traced as back as horse breeding and cow farming itself, around the 13th century. It was in 1872 that the fair was officially established as "Feria de San Pedro", held in the last days of August until 1896, when it was brought forward to June, so that it coincided with Saint Peter's day, as he's the patron saint of Almonte. The fair holidays take five days, just after the Gathering of the Mares has finished at the livestock enclosure, for the fair has a farming trade origin. The fair is held at the "Recinto Ferial", a trapezoidal area of 30,000m2 locally known as "El Chaparral", located in the town's eastern zone, with paved, unpaved and turf zones. Around 22 casetas with an average area of 400m2 are built, leaving five main temporary streets, including the main one or "Real". In the northeast part, different amusement rides for all ages are installed, including ferris wheels, rollercoasters, dodgems, pendulums, merry-go-rounds, drop tower, funhouses, tagadas, etc. The fair is typically inaugurated by an artist or celebrity, sometimes nationally recognised, like singer Rocío Jurado. Almonte's fair is the only one in Andalusia which has not got a flamenco dress code, but a smart casual one. that has because flamenco dresses in Almonte are reserved for El Rocío. The fair typically ends with some livestock show. All these particularities make it gather people from many neighbouring towns.
Transition Festival
It is an international alternative music festival launched in 2011 and held deep within the pine woods, 4 km southeast from Almonte. It is typically celebrated on the second week of May. Nature, music and art merge at a unique event which attracts people from all ages and nationalities. It consists of a main stage, an alternative second stage, a market, a workshop and a camping area. Trees are decorated with bright-coloured clothing and lights that provide the area with a fairytale atmosphere, especially at night. A clear sign that the festival is approaching is the arrival of motley caravans and hippie families to town, along with goths and other minorities. The idea of taking advantage of the stunning natural landscape and ideal temperature to organise a musical event was followed by the creation of Global Tribe, an ecovillage located just a few kilometers from where the festival is held. This community has its own organic vegetable garden and huts which are for rent. It also receives visitors from all over the world.
Christmas in Almonte
Something unique regarding Christmas in Almonte is the way they celebrate it at the Matalascañas resort. Environmental association "Aires Africanos" allows three of the camels they have at their natural reserve to be mounted by the Three Magi and walk along the coast, until they finally arrive at the end of the urban area. Some of the camels may be taken to Almonte and El Rocío as well to participate in the parade. Another original aspect of this holiday is the amusement park installed at "El Chaparral", the fairground, in the town's eastern zone. The main attraction is the 420m2 ice rink, along with multiple rides, food stands and Christmas decoration.
El Rocío Chico
It is a celebration held every 19 August whose origins can be traced back to a vow some people from Almonte offered to their patron saint, the Virgin of El Rocío. During the war against France, French captain Pierre D'Oisseaux was executed in Almonte and Napoleon sent more than 1,000 soldiers from neighbouring Seville to take revenge, but they never arrived at Almonte. Many believers thought it was a divine intervention by the Virgin, for they had prayed that the soldiers did not make it to their town. Nowadays, a mass may be held at the temple of El Rocío, but beyond its religious origin, it is also a day for people to make the most of their leisure time.
Cultural institutions
Almonte has several buildings with cultural purposes, but also playing a research or touristic role. Many of them are free of admission charges and have been created in the 90s and 2000s, using old wineries and oil mills purchased and remodelled by the town hall.
La Ciudad de la Cultura
With an area of 6.445m² and a perimeter of 396 m, this space is located in the northern part of town. It was inaugurated in 2011 and part of it was a former winery, property of the Count of Cañete. It consists of 5 main buildings embedded within an outdoor paved area decorated with pictures, benches, lamp posts and plants. These 5 buildings are:
Theatre "Salvador Távora", a modern square-shaped building designed by architect Juan Pedro Donaire Barbero and inaugurated by Spanish filmmaker Salvador Távora. It has a seating capacity of 512 people, ranking 2º in the province of Huelva, just after the capital's theatre. Almonte's theatre hosts nationwide-known plays and other national events, having been visited by Spanish ministers and well-known actors such as Pablo Carbonell, Lola Herrera, María Castro or Gorka Otxoa. Apart from the theatre itself, the building includes an indoor space for exhibitions and a second-floor terrace with a café.
Cultural Centre "Baler Church": it is a 162.27m² replica of the famous fortified church of Baler (Philippines), which became famous during the war between Spain and the United States. In 1898, during the Siege of Baler, Spanish soldiers quartered in the church were surrounded by the Filipinos. The Americans, already fighting against Filipinos, tried to rescue the Spanish soldiers. Spain finally surrendered on the 2nd of June 1899. One of the Spanish survivors, José Jiménez Berro, was from Almonte. The replica was inaugurated by former Filipino president Gloria Macapagal and is used for administrative purposes. It also hosts an exhibition explaining the involvement of Almonte in that war. There is also a street in Almonte named "Heroes de Baler", in honour of the soldiers.
Public Library "Ana María Matute". It is a 1,000 m² two-floor library with more than 15,000 works. Apart from the different spaces for reading and studying, it has a multimedia room. It was inaugurated by Cervantes prize-winner Ana María Matute.
Art School "Manolo Sanlúcar", inaugurated by the homonymous Spanish musician. It includes a music school and several guitar, singing, dancing and painting workshops.
Templete: it is a small open temple located on the former winepress, where grapes where squeezed. It is the only original element left from the former winery.
Town's Cultural Centre
It has replaced the former 15th-century Hermitage of James the Great and is located in the "Fuente de las Damas" park, in the west side of town. It is used for multiple cultural purposes, but chielfy as the headquarters of the Municipal music band.
Town Museum
It has replaced a former oil mill, the "Molino de Cepeda" and shows Almonte's local customs, including wine, wheat and oil production and the ancient agricultural and farming tradition linked to the Doñana National Park. The extensive ethnographic collection focuses on the symbiotic relationship between the urban and the natural environment and is divided into three main blocks: coast and marsh (farming, fishing and hunting), Almonte's agriculture (cereal, vineyards and olive) and industry (beekeeping, charcoal and tree oil, pine nut and wood extraction).
It also hosts a great exhibition about El Rocío, including a replica of the "Abuelas Almonteñas" monument, whose original version is located in the east side of town. It also has a replica of the ephemeral cathedral built each seven years during the Venida de la Virgen.
Museo Forestal
The Wood Museum is a protected area of around 60 hectares at km8 of the (A-483 road), which connects Almonte with its other two urban areas, El Rocío and Matalascañas resort. Beyond the importance of the natural landscape itself, there is an organic farm school, a research centre for the Iberian lynx (which includes several multimedia rooms) and another one for the local pine tree, with a huge hollow trunk which people can visit. There is also a recreation ground integrated within the natural environment, with more than 162 different rides on trees including nets, bridges and walkways, hoops, bars and zip wires, some of them hanging at a height of eight metres above the ground.
Wine Museum
The "Museo del Vino de Almonte (MUVA) is a 1,000 m²building inaugurated in 2014, after a ten-year remodelling of a 19th-century winery which belonged to the Escolar brothers, pioneers in wine technology. The museum offers guided tours, restaurants, shops and wine tastings. Local wines from Almonte, like Raigal or Orange Wine are promoted and explained throughout its five main rooms, including their history and elaboration.
Central patio: it is a 280 m2 outdoor area from which visitors can either enter the museum or the restaurant. Tables are usually laid on a corner for tasting products and there is a central decorative structure made of wine bottles. This patio included the former winepress, the fermentation and ageing tanks, the laboratory and an area for bottling and shipping. Big trunks and trailers unloaded the grapes here. Once the patio is finished, there is a covered area to access the museum.
Winery: it is the main indoor room, with a separated area containing several American oak wine casks and a strong smell and another room with potographs explaining the harvest, elaboration and transportation of wine. It contains relics such as an iron weight, a still, a screw press, etc.
Storeroom: this room includes a cellar, glass boxes to smell different raw materials and three of the eighteen original concrete tanks with a capacity of 10,000 litres.
Gastronomy
Almonte's mediterranean cuisine is pretty varied, but mostly focus on either game meat or fish, for it is a territory where the Atlantic Ocean and the Doñana National Park merge. Wild rabbits, deers, boars and partridges are the most common recipes regarding meat, due to hunting in the Doñana surroundings, a very traditional activity. As for fish, the worldwide-known "gamba blanca" (white prawn) is the signature dish, along with atlantic mackerels and sardines. Berries have also become trendy over the last decades, since it is one of the top berry exporters in Europe Concerning vegetables, wild asparagus and beans are quite frequent. There are also many desserts which have a Muslim origin and whose main ingredient is honey, a traditional ingredient of the zone. Some of the most typical dishes include:
Stuffed atrichokes
It is a traditional recipe consisting of artichokes stuffed with jamón, garlic, onion, boiled eggs and parsley. Once stuffed, they are wrapped up in breadcrumb and after being stir-fried, they are cooked. There is a separate typical dish in which the hearts are stir-fried with oil, garlic and small ham cubes.
Caracoles and cabrillas
These are small and big snails, respectively. They are typically eaten in Spring and served in taverns and outdoor establishments, being seldom offered at restaurants. Unlike in certain places of Cádiz, snails are not eaten before drinking its soup in a glass, but rather served straight on a plate. Cabrillas are typically cooked in a sauce, like tomato or others.
Lamb stew
Lamb recipee usually cooked with vegetables, bread and wine. Offals are often included in the dish.
Cocido almonteño
This is an original version of the typical Spanish cocido consisting of chickpeas, green beans and pumpkin, along with chicken and beef. It ends up with an orange colour.
Coquinas a la marinera
Alike typical wedge clams, they are stir-fried with oil, garlic and parsil, but adding onion, tomato, saffron and paprika.
Stone bass in almond sauce
A sliced salted bass cooked in its soup and complemented with a sauce of fried almond, onion, garlic, bay and wine. Rice or potatoes may be added too.
Habas Enzapatás
It is a signature dish from Almonte consisting of big broad beans cooked with garlic, pennyroyal or coriander and salt. It can also be found with some different ingredients in neighbouring towns.
Hallullas
These are crunchy half moon-shaped toasted bread, stuffed with a wide variety of ingredients, the most common being pringá, cod, salmon, chorizo, frigate tuna with tomato, blue cheese and pork.
Pan bazo
It is the signature bread of Almonte, with a very dense texture and typically sold by local bakery Martín Naranjo, so they are locally known as "pan de Naranjo" (Naranjo's bread). It also produces the "Roscos Almonteños", very famous breadsticks.
Stewed partridge
It is the signature game dish in Almonte. Partridges are cleaned and salted. Then they are stir-fried with garlic and paprika. they are finally cooked as a hotpot and served with either rice or chips.
Pezuñas
It is a local dessert consisting of a hoof-shaped sponge cake, soaked in syrup and filled with pastry cream. Egg yolk cream is then spread on top.
Poleá con miel
It is a typical Spanish poleá, but in Almonte they often spread some honey and add clove to the original recipe.
Revuelto de Matalascañas
This is a scrumbled eggs recipee with fresh cod, stir-fried with garlic, onion, bay and parsil.
Repápalos
These are traditional pieces of wheat, leavening, water and salt fried in olive oil. They can be soaked in hot chocolate, honey or sugar, but can also be eaten alone.
Goose Marismeña Soup
It is a recipee made of fried goose cooked with several spices which is served over slices of bread soaked in the stew soup. Egg, spearmint and garlic may also be added.
Marismeña cow with rice
This is another signature game dish from Almonte. Local marismeña cow is used. The meat is cooked with carrots, wine and spices. Then rice is added.
Doñana Cake
It is one of the most traditional dishes in Almonte. It consists of whipped cream and jelly, dry figs, pine nuts, raisins, almonds, dates, walnuts and honey.
Almonte's Strawberry Cake
Like the previous dessert, it also has whipped cream and jelly, but mixed with a sponge cake and soaked in syrup and orange or lemon juice. Then it is covered with a layer of organic strawberry jam.
Raigal Wine
It is a dry white wine made in Almonte, using organic zalema grape. It comes in at 10.5% ABV. It has a greenish colour and a soft flavour.
Sports
Almonte’s stable warm weather has made it possible for the town to focus on outdoor sports. The council and different local sport organisations invest great quantities of time and money in promoting sports, having people of all ages participate actively. Many of them have been awarded with gold and silver medals both at a national and international levels, in sports like duathlon, judo, cycling, motocross, or rhythmic gymnastics. Another important activities focus on horse riding, with several contests regarding sport but also fashion and horse and camel rental to enjoy natural spaces. Almonte is the only city in eastern Huelva with an olympic swimming pool, located in the northern sport centre, one of the main ones in the province.
There are three main public centres, two of them in Almonte and a third one in El Rocío. The main one has an area of 43,561m2 and is located in the northern part of town. It has two football pitches, three tennis courts, an outdoor olympic swimming pool, an indoor swimming pool and another one for children, a running track and a covered stadium. The second one is “Los Llanos”, in the southern area of town, with four padel courts, a basketball court and a covered court. A little bit southwards there is an outdoors pétanque boulodrome. Outside town, to the south, there is a motocross circuit and an aeromodelling runway.
The third one, called “Campo Municipal del Deporte”, is located in the eastern outskirts of the village of El Rocío. It has a 25-metre swimming pool and another one for children, four basketball courts, two padel courts, an unpaved football pitch and a covered court.
As for the private sector, there are 4 gyms in Almonte, three of them in the main urban core and a fourth one in the Matalascañas resort, area which also counts with a paragliding club, a saliling and fishing club and several organisations for horse and camel riding.
Several sport schools also offer training and degree certificates at several levels, for example the Regional Judo School, which provides middle and advanced titles. Other schools which also offer advannced certificates are football, indoor football, basketball, handball, athletics and lifeguarding. The “Almonte Balompié” is a top-class football team established in 1985. Its equipment consists of red t-shirt and socks and blue shorts. It plays both at the Top Andalusian League and Huelva’s Regional League.
Cycle sport also plays a main role in Almonte, both at professional and amateur levels. Local María Isabel Felipe won the European XCM in Laissac (France) in 2023. Regional cross-country race Huelva Series XCM is often organised in the area and there are important cycle clubs like Atrochamonte, which organises MTB marathons like “Doñana Natural”, an annual race started a decade ago. Matalascañas has also a 30-km cycle path which stretches from the easternmost point of the urban area up to Mazagón, a town 25 km to the west.
Hunting, both at a sport level and for animal overpopulation purposes has always played a key role in Almonte, being the main reason behind the establishment of the Doñana National Park, which was for centuries a royal forest. There are more than 700 hunting licenses and three main organisations. Hunters and amateur locals have long been demanding a shooting range in town, for the one located at the coast is restricted to military activities. Almonte is soon expected to build the first olympic shooting range in the province, which would host contests both at a national and international levels.
Almonte currently keeps on investing and innovating on sports. The first Inline Alpine Slalom club in Andalusia was founded in 2022, with the first track ever built in the southeastern part of town, within Clara Campoamor park. The town participated in the Spanish Cup in Barcelona and got the 1st position in the masculine U11 category.
Sister cities
Almonte has six twin towns established in the last decades, the more recent ones being Clare and Céret. They share different cultural activities and economic deals with each other. Sanlúcar de Barrameda, for example, shares frontier with Almonte, being separated by the Guadalquivir river and Sanlúcar's filial confraternity is one of the first to participate in Almonte's pilgrimage and holiday, El Rocío. Baler was the city where some Spanish soldiers, including one from Almonte, got surrounded by the Filipinos during the Spanish American War. Clare was the first Australian town to apply for membership to El Rocío, becoming a filial confraternity. Farsia's adhesion to the list focuses on some exchange programmes by which Sahrawis spent their summer holidays in Almonte, being hosted by local families, as a sign of solidarity with this African community.
Céret (France) /
Clare (Australia) /
Farsia (Western Sahara) /
Baler (Philippines) /
La Estrada (Spain) /
Sanlúcar (Spain)
Cinema
Almonte, thanks to its diverse and extensive territory, has been set for several films, shorts, documentaries, TV programmes and shows. Key landmarks include its long beaches, the village of El Rocío and the dunes inside the Doñana National Park.
Films shot in Almonte
Some worldwide-known films that have been shot in Almonte include: The Neverending Story or Lawrence of Arabia, shot in the dunes of Doñana.
French thriller Anything for Her was shot in the town Almonte and the village of El Rocío, as well as Dutch The Flying Liftboy
German film Sunburned (2009), directed by Swedish filmmaker Carolina Hellsgård, was shot in the Matalascañas beach.
As for Spanish cinema, some of the films set in Almonte are: Tenemos 18 años (1959), Canción de cuna (1961), Armas para el Caribe (1965), La Cólera del Viento (1972), El Viento y el León (1975), Mi Bello Legionario (1977), Made in Japón (1985) o La Cruz de Iberia (1990).
Film industry
The Film School of Almonte has been training filmmakers since the 90s, including the authors of cartoons "Aventuras en Doñana", which later inspired film The Missing Lynx (2009). This film won a Goya Award for Best Animated Film and was produced by Antonio Banderas, who visited Almonte the previous year to sign a commitment to save the Iberian lynx.
In 2001, the film company Producciones Doñana S.L was founded, having produced several works, including the short "Hambre" (2011), directed by Spanish filmmaker Mario De la Torre.
Almonte joined the Andalusian Film Commission and celebrates the Doñana International Scientific and Environmental Film Festival, promoting nature and sustainability. This festival sponsors new filmmakers and train scientific popularisers. Film sessions are usually held at the CIECEMA, in Almonte. A contest is also held, in which a professional jury awards the best film.
Economy, resources and transportation
Almonte has an extensive private industry due to two main factors: its vast amount of natural resources and tourism. The locals have traditionally made a living out of olives, vineyards, acorns, honey, pine nuts, salt, wood, charcoal, farming, agriculture and fishing. In the 50s, Almonte had 58 wineries, 10 oil mills, 4 wheat mills, two soda factories, 10 butcher's, 8 fishmonger's, 12 fruit shops and 20 grocery shops.
Schools
Almonte has 28 schools, from which 13 are elementary schools, 7 primary schools and 3 high schools. "I.E.S. Doñana" is the largest high school in the region, located in the northern part of town. More than 1,300 students and around 110 teachers work there. Neighbouring high school "I.E.S. La Ribera" is also in this area.
Almonte is the only town in Huelva, excluding the capital, with an Official School of Languages. It has also 3 public libraries.
Transportation
The main road to get to Almonte is motorway A-483, a turn-off at km49 of motorway A-49, between Seville and Huelva. It bypasses Almonte and passes by El Rocío, ending at the Matalascañas resort, in the Atlantic coast. Secondary road A-484 departs from Bonares and get to Almonte, passing by neighbouring Rociana. Secondary road A-474 connects Almonte to Seville, passing by neighbouring towns Pilas or Castilleja de la Cuesta.
Around 20 taxi companies work in Almonte.
Almonte has a regular bus line to reach its urban areas of El Rocío and Matalascañas. The bus station, in the east part of town, is often busy due to local transport either related to temporary workers going to the berry fields or to summer transport to the beach. It also has regional lines to Huelva and Seville and international lines to Portugal and Romania. The street with busiest traffic is Carretera del Rocío, the main business avenue, where two roundabouts have been installed over the last two decades to smooth gridlocks at rush hour. Busiest road is A-483, which connects Almonte to the Atlantic coast. In the summer, especially at weekend evenings, long-lasting traffic jams are produced in this road. Nearest train station is located 10 km to the north, at neighbouring town La Palma. There is another one in Huelva and high-speed train in Seville. Nearest airports are: Seville Airport (58 km away), Faro Airport (Portugal), 132 km away) and Jerez Airport (144 km away). Almonte has a sailing and fishing club at Matalascañas resort and a ferry route across the Guadalquivir river that gets to neighbouring fishing town Sanlúcar.
Primary sector
Agriculture
Almonte has 2,843 hectares of arable crops (chiefly strawberries and sunflowers) and 4,334 to wood crops, mainly blueberries and olives. Around 20 companies have its headquarters in Almonte, some of them topping European charts. Almonte is the first blueberry exporter in Europe.
Fishing
Even though nearly half of the coast of Huelva belongs to Almonte, it hasn't got a great fishing industry. It's due to three main factors: the distance between the town and the coast (around 26 km) and its rather "recent" acquisition of the coastal territory (16th century). Also, with the establishment of the Doñana National Park, 28 km of Almonte's coastal territory have been restricted to authorised fishing only. Most fishers are self-employed restaurant owners and fishmongers who sell at a retail level. Virtually all the restaurants in Almonte offer high-quality fresh fish.
Secondary sector
There were 1,677 manufacturing businesses in Almonte, 561 devoted to car repairing; 284 to restaurants, 232 to construction, 103 to science and 80 to manufacturing.
There are two main industrial states: "El Tomillar", in the south of town, with an area of 110,000m² and 150 multipurpose units which focus on steel, furniture, meat production, ice, rubber, etc. and "Matalagrana", located between Almonte and El Rocío, with 200,000m² and chiefly focused on agriculture (berries and honey), with international-scope companies such as Bionest, Atlantic Blue or Fresmiel.
Tertiary sector
Leisure areas
Almonte has 9 public parks, the largest being "Alcalde Mojarro", with an area of 44,831m². It has several tree species, a central lake which hosts migratory birds, fish and amphibians, several recreative areas with swings and other rides and calisthenics devices, a bonsai workshop, a skating rink, two captive donkeys, an open-air cinema, a gardening worshop and a multipurpose building for conferences. The Matalascañas resort has another open-air summer cinema, an amusement park and an outdoor enclosure for festivals called Surfasaurus.
Tourism
Almonte has 23 accommodation establishments, of which 11 are hotels and 12 are hostels, the total number of beds being around 3,500. Most of them are located in El Rocío and Matalascañas and some of them are 4-star hotels. The town of Almonte has three main public parking areas, from which two are free. "Martín Villa" parking, located in the homonymous street, has three floors with an area of 768m² each and space for around 90 vehicles. The Carrefour supermarket, located in that same street, has a parking lot for 35 vehicles and the Dia supermarket, at the small roundabout in Carretera del Rocío street, offers around 40 spaces. The two free parking lots are both located in Picasso street, nearby the town centre, with a conjoined area of 1,500m2 and capacity for 120 vehicles. When massive events such as "La Saca de las Yeguas", El Rocío or "La Venida de la Virgen" take place, alternative parking areas are made available, such as the one in street Avenida de los Cabezudos, with 2,600m².
There's also an ecovillage called Global Tribe, 5 kilometers southeast from Almonte, at km.16 of road A-483. it was founded by two participants of the Transition Fest. This community offers accommodation for rent in sustainable tents and has its own organic vegetable garden. It hosts visitors from all over the world, mainly German and Dutch travellers. They sell organic berries, clothing, etc.
Almonte has been participating in Fitur (the International Tourism Trade Fair) for more than 40 years, promoting its extensive touristic offer. Apart from the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, beach tourism and El Rocío, there's also the flamenco fashion industry, with popular designers such as Rocío Cabrera, José Joaquín Gil, Rima Prociviecene or Juan Francisco Gil Ortiz and contests like SIMOF (International Flamenco Fashion Week).
Almonte ranked 10th in the list of the 22 most beautiful Spanish towns by magazine Viajar, being first in its province. It has also featured in TV documentaries and programmes such as "Callejeando", highlighting some of its most emblematic streets. A great part of this comes from the cultural investment over the last decades.
Despite being one of Almonte's main economic source, this massive tourism has also brought about some environmental damages, such as litter on the ditches bordering road A-483, which connects the town to the coast. Light and noise pollution are also a main concern, specially in urban areas located in the Doñana National Park surroundings. That's why the town council has taken several measures, including fines of more than €30,000.
Restaurants
Almonte has more than 100 establishments, excluding coffee shops, from which more than 30 are located within the town. Around 23 are in the village of El Rocío and around 37 in Matalascañas. They typically focus on its traditional cuisine.
Science and technology
Almonte's coastal location and biodiversity thanks to Doñana provides its territory with great opportunities to develop all kinds of scientific research. It was in the 40s when forest engineering arose, with many forest settlements focused on oil and wood extraction. In the 60s, Doñana was established, and more than half of the park is in Almonte, making up 35% of the municipality. In this decade, the focus of study turned into biology and botany. In this same decade, making the most of the optimal average weather conditions, several military facilities were installed at the beach, widening the scientific focus on defense and technology. Finally, an interest in astrophysics has been rising since the 2000s, reaching its peak with the building of an astronomical observatory in town.
Astrophysics
Almonte has an astronomical observatory inaugurated in 2010 by CSIC's astrophysicist and cosmologist Juan P. Mercader. It's located in the CIECEMA (International Centre for Environmental Studies), in the north part of town. It has a 500mm-diameter mirror and a high-resolution CCD camera, being unique in the region. It's managed by Almonte's Astronomical Association, whose headquarters are in this same building.
Many scientists and amateur people meet nearby the Matalascañas's lighthouse to observe lunar eclipses, for the area has little light pollution and the sky is clear at night. The town of Almonte also organises an event called "Ciencia al Fresquito", held at night in the summer at park "Clara Campoamor", which is rather elevated. Anyone can use several telescopes to observe the night sky at this event.
I.N.T.A.
In 1966, as requested by NASA, a rocket launch station was installed at the coast, in the border area between Almonte and Moguer. More than 500 sounding rockets have been launched so far, most of them focusing on weather research. It is currently run by the Spanish National Institute for Aerospace Technology. NASA has also provided high-tech radar technology and there are both European and American scientists working in there.
In April 2022, the first recoverable launch vehicle in Europe, the Spanish-manufactured Miura 1, will be launched from this site.
Biology
Captive breeding centre "El Acebuche"
This space, created in 1992, has an area of 120,000m² and is located at km 37 of road A-483. It has 18 different sections to breed the Iberian Lynx So far, there have been around 128 births and 33 releases. Scientists, veterinarians, watchers and security guards work at the facility, along with the Supervisory Committee for the Lynx, which has members from 15 international organisations. Next to this scientific building, there is a centre for visitors where two of the lynxes can be directly observed. It has a parking lot and restaurant.
Estación Biológica de Doñana
The "Doñana Biological Station" is a national research complex founded in 1965 and administered by the CSIC, with headquarters in Seville. It studies and preserves a protected area of vital biological importance within the Doñana National Park, in Almonte. Unlike the rest of the park and its surroundings, which are controlled by Almonte's council and Andalusian Junta, this biological reserve is under the Spanish government's control. They have a scientific collection of more than 100,000 species, making up almost 20% of the world's total vertebrate species.
La Semana de la Ciencia
This Science Week was launched by schools with the cooperation of the town council, the Junta, the CSIC, the Ministry of Equality and environmental organisations like Ecoembes. Experiments, layouts, lectures and workshops related to biology, physics, chemistry and maths are organised. Botany and virtual reality are the main disciplines. There is also an open laboratory in which citizens can present their scientific ideas, which are analysed and may end up becoming real measures and pilot projects.
Military technology
Almonte is the only place in Spain where surface-to-air missiles can be launched. There is a 257-hectare facility and military training area founded in 1981 in a zone known as "Médano del Loro", in the westernmost tip of the coast. Many soldiers are posted to this facility for short-term training and the area appears pixelated on satellite maps, so as to provide privacy and keep it secret. The access to the beach from the road is restricted along a 2.5 km stretch. Patriot and Hawk are some examples of missiles launched from this facility.
References
External links
- Almonte's City Council
- Tourism is Almonte
Almonte - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
- AlMontrealDia.com - Digital News for Almonte, El Rocío and Matalascañas
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva |
4243379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20in%20New%20Zealand | 1988 in New Zealand | The following lists events that happened during 1988 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,345,200.
Increase since 31 December 1987: 3,100 (0.09%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued. The fourth Labour Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke
Prime Minister – David Lange
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer
Minister of Finance – Roger Douglas until 14 December, then David Caygill
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
The number of unemployed reaches 100,000.
The Federation of Labour and Combined State Unions merge to form the Council of Trade Unions.
New Zealand Post closed 432 post offices.
Fisheries quota package announced for Mäori iwi.
The Hokitika Guardian and Star ceases publication.
6 February: Waitangi Day celebrations at Waitangi are suspended.
7 March: Cyclone Bola strikes the East Coast of the North Island
30 March: The State Sector Act is passed to reform the Public Service.
April: The Royal Commission on Social Policy issues its report.
5 April: Gibbs Report ("Unshackling the Hospitals") released.
May: Picot Report on educational administration released.
June: The electrification of the North Island Main Trunk railway between Hamilton and Palmerston North is completed.
1 July: The Government announces the return of Bastion Point to its Ngāti Whātua owners.
1 July: Commercial TV goes 7 days a week, except Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Christmas Day.
Arts and literature
John Dickson wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1988 in art, 1988 in literature, :Category:1988 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Dave Dobbyn – Loyal
Shona Laing – South
The Warratahs – Only game in Town
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Holidaymakers–Sweet Lovers
Dave Dobyyn – Love You Like I Should
Tex Pistol / Rikki Morris – Nobody Else
BEST MALE VOCALIST Dave Dobbyn
Herbs
Barry Saunders
BEST FEMALE VOCALIST Shona Laing
Aishah
Annie Crummer
BEST GROUP Herbs
The Chills
The Warratahs
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Peter Marshall
Rikki Morris
Thom Nepia
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Mara Finau
Tracey Birnie
Helen Mulholland
MOST PROMISING GROUP Holidaymakers
Straightjacket Fits
The Tunnellers
INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Neil Finn
The Chills
Shona Laing
BEST VIDEO Fane Flaws – Sweet Lovers (Holidaymakers)
Janine Morell – Haere Mai
Paul Middleditch – Nobody Else
BEST FILM SOUNDTRACK Dalvanius Prime / Dave Hurley – Poi E
Dalvanius / Ginane / Smith – Ngati
BEST PRODUCER Nigel Stone–Holidaymakers (Holidaymakers)
Tex Pistol – Nobody Else
Stephen McCurdy/ Shona Laing/ Graeme Myhre – South
BEST ENGINEER Nigel Stone–Holidaymakers (Holidaymakers)
Rhys Moody – Brazier'
Rhys Moody/ Doug Rogers – Sensation
BEST JAZZ ALBUM Beaver – Live at Ronnie Scott's
Frank Gibsons Jazz Mobile – Spreading The Word
Sustenance – Sustenance 3
BEST CLASSICAL ALBUM NZ Symphony Orchestra – Prodigal Country
NZ Symphony Orchestra – War and Peace/ Jack Winters Dream
BEST FOLK ALBUM Mike Harding – From The Edge
Wayne Gillespie – Hearts For
David Hollis – With Love
BEST COUNTRY ALBUM The Warratahs – Only Game in Town
Patsy Riggir – The Best OF (Plus Four)
Al Hunter – Jealous Guy
BEST GOSPEL ALBUM Derek Lind – Strange Logic
Barry McGuire – Sailing Free
Stephen Bell Booth – Timeless
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM Pātea Māori Club – Poi E
Kahurangi – Magically Maori
Dalvanius Prime/ Patea Maori/ Moana/ Dave Dobbyn Guinney/ Kara Pewhairangi – Ngoi Ngoi
BEST SONGWRITER Rikki Morris – Nobody Else
Hona/ Lundon/ Cassells – Listen
Dave Dobbyn – Love You Like I Should
BEST COVER Lesley Maclean – Pagan in a Pagan Land
John Collie – Bird Dog
Susan Pryor – You Don't Need Me
See: 1988 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Alma Woods MBE and Ricky May.
Radio and television
1 December: The Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand is split into Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand. The Avalon studio becomes a separate subsidiary of TVNZ.
See: 1988 in New Zealand television, 1988 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Illustrious Energy
Mauri
Send a Gorilla
The Grasscutter
The Navigator: A Mediaeval Odyssey
See: :Category:1988 film awards, 1988 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1988 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his third national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:16:05 on 30 April in Rotorua, while Jillian Costley claims her second in the women's championship (2:39:20).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Luxury Liner
Auckland Trotting Cup: Luxury Liner – 2nd win
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of 83 competitors in 16 sports.
Winter Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of nine competitors across three sports.
Paralympic Games
Summer Paralympics
Winter Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of three competitors in one sport.
Rugby
League
17 July – The 1988 Great Britain Lions tour concludes with New Zealand defeating Great Britain in a Test match at Addington Showground, Christchurch before a crowd of 8,525.
9 October – In the 1988 Rugby League World Cup final Australia defeats New Zealand at Eden Park, Auckland before a crowd of 47,363.
Union
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – John Whiteman (Upper Hutt)
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Waikato United who beat Christchurch United on the basis of away goals (2-2 and 1–1 in a two-leg final).
Births
January
2 January – Joseph Paulo, rugby league player
3 January – Steven Kent, swimmer
4 January – Peter Saili, rugby union player
6 January – Esther Lanser, cricketer
11 January – Andre Taylor, rugby union player
12 January – Ben Afeaki, rugby union player
15 January – Riki Hoeata, rugby union player
17 January – Kade Poki, rugby union player
18 January – Andrew Wheeler, basketball player
20 January – Rushlee Buchanan, cyclist
23 January – Shaun Kenny-Dowall, rugby league player
February
1 February – Katie Duncan, association footballer
2 February – Kieron Fonotia, rugby union player
3 February – Daniel O'Regan, rugby league player
7 February – Mataupu Poching, rugby league player
8 February
Graham Oberlin-Brown, rower
13 February – Eddy Pettybourne, rugby league player
15 February
Sam Anderson-Heather, rugby union player
Claire Garrood, cricketer
16 February
James Baker, cricketer
Sarah Murphy, biathlete
20 February – Troy Garton, boxer
23 February – Ashley Cooper, singer
24 February
Levi Hanssen, association footballer
Emma Hayman, tennis player
25 February – Lagi Setu, rugby league and rugby union player
March
6 March
Marina Erakovic, tennis player
Frank Halai, rugby union player
8 March – Hannah Broederlow, netball player
9 March – Ash Moeke, rugby union player
10 March – Josh Hoffman, rugby league player
17 March – Patrick Ah Van, rugby league player
18 March – Grace Rasmussen, netball player
20 March – Sonny Fai, rugby league player
21 March – Anthony Cherrington, rugby league player
23 March – Suaia Matagi, rugby league player
24 March – Matt Todd, rugby union player
30 March – Petrea Webster, field hockey player
31 March – Curtis McGrath, canoeist
April
5 April – Quade Cooper, rugby union player
14 April
Francis Mossman, actor
Dan Pryor, rugby union player
16 April – Simon Child, field hockey player
18 April
Sam Belkin, amateur wrestler
Erin Bermingham, cricketer
21 April – Niall Williams, rugby union and touch player
24 April – Junior Tia-Kilifi, rugby league player
25 April – Liam Foran, rugby league player
May
3 May – Brent Renouf, Australian rules footballer
4 May – Westley Gough, cyclist
5 May
Jaimee Lovett, canoeist
Ant Pedersen, motor racing driver
6 May
Evie, professional wrestler
Rhys Phillips, cricketer
11 May – Stephen Paea, American football player
13 May – Trent Renata, rugby union player
16 May
Marty Kain, cricketer
Daniel Quigley, rowing coxswain
17 May – Scott Curry, rugby union player
20 May – Nikki Hamblin, athlete
29 May – Tom Furniss, comedian
30 May – Antonio Winterstein, rugby league player
June
1 June – Natalie Rooney, sports shooter
6 June – Israel Dagg, rugby union player
8 June – Charlotte Kight, netball player
19 June – Grayson Hart, rugby union player
23 June – Nick McLennan, rugby union player
24 June – Ryan Sissons, triathlete
25 June – Eliana Rubashkyn, transgender refugee
28 June – Alana Millington, field hockey player
July
1 July – Kendra Cocksedge, cricketer and rugby union player
3 July
Cole Peverley, association footballer
Winston Reid, association footballer
6 July
Andrew de Boorder, cricketer
Jesse Sergent, cyclist
7 July – Katie Perkins, cricketer
8 July – Mike Harris, rugby union player
10 July – Sarah Walker, BMX rider
11 July – Paula Griffin, netball player
13 July – Robbie Fruean, rugby union player
16 July – Lyndon Sheehan, freestyle skier
18 July – Andrew Horrell, rugby union player
20 July – B. J. Anthony, basketball player
21 July – Julian Matthews, athlete
26 July
Derek Carpenter, rugby union player
Tetera Faulkner, rugby union player
27 July – John Hardie, rugby union player
31 July
Alex Glenn, rugby league player
Brackin Karauria-Henry, rugby union player
August
1 August
Tim Perry, rugby union player
Bodene Thompson, rugby league player
6 August – Kayla McAlister, netball and rugby union player
8 August – Brad Cachopa, cricketer
12 August – Suliasi Taufalele, rugby union player
14 August – Dave Thomas, rugby union player
15 August – Nasi Manu, rugby union player
18 August – Michael Boxall, association footballer
22 August – Sarah Major, actor
24 August
Cathryn Finlayson, field hockey player
Manu Maʻu, rugby league player
28 August – Kane Hames, rugby union player
29 August
Fritz Lee, rugby union player
Lewis Marshall, rugby union player
September
1 September – Ash Dixon, rugby union player
4 September – David Eade, rower
5 September – Jackson Willison, rugby union player
7 September – Tevita Koloamatangi, rugby union player
14 September
Callum Gibbins, rugby union player
Sean Maitland, rugby union player
16 September – Nathaniel Neale, rugby league player
17 September – Michael Fitzgerald, association footballer
18 September – Joe Moody, rugby union player
19 September – Rebecca Spence, triathlete
22 September – Jeet Raval, cricketer
23 September
Hayley Crofts, netball player
Ryan Crotty, rugby union player
25 September
Quentin MacDonald, rugby union player
Josh Rowland, rugby union player
30 September – Joelle King, squash player
October
3 October – Helen Collins, association footballer
4 October – Mitchey Greig, freestyle skier
5 October – Luke Braid, rugby union player
7 October
Kurt Baker, rugby union player
Michael Leitch, rugby union player
10 October – Rose McIver, actor
12 October – Sam Whitelock, rugby union player
14 October – Terefe Ejigu, athlete
16 October
Fiona Bourke, rower
Karl Filiga, rugby league player
18 October – Luuka Jones, slalom canoeist
19 October – Naturalism, Thoroughbred racehorse
27 October – Rodney Ah You, rugby union player
29 October
Roman Van Uden, cyclist
Kayne Vincent, association footballer
November
1 November
Nick Barrett, rugby union player
Hamish Carson, athlete
4 November – Paea Faʻanunu, rugby union player
8 November – Shaun Teasdale, archer
10 November
Lord Gyllene, Thoroughbred racehorse
Jeremy Su'a, rugby union player
14 November – Mitchell Crosswell, rugby union player
18 November – Lucy Oliver, athlete
20 November – Vicky Rodewyk, actor, model and dancer
21 November – Aaron Smith, rugby union player
22 November – Tu'u Maori, rugby league player
23 November – Tony Goodin, cricketer
25 November – Mat Luamanu, rugby union player
28 November
Daniel Kirkpatrick, rugby union player
Nic Mayhew, rugby union player
Christy Prior, snowboarder
29 November – Corey Webster, basketball player
30 November – Edward Purcell, rugby league player
December
1 December – Taione Vea, rugby union player
7 December – James Marshall, rugby union player
8 December – Simon van Velthooven, cyclist
11 December – Tim Southee, cricketer
12 December – Isaac John, rugby league player
13 December – James Tamou, rugby league player
16 December – Robin Cheong, taekwando competitor
17 December – Steve Rapira, rugby league player
Exact date unknown
Eli Kent, playwright and actor
Sam McCarthy, songwriter and musician
Deaths
January–February
2 January – Bill Crawford-Compton, World War II air ace, air force commander (born 1915)
10 January – Ron King, rugby union player and selector (born 1909)
11 January – Arthur Collins, rugby union player (born 1906)
9 February – Zelma Roberts, writer (born 1915)
17 February – Reginald Uren, architect (born 1906)
23 February – Charlie Jackman, cricketer (born 1906)
29 February – Sister Mary Gabriel, nun, pharmacist (born 1904)
March–April
16 March – Harold Turbott, medical practitioner, public health administrator, broadcaster and writer (born 1899)
23 March – Cyril Walter, cricketer, field hockey player and coach, sports writer (born 1912)
30 March – Sir Donald McKay, politician (born 1908)
7 April – Christopher Rollinson, boxer (born 1928)
16 April – Doug Mudgway, amateur wrestler (born 1924)
17 April – Ormond Wilson, politician (born 1907)
May–June
9 May – Robert Alexander, cricketer (born 1911)
14 May – Fred Atkins, professional wrestler (born 1910)
22 May – Leslie Stephen-Smith, cricketer (born 1904)
24 May – Tom Burtt, cricketer (born 1915)
26 May – Neta Neale, theatre director, speech and drama teacher (born 1904)
27 May – Alwyn Warren, Anglican bishop, university chancellor (born 1900)
28 May – Evelyn Page, artist (born 1899)
1 June – Ricky May, musician (born 1943)
3 June – Christabel Robinson, vocational guidance and community worker (born 1898)
4 June – Elizabeth Turnbull, woollen mill worker (born 1885)
5 June – Brian Ashby, Roman Catholic bishop (born 1923)
17 June – Cyril Crawford, cricketer (born 1902)
24 June
Alexander Astor, rabbi, community leader (born 1900)
Anthony Rohrs, cricketer (born 1961)
25 June – Neville Pickering, politician, mayor of Christchurch (1971–74) (born 1923)
30 June – Hubert Ryburn, university administrator (born 1897)
July–August
8 July – Enga Washbourn, artist and writer (born 1908)
12 July – Robert Monteith, cricket umpire (born 1937)
18 July – Ralph Bulmer, ethnobiologist (born 1928)
21 July – Dame Cecily Pickerill, plastic surgeon (born 1903)
24 July – May Smith, painter, engraver, textile designer (born 1906)
1 August – G. S. Carter, surveyor and road engineer (born 1910)
4 August – Brian Brake, photographer (born 1927)
5 August – Nora Sipos, humanitarian and welfare worker (born 1900)
28 August – Paul Whitelaw, cricketer (born 1910)
30 August – Sir Jack Marshall, politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (born 1912)
31 August – Ivan Tomašević, political activist (born 1897)
September–October
4 September – Rona Stevenson, politician (born 1911)
6 September – Mary Martin, netball player (born 1915)
11 September – Bernard Holman, artist (born 1941)
13 September – Ron Rangi, rugby union player (born 1941)
17 September – Jim Watt, rugby union player, paediatrics academic (born 1914)
9 October – Bob Goslin, boxer (born 1927)
31 October – Gwen Somerset, teacher, adult education director, educationalist, writer (born 1894)
November–December
1 November – Louis Johnson, poet (born 1924)
4 November – Saul Goldsmith, political candidate (born 1911)
7 November
Aubrey Begg, politician (born 1929)
Sir Douglas Carter, politician (born 1908)
12 November – Pat Perrin, potter (born 1921)
28 November – Robert Stewart, sailor (born 1906)
29 November – Thomas Lemin, cricketer (born 1905)
5 December – Monica McKenzie, dietitian (born 1905)
8 December
Airini Grennell, singer, pianist, broadcaster (born 1910)
Sir Andrew McKee, air force leader (born 1902)
10 December – Beau Cottrell, rugby union player, Rotarian (born 1907)
16 December – John Cameron, cricketer (born 1898)
21 December
Bruce Ferguson, army officer (born 1917)
Charlie Peek, child welfare administrator, billiards player (born 1904)
27 December – William Fea, rugby union and squash player (born 1898)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand |
4243388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Pakistan | Environmental issues in Pakistan | Environmental issues in Pakistan include air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, climate change, pesticide misuse, soil erosion, natural disasters, desertification and flooding. According to the 2020 edition of the environmental performance index (EPI) ranking released by Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, Pakistan ranks 142 with an EPI score of 33.1, an increase of 6.1 over a 10-year period. It ranked 180 in terms of air quality. The climatic changes and global warming are the most alarming issues risking millions of lives across the country. The major reasons of these environmental issues are carbon emissions, population explosion, and deforestation.
These are serious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing, and they are getting worse as the country's economy expands and the population grows. Although some NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives to stop environmental degradation, Pakistan's environmental issues still remain. Pakistan is facing a significant challenge as its natural resources and ecosystems encounter increasing pollution and strain. The foremost environmental concerns in the country revolve around the excessive use of limited natural resources, contamination of air and water, diminishing energy reserves, the reduction of forests, and the management of waste.
Economic consequences of environmental degradation
The majority of Pakistan's industrial sectors, for example fishing and agriculture, which account for more than one-fourth of the output and two-fifths of employment in Pakistan, are highly dependent on the country's natural resources. Hence, in order to sustain economic growth there is a high demand on already scarce natural resources. However it is ironic that what the country depends on for its growth is also what threatens the future welfare and success of the country. According to the World Bank, 70% of Pakistan's population live in rural areas and are already stricken by high poverty levels. These people depend on natural resources to provide income and tend to overuse these resources. This leads to further degradation of the environment and subsequently increases poverty. This has led to what the World Bank refers to as a "vicious downward spiral of impoverishment and environmental degradation."
Pollution
The World Bank report in 2013 stated that Pakistan's top environmental issues include air pollution, inadequate supply of uncontaminated drinking water, noise pollution and the health deterioration of urban and rural populations due to pollution. These environmental concerns not only harm Pakistani citizens but also pose a serious threat to the country's economy. The report also stated that the increase in industrialization, urbanization and motorization will inevitably worsen this problem. Pakistan holds the dubious distinction of being the world's third-most polluted country when it comes to air quality, compounding its environmental challenges. The swift pace of urbanization, coupled with population growth, presents further intricacies in this regard.
Water pollution
Pakistan is classified as a water stressed nation by the World Bank. There are seven main rivers that enter Pakistan from upper riparian states, including the Kabul River that enters from Afghanistan, and the Indus River, Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, and Sutlej River that enter from India. Among these, the Ravi and Sutlej are diverted in upstream India, for which consumptive use was awarded to India under the Indus Waters Treaty signed in 1960 by India and Pakistan. Canal networks from the Indus (main stem), Jhelum River, and Chenab River supply water throughout the agricultural plains in Punjab and in Sindh, while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water. Potential scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan's economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis.
Lower flows due to the Indus Waters Treaty, as well as diversion to canals, means that lower dilution flows are available within the rivers of Pakistan. On the other hand, water pollution generation is increasing largely due to the growing economy and population, and an almost complete lack of water treatment. The sources for water pollution include the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the dumping of industrial effluent into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into rivers and the ocean, and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall waterborne diseases.
According to researchers, Pakistan is projected to become the most water-stressed country in the region by the year 2040.
Noise pollution
The megacities of Pakistan, such as Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and Rawalpindi, face the issue of noise pollution. The main source of this pollution is the traffic noise caused by buses, cars, trucks, rickshaws and water tankers. A study showed that on one of Karachi's main roads, the average noise level was around 90 dB and was capable of reaching about 110 dB. This is much higher than the ISO's noise level standard of 70 dB, which is not meant to be harmful to the human ear. However, the study also concluded that in Pakistan, "the traffic noise levels limit as laid down by National Environment Quality standards, Environmental Protection Agency is 85 dB".
This high level of noise pollution can cause auditory and non-auditory health issues. Auditory issues include the loss of auditory sensory cells; non-auditory health issues include sleep disturbance, noise and cardiovascular disease, endocrine response to noise and psychiatric disorder. There are very few, vague laws and policies in regards to noise levels. There is no accountability, and while the federal and provincial environmental protection agencies receive dozens of complaints on noise pollution from the public, these agencies are unable to take action due to legal constraints and the absence of national noise level standards.
Air pollution
Air pollution is a growing environmental problem in most major cities of Pakistan. According to a World Bank report, "Karachi's urban air pollution is among the most severe in the world and it engenders significant damages to human health and the economy". The inefficient use of energy, an increase in the number of vehicles used daily, an increase in unregulated industrial emissions and the burning of garbage and plastic have contributed the most to air pollution in urban areas. According to a recent study, the Sindh Environment Protection Department claims that the average level of pollution in big cities is approximately four times higher than the World Health Organisation's limits. These emissions have detrimental effects, including "respiratory diseases, reduced visibility, loss of vegetation and an effect on the growth of plants".
One of the greatest contributors to air pollution is industrial activity. The inadequate air emission treatments and lack of regulatory control over industrial activity has contributed to the deterioration of ambient air quality in major cities. In addition, the common practice of burning massive amounts of solid waste, including plastic and rubber, on street corners by the public, releases toxic gases, which are extremely harmful for residents in the area.
In 2018, a young entrepreneur in Karachi, Abid Omar, launched the Pakistan Air Quality Initiative to monitor air quality in Pakistan's big cities. The project aims to increase the availability of air quality data in Pakistan and make citizens more aware of the health impacts of air pollution. The US State Department has set up three high-quality air quality monitoring stations at three locations in Pakistan.
Specifically, studies have revealed the negative consequences air pollution can have on the welfare of those impacted. Studies have revealed how the constant fluctuation of particulate matter poses a major threat to Pakistan's citizens who are frequently exposes to harmful levels of air pollution. Suspended Particulate Matter, which has been linked to respiratory illnesses has been found in harmful quantities in Pakistan's major urban areas. Some strategies that can be used to effectively manage Pakistan's urban air pollution problems include the advancements to road design and improvement of transport sustainability, increased use of abatement policy by the Pakistani government, and a conversion to clean fuel energy alternatives like CNG.
Climate change
Natural disasters
Due to Pakistan's diverse land and climatic conditions, it is prone to different forms of natural disasters, including earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, droughts, cyclones and hurricanes. A disaster management report claims that the provinces of Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), Balochistan and AJK are vulnerable seismic regions and hence highly susceptible to earthquakes, while Sindh and Punjab constantly suffer from floods because they are low-lying areas.
Some of the worst natural disasters that Pakistan has faced include the 1935 Quetta earthquake when around 60,000 people were killed, the 1950 floods when an estimated 2900 people died and 900,000 people were left homeless, the 1974 Hunza earthquake where around 5300 people were killed, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake that killed at least 73,000 and affected more than 1.5 million people, and the 2010 floods, where 20 million people were affected.
Forests
Pakistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking it 41st globally out of 172 countries. Yet, deforestation is happening at an alarming rate in Pakistan. The country currently relies heavily on imported wood-based products due to a lack of self-sufficiency in this sector, resulting in substantial resource expenditure. Furthermore, these resources are depleting at a rate of one percent, which is having a significant impact on the well-being of the Pakistani population.
Conservation efforts
The government has expressed concern about environmental threats to economic growth and social development and since the early 1990s has addressed environmental concerns with new legislation and institutions such as the Pakistan Environment Protection Council. However, foreign lenders provide most environmental protection funds, and only 0.04 percent of the government's development budget goes to environmental protection. Thus, the government's ability to enforce environmental regulations is limited, and private industries often lack the funds to meet environmental standards established by international trade organizations. Government of Pakistan start new campaign with Clean and Green Pakistan to overcome environmental issues.
Clean Green Champion Program
An initiative named Clean Green Pakistan was launched in 2019 by the Government of Pakistan. The idea of the initiative was to hold a competition between cities of Pakistan in cleanliness and greenery. A web portal was launched where citizens can get registered and report their activities to earn points. Citizens would also be awarded medals when they reach a certain threshold of points.
Billion Tree Tsunami
The Billion Tree Tsunami was launched in 2014 by the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) as a response against the challenge of global warming. Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami restores 350,000 hectares of forests and degraded land to surpass its Bonn Challenge commitment. The project aimed at improving the ecosystems of classified forests, as well as privately owned waste and farm lands, and therefore entails working in close collaboration with concerned communities and stakeholders to ensure their meaningful participation through effectuating project promotion and extension services. In just a year it has added three-quarters of a billion new trees, as part of a “tree tsunami” aimed at reversing worsening forest loss. The project was completed in August 2017, ahead of schedule.
The initiative was acknowledged by international media, namely The Washington Post, VoA News, The Hindu, Reuters, Al Jazeera, and many others. Short films such as Green Election Campaign and Stop are a part of Clean Green Pakistan Effort.
National Conservation Strategy
The Conservation Strategy Report has three explicit objectives: conservation of natural resources, promotion of sustainable development, and improvement of efficiency in the use and management of resources. It sees itself as a "call for action" addressed to central and provincial governments, businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and individuals.
The primary agricultural nonpoint source pollutants are nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), sediment, animal wastes, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural nonpoint sources enter surface water through direct surface runoff or through seepage to ground water that discharges to a surface water outlet. Various farming activities result in the erosion of soil particles. The sediment produced by erosion can damage fish habitat and wetlands, and often transports excess agricultural chemicals resulting in contaminated runoff. This runoff, in turn, affects changes to aquatic habitat such as temperature increases and decreased oxygen. The most common sources of excess nutrients in surface water from nonpoint sources are chemical fertilizers and manure from animal facilities. Such nutrients cause eutrophication in surface water. Pesticides used for pest control in agricultural operations can also contaminate surface as well as ground-water resources. Return flows, runoff, and leach ate from irrigated lands may transport sediment, nutrients, salts, and other materials. Finally, improper grazing practices in riparian areas, as well as upland areas, can also cause water quality degradation. The development of Pakistan is viewed as a multigenerational enterprise.
In seeking to transform attitudes and practices, the National Conservation Strategy recognizes that two key changes in values are needed: the restoration of the conservation ethic derived from Islamic moral values, called Qantas, and the revival of community spirit and responsibility, Haqooq ul Ibad.
The National Conservation Strategy Report recommends fourteen program areas for priority implementation: maintaining soils in croplands, increasing efficiency of irrigation, protecting watersheds, supporting forestry and plantations, restoring rangelands and improving livestock, protecting water bodies and sustaining fisheries, conserving biodiversity, increasing energy efficiency, developing and deploying renewable resources, preventing or decreasing pollution, managing urban wastes, supporting institutions to manage common resources, integrating population and environmental programs, and preserving the cultural heritage. It identifies sixty-eight specific programs in these areas, each with a long-term goal and expected outputs and physical investments required within ten years. Special attention has been paid to the potential roles of environmental NGOs, women's organizations, and international NGOs in working with the government in its conservation efforts. Recommendations from the National Conservation Strategy Report are incorporated in the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993–98).
In a recent study conducted by the Global CLEAN campaign, it was found that the average temperature in Pakistan had risen by 0.2 degrees in only two years. This is a dramatic change and puts emphasis on climate change campaigns.
Land use
Arable land - 27%
Permanent crops - 1%
Permanent pastures - 6%
Forests and woodland - 5%
Other - 61% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land - 171,100 km2 (1993 est.)
Protected areas
Pakistan has 14 national parks, 72 wildlife sanctuaries, 66 game reserves, 9 marine and littoral protected areas, 19 protected wetlands and a number of other protected grasslands, shrublands, woodlands and natural monuments.
International agreements
Pakistan is a party to several international agreements related to environment and climate. The most prominent among them are:
See also
Green economy
Geography of Pakistan
Health care in Pakistan
Hydrogen economy
Leapfrogging from natural gas to hydrogen
List of environmental issues
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
Protected areas of Pakistan
Wildlife of Pakistan
References
External links
Environment Protection Agency, Pakistan
Resources on Pakistan, Environment and Sustainable Development |
4243394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicians | Galicians | Galicians ( ; ) are a European ethnic group from Spain; it is closely related to the Portuguese people and has its historic homeland in Galicia, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Two Romance languages are widely spoken and official in Galicia: the native Galician and Spanish.
Etymology
The ethnonym of the Galicians (galegos) derives directly from the Latin Gallaeci or Callaeci, itself an adaptation of the name of a local Celtic tribe known to the Greeks as Καλλαϊκoί (Kallaikoí). They lived in what is now Galicia and northern Portugal and were defeated by the Roman General Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in the 2nd century BCE and later conquered by Augustus. The Romans later applied that name to all the people who shared the same culture and language in the north-west, from the Douro River valley in the south to the Cantabrian Sea in the north and west to the Navia River. That encompassed such tribes as the Celtici, the Artabri, the Lemavi and the Albiones.
The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (reading Ἔθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν], "people of the Gallaeci") was found in 1981 in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered.
The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as Isidore of Seville, who wrote, "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, as the Gauls" and related the name to the Greek word for "milk," γάλα (gála). However, modern scholars like J.J. Moralejo and Carlos Búa have derived the name of the ancient Callaeci either from Proto-Indo-European *kl̥(H)‑n‑ 'hill', through a local relational suffix -aik-, also attested in Celtiberian language and so meaning 'the highlanders'; or either from Proto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'.
Another recent proposal comes from the linguist Francesco Benozzo, who is not specialized in Celtic languages and identified the root gall- / kall- in a number of Celtic words with the meaning "stone" or "rock", as follows: gall (old Irish), gal (Middle Welsh), gailleichan (Scottish Gaelic), galagh (Manx) and gall (Gaulish). Hence, Benozzo explains the name Callaecia and its ethnonym Callaeci as being "the stone people" or "the people of the stone" ("those who work with stones"), in reference to the ancient megaliths and stone formations that are so common in Galicia and Portugal. Specialists of the Celtic languages do not consider there is a hypothetical Gaulish root *gall meaning "stone" or "rock", but *galiā "strength" (> French gaill-ard "strong"), related to Old Irish gal "berserk rage, war fury", Welsh gallu and Breton galloud "power". It is distinct from Gaulish *cal(l)io- "hoof" or "testicle", related to Welsh caill, Breton kell "testicle" (> Gaulish *caliavo > Old French chaillou, French caillou), all from the Proto-Indo-European root *kal- "hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latin callum "hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate the toponym Gallaecia / Callaecia with the Latin word callus.
Languages
Galician
Galician is a Romance language belonging to the Western Ibero-Romance branch; as such, it derives from Latin. It has official status in Galicia. Galician is also spoken in the neighbouring autonomous communities of Asturias and Castile and León, near their borders with Galicia.
Medieval or Old Galician, also known by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, developed locally in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula from Vulgar Latin, becoming the language spoken and written in the medieval kingdoms of Galicia (from 1230 united with the kingdoms of León and Castille under the same sovereign) and Portugal. The Galician-Portuguese language developed a rich literary tradition from the last years of the 12th century. During the 13th century it gradually replaced Latin as the language used in public and private charters, deeds, and legal documents, in Galicia, Portugal, and in the neighbouring regions in Asturias and Leon.
Galician-Portuguese diverged into two linguistic varieties – Galician and Portuguese – from the 15th century on. Galician became a regional spoken language under the influence of Castilian Spanish, while Portuguese became the international one, as language of the Portuguese Empire. The two varieties are still close together, and in particular northern Portuguese dialects share an important number of similarities with Galician ones.
The official institution regulating the Galician language, backed by the Galician government and universities, the Royal Galician Academy, claims that modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages and having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects.
However, the Associaçom Galega da Língua (Galician Language Association) and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa (Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language), belonging to the Reintegrationist movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician is simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, African Portuguese, the Galician-Portuguese still spoken in Spanish Extremadura, (Fala), and other variations.
Nowadays, despite the positive effects of official recognition of the Galician language, Galicia's socio-linguistic development has experienced the growing influence of Spanish and persistent linguistic erosion of Galician due to the media as well as legal imposition of Spanish in learning.
Galicia also boasts a rich oral tradition, in the form of songs, tales, and sayings, which has made a vital contribution to the spread and development of the Galician language. Still flourishing today, this tradition shares much with that of Portugal.
Surnames
Galician surnames, as is the case in most European cultures, can be divided into patronymic (originally based on one's father's name), occupational, toponymic or cognominal. The first group, patronymic includes many of the most frequent surnames and became fixed during the Low Middle Ages; it includes surnames derived from etyma formed with or without the additions of the patronymical suffixes -az, -ez, -iz: Alberte (Albert); Afonso (Alfons); Anes, Oanes, Yanes (Iohannes); Arias; Bernárdez (Bernard); Bermúdez (Medieval Galician Uermues, cf. Wermuth); Cristobo (Christopher); Diz (from Didaci); Estévez (Stephan); Fernández; Fiz (from Felici); Froiz, Frois (From Froilaci, from the Gothic personal name Froila, "lord"); Giance (Latin Iulianici); González; Henríquez (Henry); Martís (Martin); Méndez (Menendici); Miguéns, Miguez (from Michaelici, equivalent to Michaels); Páez, Pais, Paz (from Pelagici, Pelagio); Ramírez; Reimúndez (Raymond); Rodríguez; Sánchez; Sueiro (from Suarius); Tomé (from Thomas); Viéitez, Vieites (Benedictici, Benedict), among many others.
Because of the settlement of Galician colonists in southern Spain during the Reconquista, some of the more frequent and distinctively Galician surnames also became popular in Spanish (which had its own related forms) and were taken later into the Americas, as a consequence of the expansion of the Spanish empire:
The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of the bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnames Bretaña, Franza, España, Portugal) or nations (Franco, "Frenchman"); Galician regions (Bergantiños, Carnota, Cavarcos, Sanlés); or cities, towns or villages, which gave origin to a few thousand surnames. Another related group is formed with the preposition de, usually contracted with the definite article as da or do, and a common appellative: Dacosta (or Da Costa), "of the slope", Dopazo or Do Pazo ("of the palace/manor house"); Doval, "of the valley" (cfr. French Duval), Daponte ("of the bridge"), Davila ("of the town", not to be confused with Spanish Dávila), Daporta ("of the gate"); Dasilva ("of the forest"), Dorrío ("of the river"), Datorre ("of the Tower"). Through rebracketing, some of these surnames gave origin to others such as Acosta or Acuña.
A few of these toponymic surnames can be considered nobiliary, as they first appear as the name of some Galician noble houses, later expanding when these nobles began to serve as officials of the Spanish Empire, in Spain or elsewhere, as a way of maintaining them both far from Galicia and useful to the Empire: Andrade (from the house of Andrade, itself from the name of a village), Mejía or Mexía (from the house of Mesía), Saavedra, Soutomaior (Hispanicized Sotomayor), Ulloa, Moscoso, Mariñas, Figueroa among others. Some of these families also served in Portugal, as the Andrade, Soutomaior or Lemos (who originated in Monforte de Lemos). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world.
The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from the job or legal status of the bearer: Ferreiro ("Smith"), Carpinteiro ("Carpenter"), Besteiro ("Crossbow bearer"), Crego ("Priest"), Freire ("Friar"), Faraldo ("Herald"), Pintor ("Painter"), Pedreiro ("Stonemason"), Gaiteiro ("Bagpiper"); and also Cabaleiro ("Knight"), Escudeiro ("Esquire"), Fidalgo ("Nobleman"), Juiz ("Judge").
The fourth group includes the surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations:
a) External appearance, as eye colour (Ruso, from Latin roscidus, grey-eyed; Garzo, blue-eyed), hair colour (Dourado, "Blonde"; Bermello, "Red"; Cerviño, literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn"; Cao, "white"), complexion (Branco, "White"; Pardo, "Swarth"; Delgado, "Slender") or other characteristics: Formoso ("Handsome"), Tato ("Stutterer"), Forte ("Strong"), Calviño ("Bald"), Esquerdeiro ("Left-handed").
b) Temperament and personality: Bonome, Bonhome ("Goodman"), Fiúza ("Who can be trusted"), Guerreiro ("Warlike"), Cordo ("Judicious").
c) Tree names: Carballo ("Oak"); Amieiro, Ameneiro ("Alder"); Freijo ("Ash tree").
d) Animal names: Gerpe (from Serpe, "Serpent"); Falcón ("Falcon"); Baleato ("Young Whale"); Gato ("Cat"); Coello ("Rabbit"); Aguia ("Eagle")
e) Deeds: Romeu (a person who pilgrimaged to Rome or the Holy Land)
Many Galician surnames have become Castilianized over the centuries, most notably after the forced submission of the Galician nobility obtained by the Catholic Monarchs in the last years of the 15th century. This reflected the gradual spread of the Spanish language through the cities, in Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, A Coruña, Vigo and Ferrol, in the last case due to the establishment of an important base of the Spanish navy there in the 18th century. For example, surnames like Orxás, Veiga, Outeiro, became Orjales, Vega, Otero. Toponyms like Ourense, A Coruña, Fisterra became Orense, La Coruña, Finisterre. In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for example Niño da Aguia (Galician: Eagle's Nest) was translated into Spanish as Niño de la Guía (Spanish: the Guide's child) and Mesón do Bento (Galician: Benedict's house) was translated as Mesón del Viento (Spanish: House of Wind).
History
Prehistory
The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to the Palaeolithic, when Galicia was covered by a dense oak temperate rain forest. The oldest human remains found, at Chan do Lindeiro, are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading a pack of three aurochs; the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture of Western Hunter-Gatherer and Magdalenian people. This type of admixture has been observed in France, also.
Later on, some 6,500 years ago, a new population arrived from the Mediterranean, bringing agriculture and husbandry with them. Half of the woodland was razed to pasture and farmland, almost replacing all of the woodland some 5,000 years ago. This new population also changed the landscape with the first permanent human structures, megaliths such as menhirs and barrows, cromlechs and menhirs. During the Neolithic Galicia was one of the foci of Atlantic European Megalithic Culture, putting in contact the Mediterranean and south Iberia with the rest of Atlantic Europe.
Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with the local farmers, the Bell beaker people, coming ultimately from the Pontic steppe, who introduced copper metallurgy and weaponry, and probably also new cultivars and breeds. Some scholars consider that they were the first people to bring Indo-European languages into Western Europe. They lived in open villages, only protected by fences or ditches; local archaeologists consider that they caused a very large culture impact, replacing collectivism with individualism, as exemplified by their burial in individual cists, along with the reuse of old Neolithic tombs. From this period and later dates a rich tradition of petroglyphs, which find close similarities in the British Isles, Scandinavia or northern Italy. Motives include cup and ring marks, labyrinths, Bronze Age weaponry, deer and deer hunting, warriors, riders and ships.
During the Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, and Armorica and the Atlantic Isles to the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such as tin, which allowed the production of high quality bronze. It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during the Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonial henge-like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia.
This period and interchange network, usually known as Atlantic Bronze Age, which appears to have had its centre in modern-day Brittany, was proposed by John T. Koch and Sir Barry Cunliffe as the one that originated Celtic languages —as a product of pre-existing and closely related Indo-European languages— which could have expanded along with the elite ideology associated with this cultural complex (Celtic from the west theory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ("Celtic from the east") have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age. A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during the late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data.
The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia, Brittany, and southern Britain. During this same transitional period, some communities began to protect their villages, settling in very protected areas where they built hill-forts. Among the oldest of these are Chandebrito in Nigrán, Penas do Castelo in A Pobra do Brollón and O Cociñadoiro in Arteixo, on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhaps dedicated to the Atlantic commerce, all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period is also characterized by the apparition of longhouses of ultimately north European tradition which were replaced later in much of Galicia by roundhouses. By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements.
These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without a stone footing; later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for example saunas of probable ritual use. Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchets and gold torcs, of which more than a hundred exemplars are known.
This culture is now known as Castro Culture; another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionally urns with ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors.
Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE, became common after the 6th century BCE and the voyage of Himilco. Punic importations from southern Spain became frequent along the coast of southern Galicia, although they didn't penetrate very far to the north or to the interior; also, new decorative motives, as the six-petal rosettes, are popularized, together with new metallurgical techniques and pieces (ear pendants) and some other innovations as the round hand mill. In exchange, Punics obtained tin, abundant in the islands and peninsulas of western Galicia (probable origin of the Cassiterides island myth) and probably also gold. Incidentally, Avienus' Ora Maritima says after Himilco that the Oestrymni (inhabitants of western Iberia) used hide boats to navigate, an assertion confirmed by Pliny the Elder for the Galicians.
Roman conquest
First recorded contact with Rome happened during the Second Punic War, when Gallaecians and Astures, together with Lusitanians, Cantabrians and Celtiberians —that is, the major Indo-European nations of Iberia— figured among the mercenary armies hired by Hannibal to go with him into Italy. According to Silus Italicus's Punica III:
Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem
Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem,
Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis,
Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra,
Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras.
Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas.
Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco
Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro
Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum,
Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti.
"Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through the entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing their caetra at the same time. This leisure and diversion is a sacred delight for the men, the feminine laboriosity do the rest: adding the seed to the furrow and working the ground with the plough while the men idle. Everything which must be done, with the exception of the hard war, is made restlessly by the wife of the Galician." He later also mentions the Grovii of southern Galicia and northwestern Portugal, with their capital Tui, apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike the rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin.
After ending victoriously the Lusitanian war with the assassination of Viriathus, consul Caepio tried to wage war, unsuccessfully, on Gallaecians and Vettones, for the help they lent to the Lusitanians. In 138 BCE, another consul, Decimus Junius Brutus, in command of two legions, passed de Douro river and later the Lethes or Oblivio (Limia, which frightened his troops because of its other name), in a successful campaign, managing to conquer many places of the Galicians. After reaching the Minho river, and in his way back, he attacked (again successfully) the Bracari, who had been harassing his supply chain: Appian describe the Bracari women fighting bravely side by side with their men; of the women who were taken prisoners, some killed themselves, and others killed their children, preferring death to servitude. The spoils of war allowed Decimus Junius Brutus to celebrate a triumph back in Rome, receiving the name Callaicus. Recently a very large marching Roman camp was discovered at high altitude, in Lomba do Mouro, at the very frontier of Galicia with Portugal. In 2021 a C-14 dating showed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign.
The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with the south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; the warrior ethos appear to increase in social importance; some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres, oppida, with streets and definite public spaces, as San Cibrao de Las (10 ha) or Santa Trega (20 ha).In 61 BCE Julius Caesar, commanding thirty cohorts, launched from Cádiz a maritime campaign along the Atlantic shores which ended in Brigantium. According to Cassius Dio, the locals, who had never seen a Roman fleet, surrendered in awe. Finally, in 29 BCE Augustus launched a campaign of conquest against Gallaecians, Asturians and Cantabrians. The most memorable episode of this war was the siege on the Mons Medullius, who Paulus Orosius placed near the Minho river: it was surrounded by a 15 mille trench before a simultaneous Roman advance; according to Anneus Florus the besieged decided to kill themselves, by fire, sword, or by the venon of the yew tree. Tens of Roman camps have been found related to this war, most of them corresponding to the later stages of the war, against Asturians and Cantabrians, some tweenty of them in Galicia. Augustus' victory over the Gallaecians is celebrated in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument to Augustus mentions them among other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, the triumphal arch of Capentras probably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus.
Languages and ethnicity
Pomponius Mela (a geographer from Tingentera, modern day Algeciras in Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE, the coasts of northwestern Iberia:
Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur.
Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent.
Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est.
In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca
"That ocean front for some distance has a straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On the bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to the western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in a narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples.
As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to their romanization, most scholars usually perceive a primitive Indo-European layer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable with Lusitanian, most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes called Lusitanian-Gallaecian) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio: "the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue:
Francesco Benozzo, proponent of the Palaeolithic continuity theory, considers that Celtic language is autochthonous in Galicia. Since recent genetic studios show that European and Iberian Palaeolithic population was assimilated by larger migrant populations proceeding first from the Balkans and Anatolia, and later from Central Europe and ultimately from the Pontic steppe, this theory is probably flawed.
For John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe, proponent of the Celtic from the West theory, the Celtic language would have expanded during the late Bronze Age from the European Atlantic fringe, including Galicia, to the east. For Patrick Simms-Williams, Celtic expanded from modern day France during the late Bronze Age.
Joan Coromines, lexicographer and author of the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, considered that Galician language had a very important substrate attributable to at least two different Indo-European languages, an older non Celtic one who he derived from the Urnfield people and thought was present in most of northern Iberia, and another one he named Artabrian, the Celtic language of the Celts of Galicia.
Blanca M. Prósper and Francisco Villar defend that Lusitanian is a non Celtic Indo-European language related to Italic languages because, in their opinion, the Indo-European aspirated stops have evolved into /f/ and /h/. At the same time, all along the area of this language, and specially in modern-day Galicia, a Celtic language was spoken; this language, a q-Celtic language similar to Celtiberian, is the Western Hispano-Celtic.
Joaquín Gorrochategui, José M. Vallejo, Alberto J. Lorrio, García Alonso, E. Luján and others, consider that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language, but they don't consider it closer to Italic, neither, but part of a group of IE dialects which later evolved into Celtic, Italic and Lusitanian. On the other hand, Celtic speakers lived in close proximity to the Lusitanian. In this context, Gallaecia Bracarensis was clearly in communion with the Lusitania, while Gallaecia Lucensis had its own Celtic profile.
Jürgen Untermann, continued by his disciple Carlos Búa, defended that along the westernmost part of Iberia there was essentially just one language or group of languages, Gallaecian-Lusitanian or Lusitanian and Gallaecian, which in their opinion was definitely Celtic and not Italoid, as shown by the ending of dative plural (-bo, -bor < PIE -*bhos) and the evolution of the syllabic consonants, in particular -r̥- > -ri-.
Local scholars and researchers of toponymy and lexicon of pre-Latin origin (J. J. Moralejo, Edelmiro Bascuas) saw at least two layers of Indo-Europeans: one early layer of a very primitive IE language which preserved p, most notable in river names, and a later Celtic layer.
Roman period
After the Roman conquest, the lands and people of northwestern Iberia were divided in three conventi (Gallaecia Lucensis, Gallaecia Bracarensis and Asturia) and annexed to the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. Pliny wrote that the Lucenses comprised 16 populi and 166,000 free heads, and mentions the Lemavi, Albiones, Cibarci, Egivarri Namarini, Adovi, Arroni, Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri, Celtici Supertamarci, Copori, Celtici Praestamarci, Cileni among them (other authors mention also the Baedui, Artabri and Seurri); the Astures comprised 22 populi and 240,000, of whom the Lougei, Gigurri and Tiburi dwelt lands now in Galicia; finally the Bracarenses 24 civitates and 285,000, of whom the Grovi, Helleni, Querquerni, Coelerni, Bibali, Limici, Tamacani and Interamici dwelt, at least partially, in modern-day Galicia. The names of some of these peoples have been preserved as the names of regions, parishes and villages: Lemos < Lemavos, Cabarcos, Soneira < *Sub Nerii, Céltigos < Celticos, Valdeorras < Valle de Gigurris, Trives < Tiburis, Támagos < Tamacanos. Some other Galician regions derive from some populi or subdivision not listed by the classic authors, among them: Bergantiños < Brigantinos, from Briganti, Nendo < Nemetos, from Nemeton, Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains').
A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as:
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + Gens / Family (gen. pl.), as, for example,
: 'Turaesius son of Marsi, of the Letondi clan'
Gallaecians and western Astures used, until the 2nd century of our era, the formula:
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + [Populi/Civitas] (nom. s.) + [⊃] (abreviature of castellum) Origo (abl. s.) as:
: Nicer, son of Clutosios, from castle Cauria, prince of the Albion
: Cailio, son of Cadroilo, Cilenus from castle Berisamo
: Fabia, daughter of Eburios, Lemava from castle Eritaico
: Eburia, daughter of Calugenos, Celtica Supertamarca from castle Lubris
: Anceitos, son of Vacceos, Limicus from castle Talabriga
The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic: Aio, Alluquius, Ambatus, Ambollus, Andamus, Angetus, Arius, Artius, Atius, Atia, Boutius, Cadroiolo, Caeleo, Caluenus, Camalus, Cambauius, Celtiatus, Cloutaius, Cloutius, Clutamus, Clutosius, Coedus, Coemia, Coroturetis, Eburus, Eburia, Louesus, Medamus, Nantia, Nantius, Reburrus, Secoilia, Seguia, Talauius, Tridia, Vecius, Veroblius, Verotus, Vesuclotus, among others.
Three legions were stationed near the Cantabrian mountains after the war, later reduced to the Legio VII Gemina in León, with three auxiliary cohorts in Galicia (the Cohors I Celtiberorum in Ciadella, Sobrado dos Monxes, near Brigantium; other unity at Aquis Querquennis, and another one near Lucus Augusti) and others elsewhere. Soon Roma began to recruit auxiliary troops locally: five cohorts of Gallaecians from the conventus Lucenses, other five of bracarenses, two mixed ones of Galicians and Asturians, and an ala and cohort of Lemavi.
Also, Gallaecia and Asturia became the most important producers of gold on the Empire: according to Pliny Lusitania, Gallaecia and, especially, Asturia, produced the equivalent to 6,700 kg per year. It has been stimated that the eight hundred Roman gold mines known in Galicia produced in total in between 190,000 and 2,000,000 kg.
During the Diocletian reforms, late third century, Gallaecia was upgraded to province.
Germanic era: 5th – 8th centuries
In 409 the Vandals, Suebi and Alans, who had entered in the Roman Empire in 405 or 406 crossing the Rhin, passed into the Iberian Peninsula. After a year of war and plundering, they were pacified by the offering of lands where to settle. The Roman province of Gallaecia (including Gallaecia proper and the regions of Asturia and Cantabria) were assigned to the Suebi and the Hasding Vandals. Both groups clashed soon, in 419, and so the Vandals left to southern Iberia, where they incorporated the last remnants of Alans and Silingi Vandals, who had been crushed by Rome in previous years. In 429 the Vandals left for Africa.
In 430 a long term conflict broke in between the Suebi and locals who chronicler Hydatius called gallaecos (i.e. galegos, the endonym of modern day Galicians) and, initially, plebs ("folk, common people"), in contrast with whom he called romani: the rural landowners in Lusitania and the inhabitants of the cities. Soon, among those Galicians, appear also local noblemen and churchmen. As the Britons in southern Great Britain, the Galician were forced to act autonomously from Rome, exercising home rule. They reoccupied old Iron Age hill-forts and built new strongholds and fortification all along Galicia; the largest known today are at Mt. Pindo, Mt. Aloia and at Castro Valente. These fortresses were later used by locals against Visigoths, Arabs and Norsemen. In this conflict in between Galicians and Suebi, Rome and local bishops acted frequently rather as intermediaries than as a part, and peace our truce was obtained or warranted with the interchange of prisoners and hostages.
In 438 both people attained a peace that would last for twenty years; by then old king Hermeric, who had lead their people at least since their arrival from Central Europe, ceded the crown to his son Rechila, who would expand the kingdom to the south and east, conquering Emerita Augusta, Mértola and Seville, and moving his troops into eastern Hispania, defeating both Roman and Visigoth armies along the way. His successor and son, Rechiar, converted from paganism to Catholicism upon being crowned, and married a Visigoth princess. He negotiated with Rome a new status for his kingdom and became the first post-Roman Germanic king to mint coins in his name. Soon, he tried to expand into the last Roman province in Hispania, Tarraconense; eventually this led to open conflict with Rome and the Visigoths. In 456 a large army of foederati commanded by the kings of the Visigoths and the Burgundians entered Hispania and defeated the Suebi army near the city of León. Rechiar fled to Porto, but he was captured and later executed. Notwithstanding, the Visigoths left in a hurry the theatre of operation, returning to France. That allowed the Suebi to regroup. After a period of petty-kings rivalry, accompanied by devastation and pillage on Galicians, Remismund was recognized as only and legitimate king by the Suebi, and accepted by the Visigoths; he also promoted the Arianism among the Suebi. As result, the Suebi kingdom came to its limits, encompassing modern day Galicia, northern Portugal until Coimbra, and large parts of Asturias, León and Zamora.
The chronicle of Hydatius also records naval raids of both Vandals and Heruli on the Galician coasts during the 5th century.
Medieval era
In 718 the area briefly came under the control of the Moors after their conquest and dismantling of the Visigothic Empire, but the Galicians successfully rebelled against Moorish rule in 739, establishing a renewed Kingdom of Galicia which would become totally stable after 813 with the medieval popularization of the "Way of St James".
Geography and demographics
Political and administrative divisions
The autonomous community, a concept established in the Spanish constitution of 1978, that is known as (a) Comunidade Autónoma Galega in Galician, and as (la) Comunidad Autónoma Gallega in Spanish (in English: Galician Autonomous Community), is composed of the four Spanish provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, and Pontevedra.
Population, main cities and languages
The official statistical body of Galicia is the Instituto Galego de Estatística (IGE). According to the IGE, Galicia's total population in 2008 was 2,783,100 (1,138,474 in A Coruña, 355.406 in Lugo, 336.002 in Ourense, and 953.218 in Pontevedra). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centres, are Vigo (in Pontevedra), Pontevedra, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Ferrol (in A Coruña), Lugo (in Lugo), and Ourense (in Ourense). The official languages are Galician and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory according to the Spanish constitution and virtually universal. Knowledge of Galician, after declining for many years owing to the pressure of Spanish and official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support. Currently about 82% of Galicia's population can speak Galician and about 61% have it as a mother tongue.
Culture
Celtic revival and Celtic identity
In the 19th century a group of Romantic and Nationalist writers and scholars, among them Eduardo Pondal and Manuel Murguía, led a Celtic revival initially based on the historical testimonies of ancient Roman and Greek authors (Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Ptolemy), who wrote about the Celtic peoples who inhabited Galicia; but they also based this revival in linguistic and onomastic data, and in the similarity of some aspects of the culture and the geography of Galicia with that of the Celtic countries as Ireland, Brittany and Britain, as well as in the Bronze and Iron Age archaeological cultures. These similarities included legends and traditions, and decorative and popular arts and music. It also included the green hilly landscape and the ubiquity of Iron Age hill-forts, Neolithic megaliths and Bronze Age cup and ring marks, which were and are popularly seen as "Celtic", also among foreigners who travelled to Galicia.
During the late 19th and early 20th century this revival permeated Galician society: in 1916 Os Pinos, a poem by Eduardo Pondal, was chosen as the lyrics for the new Galician hymn. One of the strophes of the poem says: Galicians, be strong / ready to great deeds / align your breast / for a glorious end / sons of the noble Celts / strong and traveller / fight for the fate / of the homeland of Breogán. The Celtic past became an integral part of the self-perceived Galician identity: as a result an important number of cultural association and sport clubs received names related to the Celts, among them Celta de Vigo, Céltiga FC, CB Breogán, etc.
From the 1970s on a series of Celtic music and cultural festivals were also popularized, the most notable being the Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira, at the same time that Galician folk musical bands and interpreters became usual participants in Celtic festivals elsewhere, as in the Interceltic festival of Lorient, where Galicia sent its first delegation in 1976.
Folklore and traditions
Myths and legends
Galician folklore is similar to that of the rest of western Europe, especially to that or northern Portugal, Asturias and Cantabria. Among its most notorious myths are the following:
Before the world was inhabited by humans, animals could speak: many traditional tales about animals begin with the phrase aló cando os animais falaban, 'back then, when animals used to speak', which has become equivalent to English once upon a time.
Our world is connected to an underworld dwelt by the mouros ('the dark ones' or perhaps 'the dead ones', mistaken by Andalusian Moors in many tales), an ancient and sombre race who inhabited the upper world before ourselves and who dislike humans. They can still travel to our world to interact with us through the ruins of the places they built or inhabited, such as barrows, dolmens, stone circles, hill-forts, etc., which are still traditionally called with names such as Eira dos Mouros ('Mouros' threshing floor'), Casa dos Mouros ('Mouros' house'), Forno dos Mouros ('Mouros' oven'). This kind of place names are already attested in Latin documents dating to circa 900 CE and later. Humans can also travel to the underworld, either becoming very rich or suffering for their greed as a result. Some mouros or encantos can appear as tall and strong men riding large horses and there are specific spells to ask them for riches.
Fairies and nymphs (who also belong to the netherworld) receive many names, among them mouras, encantos ('apparition; spell'), damas ('ladies'), madamas ('miladies'), xás (from Latin dianas). They are frequently portrayed as women of incredible beauty and riches and long golden blonde hair that can be found by the aforementioned prehistoric ruins or at fountains and ponds, where they comb their hair. Other times, they are gigantic women of incredible strength, enough to move massive boulders, who can be found with a spinning distaff or a baby. Under this appearance they are the same with the Vella ("the Old Lady"), who is somehow also responsible for the weather: the rainbow is called arco da vella in Galician ("Old Lady's bow"), a myth which is probably related to the Cailleach, 'Old Woman', 'Hag', of Ireland and Scotland.
Lavandeiras (washerwomen) are eerie fairies that are found at a river of pond washing clothes, under the aspect of women, especially at night. They can ask a passer-by to help twits the clothes: if the passer-by mistakenly twists in the same direction, the clothes turn into blood.
The trasnos, tardos or trasgos (goblins) are mischievous, household creatures, who like to annoy and confound people. They can cause nightmares by siting on the chest of the people, move things and cause other troubles. In Galician trasnada (~'goblin-ery') means 'trick, mischief'.
Other sign of the netherworld is the apparition of a golden hen followed by his golden chicks (a galiña dos pitos de ouro), which, no matter how hard one tries, can't be caught. There is a similar myth in Bulgaria.
Maruxaina was a vicious siren who lived near the town of San Cribrao and who eventually was captured and executed by the locals.
The barrows are also inhabited by other entities called ouvas ('elfs').
Other beings with control of the weather are the nubeiros ('cloud-ers'). George Borrow in his book The Bible in Spain narrates how he met a nubeiro while travelling Galicia circa 1835. Other similar beings are the tronantes and escoleres.
Many lakes are believed to be the result of the drowning of ancient cities (frequently called Lucerna, Valverde, 'Green Valley', or Antiochia in tales and legends) when the inhabitants failed to give shelter to Jesus or a saint, or when a king of the mouros used his magic out of spit. Some nights the city's bells can still be heard. This legend was first recorded in the 12th century Codex Calixtinus and in that version is Charlemagne who prays God and Saint James to drown a Moor city reluctant to commit to him. This myth appear to be related to the Breton myth of Ys.
Another mythical being associated with drowned cities is the boi bruador, a bellowing ox which can be heard at night near lakes, a legend first recorded circa 1550.
Olláparos are giants similar to cyclopes who sometimes have also an eye on the back of the head. They are related to the Cantabrian Ojáncanu.
Bruxas and meigas (witches) can take the form of animals. In particular, the chuchonas ('suckers') can take the form of a blowfly to feed on the blood of babies and children, causing anaemia.
Lobishomes (werewolves) are humans who sometimes turn into wolves because of a curse. Manuel Blanco Romasanta was a Galician serial killer sentenced to death in 1853 for thirteen assassinations. His legal defence was based in his condition of werewolf as consequence of a curse.
Anciently, there were giant serpents (serpe, there's a mountain range called Cova da Serpe, 'Sepents' dem', so named since at least the 10th century), some of them winged, and dragons (dragón) which could feed on cattle. On the legend of the transfer of the body of Saint James from the Holy land to Galicia, recorded in the 12th century Codex Calixtinus, the local queen, Queen Lupa, commanded the disciples of Saint James to go grab a pair of meek oxen she had by the hill known as Pico Sacro ("Sacred Peak"), where a dragon dwelt, with the hope that either the dragon or the oxen (which were actually fierce bulls) would kill them. There were also cocas (cockatrices), which were taken out in procession in certain dates, as attested since 1437. In the town of Redondela this procession is still held each year.
The compaña ('retinue'), hoste ('army'), estantiga ( < hoste antiga, 'anciente army'), Santa Compaña ('holy retinue') is the local version of the wild hunt. In its modern form is a nocturne procession of the dead, who, porting candles or torches, and frequently a coffin, announce the imminent decease of a neighbour. This procession can "capture" a living person, who is then obliged to precede the Santa Compaña all night long, through forest, streams and brambles, or until another one takes his place. One can protect himself from being taken by the Compaña by tracing a circle and getting inside it, or by throwing oneself to the ground and ignoring the Compaña while it passes over. A solitary phantom related to the Compaña is the estadea. This myth is also related to the fairy host in Ireland, sluagh in Scotland and toili in Wales.
The urco (güercu in Asturias) is a giant black dog who emerges from the sea or from a river to cause terror to the locals. They are also, per se, a bad omen.
Traditions and beliefs
While Galician was traditionally a profoundly Catholic society, in its beliefs there are many remnants of previous religious systems, in particular the belief on a pantheon of gods, now saints; in the reincarnation in form of an animal, when there are unfinished business; the evil eye and the sickness caused by curses; the holiness of crossroads and fountains, etcetera. The first attestation of the beliefs of the Galicians in a Christian context is offered by the Pannonian Martin of Braga who in his letter De Correctione Rusticorum condemns, among others, the belief in the Roman gods or in the lamias, nymphs and dianas, and also in practices as putting candles to trees, springs and crossroads.
Sanctuaries are socially important places for pilgrimage (romaría) and devotion, each one under the protection of a saint or virgin Mary. There are different beliefs associated with each one: the sanctuary of Santo André de Teixido in Cedeira is associated with reincarnation, as it is said that a Santo André de Teixido vai de morto o que non foi de vivo ('to Saint Andrew at Teixido —yew-tree-copse— goes as dead the ones that didn't went while alive'). It is advised not to kill lizards or any other animal while in the vicinity. The Corpiño sanctuary near Lalín and San Campío near Tomiño are associated with the treatment of mental illness and evil eye or meigallo. Virxe da Barca in Muxía is built by the place where it is said that Mary arrived aboard a stone boat, a recurring myth in Galicia also present in Ireland and Brittany. Many of these places were probably built over pagan cult places.
High crosses and calvaries, locally named cruceiros or peto de ánimas, are usually placed at crossroads, before sacred places, or marking a pilgrimage road. Placing flowers or lit candles before that monuments are common practices. In 1996 the Galician community in Ushuaia, Argentine, the southernmost city on the world, built a cruceiro with the legent 'Galicia shines in this land's end'.
Traditional medicine was administered by menciñeiros and menciñeiras, who used both herbs and spells to treat illness. Also compoñedores and compoñedoras: healers specialized in mending bones and joints.
Popular feasts
Aside from Catholic feasts and celebrations, there are other annual celebrations of pagan or mixed origin:
Entroido (Shrovetide, Carnival). The Entroido ('entering; prelude') is usually a period of indulgence and feasts, which contrast with the soberness of the Holy Week and Easter. Parades and festivals (which were prosecuted by the Catholic Church) are held all along Galicia and, specially in Ourense, masks such as the peliqueiros, cigarróns, boteiros, felos, pantallas, who can commit minor mischiefs to other attendants, are central to the celebrations.
Noite de San Xoán (Saint John's eve). Saint John's eve is celebrated around bonfires which are lit at dusk; young people jump over the fire three, seven or nine times. Other traditions associated to this night is the nine-waves bath in the beach, for having children, and the preparation of the auga de San Xoán (Saint John's water) by letting a bowl with a mixture of selected herbs outdoors all night. This water is used to wash one's face in the morning.
Rapa das bestas.
Traditional costume
Traditional Galician costume, as understood today, got conformed fundamentally during the second half of the 18th century. Notwithstanding, some very characteristic elements, as the monteira (an embroidered felt hat), breeches and jacket are already present in 16th century depictions. Although there are some regional variance, males attire is generally composed of monteira and sometimes pano (headcloth), camisa (shirt), chaleco (vest), chaqueta (jacket), faixa (sash), calzón (breeches), cirolas (underwear), polainas (gaiters, spats) and zocas, zocos (clogs or boots).
Female costume was composed of cofia (coif) or, later, pano (headcloth); dengue (short cape worn as a jacket) or corpiño (bodice); camisa (shirt), refaixo (petticoat), saia (skirt), mantelo (apron) and faltriqueira (pouch or bag).
Traditional music
The most characteristic instruments in traditional music is probably the gaita (bagpipe). The gaita have a conical double-reed chanter, and usually have one to four drones. The bag is usually inflated through a blowpipe, but in the gaita de barquín it is inflated by the operation of a bellows. In the past the gaita was usually accompanied just by tamboril (snare drum) and bombo or caixa (bass drum), but since the middle of the twentieth century the groups and bands have become very popular. Pieces which are usually interpreted with gaita are the muiñeira, often in time and very similar to Irish jigs; the alborada, played during the early mornings of holydays; the marcha (march) which accompanies processions and retinues. Some renowned compositions are the 19th century Muiñeira de Chantada and the traditional Aires de Pontevedra (an alborada) and Marcha do Antigo Reino de Galicia (March of the Old Kingdom of Galicia).
Another very representative instrument is the pandeireta (tambourine), which along or together with other drums as the pandeiro, castanets, etc., usually accompanied the songs and celebrations of the working women and men during the seráns (evenings), foliadas or fiadas.
Other genres include de alalá, which can be sung a cappella, or the cancións de cego'' (blindman's songs), interpreted with violin of zanfoña.
Literature
Painting, plastic arts and architecture
Science
Music
Sport
Cinema and TV
People of Galician origin
See also
List of Galician people
Galician nationalism
Fillos de Galicia
Spanish people
Nationalities and regions of Spain
References
External links
Galician Portal
A collaborative study of the EDNAP group regarding Y-chromosome binary polymorphism analysis
Galician language portal
Galician Music, Culture and History
Galician Government
Galician History and Language
Santiago Tourism
Page about The Way of St James
Official page about The Way of St James
Arquivo do Galego Oral – An archive of records of Galician speakers.
A Nosa Fala – Sound recordings of the different dialects of the Galician language.
Ethnic groups in Spain
Ethnic groups in Argentina
Ethnic groups in Brazil
Ethnic groups in Chile
Romance peoples |
4243395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20in%20New%20Zealand | 1989 in New Zealand | The following lists events that happened during 1989 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,369,800.
Increase since 31 December 1988: 24,600 (0.74%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.1.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued. The fourth Labour Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke
Prime Minister – David Lange then Geoffrey Palmer
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer then Helen Clark
Minister of Finance – David Caygill
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall
Chief Justice – Sir Ronald Davison (until 4 February), Sir Thomas Eichelbaum (starting 4 February)
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen then Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay then Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs then Richard Walls
Events
First annual balance of payments surplus since 1973.
The Reserve Bank Act sets the role of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand as maintaining price stability.
The Tomorrow's Schools reforms shift substantial financial and administrative responsibilities for managing schools to elected boards of trustees.
Local Government elections under a revised structure.
The Māori Fisheries Act passed.
The Sale of Liquor Act passed; it provided for supermarkets to sell wine (but not beer; this happened in 1999). Two amendments were also passed in 1989.
April – Swedish tourists Urban Höglin and Heidi Paakkonen disappear while backpacking in the Coromandel, leading to the largest land-based search undertaken in New Zealand.
9–12 April – British Airways Concorde G-BOAF visits Christchurch Airport on a world tour.
25 April – David Lange suggests New Zealand should withdraw from the ANZUS council.
29 April – The Taranaki Herald publishes its last issue. The newspaper had published since 1852, and was New Zealand's oldest newspaper from 1935.
1 May – Jim Anderton forms the NewLabour Party.
7 August – David Lange resigns as Prime Minister of New Zealand and is replaced by Geoffrey Palmer.
26 November – TV3 begins broadcasting.
28 November – The Abolition of the Death Penalty Act received Royal assent.
10 December – Sunday trading begins.
Arts and literature
Renee wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1989 in art, 1989 in literature, :Category:1989 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: Margaret Urlich–Safety in Numbers
Fan Club – Respect The Beat
The Front Lawn – Songs from The Front Lawn
Single of the Year: Margaret Urlich – "Escaping"
Fan Club – I Feel Love
Double J and Twice the T/ Ray Columbus – She's A Mod
Best Male Vocalist: Tim Finn
Howard Morrison
Barry Saunders
Best Female Vocalist: Margaret Urlich
Moana Jackson
Aishah
Best Group: When The Cat's Away
The Warratahs
The Fan Club
Most Promising Male Vocalist: Paul Ubana Jones
Greg Johnson
Darren Watson
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Janet Roddick
Belinda Bradley
Julie Collier
Most Promising Group: The Front Lawn
Double J and Twice the T
Upper Hutt Posse
International Achievement: The Front Lawn
Kiri Te Kanawa
Straitjacket Fits
Outstanding Contribution to the Music Industry: Tony Vercoe
Best Video: Paul Middleditch / Polly Walker / Debbie Watson – I Feel Love (Fan Club)
Warrick (Waka) Attewell – St Peter's Rendezvous (Barry Saunders)
Tony Johns – She's A Mod/ Mod RAP (Double J and Twice the T)
Best Film Soundtrack / Compilation: The Front Lawn – Songs From The Front Lawn
Rahda and the Brats -Kid in the Middle
Various – This Is The Moment
Best Producer: Ian Morris – Nobody Else
Mike Chunn – All Wrapped Up
Ross McDermott/Annie Crummer – Melting Pot (When The Cat's Away)
Best Engineer: Nigel Stone/ Tim Farrant – Everything Will Be Alright
DC Bell – Please Say Something
Nick Morgan – Melting Pot
Best Jazz Album: No Award
Best Classical Album: Stanley Friedman – The Lyric Trumpet
Various Artists – Bold is Brass
Michael Houston – Scriabin/ Chopin
Best Folk Album: Paul Ubana Jones – Paul Ubana Jones
Phil Powers – The Light of the Lions Eye
Phil Garland – Wind in the Tussock
Best Gospel Album: Stephen Bell-Booth–Shelter
Guy Wishart – Another Day in Paradise
Steve Apirana – Steve Apirana
Best Polynesian Album: Howard Morrison – Tukua Ahau
Moana & The Moa Hunters – Pupurutia
Black Katz Trust – Ko Wai Ka Hua
Best Songwriter: Barry Saunders – St Peters Rendezvous
Tim Finn – Parihaka
Don McGlashan / Harry Sinclair – Andy
Best Cover: Polly Walker / Debbie Watson – Safety in Numbers (Margaret Urlich)
Gavin Blake – Workshop
Anthony Donaldson/ Cadre Communications- The Hills Are Alive
See: 1989 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Sylvia Rielly.
Radio and television
3 April: Paul Holmes makes his first broadcast.
1 July: The Broadcasting Act 1989 removes restriction of broadcasting. The public broadcasting fee of NZ$110 per annum is established.
1 July: The Dunedin station is reduced to the Natural History Unit.
6 November: Channel 2 introduces morning television by commencing transmission at 6.30am weekdays and 7am weekends.
26 November: TV3 begins broadcasting with a two-hour preview show, with regular programming to follow at 7am the next morning.
See: 1989 in New Zealand television, 1989 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
See: :Category:1989 film awards, 1989 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1989 films
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his fourth national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:18:21 on 29 April in Rotorua, while Bernardine Portenski claims her first in the women's championship (2:46:02).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Inky Lord
Auckland Trotting Cup: Neroship
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Ken Meade (Petone)
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Christchurch United who beat Rotorua City 7–1 in the final.
Births
January
1 January – Willie Isa, rugby league player
3 January
Ben Matulino, rugby league player
Ben O'Keeffe, rugby union referee
6 January – Peter Betham, rugby union player
8 January – Aaron Cruden, rugby union player
18 January – Bryce Heem, rugby union player
20 January – Jared Waerea-Hargreaves, rugby league player
21 January
Brayden Mitchell, rugby union player
Dominique Peyroux, rugby league player
Nafi Tuitavake, rugby union player
26 January
Nicole Lewis, water polo player
Shaun Treeby, rugby union player
28 January – Emma Crum, road cyclist
29 January – Bradley Rodden, cricketer
February
1 February – Robert Eastham, sport shooter
2 February
Shane Archbold, racing cyclist
Codey Rei, rugby union player
6 February – Greg Morgan, cricketer
7 February – Hayley Saunders, netball player
8 February – Zac Guildford, rugby union player
9 February – Frae Wilson, rugby union player
12 February – Ellen Barry, tennis player
13 February – Daniel Faleafa, rugby union player
14 February – Sam Johnson, community activist
16 February
Phillipa Gray, Paralympic track cyclist
Ria van Dyke, beauty pageant contestant
19 February – Olivia Jobsis, artistic gymnast
21 February – Gareth Dawson, basketball player
24 February – Germaine Tang, rhythmic gymnast
28 February – Kevin Proctor, rugby league player
March
2 March – James So'oialo, rugby union player
10 March – Reta Trotman, road cyclist
11 March
Annabelle Carey, swimmer
Tom Taylor, rugby union player
14 March – Katie Glynn, field hockey player
16 March – Patrick Leafa, rugby union player
17 March – Richard Kingi, rugby union player
20 March
Karl Bryson, rugby union player
Andrew Pohl, cross-country skier
24 March – Leighton Price, rugby union player
27 March – Camilla Lees, netball player
28 March – Rachel Mercer, road cyclist
30 March – Adam McGeorge, association footballer
April
3 April – Te Huinga Reo Selby-Rickit, netball player
4 April – Kevin Locke, rugby league player
6 April – Joe Matapuku, rugby league player
7 April – Michael Guptill-Bunce, cricketer
15 April – Arana Taumata, rugby league player
17 April – Fa'atiga Lemalu, rugby union player
19 April – Lauren Ellis, track cyclist
22 April – Arun Panchia, field hockey player
26 April – Lucy Talbot, field hockey player
27 April – Hamish Rutherford, cricketer
30 April – Milo Cawthorne, actor
May
3 May – Jesse Bromwich, rugby league player
6 May – Rocky Khan, rugby union player
8 May
Tinirau Arona, rugby league player
Hayley Palmer, swimmer
9 May – Shane van Gisbergen, motor racing driver
10 May – Sean Reidy, rugby union player
11 May – Te Amo Amaru-Tibble, basketball and netball player
14 May – Vanessa Vandy, pole vaulter
15 May – Bailey Junior Kurariki, convicted criminal
17 May – Mose Masoe, rugby league player
21 May – Emily Robins, actor
27 May
Richard Buckman, rugby union player
Bailey Mes, netball player
31 May – Chase Stanley, rugby league player
June
2 June – Willy Moon, musician
7 June – James Hamilton, snowboarder
9 June – Baden Kerr, rugby union player
10 June – William Whetton, rugby union player
12 June – Tim Nanai-Williams, rugby union player
15 June – Katie Pearce, rhythmic gymnast
21 June – Albert Anae, rugby union player
23 June – Lisa Carrington, flatwater canoer
July
5 July – Lizzie Marvelly, singer, songwriter
9 July
Ella Gunson, field hockey player
Claire Kersten, netball player
13 July – Joel Abraham, cricketer
19 July – Sam McKendry, rugby league player
21 July
Jordan Selwyn, actor
Maama Vaipulu, rugby union player
22 July – Trent Boult, cricketer
25 July – Blair Tuke, sailor
27 July
Penelope Marshall, swimmer
Jason Schirnack, rugby league player
31 July – Charlotte Harrison, field hockey player
August
3 August – Teddy Stanaway, rugby union player
11 August – Eddie Dawkins, track cyclist
13 August – Greg Draper, association footballer
15 August
Kendall Brown, snowboarder
Jordan Rapana, rugby league player
16 August – Alistair Bond, rower
21 August – Natasha Hind, swimmer
22 August – Robbie Robinson, rugby union player
23 August – George Worker, cricketer
31 August – James Lassche, rower
September
1 September – Sophie Devine, cricketer and field hockey player
4 September – Elliot Dixon, rugby union player
8 September – Jessica McCormack, basketball and netball player
11 September – Brendon O'Connor, rugby union player
13 September – Kenny Edwards, rugby league player
14 September
Constantine Mika, rugby league player
Pana Hema Taylor, actor
15 September
David Ambler, sprint athlete
Chetan Ramlu, musician
16 September – Nick Beard, cricketer
19 September
Marty Banks, rugby union player
Belgium Tuatagaloa, rugby union player
20 September – Evan Williams, squash player
21 September – Sandor Earl, rugby league player
23 September – Michael Arms, rower
24 September
Cathryn Finlayson, field hockey player
Leilani Van Dieren, rhythmic gymnast
October
7 October – Ben Botica, rugby union player
8 October – Sione Lousi, rugby league player
9 October – Russell Packer, rugby league player
10 October – Andrew Mathieson, cricketer
11 October – Robbie Manson, rower
12 October – Sarah Miller, artistic gymnast
13 October – Izaac Williams, basketball player
15 October – Dominic Storey, motor racing driver
19 October – Junior Fa, boxer
21 October – Ivana Palezevic, actor
23 October – Lauren Sieprath, water polo player
25 October – Tim Bond, rugby union player
28 October
Kelly Brazier, rugby union player
Claire Broadbent, rhythmic gymnast
Sam Dickson, rugby union player
November
1 November – Alehana Mara, rugby league player
2 November – Michael Pollard, cricketer
3 November – The Phantom Chance, Thoroughbred racehorse
8 November – Jessica Moulds, netball player
9 November – Marcus Daniell, tennis player
10 November – Brendon Hartley, motor racing driver
12 November – Dean Robinson, cricketer
13 November – Alex Feneridis, association footballer
14 November
Jake Robertson, athlete
Zane Robertson, athlete
15 November – Natasha Hansen, track cyclist
15 November – Courtney Abbot, actor
18 November – Brady Barnett, cricketer
19 November – Andrew Marck, baseball player
20 November – Abby Erceg, association footballer
29 November – Jonathon Bassett-Graham, cricketer
December
2 December – Jack Wilson, rugby union player
4 December – Buxton Popoali'i, rugby union player
7 December – Ria Percival, association footballer
8 December
Jono Lester, motor racing driver
Jesse Sene-Lefao, rugby league player
14 December – Amini Fonua, swimmer
15 December
David Ambler, track athlete
Ian Hogg, association footballer
20 December – Leeson Ah Mau, rugby league player
21 December – Ashley Smallfield, water polo player
22 December – Josh Junior, sailor
29 December – Michael Stanley, rugby union player
Exact date unknown
Ben Sanders, crime writer
Owen Walker, computer hacker
Deaths
January–March
8 January – Giovanni Cataldo, fisherman, search & rescue organiser (born 1927)
21 January – Tiny Leys, rugby union player (born 1907)
22 January – Fred Ladd, aviator (born 1908)
29 January – Seton Otway, racehorse owner and breeder (born 1894)
2 February
Harry Highet, engineer, designer of the P-class yacht (born 1892)
Sir Arnold Nordmeyer, politician (born 1901)
9 February – Bill Dalley, rugby union player and administrator (born 1901)
13 February – Archie Strang. rugby union player (born 1906)
15 February – Hōri Ngata, lexicographer, local-body politician (born 1919)
20 February – Stuart Black, athlete (born 1908)
24 February – Leila Hurle, educator, school inspector (born 1901)
4 March
Harold Miller, librarian, historian (born 1898)
Randolph Rose, athlete (born 1901)
7 March – Nevile Lodge, cartoonist (born 1918)
8 March – Alf Budd, rugby union player (born 1922)
April–June
2 April – Sir James Henare, soldier, Ngāpuhi leader (born 1911)
6 April – Marjorie Chambers, nurse, nursing tutor and administrator (born 1906)
13 April – Frank Hofmann, photographer, musician (born 1916)
22 April
Mary Campbell, librarian, Quaker (born 1907)
Vi Farrell, cricketer (born 1913)
23 April – Rupert Worker, cricketer (born 1896)
30 April – Nelson Dalzell, rugby union player (born 1921)
2 May – Freddie French, rugby league player (born 1911)
5 May – Dame Sister Mary Leo, music teacher (born 1895)
13 May – Sir Lance Cross, basketball player, sports administrator and broadcaster (born 1912)
4 June – Vernon Cracknell, politician (born 1912)
12 June – Cath Vautier, netball player, coach and administrator (born 1902)
26 June – Earle Riddiford, lawyer and mountaineer (born 1921)
July–September
1 July
Eric Holland, politician (born 1921)
Olga Sansom, botanist, broadcaster, museum director (born 1900)
15 July – Jack Scholes, sailor (born 1917)
14 August – Sir Dove-Myer Robinson, politician, mayor of Auckland (1968–80) (born 1901)
28 August – Sir Robert Macintosh, anaesthetist (born 1897)
1 September – Mac Cooper, agricultural scientist (born 1910)
4 September – Sir Ronald Syme, historian (born 1903)
11 September
Roy Traill, wildlife ranger (born 1892)
Freddie Wood, historian (born 1903)
14 September – Eddie McLeod, cricketer (born 1900)
15 September – Harry Cave, cricketer (born 1922)
18 September – Sir Peter Phipps, military leader (born 1908)
October–December
1 October – David Penman, Anglican archbishop (born 1936)
2 October – Bert Grenside, rugby union player (born 1899)
7 October
Keith Elliott, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross (born 1916)
Pat Twohill, actor and radio announcer (born 1915)
11 October – Joe Procter, rugby union player (born 1906)
14 October – Rodney Kennedy, artist, art critic, pacifist (born 1909)
23 October – Howard Alloo, cricketer (born 1895)
24 October – Eileen Soper, journalist, writer, Girl Guide commissioner (born 1900)
26 October – Andrew Roberts, cricketer (born 1947)
18 November – Pat Hond, police officer, teacher, Taranaki Māori leader (born 1927)
25 November – Kōhine Pōnika, composer of waiata Māori (born 1920)
28 November
Beethoven Algar, rugby union player (born 1894)
Stan Cawtheray, association footballer (born 1906)
30 November – Wiremu Heke, rugby union player (born 1894)
2 December – Norman Davis, English language and literature academic (born 1913)
8 December – Jack Rankin, rugby union player and coach (born 1914)
9 December – Brett Austin, swimmer (born 1959)
13 December – Peter de la Mare, physical organic chemist (born 1920)
27 December – Ron Ulmer, track cyclist (born 1913)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
NZ Internet History
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand |
4243397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitanos | Gitanos | The Romani in Spain, generally known by the endonym Calé (also spelled "Kalé"), or the exonym (), belong to the Iberian Romani subgroup known as Calé, with smaller populations in Portugal (known as ) and in Southern France. Their sense of identity and cohesion stems from their shared value system, expressed among the as the ('Gypsy laws').
Traditionally, they maintain their social circles strictly within their patrigroups, as interaction between patrigroups increases the risk of feuding, which may result in fatalities. The emergence of Pentecostalism has impacted this practice, as the lifestyle of Pentecostal gitanos involves frequent contact with Calé people from outside their own patrigroups during church services and meetings. Data on ethnicity are not collected in Spain, although the public pollster CIS estimated in 2007 that the number of Calé present in Spain is probably around one million.
Name
The term gitano evolved from the word egiptano ("Egyptian"), which was the Old Spanish demonym for someone from Egipto (Egypt). "Egiptano" was the regular adjective in Old Spanish for someone from Egypt, however, in Middle and Modern Spanish the irregular adjective egipcio supplanted egiptano to mean Egyptian, probably to differentiate Egyptians from Gypsys. Meanwhile, the term egiptano evolved through elision into egitano and finally into gitano, losing the meaning of Egyptian and carrying with it a specific meaning of Romanis in Spain. The two peoples are now unambiguously differentiated in modern Spanish, "egipcios" for Egyptians and "gitanos" for Roma in Spain, with "egiptano" being obsolete for either.
Though etymologically the term gitano originally meant "Egyptian", the use itself of the Old Spanish word meaning "Egyptian" (egiptano) to refer to Romanis in Spain developed in the same way that the English word "Gypsy" also evolved from the English adjective "Egyptian" to refer to Romanis in Britain. Some Romanis, a people originating in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, upon their first arrivals to Europe, either claimed to be Egyptians for a more favourable treatment by local Europeans, or were mistaken as Egyptians by local Europeans.
Identity
The group's identity is particularly complex in Spain for a variety of reasons that are examined below. Nevertheless, it can be safely said that both from the perspective of gitano and non-gitano (payo) Spaniards, individuals generally considered to belong to this ethnicity are those of full or near-full gitano descent and who also self-identify as such. A confusing element is the thorough hybridization of Andalusian and Roma culture (and some would say identity) at a popular level. This has occurred to the point where Spaniards from other regions of Spain commonly mistake elements of one for the other. The clearest example of this is flamenco music and Sevillanas, art forms that are Andalusian rather than gitano in origin but, having been strongly marked by gitanos in interpretative style, are now commonly associated with this ethnicity by many Spaniards. The fact that the largest population of gitanos is concentrated in Southern Spain has even led to a confusion between gitano accents and those more typical of Southern Spain even though many Kale populations in the northern half of Spain (such as Galicia) do not speak Andalusian Spanish.
Origin
The Romani people originate from northwestern Hindustan, presumably from the northwestern Indian state of Rajasthan and the Punjab region shared between India and Pakistan.
The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in the Indian subcontinent: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indic languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts, daily routines and numerals.
More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left the Indian subcontinent significantly earlier than AD 1000, finally reaching Europe several hundred years later.
Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent and migrated as a group.
According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the "Ḍoma", are the likely ancestral populations of modern "Roma" in Europe.
Migration to Spain
How and when the Romani arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Northern India is a question whose consensus is far from being reached. A popular theory, although without any documentation, claims they came from North Africa, from where they would have crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to meet again in France with the northern migratory route. Thus, gitanos would be a deformation of Latin Tingitani, that is, from Tingis, today Tangier. Another, more consistent theory, and well documented, is that they entered the Iberian Peninsula from France. Although there is controversy over the date of the first arrival, since there is evidence of a safe conduct granted in Perpignan in 1415 by the infante Alfonso of Aragon to one Tomás, son of Bartolomé de Sanno, who is said to be "Indie Majoris". Or instead, it could be the so-called Juan de Egipto Menor, who entered through France, when in 1425 Alfonso V granted him a letter of insurance; he is mostly accepted as the first Romani person to reach the peninsula.
In 1435 they were seen in Santiago de Compostela. Gitanos were recorded in Barcelona and Zaragoza by 1447, and in 1462 they were received with honors in Jaén. Years later, to the gitanos, the grecianos, pilgrims who penetrated the Mediterranean shore in the 1480s, were added to them, probably because of the fall of Constantinople. Both of them continued to wander throughout the peninsula, being well received at least until 1493, year in which a group of gitanos arrived at Madrid, where the Council agreed to "... give alms to the gitanos because at the request of the City passed ahead, ten reales, to avoid the damages that could be done by three hundred people who came ... ".
In those years safe conducts were granted to supposedly noble Calé pilgrims. The follow-up of these safe-conducts throughout Spain has provided some data to historians according to Teresa San Román:
The number of Romani that entered or inhabited the Peninsula in the 15th-century is estimated at 3,000 individuals.
The Roma traveled in variable groups, of 80-150 people, led by a man.
Each autonomous group maintained relations at a distance with one of the others, there being perhaps relations of kinship among them (something common today among Spanish Romani).
The separation between each group was variable and sometimes some followed the others at close range and by the same routes.
The most common survival strategy was to present as Christian pilgrims to seek the protection of a noble.
The way of life was nomadic and dedicated to divination and performance (spectacle).
In 1492, the Roma auxiliaries helped the army of the Kingdom of Castile and León in the Reconquista in Granada ending the reign of Muslims in Spain.
Gitanos have a low and little politically committed role, with some particular exceptions; Andalusian nationalism and identity is strongly based on a belief in the oriental basis of Andalusi heritage, which acted as a bridge between occidental-western and oriental-eastern Andalusian culture at a popular level. The father of such a movement, Blas Infante, in his book Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo, etymologically, went as far as alleging that the word flamenco derives from Andalusian Arabic fellah mengu, supposedly meaning "escapee peasant". Infante believed that numerous Muslim Andalusians became Moriscos, who were obliged to convert, were dispersed, and were eventually ordered to leave Spain , but stayed and mixed with the Romani newcomers instead of abandoning their land. These claims have been rejected by many historians and genetic research papers.
For about 300 years, Romanies were subject to a number of laws and policies designed to eliminate them from Spain as an identifiable group. Romani settlements were broken up and the residents dispersed; sometimes, Romanies were required to marry non-Roma; they were prohibited from using their language and rituals, and were excluded from public office and from guild membership. In 1749, a major effort to get rid of the Calé population in Spain was carried out through a raid organized by the government.
During the Spanish Civil War, gitanos were not persecuted for their ethnicity by either side. Under the regime of Francisco Franco, gitanos were often harassed or simply ignored, although their children were educated, sometimes forcibly, much as all Spaniards are nowadays.
In the post-Franco era, Spanish government policy has been much more sympathetic, especially in the area of social welfare and social services. In 1977, the last anti-Romani laws were repealed, an action promoted by Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, the first Romani deputy.
Beginning in 1983, the government operated a special program of Compensatory Education to promote educational rights for the disadvantaged, including those in Romani communities. During the heroin epidemic that afflicted Spain in the 1980s and 1990s, gitano shanty towns became central to the drug trade, a problem that afflicts Spain to this day. Nevertheless, Spain is still considered a model for integration of gitano communities when compared to other countries with Romani populations in Eastern Europe.
Language
Historically, gitanos spoke Caló, also known as Romanés, fluently, often alongside the language spoken in the region they inhabited. Caló is a type of para-Romani, combining the phonology and grammar of the Catalan or Castilian, with a lexicon derived from Romani. The para-Romani resulting from the combination of Basque and Romani is called Erromintxela. Very few gitanos maintain a comprehensive and functional knowledge of Caló. A study on the actual usage patterns of Caló among a group of mainly Andalusian gitanos concluded that the language currently consists of between 350 and 400 unique terms, the knowledge of which varies considerably among gitanos. This would exclude a similar number of Calo words that have entered mainstream Spanish slang. According to the authors of the study, the majority of gitanos acknowledge that the language is in a terminal state, with many asserting that the language is totally lost.
Religion
In Spain, gitanos were traditionally Roman Catholics who participated in four of the Church's sacraments (baptism, marriage, confirmation, and extreme unction). They follow traditions such as the cult of the Virgin of El Rocío.
In 1997, Pope John Paul II beatified the Catholic gitano martyr Ceferino Giménez Malla, in a ceremony reportedly attended by some 3,000 Roma. Sara-la-Kali is the patron saint of Romani people.
They rarely go to folk healers, and they participate fully in Spain's state-supported medical system. Gitanos have a special involvement with recently- dead kin and visit their graves frequently. They spend more money than non-gitanos of equivalent economic classes in adorning grave sites.
The Spanish New-Protestant/New-Born Federation (mostly composed of members of the Assemblies of God and Pentecostal) claims that 150,000 gitanos have joined their faith in Spain. The Romani Evangelical Assembly is the only religious institution entirely led and composed by Roma. The gitano Evangelical church (Iglesia de Filadelfia) asserts the gitano people originate from a group of Jews who got lost during Moses' lifetime and eventually became the gitanos.
Marriage
The traditional Spanish Romani place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young.
A traditional gitano wedding requires a pedimiento (similar to an engagement party) followed by the casamiento (wedding ceremony), where el yeli must be sung to the bride to celebrate the virginity and honour of the bride (proven by the ritual of the pañuelo). In the pañuelo ritual, a group consisting of an ajuntaora (a professional who is skilled in performing the ritual and is paid by the family), along with the married women of the family, take the bride into a separate room during the wedding and examine her to ascertain that she is a virgin. The ajuntaora is the one who performs the ritual on the bride, as the other women watch to be witnesses that the bride is virgin. The ajuntaora wraps a white, decoratively embroidered cloth (the pañuelo) around her index finger and inserts it shallowly into the vaginal canal of the bride. During this process, the Bartholin's glands are depressed, causing them to secrete a liquid that stains the cloth. This action is repeated with three different sections of the cloth to produce three stains, known as "rosas". This process is conceived by the women as the retrieval of the bride's "honra", her honour, contained within a "grape" inside her genitals which is popped during the examination, and the spillage collected onto the pañuelo.
When finished with the exam, the women come out of the room and sing el yeli to the couple. During this, the men at the wedding rip their shirts and lift the wife onto their shoulders and do the same with the husband, as they sing "el yeli" to them. Weddings can last very long; up to three days is usual in Gitano culture. At weddings, gitanos invite everyone and anyone that they know of, (especially other gitanos). On some occasions, payos (gadjos) may attend as well, although this is not common. Through the night, many bulerías are danced and especially sung. Today, rumba gitana or rumba flamenca are usual party music fixtures.
Gitanos may also marry by elopement, an event that garners less approval than a wedding ceremony.
Marginalisation
Marginalisation occurs on an institutional level. Gitano children are regularly segregated from their non-gitano peers and have poorer academic outcomes. In 1978, 68% of adult gitanos were illiterate. Literacy has greatly improved over time; approximately 10% of gitanos were illiterate as of 2006-2007 (with older gitanos much more likely than younger gitanos to be illiterate). Ninety-eight percent of gitanos live below the poverty line. Health outcomes and housing - including reduced access to clean water and electricity supplies - is worse amongst Roma compared to non-Roma in Spain and Portugal, in common with the other surveyed European countries.
Roma continue to experience discrimination on an interpersonal level, such as by being refused entry to bars and clubs or losing their jobs if their ethnicity is made known to their employer. In 2016, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights reported that its survey showed 71 percent of Portuguese cigano, and 51 percent of Spanish gitano had suffered an episode of discrimination within the previous five years. A traditional discriminatory practice in Portugal, where shops and businesses display toad figurines at entrances to dissuade ciganos from entering, was reported as being still widely seen in Portugal in 2019. (Toads are viewed as symbolic of evil and ill-omen in Roma communities in Portugal.) Ciganos and anti-discrimination activists complained of hostility to Roma being commonplace. Some shopkeepers were noted as defending their discouragement of Roma as appropriate.
The 2016 Pew Research poll found that 49% of Spaniards held unfavorable views of Roma.
In literature
The gitano in Spanish society have inspired several authors:
Federico García Lorca, a great Spanish poet of the 20th century, wrote Romancero Gitano ("Gypsy Ballad Book")
Candela, the female protagonist of the story El Amor Brujo, by Manuel de Falla is Romani.
Prosper Mérimée's Carmen (1845) features the protagonist as a femme fatale, ready to lie, or attack and degrade men's lives. His work was adapted for Georges Bizet's opera of the same name.
The beauty of a dark-haired Gitana has inspired artists such as Julio Romero de Torres.
La Gitanilla ("The little Gypsy girl"), short story by Miguel de Cervantes and part of his Exemplary Novels
Rocio Eva Granada, the escort in the novel Digital Fortress by Dan Brown
Music and dance
The art of Flamenco was developed in the Calé Romani culture of Southern Spain. Many famous Spanish flamenco musicians are of Romani ethnicity.
Notable gitanos
Following are notable Spanish people of Calé (gitano) ethnicity:
Leaders and politicians
Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party MEP
Sara Giménez Giménez, Spanish Roma politician in Citizens political party
Séfora Vargas Spanish Gypsy political activist and lawyer
Historians, philologists and writers
Silvia Agüero, feminist writer
Joaquín Albaicín, writer, lecturer and columnist for the artistic life
Matéo Maximoff, French writer born in Barcelona
Poets, novelists and playwrights
José Heredia Maya, poet and dramaturge
Luis Heredia Amaya, sculptor
Antonio Maya Cortés, artist painter and sculptor
Fabian de Castro, artist painter
Catholic saints and martyrs
Ceferino Giménez Malla, blessed
Painters and sculptors
Helios Gómez, artist, writer and poet
Juan Vargas, sculptor
Actors, comedians and entertainers
Rogelio Durán, theatre actor and father of Swedish actress Noomi Rapace
Pastora Vega, actress
Alba Flores, actress; granddaughter of Antonio González (El Pescaílla) and daughter of singer Antonio Flores
Jesús Castro (actor), actor of film The Niño.
El Comandante Lara, comedian and singer
Juan Rosa Mateo, comedian of Duo Sacapuntas
Footballers and football coaches
José Antonio Reyes, ex-footballer, for Arsenal F.C., Sevilla FC...
José Rodríguez Martínez, footballer, currently plays for Maccabi Haifa F.C.
Jesús Seba, footballer, ex-Real Zaragoza
Diego, former footballer, with Sevilla Fútbol Club (Sevilla FC)
Carlos Muñoz, former footballer, with Real Oviedo
Carlos Aranda, former footballer, with Sevilla FC
Ivan Amaya, former footballer, with Atletico Madrid
Antonio Amaya, footballer, for Rayo Vallecano
Marcos Márquez, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
López Ramos, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
Antonio Cortés Heredia footballer for Málaga
Ezequiel Calvente ex-footballer Real Betis
Téji Savanier footballer frech of the origin calo Spanish, footballer Montpellier
Jesús Navas, footballer, with Sevilla FC
Other athletes
Rafael Soto, equestrian and Olympic medalist
Faustino Reyes, boxer
José Antonio Jiménez, boxer
Patxi Ruiz Giménez, Basque pelota champion
Singers and musicians
Carmen Amaya, Flamenco dancer
Isabel Pantoja, singer, partially Calé
Los Chunguitos, singers, brother duet
Azúcar Moreno, singers, sister duet
Manolo Caracol, Flamenco singer
El Pescaílla, singer and composer, husband of Lola Flores
Lolita Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Antonio Flores, singer and actor, son of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Rosario Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Vicente Escudero, dancer and choreographer of Spanish Flamenco; occasionally painter, writer, cinematographic actor and flamenco singer
Gipsy Kings, French group of Flamenco Rumba
Nicolas Reyes, lead vocalist of the Gipsy Kings
Camarón de la Isla, Flamenco singer
Farruquito, Flamenco dancer
Los Niños de Sara, French fusion musicians
Ketama, fusion musicians
Kendji Girac, French singer
Diego "El Cigala", Flamenco singer
Joaquín Cortés, star flamenco dancer
Beatriz Luengo, singer and actress
Natalia Jiménez, singer and vocalist of La quinta estacion
Jorge González, singer
Manitas de Plata, guitar player
Peret, Catalan singer, guitar player and composer of Catalan rumba
Camela, singers of Spanish musical group of techno rumba and flamenco pop.
Los Chichos singers
Las Grecas singers
Estrella Morente singer
Niña Pastori singer and composer
Belén Maya bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Juan Villar, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
José Mercé, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
El Príncipe Gitano, cantaor (Flamenco singer) and bailaor (Flamenco dancer)
Dolores Vargas, "La Terremoto" cantaora (Flamenco singer) and bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Gerardo Núñez, guitarist and composer
Mario Maya, cantaor and bailaor
Tomatito, Flamenco guitarist and composer
Remedios Amaya, cantaora
Falete cantaor (Flamenco singer)
La Chunga bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Manuel Agujetas cantaor
Antonio Mairena cantaor
Manuel Torre cantaor
La Niña de los Peines cantaora (Flamenco singer)
Pastora Imperio bailaora
Chiquetete cantaor
El Lebrijano Flamenco guitarist
Paco Cepero Flamenco guitarist
Vicente Soto Sordera cantaor
Cancanilla de Marbella cantaor and bailaor
Perla de Cádiz cantaora
Manzanita singer and guitarist
Moraito Chico guitarist of Flamenco
Diego Carrasco cantaor and guitarist
Mala Rodríguez singer
La Serneta cantaora
Antonia La Negra cantaora
Lole y Manuel Flamenco singers
Alba Molina singer
Rancapino c
Pilar Montoya bailaora
Juana la Macarrona cantaora
Antonio Carmona singer of Flamenco
La Macanita cantaora
Pansequito cantaor
Gitano surnames
Due to endogamy, several Spanish surnames are more frequent among the Gitanos, though they are not exclusive to them:
Altamira or Altamirano
Amaya
Antunes or Antúnez (alternatively, Antuñez)
Calaf (Catalan Gypsy)
Cortés
Fernández
Flores
Gabarri (Catalan Gypsy)
Gutiérrez or Guiterez
Heredia
Jiménez or Giménez
Malla or Maya
Molina
Montoya
Monge or Monje
Moreno
Morgade
Motos
Pereiro or Pereira
Pubill (Catalan Gypsy)
Ravelino or Rabellino
Reyes
Sandoval
Salazar
Santi
Santiago
Vargas LP
Villar or Vilar
Viso
Carretero
Pérez
González
Escudero
Ximénez
See also
Triana, Seville, a neighbourhood traditionally linked to Gitano history.
Sacromonte, the traditional Gitano quarter of Granada.
George Borrow, an English missionary and traveller who studied the Calé of Spain and other parts of Europe.
Quinqui, a nomad community of Spain with a similar lifestyle, but of unrelated origin.
Cagot, similarly historically persecuted people in France and Spain.
, an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots.
Cleanliness of blood, ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime.
, an ethnic group in Spain who were also discriminated against and have unknown origins.
, a discriminated group of cowherders in Northern Spain.
a persecuted ethnic minority in Mallorca, often referenced in works discussing the persecution of Cagots in Spain.
References
Sources
The Situation of Roma in Spain. The Open Society Institute, 2002 (PDF).
Worth, Susannah and Sibley, Lucy R. "Maja Dress and the Andalusian Image of Spain." Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Summer 1994, Vol. 12, pp. 51–60.
Notes
External links
Romani union (English exonym present)
Romani presence in European Music
Spain
Ethnic groups in Spain
Romani in Spain |
4243404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Netzer | Michael Netzer | Michael Netzer (born 9 October 1955) is an American-Israeli artist best known for his comic book work for DC Comics and Marvel Comics in the 1970s, as well as for his online presence.
Early life
Michael Nasser (later Netzer) was born in Detroit, Michigan, U.S. His father was Adel Nasser a-Din, a Druze doctor of philosophy who worked most of his life in a Ford factory. His mother, Adele Ghazali, is a daughter to a Druze-Lebanese father and a Jewish-Lebanese mother who settled in New York in the 1920s. He contracted polio at the age of eight months which partially paralyzed his left hip and leg. After two years of medical treatment, he was sent with his mother and siblings to his father's Druze hometown, Dayr Qūbil in Lebanon. In 1967, at the age of 11, he returned to Detroit. In school, he became interested in comic book illustration and storytelling, and began developing skills as an artist. He used his art for a campaign that won him election of vice-president of his senior class in Redford High School, where he also gained the rank of lieutenant colonel in the JROTC program.
During high school, Netzer met Greg Theakston, who introduced him to the world of professional comics art. He worked as a sign painter and graphic designer while attending Wayne State University in Michigan for two years. Theakston later introduced him to Neal Adams at the Detroit Triple Fan Fair comics convention in 1974. Adams took interest in Netzer's art and invited him to join Continuity Studios.
In September 1981, Netzer traveled to Lebanon to visit his father, intending to continue afterwards to Israel. When the Lebanon War broke out, he became stranded there until the fighting subsided. In August 1983, he hired a taxi that brought him to the Lebanon-Israel border, where he crossed into Israel. While settling in Israel, he studied the Hebrew language and the Jewish faith at several kibbutzim. Nezter then converted to Judaism, and changed his Arabic last name Nasser to the Hebrew name Netzer. In May 1985, he moved to Ofra, an Israeli settlement in the West Bank, where he currently resides. He is married to Elana Yosef and they have five children.
Comics career
Early work
In late 1975, Netzer was invited to join Arvell Jones and Keith Pollard for a drive to New York City, where the two artists shared an apartment. They offered Netzer accommodations while he tried to gain work in comics. He joined Continuity Studios, which became his base as a freelancer. He began work producing storyboards and advertising art for the studio, while procuring his first comics assignment, a two-part back-up story in Kamandi: "Tales of the Great Disaster". He gained quick recognition as an illustrator at DC Comics and Marvel Comics, producing art for Kobra, Challengers of the Unknown, Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes and Wonder Woman at DC, as well as various covers for Marvel. Other characters he became known for were the Martian Manhunter, Green Arrow and Black Canary, Batman, Black Lightning and Spider-Man. Netzer became active in efforts to form a Comics Creators Guild, that were based at Continuity. By late 1977, he was scheduled to pencil the new series John Carter, Warlord of Mars for editor Marv Wolfman at Marvel. Reconsidering the direction his life and career were taking, and the general conditions of the comics industry, Netzer declined the project and decided to take a break away from drawing comic books.
In November 1977, Netzer left his career in New York and hitchhiked across the United States. Arriving in San Francisco, he contacted Star*Reach magazine publisher Mike Friedrich to decline a commitment he had made for the publication's first color installment. Friedrich asked Netzer to produce a story that would tell of his new-found aspirations, resulting in "The Old, New and Final Testaments", an eight-page vignette weaving socio-religious history with humanity's ambitions for the colonization of the solar system. Friedrich published the story in Star*Reach #12 (1977) and wrote about his meeting with Netzer in the editorial.
For the next several years, Netzer produced sporadic comic book art for DC and Marvel, including a Batman story in DC Special Series, Black Lightning in World's Finest Comics, Spider-Man in Marvel Team-Up and numerous covers for Marvel. He was one of several artists to draw the comics adaptation of Xanadu in Marvel Super Special #17 (Summer 1980). During this period, he traveled through the United States and promoted the idea of a new political hierarchy through the comic book medium. His colleagues described this activity as messianic and expressed concerns about his behavior. In a 1980 interview with Whizzard Magazine, editor Marty Klug noted: "Since 1977 his work, most notably in Star*Reach, has often professed a creative politico-religious theme derived from diverse sources ranging from superhero adventure to Biblical prophecy. Nasser's speculations—frequently intriguing, often controversial and, at times, somewhat outrageous—espouse a refreshing optimism rarely found in such works. Currently, he is assembling these perspectives in book form and may well be one of the first comic illustrators to branch off in such a unique direction."
Israel comics
In 1984–1988, he contributed covers, accompanying illustrations and a comic strip, Milk and Honey, to Counterpoint, an Israeli English-language publication of Gush Emunim edited by Rachelle Katsman and Yisrael Medad.
In 1987, he produced Israel's first Super Hero color comic book, with partners Jonathan Duitch and Yossi Halpern, "Uri-On", (אורי-און) under their Israel Comics imprint. This came at a time of a surge in comics activity in the country and was featured in an Israel Museum Comics Exhibit alongside the work of his national peers, Dudu Geva, Michel Kichka, Uri Fink and others. Michael's design of the Menorah symbol for Uri-On was featured in a later Israel Museum exhibit highlighting various Menorah designs through the ages. Netzer's prominence as a former American comic book artist and controversial choice of residence in the occupied West Bank, provided a platform for the artist to appear on local television talk shows, receive varied media coverage and give lectures on the comic book medium as a tool for advancing a peaceful solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Return to U.S. comics
In 1991, Netzer returned to New York and Continuity Comics, where he produced art for several issues of Megalith. He and Neal Adams entered into a dispute over intellectual property rights to Ms. Mystic, a character they had worked on jointly in 1977, which Adams had published under the Pacific Comics and Continuity Comics imprints, leading to a lawsuit against Adams in New York Federal Court in 1993. The case was dismissed in 1995, citing the statute of limitations.
Netzer left Continuity and produced a series of comic book projects during this period, including Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2, Detective Comics, The Huntress, Babylon 5, Team Titans, and Green Arrow for DC Comics, and Neil Gaiman's Lady Justice for Tekno Comix. His art in this period demonstrated a notable shift into a darker and moodier art style, such as in The Huntress mini-series, which merged his high-contrast style in the 1978 Hot Stuff with the dark noir art of the popular Frank Miller's Sin City series. In his Sin City: The Big Fat Kill #1 (1994) letter column, Miller criticized Netzer, along with artists Jim Lee and Tim Sale, who also produced dark noir art in that period, for drawing influence from Sin City. Miller also criticized Netzer's lawsuit against Adams for Ms. Mystic in the same letter column. In 2011, Netzer responded to Miller at CBR's Comics Should Be Good, saying he'd worked in a similar style before Miller became known for it. He added that no artist develops without visible influences, and that creators who preceded Miller were not known to criticize artists whom they inspired.
In 1994 Netzer returned to Israel. In 1998, he teamed up with Sofia Fedorov to establish a visual media production studio called Netzart Fedorov Media which allowed Netzer to develop his skills in computer-generated illustration, advertising and web design.
In 2010, Netzer returned to mainstream comics, producing art for Kevin Smith's Green Hornet from Dynamite Entertainment, along with illustrating a chapter of Erich Origen and Gan Golan's The Adventures of Unemployed Man from Little, Brown, publishers of the satire Goodnight Bush by the same writers. Netzer also returned to producing collector art commissions, including a series of classic cover recreations with artist Gene Colan, represented by writer/agent Clifford Meth. In 2011, he produced three covers for Kfir from Israeli Zanzuria Comics.
Web activism
A 40-day retreat to the Dead Sea resort of Ein Gedi in February 2003 inspired Netzer to go back to his early spiritual themes and activism. In January 2004, Netzer launched his first web site, "The New Comic Book of Life", outlining his theories on superhero mythology and the role it plays in cultural evolution. On the site, Netzer revealed unpublished material espousing this manifesto from 1977 to 1981, which had never seen publication. He also apologized to colleague Neal Adams for his lawsuit against him in the previous decade, though in 2018 Netzer renewed his assertion that he created the character of Ms. Mystic, leading to a great deal of public acrimony between the two. In November 2004, he launched a second web site, "The Comic Book Creator's Party", calling on comics creators to form a political union for participating in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, and quoting notable comics creators' references to the socio-political climate in America and abroad. Netzer has since launched several other web sites, including "The Comic Book Creators' Guild", "Growing Earth Consortium" and "Michael Netzer Online", the site-complex portal.
While producing no mainstream comics art from the mid-1990s until 2010, Netzer maintained a web presence, speaking on comics community issues, including a campaign to bolster comic fandom's support for J'onn J'onzz The Martian Manhunter, facing a rumored demise in DC Comics Final Crisis miniseries. In early 2009, Netzer founded and launched Facebook Comic Con.
Following his conviction that art should contribute towards the betterment of society, Netzer joined Comics For All in May 2010, a collective of Israeli comics artists that aims to promote the medium as a cultural and educational tool for aiding underprivileged children. The organization operates under the auspices of comic book retailer chain Comics N' Vegetables, and contributed to the retailer winning the Will Eisner Spirit of Comics Retailer Award in 2011. Netzer participates in various activities on a pro bono basis.
Save the Comics campaign
In early 2011 Netzer launched a campaign, Save the Comics, to bring public attention to the undercurrents of a decades-long sales slump for printed comic books. The initiative came on the heels of his participation in an industry-wide debate on a revolution in creator-owned properties.
On 10 February 2011, Netzer lodged an online complaint at the Federal Trade Commission web site against DC Comics and Marvel Comics calling for industry leaders to turn their attention back to the business of comic book publishing.
In June 2011, Netzer responded to the controversial story in Action Comics #900, in which Superman is compelled to renounce his American citizenship after participating in an Iranian anti-government demonstration. He produced a two-page short satire, wherein Superman returns to Tehran with Batman and Wonder Woman, who all participate in an anti-American demonstration. An image of the three heroes burning American and Western Allies flags, drew sharp criticism from the Bleeding Cool audience. Netzer responded by burning the original art of the controversial image, and filming a video clip of it, to demonstrate the value of the satire.
In May 2013, Netzer led a campaign on behalf of comics writer Don McGregor when Dynamite Entertainment promoted the revival of Lady Rawhide, created by McGregor and Mike Mayhew. Dynamite publisher Nick Barrucci responded in dismissal of McGregor's publicly aired frustration at hearing about his creation being revived in press releases, and that the creators' credits were omitted from the announcements. Netzer's campaign at Bleeding Cool, The Beat, Facebook and his own site led the publisher to appear at Netzer's Facebook profile and apologize to McGregor. The campaign received some criticism for its intensity, but was also noted by others for helping bring the issue of creators' rights and their treatment by publishers to the forefront of industry dialogue.
Published works
DC Comics
Adventure Comics #449–451 (Manhunter from Mars) (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Terry Austin, 1977); (The Flash) #466 (with Cary Bates, inks by Vince Colletta, 1979)
Armageddon: The Alien Agenda #2 (with Jonathan Peterson, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1991)
Armageddon: Inferno #1–2, 4 (1992)
Babylon 5 #1–2, 4 (with J. Michael Straczynski, inks by Rob Leigh, 1994)
Batman/Green Arrow: The Poison Tomorrow one-shot (with Dennis O'Neil, 1992)
Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2 (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Luke McDonnell, 1993)
Challengers of the Unknown #81–82 (with Gerry Conway, inks by Bob Wiacek and Josef Rubinstein, 1977)
DC Special Series #1 (Batman) (with Martin Pasko, 1977); #15 (with David V. Reed, in both cases, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1978); #11 (Doctor Fate) (with Paul Levitz and Joe Staton, 1978)
Detective Comics #654–655, 657–658 (with Chuck Dixon, inks by Scott Hanna and Luke McDonnell, 1992–1993)
Ghosts #97 (1981)
Green Arrow #89, 96 (with Kevin Dooley and Chuck Dixon, inks by Rob Leigh and Jim Aparo, 1994–1995)
House of Mystery #276 (1980)
Isis #2 (with Steve Skeates, inks by Vince Colletta, 1976–1977)
The Huntress #1–4 (miniseries) (with Chuck Dixon, 1994)
Jonah Hex and Other Western Tales #3 (1980)
Kamandi #45–46 ("Tales of the Great Disaster"), inks by Josef Rubinstein (1976)
Kobra #6–7 (with Martin Pasko, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1977)
Men of War #15 ("The Sentry", two–pages, inks by Bob Smith, 1979)
Secrets of Haunted House #24 (with Laurie S. Sutton, inks by Vince Colletta, 1980)
Star Hunters #3 (with David Michelinie, inks by Bob Layton, 1978)
Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes #222, 225–226, 230–231, 233, 236 (with Jim Shooter and Paul Levitz, inks by Bob Layton, Bob Wiacek, Jack Abel and Josef Rubinstein, 1976–77)
Team Titans #1 Nightrider (with Marv Wolfman, inks by George Pérez, 1992)
Time Warp #4 (1980)
Wonder Woman #232 (with Alan Brennert and Martin Pasko, inks by Vince Colletta, 1977)
World's Finest Comics #244–246 (Green Arrow and Black Canary) (with Tony Isabella and Jack C. Harris, inks by Terry Austin, 1977); #259–260 (Black Lightning) (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Vince Colletta, 1979)
Marvel Comics
Howard the Duck #16 (with Steve Gerber, inks by Terry Austin, 1976)
Marvel Comics Super Special #17 (with J. M. DeMatteis and other artists, 1980)
Marvel Preview #7 (1976)
Marvel Spotlight #33 (with David Anthony Kraft, Rich Buckler and Arvell Jones, inks by Klaus Janson, Marvel, 1977)
Marvel Tales #100 (with Scott Edelman, inks by Terry Austin, 1979)
Marvel Team-Up #89 (with Chris Claremont, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1980)
Marvel Two-In-One #70 (with Mark Gruenwald and Ralph Macchio, inks by Gene Day, 1980)
Savage Sword of Conan #20, 29, 70–71 (pinups only, 1977–81)
Star Trek #7 (with Tom DeFalco, inks by Klaus Janson, 1980)
The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu #28 (with Lao Tzu, pinup only, 1976)
Web of Spider-Man Annual #3 (with Roger Stern, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1987)
Other publishers
"12 Parts" in Hot Stuff #6, (Sal Quartuccio Productions, 1978)
1984 #5 (with Len Wein, inks by Alfredo Alcala, Warren Publishing, 1979)
Civil Wardrobe (with Rich Johnston, Brain Scan Studios, 2006)
Ms. Mystic #1 (with Neal Adams, Pacific Comics, 1982)
Neil Gaiman's Wheel of Worlds #0 (with C. J. Henderson, Tekno Comix, 1995)
Neil Gaiman's Lady Justice #1–2 (with C.J. Henderson, inks by Rick Magyar, Tekno, 1995)
Megalith #5–7 (with Peter Stone, Continuity Comics, 1991)
Star Reach #12 (Star Reach Productions, 1978)
Uri-On #1–4 (Israel Comics, 1987–1988)
War Dancer #5 (with Jim Shooter, inks by Brad Vancata Defiant Comics, 1994)
Dose #2 (Bankshot Comics, 2008)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet Annual #1 (with Phil Hester, inks by Josef Rubinstein Dynamite Entertainment, 2010)
The Adventures of Unemployed Man graphic novel (with Origen and Golan, inks by Josef Rubinstein Little, Brown, 2010)
Rich Johnston's ScienTHORlogy one shot satire (with Rich Johnston, Boom! Studios, 2012)
Jewish Comix Anthology short story (with Clifford Meth, Alternate History Comics, 2014)
Note: From 1987 (Uri-On #1), he is credited as Michael Netzer; previously, he was credited with his birth name, Michael Nasser.
Covers
Netzer has also provided the art for these covers:
Adventures on the Planet of the Apes #7 (Marvel, 1976)
Tomb of Darkness #22 (Marvel, 1976)
Chamber of Chills #24, inks, (Marvel, 1976)
Kobra #6–7 (DC, 1977)
Challengers of the Unknown #81–82 (DC, 1977)
Wonder Woman #231–232 (DC, 1977)
Shazam! #35 (DC, 1978)
The Spectacular Spider-Man #37 (Marvel, 1979)
Defenders #87–89 (Marvel, 1980)
Star Trek #7 (Marvel, 1980)
Marvel Team-Up #101 (Marvel, 1980)
The Amazing Spider-Man #207, 228 (Marvel, 1980, 1982)
Uri-On #1–4, (Israel Comics, 1987–1988)
Armageddon: Inferno #1–4 (DC, 1992)
The Shadow Strikes #30 (DC, 1992)
Batman #480 (DC, 1992)
The Comet #9–12, 14–18 (DC, 1992)
Batman/Green Arrow: The Poison Tomorrow (DC, 1992)
Robin III: Cry of the Huntress #3 {DC, 1993}
Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2 (DC, 1993)
The Huntress #1–4 (DC, 1994)
Babylon 5 #2, 4, (DC, 1994)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet #3 (4 alternate covers, Dynamite 2010)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet Annual #1 (Dynamite, 2010)
Avatar of the Futurians #2 (David Miller Studios, 2010)
Kfir #1–3 (Zanzuria, 2011)
WWE Superstars #3 (Super Genius, Papercutz, 2013)
References
Bibliography
Michael Netzer at the Big Comic Book DataBase
External links
Michael Netzer Online Portal, official homepage (archived)
"DC Profiles #14" at the Grand Comics Database
Netzart Fedorov Media, company with which Netzer is involved
Marty Klug, A Revealing Conversation, Wizzard Magazine, Fall 1980 (archived)
Daniel Best, Interview, Adelaide Comics and Books, 17 July 2004
Brian Doherty, But What Has He Done for the Purple Skins?, Reason Magazine, 11 January 2005
Rik Offenberger, , Silver Bullet Comic Books, 4 May 2005
Facebook Comic Con Gala Premiere
Campaign to Save the Comics at Netzer's web site (archived).
1955 births
20th-century American male artists
20th-century Israeli male artists
21st-century American male artists
21st-century Israeli male artists
American comics artists
American emigrants to Israel
Jewish American artists
American people of Lebanese-Jewish descent
Artists from Detroit
Converts to Judaism from Druzism
Converts to Judaism
DC Comics people
American Druze
Israeli Druze
Israeli comics artists
Jewish Israeli artists
Israeli people of Lebanese-Jewish descent
Israeli settlers
Lebanese Jews
Living people
Marvel Comics people
People from Ofra
Redford High School alumni
Wayne State University alumni |
4243407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Saudi%20Arabia | Education in Saudi Arabia | Public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. Education is the second-largest sector of government spending in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, which is nearly double the global average of 4.6%. Islamic studies are part of the education system alongside scientific and social studies that vary from educational institution to another.
Before 1957, when King Saud University was founded, many Saudi Arabians immigrated to other countries to attend universities.
Background
Saudi education is noted for its religious content. As of 2016, religious studies average a total of nine periods a week at the primary school level, compared to an average about 23 periods a week total for mathematics, science (physics, chemistry, biology and geology), social studies, Arabic language, English language and physical education. At the university level, nearly two-thirds of graduates are women.
The education system was also criticized in the 1980s and 1990s for "poorly trained teachers, low retention rates, lack of rigorous standards, weak scientific and technical instruction", despite generous budgets, that have compelled the kingdom to depend on large numbers of expatriates workers to fill technical and administrative positions. Cultural theology has also historically held influence over women's education in Saudi Arabia as well. By 2019, however, the Saudi embassy in the U.S. noted that "While the study of Islam remains at its core, the modern Saudi educational system also provides quality instruction in diverse fields of arts and sciences."
Education management system
Education is free at all levels. The education system in Saudi Arabia is primarily under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC). Other authorities such as the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the Presidency of the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior provide their affiliates and children with education at all levels, consistent with Ministry of Education guidelines. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963.
According to the World Bank database, public spending on education is 6.8 percent of GDP, and public spending on education as a percentage of government expenditure was 27.6 percent in 2004. Education spending as a percentage of overall spending tripled from 1970 to 2000, and neither economic growth nor the price of oil had much impact on this trend.
The Ministry of Education developed The Ministry of Education Ten–Year Plan 1425–1435, which set the following goals:
The education of 4- to 6-year-old children and the consideration of kindergarten as an independent stage as compared with other educational stages in terms of its buildings and syllabi
Accommodation of all age categories from 6 to 18 years old at various stages of education
Deepening the spirit of loyalty and pride of the country through intellectual awareness of Saudi Arabia's national issues
Preparing students academically and culturally at the local and international levels to be able to achieve advanced international posts in the fields of mathematics and science for various age categories, taking into account International tests' standards
Organization of girls' technical education
Development of an educational system for students with special needs
Development and growth of educational and administrative training for the Ministry's personnel
Improvement of internal and external sufficiency for the educational system
Development of syllabi based on Islamic values leading to the development of male and female students' personality and to their integration in society as well as to the achievement of scientific and thinking skills and life characteristics resulting in self-education and lifelong learning
To improve the quality of male and female teachers and to increase the citizens' rate in the education sector to achieve the full use of Saudi human resources
To develop the educational structure and to update the school map to meet the expected quantitative and qualitative changes in the next stage
To develop the infrastructure of information and communication technology and its employment in education and learning
To develop male and female adults' education and to eradicate illiteracy
The Ministry's comprehensive administrative development
Expansion of social participation in education
To establish integrated systems for accountability
Pre-primary education
In Saudi Arabia, children aged 3–5 years go to kindergarten. However, attendance of kindergartens is not a prerequisite for enrollment of first grade of primary education and kindergartens are not part of the official education ladder. Some private numbers have been established with technical and financial first aid-kit from the government.
According to government data, 100,714 children (51,364 male and 49,350 female) were in pre-primary education in 2007. The gross enrollment percentage was 10.8%, for boys 11.1 percent and for girls 10.4 percent.
Intermediate and secondary education
Intermediate education in Saudi Arabia lasts three years.
According to government data, 1,144,548 students (609,300 male and 535,248 female) were in intermediate education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 108,065 (54,034 male and 54,031 female) in 2007. According to gross enrollment the total rate was 95.9 percent in 2007.
Secondary education in Saudi Arabia also lasts three years and is the final stage of general education. After the intermediate education, students have the opportunity for both general and specialized secondary education. Technical secondary institute which provide technical and vocational education and training programs lasts three years in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture.
According to the educational plan for secondary (high school) education 1435–1438 Hijri, students enrolling in the "natural sciences" path are required to take five religion subjects which are tawhid, fiqh, tafsir, hadith and Islamic education and Quran. However, in 2021 the Saudi Ministry of Education merged the multiple Islamic subjects into one single book as part of a series of reforms to revamp the school education system. In addition, students are required to take six science subjects which are math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology and computer.
According to government data, 1,013,074 students (541,849 male and 471,225 female) were in secondary education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 87,823 (41,108 male and 46,715 female) in 2007.
As of 2007, gross enrollment rates were 91.8% in secondary education.
Post-secondary/higher education
Investment in higher education has outstripped the western world in some cases.
Higher education in Saudi Arabia lasts four years in the field of humanities and social sciences, and five to six years in the field of medicine, engineering and pharmacy. The establishment of the King Saud University in 1957 was the starting point of the modern higher education system in Saudi Arabia. This was also the first university in all the Arab states of the Arabian Gulf.
There are 24 government universities in Saudi Arabia, established in a short span of time. Among them, Taibah University, Qassim University and Taif University were established under the Seventh Development Plan. The universities consists of colleges and departments that offer diplomas, and bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various scientific and humanities specializations. Some colleges and departments also provide distance learning. There also exist private colleges, community colleges affiliated to universities, and girls colleges, in addition to government agencies and institutions that provide specialist university-level education.
According to a World Bank report, more than 70 percent of the students in Saudi Arabia are in the fields of humanities and social sciences, a figure similar to that of other Arab countries, like Djibouti, Egypt, Morocco, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza.
According to government data, a total of 636,245 (268,080 male and 368,165 female) students were enrolled in higher education in 2006. Among them, 528,146 students (187,489 male and 340,657 female) were in Bachelor programs, 9,768 students (5,551 male and 4,217 female) were in Master programs, and 2,410 students (1,293 male and 1,117 female) were in Ph.D. programs. Another 93,968 students (72,199 male and 21,769 female) were in Intermediate Diploma courses and 1,953 students (1,548 male and 405 female) were in Higher Diploma course. According to the World Bank, in 2006 the gross enrollment ratio for females was 36.1 percent, the gross enrollment ratio for males was 24.7 percent, and the total gross enrollment ratio was 30.2 percent.
In 2005, King Abdullah implemented a government scholarship program to send young Saudi nationals to Western universities for undergraduate and postgraduate studies. The program offers funds for tuition and living expenses for up to four years. An estimated 5,000 Saudi students received government scholarships to study abroad for the 2007/2008 academic year. Students mostly studied at universities in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland, France, and Germany.
The universities in the United Kingdom which provide distance learning in Saudi Arabia include the University of Leicester. It has ranked in the top 1% of universities in the world by THE World University Rankings.
In the United Kingdom alone, more than 15,000 Saudi students, 25% of whom are women, attend universities. The large number of students also includes Saudis paying their own tuition. The large influx of Saudi students to the United Kingdom prompted the Saudi Ministry of Higher Education in 2010 to close access to the country for further study.
Girls' and women's education
In 1957, the Dar al-Hanan and Nassif private schools for girls opened in the city of Jeddah. The openings were prompted by Iffat, the wife of Faisal of Saudi Arabia. Afterwards the Saudi government began opening state-operated girls schools. Religious fundamentalists protested the openings of the schools. In 1963 King Faisal brought soldiers to control protesters when a girls' school opened in Buraydah. During Saudi Arabia's first oil boom many Saudi males who studied abroad brought foreign wives back to Saudi Arabia. This caused concern among Saudi fathers with daughters eligible for marriage. In the late 1970s the Saudi government greatly increased university spots for women as a way of slowly progressing and not to clash with traditional culture at the time.
The General Administration of Girls' Education (also called the General Presidency for Girls' Education) was established independently from the Ministry of Education when girls education was started in Saudi Arabia 1960. Girls education was put under the control of a separate administration controlled by conservative clerics as "a compromise to calm public opposition to allowing (not requiring) girls to attend school".
60% of university students in Saudi Arabia are Saudi females. In Saudi Arabia, women in the labor force are mainly in the education sector. The first group of women graduated from a law program in 2008. On 6 October 2013, the first four women received their legal licences to practice law, not only as legal consultants but as lawyers in courtrooms and before the Saudi judiciary.
According to the World Bank report, female students in higher education in Saudi Arabia outnumber those in Jordan, Tunisia and West Bank and Gaza.
According to the World Bank, gross enrollment rate for female is 36.1 percent, gross enrollment rate for male is 24.7 percent, and gross enrollment rate for total was 30.2 percent in 2006. There are thousands of female professors throughout Saudi Arabia.
Around 2009, an expert on girls' education became the first female minister in Saudi Arabia. Nora bint Abdullah al-Fayez, a US-educated former teacher, was made deputy education minister in charge of a new department for female students. In addition, Saudi Arabia provides female students with one of the world's largest scholarship programs. By this program, thousands of women have earned doctorates from Western universities.
The building of colleges and universities for women, which was recently announced by the government, is critically important. Women constitute 60% of Saudi Arabia's college students but only 21% of its labor force, much lower than in neighboring countries. 85% of employed Saudi women work in education, 6% in public health, and 95% in the public sector. Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University (PNU) is the first women's university in Saudi Arabia and largest women-only university in the world, composed of 32 campuses across the Riyadh region.
According to the Saudi Ministry of Education, Saudi women’s undergraduate enrollment rates surpassed those of men in 2015, with women comprising 52 percent of all university students in the kingdom.
Gifted education
The early interest in gifted education in Saudi Arabia began in 1969 when the official educational policy was approved by the Council of Ministers, highlighting the need for special care and opportunities for gifted individuals.
Subsequent developments in the field of gifted education in Saudi Arabia can be summarized in seven major historical movements, including the establishment of a national program for identifying and nurturing gifted students, the establishment of a foundation for giftedness and creativity, the implementation of school-based enrichment programs, and the establishment of the first special school for gifted students. More recent developments include the adoption of academic acceleration methods and the establishment of gifted education classes in public schools.
Despite early policies and regulations, formal gifted education programs in public schools were established only in 2002. The vision for Saudi Arabia in 2030 emphasizes the importance of supporting gifted youth, creativity, and innovation, with strategic objectives aimed at improving the learning environment to stimulate creativity and innovation. This vision plays a leading role in reforming the policy and practices of gifted education in Saudi schools, paving the way for further advancements and opportunities for gifted students.
The concept of giftedness in Saudi Arabia
The Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia defines gifted students as those who demonstrate exceptional abilities requiring special educational care not provided in regular academic programs. The definition of giftedness was developed based on Marland’s definition of gifted children in 1972.
Challenges faced by gifted students in Saudi Arabia
Lack of Suitable Curriculum: The general education system in Saudi Arabia does not cater to the needs of gifted students. The domination of religious studies and a standardized curriculum restricts the ability of gifted students, particularly those with talents in mathematics and science, to expand and develop their exceptional abilities.
Insufficient Differentiation: Gifted students require differentiated and challenging curricula that match their intellectual abilities and talents. However, in regular classrooms, where many gifted students are taught, the curriculum often fails to meet their needs, leading to unfulfilled potential.
Untrained Educators: Teachers in public schools, where many gifted students are educated, often lack professional training in dealing with gifted students. The absence of specialized training programs in universities and limited workshops on gifted education hinders teachers' ability to understand and support the unique needs of gifted students.
Gap Between Theory and Practice: Although the goal of identifying and supporting gifted students is stated in policies and regulations, the implementation of effective gifted education practices lags behind in reality. Gifted students are often left without appropriate curricular adjustments or specialized instruction.
Negative Teacher Attitudes: Some teachers may lack adequate knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and needs of gifted students, leading to negative attitudes toward gifted education. This may result in a less supportive and conducive learning environment for gifted students.
Special educational needs for gifted students
1) Need for Challenging Education: Gifted students require education tailored to their intellectual level and areas of talent. A common and enriched curriculum may not be sufficient to meet their needs. Research shows that the speed and complexity of learning increase with a child's educational level. However, current educational practices often do not adequately challenge gifted students. They may have already mastered a significant portion of the curriculum before the school year begins, and regular classroom teachers may struggle to simultaneously provide individualized curriculum at multiple levels.
2) Need for True Peers: Gifted students benefit from interacting with other children of similar ability and age, often referred to as "true peers." Finding peers who share their intellectual interests and abilities can provide a supportive social environment.
3) The Need for Responsive Parenting:
The myth surrounding gifted children having pushy parents can have detrimental consequences, as it may lead professionals to dismiss or downplay parental concerns about their child's giftedness. However, research has shown that parents are often adept at identifying exceptional development in their children at various stages of their growth. Their keen observations and insights into their child's abilities play a crucial role in recognizing giftedness and understanding their unique needs. As gifted children tend to make more requests and demands for enrichment opportunities, parental involvement naturally comes into play. Instead of dismissing parental input, professionals should recognize the valuable role parents play in identifying and supporting the development of gifted children. Embracing parents as key partners in the educational journey of gifted learners can lead to more comprehensive and effective support systems, ultimately fostering the growth and success of these exceptional young minds.
4) The Need for Adult Empathy: Highly and exceptionally gifted children possess extraordinary cognitive abilities that enable them to think in qualitatively different ways. While these abilities offer immense potential, they also present distinct challenges, such as early exposure to abstract concepts and heightened emotional sensitivity. Exceptionally gifted children often grapple with abstract concepts like the meaning of life and death, moral dilemmas, and ethical issues at a much younger age compared to their peers. Their heightened sensitivity can lead to strong emotional reactions, necessitating empathetic and understanding responses from adults. Due to their quick analytical abilities and social perceptiveness, they may develop interpretations of events that are remarkably sophisticated, but at times, these interpretations can also be incorrect. As educators, understanding and embracing the unique characteristics of highly gifted children is paramount to providing them with the support and guidance they need to thrive intellectually and emotionally. By responding with sensitivity, empathy, and an open mind, adults can truly connect with these exceptional young minds and foster their development to new heights.
Significance of Talented Program Mawhiba
Children present a spectrum of educational abilities which are applied when determining the learning approaches that teachers will use in school to maximize their learning. However, there are children who portray the extremely positive end, which is associated with intelligence beyond the normal. They are referred to as gifted or talented children because their high capacity for and of knowledge is considered a talent. Educating such children requires learning methods that are out of the normal as observed by most countries, including Saudi Arabia. Developing and implementing educational programs that will cater for such children requires extensive research and trials to ensure their abilities are maximized. Programs for gifted education are helpful to both the student and the society. It allows educators to identify gifted learners early enough so they can be integrated in areas with maximum opportunities leading to the realization of maximum potential. It also assists the society to increase the space for individuals that would be essential in solving problems.
Saudi Arabia efforts
Efforts to differentiate education for gifted children in Saudi Arabia began as early as 1969 when the Council of Ministers approved an official educational policy which had three main regulations. They included a directive to the state to offer specialized care that developed and opened opportunities for talents, a framework for determining talented children be developed by authorities and talented individuals to be exposed to scientific research. Further policies were enacted from the Companions Foundations for Giftedness and Creativity in 2002 also commonly known as Mawhiba, to establishment of special education classes in schools by 2018. The definition of a gifted student in the country has also been subject to change. the current definition as prescribed by the country’s Ministry of Education is "student who has extraordinary aptitudes and abilities or outstanding performance ... in the areas of mental excellence, educational achievement, creativity and innovation, and special skills and abilities..".
Enrichment programs
The government has specialized on enrichment programs which talented students are enrolled in after identification based on set scientific standards and bases. The enrichment programs provide a variety of education with more depth and breadth than in normal schools. The programs are in different types and students’ access is not limited meaning students can experience more than one. An example is the summer enrichment program (SEP) which mainly focuses on STEM subjects. SEP is mainly implemented as research in schools and impacts both students and teachers. The program is driven by Mawhiba and yields significant results e.g., in 2019, over 6000 students benefitted from the program. The Ministry of Education has not focused much on the SEPs compared to Mawhiba, but its significant improvement spearheaded by Mawhiba shows the success it has had.
Self-contained classroom program
The program is slowly growing and has not yet covered all gifted students. However, its impact on gifted students is evident as it helped 32% of the gifted students in the 2019–2020 school year. Enrollment into the program involves selection where the gifted kids are passed through other criteria. The reason for extra criteria is the limited classrooms and facilities available. While in the classrooms, the gifted students receive the normal curricular followed by an extra curricular that is based on their abilities. The extra curricular mainly focuses on STEM subjects and are taught after the normal curricular. Mawhiba works in conjunction with the Ministry of Education to improve the self-contained classroom programs. Mawhiba focuses on developing textbooks for the extra curricular education while the ministry focuses on adopting standards that are used in deciding on enriching the talented children.
Gifted Educational Centers
The Ministry of Education has worked on improving educational standards for gifted children by offering gifted educational centers. The ministry currently has 91 educational centers, and the country has 94 school districts around the kingdom. The educational centers focus on research and problem-solving skills. The program aimed to serve at least 1% of students in each educational district.
Recommendations:
Researchers have proposed the need for improving the educational programs from the limited educational context to a more social context. The suggestion has been termed as the differentiated paradigm where gifted children will be more involved in social programs. A differentiated program also aims at using the children’s skills in social context so they can be well integrated with the society. Another important finding regarding the talented programs included a prevalence for teachers in the programs to be appreciated by the students compared to teachers in normal curricular. Teachers are also motivated when enrolled into such programs but improvements would be essential in the teaching methods. The country has been keen on gifted education and further changes are on the way with the help of Mawhiba and the Ministry of Education.
Special education
Students with severe disabilities and autism are educated in special institutions. Students with less serious disabilities receive educational services at regular schools. Students with disabilities who attend regular schools might be partially mainstreamed, in which case they attend self-contained classrooms, or fully mainstreamed, in which case they learn in mainstream classrooms but may use special education services outside the classroom at times. However, not all schools offer mainstreaming. In the capital city of Riyadh, there are thirty inclusive elementary schools, eighteen inclusive middle schools, and eleven inclusive high schools.
Despite the prevalence of students with disabilities attending regular schools, general education teachers do not have much knowledge of working with students with autism, as they have received minimal training on this topic. A small study by Gibbs & Bozaid found that special education teachers in Saudi Arabia need more educational resources and professional development in order to successfully implement inclusive education practices.
A 2019 study by Alnahdi, et. al found that teachers in Saudi Arabia may agree with the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, but they feel that the burden of ensuring inclusion happens should be the responsibility of someone else. 62% of participant teachers felt that inclusive education would increase their workload.
Students with disabilities in Saudi Arabia may use assistive technology (AT) such as smartboards, tablets, software, and computers to help them meet educational goals. Of eight teachers from the Makkah province surveyed, all believed that AT helps students with disabilities learn. Results found that AT also helps students with disabilities feel empowered, be motivated to complete assignments, and feel engaged.
Special education teachers work with students in planning for life post-school. Part of these transition services require schools to partner with local businesses, which help students’ career development. In a 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh, researchers found that special education teachers view these partnerships between schools and businesses positively, as the partnerships provide students with opportunities to volunteer, intern, and get general employment exposure. Most teachers surveyed believe that school-business partnerships help students improve social, communication, personal, and work skills. Another 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh found that parents are not as involved in transition plans as they ought to be because schools do not provide them with enough guidance. Teachers also said that parents’ busy lives and lack of knowledge on the importance of transition services are another barrier to parental participation. Additionally, schools do not have transition coordinators whose job it would be to help advise students on their transition plans. Instead, special education teachers are often required to take on this additional role.
In a 2020 survey of special education teachers and mainstream teachers in Riyadh, special education teachers viewed school culture and climate negatively when it came to collaborative leadership, respect for diversity, relationships, and collegial support and safe environment. 97.6% of special education teachers responded that their physical school buildings do not easily accommodate students with disabilities. Special education teachers additionally do not see principals and administrators as being knowledgeable and skillful in developing a positive school culture and climate. 74% of special education teachers perceive mainstream teachers in their schools as having negative views towards students with disabilities. However, smaller schools involved in the study were seen as having more positive culture and climate, while schools with more than 600 students were seen as having the most negative culture and climate.
Private education
In Saudi Arabia, private education is one of the elements supporting governmental education at all education levels. The General Department for Private Education at the Ministry of Education supervises private schools for boys and private schools for girls and government provides private schools with free textbooks and an annual financial aid. Government also appoints and pays for a qualified director in every private school.
According to UNESCO, in 2007, 48.9 percent of children enrolled in pre-primary schools, and 8.2 percent of children enrolled in primary school. As for the intermediate education, 6.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 70.3 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. As for the secondary education, 13.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 61.6 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. According to the World Bank, in 2004, 7.4 percent of students in tertiary education enrolled in private schools.
Before 2018, a large number of private schools (including international and foreign ones) were run in rented villas or buildings in several cities of the country. In April 2004, Asharq Al-Awsat reported that the education ministry crafted a plan to get rid of schools functioning in rented buildings by 2011. Several columnists and parents frequently expressed their displeasure and grievances regarding schools being run in villas and often asked the Saudi education authorities implement stringent rules for the same. In May 2013, the education ministry updated rules and regulations for schools operating in leased villas, instructing institution's authorities to ensure the premises strictly adhere to the building code and added that building owners and real estate companies were required to obtain approval prior to renting the premises to schools. In September 2013, Arab News reported that around 35% of the schools in Saudi Arabia were being operated in villa-turned campus buildings.
In June 2016, the education ministry led by Dr. Ahmed al-Issa stopped issuing licenses to private schools that did not have infrastructure designed for educational purposes and asked investors and stakeholders to shift their schools to educational buildings by 2018. In 2017, the education ministry announced that it would be closing down all the schools operating in rented buildings in Saudi Arabia despite the two year deadline, prompting severe reactions from owners and investors which forced the ministry to review and subsequently rescind its decision. In May 2018, after reaching the deadline, the Saudi authorities closed down 113 schools across the country after they failed to shift their premises to buildings designed for educational purposes.
International education
Saudi Arabia hosts almost 9 million foreign workers of various nationalities as of 2013, mostly from underdeveloped Asian and African countries. The Saudi government has granted permission to the diplomatic missions of the respective countries to operate community-based schools in the country to cater the educational needs of their children. According to the International Schools Statute issued by the Saudi Ministry of Education, schools implementing curricula other than Saudi ones are regarded as foreign schools. Foreign schools are further categorized as international schools who offer American or British curricula and community-based schools that teach national curricula of their home country and are run or sponsored by their respective diplomatic missions whereas being mostly owned by Saudi investors.
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Saudi Arabia as having 203 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist.
In Saudi Arabia some international schools are owned by communities of foreign nationals, while others are private schools owned by individuals with Saudi citizenship.
The Saudi government limits community schools to one per locality or city per nationality; diplomatic missions either supervise or directly operate the community schools. These community schools are not required to separate male and female students into separate campuses and are allowed to host social activities with men and women mixed. They are not required to have Saudi citizens as sponsors since the Saudi authorities consider the schools to be under the sponsorship of the diplomatic missions. Czarina Valerie A. Regis and Allan B. de Guzman, authors of "A system within a system: the Philippine schools overseas," wrote that the Saudi Ministry of Education "still exercises restraint in implementing its regulatory functions" on community schools.
There may be more than one private school per nationality per city: the number of private schools that may be established is dependent upon the number of Saudi nationals willing to open a school in that city. Unlike community international schools, private international schools are required to follow Saudi regulations, including those related to gender segregation.
The British International School, Riyadh teaches from foundation one to high school. Over 80% of its students are British nationals, and the school follows the British curriculum.
International Schools Statute
The International Schools Regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, are:
Article 1
The following terms shall have the meanings assigned thereto:
International Schools: Schools using curricula other than the Saudi curricula.
Minister: Minister of Education
Ministry: Ministry of Education
Article 2
These Regulations shall regulate international schools of communities residing in the Kingdom so as to provide adequate education to children according to specific guidelines in a manner which enables them to pursue their education upon their return to their countries.
Article 3
The Ministry shall, through the relevant department, license and supervise international schools and their branches.
Article 4
International schools are private educational institutions which are financed by tuition fees, donations, and gifts.
Article 5
Saudi students may not be admitted to international schools. As an exception, the Minister may approve the admission of Saudi students arriving from abroad who have difficulties joining Saudi schools for a period to be assessed for each student on a yearly basis.
Article 6
A license for an international school shall be granted pursuant to the Minister’s approval upon the recommendation of the Supervisory Council provided for in Article 8 of these Regulations.
Article 7
Education at international schools shall be limited to pre-school, elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages, or their equivalent.
Article 8
A supervisory council shall be formed to oversee international schools. Said Council shall be chaired by the Minister and shall comprise the following members:
The Deputy Minister of Interior
The Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
The Deputy Minister of Education
The Deputy President of Girls’ Education
The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry shall be the secretary of the Council.
Article 9
The Supervisory Council shall set the instructions and rules required for the implementation of these Regulations, and shall in particular have the power to approve the following:
Licensing rules and procedures.
Applications for establishing international schools.
Educational programs and curricula.
Tuition fees.
Donations and gifts granted to international schools.
The Council may consider an embassy’s request –referred thereto by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs– to purchase a school building or land for establishing a school thereon, based on the principle of reciprocity, subject to the following:
The provisions of the Regulations.
The land shall not be State-owned or allocated to an educational institution.
The title of the land shall be registered, upon approval, under the name of the embassy, and shall only be used for the licensed purpose.
The Council shall decide on the embassy’s request within 30 days from the date of completion of all requirements and the request shall be referred to the Council of Ministers by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. If the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or its license is revoked, the school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Council in coordination with the relevant agencies.
Article 10
The Supervisory Council shall convene at least twice a year, and it may convene upon the call of its chairman or at the request of one of its members and the approval of the chairman.
Article 11
Each international school shall assume all aspects of school management, in addition to matters related to its level within the various educational and academic communities.
Article 12
Each international school shall have a board of directors to oversee its interests. Student parents shall be represented in the board, and the Ministry may attend its meetings.
Article 13
Each international school shall assign at least one hour a week for teaching basic Arabic, Islamic culture, and history and geography of the Kingdom.
Article 14
Each international school shall, prior to the beginning of each academic year, submit to the Supervisory Council an estimated annual budget in the Arabic language. Said budget shall include information on the school’s administrative, technical, and financial needs, as well as sources of funding.
Article 15
Each international school shall submit to the Supervisory Council an annual report on the workflow, budget implementation, and causes of violations and breaches, if any.
Article 16
A person violating the provisions of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof shall be subject to one or more of the following penalties:
A warning.
A fine not exceeding 50,000 riyals.
Revocation of license.
In all cases, the Minister may order the removal of the violation within a maximum period of two weeks from the date of notification.
Article 17
A committee shall be formed at the Ministry pursuant to a decision of the Minister, chaired by the Deputy Ministry and comprising the following members:
A representative from the Ministry of Interior.
A representative from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry.
A specialist in Sharia.
Said Committee shall investigate violations of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof, and shall recommend appropriate penalties therefor.
Article 18
A penalty shall be imposed pursuant to a decision by the Minister upon recommendation of the Committee referred to in Article 17 of these Regulations. Penalty decisions imposing fines or providing for revocation of the license may be appealed before the Board of Grievances.
Article 19
An international school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Ministry, and in coordination with the relevant agencies if the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or the license is revoked.
Article 20
International schools existing at the effective date of these Regulations shall adjust to conform with the provisions of these Regulations within 12 months from the date of entry into force.
Article 21
These Regulations shall be published in the Official Gazette, and shall enter into force 90 days from the date of publication thereof and shall repeal any conflicting provisions.
SEK International School Riyadh (under RCRC patronage)
The Ministry of Investment and the Royal Commission for Riyadh City (RCRC) announced on July 13, 2021 that they have partnered with SEK Education Group to open SEK International School Riyadh, its first campus in Saudi Arabia. The new international school will welcome students from Pre-K (age 3 years) to Grade 12 (age 17/18 years), and will become one of the few schools in Riyadh accredited to offer the International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Programme (PYP), Middle Years Programme (MYP), and Diploma Programme (DP).
SEK International School Riyadh will showcase the best of SEK International Schools: education innovation, a unique learning model, top ranked academic results, and a clear focus on the many challenges and opportunities the 21st century presents to all its students.
As a Spanish education group, SEK will provide all the students the opportunity of learning the Spanish language, as well as Arabic, in a multilingual, English-based environment.
This is the second international school for the SEK Education Group in the Middle East. SEK International Schools offer education to more than 6,000 students, of more than 70 nationalities, from four months to 18 years of age, in their campuses in Spain, France, Qatar and Ireland.
Philippine schools
As of February 2006 about 75% of the Philippine international schools represented by the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) were located in Saudi Arabia. Community-owned Philippine schools, including the International Philippine School in Al Khobar (IPSA), the International Philippine School in Jeddah (IPSJ), and International Philippine School in Riyadh (IPSR), were by 2006 managed by independent school boards but were initially managed by the diplomatic missions themselves. As of 2006 Riyadh has 13 Philippine private schools and Jeddah has five Philippine private schools.
Large numbers of Philippine children came to Saudi after many Filipino workers arrived in Saudi Arabia in the 1980s. The first Philippine school in Saudi Arabia, Philippine School in Jeddah was established after the Philippine Consulate in Jeddah began making efforts to start a school in 1983, and Philippine schools were later established in Riyadh and other Saudi cities. In 2000 Saudi Arabia had nine accredited Philippine schools. By 2005 Jeddah alone had four Philippine international schools, with two more scheduled to open shortly. By 2006 there were 21 Philippine schools recognized by the CFO, reflecting a 133% growth rate from 2000. Regis and Guzman stated that in private Philippine schools many Saudi rules that are not consistent with the culture of the Philippines are enforced.
Literacy
According to the results of the demographic survey conducted by the Department of Statistics and Information, Ministry of Economy and Planning in 2007 the incidence of illiteracy among the Saudi population was 13.7%. The illiteracy rate stood at 1.4% for the age group 10 to 14 years, while the highest level in the age group between the ages of 65 and more than 509,573 people to the rate of 73.9%. With regard to the spread of illiteracy among Saudi Administrative Regions, as the study showed a large disparity between the regions of the Kingdom, while the figure for both sexes was at its lowest level in the Riyadh region, at 9.9%, the highest level was found in the Jizan area at 23.5%, and the lowest rate of illiteracy among males was in Riyadh region, as the minimum rate of 5.1% and in Jizan higher rate of 14.8%, while the lowest rate of illiteracy of Saudi women was in the eastern region at 14.7% and the highest rate was in the region of Jizan at 31.6%.
According to the World Bank, there is gender disparity in the literacy rate. In 2007, 85.0 percent of adult (people ages 15 and above) were literate and 98.1 percent of youth (people ages 15–24) were literate, 89.1 percent of male adults were literate and 79.4 percent of female adults were literate. As for youth literacy rate (people ages 15–24), 97.0 percent were literate, 98.1 percent of male youths were literate, and 95.9 percent of female youths were literate.
One of the World Bank reports suggested the relatively high adult literacy rate of Saudi Arabia, considering the continued low level of primary enrollment, derived from the successful use of religious organizations, particularly local mosques and local religious institutions such as Koranic schools for the provision of ancillary educational services, which is a trend of particular note in the MENA region.
King Abdullah Project for General Education Development
The King Abdullah Project for General Education Development is a SR9 billion (US$2.4bn) project to be implemented over the next six years to create a skilled and work force for the future. A number of schools in Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam have been selected for the implementation of this project. More than 400,000 teachers will be trained for the new program. In addition, this project will emphasize extracurricular activities for the purpose of developing intellectual, creative and communicative skills.
Criticism of the Saudi education system and reform proposals
The Saudi education system has been criticised. One observation was, "The country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction."
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all university students. Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector needs". Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction." Indeed, such control has stifled critical thought, and as a result, the education system does not necessarily foster innovation and creativity, both of which are essential to development. Saudi education has also been strongly criticized for promoting intolerance, including antisemitic views, anti-Christian rhetoric, and referring to non-Muslims as "infidels", enemies of God, and enemies of all Muslims.
The religious sector of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the 'unbeliever', that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others". The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the kingdom via Saudi-linked madrasah, schools, and clubs throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as "medieval" and that its primary goal "is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures".
The consequence of this approach is considered by many, including perhaps the Saudi government itself, to have encouraged Islamist terrorism. To tackle the twin problems of extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education, the government is aiming to modernise the education system through the Tatweer reform program. The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve as well as creating a more secular and vocationally based education system.
A comprehensive Human Rights Watch review of the Education Ministry-produced school religion books for the 2016-17 school year found that some of the content that first provoked widespread controversy for violent and intolerant teachings in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks remains in the texts today, despite Saudi officials' promises to eliminate the intolerant language. The texts disparage Sufi and Shia religious practices and label Jews and Christians "unbelievers" with whom Muslims should not associate.
In 2021, The Washington Post newspaper published a report on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered anti-Semitic and anti-women. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, and expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Anti-Semitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League in Washington, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down, noting the deletion of paragraphs that talk about killing gays, infidels and witches. The US State Department expressed in an email that it welcomed the changes to the materials affecting Saudi educational curricula. The Foreign Ministry supports a training program for Saudi teachers.
See also
List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia
Educational technology in Saudi Arabia
Libraries in Saudi Arabia
Najd National Schools
Youth in Saudi Arabia
References
Mackey, Sandra. The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom. Updated Edition. Norton Paperback. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2002 (first edition: 1987). pbk.
Notes
External links |
4243408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20in%20New%20Zealand | 1990 in New Zealand | The following lists events that happened during 1990 in New Zealand.
New Zealand celebrated its sesquicentennial, 150 years since the signing of The Treaty of Waitangi.
In the general election in October, National was elected in a landside victory.
GDP was $40.2 billion, unemployment was at 7.4% (March) and the exchange rate was 1 NZ$ per US$1.6750. This year New Zealand produced 8,000 million kWh of electricity.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,410,400.
Increase since 31 December 1989: 40,600 (1.20%).
Males per 100 females: 97.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – Paul Reeves followed by Catherine Tizard
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued, until the general election, held 27 October. The governing Labour Party was defeated. and The National Party, led by Jim Bolger, formed the new government.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke then Robin Gray
Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer then Mike Moore then Jim Bolger
Deputy Prime Minister – Helen Clark then Don McKinnon
Minister of Finance – David Caygill then Ruth Richardson
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall then Mike Moore then Don McKinnon
Chief Justice — Sir Thomas Eichelbaum
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National), until 2 November, then Mike Moore (Labour) .
NewLabour Party – Jim Anderton (after 2 November General election)
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard then Les Mills
Mayor of Hamilton – Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Richard Walls
Events
Unknown
Telecom sold for $ 4.25 billion.
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act passed
The Tongariro National Park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list for its natural values.
Creation of Te Wahipounamu World Heritage site
The Royal New Zealand Navy tanker and the frigates and were deployed to Bougainville as a neutral venue for peace talks between the government of Papua New Guinea and secessionist leaders of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army.
New Zealand ratifies the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
New Zealand and the Netherlands signed a reciprocal Social Security Agreement in October 1990, which came into effect in 1992.
Banning of wood chip exports.
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand is formed.
Establishment of the Forest Heritage Fund (later renamed "Nature Heritage Fund").
Ministry for the Environment Green Ribbon Award established
Penny Jamieson, Anglican Bishop of Dunedin, was ordained the first women Diocesan bishop in the world.
January
24 January: Commonwealth Games are officially opened by Prince Edward in Auckland.
February
1–16 February: Her Majesty Elizabeth II of New Zealand visits.
3 February: Commonwealth Games are officially closed by Elizabeth II in Auckland, with New Zealand winning 58 medals,
6 February: New Zealand celebrates its sesquicentennial.
March
1 March – Royal New Zealand Navy discontinues the daily rum ration.
April
30 April: One- and two-cent coins are withdrawn from legal tender.
May
13 May: 6.2 Magnitude earthquake in Hawke's Bay
June
July
1 July: Tariffs were eliminated between Australia and New Zealand under the Closer Economic Relations agreement. This was five years ahead of schedule
August
September
4 September: Geoffrey Palmer: resigns as Prime Minister and is replaced by Mike Moore.
October
1 October: The Health Research Council of New Zealand is formed.
27 October – New Zealand general election returns National with record number of seats – 67; Labour 29, NewLabour 1
27 October: Referendum to increase Parliamentary term from three to four years defeated: 30.7% For, 69.3% Against.
November
2 November:Jim Bolger becomes Prime Minister.
2 November: Don McKinnon becomes Deputy Prime Minister
2 November: Ruth Richardson became the first woman Minister of Finance.
13 November: David Gray, an Aramoana resident, began a 22-hour shooting spree that left 13 people and Gray dead.
December
Government announces $1.275 Billion worth of social welfare cuts.
12 December: Dame Catherine Tizard becomes first woman Governor-General of New Zealand.
Arts and literature
David Eggleton wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1990 in art, 1990 in literature, :Category:1990 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: The Chills – Submarine Bells
Brian Smith – Moonlight Sax
Straitjacket Fits – Melt
Single of the Year: The Chills – "Heavenly Pop Hit"
Margaret Urlich – Number One
Ngaire – To Sir With Love
Top Male Vocalist: Barry Saunders
John Grenell
Barry Saunders
Top Female Vocalist: Margaret Urlich
Patsy Riggir
Aishah
Top Group: The Chills
Straitjacket Fits
Fan Club
Most Promising Male Vocalist: Guy Wishart
Alan Galloway
John Kempt
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Merenia
Ngaire
Caroline Easther
Most Promising Group: Strawpeople
Merenia & Where's Billy
D-Faction
International Achievement: Fan Club
The Chills
Margaret Urlich
Best Video: Niki Caro – Bad Note for a Heart (Straitjacket Fits)
Paul Middleditch – One Good Reason (Strawpeople)
Lance Kelliher – Don't Let Me Fall Alone (The Fan Club)
Best Producer: Ian Morris – Heartbroke
Carl Doy – Moonlight Sax (Brian Smith)
Murray Grindlay – Welcome To Our World
Best Engineer: Strawpeople – Hemisphere
Ian Morris – Heartbroke (Rikki Morris)
Murray Grindlay – Welcome To Our World
Best Jazz Album: No Award
Best Classical Album: Dame Kiri Te Kanawa / Nszo — Kiri's Homecoming
Dame Malvina Major – Malvina Major
Kiri Te Kanawa/NZSO – Kiri at Aotea
Best Country Album: The Warratahs – Wild Card
John Grenell – Welcome To Our World
Bartlett/ Duggan/ Vaughn – Together Again
Best Folk Album: Rua — Commonwealth Suite
Martha Louise – Changing Tides
Iain Mitchell/Paul Yielder – Every Man And His Dog
Best Gospel Album: Cecily Phio — Light in the Darkness
Sound Ministry – Lead Me to the Rock
Scripture in Song – We Will Triumph
Best Polynesian Album: Herbs – Homegrown
National Maori Choir – Stand Tall
Te Mokai – Totara Tree
Best Songwriter: Martin Phillips — Heavenly Pop Hit (The Chills)
Shayne Carter – Bad Note for a Heart (Straitjacket fits)
Barry Saunders – Wild Card
Best Cover: John Collie – Melt (Straitjacket Fits)
Steve Garden/ Giles Molloy/ Kim Wesney – State of the Harp
Marc Mateo/ John Pitcairn – Hole
Outstanding Contribution to the Music Industry: Murdoch Riley
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Billy T. James MBE.
Radio and television
1 January: Avalon becomes a separate limited liability company.
5 February: The Auckland Television Centre is opened by Elizabeth II.
May: TV3 goes into receivership but continues broadcasting.
May: Sky Television launches with three channels.
May: CTV takes over TVNZ's Christchurch assets.
See: 1990 in New Zealand television, 1990 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
An Angel at My Table
Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree
Meet the Feebles
Ruby and Rata
See: :Category:1990 film awards, 1990 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1990 films
Literature
Once Were Warriors published.
Sport
Athletics
Tom Birnie wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:17:33 on 3 March in New Plymouth, while Jillian Costley claims her third in the women's championship (2:36:43).
Commonwealth Games
Cricket
State Championship, won by Auckland.
Hockey
Netball
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Neroship
Auckland Trotting Cup: The Bru Czar
Thoroughbred racing
Auckland Cup: Miss Stanima
Rugby union
Ranfurly Shield
Retained by Auckland.
Auckland beat King Country 58-3 in Auckland.
Auckland beat Poverty Bay 42-3 in Gisborne.
Auckland beat Southland 78-7 in Auckland.
Auckland beat Otago 45-9 in Auckland
Auckland beat North Auckland 41-21 in Auckland
Auckland beat North Harbour 18-9 in Auckland
Auckland beat Canterbury 33-30 in Auckland
16 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 31 – 16 at Carisbrook.
23 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 21 – 18 at Eden Park.
21 July: The All Blacks beat Australia 21 – 6 at Lancaster Park.
4 August: The All Blacks beat Australia 21-18 at Eden Park.
18 August: The All Blacks lose to Australia 9 – 21 at Athletic Park.
3 November:The All Blacks beat France 24-3 at Stade de la Beaujoire.
10 November: The All Blacks beat France 30-12 at Parc des Princes.
Rugby league
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Alistair "Sandy" Marshall (Kaituna/Blenheim)
Squash
Susan Devoy wins the World Championship beating Martine Le Moignan 9-4, 9–4, 9–4.
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Mount Wellington who beat Christchurch United 3–3 (4-2 on penalties) in the final.
New Zealand National Soccer League: Waitakere City
The inaugural Winfield Provincial Championship was held between regional representative teams. The winner was Canterbury, who beat Auckland 2-1 (after extra time) in the final.
Tennis
Births
January
3 January – Monikura Tikinau, rugby league player
4 January
Liaki Moli, rugby union player
Augustine Pulu, rugby union player
5 January – Larissa Harrison, netball player
10 January – Dion Prewster, basketball player
11 January – Vaughn Scott, taekwondo practitioner
12 January – Neccrom Areaiiti, rugby league player
13 January
David Bishop, gymnast
Teneale Hatton, flatwater canoeist
14 January – Tom Scully, road and track cyclist
15 January – Kane Morgan, rugby league player
16 January
Jason Hicks, association footballer
Sam Prattley, rugby union player
17 January – Cameron Leslie, Paralympic swimmer
18 January – Taioalo Vaivai, rugby league player
19 January – Kerry-Anne Tomlinson, cricketer
22 January – Dean Whare, rugby league player
24 January – James Fuller, cricketer
25 January – Liam Coltman, rugby union player
29 January – Kalifa Faifai Loa, rugby league player
February
3 February – Martin Taupau, rugby league player
7 February – Elias Shadrock, netball player
10 February – Nathan Vella, rugby union player
11 February – Joe Tomane, rugby union player
12 February – Tamati Clarke, cricketer
13 February – Dan Hooker, mixed martial artist
19 February – Kosta Barbarouses, association footballer
20 February
Mark Abbott, rugby union player
Samuel Brunton, rugby league player
24 February – Morna Nielsen, cricketer
27 February - Elijah Taylor, rugby league player
March
1 March – Julianna Naoupu, netball player
3 March – Nardia Roselli, netball player
8 March – Gemma Dudley, track cyclist
9 March
Joel Everson, rugby union player
Matt Robinson, rugby league player
11 March – Aroha Savage, rugby union player
13 March – Josh Bloxham, basketball player
15 March – Rebecca Torr, snowboarder
16 March – Moira de Villiers, judoka
17 March - Billy Guyton, rugby union player(died 2023)
18 March – Lou Guinares, weightlifter
19 March – Fraser Colson, cricketer
22 March – Angus Ta'avao, rugby union player
24 March – Keisha Castle-Hughes, actor
26 March – Uini Atonio, rugby union player
27 March
Kimbra Johnson, recording artist
Leivaha Pulu, rugby league player
31 March – Tommy Smith, association footballer
April
1 April – Alecz Day, cricketer
2 April – Drury Low, rugby league player
7 April
Bundee Aki, rugby union player
George Bennett, road cyclist
Ronald Raaymakers, rugby union player
10 April
Kelsey Bevan, rower
Siuatonga Likiliki, rugby league player
13 April – Shane Pumipi, rugby league player
14 April – Sean Polwart, rugby union player
16 April – Kane Barrett, rugby union player
19 April – Benny Tipene, singer-songwriter
24 April – Amaka Gessler, swimmer
26 April
Terri-Amber Carlson, association footballer
Ashika Pratt, fashion model
May
2 May – Gemma Flynn, field hockey player
3 May
Sam Beard, rugby union player
Lama Tasi, rugby league player
9 May – Daniel Bell, swimmer
10 May – Oliver Leydon-Davis, badminton player
11 May – Blair Tarrant, field hockey player
14 May – William Lloyd, rugby union player
16 May – Renee Leota, association footballer
17 May
Charlie Gubb, rugby league player
Susannah Pyatt, sailor
Jason Woodward, rugby union player
18 May – Jossi Wells, freestyle skier
23 May – Pippa Hayward, field hockey player
28 May
Cody Cole, weightlifter
Gillies Kaka, rugby union player
30 May – Nigel Ah Wong, rugby union player
31 May – Tyler Bleyendaal, rugby union player
June
1 June – Frances Mackay, cricketer
4 June – Shay Neal, field hockey player
5 June – Amber Bellringer, netball player
6 June
Ben Funnell, rugby union player
Paige Hareb, surfer
7 June – Stephen Jenness, field hockey player
8 June – Todd Barclay, politician
15 June – John Gatfield, swimmer
17 June – Paul Lasike, American football player
21 June – Nafe Seluini, rugby league player
22 June – Abigail Guthrie, tennis player
24 June – Kalolo Tuiloma, rugby union player
26 June – Jake Gleeson, association footballer
29 June – Te Rina Keenan, discus thrower
July
2 July
Elias Shadrock, netball player
Bill Tupou, rugby league player
5 July – Tom Marshall, rugby union player
6 July – Willis Halaholo, rugby union player
9 July – Earl Bamber, motor racing driver
12 July – Simon Berghan, rugby union player
13 July – Kieran Foran, rugby league player
16 July – Bureta Faraimo, rugby league player
18 July – Gerard Beale, rugby league player
20 July
Jess Hamill, Paralympic athlete
Will Tupou, rugby union and rugby league player
24 July – Danny Lee, golfer
25 July – Ellen Halpenny, netball player
30 July - Myron Simpson, road and track cyclist
31 July – Orinoco Faamausili-Banse, swimmer
August
4 August – Betsy Hassett, association footballer
5 August – Anurag Verma, cricketer
6 August
Daniel Willcox, sailor
Nick Wilson, field hockey player
7 August – Julian Savea, rugby union player
8 August – Kane Williamson, cricketer
9 August
Darryl Fitzgerald, sprint canoeist
Michael O'Keeffe, association footballer
11 August – Tom Franklin, rugby union player
15 August – Tawera Kerr-Barlow, rugby union player
16 August – Matt Duffie, rugby union and rugby league player
17 August – Charlie Ngatai, rugby union player
20 August
Anna Green, association footballer
Jordan Hunter, basketball player
21 August – Rachel Maree Millns, beauty pageant contestant
28 August – James Coughlan, field hockey player
September
1 September
Tom Blundell, cricketer
Ben Seymour, rugby union player
3 September – Paul Snow-Hansen, sailor
6 September
Andrew Cox, ice hockey player
Pama Fou, rugby union player
7 September
Paki Afu, rugby league player
Logan van Beek, cricketer
9 September – Shaun Johnson, rugby league player
11 September – Elijah Niko, rugby union player
12 September – Anna Peterson, cricketer
16 September – Emily Collins, road cyclist
17 September
Tim Myers, association footballer
Jimmy Neesham, cricketer
21 September – Sam Kasiano, rugby league player
23 September – Lea Tahuhu, cricketer
24 September
Kayne Hammington, rugby union player
Johnny McNicholl, rugby union player
Namatahi Waa, rugby union player
25 September – Genevieve Behrent, rower
27 September – Finn Tearney, tennis player
28 September – Doug Bracewell, cricketer
October
1 October – Finn Lowery, water polo player
7 October – Popsy, Thoroughbred racehorse
12 October – Shannon Francois, netball player
15 October – Harry Boam, cricketer
18 October – Anthony Gelling, rugby league player
23 October – Stan Walker, recording artist, actor, television personality
24 October – Tipene Friday, cricketer and basketball player
28 October
Sarah Gray, rower
Tim Johnston, cricketer
29 October – Craig Millar, rugby union player
November
2 November – Kane Radford, swimmer
4 November – Zane Tetevano, rugby league player
5 November – George Moala, rugby union player
8 November – Sacha Jones, tennis player
11 November
Sir Vancelot, standardbred racehorse
Merissa Smith, association footballer
12 November – Simon Evans, motor racing driver
17 November – Doriemus, Thoroughbred racehorse
18 November – Jackie Thomas, singer
19 November
Hayden Parker, rugby union player
Jeffery Toomaga-Allen, rugby union player
21 November - Jackson Ormond, rugby union player
22 November – Jason Saunders, sailor
26 November – Aaron Gate, track cyclist
28 November
Declan O'Donnell, rugby union player
Brendon Edmonds, rugby union player
December
2 December – Glen Fisiiahi, rugby union and rugby league player
3 December – Mark Ioane, rugby league player
4 December – Blade Thomson, rugby union player
5 December – Curtis Rapley, rower
7 December – Simon Berghan, rugby union player
11 December – Elizabeth Milne, association footballer
13 December – Corey Anderson, cricketer
15 December
Nehe Milner-Skudder, rugby union player
Ella Nicholas, slalom canoeist
Skye Lourie, actress
20 December – Robert Whittaker, mixed martial artist
22 December – Jason Christie, cyclist
26 December – Telusa Veainu, rugby union player
27 December – Priyani Puketapu, beauty pageant contestant
31 December – Marlon Williams, singer-songwriter
Exact date unknown
Avianca Böhm, beauty pageant contestant
Catherine Irving, beauty pageant contestant
Jamie Love, softball player
Deaths
January
1 January – Bill Pullar, athlete (born 1913)
7 January – Esther James, fashion model (born 1900)
20 January – Freda Cook, social and peace campaigner (born 1896)
22 January – William Stodart, rower (born 1904)
February
7 February – Tony Fomison, artist (born 1939)
12 February – Hilcote Pitts-Brown, politician (born 1905)
17 February – Rusty Robertson, rowing coach (born 1927)
27 February – Torchy Atkinson, horticultural scientist, science administrator (born 1909)
March
6 March
Joan Faulkner-Blake, broadcaster (born 1921)
Arthur Pearce, broadcaster (born 1903)
8 March – Donald Cameron, cricketer (born 1908)
11 March – Francis Ward, rugby union player (born 1900)
31 March – Bill Murray, police officer, unionist (born 1896)
April
8 April – Zamazaan, Thoroughbred racehorse (foaled 1965)
11 April – Leonard Leary, lawyer, writer (born 1891)
12 April – John Brown, cyclist (born 1916)
14 April – Doris Lusk, artist, potter (born 1916)
23 April – Alan Robilliard, rugby union player (born 1903)
26 April – Arthur Knight, rugby union player (born 1906)
28 April – Neil Watson, Mayor of Invercargill (born 1905)
May
4 May – Jack Lewin, union leader, public servant (born 1915)
7 May – Ashley Lawrence, conductor (born 1934)
10 May – Hilda Buck, cricketer (born 1914)
14 May – Ruth Mason, botanist (born 1913)
27 May
Clarrie Heard, swimmer (born 1906)
June Sutor, crystallographer (born 1929)
31 May – Hamilton Walker, engineer and inventor (born 1903)
June
3 June – Phil Gard, rugby union player (born 1947)
9 June – John Holland, athlete (born 1926)
11 June – Joan Stevens, English literature academic (born 1908)
14 June – Adrian Hayter, soldier, sailor, Antarctic leader, author (born 1914)
15 June – Eruera Manuera, Ngāti Awa leader (born 1895)
19 June – Isobel Andrews, writer (born 1905)
20 June – Lois Suckling, optician, family planning reformer (born 1893)
July
1 July – Lorrie Hunter, politician (born 1900)
3 July – Vic Olsson, rower (born 1903)
4 July – Ces Devine, harness racing driver (born 1915)
9 July – Jack Sullivan, rugby union player, coach and administrator (born 1915)
24 July – Marcel Stanley, philatelist (born 1918)
August
6 August – Frank Waters, politician (born 1907)
8 August – Bill Gallagher, inventor, businessman (born 1911)
16 August – Pat O'Connor, professional wrestler (born 1924)
September
4 September
Sir Henry Cooper, cricketer, educator (born 1909)
Leslie Groves, cricketer (born 1911)
23 September – Bill Broughton, jockey (born 1913)
28 September – Dan Davin, author (born 1913)
October
2 October – Eric Giles, cricketer (born 1939)
3 October – Esmond de Beer, literary editor, collector, philanthropist (born 1895)
9 October – John Holland, Anglican bishop (born 1912)
10 October – Nitama Paewai, rugby union player and administrator, doctor, politician (born 1920)
12 October – John O'Brien, politician (born 1925)
November
9 November – Harry Evans, exploration geologist (born 1912)
13 November – Stewart Guthrie, police officer (born 1948)
15 November – Oswald Denison, rower (born 1905)
18 November – Murray Ashby, rower (born 1931)
22 November
James Barron, cricketer (born 1900)
Noel Chambers, swimmer (born 1923)
25 November – Ernest Duncan, mathematician (born 1916)
27 November – Joan Wood, educationalist and music teacher (born 1909)
December
14 December – Sam Cusack, community character (born 1919)
17 December – Frank Hutchison, cricketer (born 1897)
18 December – Greta Stevenson, mycologist (born 1911)
24 December – Alex O'Shea, farming leader (born 1902)
25 December
Viola Bell, sports administrator, community leader (born 1897)
Warwick Snedden, cricketer (born 1920)
Exact date unknown
Bruce Campbell, lawyer, politician, jurist (born 1916)
See also
History of New Zealand
List of years in New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand |
4243411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Afghanistan | Education in Afghanistan | Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 and higher education, which is under the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education. In 2021, there were nearly 10 million students and 220,000 teachers in Afghanistan. The nation still requires more schools and teachers. Soon after the Taliban takeover of the country in August 2021, they banned girls from secondary education. Some provinces still allow secondary education for girls despite the ban. In December 2022, the Taliban government also prohibited university education for females in Afghanistan, sparking protests and international condemnation.
According to Acting Education Minister Noorullah Munir, "Afghanistan has 20,000 official schools in which 9,000 are of no use, 5,000 have no building and the remaining 4,000 needed rehabilitation." Compulsory education in Afghanistan is through the ninth grade. "The academic year consists of 2 semesters, and runs from March to January." Since the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, officials under the Islamic Emirate have suspended secondary education to teenage girls.
Education improved in Afghanistan after the Taliban government was deposed in 2001. In 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, including 3.2 million girls. Only 1.2 million Afghans attended school in 2001, with fewer than 50,000 being girls. 39% of girls were attending school in 2017 compared to 6% in 2003. In 2021, and a third of students at university were women. The literacy rate has risen from 8% in 2001 to 43% in 2021.
Some of the major universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan (apparently defunct as of 2021), Kabul University, Kabul Polytechnic University, Al-Beroni University, Kardan University, Balkh University, Herat University, Nangarhar University, Shaikh Zayed University, Kandahar University, Bost University, Paktia University, Kunduz University, Badakhshan University, and Ghazni University.
History
One of the oldest schools in Afghanistan is the Habibia High School in Kabul, which was built by King Habibullah Khan in 1903 to educate students from the nation's elite class. In the 1920s, the German-funded Amani High School opened in Kabul, and about a decade later two French lycées (secondary schools) began, the AEFE and the Lycée Esteqlal. Kabul University was established in 1932.
Education was improved under the rule of King Zahir Shah between 1933 and 1973, making primary schools available to about half the population who were younger than 12 years of age and expanding the secondary school system and Kabul University. Of the 10.3 billion Afghans. spent on the first "Five Year Plan" (1956-1962), "7.7% was appropriated for education and health as compared to 49.5% for transportation and communication, 26.5% on industrial development, 12.6% for agriculture, and 3.8% for miscellaneous development works." By the end of the program, "the number of students (primary, secondary, and vocational) rising from 96.34 to 169.06 per 10,000 of population. The number of students receiving higher education per 10,000 of population, rose from 0.66 to 1.44, and construction of a new campus for the Kabul University was taken in hand. After the Taliban took over in 2021, the number of students acquiring higher education per 10,000 people decreased substantially. This is due to lost of jobs of their tuition supporters who were in the previous government. Many of the students also fled the country.
During the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, the government of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) reformed the education system; education was stressed for both sexes, and widespread literacy programs were set up.
After the overthrow of the Taliban in late 2001, the Karzai administration received substantial international aid to restore the education system. Around 7,000 schools were operating in 20 of the 32 provinces by the end of 2003, with 27,000 teachers teaching 4.2 million children (including 1.2 million girls). Of that number, about 3.9 million were in primary schools.
An estimated 57 percent of men and 86 percent of women were reported to be illiterate, and the lack of skilled and educated workers was a major economic disadvantage. When Kabul University reopened in 2002, some 24,000 male and female students enrolled for higher education. In the meantime, five other universities were being rehabilitated. Public school curricula have included religious subjects but detailed instruction is left to religious teachers.
By 2006, over 4 million male and female students were enrolled in schools throughout Afghanistan. At the same time school facilities or institutions were also being refurbished or improved, with more modern-style schools being built each year. The American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) in Kabul was established in 2006. Other universities were renovated or rebuilt, such as Kandahar University in the south, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east, Herat University in the west and Balkh University in the north. Despite these achievements, there were still significant obstacles to education in Afghanistan, many of which stem from a lack of funding. Planning curricula and school programs is difficult for the Ministry of Education because a significant amount of the budget for education comes from external donors, making it difficult to predict the annual budget.
The obstacles to education were even more numerous for Afghan girls. Afghanistan's then Education Minister, Mohammad Hanif Atmar, said in 2007 that 60% of students were studying in tents or other unprotected structures, and some parents refused to let their daughters attend schools in such conditions.
In 2009, another concern was the destruction of schools by the Taliban, especially schools for females. Following the destruction of over 150 schools in a year, many parents had doubts about the government's ability to protect them.
The following achievements were made in the first decade of the 2000s:
Between 2001 and 2016, primary school enrollment rose from around 1 million to 9.2 million (a nine-fold increase in fifteen years) and the proportion of girls from virtually zero to 37%. UNESCO estimates that 129 million females are out of school around the world, with 32 million in primary school and 97 million in secondary school.
The number of teachers in general education has risen sevenfold, but their qualifications are low. About 31% are women.
Between 2003 and 2011, over 5,000 school buildings were rehabilitated or newly constructed. Just over 50% of schools have usable buildings.
Enrollment is low: The average is 1,983 students per institution; three institutions have fewer than 200 students. Furthermore, there is a deficiency of qualified faculty members: only 4.7% (166 of total 3,522) of the teaching staff held a Ph.D. In “addition to problems of inadequate resources, and lack of qualified teaching staff are issues of corruption.”
In 2010, the United States began establishing Lincoln Learning Centers in Afghanistan. They serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.
According to the Human Development Index, in 2011, Afghanistan was the 15th least developed country in the world.
In 2009 and 2010, a 5,000 OLPC – One Laptop Per Child schools deployment took place in Kandahar with funding from an anonymous foundation. The OLPC team seeks local support to undertake a larger deployment.
In June 2011, officials from the United States signed a joint statement with Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak to expand opportunities for direct financial support from USAID to the Afghan Ministry of Education. In December 2011, the Baghch-e-Simsim (Afghan version of Sesame Street) children's television series was launched in Afghanistan. It is funded by the U.S. Department of State and is produced in consultation with Afghanistan's Ministry of Education. The project is designed to help educate Afghans from pre-school stage and onward.
It was reported in May 2013 that there were 16,000 schools across Afghanistan, with 10.5 million students. Education Minister Wardak stated that 3 million children remained deprived of education and requested $3 billion to construct 8,000 additional schools over the next two years.
Afghanistan's story in education is still confronted by major challenges. Three and a half million children – 75% of them girls – are still out of school. Poverty, the lack of qualified female teachers in rural schools (which is especially linked to girls' education), and substandard school facilities all account for low enrollment. Furthermore, nearly half of all schools do not have a building or facilities.
Education for female students
Modern social reform for Afghan women began when Queen Soraya, wife of King Amanullah, made rapid reforms to improve women's lives and their position in the family, marriage, education and professional life. She founded the first women's magazine (Irshad-e Naswan, 1922), the first women's organization (Anjuman-i Himayat-i-Niswan), the first school for girls (Masturat School in 1920), the first theatre for women in Paghman and the first hospital for women (the Masturat Hospital in 1924). In 1928, Amanullah sent fifteen female graduates of the Masturat middle school, daughters of the royal family and government officials, to study in Turkey. Soraya Tarzi was the only woman to appear on the list of rulers in Afghanistan, and was credited with having been one of the first and most powerful Afghan and Muslim female activists. However, Queen Soraya, along with her husband's, advocacy of social reforms for women led to a protest and contributed to the ultimate demise of her and her husband's reign in 1929. King Amanullah Khan's deposition caused a severe backlash, the girls 'schools were closed, the female students who had been allowed to study in Turkey was recalled to Afghanistan and forced to put on the veil and enter purdah again, and polygamy for men was reintroduced.
Successors Mohammed Nadir Shah and Mohammed Zahir Shah acted more cautiously, but nevertheless worked for the moderate and steady improvement of women's rights Women were allowed to take classes at the Masturat Women's Hospital in Kabul in 1931, and some girls' schools were reopened; the first High School for girls was officially called a 'Nursing School' to prevent any opposition to it.
After the Second World War modernization reforms were seen as necessary by the government, which resulted in the resurrection of a state women's movement. In 1946 the government-supported Women's Welfare Association (WWA) was founded with Queen Humaira Begum as patron, giving school classes for girls and vocational classes to women, and from 1950 women students were accepted at the Kabul University.
Students of every gender and ethnic background were enrolled in public schools. By 1978, women made up 40 percent of the doctors and 60 percent of the teachers at Kabul University; 440,000 female students were enrolled in educational institutions and 80,000 more in literacy programs. Despite improvements, a large percentage of the population remained illiterate. Not only was the constitution of the government styled after that of the Soviet Union, but also changes in academia started to resemble the Soviet approach to education. However, during the Taliban's first period of rule (1996–2001), girls could not receive formal education.
In 2015 at Kabul University the first master's degree course in gender and women's studies in Afghanistan began.
When the Taliban returned to power there were concerns that access to education, especially for the female population, would be heavily set back. Though the Taliban claimed that it respected their rights. An issue later began that resulted in temporary suspension of females attending schools. This move would later be criticized by some Pakistani clerics. As of August 2022, teenage girls and female teachers are still prevented from returning to secondary schools. They are also developing a new curriculum for all students. On the 20 December 2022, women were banned from University education, the next day from education in elementary school.
A lack of women teachers was another issue that concerned some parents, especially in more conservative areas. Some parents were not allowing their daughters to be taught by men. But this often meant that girls were not allowed to attend school, as the international aid agency Oxfam reported in 2007 that about one quarter of Afghan teachers were women.
On 20 December 2022, the Taliban banned women from attending universities in Afghanistan, sparking protests and international condemnation. This decision followed the exclusion of girls from secondary schools since the Taliban came to power the previous year. The United Nations and several countries condemned the move. In 2023, the Taliban arrested female education campaigner Matiullah Wesa after he traveled to remote parts of the country to improve access to education for all children. The Taliban previously arrested another outspoken critic of the ban on women's education Ismail Mashal in February, but he was released from custody on March 5.
Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and the Day Kundi provinces still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.
Challenges to education development
Violence and sexual abuse
Afghanistan has been one of the countries worst affected by violence against educational institutions, with 770 incidents of attacks on education in 2008. Violence against students prevented nearly 5 million Afghan children from attending school in 2010. The country saw 439 teachers, education employees, and students killed between 2006 and 2009, one of the highest death rates in the world.
Women were fearful of attending institutions of primary, secondary, or tertiary education as a result of increased rates of sexual harassment and violence. According to the Ministry of Public Health in Afghanistan, these occurrences have resulted in significantly higher rates of suicide, as the number of casualties exceed the number of war deaths. Evidently, not only is the physical health of women threatened by instances of sexual assault, but also their mental well-being, as many become depressed and suffer from low self-esteem.
Teacher credentials
Since 2002, up to 6 million girls and boys started attending school. In 2012, the supply of students far exceeded the pool of qualified teachers. According to statistics provided by the Ministry of Education, 80 percent of the country's 165,000 teachers had achieved the equivalent of a high school education or did not complete their post-secondary studies.
In addition to the aforementioned limitations in the adequacy of educators who are available to provide an effective education for the Afghan population, the current government continues to place bans on female teachers that would inhibit them from participating. This regulation is founded upon the Islamic interpretation of Sharia law that requires women to be accompanied by a Mehram, or male relative such as their father, husband, or son, when present in public. Firing thousands of female teachers not only makes it more difficult for women to feel comfortable attending educational institutions, but also strengthens gendered stereotypes that characterize women as being sensitive and weak, and therefore, unable to be active members of society.
Curriculum
Since 2002, under the combined efforts of Afghan and international experts, the curriculum has been changed from Islamic teachings; there are new books and better training. Yet, there remains no standard curriculum for secondary school textbooks, and high school textbooks remain woefully inadequate in number and content. The current government of Afghanistan stated repeatedly that students must be taught according to Islamic law, without elaborating on what that entails. The government reassured the public, as well as the international community, that it will reopen schools in rural and urban areas to both male and female students. Nonetheless, there has been a suspension of such efforts as officials in charge of education claim to be waiting for the development of new curriculum that will focus less on secular subjects, such as mathematics or science, and rather on Islamic studies. Furthermore, the educators responsible for operating educational institutions lack the formal training to teach advanced curriculum in schools, discouraging families from ensuring their children ultimately earn degrees with which they may enter the labor force.
Infrastructure
In 2012, there were insufficient schools. Around 4,500 schools are being built according to a recent government report. 40 percent of schools were housed in permanent buildings. The rest held classes in UNICEF shelters or were "desert schools" with students and teachers gathering in the desert near a village.
Child labor
In 2007, more than half of the population of Afghanistan was under the age of 18. UNICEF estimates that close to a quarter of Afghan children between the ages of seven and fourteen were working. In rural areas, the problem is worse, and there are more girls working than boys. This disrupts children's education and possibly prevents them from attending school completely. The number of working children has increased recently. According to a Save the Children report, an estimated one million children are currently involved in child labor in Afghanistan as family finances have collapsed in the last six months.
See also
List of universities in Afghanistan
Higher education in Afghanistan
List of schools in Afghanistan
Afghanistan Scout Association
Help Afghan School Children Organization
References
External links
Education Plans and Policies in Afghanistan, Planipolis, IIEP-UNESCO
Vocational Education and training in Afghanistan, UNESCO-UNEVOC(TVET database)
History of Education in Afghanistan, Encyclopædia Iranica |
4243423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offensive%20realism | Offensive realism | Offensive realism is a structural theory in international relations that belongs to the neorealist school of thought and was put forward by the political scholar John Mearsheimer in response to defensive realism. Offensive realism holds that the anarchic nature of the international system is responsible for the promotion of aggressive state behavior in international politics. The theory fundamentally differs from defensive realism by depicting great powers as power-maximizing revisionists privileging buck-passing and self-promotion over balancing strategies in their consistent aim to dominate the international system. The theory brings important alternative contributions for the study and understanding of international relations but remains the subject of criticism.
Theoretical origins
Offensive realism is a prominent and important theory of international relations belonging to the realist school of thought, which includes various sub-trends characterised by the different perspectives of representative scholars such as Robert Gilpin, Randall Schweller, Eric J. Labs and Fareed Zakaria. Yet, to date, the most important variant of offensive neorealism is that of John J. Mearsheimer as fully developed in his book The Tragedy of Great Power Politics.
While Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism theory does reiterate and build on certain assumptions elaborated by classical realists, it departs completely from this branch by using positivism as a philosophy of science and by adding a system-centric approach to the study of state behaviour in international politics based on the structure of the international system. Accordingly, his offensive neorealism pertains to the sub-branch of neorealism alongside other structural theories such as defensive realism.
Main tenets
The theory is grounded on five central assumptions similar to the ones that lie at the core of Kenneth Waltz's defensive neorealism. These are:
Great powers are the main actors in world politics and the international system is anarchical
All states possess some offensive military capability
States can never be certain of the intentions of other states
States have survival as their primary goal
States are rational actors, capable of coming up with sound strategies that maximize their prospects for survival
Like defensive neorealism, offensive realism posits an anarchic international system in which rational great powers uncertain of other states' intentions and capable of military offensive strive to survive. Although initially developed from similar propositions to those of defensive neorealism, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism advances drastically different predictions regarding great power behaviour in international politics.
Mainly, it diverges from defensive neorealism in regards to the accumulation of power a state needs to possess to ensure its security and the issuing of strategy states pursue to meet this satisfactory level of security. Ultimately, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism draws a much more pessimistic picture of international politics characterised by dangerous inter-state security competition likely leading to conflict and war.
Status quo v. power-maximizing states
John Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism intends to fix the "status quo bias" of Kenneth Waltz's defensive neorealism. While both neorealist variants argue that states are primarily concerned with maximising their security, they disagree over the amount of power required in the process. To the contrary of defensive neorealism according to which states are status quo powers seeking only to preserve their respective positions in the international system by maintaining the prevailing balance of power, offensive neorealism claims that states are in fact power-maximising revisionists harbouring aggressive intentions. Indeed, in offensive neorealism, the international system provides great powers with strong incentives to resort to offensive action in order to increase their security and assure their survival.
The international system characterised by anarchy (the absence of a central authority capable of enforcing rules and punishing aggressors) and uncertainty as to state intentions and available offensive military capabilities leads states to constantly fear each other and resort to self-help mechanisms to provide for their survival. In order to alleviate this fear of aggression each holds of the other, states always seek to maximise their own relative power, defined in terms of material capabilities. As Mearsheimer puts it: "they look for opportunities to alter the balance of power by acquiring additional increments of power at the expense of potential rivals", since "the greater the military advantage one state has over other states, the more secure it is". States seek to increase their military strength to the detriment of other states within the system with hegemony—being the only great power in the state system—as their ultimate goal.
John Mearsheimer summed up this view as follows: "great powers recognize that the best way to ensure their security is to achieve hegemony now, thus eliminating any possibility of a challenge by another great power. Only a misguided state would pass up an opportunity to be the hegemon in the system because it thought it already had sufficient power to survive." Accordingly, offensive neorealists such as Mearsheimer believe that a state's best strategy to increase its relative power to the point of achieving hegemony is to rely on offensive tactics. Provided that it is rational for them to act aggressively, great powers will likely pursue expansionist policies, which will bring them closer to hegemony.
Since global hegemony is nearly impossible to attain due to the constraints of power projection across oceans and retaliation forces, the best end game status states can hope to reach is that of a regional hegemon dominating its own geographical area. This relentless quest for power inherently generates a state of "constant security competition, with the possibility of war always in the background". Only once regional hegemony is attained do great powers become status quo states.
Balancing v. buck-passing
The emphasis offensive neorealism puts on hegemony as states' end aim stands in sharp contrast to defensive neorealism's belief that state survival can be guaranteed at some point well short of hegemony. In a defensive neorealist mindset, security increments by power accumulation end up experiencing diminishing marginal returns where costs eventually outweigh benefits. Defensive neorealism posits that under anarchy there is a strong propensity for states to engage in balancing—states shouldering direct responsibility to maintain the existing balance of power—against threatening power-seeking states, which may in turn succeed in "jeopardiz[ing] the very survival of the maximizing state". This argument also applies to state behavior towards the most powerful state in the international system, as defensive neorealists note that an excessive concentration of power is self-defeating, triggering balancing countermoves.
Mearsheimer challenges these claims by making the argument that it is rather difficult to estimate when states have reached a satisfactory amount of power short of hegemony and costly to rely extensively on balancing as an efficient power-checking method due to collective action issues. According to him, when a great power finds itself in a defensive posture trying to prevent rivals from gaining power at its expense, it can choose to engage in balancing or intervene by favoring buck-passing—transferring the responsibility to act onto other states while remaining on the sidelines.
In order to determine the circumstances in which great powers behave according to one or the other, Mearsheimer builds on Waltz's defensive neorealism by including a second variable—geography—alongside the distribution of power. On one hand, the choice between balancing and buck-passing depends on whether the anarchic international system is of a bipolar, balanced, or unbalanced multipolar architecture. On another hand, state geographic location in terms of border sharing and stopping power of water also influences great powers' strategy preference. Combined, these two variables allow him to establish that great powers tend to favor—to the contrary of defensive neorealism predictions—buck-passing over balancing in all instances of multipolarity except for those that include a potential hegemon.
Responding to defensive neorealists' posture on state behaviour towards the most powerful state in the international system, Mearsheimer believes that threatened states will reluctantly engage in balancing against potential hegemons but that balancing coalitions are unlikely to form against a great power that has achieved regional hegemony. This lack of balancing is best explained by the regional hegemon's newly acquired status quo stance, which follows from the geographical constraints on its power projection capability. Instead of relying on offensive actions, a regional hegemon finds itself in a defensive position seeking to avert threats to its hegemonic status by preventing the rise of any peer competitors in other areas. As such it will behave as an offshore balancer, passing the buck to local neighbours of the potential hegemon and engaging in balancing only as a last resort.
Contributions and criticism
Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism represents an important contribution to international relations theory yet also generated important criticism. While the inputs and critics below provide a good sample of the theory's contributions and the kind of arguments that have been addressed against it, the listing should in no case be considered as exhaustive.
Theoretical inputs
Firstly, scholars believe that Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism provides an alternative complement to Waltz's defensive neorealism. The theory adds to defensive neorealists' argument that the structure of the international system constrains state behavior. Setting to rectify the status quo bias pertaining to defensive neorealism by arguing that anarchy can also generate incentives for states to maximize their share of power, offensive neorealism solves anomalies that Waltz's theory fails to explain. Mainly, the theory is able to provide an explanation for the amount of conflict occurring among states in the international system. As Snyder states, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism "enlarges the scope of neorealist theory by providing a theoretical rationale for the behavior of revisionist states".
Moreover, this complementarity could signify theoretical interrelation with the two theories working in alternation to explain state behavior, thereby allowing for a "more complete structural realist theory that can more accurately account for both defensive and offensive state behavior". Secondly, these scholars uphold the argument that Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism significantly contributes to foreign policy theory and alliance theory. More specifically, Mearsheimer's theory goes a step further than structural defensive realism by successfully theorising both international politics and foreign policy.
Contrary to Waltz's rejection of defensive neorealism as a theory capable of explaining foreign policy on top of international politics, offensive neorealism includes explanations of both international outcomes pertaining to the systemic level of analysis and individual state behavior. Additionally, the inclusion of new variables such as geography alongside the distribution of power enhances offensive neorealism's potential to make specific assumptions about states' pursuit of aggressive actions and resort to balancing and buck-passing.
Theoretical flaws
To begin with, scholars have pointed out several logical issues within Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism. Snyder rejects Mearsheimer's view of the security dilemma as "a synoptic statement of offensive realism". He argues that offensive neorealism's positing of all states as revisionists removes the central proposition—uncertainty about other states' intentions—on which the whole concept of security dilemma is grounded. Aggressive great powers' measures to maximize their security threaten others which leads to an actual justified security competition between states rather than an unnecessary one based on hypothetical threats.
Toft indicates flaws relating to offensive neorealism's level of analysis. According to him, the inclusion of the non-structural geography variable to explain great power behavior shifts the theory's focal point of analysis from system-wide dynamics to regional ones. Considering the theory's regional security analyses, he further argues that offensive neorealism fails to clearly define what constitutes a region with "entities like Europe or North-East Asia (taken) for granted", leaving room for scholarly disapproval.
Christopher Layne further highlights problems associated with the geographic variable. He criticizes Mearsheimer's reasoning according to which the "stopping power of water" prevents a great power from achieving global hegemony as this constraint does not seem to apply to the case of an emerging rival's capacity to exercise influence beyond its own neighborhood. As Layne states, "apparently water stops the United States from imposing its powers on others in distant regions, but it does not stop them from threatening American primacy in the Western Hemisphere". Moreover, he finds offensive realism's classification of regional hegemons as status quo powers difficult to reconcile with the theory's emphasis on great powers as relentless power-maximizers. In this sense, Layne questions the ability of the water constraint to transform a power-maximizing state into a status quo power and contradicts Mearsheimer by arguing that a regional hegemon remains subjected to the quest for security, thereby striving to attain global hegemony.
A second group of criticism addresses the issue of offensive neorealism's restrictive focuses. Scholars have criticized Mearsheimer's theory for failing to take into account domestic politics. No attention is paid to a rising power's internal political functioning, its economy or society, which play a role in a state's decision-making process, in turn influencing its behavior in international politics. Moreover, Snyder argues that no consideration is given to transnational threats such as terrorism, and that Mearsheimer's emphasis on security makes him ignore states' non-security interests such as ideology, national unification and human rights as an essential aspect of international politics alongside power competition.
Additionally, Toft points out that Mearsheimer's concentration on military capabilities and issuing state capacity for territorial conquest "implies a risk that his analyses miss a host of other ways of gaining and exercising influence". Similarly, political scientists whose primary focus is bargaining models of international conflict note that offensive neorealism ignores the fact that war is costly.
Since those costs in turn make war inefficient, states (even those who do not have hegemony) have incentive to construct bargained settlements. For instance, in a bipolar world with a 70%-to-30% power breakdown, states would prefer an analogously proportioned breakdown in resources rather than having some of those resources destroyed over the course of fighting. Due to this inefficiency—war's inefficiency puzzle—the constant fighting Mearsheimer proposes would actually make states less secure because the repeated costs of fighting eventually deplete all of that state's power.
Most importantly, scholars have questioned the theory's empirical validity and prediction ability, which in turn can negatively affect the validity of offensive neorealism's prescriptions for state behavior in international politics. In addition to mentioning the theory's failure to account for Japan's 20th century territorial acquisitions, NATO's continuation or Germany's non-achievement of regional hegemony in the post-Cold war era, they have also expressed serious doubts regarding offensive neorealism views on China's rising power and U.S. regional hegemony. According to them, there is no reason to believe that China as a rational power wanting to ensure its survival will seek hegemony rather than rely on cooperative mechanisms.
They similarly contradict Mearsheimer's arguments regarding the United States. Firstly, weak opposition or balancing inefficiencies rather than geographical constraints are taken as explanations for the uniqueness of the United States' regional hegemonic position.
Toft and Layne go a step further by asserting that Mearsheimer misjudges the United States as a regional hegemon engaged in offshore balancing. Instead of being a regional hegemon with the strategic aim of dominating the Western hemisphere while preventing the rise of peer competitors in Europe and Northeast Asia, these scholars believe that empirical data points to the fact that the United States has sought and achieved global hegemony, which in turn biases Mearsheimer's predictions regarding future U.S. strategic behavior, mainly in terms of its military involvement overseas.
See also
Lesser of two evils principle
Cult of the offensive
Notes
References
Hendrickson, David C. "The Lion and the Lamb: Realism and Liberalism Reconsidered." World Policy Journal 20:1 (2003): 93–102.
Kirshner, Jonathan. "The Tragedy of Offensive Realism: Classical Realism and the Rise of China." European Journal of International Relations 18:1 (2012): 53–75.
Labs, Eric. "Beyond Victory: Offensive Realism and the Expansion of War Aims." Security Studies 6:4 (1997): 1–49.
Lake, David A. "Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War." International Security 35:3 (2010/11): 7–52.
Layne, Christopher. "The Poster Child for Offensive Realism: America as a Global Hegemon." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 120–163.
Lee, Gerald Geunwook. "To be Long or Not to Be Long—That is the Question: The Contradiction of Time-Horizon in Offensive Realism." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 196–217.
Levy, Jack S. and William R. Thompson. "Balancing on Land and at Sea: Do States Ally Against the Leading Global Power?" International Security 35:1 (2010): 7–43.
Lieber, Keir A. and Gerard Alexander. "Waiting for Balancing Why the World Is Not Pushing Back." International Security 30:1 (2005): 109–139.
Lim, Y.-H. China's Naval Power, Surrey, New York, Ashgate, 2014, 234 p. ().
Mearsheimer, John J. "The False Promise of International Institutions." International Security 19:3 (1994–1995): 5–49.
Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2001.
Mearsheimer, John J. "China's Unpeaceful Rise." Current History 105:690 (2006): 160–162.
Rynning, Sten and Jens Ringsmose. "Why Are Revisionist States Revisionist? Reviving Classical Realism as an Approach to Understanding International Change." International Politics 45 (2008): 19–39.
Shiping Tang. "From Offensive to Defensive Realism: A Social Evolutionary Interpretation of China's Security Strategy." In China's Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of International Politics, edited by Robert Ross and Zhu Feng, 141–162. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
Snyder, Glenn H. "Mearsheimer's World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay." International Security 27:1 (2002): 149–173.
Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979).
Waltz, Kenneth N. "Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory." Journal of International Affairs 44:1 (1990): 21–37.
Waltz, Kenneth N. "International Politics Is Not Foreign Policy." Security Studies 6:1 (1996): 54–57.
Wang, Yuan-Kang. "Offensive Realism and the Rise of China." Issues & Studies 40:1 (2004): 173–201.
Further reading
Robert Giplin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In", International Security 19 :1 (1994): 72–107.
Fareed Zarkaria, From Wealth to Power: the Unusual Origins of America's World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
Political realism
International relations theory
pl:Realizm strukturalny#Realizm strukturalny ofensywny |
4243424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Vietnam | Environmental issues in Vietnam | Environmental issues in Vietnam are numerous and varied. This is due in part to the effects of the Vietnam War, and also because of Vietnam's rapid industrialization following the economic reforms in 1986 known as Doi Moi, amongst other reasons. Officially, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam lists environmental issues to include land, water, geology and minerals, and seas and islands, amongst others.
According to the State of the Environment 2001 published by the government, the main environmental issues in Vietnam are land degradation, forest degradation, loss of biodiversity, water pollution, air pollution and litter or solid waste management. However, the issues which the environmental movement in Vietnam is concerned with sometimes fall outside these official categories. For example, according to a World Bank study in 2007, climate change has become a major concern because Vietnam is expected to be seriously impacted by climate related consequences in the years to come.
As regards the responsibility for the management of environmental issues in Vietnam, under the aforementioned MONRE, the Vietnamese Environment Administration (VEA) was established by the Prime Minister on 30 September 2008. The VEA manages environmental issues in Vietnam at the national level. At the provincial level, the Departments of Natural Resources and the Environment (DONRE) are responsible.
Environmental protection has generally gained policy and public attention. A large number of environmental regulations have been issued since the country's economic reform in the 1990s. The regulations include the Law on Environmental Protection, first issued in 1993, revised in 2005, 2012, and 2020. Political wishes of international integration and increasing public demand for cleaner environment have been key drivers for Vietnam’s environmental policy.
The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) and Vietnamese party-state are not the only actors playing key roles as far as environmental issues are concerned. The environmental movement, part of Vietnam's civil society, consisting of grassroots organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Institute of Ecological Economics, is also a significant actor. In this entry, the history of the role which the environmental movement in Vietnam has played in influencing how environmental issues have unfolded and been perceived by the state and by society will be examined.
History
From 1975 onwards, when Vietnam was reunified under VCP leadership, commentators have often claimed that civic life diminished under tight state control. However, the commonplace impression of Vietnam as an ostensibly communist authoritarian state where social and community movements are either rare or do not have much effect on government or policy decisions has been demonstrated not to be the case. Neither is it the case that all instances of resistance or dissent are met monolithically with a uniform strategy of repression by the Vietnamese party-state. For example, Benedict Kerkvliet has documented repeated instances of citizen criticisms of authorities' alleged tolerance when it came to Chinese economic malpractices in bauxite mining activities, which were at least to a limited extent tolerated by the authorities. While Kerkvliet frames the anti-bauxite movement in terms of anti-Chinese sentiments, it can also be framed as indicative of growing socio-political opposition, as Jason Morris-Jung does (see section on "2007 anti-bauxite environment movement" below).
Prior to Doi Moi and the Vietnam War, it is not the case that there was a complete lack of an environmental consciousness in Vietnam. In fact, the history of environmental issues in Vietnam goes as far back as at least the 1950s. For example, environmental issues had surfaced in the context of industrial and economic activities, such as the detrimental environmental effects of highly polluting industries. However, there is little by way of evidence that social movements organized around the cause of the environment were specifically a feature of Vietnamese civic life at the time. Part of the reason for the absence of a concerted, mobilized environmental movement in the past could be due to the extent of control wielded by the VCP over the country's civil sphere. However, apart from claims which rely on the power of the party-state to explain the lack of an environmental movement in Vietnam in the past, it has also been noted that right up until the early 1990s, a significant proportion of the national population still continued to earn less income than the poverty threshold of US$1.90 per day, and in light of these circumstances, it was understandable that environmental issues did not feature highly on Vietnamese people's list of priorities.
Much ink has been spilt in attempting to understand the impact of the Second Indochina War, commonly referred to as the Vietnam War, on the historical progression of environmental issues in Vietnam, especially after the War ended in 1975. Many of these commentaries have dwelt on the destructive effects of military action on Vietnam's landscape and environment, with a focus on American military action. For instance, it has been well researched that between 1961 and 1971, U.S military forces dispersed more than 19 million gallons of herbicidal agents over the Republic of Vietnam, including more than 12 million gallons of the dioxin-contaminant commonly known as Agent Orange. As large as these numbers appear to be, the environmental issues which their contaminative elements have given rise to, although significant, have been shown to have limited subsequent effects, such as consequences for planting crops on available arable land, based on World Bank data up to 2009.
The focus of commentary on American military action is probably attributable to two reasons. First, the scale of American operations, by virtue of their relative economic and military power, were carried out at a completely different order of magnitude from that of the North Vietnamese. Second, primary sources, such as photographic and documentary archival records which recorded the American side of events, are also more readily available. That being said, other scholars have sought to expand the understanding of the environmental issues which arose as consequences of the War. For example, David Biggs highlights in his environmental history of Central Vietnam that the effect of the War left on the landscape (what he calls "footprints") were not exclusively destructive, but also had constructive or creative dimensions as well.
What sort of environmental movement, if any, emerged to address the environmental damage precipitated by the War? For the Vietnam War's environmental issues, unlike other environmental issues which will be elaborated upon subsequently, efforts such as decontamination were driven primarily by governmental and civic movements originating primarily in the United States, such as USAID and the Ford Foundation. Even in the present day, after fifty years of clean up have elapsed, it is foreign international bodies like the World Health Organization, rather than domestic ones, which continue to take the lead in the environmental movement to rectify the scars of military history on Vietnam's natural landscape.
Doi Moi, civil society and environmental movements
As regards the question of when the environmental movement in Vietnam really took off, historians point to various start dates, including the 1950s as previously mentioned in the case of O'Rourke, all the way up until the early 1990s, as in the case of Kerkvliet's observations about citizen discontent being voiced out by environmental activists. However, there is broad consensus that environmental issues began featuring more prominently in Vietnam's civic sphere following the Doi Moi reforms which were initiated from 1986 onwards by a new generation of more progressive Vietnamese political leaders. Empirically, records of environmental movement activities such as protests seeking to address environmental issues show that these have mostly taken place with greater frequency starting from after major examples (for instance, the movements or activism relating to the preservation of Hanoi’s Reunification Park, as recounted by Andrew Wells-Dang, and that relating to the bauxite controversy as recounted by Jason Morris-Jung) had created greater overall awareness and concern, which Stephan Ortmann argues is from around 2010 onwards, where there have been at least 13 major environmental protests involving hundreds, if not thousands, of protesters.
At one level, new types of environmental issues were created as a byproduct of new and increased economic activities, given that the primary objective of reforms was to boost business growth in an attempt to eradicate poverty. For example, while business and agricultural reforms led to the creation of more than 30,000 new private businesses and reduced the percentage of the Vietnamese population living under the poverty line from about 50 percent to 29 percent, an environmental consequence of this growth reported in a 2003 publication jointly produced by MONRE, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Fisheries was the conflict created between demands for land development and planning on the one hand, and area conservation plans on the other.
How did the Doi Moi reforms, which were primarily economic in nature, relate to the 11 growth of civil society, including the environmental movement, in Vietnam? This has been a matter of some historiographical debate, with tensions pulling in multiple directions. By and large, the party-state has hinted at the importance of local participation at the grassroots level in social issues including the environment. That being said, obstacles to active involvement in the environmental movement and civil society continued to persist, some of which were had always been present in Vietnam, while others, ironically, were consequences of economic reforms. For instance, some historians stressed the persistence of Leninist structure which made it difficult for bottom-up initiatives to gain any real traction, while also highlighting the resistance of strong economic interest groups whose businesses would not have benefited from tighter environmental controls and regulations, were these to come into reality as a product of greater awareness of environmental issues and successful activism15. The role of international NGOs and international donors of foreign aid, formally known as official development assistance or ODA, in applying pressure to involve more people and societal actors in the environmental movement has also been emphasized.
Whether or not the environmental movement can be considered a civil society actor in its own right is unclear. This is because it has so far had mixed successes and failures in bringing about changes to positively address environmental issues in Vietnam. While a more detailed discussion of the bauxite controversy will proceed in the following section, it suffices to note here that the case of the anti-bauxite movement could be used to demonstrate the limits of bottom-up pressures from environmental activists. Nevertheless, there have been some successes, such as the involvement of the environmental movement in pushing for the Law on Environmental Protection which came into effect on 2015, expanding the space that civil society could occupy by legitimating the involvement of community-based organizations in environmental issues. Further on, the case of the environmental movement which pursued as its goal the preservation of the Reunification Park in Hanoi could show that civil society networks have developed in the Vietnamese context.
Not everyone would agree that the Law on Environmental Protection was as significant for the environmental movement or for addressing environmental issues in Vietnam as it has been made out to be. A more cynical perspective claims that compliance with the new legislation merely took the form of nominal environmental divisions by economic agencies such as the Ministry of Construction18. Disparities and tensions also existed at different levels of government, such as between central and provincial authorities. Nevertheless, nominal or otherwise, there exists evidence, at least to a limited extent, of instances in Vietnam where environmental regulations, and enforcement of those regulations, were motivated because of community complaints or demands. Historians refer to this phenomenon as community-driven regulation, with a key example being the actions taken by the provincial Departments of Science, Technology and Environment (DOSTEs) in the 1990s. The way that community pressures or civic opposition came to bear upon authorities’ decisions and actions continued into the 2000s and 2010s. Beyond just environmental issues, however, the environmental movement has come to be understood as playing a contributory role to wider social activism in the context of Vietnam's civil society. Environmental movement groups such as Green Group Hanoi frame their campaigns by situating conservation and sustainability issues within the language of responsible and accountable government. In agitating for good governance, the movement goes beyond environmental issues into a new space of political contestation.
2007 anti-bauxite environmental movement
As mentioned earlier, the anti-bauxite environmental movement in Vietnam in 2007 has been understood in various ways, including as an example of Vietnamese people speaking out about an environmental issue they care about in a socialist authoritarian context, and an instance where bottom-up community pressures had limited success in addressing the status quo. Another way it has been made sense of is as a new mode of political contestation and compromise between the environmental movement and the party-state. Although historians generally agree that the movement may not have had much success in stopping bauxite mining in the Central Highlands, it did manage to resist the attempted repressions of public discourse about the mining projects.
Moreover, the activities of the anti-bauxite environmental movement demonstrated the digitalization of social action, which has come to characterize how a wide range of other priority issues in contemporary Vietnamese civil society are being championed. Specifically, the use of online petitions during the bauxite controversy has become a recurring mode of activism. The significance of this environmental issue is plainly evident from Morris-Jung’s description of a post-bauxite politics in Vietnam.
2016 Vietnam marine environment disaster
In April 2016, another significant environmental issue in Vietnam surfaced due to the illegal discharging of toxic industrial waste into the ocean near the coast of Central Vietnam by a steel plant (Formosa Ha Tinh Steel) owned by a Taiwanese corporation (Formosa Plastics), which affected Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces. Fish carcasses were reported to have washed up on the beaches of Hà Tĩnh province from at least 6 April 2016. Later, a large number of dead fish were found on the coast of Hà Tĩnh and three other provinces (Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên–Huế) until 18 April 2016.
The resultant water pollution contributed to the destruction of marine life and affected the lives of Vietnamese people whose livelihoods depended on the health of the ecosystem. Although Formosa denied being responsible, protests in April and May 2016 by ordinary Vietnamese citizens, not all of whom were necessarily directly or personally affected by the disaster, were successful in pressuring authorities to levy penalties after the company was found to be responsible on June 30, 2016, and compensations were disbursed to affected parties accordingly.
Other environmental issues in Vietnam
Over the course of the history of the environmental movement in Vietnam, different types of issues have come to the fore at one time or another:
Conservation of Hang Sơn Đoòng cave: Similar to the preservation of Hanoi's Reunification Park mentioned earlier, the environmental movement in Vietnam has come out to oppose the proposed plans for building a cable car, at a cost of between $112 and $211 million, through the cave, located in Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, and considered the world's largest cave (by volume).
Air pollution: Due to increased vehicular transportation, industrial activities, solid fuel burning and poor urban planning, air pollution, especially when measured by the concentration of PM2.5 particles in the air, is becoming an environmental issue of significance in big cities such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, which are now among the top polluted cites in South East Asia. One possible way to address this environmental issue is through the development of renewable energy solutions such as solar and wind power which have the potential to reduce air pollution. Furthermore, citizens' demands for action on air pollution are an important factor in the government's choice to reduce emissions.
Accessibility to clean water. Vietnamese citizens generally have high levels of freshwater accessibility, although there is some variability between larger and smaller cities, and between cities and rural areas. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi. However, in rural areas, hand-dug wells remain the most important source of water as 39%-44% still rely on it. Only 10% of the rural population is supplied with piped water. Like air pollution, water pollution levels are also increasing due to increased industrial activity, especially in the Mekong Delta. In a region where most people depend on the surface water of the river, this environmental issue has had human health consequences, such as high rates of diarrhea. Overall in Vietnam, the number of reported diarrhea diseases was 296000 in total in 2009. Other examples of waterborne diseases in Vietnam include cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and hepatitis A. Reported cases of cholera is still significantly high. Caused by drinking water contaminated by bacterium, the number of reported cholera is well above 500, reaching 1900 in 2007, and 600 in 2010. However, the fatality rate of cholera has been close to 0% since 1999.
Wetlands: Wetlands in Vietnam, along with their biodiversity, have decreased significantly. In the case of mangrove forest areas in the Mekong Delta, these have decreased by 80 per cent between 1943 and 2000. Key causes of wetland degradation include ad hoc dyke construction. To address this environmental issue, development planning ought to take into consideration the costs, benefits and impacts on wetlands. For example, revisions to water management governance have contributed to recent improvements in the wetland degradation situation.
Forests: The integrity of Vietnam's forest landscape is relatively low; on the 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, Vietnman ranked 104th globally out of 172 countries, with a mean score of 5.35/10.
Environmental issues relating to free trade: Vietnam is committed to multilateral environmental agreements, including those on climate change and biodiversity, including the EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement and Investment Protection Agreement. To comply with these commitments, Vietnam would need strengthen regulations and enforcement on the illegal wildlife trade, as well as illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing practices, to enable Vietnam to fully reap the "benefits" from "free" trade.
Pesticide misuse: The misuse of pesticides on a global scale has led to pesticide poisoning becoming a global health concern; based on the World Health Organization’s Mortality Database, approximately 385 million cases of unintentional, acute pesticide poisoning occur world-wide each year. Despite larger quantities of pesticides being sold in developed countries, pesticide-related poisonings occur more frequently in developing countries such as Vietnam. In the case of Vietnam, since the Doi Moi economic transformation in 1986, pesticide use has doubled in the 1990s– totaling over 40,000 tons in 1998. Despite this rapid increase in the use of pesticides, the regulatory aspects of pesticides have failed to keep pace with the growth of pesticide use: a survey conducted by the Vietnam’s Plant Protection Department in 2000 indicated that numerous pesticide retailers were operating without a business license or sold pesticides that failed to meet domestic safety requirements. The lack of regulation and enforcement regarding pesticide use has led to farmer carelessness, ultimately leading to a variety of public health and environmental issues. For instance, a study conducted in the Red Delta River region of Hanoi indicated that farmers were concocting pesticide cocktails or using inappropriate levels of pesticides in order to conserve capital and labor; concocting “pesticide cocktails” can alter the properties of the pesticides by making the solution ineffective or more toxic and can lead to high levels of pesticide residues in crops. Another environmental concern is the improper disposal of pesticide waste. According to a survey result of 60 farmers in Hanoi, 17% of the surveyed farmers disposed pesticide waste in garbage bins or pits and another 17% collected the waste in batches and disposed them into the garbage. Most of the pesticides used in Vietnam are rarely biodegradable and often not biodegradable at all. Consequently, there currently is increasing concern regarding infiltration of pesticides into public water resources in Vietnam. Currently, there is increasing public effort and awareness into better pesticide management; efforts include but are not limited to introducing frameworks such as the Vietnam National Integrated Pest Management Program and Farmer Field School.
Litter or solid waste pollution, including trash or garbage, often ending up washed into rivers or water bodies, has also become a major concern associated with more urban areas of Vietnam. Products that were single-use plastic were highlighted as contributing most to litter, land and water pollution. A lack of public garbage disposal bins promoted littering, in which litter would then be washed away by rainwater, which blocked the sewerage system, causing flash floods during severe rainstorms.
See also
Deforestation in Vietnam
Environmental impact of coffee production in Vietnam
Environmental impact of war
Operation Ranch Hand
2016 Vietnam marine environment disaster
References
Issues
Vietnam |
4243425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suillus%20luteus | Suillus luteus | Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus, and the type species of the genus Suillus. A common fungus native all across Eurasia from Ireland to Korea, it has been introduced widely elsewhere, including North and South America, southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English-speaking countries, its names refer to the brown cap, which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions. The fungus, initially described as Boletus luteus ("yellow mushroom") by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is now classified in a different fungus family as well as genus. Suillus luteus (literally "yellow pig", from its greasy look in rain) is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms. It is commonly prepared and eaten in soups, stews or fried dishes. The slime coating, however, may cause indigestion if not removed before eating. It is often sold as a dried mushroom.
The fungus grows in coniferous forests in its native range, and pine plantations in countries where it has become naturalized. It forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue. The fungus produces spore-bearing fruit bodies, often in large numbers, above ground in summer and autumn.
The fruit body cap often has a distinctive conical shape before flattening with age, reaching up to in diameter. Like other boletes, it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap, rather than gills; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings, or pores. The pore surface is yellow, and covered by a membranous partial veil when young. The pale stipe, or stem, measures up to 10 cm (4 in) tall and thick and bears small dots near the top. Unlike most other boletes, it bears a distinctive membranous ring that is tinged brown to violet on the underside.
Taxonomy and naming
The slippery jack was one of the many species first described in 1753 by the "father of taxonomy" Carl Linnaeus, who, in the second volume of his Species Plantarum, gave it the name Boletus luteus. The specific epithet is the Latin adjective lūtěus, meaning "yellow". The fungus was reclassified as (and became the type species of) the genus Suillus by French naturalist Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1796. Suillus is an ancient term for fungi, and is derived from swine. In addition to the British Mycological Society approved name "slippery jack", other common names for this bolete include "pine boletus" and "sticky bun"—the latter referring to its resemblance to the pastry.
German naturalist August Batsch described Boletus volvatus (the specific epithet derived from the Latin volva, meaning "sheath", "covering" or "womb") alongside B. luteus in his 1783 work Elenchus Fungorum. Batsch placed both of these species, along with B. bovinus and the now obsolete names Boletus mutabilis and B. canus, in a grouping of similar boletes he called "subordo Suilli". Boletus volvatus is now considered a synonym of Suillus luteus. Several authors have placed the slippery jack in other genera: Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten classified it as Cricunopus luteus in 1881—the genus Cricinopus defined by yellow adnate tubes; Lucien Quélet classified it as Viscipellis luteus in 1886, and Ixocomus luteus in 1888; and Paul Christoph Hennings placed it in the section Cricinopus of the genus Boletopsis in 1900.
In works published before 1987, the slippery jack was written fully as , as the description by Linnaeus had been name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821, the date of Fries's work. Furthermore, as Roussel's description of Suillus predated this as well, the authority for the genus was assigned to British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray in the first volume of his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. In 1986, a collection of fruit bodies from Sweden was designated as the neotype of Suillus luteus.
In their 1964 monograph on North American Suillus species, Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers classified S. luteus in the series Suilli of the sectionSuillus in genus Suillus. This group is characterized by the presence of either a ring on the stipe, a partial veil adhering to the cap margin, or a "false veil" not attached to the stipe but initially covering the tube cavity. Species closely related to Suillus luteus include S. pseudobrevipes (a sister species), S. brevipes and S. weaverae (formerly Fuscoboletinus weaverae). A genetic study of nucleotide DNA reinforced the species' monophyly and low genetic divergence, with material of S. luteus from the United Kingdom, Austria, Germany and North America forming a clade, in contrast with some other species, such as S. granulatus, which were shown to be polyphyletic.
Chemical analysis of pigments and chromogens showed that Suillus was more closely related to Gomphidius and Rhizopogon than to other boletes, and hence Suillus luteus and its allies were transferred from the Boletaceae to the newly circumscribed family Suillaceae in 1997. Molecular studies have reinforced how distantly related these fungi are from Boletus edulis and its allies.
Description
The cap is chestnut, rusty, olive brown, or dark brown in color and generally 4–10 cm (rarely to 20 cm) in diameter at maturity. The cap has a distinctive conical shape, later flattening out. It is slimy to the touch, bare, smooth, and glossy even when dry, and the cuticle is easily peeled off. The tiny, circular pores of the tubes are initially yellow but turn olive to dark yellow with maturity. Like the skin of the cap, they can be readily peeled away from the flesh.
Tubes comprising the hymenophore on the underside of the cap are deep, with an attachment to the stipe ranging from adnate to somewhat decurrent. The pores are tiny, numbering 3 per mm in young specimens and 1–2 per mm in maturity. The stipe is tall and wide. It is pale yellow and more or less cylindrical but may bear a swollen base. A membranous partial veil initially links the stipe with the edge of the cap. When it ruptures, it forms a membranous, hanging ring. The top side of the ring is whitish, while the underside is characteristically dark brown to violet. This species is one of the few members of the genus Suillus that have such a ring. Above the ring, the stipe features glandular dots—minute clumps of pigmented cells. Below the ring, the stipe is dingy white, sometimes streaked with brownish slime. In humid conditions, the ring has a gelatinous texture. The white flesh of the entire fungus does not discolour when damaged, and is soft—particularly in mature specimens. It has a "pleasant" taste and lacks any distinctive odour.
The spore print is ochre or clay coloured, the elongated elliptical spores measuring 7–10 by 3–3.5 μm. Basidia (spore-producing cells) are four spored, with dimensions of 14–18 by 4–5 μm. Cystidia are present on both the tube faces (pleurocystidia) and edges (cheilocystidia), either scattered or, more rarely, as bundles. They measure 20–35 by 5–7 μm and have a narrow club shape. Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of S. luteus.
Similar species
Good field characteristics for Suillus luteus include the slimy brown cap, glandular dots on the upper stipe, and prominent purplish ring. A frequent lookalike is Suillus granulatus, which is another common, widely distributed and edible species occurring in the same habitat. Suillus granulatus is yellow fleshed and exudes latex droplets when young, but most conspicuously bears neither a partial veil nor a ring. Other than that, Suillus luteus is unlikely to be confused with other mushrooms, especially if its preferred habitat under pine trees and the whitish partial veil are considered. In Europe, the related Suillus grevillei is found under larch and has a yellow cap, while immature fruit bodies of Gomphidius glutinosus may look comparable from above but have gills rather than pores underneath. In North America, Suillus borealis and S. pseudobrevipes also have partial veils, but lack the distinctive ring of S. luteus. S. cothurnatus forms a band-like ring on the stipe that tends to be brownish rather than purplish.
In some specimens of S. luteus, the partial veil separates from the stipe (rather than the cap margin), leaving cottony patches of veil hanging from the cap margin. In this state, fruit bodies can be confused with those of S. albidipes. Unlike S. luteus, however, S. albidipes does not have glandular dots on its stipe.
Distribution and habitat
Suillus luteus can be found all over the Northern Hemisphere. Native to Eurasia, it is widespread across the British Isles. To the east it has been recorded from Pakistan, where it was found along canals in Dashkin in the district of Astore, and as far east as South Korea. It has also been widely introduced elsewhere by way of pine plantations around the globe. It is very commonly found in Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) plantations, despite the tree being native to California and hence not in the fungus' native range. In North America it is found in the northeastern, northwestern, and southwestern United States. According to Ernst Both, it was Charles Horton Peck who first suggested in 1887 that the fungus was introduced to New York State on Pinus sylvestris. DNA studies show that the North American populations differ little genetically from European populations, supporting the idea that the fungus arrived to North America relatively recently as a result of human activity. Suillus luteus is found in coastal and mountainous pine forests and exhibits a tolerance of the northern latitudes. Southern Hemisphere locales where the slippery jack grow with plantation pines include South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In southwestern Australia, the bolete is limited to areas of greater than 1000 mm (40 in) annual rainfall. It has been recorded as far north as the Darling Downs and southern Queensland, and occasionally in Tasmania. The fungus fruits in spring, summer and fairly prolifically in autumn, following periods of wet weather. Mushrooms can appear in large troops or fairy rings.
In Ecuador, Pinus radiata plantations were planted extensively around Cotopaxi National Park, and Suillus luteus boletes appear in abundance year-round. A 1985 field study estimated production to be 3000–6000 mushrooms per hectare—up to (dry weight) of mushrooms hectare per year. This continuous production contrasts with the bolete's seasonal appearance elsewhere. The fungus is not found in adjacent areas of native vegetation. The fruiting is so bountiful that the harvest of slippery jacks has become the main reason that pine plantations are established or maintained in parts of Ecuador.
In southern Brazil, it has been recorded in plantations of slash pine (P. elliottii) in the municipalities of Pelotas, Nova Petrópolis and Canela in Rio Grande do Sul, and Colombo in Paraná. It is particularly common in plantations in Patagonia. Suillus luteus is the commonest bolete encountered in the Falkland Islands, where it is found in windbreaks and gardens.
In South Africa, Suillus luteus has been occasionally recorded under pines in Bloemfontein, Johannesburg and Royal Natal National Park.
Ecology
Suillus luteus is a pioneer species that typically establishes itself in the early stages of forest succession. The fungus forms mycorrhizal associations with various species of pine, including Scots pine (P. sylvestris), black pine (P. nigra), and Macedonian pine (P. peuce) in Europe, and red pine (P. resinosa) and white pine (P. strobus) in North America. An in vitro experiment demonstrated that the species could form an ectomycorrhizal association with Aleppo pine (P. halepensis), a key species used in reforestation in the Mediterranean. A study of the ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with a lodgepole pine (P. contorta) invasion front near Coyhaique, Chile, showed that many invasive trees were supported by S. luteus as the sole mycorrhizal partner.
The ectomycorrhizae formed between the fungus and host plant can be influenced by soil microorganisms present in the mycorrhizosphere. For example, soil bacteria from the genera Paenibacillus and Burkholderia alter the branching structure of the root, whereas Bacillus species increase root growth and mycorrhizal colonization. The fungus does not require a specific soil but seems to prefer acidic and nutrient-deficient soil. Suillus luteus produces hydroxamic acid-based siderophores, which are compounds that can chelate iron and extract it from the soil in nutrient-poor conditions. Ignacio Chapela and colleagues analysed the carbon uptake of S. luteus in Ecuador, concluding pine plantations accompanied by S. luteus deplete carbon stored in the soil and raising concerns that these might not be a remedy for rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.
The fungus has been shown to provide a protective effect against heavy metal toxicity when associated with the host Pinus sylvestris, preventing copper accumulation in the needles, and protecting seedlings against cadmium toxicity. Owing to its frequent rate of sexual reproduction and the resulting extensive gene flow within populations, the fungus can rapidly evolve a trait to tolerate otherwise toxic levels of heavy metals in the environment. The genetic basis of this adaptation—intriguing to researchers investigating the bioremediation potential of metal-adapted plants and their fungal associates—are contained in the genome sequence of S. luteus, published in 2015.
Suillus luteus fruit bodies are sometimes infested with larvae, though not nearly as often as S. granulatus or B. edulis. Damage from maggots is much more common in warmer months, and rare late in the season with cooler weather. In a Finnish study, researchers found that 70–95% of fruit bodies collected from typical forest habitats were infested with larvae; the most common species were the flies Mycetophila fungorum, Pegomya deprimata, and Pegohylemyia silvatica. In contrast, other studies have shown that fruit bodies collected from pine plantations are relatively free of larvae. The fungus produces microscopic crystals of oxalic acid at the surface of its hyphae, a feature that is thought to help deter grazing by the springtail species Folsomia candida.
Edibility
Suillus luteus is an edible mushroom, but the slime/pileipellis must be removed. Although some authors regard it as one of low quality, and generally inferior to co-occurring species such as Boletus pinophilus, the species is considered a delicacy in Slavic cultures (known as maslyata in Russian or maślaki in Polish, deriving from words meaning "buttery"). It was highly regarded in Calabria, even more than Boletus edulis, until the 1940s when increased interest in the latter species eclipsed the former. Mushrooms conforming to Suillus luteus are exported from Chile to Italy, and, since the 1970s, the United States. As of 2002, harvesters in Chile were paid on average US$0.5 per kilogram of fruit bodies.
In Burundi, Suillus luteus mushrooms are sold to Europeans as cepes in Bujumbura but not generally eaten by the Barundi. Based on samples collected from Chile, the boletes contain (as a percentage of dry weight) 20% protein, 57% carbohydrates, 6% fat, and 6% ash. Pinus radiata plantations in southeastern Australia have become tourist attractions as people flock to them in autumn to pick slippery jacks and saffron milk-caps (Lactarius deliciosus); Belanglo State Forest in particular has attracted large numbers of Polish foragers.
Slippery jacks do not keep for long after picking,. Zeitmar considers them unsuitable for drying, as their water content is too high. They are suited for frying, or cooking in stews and soups, either alone or with other mushroom species. Puréeing the mushroom is not recommended, however: "We once made the mistake of running it through a blender to make a soup. The result was a substance recommending itself for use when hanging wallpaper." S. luteus and other Suillus species may cause allergic reactions in some people or digestive problems that appear to result from consuming the slimy skin. The fungus is better cooked before eating, and some authors recommend discarding the glutinous cuticle and tubes before cooking. Moreover, the skin can spoil other fungi with which slippery jacks are collected.
Inexpensive powdered S. luteus fruit bodies are sometimes added to the more expensive B. edulis mushroom soup powder, a fraudulent practice that is difficult to detect by microscope because the tissues are no longer intact. This adulteration can be determined chemically, however, by testing for increased levels of the sugar alcohols arabitol and mannitol. The practice can also be determined with a DNA-based method that is sensitive enough to detect the addition of 1–2% of S. luteus to B. edulis powder.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Suillus luteus at MykoWeb
luteus
Edible fungi
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1753
Fungi of Africa
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Central America
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungi of the United States
Fungi found in fairy rings
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
4243426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Thailand | Environmental issues in Thailand | Thailand's dramatic economic growth has caused numerous environmental issues. The country faces problems with air, declining wildlife populations, deforestation, soil erosion, water scarcity, and waste issues. According to a 2004 indicator, the cost of air and water pollution for the country scales up to approximately 1.6–2.6% of GDP per year. As such, Thailand's economic growth has come at great cost in damage to its people and environment.
Thailand's Twelfth National Economic and Social Development Plan (2017-2021) warns that, "At present the country's natural resources and environmental quality are deteriorating, and have become a weakness in maintaining the basis of production, services and sustainable living. A large volume of the natural resources stock has been utilized for development, resulting in their continuous degradation. The forests have been depleted, the soil has become infertile, and biodiversity has been threatened. While exhibiting a future risk of water shortages, the existing supply of water has not been able to meet the demands of the various sectors. Conflicts over the use of natural resources stem from the unfair allocation of access and exploitation. Moreover, environmental problems have risen along with economic growth and urbanization. All of these problems have affected the quality of life and have added greater economic costs."
Climate change
Deforestation
Forest cover in Thailand has been greatly reduced as people convert forested land to agriculture, or misappropriate public lands for private use, with related estimates varying. The Sueb Nakhasathien Foundation reports that 53% of Thailand was covered by forest in 1961, but that forested areas had shrunk to 31.6% in 2015. An estimate by the World Wildlife Fund concluded that between 1973 and 2009, Thailand's forests declined by 43%. During the period 2001–2012, Thailand lost one million hectares of forest, while restoring 499,000 hectares. Between 1990 and 2005, Thailand lost 9.1% of its forest cover, or around 1,445,000 hectares. , Thailand has an average annual deforestation rate of 0.72%. Wetlands have been converted to rice paddies and urban sprawl. With government measures in place to prohibit logging, deforestation rates have dropped, but the impacts of deforestation are still being felt.
Thai government numbers show an increase in the extent of Thai forests. Figures from the Center for Agricultural Information of Thailand's Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives show an increase in the extent of Thailand's forested area over the period 2006-2015 (from 99 million rai to 103 million rai), with decreases in every other type of land use. In 2019, the Forest Department said that forest cover has steadily increased due to its anti-encroachment measures under the regime's reclaim forest land policy. According to the department, the country's forest areas in 2018 covered 102.4 million rai, a 330,000-rai increase from the previous year. The increase, equivalent to an area the size of Phuket, increases forest coverage to 31.58% of the country's total land.
In early-2017, the government reaffirmed its 1975 commitment to increase its forest cover to 40% within 20 years. The aim was to have "conserved forests" blanket 25% of the nation and 15% blanketed by "commercial forests". To achieve this goal in 2018, Thailand would need to convert 27 million rai into forests. Thailand has three square meters of green area per capita. Singapore has 66 m2 per capita and Malaysia, 44 m2.
In November 1988, heavy rains washed away the soil of newly deforested slopes, causing massive floods. Villages and agricultural land were swamped, and almost 400 people and thousands of domestic animals were killed. The Thai government banned logging on 14 January 1989, revoking all logging concessions. Consequences included the price of timber tripling in Bangkok, in turn increasing illegal logging.
In June 2015, as a severe drought gripped northeastern Thailand, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha urged farmers to forgo a second rice crop in order to save water. He attributed the drought to massive deforestation. At least 26 million rai (4.2m ha) of forested land, especially forests in the mountainous north, had been denuded, according to the prime minister, who said that forests were needed for the generation of rainfall.
In July 2015, a Bangkok Post editorial summed up Thailand's forestry issues: "Forests have rapidly declined under state policies over the past four decades. Factors include logging, mining, anti-insurgency strategies, promotion of cash crops on the highlands, construction of big dams and promotion of the tourism industry. Corruption is also deep-rooted in forestry bureaucracy." Valuable hardwood tree species, such as Siamese Rosewood, are being extracted illegally for sale, mostly to the Chinese furniture market. These trees are so valuable that poachers are armed and are prepared fight forest rangers. Both rangers and poachers have been killed in gunfights. The rates of logging now threaten the Siamese Rosewood with extinction within 10 years, according to Al Jazeera in 2014.
Mangroves and beach erosion
Deforestation creates a host of environmental problems: soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers, and loss of natural habitat. Wetlands and mangroves in coastal areas have been seriously degraded by expansion of commercial fishing, shrimp aquaculture, industry, and tourism, causing much of Thailand's biodiversity losses. Mangrove wetlands are among the leading habitats in carbon sequestration, and degradation of these habitats poses risks to global carbon accumulation. They are hypothesized to dampen the intensity of tsunami force, which would protect both human and biodiversity interests. It is estimated that Thailand in 1961 had 3,500 km2 of mangrove forests. By 2004 that number was less than 2,000 km2 according to the Thai government.
According to Thailand's deputy transport minister, some of Thailand's attractive beaches may be lost within ten years. "If we don't do anything, there will be no attractive beaches left", he said. The marine department, part of the transport ministry, manages Thailand's 3,000 km of shoreline in 23 coastal provinces. Some 670 km of shoreline exhibits severe erosion, with land being lost to the sea at a rate of more than five metres per year. To combat erosion, sections of Pattaya Beach in Chonburi Province are being topped up with more than 300,000 m3 of sand at a cost of 429 million baht. A two kilometer stretch of Chalatat Beach in Songkhla is being restored at a cost of 300 million baht.
Thailand had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.00/10, ranking it 88th globally out of 172 countries.
While conservationists have advocated for creation of marine protected areas in mangrove forests, coastal communities in Thailand are concerned these protections may interfere with their economic growth. Mangroves provide these communities with profit opportunities, mainly through agriculture and tourism practices including the operation of rubber plantations, aquaculture, and fishing. The Thailand central government has enacted stricter, community-based mangrove restoration laws which shift emphasis from regulating mangrove removal to promoting mangrove conservation. This initiative provides flexibility for local government to approach mangrove conservation efforts as they see fit, which has proved successful for communities in the Phuket, Phang Nga, and Trang provinces. Communities without the financial means to enact these recent policy changes rely on private entities to fund restoration efforts. Another solution to satisfy environmental and economic concerns may be payment for ecosystem services (PES), a method of conservation that incentivizes sustainable environmental practices. PES helps support communities transitioning to sustainable practices, however a lack of funding challenges wide scale support for PES and its implementation.
Air pollution
The World Bank estimates that deaths in Thailand attributable to air pollution have risen from 31,000 in 1990 to roughly 49,000 in 2013.
Industrial growth has created high levels of air pollution in Thailand. Vehicles and factories contribute to air pollution, particularly in Bangkok, which experienced high levels of air pollution in the winter of 2019. Recent research (2019) points to agricultural burning as the root cause of PM 2.5 pollution in Thailand. PM 2.5 is a measurement of particulates in the atmosphere smaller than 2.5 microns.
The Bangkok metropolitan region, which consists of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) and the four surrounding provinces (Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Nakhon Pathom, and Samut Prakan), holds about 20% of the national population and over half of the country's factories. Due to a lack of treatment facilities, increasing volumes of hazardous substances generated by industrial activities have caused serious dumping issues. Unless treatment facilities are built and institutions starts to regulate strictly, environmental contamination caused by hazardous waste threatens to become Thailand's worst environmental problem in the future.
Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) and other agencies have developed standards in order to reduce air pollution. The standards focus on shifting to lower-emissions vehicle engines and improving public transportation. In 1999, 80% of the motorcycles on the road in Bangkok had environmentally unfriendly two-stroke engines. Diesel trucks and buses also contribute many pollutants. In most areas of the country, air pollutants for vehicles are now within acceptable levels according to national standards.
Factories and power plants have been required to reduce emissions. In 2002, Bangkok and the rest of the central region contributed between 60 and 70% of the country's industrial emissions. Most power plants rely on burning fossil fuels.
Other sources of air pollution include garbage burning, open cooking, and agricultural burning practices, including deliberate forest fires.
Agricultural burning in Southeast Asia often creates haze. In 2003 Thailand ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to reduce the haze from forest fires, but issues throughout the region are still common. Wildfires are started by local farmers during the dry season in northern Thailand for a variety of purposes, with February and March as the two months when conditions are at their worst. In research conducted between 2005 and 2009 in Chiang Mai, average PM10 rates during these months were found to be well above the country's safety level of 120 μg/m3 (microgrammes per cubic metre), peaking at 383 μg/m3 on 14 March 2007. They are the main cause of the intense air pollution in the Thai highlands and contribute to the floods in the country by completely denuding forest undergrowth. The dry forest soil leads to lower water intake for trees to extract when the rains arrive.
In February 2016, Director-General Chatchai Promlert of the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Department, said that the haze affecting northern Thailand has reached levels that can be considered harmful to health. He said that the Pollution Control Department had reported that the levels of particulates measuring less than 10 micrometres—known as PM10—had crossed the prescribed safe threshold of 120 in four out of nine provinces where monitoring was conducted. The level of PM10 in the nine regions—Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, Mae Hong Son, Nan, Phrae, Phayao and Tak—was measured at between 68 and 160. The haze level was considered unhealthy in Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, and Phrae Provinces.
During the burning season 2016 (February–April), air pollution has shown no improvement despite the government's purported efforts to ameliorate the burning. The Mae Sai District of Chiang Rai Province recorded a record 410 μg/m3 of harmful air particles in the early morning of 25 March 2016.
From January–July 2016 the five Thai cities with the highest annual average concentrations of PM2.5 were Chiang Mai, Lampang (Mae Moh), Khon Kaen, Bangkok and Ratchaburi. Seven out of the eleven cities measured (63.6%) did not reach the National Ambient Air Quality Standard annual limit of 25 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and all 11 cities measured did not reach the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline annual limit of 25 μg/m3. Thailand's national air quality standards are weak when compared to WHO recommendations. In the first six months of 2017, Greenpeace Thailand monitored PM2.5 in 14 provinces, as they have done since 2015, and found that every station recorded levels higher than the WHO recommendation of less than 10 milligrams per cubic meter of air. PM2.5 refers to airborne particulates smaller than 2.5 microns, particles so small that they can be inhaled into the blood system and cause cancer and heart disease. Chiang Mai, Tak, Khon Kaen, Bangkok, and Saraburi were among the worst cities with the highest PM2.5 levels in 2017.
In February 2018 and 2019, Bangkok suffered under a haze of smog and ultra-fine dust. The Pollution Control Department issued warnings that particulate levels had soared to 94 micrograms per cubic metre of air in some areas, almost double the safe limit of 50 mcg. Residents were urged to wear N95 or KN95 protective dust masks. Bangkok City Hall reassured residents that conditions will "permanently improve" in 11 years (2029) with the launch of many new and improved modes of public transport. Bangkok City Hall failed to mention that it is constructing 1,047 km of new roads due to be completed by 2029 or that in the decade 2008 to 2018 the number of cars registered in Bangkok rose from 5.9 million to 10.2 million. In January 2019, Bangkok authorities employed cloud seeding to ease air pollution in parts of the city. That month, high-pressure cannons were blasted around Bangkok's City Hall and other areas to combat the smog, leading to debate as to whether the method was effective at washing away the particularly harmful smaller particles. In January 2020, a National Institute for Development Administration survey showed that "81% of the 1,256 local residents questioned agreed that the [Thai] government" was ineffective at solving Bangkok's air pollution, with 2.7% of respondents approving the government's efforts.
Field and forest burning
Fires in Thailand fall into three main categories: forest fires, agricultural burning, and roadside burning.
Forest fires are set deliberately, as they are thought to increase forest product yields, especially the earth star mushroom (Astraeus hygrometricus (Pers.) Morgan; or in Thai), which has seasonal availability and a high market price. In order to collect these fungi, local farmers use fire either to clear the forest floor to make it easier to find the mushroom or because fire is thought to stimulate the growth of this mushroom. The burning of agricultural fields and forested areas in Southeast Asia is a yearly event, mainly during the "burning season", January through March. It is particularly widespread in the northern and northeastern provinces of Thailand. Northern Thailand has the highest rates of lung cancer in the country. The incidence of other chest diseases and cardiac conditions is also high.
According to the Bangkok Post, corporations in the agricultural sector, not farmers, are the biggest contributors to smoke pollution. The main source of the fires is forested area being cleared to make room for new crops. The new crops to be planted after the smoke clears are not rice and vegetables to feed locals. A single crop is responsible: maize. The haze problem began in 2007 and has been traced at the local level and at the macro-market level to the growth of the animal feed business. "The true source of the haze ... sits in the boardrooms of corporations eager to expand production and profits. A chart of Thailand's growth in world corn markets can be overlaid on a chart of the number of fires. It is no longer acceptable to scapegoat hill tribes and slash-and-burn agriculture for the severe health and economic damage caused by this annual pollution." These data have been ignored by the government. The end is not in sight, as the number of fires has increased every year for a decade, and data show more pollution in late-February 2016 than in late-February 2015.
Charoen Pokphand (CP) Group, Thailand's largest agro-industrial and food conglomerate, and the leading purchaser of northern maize, in March 2016 announced an "agricultural social enterprise" to steer Nan Province's Pua District villagers away from maize farming. CP Group has incurred criticism for the way it purchases maize harvests for animal feed from farmers in Nan and other provinces. Suphachai Chearavanont, vice-chairman of CP Group, said that corn planters will be encouraged to grow cash crops such as coffee, which requires less farmland and makes a higher profit than maize. Not only will this address deforestation, he said, but it will also help reduce the spring haze in the north which is caused by slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next maize season. Chearavanont said crops like coffee take about 3½ years to show a yield, but stated that CP Group would stand by farmers and provide assistance in the meantime.
The Thai government has encouraged farmers to abandon rice farming and cultivate sugarcane instead. As a consequence, fields planted in sugarcane have soared from 6.8 million rai in harvest year 2008–2009 to 11.5 million rai in 2017–2018. Sugarcane fields are a major locus of open fires. Despite anti-burning regulations, 66% of the sugarcane that entering processing mills in 2019 had been burned prior to harvesting.
"Cheap and fast" is a shorthand explanation for the intentional use of fire to clear overgrown roadsides and open areas. Cattle herders also burn areas to stimulate the growth of Imperata grass which is able to quickly produce new leaves during the hot-dry season. New leaves produced on burnt areas have a higher nutrient value, which is perfect for cattle grazing. Roadside fires are set to clear vegetation from encroaching on roadways. Fires produce large amounts of smoke which stagnates low lying areas, causing eye irritation and respiratory ailments. Large areas of degraded forest are destroyed by fire each year.
Fisheries
Overfishing
In 1950, the newly constituted Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that, globally, Thailand was catching about 20 million metric tons of fish (cod, mackerel, tuna) and invertebrates (lobster, squid, clams). That catch peaked at 90 million tons per year in the late-1980s, and it has been declining ever since. Thailand is no exception to this decline, despite having had 57,141 fishing vessels and more than 300,000 people employed by the fishing industry. According to the Thai Department of Fisheries, Thailand had 11,000 registered trawlers and "about" 2,000 illegal trawlers (2016). In 2018 Thailand completed its first-ever census of fishing boats permitted to catch fish in Thai waters: 10,743.
The sheer number of Thai fishing vessels is a key contributor to overfishing. Even the president of the Thai Tuna Industry Association (TTIA), Chanintr Chalisarapong, acknowledges this. "You don't need to be a scientist to know that we're overfishing,..." said Chalisarapong. "We have to stop building new boats. Catch has to come from local fishermen using pole and line methods....We need to have less [sic] boats and less gear." Thailand has made progress in this area: Thailand's fishing fleet numbers 38,956, down from 50,023 in 2015, a 22% reduction.
Thailand is a peninsular country of 514,000 km2 with over 3,565 km of coastline, 2,700 km on the Gulf of Thailand and 865 km on the Andaman Sea. Its exclusive economic zone extends over 306,000 km2. Historically, fish from Thailand's off-shore waters have been a significant provider of protein to the population. In 2001, the average yearly fish consumption was 32.4 kg per capita and provided on average 10–14 grams of protein per capita per day. It provides 40.5% of animal protein sources and 17.6% of total protein. Consumption of fish is almost certainly higher than reported as many fish are caught by smallholders and consumed without passing through the marketplace. But numbers are dwindling: small-scale fishers were able to catch up to eight times as much fish in the 1980s than possible in the 2000s.
Thailand's marine fish resources are over-exploited. Thailand's marine capture averaged 2,048,753 tonnes from 2003 to 2012; in 2014 the catch was 1,559,746 tonnes, a decrease of 23.9%. The catch per unit of effort (CPUE) has decreased markedly. Average catches in Thai waters have fallen by 86% since the industry's large expansion in the 1960s. In 2014, Thailand was 12th in the world (of 215 nations) (1=worst, 215=best) in terms of fish species at risk (96 species).
The over-exploitation of fish stocks in Thailand has led to the creation of a huge aquaculture industry, human trafficking to man fishing vessels voyaging ever further out to sea, and the depletion of "trash fish" as well as marketable juvenile fish to feed the increasing demand for fish meal for farmed shrimp. The wisdom of using captured fish to feed domesticated fish is dubious, according to a researcher. "Using fishmeal in aquaculture,...is not ecologically sustainable because we are still relying on wild-caught fish as an input for farmed fish, so producing more farmed fish as a solution to food security does not lessen the pressure on wild-caught fish."
A twelve-month analysis of the catch composition, landing patterns, and biological aspects of sharks caught by Thai commercial fishing boats in the Andaman Sea off Thailand showed a significant difference from the results of a similar study done in 2004. Sixty-four species were observed in the 2004 study, but only 17 in the most recent. Largely absent were slow-growing, late–maturing, low-fecundity species. Their absence suggests that the populations of these groups of apex predators may be close to collapse.
Thai surimi production has fallen from around 100,000 tonnes in 2012 to just over 52,000 tonnes in 2017. Fish prices for the species from which tropical surimi is typically made—itoyori, eso, flying fish, sea bream, and ribbonfish—are rising in spite of stable low wages. Surimi expert Jae Park of Oregon State University says of Thai surimi fish: "They're overharvested, they're really overharvested".
One response of the government has been a program to buy back 1,300 sub-standard trawlers to reduce overfishing. Thailand has 10,500 registered commercial trawlers. The 1,300 boats to be purchased by the government failed licensing standards after the government imposed more stringent, environmentally friendly laws. The cabinet in December 2017 approved the buyback to pacify boat owners. Buyback costs are equivalent to 40,000 baht per gross ton, equating to 400,000 baht to 2.4 million baht per boat. the government has not disbursed buyback funds. The National Fisheries Association of Thailand says its members will stop fishing unless the government pays for the 1,300 decommissioned trawlers. On 3 August 2018, the Fisheries Department announced that it would buy-back 680 unlicensed fishing boats for three billion baht.
Climate change poses a serious threat to the sustainability of the fisheries industry in the ASEAN region including Thailand.
Illegal fishing
On 21 April 2015 the European Commission threatened Thailand, the third-largest seafood exporter in the world, with a trade ban if it did not take action on illegal fishing. The EU, the world's largest importer of fish products, since 2010 has taken action against countries that do not follow international overfishing regulations, such as policing their waters for unlicensed fishing vessels and imposing penalties to deter illegal fishing. Thailand has failed to certify the origin and legality of its fish exports to the EU and now has six months, until October 2015, to implement a satisfactory action plan to address the shortcomings. EU fisheries commissioner Karmenu Vella declared that, "Analyzing what is actually happening in Thailand, we noticed that there are no controls whatsoever, there are no efforts whatsoever." The EU imported 145,907 tons of fish products worth €642 million from Thailand in 2014. In the view of the Bangkok Post, "The [Thai] fisheries bureaucracy's record is extremely shabby, resulting in a breakdown in state regulation of commercial trawlers. Fisheries officials are also known to have cozy relationships with trawler operators."
In a press release dated 21 April 2016, the European Commission updated its assessment of Thailand's progress, saying, "The dialogue is proving difficult and there remain serious concerns about the steps taken by Thailand to fight IUU [illegal, unreported and unregulated] fishing activities. This means that further action by the Commission cannot be ruled out. A meeting with the Thai authorities in May [2016] will be a new opportunity for them to show their good will and commitment." In addition to Thailand's illegal fishing concerns, what is often overlooked are abusive labor practices. The labor abuses, often referred to as sea slavery, involve the trafficking of workers onto fishing boats quite frequently in the form of force, fraud, or coercion, including debt bondage. The problem of sea slavery is connected to environmental concerns in this and other fleets because overfishing of near-shore stocks have caused a collapse in the number of fish, resulting in fishing boats needing to go further out at sea to catch bare minimum quotas. The price of venturing further from shore has given rise to a dependence on forced debt bonded or captive labor as a cost-saving measure.
Fishing practices
The Thai Department of Marine and Coastal Resources reported that the deaths of "400 rare marine animals" in 2017 were due to destructive fishing practices and equipment. Of the death toll, 57% were sea turtles, 38% dolphins and whales, and five percent dugongs. Fishing gear was the major cause, followed by disease and pollution. The death toll has hovered around 400 for three consecutive years and represents less than 10% of the 5,000 rare species found in Thailand's territorial waters. The department estimates that there are around 2,000 dolphins and whales, 3,000 sea turtles, and 250 dugongs living in Thai waters. All are protected as rare species.
Sharks were once common in Thai waters. Marine scientists now say that they may be close to collapse. Researchers examined bycatch on returning fishing boats at several Thai ports over a year. They discovered a sharp decline in the shark population. They also noted shifts in population composition compared to a previous study in 2004. They managed to count 2,123 sharks, and recorded only 17 species, compared with 64 species reported in 2004. In Thailand, sharks are often caught as bycatch when other species are being targeted. Bycatch in Thailand is largely unregulated, leaving, for example, only about 100 whale sharks in Thai waters, according to the Department of Coastal and Marine Resources. Thailand has been attempting to protect the species following an international commitment, the "International Plan of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks", initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It has been developing the "National Plan of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks", but it is not yet implemented as of 2018.
The period from 2012 to 2016 saw Thailand export 22,467 tons of shark fins, the primary ingredient in shark fin soup—a Chinese dish signifying wealth and privilege—making it the world's leading exporter. , 52 nations have implemented some form of ban on shark finning or fishing. Twelve countries have banned shark fishing altogether. But Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand still permit shark fishing. A study commissioned by WildAid, found that 57% of urban Thais have consumed shark fin at some point and 61% plan to consume shark fin in the future. More than 100 Bangkok restaurants serve shark fin soup
Waste management
When Thailand was a rural, agrarian society, garbage was of no concern as everything was made of natural products such as banana leaves. Waste could be discarded to decompose naturally. Today, according to one observer, "...it would not be an exaggeration to say that every locality in the country is...mired in its own garbage." Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) estimates that each Thai produces a daily average of 1.15 kg of solid waste, amounting to over 73,000 tonnes daily nationwide. According to Interior Ministry statistics, refuse nationwide in 2016 amounted to 27 million tonnes, up about 0.7% from the previous year. Of this, 4.2 million tonnes was generated in Bangkok. Thailand had 2,490 dump sites in 2014, but only 466 of them were of sanitary landfill caliber. Twenty-eight million tonnes of waste were left unprocessed. Bangkok's canals are awash in sewage, but also serve as dump sites. After recent severe flooding, tonnes of refuse blocked water gates, preventing drainage. At one water gate, more than five tonnes of debris had accumulated, consisting of everything from everyday consumer product waste to large items such as mattresses and furniture.
Organic waste
The PCD estimates that in 2017 organic waste collected by municipalities across Thailand accounted for nearly two-thirds of the country's total waste output: a reported 7.6 million tonnes— 64%—of the refuse collected was organic waste. It is thought that a significant portion of this waste is not merely fruit and vegetable peelings, but edible surplus food. This in a nation where 400,000 to 600,000 children may be undernourished due to poverty, yet ten percent of all children are obese. Prevailing attitudes do not encompass composting or waste sorting: 64 percent of the Thai population do not sort their rubbish according to one study.
Plastic waste
, Thailand generated two million tonnes of plastic waste. One quarter of that (500,000 tonnes) is reused. Thais throw away 45 billion single-use plastic bags per year, 12% of all household waste. Wet markets are the source of 18 billion plastic bags. Grocery and department stores each account for 13.5 billion bags.
Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) estimates that plastic waste in the country is increasing at an annual rate of 12%, or around two million tonnes per year. And yet, Thailand imported 480,000 tonnes of plastic garbage from abroad in 2018, and is set to import an additional 220,000 tonnes before existing contracts expire in September 2020.
Increasingly, plastic is the scourge of Bangkok's network of storm water pumping stations, clogging pumps during seasonal downpours and regularly turning thoroughfares into muddy rivers. Thailand is considered to be one of the world's largest consumers of plastic bags. Government figures suggest that the average Thai uses eight plastic bags a day. In contrast, the average person in France uses around 80 a year. In a 2015 report, the conservation group Ocean Conservancy estimated that just five countries—China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand—were responsible for over half of plastic waste dumped into the ocean. Mr Narong Ruengsri, head of Bangkok's drainage department, said removing plastic from the canals and drainage system is a constant battle. "Every day we go fish out around 2,000 tons of waste from the drainage channels," he told AFP. Official figures show the 11,500 tonnes of garbage Bangkok produces each day, at least one tonne of which is plastic, is growing by 10% a year. Officially, only 16% is recycled.
The PCD estimates that Thailand consumes 4.4 billion plastic water bottles per year. Sixty percent of containers are capped with plastic wrap covering the cap, an unnecessary feature in the eyes of the PCD and due to be phased out by 2019. The cap seals alone contribute 520 tonnes of plastic per year to the environment. In February 2018 the PCD reached agreement with five leading water bottlers to cease using plastic cap seals by 1 April 2018, with all other bottlers to follow by 2019. The Environment Ministry claims that Thailand's 24 coastal provinces produce 10 million tonnes of waste per year. Ten percent of that finds its way into the sea.
In February 2017, a 10 kilometer-long patch of plastic refuse was found floating off Chumphon Province. The Thai Marine and Coastal Resources Department has noted that at least 300 sea animals on average—60 per cent of which are whales and dolphins—die from eating plastic fishing gear and trash each year. Filter feeding invertebrates tested off the coast of Chonburi Province showed high levels of microplastics, leading the authors to warn that, "Health risks are possible when people consume these contaminated marine organisms, particularly shellfish."
In May 2018 a juvenile pilot whale in southern Thailand beached and died. An autopsy revealed the creature had consumed 80 plastic bags weighing eight kilograms. A rescue attempt failed to save the whale. A marine biologist from Kasetsart University, said the bags made it impossible for the whale to eat any nutritious food. "If you have 80 plastic bags in your stomach, you die," he said. At least 300 marine animals including pilot whales, sea turtles and dolphins perish each year in Thai waters after ingesting plastic.
In June 2018, all Thai governmental agencies committed to reducing use of plastic. The move followed Prime Minister General Prayut Chan-o-cha's 17 April order for the Interior Ministry and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment to mount a campaign for reduced use of plastic. Its goal is to halve the amount of plastic ocean waste Thailand produces by 2027.
In 2017, the Thai government said that it might tax plastic bags. An "endless debate" ensued in government, but no action. Petrochemical firms maintain that plastic is not an issue if it is reused and recycled. Thai exports of polyethylene pellets and plastic goods amounted to 430 billion baht or five percent of total Thai exports in 2017 according to the Thai Plastic Industries Association. Finally, a ban on single-use plastic bags at major retailers was enacted to take effect on 1 January 2020. The ban exempts, until 2021, the 40% of total volume of single-use bags used at wet markets and restaurants. Bag manufacturers have cried foul, arguing that the solution to plastic pollution is proper disposal of bags and recycling. To make matters worse for the manufacturers, eight TV channels signed an agreement with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment on 2 January 2020 to blur images and footage of single-use plastic bags on-screen, as is done in Thailand for firearms, cigarettes, and alcohol.
In 2018, the Thai government awakened fully to the dangers of plastic pollution. The Thai Cabinet banned the use of plastic bags and Styrofoam food containers on the premises of state agencies. Concurrently, the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation launched a program to ban plastic bags, Styrofoam containers, plastic cutlery, and plastic straws in Thailand's 154 national parks. Park vendors may not use plastics and park visitors will be prohibited from bringing single-use plastic items into the parks.
In April 2019 the Thai Cabinet approved the "Plastic Waste Management Road Map 2018-2030". The plan prohibits the use of microbeads, cap seals, and OXO-degradable plastics by the end of 2019. Four single-use plastics to be prohibited by 2022 are lightweight plastic bags less than 36 microns thick, Styrofoam takeaway food containers, plastic cups, and plastic straws. All plastic used in Thailand by 2027 is to be recycled plastic.
On World Environment Day 2019, 5 June, the Pollution Control Department (PCD) said that the first year of the country's effort to reduce plastic waste has been a success. It claimed an 80% reduction in the plastic wrap used to keep dust off plastic water bottle caps. The Environment Ministry has created a National Roadmap to Tackle Plastic Waste, 2018-2030. PCD data shows that 0.5 million tonnes of plastic waste in Thailand was recycled in 2018 of the total two million tonnes of plastic waste generated.
In April 2019, Marium, an abandoned and ailing baby dugong washed up on a beach in southern Thailand. She was found to be suffering from an infection exacerbated by ingesting plastic waste. Overnight, she became the nation's sweetheart. Authorities did everything in their power to save her. In August, she died. Within a day the environment minister announced a national dugong conservation master plan named "Marium Action". Marium's body would be preserved for educational and awareness-raising purposes and 17 August was proposed as National Dugong Day. New dudong conservation zones were proposed. The prime minister pledged to "leave no one behind, including animals". In the same appearance, the prime minister delayed a ban on single-use plastic bags until 2022.
Finally, a ban on single-use plastic bags at major retailers was enacted. taking effect on 1 January 2020. The ban exempts, until 2021, the 40% of total volume of single-use bags used at wet markets and restaurants. Bag manufacturers have cried foul, arguing that the solution to plastic pollution is proper disposal of bags and recycling. To make matters worse for the manufacturers, eight TV channels signed an agreement with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment on 2 January 2020 to blur images and footage of single-use plastic bags on-screen, as is done in Thailand for firearms, cigarettes, and alcohol. Concomitantly, Thailand imported 480,000 tonnes of plastic garbage from abroad in 2018, and is set to import an additional 220,000 tonnes before existing contracts expire in September 2020. Between 2014 and 2018 Thailand imported 906,521 tonnes of plastic from 81 countries, according to the Commerce Ministry. Plastic imports nearly doubled between 2018 and 2019 due to increased Chinese imports.
Electronic waste
Thailand is a signatory to the Basel Convention, which prohibits the transnational movement of hazardous waste. The Thai government—sometimes acting through free-trade agreements—circumvents the convention, using legal techniques to skirt the prohibition and instead import hazardous waste, mostly electronic waste. Thai agencies tasked with preventing negative environmental impacts from e-waste have failed to perform their regulatory missions. They have allowed operators of waste management plants to reduce operational costs by disposing of hazardous waste improperly. That has contributed to serious environmental degradation and degraded the health of locals. Thailand legally imports about 53,000 tonnes of e-waste annually. Thailand permits 1,761 factories to manage electronic waste. Of these, 539 are electronic waste recycling plants. Another 1,222 plants dispose of e-waste in land-fills or by incineration. Most of these plants are in Rayong Province, Chonburi Province, and Chachoengsao Province.
In June 2018 Thailand banned all imports of foreign e-waste. China banned the import of foreign e-waste in 2018 also. Since the e-waste ban, 28 new recycling factories, most dealing with e-waste, have opened in Chachoengsao Province. In 2019, 14 businesses in Chachoengsao were granted licenses to process electronic waste, six of them in the Ko Khanun Subdistrict of Phanom Sarakham District. An official of the Basel Action Network, which campaigns against dumping waste in poor countries, said, "E-waste has to go somewhere, and the Chinese are simply moving their entire operations to Southeast Asia. The only way to make money is to get huge volume with cheap, illegal labour and pollute the hell out of the environment," he added.
Water pollution
Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical regions: north, northeast, central, south, and east. In those regions, Thailand has a total of 25 river basins. Thailand's annual rainfall averages around 1,700 mm.
Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." According to the Department of Water Resources, national water demand averages 152 billion m3 per year against a supply of 112 m3. The agricultural sector accounts for 75% of demand, the industrial sector three percent, households four percent, and preserving ecological systems 18%.
Dams and reservoirs supply 66% of water, 15% from surface water sources, and 13% is mined from underground.
Non-potable water is a result of untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. According to the Pollution Control Department, the agricultural sector is the largest polluter as the nation's farms discharged up to 39 million m3 of wastewater per day in 2016. The industrial sector ranked second, discharging 17.8 million m3 per day. The residential sector ranked third with 9.6 million m3 per day. Wastewater treatment processes in the residential sector were only 18% effective, while only 52% of wastewater was treated.
Surface waters
In 2003, Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) monitored the quality of 49 rivers and four lakes in Thailand. Findings revealed that 68% of water bodies surveyed were suitable for agriculture and general consumption. Only less than 40% of Thailand's surface waters were in poor or very poor quality. According to the survey of major rivers and lakes by PCD, no surface water was categorized as "very good" quality (clean water suitable for aquatic animals and human consumption after normal treatment).
Surface water quality varies widely in the different regions in Thailand. Surface water monitored in the northern, central, and southern regions appear to have poor quality, while water in the eastern region was fair. Compared to other regions, the rivers and lakes monitored in the northeastern region had good quality surface water.
In terms of dissolved oxygen (DO), surface water in the northern region ranks the best, approximately 6 mg/L, followed by the northeastern region with DO concentrations of around 4 mg/L. The central, eastern, and central regions rank the lowest, about 2 mg/L. The highest concentration of total coliform bacteria (TCB), among surface waters monitored, was found in the central region with concentrations of TCB higher than 4,000MPN (most probable number)/100mL.
Coastal waters
In 2003, PCD set up 240 monitoring stations in Thailand's 23 coastal provinces and on significant islands. In 2003, monitoring results showed that coastal water of 68 percent of the stations were in "very good" and "good" quality. Thirty percent of the stations were in "fair" condition and only three percent were in "poor" quality. Compared with past data, coastal water quality was shown to have deteriorated, specifically in the areas into which four main rivers flow. The chief indicators of pollution were DO and TCB.
Water quality in the inner Gulf of Thailand, into which the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Pak Panang, and Rayong Rivers and several canals discharge, revealed high concentrations of domestic pollutants. Very low DO levels (0.3, 1.8, 3.5 mg/L) were found in the areas of Klong 12 Thanwa, Mae Klong, and Tha Chin. Additionally, TCB and heavy metal levels appeared to be higher than allowable standards in the same areas. In Bang Pakong District the level of total suspended solids (TSS) appeared to be high.
The western seaboard generally appeared to have "good" water quality. However, TCB levels in some areas where domestic waste water discharged into the sea without treatment exceeded the standard. Water quality in most areas of the eastern seaboard was in "good" condition, except for high levels of total suspended solids and TCB in the areas of Laem Chabang and Map Ta Phut. Despite rapid growth, overall coastal water quality in the Andaman Sea were still in "very good" condition, except for the few areas that revealed concerns of DO and TCB levels.
Water pollution has become obvious in many areas. In 1997, hundreds of thousands of fish and other aquatic life in the Nam Phong River died as a result of industrial pollution. Large amounts of arsenic were found in the groundwater in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, a result of mining in the area. Pollution affects the marine environment. Red tides, caused by excessive algae growth and a result of pollution, oil spills, and invasive species are some of the factors that are affecting Thailand's marine biodiversity.
Another major source of pollution are the heavy metals that have seeped into the rivers of Thailand. In the Chao Phraya estuary, mercury levels have far exceeded normal standards, and high concentrations of heavy metals on the river bed pose a serious threat to ecosystems.
In March 2017 Associate Professor Thon Thamrongnawasawat, vice dean of the fisheries faculty of Kasetsart University, said, "... there is something terribly wrong with the Thai sea [Gulf of Thailand]." His observation followed on the deaths of two Bruda whales and two whale sharks in the Gulf of Thailand since the beginning of the year. The latest casualty is a 12-metre Bruda whale weighing about two tonnes. It washed ashore in Village Nine of Tambon Thongchai, Bang Saphan District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. Earlier, one six-month old Bruda whale was found dead on the beach of Ban Kung Tanod in Tambon Khao Daeng, Kui Buri District of Prachuap Khiri Khan. Two dead whale sharks that washed ashore in the past 70 days were entangled in ropes. there are only an estimated 100 whale sharks and about 50 Bruda whales remaining in the gulf.
Thai coral reefs have been degraded by tourism, sediment from landfills in coastal areas, and polluted water released by beachfront hotels, resorts, and homes. Water contamination is the largest contributor to the degeneration of coral reefs in Thailand, as 70% of polluted water is returned to coastal waters untreated. The damage is exacerbated by plastic trash, which can infect coral and cause long-term harm. , 77% of a total of 107,800 rai of coral reefs in Thai seas is "in a sorry state". In 2008, the percentage of degraded reefs was 30%.
Groundwaters
The Thai governmental agency charged with responsibility for groundwater is the Department of Groundwater Resources, part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
Groundwater is mainly recharged by rainfall and seepage streams. Aquifers yield a large amount of water throughout Thailand, with the exception of the eastern region. The largest source of groundwater is found in the lower central region, particularly in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) and surrounding provinces, and is being used to meet the growing water demand, growing at 10% annually. The depletion of the water table around Bangkok has led to land subsidence which has exacerbated flooding.
Agricultural run-off, coastal aquaculture, industrial effluents, and domestic sewage are responsible for the pollution of groundwater in Thailand. Also, the lack of an appropriate pricing policy is leading to over-exploitation of groundwater beyond sustainable yield. There is limited information at the national level on groundwater extraction rates, or the extent of contamination.
An on-going case of surface- and groundwater pollution has prompted one critic to charge that, "...Thai environmental protection mechanisms including environmental laws and law enforcement are not functioning." He is referring to a case in Ratchaburi Province: there, since at least 2001, villagers of tambon Nam Pu have complained about toxic wastewater from an industrial waste treatment plant they suspected of contaminating their water. Wax Garbage Recycle Centre, an industrial waste treatment plant, began its operation in the upstream area of Nam Pu Creek about the same time as contamination became evident. The pollution spread to tambon Rang Bua of Chom Bueng District. Responding to complaints, the Thai Pollution Control Department tested creek water and groundwater. It found that levels of heavy metals (lead, nickel, and barium) exceeded their standards. They also found high levels of volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, benzene, 1,1,2-trichloromethane and Cis-1,2-dichloroethylene. The Department of Industrial Works and Ratchaburi's Industry Office, since 2002, have sent 19 letters ordering the plant to improve its operation, and at least six orders for the plant to shut down parts of its facility. Despite efforts by the authorities, the plant is still in operation and toxic wastewater contamination continues unabated. A failing of Thai environmental governance is the lack of balance in regulatory power among authorities. The Pollution Control Department, for instance, has no power to revoke the plant's operating licences. That power resides with the Department of Industrial Works, but state agencies place greater importance on industrial economics than the environment.
Health effects
Water pollution results in typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, trachoma, hookworm, and diarrhea. In 1999, hospitalization rates were:
Typhoid: 4,000 hospitalizations
Dysentery: 7,000 hospitalizations
Diarrhea: 95,000 hospitalizations
Exposure to toxins and heavy metals in water causes skin disease, liver cancer, and birth defects. Klity Creek in Kanchanaburi Province was found to carry dangerous levels of lead from a lead separation plant upstream. Lead levels are apparently the cause of many cases of Down syndrome in village children, unidentified illnesses in adults, and many cattle deaths. In 1998, the plant was closed and the creek dredged, although as of 2017 lead levels were still considered unsafe and clean-up efforts continued to be needed.
Improvement efforts
In 1992, the government passed several pieces of legislation to prevent water pollution. The laws primarily limit industrial water contamination:
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environment Quality Act (NEQA) of 1992
Factories Act of 1992
Navigation in Thai Waterways Act (Volume 14 ) as amended in 1992
Public Health Act of 1992
Cleanliness and Tidiness of the Country Act of 1992
The government continues to invest in wastewater treatment plants. In 2000, enough treated water was available to support 29% of the population, with more treatment plants under construction. Upon completion, treated water will support 65% of the population. The most common water treatments are inexpensive to build and maintain. They include oxidation ditches, aerated lagoons, and stabilization ponds. The government is also investigating more effective and modern techniques such as constructed wetlands.
Wildlife
Thailand's wildlife is threatened by poaching, habitat loss, and an industry that sells wild animals as pets.
The elephant is Thailand's national symbol. Although there were 100,000 elephants in Thailand a century ago, the population of elephants in the wild has dropped to an estimated 2,000. Poachers have long hunted elephants for ivory, meat, and hides. Young elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, although their use has declined since the government banned logging in 1989. There are now more elephants in captivity than in the wild, and environmental activists claim that elephants in captivity are often mistreated.
Poaching of protected species remains a major problem. Hunters have decimated the populations of tigers, leopards, and other large cats for their valuable pelts. Many animals (including tigers, bears, crocodiles, and king cobras) are farmed or hunted for their meat, which is considered a delicacy, and for their supposed medicinal properties. Although such trade is illegal, the famous Bangkok market Chatuchak is still known for the sale of endangered species.
The practice of keeping wild animals as pets threatens several species. Baby animals are typically captured and sold, which often requires killing the mother. Once in captivity and out of their natural habitat, many pets die or fail to reproduce. Affected populations include the Asiatic black bear, Malayan sun bear, white-handed lar, pileated gibbon and binturong.
Large-scale deforestation and development have encroached on many former wildlife habitats, and pesticides in their food supply has reduced bird populations. Many species are listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss and over-exploitation. The World Bank estimates that, of 214 countries studied, Thailand ranks ninth (1=worst, 214=best) in the world in the number of mammal species (55 species) under threat.
Despite Buddhism's professed reverence for life, even Thai clergy have been guilty of overt animal abuse. One such case, that of Kwan, a Malayan sun bear, egregiously mistreated at Wat Aungsuwan (aka Wat Nong Hoy) in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province has been thoroughly documented by the Wildlife Friends Foundation Thailand (WFFT). First alerted to abuse at the temple in January 2012, it was not until three years later that Thai wildlife officials acted on behalf of the mistreated animals.
In 2016, the body of the last known dugong in the Gulf of Thailand, identified by marine biologists as DU-391, was found off the coast of Rayong. Number 391 refers to it being the 391st dead dugong to be found there. The decline of vulnerable species in the gulf continued unabated, as 355 protected animals died since January 2016, a 10% increase over 2015. The 355 dead marine animals included 11 dugongs, 180 sea turtles, and 164 dolphins and whales.
Conservation in theory
Conservation bills passed by the government include:
1960 Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act
1961 National Park Act
1964 National Forest Reserve Act
1989 Logging ban in natural forests
1992 Forest Plantation Act
1992 Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act
1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA), which forbids or restricts the hunting, breeding, possession, and trade of fifteen reserved animal species and two classes of protected species.
Until the acts of 1989–1992, conservation policies were difficult to enforce, and often took a back seat to economic development. These acts represented a major shift in Thai policy, and are part of the government's cooperation with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an international wildlife protection agreement.
The government now requires that at least 15% of its land area be protected as forest, and 22% is currently protected as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. To enforce CITES, the government also maintains border checkpoints to prevent animal smuggling, and works to educate the public about wildlife preservation. Thailand's Buddhist culture, with its emphasis on respect for all life, has become a key component of the country's conservation efforts.
Conservation in practice
Current (2015) national law allows for ivory from domesticated Thai elephants to be sold legally. As an unintended consequence, large quantities of African ivory can be laundered through Thai shops. Only by closing the domestic trade in ivory can Thailand help eliminate the threat to African elephants. Thailand's ivory market is the largest in the world and trade is largely fuelled by ivory from poached African elephant's tusks that are smuggled into the country.
In July 2014, at a CITES intercessional meeting, Thailand agreed to a strict timetable to address the illegal ivory trade or face the threat of trade sanctions. One week before the meeting, the TRAFFIC had released a survey of Bangkok that found significantly more retail shops and three times as much ivory on sale as in 2013. Thailand was given until 30 September 2014 to submit a revised national ivory action plan, to include a number of CITES specified measures. Thailand was to be next assessed by CITES on 31 March 2015. If found lacking, CITES will vote on whether trade sanctions should be imposed against the country. The impact of punitive sanctions on the national economy would be significant: all trade in CITES-listed species would be prohibited. The export of orchids by the country's horticultural sector, for example, would be stopped, resulting in a loss of more than US$80 million in annual sales based on the 2013 value of this trade.
A study published in 2018 by USAID Wildlife Asia said about 500,000 Thais are believed to own ivory products, and 250,000 own artifacts made from tiger parts. At Kanchanaburi's infamous Tiger Temple, nine tiger fangs, more than 1,000 amulets containing tiger skin and dozens of jars filled with dead animals and animal parts were found in a pick-up truck driven out of the Tiger Temple by a monk and two disciples. The temple has profited handsomely from tourism while billing itself as a spiritual organization dedicated to wildlife conservation since it opened in 1994.
Domestic animal welfare
Thailand introduced its first animal welfare laws in 2014. The Prevention of Animal Cruelty and Provision of Animal Welfare Act came into being on 27 December 2014.
The law protects animals "raised as pets, as animals for work, as beasts of burden, as friends, as livestock, as performing show animals, or for any other purpose, no matter with or without owners". Owners of animals are now required by law to "raise, nurture and keep the animals in appropriate conditions with good health and sanitation and with sufficient food and water". Within the act, the term "owner" is deemed to cover all family members and domestic help, as well as any friends assigned to take care of a pet.
Menus featuring live vertebrates are now illegal in Thailand. Trading in and consuming dog and cat meat is now illegal in Thailand under the 2014 act. Feeding live prey to snakes, crocodiles or other animals is also prohibited.
The act prohibits neglect, torture, or uncaring transport of live animals. Neglect includes improper housing and transportation of animals. An infraction is punishable by law, which may impose a two-year prison term and a fine of up to 40,000 baht (US$1,663), or both. Persons who dump unwanted pets at temples can now be charged with abandoning and endangering the animal.
Governmental indifference
The National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO), the military junta that took power in Thailand in May 2014, has taken a cavalier attitude towards environmental concerns. In early-March 2016, the NCPO issued Order No. 9/2016, designed to cut short the process of conducting environmental impact assessments (EIA) on mega-projects. This makes it possible for state agencies to fast track public projects related to transportation, water management, public health, and prevention of public dangers. The order allows state projects to be proposed to the cabinet before a full EIA is completed.
Junta order No.4/2016, signed on 20 March 2016 by Prime Minister Gen Prayut Chan-o-cha in his capacity as the chair of the Committee on National Energy Policy was published in the Royal Thai Gazette on 31 March 2016. It exempts 29 plants, 27 of them run by the state, from all laws related to city planning. The planned construction of coal-fired plants in Thepha District in Songkhla Province and in Nuea Khlong District of Krabi Province have both met with strong opposition from locals who are concerned about their environmental impact.
On 22 October 2019, the 26-member National Hazardous Substances Committee (NHSC) changed the hazardous agricultural chemicals paraquat, glyphosate, and chlorpyrifos from Type 3 toxic substances to Type 4, effectively prohibiting their production, import, export, or possession. Their use will be prohibited as of 1 December 2019. On 27 November 2019, the NHSC amended that timetable, moving the date for the ban of paraquat and chlorpyrifos to 1 June 2020. They lifted the ban on glyphosate, albeit with restrictions on usage: glyphosate will be used only on six major crops: corn, cassava, sugarcane, rubber, oil palms, and fruit. It is not permitted in watershed areas and other sensitive environment zones, and farmers must submit proof of use including the type of crops and the size of their farms when purchasing glyphosate. Industry Minister Suriya Jungrungreangkit, who chairs the NHSC, said the committee reached its decision after reviewing information provided by the Department of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health. NCHS member Jirapon Limpananon, chair of the Pharmacy Council of Thailand, announced her resignation from the NCHS Wednesday night following the meeting. The government's u-turn on the ban of dangerous chemicals prompted a columnist at the Bangkok Post to fume that, "...no further proof is required to show how some unscrupulous Thai mandarins are being held hostage by the agro monsters. With a wishy-washy prime minister, who clearly has no political will to make the right decision on this matter, we are indeed in a helpless situation."
Intimidation of environmental activists
In November 2016, the UN's regional human rights office (OHCHR) condemned Thailand for a series of murders of land activists which have gone unpunished, drawing attention to the kingdom's poor record in solving such killings. The office said it was compelled to speak out after an appeals court in Thailand's south upheld the acquittal of the sole suspect in the murder of an activist in 2015. Thailand has long been a dangerous place in which to take on powerful interest groups. A 2014 report by Global Witness said Thailand was the eighth most dangerous country in the world to be a land rights activist, the second most dangerous in Asia after the Philippines. Rights groups say between 50 and 60 rights defenders have been murdered in the last 20 years. There are also at least 81 open cases of enforced disappearance dating back as far the mid-1990s, according to the Asian Federation Against Involuntary Disappearances.
On 21 June 2004, Charoen Wat-aksorn was assassinated as he alighted from a bus returning to Prachuap Khiri Khan after he gave testimony about environmental destruction in Bo Nok and Ban Krut to the Senate in Bangkok. Charoen was a human rights defender and leader of the Love Bo Nok group who fought for over ten years until his death against coal-fired power, large-scale shrimp farming, and other environmental destruction in Prachuap Khiri Khan.
Porlajee Rakchongcharoen, known as "Billy", a Karen environmental activist, was reportedly arrested on 17 April 2014, in Kaeng Krachan National Park in Phetchaburi Province by a park superintendent and four other park officers. He was detained because he was found with a protected wild bee honeycomb and six bottles of honey. He has not been seen since. It is feared that he was murdered because of his activism. Billy's disappearance came three years after he assisted Karen villagers of Pong Luk Bang Kloy to file a lawsuit against the superintendent for ordering the eviction and burning of the village in May 2011. On 30 January 2017, Thailand's Department of Special Investigation (DSI) said that it would not investigate his disappearance, leaving it in the hands of the regular police despite three years of no progress in the case. However, after continued pressure from the Karen community, and especially Billy's wife Pinnapa Prueksapan, the DSI took on the case in April 2019. Possibly their late willingness to investigate was influenced by UNESCO turning down Thailand's application for Kaeng Krachan to be declared a world heritage site due to ongoing conflicts with the indigenous Karen communities. In September 2019 the DSI announced they had found an oil drum containing burned human remains, in a dam near to the area where Billy was last seen. DNA evidence matched Billy's mother and the case was re-classsifed as a murder investigation.
The NGO Global Witness reports that in 2014, four Thai environmental activists were murdered due to their work on local environmental issues. From 2002-2014, Global Witness estimates the total to be 21 deaths.
South Thailand's "Southern Peasants Federation" (SPF) names four of its members who were murdered between 2010–2015.
The New York Times reports that "Thailand is among the world's most dangerous countries in which to oppose powerful interests that profit from coal plants, toxic waste dumping, land grabs or illegal logging. Some 60 people who spoke out on these issues have been killed over the past 20 years,..."
On 5 August 2019, a prominent human rights activist, Eakachai Itsaratha, was abducted by ten men as he was entering a mosque to attend a public hearing on a rock quarry project planned for Phatthalung Province. He was taken to a hotel and held against his will until the completion of the hearing. Upon being released he was threatened. He was told not to return to the quarry site in Tamot District again, saying that his activities had adversely affected the quarry project and the process of obtaining permission from the government. Eakachai is secretary-general of Thailand's Non-Governmental Organizations Coordinating Committee on Development for the southern region (NGO COD-South), as well as the former deputy leader of the grassroots-based Commoner Party.
See also
Agriculture in Thailand
Deforestation in Thailand
Office of the National Water Resources
Waste management in Thailand
References
Further reading
Hamilton, John; Pratap, Chatterjee, 1991. "Developing disaster: The World Bank and deforestation in Thailand", in: Food First Action Alert, Summer issue.
Hunsaker, Bryan, 1996. "The political economy of Thai deforestation", in Loggers, Monks, Students, and Entrepreneurs, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA.
External links
Air Quality Index, Thailand Pollution Control Department
WWF summary
Environmental Issues and Environmental Education in the Mekong Region
Overview of Environmental Issues and Environmental Conservation Practices in Thailand
Environmental Problems and Green Lifestyles in Thailand
Environmental Policies in Thailand and their Effects
Issues |
4243428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Syria | Environmental issues in Syria | Major environmental issues in Syria include deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage and wastes from petroleum refining, and inadequate supplies of potable water.
Water shortages, exacerbated by population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution, are a significant long-term constraint on economic development. The water shortages in Syria turned into five successive years of drought, prolonging the environmental issues that Syria already had.
The Assad government (Arab Socialist Ba'ath
Party – Syrian Region) came into power in Syria in 1970. Hafez al-Assad ruled as President from 1971 to 2000, and following his death the presidency passed to his son, Bashar al-Assad. The lack of change in environmental policies contributed to the five successive years of drought. Also, the continuous ‘stability and peace’ movement for four decades that was instilled by the Assad government transformed into institutionalizing fear and violence amongst its own people had a effect in the 2011 Arab spring. The 2011 Arab Spring, which began as a civil uprising, quickly transformed into the Syrian Civil War.
The outbreak of the Civil War in Syria has been detrimental to the economy and environment. The toxicity of weapons used during the war such as mortar bombs, artillery shells, barrel bombs, aircraft bombs and missiles have been the leading cause for the damage to Syria's oil production, industrial areas, infrastructure, and waste management. Therefore, the Ministry of Environmental Affairs in Syria (State Minister: Nazira Farah Sarkis) has participated in the United Nations Conference to create the Sustainable Development Plan. This plan was created as an effort to combat desertification, biodiversity, and climate change. Unfortunately, at the General Assembly, it was declared that the plan had failed in terms of the setbacks that were found within the degrading land and eroding development gains. These environmental issues were ultimately related to the Syrian war.
Introduction
The Syrian government under the Ba'ath party has been around since 1970, and has managed to stay in power until the present day by instilling an authoritarian rule on Syria and its people. The ideology of fear and violence against Syria's people was perpetrated by former President Hafez al Assad (1971–2000). Upon Hafez al-Assad's death, his son – Bashar al-Assad – was named head of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, and is the current President of Syria (2000–present).
Syria has various ethnic and religious cleavages that divided but also instilled a sense of loyalty amongst certain parts of the country. The main minorities in Syria include the Alawites (12 percent), the Greek Orthodox Christians and other Christian sects (9 percent), the Kurds (9 percent), and the Druze (3 percent). The Sunni religious group is considered to be the majority amongst the Syrian population. The ethnic and religious diversity in Syria has caused an unequal distribution of power. The Sunni Muslims dominated politically and ensured that the Alawites were denied any political input. The Alawites – a minority – wanted to have an input in their country, causing them to claim the armed forces and the Ba’ath Party. This created a secular and unstable Syria.
The lack of stability in the country originated from the formation of the Ba’ath party in 1963. The Ba’ath party was led by ex-peasant military officers who took power with a radical point of view creating quite a few oppositions such as the old oligarchs, the Muslim Brotherhood, and Nasserists. The Ba’ath Party wanted to become “the most important and ultimately successful of the radical movements that arose in post-independence Syria”, which meant that they were less likely to prevail if they mobilized from below, and more likely to succeed if they launched a “revolution from above”. When the Ba’ath Party gained control of the economy, it also created instability between the government and the opposition.
In 1970, when Hafez al-Assad came to power, it was ensured that he would leave behind the radical Ba’athist ideology that the leaders before him had held on to, leading him to opt for a more monarchical presidency. His presidency was the beginning of a façade presidential republic. There were no real oppositions because he made sure to concentrate the power in his hands. Even if the opposition were to happen, Hafez had run a patronage-based community which allowed him to control any form of chaos that were to happen in Syria. The government used coercion to keep Syria stable and under control. There were various coercive tactics that were used such as the Massacre of the Muslim Brotherhood in Hama in 1982, and the ‘incommunicado’ detention centers and military prisons where they mistreated and dehumanized the prisoners. Hafez was sure to make an example out of those who opposed him to keep the control within the hands of his government.
The various ethnic and religious cleavages were used to maintain control over the party, military and police forces, and government institutions. Since Hafez and the armed forces were both Alawite, he was able to ensure loyalty. The loyalty that was given by the military and police forces allowed him to keep any opposition from rising against his government.
After ensuring his authority, Hafez was able to begin his transition towards a market economy through institutionalizing a “social contract”. The state would provide the people of Syria subsidized food and public employment with the exception of completely surrendering their political rights. To reinforce the economic liberalization, he would also go on to creating a cross-sectarian coalition between the Sunni bourgeoisie and the Alawite military elites – helping him gain power and instill a stable Syria.
In 2000, Hafez al-Assad died, and the power was passed on to his eldest son – Bashar al-Assad. He was not involved in political affairs and was not expected to fill his father's shoes, but he rose to the task and assured that his father's legacy would live on.
Environmental issues prior to Syria's civil war
Water mismanagement
Five years of drought (2006-2011)
In the years of 2006-2011, Syria experienced five successive years of drought that created one of the biggest humanitarian crisis Syria has ever known. Although, the climate change has significantly impacted the drought in Syria, affecting the agriculture resources, the Assad government has demonstrated a long-term mismanagement and neglect of natural resources.
It is natural for droughts to occur in countries with semi-arid climate. Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine were similarly affected by the drought in 2007-2008, but Syria was the only country in the region that experienced a humanitarian crisis. The region that was severely affected by the drought is the greater Fertile Crescent. Being the main source for agriculture and animal herding, the drought caused agricultural failures and livestock mortality. The lack of change in policy setting – agricultural policies – has been one of the perpetrators of this issue. Hafez al-Assad had instilled policies to improve Syria's agricultural production including the redistribution of land, and irrigation projects. The land redistribution exploited the limited land affecting the level of groundwater as a consequence causing water shortage in Syria.
In 2003, 25 percent of Syria's GDP came from agriculture. In fact, Syria's agriculture depended on their 6-month winter season where they accumulated their rainfall to grow the crops. In 2007 and 2008, Syria failed to produce wheat due to having had the driest winter on record causing the agricultural share to fall to 17 percent. Farmers and herders were producing zero or near-zero livestock (such as wheat, and rice), forcing them to begin importing products for the first time in 15 years. This caused prices of wheat and rice to drastically increase. In 2010, the drought completely demolished the environment causing malnutrition and nutrition related diseases among children of 6 to 12-months old were suffering from anemia in Raqqa. People began migrating towards the urban areas causing an 80 percent lack of enrolment in schools.
The drought caused such distress to the environment and the people of Syria that it is speculated to have been the reason behind the Arab Spring that occurred in 2011. The Assad government had an over-concentration of benefits of economic reform, patronage and it was assured that the opportunities landed in the hands of the President's family and elite groups causing a mismanagement of natural resources. This affected the agricultural sector causing the government to put an end to subsidies in 2008 and 2009. Tensions began rising when the people of Syria could no longer afford basic necessities such as food and gasoline.
The lack of water resources management during the drought caused the water quality to become poor and contaminated. The water shortage in rural parts of the country caused farmers to reuse untreated waste water to water their livestock resulting in the pollution of the groundwater and the surfaces. The health risks were undeniable as people were beginning to drink contaminated water and falling ill with diseases such as kidney stones and E-coli.
The severe drought caused an abnormal population growth amongst the urban area of Syria. Poor infrastructure, youth unemployment, and crime rates began rising due to the serge of migrants causing instability in Syria. In fact, it is estimated that 1.5 million people from the rural areas, and 1.2 million Iraqi refugees migrated. The four decades of the Assad government's authoritarian leadership and lack of policy change was the product of the uprising, leading up to the current Civil war.
Waste mismanagement
The waste management in Syria prior to the war was already hazardous and weak. There are two types of Hazardous Waste Production in Syria such as Industrial Hazardous Waste and Medical Hazardous Waste. In 1997, 21,730 tonnes of industrial hazardous waste were collected from five of Syria's largest cities, and 470,000 tonnes of phosphogypsum were also produced. In 2000, 3,000 tonnes of medical hazardous waste were produced and it is estimated that annually by 2010, there will be an increase to 4,500 tonnes. To be more precise, 5 percent radioactive waste, 15 percent chemical waste, and 80 percent infectious waste composed the medical hazardous waste in Syria, and the lack of policy or government change perpetuated these issues. is relatively collected by municipalities or private companies but it was reported that approximately 80 per cent of domestic solid waste was disposed at open dump sites on the outskirts of town. The Assad government's long-term mismanagement of the waste produced dioxin and other gases causing air pollution in Damascus and Aleppo. In fact, whether the waste is hazardous or non-hazardous, it is not separated from domestic waste which began contaminating the water, the soil and of polluting the air. Medical hazardous waste is mismanaged as well. The medical centers in Syria do not have designated waste disposal causing the equipment at hospitals to get mixed and disposed with domestic waste. There are health risks implemented from the waste management of medical hazardous waste on health risks for health care workers, waste handlers, patients, and the rest of the Syrian population.
Mining pollution
The phosphate industry has had a negative impact on the environment. In fact, phosphate rocks have a high level of radio activity. The phosphate is exposed on the population and environment through mining and transportation of phosphate fertilizers. These fertilizers contain uranium. Also, the waste mismanagement of phosphogypsum is being dumped in undesignated areas, affecting the mining industry. When it evaporates in the air, it affects the environment, the workers, and the rest of the population.
The phosphate mines are situated near Palmyra and are transported and disposed of in an irresponsible manner. The waste from the mines is dumped near the Mediterranean Sea, and the pollution produced by the mining industry has contributed to the Mediterranean Sea's deteriorating state. The perpetuation of the Syria's pollution has not only affected Syria's environment, and its people, but has made its way into neighbouring regions. It has affected Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, West Bank and Gaza Strip, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey. The pollution that is inflicted on the Mediterranean Sea are land-based such as sewage and urban run-off, urban solid wastes, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, organohalogen compounds, radioactive substances, nutrients, suspended solids, and hazardous wastes.
Effects of the Civil War
Damage to oil production
ISIS has taken control of the oil refineries in Syria and has begun selling on the black market for less than oil would normally be sold. It has become an economic incentive to purchase oil from ISIS even if it means to fund a terrorist organization. Since September 2014, the United States, government of Syria, Russia, and other allies, have begun blowing up the oil refineries with airstrikes to cut off the source of funding of ISIS. Because of this ISIS has become desperate for oil. They began digging holes to find oil, and when found, lighting up the oil on fire to refine it. When the oil is released in the air, it releases hazardous substances such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and lead. These substances have long term negative effects such as respiratory disorders, livers problems, kidney disorders, and cancer. The short term effects can also affect soils, people and the wild life.
Damage to industrial areas and infrastructure
The current Civil war has had negative repercussions on Syria's infrastructure and industrial areas such as Homs, Hama, Damascus, and Aleppo. Adraa, al-Sheikh Najjar, Hasya and Deir ez-Zor are industrial zones for which plans were established, but were interrupted by the outbreak of the civil war. The fight between ISIS and the Syrian Army over Aleppo has affected its infrastructure but also neighboring industrial zones such as al-Sheikh Najjar. Since the outbreak, 52 percent of Aleppo's infrastructure has been destroyed or damaged. ISIS was occupying Damascus affecting neighboring industrial city, Adraa which hosts heavy industry facilities such as cement factories, chemical plants, oil and gas storage and military production sites.
Toxicity of weapons
The toxicity of weapons such as mortar bombs, artillery shells, barrel bombs, aircraft bombs and missiles have taken a toll on the environment and the population's health. These weapons have ammunitions with common metal parts that contain lead, copper, mercury, antimony, and tungsten. Missiles and rockets contain solid or liquid propellants and nitroglycerin, nitroguanidine, nitrocellulose, 2,4-dinitrotoluene.
Degradation of Soil and Vegetation
Vegetation degradation and soil erosion are among the greatest environmental impacts caused by the Syrian Civil War. The war has caused the displacement of 13 million people, 8 million being internally displaced. Many of the internally displaced refugees have sought to avoid the conflict by migrating to Syria's coastal region. The humid coastal region contains more than 90% of Syria's vegetation and is an important hotspot of biodiversity, carbon storage, timber and recreation in the country.
Vegetation Loss
The internal displacement has put immense pressure on the area's natural resources, causing the degradation of this vegetated area. The high rates of vegetation destruction can be attributed to several factors. First, much of the civil war has taken place in fossil fuel rich areas, creating a shortage of energy. The Syrian electricity network has also been a target during the conflict. By 2013, more than 30 power stations were inactive and 40 percent of the countries power lines had been attacked. Those living in the coastal area are forced to cut down timber as fuel for heating and electricity. Second, the high influx of refugees has created the need for more housing. This need has caused the expansion of urban areas, encroaching on the dense vegetation and causing degradation. Third, vegetation fires have been set to produce wood charcoal. The most intense vegetation loss has been in areas with dense vegetation cover.
As previously mentioned, much of the fighting has occurred near fossil fuel extraction sites, specifically oil refineries. Attacks on oil refineries can cause oil fires which release harmful chemicals into the air, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The sulphur and nitrogen compounds are linked to acid rain which can have dire impacts on vegetation as well as cause soil acidification. PAHs persist in the environment for long periods of time and are known carcinogens. Syria also extracts heavy crude oil, which generally has a higher proportion of noxious substances, including heavy metals, making it especially dangerous when these substances seep into the soil. Syria has two oil refineries. The Syrian oil refinery in Homs has been under a large-scale attack for times since the beginning of 2012. Each attack has caused significant oil fires. In September 2014, the United States also targeted several oil installations in eastern and northern Syria, causing oil fires. There is the potential for these harmful substances to impact existing vegetation cover, either aerially or by changing the soil chemistry.
Syria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion occurs when wind and water remove soil from an area. If the topsoil and organic nutrients are removed, the land will become desert like and it will be difficult to support plant or animal life, in a process known as desertification. The soil resources in Syria's coastal region is very fertile, however vulnerable to erosion. The consistent droughts, relieved by occasional high intensity rain, create ideal conditions for erosion. The area also has steep slopes which further the erosion risk. Soil degradation poses a threat to land productivity as it loses the organic matter that allows plant material to thrive. This poses a risk, not only to Syria's biodiversity, but also to the potential rebound of the agricultural sector after the war.
The loss of vegetation cover in the coastal area is a factor that increases erosion. Plant roots help to keep the soil in place as well as shield it from heavy rainfall and high winds. Plants also absorb excess water, slowing runoff and reducing the risk of erosion. The rapid change in vegetation, caused by the influx of refugees, have created the conditions for increased erosion in the Syrian region.
2015 Dust Storm
In 2015, an unprecedented dust storm hit Syria and Iraq. It is believed that this storm was caused by the increased erosion in Syria due to the civil war and the prolonged drought. Syria's drought, which may have inflamed the civil conflict, as well as the mismanagement of Syrian water resources, resulted in a water shortage in Syria's agricultural region. The Turkish removal of dams along the Euphrates River may have also contributed to the water shortage. This shortage forced approximately 1.5 million agricultural workers to abandon their farms and head to urban areas. Without irrigation to keep the vegetation alive, the crops failed. This reduction in vegetation made the soil vulnerable to erosion and allowed for it to be picked up on a massive scale, causing the dust storm. The intense bombing also stirred up soil, contributing to soil erosion by making the soil easier to transport by wind and water.
Waste
Solid waste management was already a problem prior to the Syrian Civil War, however the violent conditions have significantly worsened the situation. The conflict has caused a shutdown of government operated waste management services. This has led to uncontrolled burning and dumping. Both of these have the potential to pollute the environment with airborne toxins or through chemicals seeping into the soil and groundwater resources. As the war continues and poverty increases, more people are looking through the waste to find food, construction materials, or items that can be sold. Municipal, medical, and hazardous waste are being mixed because of this collapse, which makes handling the waste especially dangerous. The excess waste can also promote the spread of diseases and parasites throughout the country. People have started to create their own waste programs alongside those in place by the UNDP, ICRC, and the Syrian Arab Red Crescent.
Ministry of Environmental Affairs
The Ministry of Environmental Affairs is led by State Minister Nazira Farah Sarkis. It was established in 1991, and is responsible for national policy making and for coordinating environmental activities and the adoption of environmental legislation and regulations. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs has made numerous efforts to reverse the environmental issues that were inflected prior to the war such as Law No. 50 created in 2002. It was the Environmental Protection Law which was to protect the environment sector such as forestry, agriculture, water, fisheries. However, the Assad government may have funded these plans too late for the Ministry of Environment to make major improvements. By the time they began their plans, the uprising had irrupted and not long after, the civil war.
Sustainable Development Plan
Before the UN Sustainable Development Plan was initiated, there were several conferences conducted working towards improving the environment in Syria. In 1992, within the Environment and Development Conference, there were conferences that were conducted. The Earth Summit for Environment and Development focused on combatting desertification, biodiversity, and climate change. Within the Environment and Development Conferences covered several other topics such as poverty, development, environment protection, human rights, good governance, women empowerment, children and youth issues.
In 2002, the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) conference was conducted. The summit planned the sustainable action plan, which would be renewed in the United Nation's conference on sustainable development in 2012. The WSSD was focused on implementing the policies to work towards a more sustainable Syria. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs implemented the State Five-Year Plan while focusing on poverty, quality of life, education, health, women empowerment, and environment protection. Prior to the 2011 uprising, the Ministry was determined to improve the environment while also improving social and economic issues as well.
In 2012, sustainability priorities were not the same for all actors. The producers, consumers, government institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and Private sector all have different priorities for Syria, and may not be focusing on the Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) that was initially set out to accomplish with all three aspects such as economical, environmental and social. In fact, they were focused on mainly improving the economy demonstrating the lack of achievement towards the Five-Year Plan and a sustainable Syria.
Failure of Sustainable Development Plan
In the 2012 National Report on Syria about the UN Conference on Sustainable Development, it was reported that there are several weaknesses that would cause the Sustainable Development Plan. There is a lack of understanding in the working sector in terms of sustainable development. The Assad government and the elites are concerned with only one aspect of sustainability causing the neglect of the other issues in Syria. Focusing on improving the economy but ignoring the social and environmental aspects is detrimental to the Sustainable Development Plan. Considering the pressing economic issues in Syria, it would cause the government to make impulsive decisions and causing the failure of the plan.
On October 20, 2015, the United Nations held a General Assembly to conclude the debate on sustainable development. It was concluded that the sustainable plan had the potential of improving the quality of life in Syria, but after the 2011 uprising which erupted into a Civil war, it became impossible for the plan to succeed.
Citations
References
Issues
Syria |
4243438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial%20engagements%20of%20the%20Second%20Sino-Japanese%20War | Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War | The Second Sino-Japanese War began on 7 July 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in the Republic of China and is often regarded as the start of World War II as full-scale warfare erupted with the Battle of Shanghai, and ending when the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies in August 1945. The Chinese Air Force faced the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy Air Forces and engaged them in many aerial interceptions, including the interception of massed terror-bombing strikes on civilian targets, attacking on each other's ground forces and military assets in all manners of air-interdiction and close-air support; these battles in the Chinese skies were the largest air battles fought since the Great War, and featured the first-ever extensive and prolonged deployment of aircraft carrier fleets launching preemptive strikes in support of expeditionary and occupational forces, and demonstrated the technological shift from the latest biplane fighter designs to the modern monoplane fighter designs on both sides of the conflict.
Although a largely dismissed and forgotten war in the Western thinking, the significance and impact of the airwar between China and the Empire of Japan cannot be denied; it was the best opportunity for the Western powers to learn about the development and technological prowess of the enemy that would shock the West with the rude awakening by the end of 1941 when Imperial Japanese ambitions expanded into the Pacific.
Overview
China was not an aviation-industrial power at the time, and relied on foreign countries for its military aircraft, but did have a fledgling aircraft industry that produced a few indigenous experimental aircraft designs and foreign aircraft designs under license, including about 100 Hawk III fighter-attack planes, China's frontline fighter-attack plane of choice when war broke out in 1937, at the CAMCO plant based at the Hanzhou Jianqiao Aerodrome. 15 Chinese-American pilots along with Chinese pilots of other foreign nationalities formed the first unofficial volunteer group of pilots to join provincial/warlord air force units in the early-mid 1930s, and ultimately integrating into the front-line air units of the centralized command of the Nationalist Air Force of China by 1937, in the unified-front for imminent war against Imperial Japan. These volunteers included future ace-fighter pilots Art Chin, John "Buffalo" Huang, Wong Pan-Yang, plus Hazel Ying-Lee (who was not allowed to fly in combat as a female), Louie Yim-qun, Chan Kee-Wong et al.
As the battles of Shanghai, Nanjing, Taiyuan, and other regions dragged on near the end of 1937, the initial Chinese Air Force inventory of mostly American-made aircraft had become largely depleted, and the Soviet Union came to China's aid by supplying the bulk of aircraft to the Chinese Air Force for the next four years of war under the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1937, and dispatching a Soviet Volunteer Group of aviators to assist with the combat operations in China; Chinese fighter pilots having mostly converted into the Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 series of fighter aircraft by early-1938. According to records from the USSR, 563 fighter planes and 322 bombers were provided to China by the Soviet Union, and these included the twin-engined Tupolev SB medium bombers and 4-engined Tupolev TB-3 heavy bombers, with the addition of Polikarpov I-153 fighters; the Chinese Air Force would remain with these increasingly obsolescent aircraft through 1941 as the Japanese made tremendous technological advancements to their combat aircraft designs and powerplant technology.
Following the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the United States took actions to assist the Republic of China against Imperial Japan, with the oil and scrap metal embargo and freezing of Japanese assets in the summer of 1941, and along with the Lend-Lease Act of which China was included as a beneficiary on 6 May 1941, the American Volunteer Group (a.k.a. "Flying Tigers") entered the war in December 1941 with the task of protecting the main Allied supply-line into China; the cross-Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump", between the Harbor of Rangoon in Burma, British bases in India, and the Chinese wartime port-of-entry in Kunming, China, and consequently, with the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. officially joined the war against Japan.
1937
Battle of Shanghai/Nanjing
At the outbreak of full-scale conflict of the Second Sino-Japanese War/World War II in August 1937, the Chinese Air Force had 645 combat aircraft, of which about 300 were fighter planes. Japan had 1,530 army and navy aircraft, of which about 400 were deployed in China. The frontline Chinese fighter squadrons were equipped primarily with the Curtiss Hawk IIIs and Hawk IIs, followed by Boeing P-26 Model 281 Peashooter, and Fiat CR.32. Bomber-attack aircraft consisted primarily of the Curtiss A-12 Shrikes, Douglas O-2s, Heinkel He-111, Martin B-10s and Northrop Gammas. The air war in China had become a testing-zone for the latest biplane fighter designs confronting the new generation of monoplane fighter and bomber aircraft designs; the world's first aerial combat and kills between modern monoplane fighter would occur in the skies of China.
In August 1937 Claire Lee Chennault accepted the offer to assume position as an "air combat adviser" of Chiang Kai-shek, and to train new fighter pilots at the Republic of China Air Force Academy, which was forced to move from the Jianqiao to the Wujiaba Aerodrome due to the war situation.
On 14 August 1937 the Chinese Air Force fighter squadrons sortied for the defense of Shanghai and Nanjing, capital of the Republic of China. In the afternoon of 14 August 1937, two groups of nine Japanese Mitsubishi G3M long-range bombers were launched from Japanese-occupied Taiwan on a mission to bomb Jianqiao Airfield in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, and Guangde Airfield in Anhui. The 21st and 23rd Squadrons, led by Kao Chih-hang, the Group Commander of the Chinese 4th Pursuit Group, took off from Jianqiao Airfield to intercept the Japanese bombers, despite the fact that some of the fighters had just flown in from Zhoukou and had not been refueled. Kao attacked a G3M bomber and scored a direct hit sending it plummeting to the ground in flames, and he also damaged another G3M bomber; it was the first air-to-air victory for the Chinese Air Force. Meanwhile, three other Hawk IIIs attacked a third G3M bomber and shot it down. The second group of Japanese G3M bombers attacking Guangde Airfield was intercepted by the 22nd Squadron of the 4th Pursuit Group and the 34th Squadron. Squadron Commander Cheng Hsiao-yu of the 22nd Squadron shot up the right engine and the wing fuel tank of one G3M bomber, forcing it to ditch before returning to its air base. The aerial battles in the afternoon of 14 August were a resounding victory for the Chinese Air Force, in which the Chinese Hawk III fighters destroyed four Japanese G3M long-range bombers without losing a single plane to the Japanese. In addition, two G3Ms were also shot down by ground anti-aircraft fire.
On the following day at dawn 15 August, 12 Japanese Type 89 torpedo bombers were intercepted over Hangzhou by 21 Hawk IIIs of the Chinese 4th Pursuit Group led by Group Commander Kao Chi-hang. The Chinese shot down eight bombers. In the afternoon 20 Japanese G3M bombers on a raid to Nanjing were intercepted by 26 Chinese fighters from the 8th, 17th, 28th and 34th Squadrons flying eight Boeing 281 P-26 Peashooters, five Gloster Gladiators, 13 Hawk IIIs and Hawk IIs. The Chinese shot down four and damaged six Japanese G3M bombers.
On 16 August, the Japanese launched two raids with a total of 11 Japanese G3M bombers on the airfield near Nanjing; they were intercepted by five Chinese fighters from the 17th and 28th Squadrons. The Chinese shot down three Japanese bombers, and lost three fighters. On 17 August Chinese Hawk III fighters flew 17 sorties shooting down one Japanese bomber; the Chinese lost two aircraft. From 20 August to the end of the month, daily aerial engagements took place between the Chinese and Japanese planes, and the Japanese facing unexpected tenacity from the Chinese pilots, suffered prohibitive losses made worse by the sacrifice of armored protection in exchange for supposed-advantage of lighter-weight and higher-performance of the newer Japanese aircraft designs. In that period the Chinese shot down 24 Japanese planes and lost 11 aircraft.
While seeking to better compete against the highly advanced Mitsubishi A5M fighters of the IJNAF, Colonel Kao Chih-hang on a morale-boosting shakedown of his men and performance-boosting of his machines, had his maintenance crews remove the bomb-racks, fuel tank cowlings, landing lights, etc., to save weight and reduce drag off the Hawks, and on 12 October 1937, he led an aggressive seek-and-destroy mission consisting of six Hawk IIIs, two Boeing P-26/281 "Peashooters", and a Fiat CR.32 in the opportunity to engage any approaching Japanese fighter aircraft. A group of Mitsubishi A5Ms soon appeared on approach to Nanking and Col. Kao led his group into a melee, where Maj. John Wong Pan-Yang, a Chinese-American volunteer pilot from Seattle flying one of two P-26 "Peashooters", drew first blood shooting down the A5M piloted by PO1c Mazazumi Ino. Capt. Liu Cuigang shot down another A5M that was sent crashing down into a "Mr. Yang's residence in southern Nanking", and Colonel Gao scored a double-kill against the A5Ms, including that of shotai leader WO Torakuma, all before jubilant spectators of the city of Nanking. This was a monumental moment of air-superiority exhibited by the Chinese pilots due to the great experience of Col. Gao, Maj. Wong and Capt. Liu in particular, as they were outnumbered and yet so convincingly defeated the Japanese fighter group flying the far-more advanced Mitsubishi A5M "Claudes".
Battle of Taiyuan
As the frontline battlefields raged at the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanking, pressing demands for aerial support at the Battle of Taiyuan in the northern front and Canton in the southern front, forced the Chinese Air Force to split the 28th PS, 5th PG based at Jurong Airbase in the Nanking defense sector into two smaller squadrons, and then dispatching half of the squadron to the south in Guangdong under the command of Lt. Arthur Chin, and the other half to the north at Taiyuan under the command of Capt. Chan Kee-Wong.
Battle of Nanchang
The Japanese launched pre-emptive airstrikes against Chinese Air Force assets at the Laoyingfang and Qingyunpu Airbases beginning in 1937; these were engaged by new Chinese Polikarpov fighters obtained under the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1937.
Summary of 1937
In the first four months of the war from July to November 1937, the Chinese Air Force flew 137 sorties, attacking Japanese army positions, and engaged in 57 air battles with Japanese airplanes; the Chinese Air Force shot down 94 Japanese planes and damaged 52 on the ground, but lost 131 aircraft. The Chinese Air Force pilots fought well despite their airfields being under constant Japanese air attacks. To commemorate the heroic acts and sacrifices of the Chinese pilots in defense of their homeland, the Republic of China declared 14 August the Chinese Air Force Day known as the "814 Day", the day on which the Chinese Air Force scored its first air-to-air victory. In this initial phase of the war, the outnumbered Chinese had no replacements for their lost planes and many experienced pilots killed in action, while the Western powers turned its back to the war situation, the Chinese began turning to the Soviet Union for new aircraft and various other combat equipment and war materials, while the Japanese were able to replace their lost planes with even more advanced aircraft, and continued to train new pilots.
1938
Battle of Taierzhuang
Chinese B-10 bombers over Nagasaki
The Chinese Air Force deployed two Martin B-10 (a.k.a. Martin Model 139) bombers led by pilots Capt. Hsu Huan-sheng and 1Lt. Teng Yan-po on 19 May 1938 in an infiltration mission over into Japan for the "leaflet bombing" of Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Saga, and other cities in the effort to solicit Japanese citizen's moral anti-war solidarity against Imperial Japan's violent aggressions and war crimes in China.
Battle of Wuhan
Battle of Guangzhou
1939
From mid-1938 to mid-1939, Japanese forces intensified their attacks on the front near Lanzhou. The Japanese air units were operating from airfields in Shanxi at the margin of the operating range of their fighters, and their bombers were often not escorted by fighter planes. On 20 February 1939, thirty Japanese bombers flying in 3 formations were intercepted over Lanzhou by 40 USSR volunteer and Chinese fighters taking off in small groups at 5-minute intervals. In the ensuing battle, nine Japanese bombers were shot down, killing 63 crew members, and one USSR pilot was wounded. Three days later on 23 February, the USSR fighters intercepted 57 Japanese bombers on bombing raids to the city and airfield of Lanzhou; the USSR fighters shot down six Japanese bombers and forced the Japanese to abandon the airfield target. In the battles of February, the Chinese pilots of the 17th Squadron fought alongside the USSR volunteers.
Battle of Chongqing-Chengdu
The massive IJAAF and IJNAF joint-strike terror-bombing campaigns and all-airwar which began in earnest on 3 May 1939 under the codename Operation 100 (100 号作战) as the Chinese Air Force was reorganizing from the Battle of Wuhan.
In March 1939, the Chinese 4th Air Group, comprising 21st, 22nd, 23rd and 24th squadrons, was transferred to the airbase at Guangyangba for the defense of Chongqing. On 3 May, the 4th Air Group led by Group Commander Dong Mingde intercepted 54 Japanese bombers on their bombing raid to Chongqing, and shot down 7 Japanese bombers; deputy squadron commander Zhang Mingsheng (plane R-7153) was shot down and later died of his wounds. On 11 July, Chongqing was bombed by 27 Japanese bombers, which were met by eight I-15s led by Squadron Commander Zheng Shaoyu; Zheng's I-15 (No. 2310) had 38 bullets holes and I-15 (No. 2307) flown by pilot Liang Tianchen was shot down in flames.
Battle of South Guangxi
The battle over Nanning City, China last wartime access to seaport, including the Battle of Kunlun Pass. The final combat missions for Chinese-American volunteer pilot and fighter-ace Arthur Chin. In December 1939, the USSR fighter group, up to 50 planes under the command of S. P. Suprun was transferred to south Yunnan where Japanese air attacks on communications lines along the Chinese portion of the Burma Road had become more intense. Suprun's group participated in the Battle of South Guangxi, flying missions together with Chinese I-15 fighters from the 4th Air Group, the 27th and 29th Squadrons (Arthur Chin) from the 3rd Air Group, part of the 18th Squadron with Curtiss Hawk 75, and even the 32nd Squadron equipped with the ancient Douglas O-2MC scout/light bombers, led by former Guangxi warlord air force commander Wei Yiqing.
The USSR volunteer squadrons often flew their missions together with Chinese squadrons. From the beginning of 1938 to May 1940, USSR squadrons participated in more than 50 major air battles and together with Chinese squadrons shot down 81 Japanese aircraft, damaged 114 and 14 Japanese warships. In the summer of 1940, the USSR withdrew their volunteer pilots, leaving only a small number of advisers and technical personnel in China. They continued to supply aircraft to China until June 1941 when Germany invaded the Soviet Union
Curtiss Hawk 75, a new version of the Curtiss P-36 Hawk flown by Chinese pilots also took an active part in combat but did not achieve any special success. The Chinese 25th Squadron was the first unit to receive the new Hawk 75 and began to train in July 1938 under the direction of Claire Lee Chennault. On 18 August 1938, Squadron Commander Tang Pu-sheng led three Hawk 75s and 7 Polikarpov I-15s to intercept 27 Japanese planes over Hengyang; the Hawk 75s shot down one enemy plane and damaged another. Tang was shot down and killed; the other two Hawk 75s crashed during landing. The 16th Squadron of the 6th Bomber Air Group, having earlier flown the V-92 Corsair light bombers, was changed to a fighter squadron on 1 October 1938 and was sent to Zhiqiang, Hunan, to take possession of nine Hawk 75s. The pilots retrained under the direction of Chennault. At the end of the year, they were redeployed to Yibin, Sichuan, for air defense of the Chinese wartime capital of Chongqing. In January 1939, the squadron flew to Kunming, Yunnan, where it was disbanded in August the same year. Prior to 1 November 1938, the 18th Squadron was also included in the 6th Bomber Air Group, flying the Douglas O-2MC scout/light bombers; it was re-equipped with nine Hawk 75 fighters, and independently began retraining with its Squadron Commander Yang Yibai in Yibin.
In January 1939 the 18th Squadron relocated to Kunming to defend the city from air attacks. On 1 August the squadron was rebased to Chongqing, and in December took part in the Battle of South Guangxi. At the beginning of 1940 it moved to Yunnan for defense of the Kunming-Mengzi railroad, which was subjected to massive air attacks. At the end of May the squadron returned to Chonqing; it did not have enough serviceable Hawk 75s, and was supplemented with nine old Hawk III biplanes from the 22nd Squadron.
1940
On 8 February 1940, 27 Japanese planes heading for Mengzi were intercepted at 3.05 pm by three Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron taking off from Kunming. In the ensuing dogfight, one Hawk 75 (No. 5024) was damaged and forced to crash land; its pilot Yang Tzu-fan was injured. On 13 February 1940 three Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron intercepted 27 Japanese bombers which were on their way to bomb the bridge near Siulungtam. The Hawk 75s hit one Japanese bomber and were later joined by three I-15 biplane fighters. Together they made many passes at the damaged bomber, killing the upper gunner. The Chinese claimed to have finally shot down the hapless plane. Several of the Chinese planes were slightly damaged and one pilot, Tseng Pei-fu, was injured.
While the Mitsubishi A5M was the most-advanced fighter in the Chinese theatre since September 1937, the Japanese were soon to introduce the world's most advanced fighter aircraft into China in the summer of 1940; the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero". The new Zero was far superior to the A5M predecessor, the Soviet I-16 and American Hawk 75 fighter planes. The Chinese Air Force issued a general directive to its air units to adopt an "air dispersal tactics", and to avoid direct confrontation with Japanese fighters whenever possible.
On 4 October 1940 six Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron were following the order to disperse to Guanxian when 27 Japanese Mitsubishi G3M bombers escorted by eight Japanese A6M Zeros led by Lieutenant Tamotsu Yokoyama on a bombing raid to Chengdu. The Japanese Zeros caught up with the Hawk 75s and shot one down, wounding the pilots of another two and forcing them to crash land, and set two Hawk 75s on fire on the ground while refueling. By December 1940 the 18th Squadron had ceased to exist in reality, and was disbanded in January 1941. The Hawk 75 fighters in the Chinese Air Force were later replaced by the American Curtiss P-40.
The Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm
The Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm was established for the puppet government of Manchukuo's army under the auspices of the Empire of Japan in the summer of 1940, and with it the Central Air Force Flight Academy that trained aviators for both civil and military. Equipped primarily with Nakajima Ki-27 fighters, the Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm were primary based in Fengtian (Shengyang) and Harbin. Towards the end of World War II, the Manchukuo Orchid Special Attack Force (kamikaze attack squadron) was established to counter the USAAF B-29 bomber raids on Manchukuo/NE territories.
1941
After withdrawing its volunteer pilots from China in the summer of 1940, the Soviet Union continued to supply aircraft to China until June 1941. Fighting continued on the northern front near Lanzhou, which was the Chinese terminus of the Chinese-Soviet transportation route. Chinese pilots were left to defend the northern front against Japanese air attacks.
On 21 May 1941 eight I-15s of the 21st Squadron and one I-15 from the 29th Squadron flying in 2 formations on patrol encountered 27 Japanese bombers over Lanzhou. The first group of I-15s led by Squadron Commander Chen Sheng-hsing shot down one of the Japanese Mitsubishi G3M long range bombers and damaged another. On 22 May, 25 Japanese G3M bombers from the unit of Mihoro Kōkūtai were on a morning raid on Lanzhou. Seven Chinese I-16s of the 24th Pursuit Squadron and one Tupolev SB bomber of the 9th Bomb Squadron were ordered to disperse. Due to bad weather, the I-16s landed at Chung Chuan Chun Airfield just north of Lanzhou. As the Japanese bombers were sighted overhead, one of the I-16s flown by Kao You-hsing having just landed with the engine still running, took off to attack the Japanese planes, and shot down a G3M bomber flown by Lieutenant Shin-Taro Hashimoto and damaged another. The remaining six I-16s were able to take off and dispersed. On 26 May, Japanese fighters encountered 18 I-15s from the 29th Pursuit Squadron flying from Gansucheng to Lanzhou; two I-16s were shot down, both pilots bailing out, and the other 16 I-16s were destroyed on the ground when they landed for refuelling.
Since World War II erupted in Europe on 1 September 1939 after Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the United States had maintained its neutrality until the unannounced Japanese air attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. In October 1940, China appealed to American president Franklin D. Roosevelt to allow the sale of military aircraft to China along with the recruitment of American pilots for the resistance war against the Japanese invasion. In December, Washington approved China's request to recruit American pilots who would resign from U.S. military services and volunteer to serve in the Chinese Air Force with significant monetary compensation. On 11 March 1941, the U.S. passed the Lend-Lease Act, which permitted the U.S. government to provide war equipment and material to Britain, France and other allied countries. On 6 May 1941, this policy was extended to China as well. With the full-scale war between the Soviets and Nazi Germany, all new fighter aircraft produced by the Soviets were now directed to the battlefronts against Nazi Germany. While the decision was made by the Americans to support Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the War of Resistance against the Japanese with the Lend-Lease Act, much needed help also came by way of the American response to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, which motivated the Americans to enact the U.S. scrap metal and oil embargo against Japan and the freezing of Japanese assets in summer of 1941.
In August 1941, American Lockheed Hudson A-29 bombers arrived in China (22 planes turned over to Chinese Air Force). The Chinese 9th and 30th Bomber Squadrons were re-equipped with the Hudson A-29. In October 1941 the 9th Bomber Squadron was combat ready and flew bombing missions on Yuncheng, Shanxi, Hankou and other Japanese-occupied cities in China.
The American Volunteer Group, better known as the Flying Tigers, was officially formed on 1 July 1941, consisting of three squadrons of 30 planes each under the direct control and command of Claire Lee Chennault. In August, through the efforts of Chennault, 100 American volunteer pilots and about 200 mechanics and ground personnel were recruited. Curtiss-Wright Company also agreed to provide China 100 Curtiss Tomahawk P-40Bs, which had previously been rejected by Britain and later allocated to Sweden.
The Flying Tigers began to train in September 1941 in Taungoo, Burma, and with the help of the high speed and heavy armament (six 12.7mm machine guns) of the heavily armored P-40 Warhawks and dissimilar air combat tactics against the dangerously nimble, though lightly armored Japanese fighters, the Flying Tigers saw immediate success. On 12 December 1941 the 3rd Squadron stationed in Rangoon joined the British Royal Air Force in defense of Rangoon. The 1st and 2nd Squadrons were sent to Kunming on 18 December, guarding Kunming and the Chinese section of the Burma Road against Japanese air attacks. On 20 December, the Flying Tigers saw their first action in the skies of Kunming when the 1st and 2nd Squadrons intercepted a formation of Japanese planes on a bombing raid; the Flying Tigers shot down nine of ten Japanese bombers and lost one P-40. Three days later, the Flying Tigers' 3rd Squadron inflicted comparable damage on a formation of Japanese planes on a bombing raid to Rangoon. For the next six months, the aerial battles of the Flying Tigers' P-40s with Japanese fighter and bomber aircraft were regular sights in the skies over south Yunnan and Burma.
When Rangoon fell to Japanese forces in early March 1942, Chennault withdrew all Flying Tigers squadrons to the Wujiaba airbase in Kunming. The Japanese fighter aircraft were more maneuverable as compared to the Flying Tigers's P-40. However, the Flying Tigers' pilots were able to take advantage of the fast diving speed and heavy firepower of their P-40s in "boom and zoom" (hit and run) tactics to gain an advantage over the agile but armorless Japanese fighters. The American Volunteer Group was officially disbanded on 4 July 1942 when its one-year contract expired. The Group celebrated its final day by shooting down five Japanese fighters over Hengyang and escorting B-25 bombers of the United States Army Air Forces to bomb the Japanese air base at Guangzhou. In the short period of some six months from 20 December 1941 to the beginning of July 1942, the Flying Tigers had flown on more than 50 combat missions, destroying 299 Japanese planes including bombers, Nakajima Ki-43 fighters, and 153 probables; the Flying Tigers lost 12 planes in air battles and 61 on the ground; 13 pilots were killed and three were captured as prisoners of war. Those were incredible records in aerial combat. However, the Japanese immediate voiced their discontent with the American tactics through their English-language propaganda broadcasts by Tokyo Rose, who called the Americans "cowards", and continuously challenged the American pilots to "stop running away" (to the general amusement of the American pilots who tuned in to her broadcasts).
1942
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, with the top-units of the Japanese Army and Navy air forces dispatched to the Pacific War theater, the Chinese Air Force was in preparation for transition from the older Soviet-made combat aircraft to newer American-made aircraft, however, the CAF continued combat operations with Soviet-made aircraft in this interim period, including a major offensive-strike operation on 22 January 1942, in which CAF Tupolev SB-2 bombers from Taipingsi air base in Sichuan, rendezvoused with AVG fighter escorts (a total of over four dozen aircraft), and flying to Gia Lam Airport in Vietnam to bomb the occupying Japanese forces based there; Major Shao Ruilin who commanded from an SB-2 was shot down by anti-aircraft fire and was killed over Hanoi.
By the time the American Volunteer Group was officially disbanded on 4 July 1942, the United States had been a combatant in World War II for nearly seven months. Chennault was recalled to active duty in the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF); he was promoted to brigadier general to take command of the China Air Task Force (CATF), which was established on 14 July 1942 as a part of the 10th Air Force of USAAF. The 10th Air Force was activated on 12 February 1942 for operations in the China-Burma-India theatre of the war. Later in June 1942, Chennault was given the command of the 10th Air Force after the transfer of Commanding General Lewis Brereton to Egypt on 6 June 1942. The CATF included the four squadrons of P-40s of the 23rd Fighter Group and the 11th Bomber Group of B-25 Mitchells. Many of the fighter pilots in the CATF were former pilots of the Flying Tigers.
One of the aircraft contracts to be funded by the American Lend-Lease was to supply China with 125 P-43 Lancer fighter planes. In early 1942, shipments began of the P-43s in crates to China via Karachi, India, and they included some Vultee P-66 Vanguard fighters. The 4th Air Group of the Chinese Air Force was selected to receive and ferry the P-43s from India to Kunming. Many were lost in test flights and ferrying accidents. By August 1941, according to Chinese sources, the Chinese Air Forces received 41 operable P-43s. The 4th Air Group was sent to Chengdu to train on the new P-43s, and joined in the defense of Chengdu with the I-15s of the 17th Squadron and I-16s of the 29th Squadron. During the first half of 1942, there were few combat operations by pilots of the Chinese Air Force.
As of 13 August 1942, Chennault's CATF had also received five P-43s with five more promised. At this time, the CAFT consisted of 56 operational fighters, including P-40Bs, P-40Es and a few P-43s in four squadrons (the 16th, 74th, 75th and 76th) and eight B-25Cs of the 11th Bomb Squadron at Kunming, Guilin, Hengyang and Yunnan.
On 3 September, a P-43 flown by Lieutenant Martin Cluck of the 75th Squadron had to abort a reconnaissance mission due to mechanical trouble, Japanese fighters attacked him at low altitude near the air base and riddled his P-43. Cluck landed safely and escaped from his aircraft, but the P-43 was destroyed by Japanese strafing. One P-40 was also destroyed on the ground.
On 27 October 1942, 12 P-43s of the Chinese Air Force flying from Taipingsi, Sichuan, escorted nine A-29 Hudsons in a raid on Yungcheng, Shanxi. They destroyed one Japanese aircraft on the ground without suffering losses. In November, a mission of A-29 Hudsons was flown with escorts of P-66 Vanguards. In November, another bombing mission were flown escorted by P-43s. On 27 November, a bombing mission of A-29s was joined by Soviet SB bombers; in this mission one A-29 and three SB bombers were lost due to bad weather. On 30 December, three P-43s and six P-40s from the CATF flew an escort mission to Lashio, Burma; the P-43s provided top cover to the P-40s, enabling the P-40s to claim one of the six Japanese fighters encountered.
1943
On 10 March 1943, Claire Lee Chennault was promoted to Major General, taking command also of the 14th Air Force, that was newly formed on 5 March 1943. On 19 March 1943, the CATF was incorporated into the United States Army as the 14th Air Force. The 10th and 14th Air Forces became the major American combat forces in the China-Burma-India theatre. The 14th Air Force took on the name of Flying Tigers. In the eight-month operations of the CATF from July 1942 to March 1943, they shot down 145 Japanese planes and 85 probables, and flew 65 bombing missions; they lost 16 P-40s and one B-25 Mitchell bomber.
In May 1943, the Japanese launched a ground offensive advancing into the area of Dongting Lake in northeastern Hunan and the region of the Yangtze River feeding to the lake. The objectives of the offensive were to secure the communication line and capture the fertile Chinese "Rice Bowl" region. To counter the Japanese offensive, both the 14th Air Force and the Chinese Air Force's 4th Air Group flying P-40s and P-43s provided air support to the Chinese ground troops. The 4th Group went into action on 19 May with 8 P-40Es and 4 P-43s escorting A-29 Hudson bombers over the enemy positions. On this mission, the Deputy Group Commander Xu Baoyun, flying a P-40E, was shot down by anti-aircraft gunfire. On 31 May Lieutenant-Colonel John Alison, an American ace and two USAAF wingmen led seven P-40s from the 4th Air Group escorting nine B-24 bombers to Yichang; Alison's P-40 was badly shot up by Captain Ohtsubo Yasuto, leader of the 1st Chutai (squadron) of the 33rd FR. Lieutenant Tsang Hsu-Lan, nicknamed "Bulldog" (plane No. 2304) of the 4th Group shot down Ohtsubo, saving Alison's life. Tsang was awarded the American Silver Star as well as China's highest decoration.
On 6 June, eight Japanese light bombers escorted by 14 fighters were on a raid on Liangshan. 13 P-40s from the Chinese Air Force led by Colonel Li Hsiang-yang were returning to Liangshan from a mission. Having just landed, Captain Chow Chin-kai, commander of the 23rd Squadron and veteran of many years combat ran from his P-40 to a P-66 parked nearby, and took off to attack the Japanese formation. While the Japanese fighters were strafing the airfield, Chow attacked the bombers and destroyed three. Despite Chow's heroic act, 12 P-40s and one fleet trainer were destroyed on the ground. Chow received the Blue-Sky-White-Sun (Chinese Nationalist emblem) award personally from Chiang Kai-shek.
By June 1943, the ground operations on the front of the "Rice Bowl" campaign were stabilized. In that campaign from 19 May to 6 June 1943, the Chinese Air Force flew on 336 fighter sorties and 88 bombing missions. The "Rice Bowl" campaign took its toll on the Chinese Air Force, which suffered heavy losses in combat and on the ground. At the end of the campaign the Chinese Air Force units numbered no more than a total of 77 combat aircraft, including seven A-29s, ten SBs, five P-40Es, nine P-43s and 46 P-66s, and of the total only 59 were serviceable. In May, the 14th Air Force received about 50 new P-40K, P-40M and P-40A fighters, and high-altitude Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters in July, phasing out the old P-40s.
From July to September 1943, Japanese air units carried out concentrated attacks in three consecutive phases each targeting on a different area. The first phase from 22 July to 22 August concentrated on American air bases centered on Guilin, resulting in 50 American planes destroyed by the Japanese. The second phase began on 23 August, in which they targeted their attacks on Chongqing, Chengdu and eastern China air bases. At dawn on 23 August, 21 bombers escorted by 17 fighters took off from Hankou and were joined en route by another 14 fighters to strike an arsenal just to the west of Chongqing. A total of 29 fighters including ten P-40s, eight P-43s and 11 P-66s of the Chinese Air Force from the 4th and 11th Group at Peishiyi Airfield scrambled and took to the air to intercept. A flight of American fighters also scrambled from a distant air base but was too far to intercept. In the ensuing battle, the Japanese shot down two P-66s, one each of the P-40s and P-43s, and lost one bomber. The Chinese reported to have shot down three Japanese fighters and five bomber probables. In the third phase beginning in September, the Japanese resumed their attacks on targets in Guilin and Yunnan.
As a part of the 14th Air Force, Chennault created a special unit known as the Chinese-American Composite Wing (Provisional) (CACW) under his command. The CACW comprised the 1st Bomber Group, and the 3rd and 5th Fighter Groups with American pilots, and Chinese pilots from the Chinese Air Force, as well as American and Chinese ground crews. Since many of the Chinese pilots were young pilots of the Chinese Air Force, who had recently returned after completion of their training in the United States, lacking any combat experience, the unit was under an American commander, assisted by a staff of Chinese officers. The CACW was officially formed on 31 July 1943, and activated on 1 October 1943. The newly formed CACW were sent to Karachi, India, where they were re-equipped with B-25s and new P-40Ns, and trained under American supervision. Members of this unit including P-40N pilot Chen Bingjing escorted bombing missions against Japanese army positions in Vietnam beginning in October 1943.
On 25 November 1943, six B-25s from the 2nd Bomber Squadron of the CACW took off from Guilin at 6 am and staged through Suichwan, where they were refueled and joined by eight B-25s of the 11th Bomber Squadron and 16 fighter escorts of P-38s and P-51s from the 23rd Fighter Group of the 14th Air Force to attack Japan's largest air base in Taiwan, hitting a parking area, hangars, barracks, and buildings. The formation crossed the Taiwan Strait, flying at low altitude and caught the Japanese unprepared. 32 Japanese planes were destroyed in the air and on the ground while the Chinese did not lose a single plane. Seeing no opposing interceptors and only minimum anti-aircraft gun fire, Lieutenant Colonel Irving Branch of the CACW led his flight of bombers on a sweep down low strafing the airfield. The raid was the most successful thus far in the history of the 14th Air Force. Branch was awarded a Distinguish Flying Cross.
1944
From late 1943 to the end of the war in August 1945, operations of the combined forces of the American and Chinese air units began to shift increasingly from defensive to offensive, and they eventually achieved air supremacy in China over Japanese air forces. It was made possible by the Americans' continuous supply of the latest war planes, fuel and material to China, and more importantly, the activation of the CACW as a unique Chinese component of the U.S. 14th Air Force, which was deployed in the China-Burma-India theatre, as well as the training by Americans of young Chinese pilots in the United States.
From 1944 onward, the CACW and other units of the Fourteenth Air Force were able to mount attacks against Japanese forces on all fronts in China, military installations, airbase in Taiwan, vital terminals of Japanese supply lines, which included Japanese-occupied river ports along the lower Yangtze River and Yellow River, seaports in southern China including Hong Kong and Hainan.
Separate missions were often flown daily by the CACW and other units of the 14th Air Force from different airbases with B-25 and B-24 bombers, P-40, P-38 and P-51 fighters. The following are some of the notable bombing missions and air combat on records during 1944.
On 11 February, six B-25 bombers escorted by 20 P-40 and P-51 fighters from the 14th Air Force including Chinese P-40s from the 32nd Fighter Squadron of the CACW bombed the storage area at Kai Tak Airfield, Hong Kong. The incoming formation encountered Japanese fighters from the 85th Sentai patrolling the area. In the ensuing air engagement the P-40s shot down five Japanese fighters and one probable, while the Japanese shot down one B-25, four P-40s and two P-51s and two probable fighters.
On 9 March, 18 CACW B-25s escorted by 24 P-40s bombed a foundry and floating docks at Huangshi in Hubei. They were intercepted by Japanese fighters from the 25th and 9th Sentai and lost 2 P-40s.
On 10 March, 2 bombers from the 2nd Bomber Squadron of the CACW bombed Japanese ships on the lower Yangtze; on returning flight one B-25 ran out of fuel and crash-landed killing its crew. On the same day, B-25s of the 14th Air Force escorted by P-38s attacked the river port at Anqing in Anhui. They sank a motor launch, damaged two cargo vessels and a barge; one of the Japanese intercepting fighters from the 25th Sentai flown by Moritsugu Kanai shot down one P-38.
On 29 March, 12 P-40s and three P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked the railroad station area at Nanchang, and strafed the airfield and attacked a nearby bridge. Corporal Yasuzo Tanaka (Ki-44 Shoki-11) of the 25th Sentai was killed in Nanchang.
On 5 April, 26 Japanese A6Ms from the Sanya and Kaiko Kōkūtai took off from Hainan and carried out a major attack on Nanning in Guangxi; they destroyed two B-25s and three P-40s on the ground, and shot down nine P-40s (two unconfirmed), while eight A6Ms were shot down and their pilots killed.
By mid April, various Japanese air units had suffered heavy losses and had been replenished. The 25th Sentai was brought up to full strength with young pilots from Japan.
On 28 April, 26 B-24s from the 14th Air Force escorted by ten P-51 fighters carried out a bombing mission on the storage area north of Zhengzhou at the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The Japanese warning radar at Kaifeng was out of order, and the 9th Sentai stationed at Xinxiang with 10 Ki-44s failed to intercept. The B-24s pounded the storage area and damaged the Bawangcheng Bridge and another bridge on Yellow River.
On 3 May, seven B-25s of the CACW bombed Mihsien and hit numerous vehicles and Japanese troops northeast of Mihsien near Yueyang in northeastern Hunan, and strafed the town of Hsiangcheng. On the same day, ten CACW P-40s hit and damaged a bridge on the Yellow River northwest of Chenghsien near Luoyang, and destroyed 15 trucks and many troops.
On 2 June in a battle at China's Central Plain, seven P-40Ns from the 7th fighter Squadron of the CACW made an attack on an airfield at Zhengzhou where a Japanese air transport unit was based. Seven Japanese K-44 fighters of the 9th Sentai led by Captain Kobayashi intercepted the Chinese P-40Ns, and shot down five, including the one flown by the Flight Commander Zhang Lemin. The 9th Sentai lost one flown by Sergeant Fumio Oguri over Bawangcheng.
On 12 June, about 100 P-40s and P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked numerous supply boats and other river and lake traffic in the Dongting Lake area, and hit docks and warehouses at Yuanjiang, and also villages and troops in Changsha.
Battle of Gui-Liu
Capt Weng Xinhan, deputy commander of the 41st PS (the former French Volunteer Group Squadron that was disbanded in October 1938), died in course of the Battle of Gui-Liu on 12 September 1944 after being hit by anti-aircraft fire in his P-40, and crash-landing.
On 28 August, 32 P-40s from the 14th Air Force, including 11 from the 5th Fighter Squadron of the CACW, attacked the Japanese air base at Pailuchi and targets of opportunity at Hengyang. They were intercepted by Japanese K-43s from the 48th Sentai and Ki-84s from the 22nd Sentai. In the air battle, the Japanese destroyed one Chinese and three American P-40s while the CACW shot down six enemy planes; one of the pilots from the 49th Sentai reportedly parachuted from his burning Ki-84 but drowned in the Yangtze River.
On 29 August, 13 P-40s from the 3rd Fighter Group of the CACW bombed and strafed shipping and dock facilities at Shayang in Hubei. After the attack, they were intercepted by 21 Japanese fighters near Jiayu. The CACW claimed a total of seven victories with Group Commander Lieutenant Colonel Bill Reed and his wingman Lieutenant Tan Kun each shooting down one Ki-43, and the other Chinese P-40s claiming five Japanese fighters. Commander Meng Shao-yi of the 28th Squadron of the CACW was shot down and killed.
On 29 August around 1 pm, 13 Japanese Ki-84s from the 22nd Sentai and 16 Ki-43s from the 25th Sentai, a total of 29 fighters engaged a large number of B-24s, P-40s and P-51s of the 14th Air Force near Yueyang in northeastern Hunan. The Japanese shot down four P-40s and one P-51, and damaged four B-24s, four P-40s and one P-51, and lost one Ki-43 and one Ki-84, and suffered damage on one Ki-84.
On 12 September, two separate groups from the 5th Fighter Group of the CACW engaged in air battles over northeastern Hunan. First Lieutenant Phil Colman of the 26th Squadron claimed one damaged Ki-43, and his wingman Lieutenant Yang Shaohua claimed one Ki-43 shot down over Xiangtan; Colman further claimed one Ki-43, two damaged Ki-43s and a probable "Hamp" (A6M Type Zero) over Changsha. Another group of eight P-40s fought 12 Japanese fighters including six Ki-84s over Hengshan just south of Xiangtan; Captains Reynolds and Ramsey each claimed a damaged Japanese fighters, but Lieutenant Tom Brink was shot down while strafing, and one P-40 flown by Lieutenant Su Yinghai was badly damaged and written off after returning to base.
On 26 October B-24s and B-25s of the 14th Air Force attacked shipping off the east Leizhou Peninsula situated opposite to Hainan in the South China Sea. Major Horace S. Carswell Jr. of the 308th Bomber Group was awarded the Medal of Honour for his action on that day when he attacked a Japanese convoy in the South China Sea under intense anti-aircraft fire. His B-24, No. 44-40825 (MARC 9612) was so badly damaged that when his plane reached over land, he ordered the crew to bail out. One crew member could not jump because his parachute had been ripped by flak, so Carswell remained with the aircraft to try to save the crew member by attempting to crash land. Before Carswell could attempt a crash landing, the bomber struck a mountainside and burned.
By the end of 1944, the continued bombings and attacks on Japanese supply lines and storage facilities in Japanese-occupied China had caused a severe shortage of fuel greatly hampering the operations of Japanese air units. The American and Chinese air forces in China had inflicted heavy losses to the Japanese air forces operating in China, and forced the Japanese to adopt a defensive stance.
1945
On 28 January 1945, the Burma Road was fully restored as a land transport route for war material supplied to China by the Allies. It had been cut off when Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, leaving available only the air supply route over "The Hump", from Assam, India, over the eastern end of the Himalayas. The re-opening of the Burma Road greatly increased the supply of aircraft, spare parts, fuel and other war material as required for the successful prosecution of the war.
In the beginning of 1945, the total numbers of the Chinese and American air forces exceeded 800 aircraft. During the concluding period of the war from January to June 1945, the Chinese pilots and their American counterparts participated actively in battles supporting ground forces on all fronts in central, southern and eastern China.
The CACW unofficial combat record in the time from its activation on 1 October 1943 to the end of the war in August 1945 included 190 Japanese aircraft destroyed in the air, 301 on the ground. At the same time, they lost 35 fighters and eight bombers to enemy ground fire, and 20 fighters to Japanese aircraft. However, not a single CACW bomber was lost to enemy fighters, a tribute to the abilities of the Wing's B-25 aircrews, and the quality of the escort protection provided by the Wing's fighter pilots. The CACW produced five American air aces and three Chinese air aces, and was disbanded on 19 September 1945.
The following are some of the notable air operations in 1945.
On 5 January a combined group of 28 P-40N and P-51D fighters from the 14th Air Force flew from Laohekou in Hubei to attack the Japanese airfield at Wuhan, destroying 50 Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground. One Chinese pilot was shot down and killed in the air battle.
On 9 March about 50 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force on armed reconnaissance attacked railroad targets, river and road traffic, bridges, gun positions, and troops at several locations, particularly around Guiyi, Hengyang, Nanjing and Xinyang.
On 10 March about 60 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force hit targets in rivers, on roads and railroads, gun positions, warehouses, airstrips, and troops around Xinyang, Yiyang, Changsha, Qiyang, Yueyang, Hengyang in Hunan, and Hankou, and Wuchang in the neighboring Hubei province.
On 16 March, 32 B-24s from the 14th Air Force escorted by 10 P-51s pounded the north railroad yards at Shijiazhuang.
On 15 April, about 200 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force attacked Japanese targets in areas from southern China to the northern China plain hitting numerous targets including bridges, river shipping, town areas, trucks, railroad traffic, gun positions, storage areas, and general targets of opportunity.
On 8 May, Japanese forces moved the bulk of their 5th Kokugun to Korea. It involved the relocation of some 10,000 ground support personnel, leaving a skeleton of air units in China. The move was completed by the end of the month with only minor losses.
On 10 August, about 50 P-47s and P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked river and railroad targets, troops, trucks, and bridges at several points in southern and eastern China.
On 15 August, Japan's unconditional surrender was announced, and all offensive operations against Japan ended.
On 18 August, the vice-commander of the 24th Pursuit Squadron from the Chinese Air Force, Guo Fengwu flew over Guisui (known as Hohhot after 1954) in Inner Mongolia to drop leaflets which contained the text of Japanese Emperor Hirohito's surrender decree. He was shot down by Japanese anti-aircraft gun fire, and became the last casualty of the Chinese Air Force in the eight-year-long war.
On 2 September 1945, hostilities with Japan ended officially with the signing of the instrument of surrender aboard the in Tokyo Bay.
CACW Composition
Chinese-American Composite Wing (CACW)
1st Bombardment Group
1st Bombardment Squadron
2nd Bombardment Squadron
3rd Bombardment Squadron
4th Bombardment Squadron
3rd Fighter Group
7th Fighter Squadron
8th Fighter Squadron
28th Fighter Squadron
32nd Fighter Squadron
5th Fighter Group
17th Fighter Squadron
26th Fighter Squadron
27th Fighter Squadron
29th Fighter Squadron
Aircraft types used
Some of the aircraft types used in the Second Sino-Japanese War:
Chinese and American Air Units
Italian built: Fiat CR-32, biplane fighter
British built: Gloster Gladiator, biplane fighter
German Built: Heinkel He 50, biplane dive bomber
Japanese Built: Nakajima Type 91, parasol monoplane fighter
U.S. built:
Douglas O-2MC, biplane scout/light bomber
Boeing Model 281 (P-26C) Peashooter, monoplane fighter
Curtiss XF11C Goshawk (P-6 Hawk II), biplane fighter
Curtiss BF2C Goshawk (Hawk III), biplane fighter
Curtiss Hawk 75M, monoplane fighter
Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk, Warhawk, Kittyhawk, monoplane fighter
Vultee P-66 Vanguard, monoplane fighter
Republic P-43 Lancer, monoplane fighter
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, monoplane fighter
North American P-51 Mustang, monoplane fighter
Lockheed P-38 Lightning, twin booms fighter/bomber
Lockheed A-29 Hudson, 2-engine medium bomber/reconnaissance
North American B-25 Mitchell, 2-engine medium bomber
Consolidated B-24 Liberator, long range 4-engine heavy bomber
Soviet built:
Polikarpov I-15, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-152, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-153, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-16, monoplane fighter
Tupolev SB, 2-engine medium bomber
Tupolev TB-3, 4-engine long-range heavy bomber
Japanese Air Units
Kawasaki Ki-10, Army Type 95, biplane fighter (Allied codename Perry)
Mitsubishi A5M, Navy type 96, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Claude)
Mitsubishi A6M, Navy type 0, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Zeke)
Mitsubishi Ki-21, Army type 97, twin engine medium bomber (Allied codename Sally)
Nakajima Ki-27, Army type 97, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Nate)
Mitsubishi Ki-30, Army type 97, single engine light bomber (Allied codename Ann)
Kawasaki Ki-32, Army type 98, single engine light bomber (Allied codename Mary)
Nakajima Ki-43, Army type 1, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Oscar)
Nakajima Ki-44, Army type 2, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Tojo)
Nakajima Ki-84, Army type 4, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Frank)
Kawasaki Ki-48, Army type 99, twin-engine medium bomber (Allied codename Lily)
Mitsubishi G3M, Navy Type 96, land-based attack bomber (Allied codename Nell)
Mitsubishi G4M, Navy Type 1, attack bomber twin-engine long-range bomber (Allied codename Betty)
Italian built: Fiat BR.20, 2-engine medium bomber
See also
Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)
Flying Tigers
Order of Battle for Battle of South Guangxi
Soviet Volunteer Group
References
Notes
Cheung, Raymond. Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015. .
Caidin, Martin. Zero Fighter: Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II Weapons Book No. 9. New York, NY: Ballantine Books Inc, 1969. .
Xú, Lùméi. Fallen: A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016. .
External links
Changing from "Donkeys" to "Mustangs" Chinese Aviation In The War With Japan, 1940-1945 at j-aircraft.com
Battles of the Second Sino-Japanese War
World War II aerial operations and battles of the Pacific theatre
Articles containing video clips |
4243487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary%20of%20England%20and%20Wales | Judiciary of England and Wales | There are various levels of judiciary in England and Wales—different types of courts have different styles of judges. They also form a strict hierarchy of importance, in line with the order of the courts in which they sit, so that judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales are given more weight than district judges sitting in county courts and magistrates' courts. On 1 April 2020 there were 3,174 judges in post in England and Wales. Some judges with United Kingdom-wide jurisdiction also sit in England and Wales, particularly Justices of the United Kingdom Supreme Court and members of the tribunals judiciary.
By statute, judges are guaranteed continuing judicial independence.
There have been multiple calls from both Welsh academics and politicians however for a Wales criminal justice system.
The following is a list of the various types of judges who sit in the Courts of England and Wales:
Lord Chief Justice and Lord Chancellor
Since 3 April 2006, the Lord Chief Justice has been the overall head of the judiciary. Previously they were second to the Lord Chancellor, but the judicial functions of that office were transferred to the Lord Chief Justice under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. The Lord Chief Justice is also the President of the Courts and holds, amongst some 400 statutory functions, positions such as the head of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal. Historically they were also President of the King's Bench Division of the High Court, but on becoming head of the judiciary that responsibility was transferred to a new office. The Lord Chief Justice is responsible for arranging training for the judiciary, which is achieved through the Judicial College.
Although the Lord Chancellor is no longer a judge, he still exercises disciplinary authority over the judges, jointly with the Lord Chief Justice. He also has a role in appointing judges, through control of the Judicial Appointments Commission.
In law reports, the Lord Chief Justice is referred to as (for example) "Smith LCJ" or "Lord Smith CJ", and the Lord Chancellor as "Smith LC".
In court, the Lord Chief Justice wears a black damask gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases and the black civil gown with gold tabs during civil cases. Ceremonially, the Lord Chief Justice wears the red robe with white trim along with a gold chain and full wig.
The Lord Chancellor wears white winged shirt with ruffled collar, black waistcoat, and black coat underneath the black damask gown with gold lace, and black knee-length breeches with black silk stockings, and full-bottomed wig during ceremonial occasions.
Heads of Division
There are four Heads of Divisions aside from the Lord Chief Justice: the Master of the Rolls, the President of the King's Bench Division, the President of the Family Division and the Chancellor of the High Court.
The Master of the Rolls is head of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal. The other Heads are in charge of the three divisions of the High Court.
The Chancellor of the High Court is President of the Chancery Division of the High Court. Until 2006 this role was nominally held by the Lord Chancellor, but was in practice delegated to the Vice-Chancellor. The Vice-Chancellor was renamed Chancellor of the High Court when the Lord Chancellor's judicial role was abolished.
The Heads of Division are referred to in law reports as "Smith MR", "Smith P", "Smith P", and "Smith C" respectively. Vice-Chancellors from pre-2006 Chancery cases were referred to as "Smith VC".
In court, the Heads of Division wear a black damask gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases and the black civil gown with gold tabs during civil cases. Ceremonially, the Heads of Division wear red gowns with white trim along with full wigs except for the Master of the Rolls who wears the black damask gown with gold lace and full wig.
Court of Appeal
Judges of the Court of Appeal are known as Lords Justices, and they too are Privy Counsellors. Before swearing in they may be referred to as the Honourable Lord Justice Smith, and after swearing in as the Right Honourable Lord Justice Smith. Female Lord Justices are known as Lady Justices. Addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". In law reports, referred to as "Smith LJ", and, for more than one judge, "Smith and Jones LJJ".
Formerly, Lords Justices of Appeal could only be drawn from barristers of at least 10 years' standing. In practice, much greater experience was necessary and, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, as of 21 July 2008, a potential Lord Justice of Appeal must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a 7-year basis.
The Lord Justices wear black silk gowns and court coats (or bar jackets) and short wigs during criminal cases and the black civil robe with gold tabs for civil cases. For ceremonial occasions, they wear the full wig and black damask gown with gold lace.
High Court Justices, Masters and Insolvency and Companies Court Judges
High Court justices are not normally Privy Counsellors and are therefore referred to as the Honourable Mr/Mrs Justice Smith. Addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". In law reports they are referred to as "Smith J", and, for more than one judge, "Smith and Jones JJ".
High Court justices normally wear a short wig along with red and black gowns for criminal cases, and a civil robe with red tabs without wig for civil cases and, when in open court, family cases. Judges of the Family Division sitting in private wear formal suits. Ceremonially, all High Court justices wear the red gown with white trim along with a full wig.
A Master is a level of judge in the High Court whose decisions are of equal standing to that of a High Court judge at first instance. They are mainly responsible for trials and case management pre-trial in exclusively civil cases in London. They wear dark blue gowns with pink tabs in court and are addressed as 'Master', regardless of gender, or ‘Judge’. Ceremonially, they wear a full-bottomed wig, court coat, jabot and black silk gown. Each division has a Senior Master, and each division has a different title:
King's Bench Division – Senior Master
Chancery Division – Chief Chancery Master
Costs Office – Senior Costs Judge
Admiralty Court – Admiralty Registrar
The Senior Master of the King's Bench Division also holds the ancient judicial post of King's Remembrancer (Queen's Remembrancer when the monarch is female), and is also the Registrar of Election petitions and Foreign judgements as well as being the designated authority for the Hague Service Convention and Hague Evidence Convention and receiving agency under the EU Service Regulation – Council Regulation (EC) No. 1348/2000 and EU Taking of Evidence Regulation – Council Regulation (EC) No. 1206/2001. The Senior Master is assisted in this role as Central Authority by the Foreign Process Section of the King's Bench Action Department at the Royal Courts of Justice.
The seven Insolvency and Companies Court Judges, one of whom is the Chief Insolvency and Companies Court Judge, hear and dispose of much of the High Court insolvency (both personal and corporate) and pure company law cases and trials in London (such as cases arising under the Insolvency Act 1986, the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, the Companies Acts and related legislation). They also hear appeals from district judges of the County Court in the south east region in company law and corporate insolvency matters. For convenience, their title is often abbreviated to "ICC Judge". They wear a dark blue gown with pink tabs in court (but no longer wear wigs) and are addressed as 'Judge'. Ceremonially, they wear a full-bottomed wig, court coat, jabot and black silk gown. As judges exercising the jurisdiction of the High Court their decisions are of equal standing to that of a High Court justice at first instance.
Masters and ICC Judges are not referred to with a post-nominal abbreviation in the law reports, and appear as "Master Smith" or "ICC Judge Smith". Formerly, Masters and ICC Judges could only be drawn from barristers and solicitors of at least seven years' standing. However, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, as of 21 July 2008, a potential Master or ICC Judge must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a five-year basis.
Circuit judges
Circuit judges are referred to as His/Her Honour Judge {surname} e.g. His/Her Honour Judge Smith. If a circuit judge is appointed who has the same surname as another serving circuit judge, he (she) will be referred to as His (Her) Honour Judge {first name} {surname}. e.g. His Honour Judge John Smith. Circuit judges are addressed as "Your Honour", unless sitting in the Central Criminal Court (the Old Bailey), in which case addressed as "My Lord (Lady)". Senior circuit judges who sit as the honorary recorder of a borough or city are also entitled to be addressed in court as "my lord/lady." In law reports, circuit judges are referred to as "HHJ Smith", or simply, "Judge Smith."
Formerly, circuit judges could only be drawn from barristers of at least ten years' standing. However, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, as of 21 July 2008, a potential circuit judge must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a seven-year basis.
For criminal cases, circuit judges wear a violet and purple gown with a red sash and short wig and for civil cases exchange the red sash for a lilac one. Circuit judges sitting in civil proceedings no longer wear wigs, wing collars, or bands. Ceremonially, they wear purple robes with a purple trim and a full wig.
Recorders
A recorder is a part-time circuit judge, usually a practising barrister, solicitor or a member of the courts or tribunal judiciary who is not a full-time circuit judge. Recorders are addressed in court in the same way as circuit judges (as 'Your Honour'). There is no formal abbreviation for the position and recorders are referred to as 'Mr/Mrs Recorder Smith' (as opposed to circuit judges, who can be referred to as 'HHJ Smith' in judgements, law reports or other legal documents).
Formerly, recorders could only be drawn from barristers of at least 10 years' standing. However, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, as of 21 July 2008, a potential recorder must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a seven-year basis.
The senior circuit judge in a metropolitan area will often be given the honorary title of the recorder of the city – e.g. the Recorder of Manchester. Despite still being circuit judges, these recorders are addressed in court as 'My Lord/Lady' as if they were High Court judges.
District judges
District judge is the title given to two different categories of judges. One group of district judges sit in the county courts and have jurisdiction in civil and family cases, having previously been known as registrars until the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990. The other group sit in the magistrates' courts and were formerly known as stipendiary magistrates until the Access to Justice Act 1999. Members of this latter group are more formally known as "district judge (magistrates' courts)" (see the Courts Act 2003). Judges in both groups are addressed as "Judge". In law reports, they are referred to as "DJ Smith".
Formerly, district judges could only be drawn from barristers and solicitors of at least seven years' standing. However, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, since 21 July 2008, a potential district judge must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a five-year basis. From November 2010, other types of lawyer, such as legal executives (fellows of the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives), also became eligible to be district judges.
The senior district judge (magistrates' courts) is also known as the Chief Magistrate.
Deputy district judges
A solicitor or barrister who sits part-time as a district judge (who may be taking their first steps on the route to becoming a full-time district judge). Retired district judges sometimes sit as deputies. Addressed as "Sir" or "Madam". In law reports, referred to as "DDJ Smith".
Formerly, deputy district judges could only be drawn from barristers and solicitors of at least seven years' standing. However, in 2004, calls for increased diversity among the judiciary were recognised and the qualification period was changed so that, since 21 July 2008, a potential deputy district judge must satisfy the judicial-appointment eligibility condition on a five-year basis and so that other types of lawyer, such as chartered legal executives (CILEX Fellows), would be eligible. In August 2010, Ian Ashley-Smith became the first CILEx Fellow to be directly appointed as a deputy district judge (civil).
Judicial office holders
There are a range of professionals who support the judiciary in complex legal cases where there is an interface between the law and another professional area. In these matters, sometimes non-legally qualified judges are appointed to preside over specialist areas. These judges are sometimes referred to as fee-paid (judiciary) officer holders, or non-legal members. An example are those appointed by the Lord Chancellor to sit over Mental Health Review Tribunal. Within this tribunal, there are three panel judges, one will be a legally qualified lawyer, whilst the others two are drawn from the mental health professions, such as social work, nursing or psychology, these are known as Specialist Lay Members. The other is a consultant psychiatrists, known as the Medical Members. The all members are addressed as "Sir" or "Madam", but unlike magistrates, these members are paid for their service, normally a day rate for sitting. Also unlike their magistrates counterparts, these members are recruited in the same manner as other judges via the Judicial Appointments Commission.
Magistrates
Magistrates (also known as Justices of the peace) are trained volunteers appointed from the local community, who generally sit in threes in order to give judgment in magistrates' courts and youth courts. The chair is addressed as "Sir" or "Madam" or the bench is addressed as "Your Worships".
Judicial salaries
There are eight pay points for judges in the United Kingdom (including England and Wales). The following is a simplified list of annual judicial salaries from 1 April 2023, showing only the most widely-held grades and some of the best known specific appointments. A complete list of all the posts at each pay point can be found on the website of the Ministry of Justice.
Group 1: Lord Chief Justice, £294,821
Group 1.1: Master of the Rolls, £263,256
Group 2: Heads of the High Court divisions, £254,274
Group 3: Lord Justices of Appeal, £241,796
Group 4: High Court judges and certain others, £212,351
Group 5: Numerous specialist appointments, including senior circuit judges and Judge Advocate General, £170,304
Group 5.1: Chief Insolvency and Companies Court Judge, Chief Chancery Master, Senior Queen's Bench Master and certain others, £164,015
Group 5.2: High Court Insolvency and Companies Court Judges, High Court Masters, circuit judges and certain others, £157,705
Group 6: Vice-Judge Advocate General and certain others, £148,472
Group 7: District judges of the County Court and magistrates' courts, employment judges, judges of the First Tier Tribunal and several other appointments, £126,514
Group 8: Salaried (Regional) Medical Members, Social Entitlement Chamber, £100,531
Judges also have a pension scheme, the 1993 and earlier versions of which were once considered to be one of the most generous in the British public sector.
The administrative body of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is classified as a non-ministerial department. The Supreme Court is independent of the government of the UK, of Parliament, and of the court services of England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It takes appeals from the Appeals Courts of England and Wales and of Northern Ireland, and Scotland's High Court of the Judiciary. The President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is paid at Group 1.1, while the Deputy President and the other ten members of the Supreme Court are paid at Group 2.
See also
Judicial titles in England and Wales
Judiciary of the United Kingdom
List of judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
Law of the United Kingdom
References
External links
Judiciary of England and Wales government website
Department for Constitutional Affairs list of judges |
4243658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charley%27s%20War | Charley's War | Charley's War was a British comic strip about the First World War, written by Pat Mills and drawn by Joe Colquhoun.
It was originally published in Battle Picture Weekly from January 1979 to October 1986.
Though later parts of the story covered the Russian Civil War (and, in episodes written by Scott Goodall, the early part of the Second World War), Pat Mills has stated that Charley's story should end at the end of the First World War, and this has been reflected in the collections published by Titan Comics.
Publishing history
Described by Andrew Harrison as "the greatest British comic strip ever created", Charley's War tells the story of an underage British soldier called Charley Bourne. Charley joins the British Army during World War I at the age of 16, having lied about his age and told the recruiting officers that he was 18 (they conveniently overlook the fact that Charley gives his date of birth on his application form as 1900), and is quickly thrust into the Battle of the Somme.
The strip follows Charley's life in the trenches and his experiences during the war. Colquhoun put a meticulous level of research into the already well-researched scripts which Mills provided. The strip rarely flinched from providing an extremely frank portrayal of the horrors of war, so much so that in some later reprintings some of the artwork was censored. Mills added a political slant in the strip not seen in British war comics and avoided the standard heroics common in war comics generally.
In addition to depicting Charley's own experiences of the war, the comic took the risk of going off on several tangents, temporarily shifting the focus to characters in different locations and time periods. The first and most successful tangent was the story of 'Blue', a British soldier in the French Foreign Legion who fought with them at Verdun in 1916 before deserting and making his way back to England (where he meets Charley). Another diversion was when the storyline turned to Charley's younger brother Wilf and his experiences as an observer/gunner in the Royal Flying Corps in early 1918. The final and least successful tangent was the story of Charley's cousin Jack Bourne, a sailor in the Royal Navy and the story of his ship HMS Kent and its participation in the Battle of the Falklands in 1914. Unlike the previous diversions, this new change of setting received poor feedback from readers and the editor of Battle ordered Mills to return the storyline to Charley in the trenches, much to Mills' disappointment who had originally planned to continue Jack's story on into the Battle of Jutland in 1916.
The strip followed Charley through to the end of the war and through into the invasion of Russia in 1919. However, in January 1985, Mills quit the strip before being able to complete the story (he intended the story to end in 1933, with Charley on the dole as Hitler is made Chancellor of Germany) due to a dispute over his research budget.
Mills was replaced by Scott Goodall and the story was moved to the Second World War and became a more conventional war adventure strip. However, the series ended in the early part of the Second World War after Charley is one of the lucky ones successfully evacuated from Dunkirk (along with his son), realising he is too old for soldiering any more. The story ends with him wondering how he came to become a soldier in the first place, leading into a re-run of the strip within Battle Picture Weekly until that comic folded.
In reality, the ending of Charley's War was down to the poor health of Joe Colquhoun, which had already caused the strip to be delayed several weeks. Out of respect for Joe, there was no question of getting another artist to take over production, and it was felt best to simply draw it to a close.
In 1988, Battle was folded into Eagle, which also began reprinting Charley's War, which became one of the mainstays of the title. By 1990, the storyline had reached 1917 and Charley's time as a stretcher bearer, but with the comic about to be revamped and most of the strips about to be dropped, the title skipped ahead to the conclusion of the First World War and the end of Charley's conflict with Captain Snell in order to give it some conclusion.
Episodes of Charley's War were reprinted in the Judge Dredd Megazine (#211–244, in 2003–2006). The First World War episodes were collected in ten graphic novels by Titan Books between 2004 and 2013. Rebellion's Treasury of British Comics imprint began a new series of graphic novels in 2018.
Charley's War was featured in "Boys and Girls", the second programme of Comics Britannia on BBC Four.
Charley's War was the subject of a display dispersed around the Musée de la Grande Guerre du Pays de Meaux in France (from 16 October 2014 to 4 January 2015).
Plot summary
June–December 1916. Sixteen-year-old Charley Bourne from East End of London enlists in the British Army. He arrives on the Western Front in France shortly before the beginning of the Battle of the Somme. His platoon is commanded by Lt Thomas and Sgt 'Ole Bill' Tozer and private Ginger Jones becomes Charley's best mate. Participates in the opening day of the Somme on 1 July. The platoon suffers heavy losses. Charley witnesses the last British Cavalry charge and takes part in the combat debut of the new Tanks. Guilt-strickened veteran Lonely sacrifices himself to expose the location of a German ambush. Lt Thomas saves the platoon by withdrawing without orders and he is arrested and executed for cowardice. Charley and Weeper Watkins endure harsh field punishment for refusing to join Thomas' firing squad. Ginger is killed by a random shell. Oiley Oliver arrives but does not last long, escaping via a self-inflicted injury. The German 'Judgement Troopers' led by the ruthless Colonel Zeiss stage a counter-attack, penetrating deep into the British lines and nearly wiping out Charley's platoon but their success is halted by the German high command's refusal to give Zeiss reinforcements. Charley is wounded by a stray shell.
January–March 1917. Charley recuperates in hospital and has a spell of leave in London. Discovers Oiley's criminal activities. Charley rescues his mother from a munitions factory during a Zeppelin raid. Encounters deserter Blue and aids his escape after the latter tells him of his experiences with the French Foreign Legion at the Battle of Verdun.
April–May 1917. Charley returns to the Western Front where Cpt Snell (who he encountered as a lieutenant during the Somme) is now his commander. Snell is a ruthless leader who does not care about the welfare of his men. Charley becomes Snell's batman for a short period. A burly veteran Grogan bullies a bookwormish newcomer Scholar and other conscripts. Charley intervenes and he and Grogan eventually fight but the latter is accidentally killed when a discarded shell he picked up to throw at Charley turns out to be live and explodes in his hand. Weeper is wounded and later deserts. During a march to the rear in fierce heat, Sgt Tozer passes out with exhaustion and Snell demotes him to private.
June–July 1917. Snell volunteers the platoon to become miners to plant underground explosives under the German trenches. One of the men, Budgie, is a conscientious objector and Charley defends him from abuse by others. Charley and several of his comrades narrowly survive a cave-in and they break into and destroy a German tunnel. An increasingly pompous Scholar wrangles a transfer away to officer training and Charley begins to regret having helped him. The huge mine that the platoon has set beneath the German lines fails to detonate and an enraged Snell accuses Budgie of sabotage and shoots him dead. Charley follows Snell into the tunnels, intending to kill the latter but another soldier with the same plan gets there before him. In the shootout that follows, Snell is struck in the head by a ricochet and sent away in a coma.
August–September 1917. Charley's unit takes part in the Battle of Third Ypres. Charley finds and rescues his wounded brother Wilf who has joined up under-age by assuming the identity of a deserter (in a scheme arranged by Oiley). The unit is sent to the training camp at Etaples to prepare for the next great offensive. The harsh and cruelly strict conditions enrage the veteran, war-weary soldiers, eventually igniting the Etaples Mutiny. Charley encounters Blue who is posing as a British officer whilst smuggling food to his gang of deserters hiding in nearby woods. Tozer is remade a Sergeant. Weeper who had been arrested for desertion is freed during the mutiny but is killed whilst saving Charley from a knife attack by another deserter. The mutiny is a success, improving conditions at the camp but Charley is then returned to the trenches.
October–December 1917. The muddy hell of Passchendaele. Sickened by the slaughter, Charley volunteers to be a stretcher-bearer, a duty he performs bravely but he is falsely accused of looting the dead and sacked. A massive British tank attack breaks the German line at Cambrai but the offensive is halted due to in-decision by the British commanders. Scholar returns from officer training. Charley is detailed to become a sniper and the platoon occupies a sector opposite the unit of Corporal Adolf Hitler. Charley and Hitler fight hand-to-hand during a trench raid, nearly killing each other. The two sides enjoy a Christmas truce but Hitler stays in his dugout, refusing to take part.
January–February 1918. Wilf has transferred to the RFC and is now an observer/gunner in a Bristol F2B squadron. He shoots down several German planes but narrowly avoids death when he is shot down and his pilot Captain Morgan is killed. Back in the trenches, Charley accidentally shoots himself in the foot and is accused of cowardice by the Scholar. Whilst in hospital he meets a nurse Kate and after a frosty start, the former realises Charley is no coward and the two begin a romantic relationship. A written statement from a dying officer saves Charley from a conviction and he and Kate go on leave in London. Snell, rendered psychotic by his head wound, attempts to murder Charley and Kate.
March–June 1918. Charley marries Kate. Whilst on their honeymoon, they receive the news that Wilf is dead, having been shot down after bringing down a German Zeppelin heavy bomber over London. Charley's cousin Jack, a sailor in the Royal Navy, tells of his experiences at the Battle of the Falklands in 1914. Charley, now a Lance-Corporal, returns to the Front, just in time for the massive and sudden German spring offensive. The German Stormtroopers attack Charley's sector and Scholar is set ablaze by a flame-thrower. Charley cannot bring himself to put the dying Scholar out of his agony but the deed is performed by newcomer Skin. Charley rallies a rag-tag group of stragglers and looters to mount a last-ditch defence of the town of Albert. Skin is seen talking to a German soldier who is revealed to be his brother but not before the latter is fatally shot by another Briton. During a battle against the new German tanks, Charley meets Snell, who has managed to secure a transfer back to the fighting, despite being virtually insane. Charley is promoted to full Corporal. Snell murders an African-American Doughboy named 'Pig-Iron' that Charley has befriended and then later kills a British officer who witnessed the earlier crime.
July–November 1918. After a battle against German commandoes, Charley is captured and sent to a POW camp where he meets his cousin Jack. After three attempts, the pair escape and Charley rejoins his unit. The platoon advances towards Germany during the final weeks of the war, taking part in the crossing of the St. Quentin Canal. Skin is shot dead by Snell after the former protests at the latter's execution of German prisoners. On 11 November, the final day of the war, Snell is determined to have the symbolic honour of reaching Mons, pointlessly expending his men's lives. After the platoon is wiped out only minutes before the 11am ceasefire, Snell and Charley have a final showdown. Snell is about to kill Charley but the former is drenched by an acid-sprayer wielded by a surviving German. Ignoring Snell's pleas to be put of his misery, Charley walks away leaving his nemesis to die slowly. Snell's final action had been to 'volunteer' Charley to join the British Expeditionary Force to the Russian Civil War.
January–October 1919. Charley and Bill Tozer head to Russia where they fight alongside the 'Whites' - pro-Monarchist Russians - against the Bolshevik Reds who are defending their Revolution, with Tozer serving as company sergeant major. Charley soon becomes disillusioned at the incompetence and cowardice amongst the Whites, some of whom change sides and join the Reds. Charley prevents rogue Bolshevik Colonel Spirodonov from capturing a White armoured train loaded with refugees and royal gold.
1933. The Great Depression and Charley is on the dole. News arrives that Adolf Hitler has seized power in Germany. At this point, writer Pat Mills ceased work on the comic and was replaced by Scott Goodall.
September 1939 – June 1940. Charley reluctantly enlists in the British Army again after learning his son Len has joined up. Joins the BEF in France and participates in the heavy fighting against the German Blitzkrieg and in the long and confused retreat to Dunkirk. Back in England, Ole Bill has joined the Home Guard. Charley's wife Kate is falsely arrested for black-marketeering as, unbeknown to her, Oiley has been stashing stolen goods in her home. Oiley tries to have Bill murdered but the attempt fails and Bill beats Oiley into confessing, freeing Kate from prison. Back in France, Charley finds his shell-shocked son Len at Dunkirk and they escape back to Britain together. Charley decides he has had enough of war.
Major characters
Charley Bourne
The central character and hero of the series. A working-class London lad from a close-knit family, he enlists in the British Army in 1916, age sixteen and arrives in the trenches on the Western Front shortly before the start of the Somme Campaign. Naive and not too bright, Bourne nonetheless gets much hard-earned worldly wisdom as he experiences and survives the horrors of the Great War for the next three years and beyond. Exceptionally brave, loyal to his comrades and quick to defend those who are suffering bullying or injustice, Bourne makes friends and enemies in equal numbers. His fundamental decency and conscientious sense of duty are sometimes at odds with his anger at the many injustices of military life and his growing disillusionment over the conduct of the war.
Sergeant 'Ole Bill' Tozer
The veteran Platoon-Sgt, Ole Bill is one of the very few who makes it all the way through the war with Bourne, more or less in one piece. An old pre-war Regular soldier, he was one of the BEF's 'Old Contemptibles' who fought at Mons in August 1914. Burly, loud, fond of a drink and seemingly indestructable, Bill's roaring voice and courage help Charley and his fellows out of trouble time and time again.
Ginger Jones
Charley's best pal on the Somme in 1916. Never a natural-born soldier and always the first to complain, Ginger makes up for his lack of enthusiasm with his sense of humour and cunning. Despite himself, he survives numerous tight-spots alongside Charley in 1916.
Lieutenant Thomas
Charley's first platoon commander and easily the best officer he serves under during the war. Public-schooled but enlightened, brave but never blood-thirsty, Thomas is a decent man who represents the best of his class.
Lieutenant (later Captain) D'Arcy Snell
A vicious, pompous and war-loving officer, Snell treats the war as a marvellous sport and his men as expendable examples of the lower classes who must be kept in their place. Snell becomes Charley's platoon commander after the death of Thomas and he remains Charley's ultimate nemesis.
Lonely
A traumatised veteran who was the sole survivor of his platoon when it was wiped out in 1915 due to a recklessly cruel act by Lt Snell. Wracked by guilt, he confides in Charley the truth of what happened.
Blue
A British deserter from the French Foreign Legion, Blue fled to England after surviving the hellish Battle of Verdun in 1916 in which most of his fellow Legionaries were slaughtered. Charley reluctantly helps Blue to avoid capture whilst in Britain and later encounters him again during the infamous Etaples Mutiny in 1917. Despite his misgivings over Blue's desertion, Charley cannot help but feel a kinship with him due to their common resentment of the military hierarchy and Charley's realisation that, with less fortunate circumstances, he could have easily ended up the same way.
Weeper Watkins
Injured by poison gas that left his tear-ducts constantly running, Weeper is a cheeky rebel who hates the war and despises the army and he suffers badly for his insubordination. He eventually deserts but is recaptured in 1917.
Ernie Stubbs
A short soldier who is one of the officers' servants during Charley's time as Snell's batman. He once served in the Bantams until his regiments was disbanded because of heavy casualties. Captured during a raid on the trench, he is killed by Adolf Hitler with a grenade when he tries to escape.
The Scholar
Joining Charley's platoon as a young private after the Somme, the Scholar, a gentle and timid book-worm, is bullied viciously by a burly veteran named Grogan. Charley steps in to help, leading to a fight in which Grogan is accidentally killed. The Scholar soon turns out to be a two-faced cunning snob who wrangles a transfer to officer training and he later returns as the platoon commander who thinly conceals his fear behind his pomposity and petty resentment of Charley.
Earwig
A one-time crony of Grogan's and the regiment's barber. He holds a grudge against Charley for his role in Grogan's death and they often clash. He dies at the Third Battle of Ypres, after taking shelter in a shell hole full of mustard gas.
Budgie
A conscientious objector who has been forced into the army through torture and intimidation and works as a miner alongside Charley in 1917 employed to lay explosive mines beneath the German lines. Budgie has sworn never to kill a fellow human being.
Sadders
A terminally pessimistic soldier with a morbid fear of being gassed. He becomes one of Charley's regular companions during Etaples and Passchendaele. He is later killed by a sniper.
Wilfred Bourne
Charley's younger brother, 'Wilf' enters the army under-age by assuming the identity of a deserter. Injured on the Western Front in 1917, Wilf transfers to the Royal Flying Corps and serves as an observer/gunner in a two-seater Bristol squadron.
Captain Morgan
Wilf's pilot and commander whose previous three observers have all been killed. Morgan is a tough, hard-bitten pilot who has no tolerance for shirkers nor for the chivalrous pretensions of his fellow officers.
Jack Bourne
Charley's cousin and a sailor in the Royal Navy who fought at the Battle of the Falklands in 1914. He and Charley meet each other in a German POW camp in 1918.
Oiley Oliver
Charley's brother-in-law, he arrives at the front as a private during the Somme Campaign and soon proves to be a snivelling coward. Escaping from the war with a self-inflicted injury, he returns to London to become a con-man, black marketeer and stand-over merchant.
Smith 70 and Young Albert
Smith is the eccentric and cheerful machine-gunner who regards his work as both a science and an art-form and Albert is his injury-prone but uncomplaining loader.
Dr No
British Army doctor who treats wounded troops at a forward aid station. Known for his cold and callous attitudes towards the suffering of injured soldiers, refusing to allow even badly injured men to be sent to the rear, often dispensing the dreaded 'Number 9' pill, a strong laxative intended to 'cure' all ailments. Charley initially despises him but he later learns of the horrific conditions and immense pressures that the exhausted doctor works under.
Kate
A young nurse who lost her fiance at Gallipoli in 1915 and who tends to Charley when he is hospitalised in early 1918 with an accidental self-inflicted wound. After a tense beginning, the relationship blossoms into romance and the pair eventually marry and after the war have a son, Len.
Skin Skorczyk
British soldier whose parents were born in German-ruled Silesia and whose brother is in the German army.
Corporal Pig-Iron
An African-American Doughboy of the 'Harlem's Hell-fighters'.
Colonel Ziess
Tough, brave and ruthless German officer who commands the veteran 'Judgement Troopers' and launches a deadly counter-attack on the Somme against the sector where Charley's platoon is located. Having risen from humble origins, Ziess despises his more aristocratic peers and instead believes in the modern ideas of war - 'total' war to be waged without mercy.
Corporal Adolf Hitler
In December 1917, Charley's unit is located in the sector opposite the regiment of the young Hitler who appears here as a short-tempered, idealistic, selfishly brave and somewhat pompous soldier who is tolerated, rather than liked, by his comrades.
Unteroffizier 'Guts' Guttenheim
Sadistic German officer who runs the POW camp that Charley and Jack are confined in during the summer of 1918.
Warrior
A British army horse that Charley, who grew up working with horses, saves the life of in 1916 and encounters several times during the rest of the war, the two sharing a certain bond.
Colonel Spirodonov
Bolshevik officer in the Russian Civil War. A former soldier in the Czar's army, he suffered brutally in a penal battalion forced to build the so-called 'Death Railway' in Murmansk. Knowing the railway was commissioned and paid for by the British government, he has vowed revenge on all Englishmen.
Len Bourne
Charley and Kate's son, who after a row with his parents joins the British Army. At one point Charley believes Len to have been killed only for them to reunite outside Dunkirk, although Len has severe shell shock and nearly causes the death of his father.
Joe 'Wattsie' Watts
A former jockey and member of Charley's section in France, 1940. Wattsie and Charley become best friends and manage to escape to the Dunkirk perimeter before Wattsie is seriously wounded.
Sergeant Bert 'Ol Nick' Nickles
Charley's Platoon Sergeant in the B.E.F. and nemesis. Nickles, who is vicious and nasty, resents Charley's experience from the Great War. 'Ol Nick becomes more and more sadistic until he meets his match in Major Klaus Rimmer, also known as Atilla the Hun.
Archie Bentall and Cyril 'Handy' Hordle
Cut off from their unit like Charley and Wattsie, they join up and escape the attacking German Army in a Bren Carrier they find in a barn. The four have various adventures during the retreat from Belgium until Wattsie is crippled by Panzer fire, and later Handy is killed and Charley wounded by German sniper Heinrich Horst.
Collected editions
Titan Books released the bulk of Pat Mills' run of Charley's War in 112-page hardcover anthologies.
Ten collections were published between 2004 and 2013. These collected editions finish at the end of the First World War. They do not contain the later Charley's War comics, not written by Pat Mills, where Charley takes part in the Second World War.
Charley's War:
2 June – 1 August 1916 (collects episodes 1–29, November 2004, )
1 August – 17 October 1916 (collects episodes 30–59, November 2005, )
17 October 1916 – 21 February 1917 (collects episodes 60–83, October 2006, )
Blue's Story (October 2007, )
Return to the Front (October 2008, )
Underground and Over the Top (October 2009, )
The Great Mutiny (November 2010, )
Hitler's Youth (October 2011, )
Death from Above (October 2012, )
The End (October 2013, )
An omnibus edition of the first three volumes was published in paperback by Titan in 2014:
Charley's War: A Boy Soldier in the Great War (Collects episodes 1-87, August 2014, ) - an omnibus edition containing the strips from the first three volumes above plus the first few strips from volume IV. This volume was reprinted in November 2014 as Charley's War: A Working Man's Journey into War.
In 2018 Rebellion began another series of Charley's War reprints in its Treasury of British Comics imprint. These paperback volumes included colour spreads from the comic for the first time in an English printing since it ran in Battle. Called The Definitive Collection it collected the Great War strip in three volumes:
The Boy Soldier (April 2018, )
Brothers in Arms (May 2018, )
Remembrance (June 2018, )
Awards
2006: Nominated for "Favourite Reprint Compilation" Eagle Award
References
External links
Charley's War, site run with the approval of the copyright holders, Egmont Publishing, by John Freeman, editor of some of the Titan reprints. Currently directs to a "micro site" within the British comics web site downthetubes.net.
Charley's War and Battle Picture Weekly at BritishComics.com
Interviews
BBC Interview with Pat Mills , BBC Cult, 24 November 2004
Pat Mills talk at The Comic Museum recorded by Geek Syndicate, 29 November 2008
Pat Mills The General in Charley's War, Comicon.com, 9 December 2008
1979 comics debuts
1986 comics endings
Fiction set in 1916
Fiction set in 1917
Fiction set in 1918
Fiction set in 1919
Fiction set in 1933
Fiction set in 1939
Fiction set in 1940
British comic strips
Drama comics
Comics set during World War I
Comics set during World War II
Defunct British comics
Comics by Pat Mills
Works about the British Army
Works about the Russian Civil War
Works set during the Great Depression
Battle Picture Weekly comic strips |
4244015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Rossi | Richard Rossi | Richard Rossi is an American filmmaker, actor, writer, talk radio host, musician, and former evangelical minister.
Among Rossi's projects are the film Canaan Land which contained five songs by Rossi that made the Oscars consideration song list (Canaan Land was also on the list of 366 films eligible for a Best Picture Oscar in 2021), Baseball's Last Hero: 21 Clemente Stories, a biopic on the life of Roberto Clemente and two films about evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson.
In 1995 Rossi went on trial for the attempted murder of his wife. She recanted her original identification of Rossi as her attacker and espoused his innocence. The case ended in a mistrial and was front-page news in Rossi's adopted hometown of Pittsburgh and was widely covered as something of a cause célèbre by syndicated television news programs.
Rossi eventually was acquitted of attempted murder but pleaded no contest to an aggravated assault though he and his wife maintained his innocence.
Early years
Rossi's father was a professional jazz guitarist in West View, Pennsylvania; the son followed in his father's footsteps, playing the guitar on stage at age 7.
As a child, Rossi was fascinated with Pittsburgh-based faith healer Kathryn Kuhlman. After one of his father's hospitalizations for manic depression, Rossi landed in a surrogate family led by an evangelist who immersed him in Pentecostal preaching and outreach.
After a drug overdose,
Rossi became a
born-again Christian and toured as a rock and roll preacher, usually in tandem with songwriting partner Johnny Walker, playing gospel rock. Rossi and his songwriting partner Walker were featured on The 700 Club.
Pennsylvania ministries
Rossi moved to Lynchburg, Virginia at age 18 to study at Liberty University, where he earned a bachelor's and master's degree in biblical studies.
His second church, created informally with ministry partner Jack Sims, was called "Matthew's Party," the name taken from the biblical story about Jesus eating with tax collectors and sinners at the home of Matthew, the gospel writer. In 1986, Rossi started First Love, a charismatic church. He rented movie theaters and showed films as an evangelistic outreach. Dramatic faith healings allegedly occurred. The healing services, called "Healing Clinics," grew from 200 to 2000. Rossi filmed the healings and co-produced a documentary on faith healing and exorcism in 1992 entitled Quest for Truth. The program first aired during the fall 1993 season on WPGH-TV 53 and WPTT-TV 22.
In 1988, Rossi tried and failed to change both the name of the Church of the Three Rivers and its affiliation. He then joined the Assemblies of God the next year and led the Cranberry church, but left in 1991, saying that his ministry was too radical for the Assemblies; church officials said he left owing several thousand dollars for the church building.
In September 1991, Rossi began broadcasting his nightly radio show Rich Rossi Live on Pittsburgh's WPIT-FM. The program created controversy when Rossi called other evangelical churches "whores" who sell out the gospel for money. Rossi appeared on the Jerry Springer Show in 1994 to discuss faith healing, exorcism, and ESP.
Attempted murder charge
On June 24, 1994, Rossi's wife, Sherrie Lynn, was found near death in a coma on the side of a Pennsylvania road. She had a crushed skull and was left covered in blood; her injuries were so severe that she needed to wear a helmet. Her rescuers thought she had been in a traffic accident, and called for an ambulance. Ninety minutes later, at 8:05 pm, Richard Rossi called police, and claimed that men killed his wife and shot at him twice. But when police came to interview him, his story changed, first claiming that a man that looked like him got into the passenger side of the car, then that the man who looked like him attacked from the driver's side. Rossi had a cellular phone available, but said he pursued the assailant instead of dialing for help because he was a "good runner." Rossi also changed his story on where the assailants approached from, first saying they were in a white car, then that they "came out of the woods out of nowhere." Police testified that Rossi told them a "satanic cult" was trying to frame him; Rossi denies this. Rossi was wearing only a pair of tan shorts when police interviewed him; Rossi claimed that he lost his shirt running through the woods, but did not explain why he was barefoot. Several witnesses reported seeing a man with long hair near the Rossi's cars, and State Police reports suggested the presence of two other cars, one blue and one white.
In October 1994, Sherrie testified her husband was "not to blame"; a state court judge refused her request to void the order of protection. (Press accounts claimed that Ms. Rossi stated that her attacker might have been a demon in human form, but the Rossis deny she said this.)
Sherrie Rossi testified in the trial that her attacker was a different man with brown eyes and that Rossi's eyes are blue. She said her earlier testimony against Rossi was coerced by police when she was still recovering and did not have a complete recollection, and that her second testimony exonerating her husband came from "flashbacks" and a "fuller complete recollection" of what occurred. A defender of Rossi corroborated Sherrie Rossi's mystery attacker, testifying a passing motorist saw a bearded man matching Sherrie Rossi's description wearing jeans. (Rossi was wearing shorts).
Sherrie Rossi said: "We have eyewitnesses who saw a white car similar to ours following us and several family members several weeks before I was attacked. My husband also received a number of threats before I was attacked. The whole police had one agenda from Day One, and that was to get my husband." During her testimony, Sherrie Rossi wore a shirt with two doll figures labeled "Rich" and "Sherrie" and flashed the American Sign Language sign for love at her husband Richard.
Over Rossi's wife's objections, prosecutors charged him with attempted murder and won a court ruling admitting her earlier testimony at trial. The parties argued whether the blood-soaked interior of Rossi's car was consistent with Sherrie's claim. The secretary of Rossi's church testified that Rossi asked him shortly after the incident to forge an alibi. Sherrie Rossi refuted this, alleging police had framed her husband.
Sherrie Rossi testified, pointing at the prosecutors and police. "Your agenda was to get my husband, and I did not trust you or the lot of them." The defense called two witnesses, a church member and Rossi's mother, for a total of a half-hour of testimony; Rossi himself did not testify.
A five-day trial ended in a hung jury, with the vote 9–3 in favor of conviction after six and a half hours of deliberation. Before retrial, Rossi pleaded no contest to a count of second-degree aggravated assault while maintaining his innocence. Though his followers wanted him to fight what his wife called an "assault of justice", Rossi stated he pled nolo contendere to end the ordeal. "One of my many goals is to heal our family and become the best husband and father I can be," Rossi said to the judge. He received a four-to-eight-month sentence in Butler County Jail plus four years probation and required domestic violence counseling; he served 96 days.
Domestic violence workers criticized the short sentence. The Rossis renewed their wedding vows after his release. Rossi wrote an apologetic letter to the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette saying: "I repent of the sins I have committed and, with God's help, do not plan to repeat them."
Sherrie Rossi, who had campaigned for her husband's exoneration, sued state and county officials for abridging her civil rights when courts refused to lift a bond restriction forbidding her husband to contact her while he was out on bail; the suit was dismissed by a federal court. In 1996, Sherrie self-published Assault of Justice: The Richard Rossi Mystery, defending her husband and proclaiming his innocence, and claiming that charges were retaliation for exposing police corruption and a satanic cult on his talk radio show. She said eyewitnesses confirmed her husband's innocence and that they had been receiving threats prior to the assault.
While charges were pending and Rossi served his sentence, membership in his church dropped from 300 to 12. Media scrutiny revealed Rossi suffered mental health, depression, and addiction issues similar to his father's. Rossi enrolled in a recovery program in jail that he continued after his release, including meetings four days a week, daily monitoring, and treatment in Atlanta.
After his release from jail, Rossi and his wife hosted a free Thanksgiving dinner for the homeless at the Ranch House in Pittsburgh's North Park. Rossi paid for buses to transport urban children out of high-crime areas to the park. Most of the buses got to those wanting to come, but one had difficulty getting to the arranged pick-up due to snow. Native Americans danced and helped Rossi serve dinners to disadvantaged children. Some of his fellow inmates Rossi befriended in jail attended to help serve the poor.
Rossi filed for bankruptcy in 1996 as a result of his legal problems, and started over in California.
California
After completing his probation, Rossi relocated to Hollywood with his wife and two children in 1997, after a script he wrote garnered interest in Hollywood. He returned to preaching, serving as a pastor and church consultant, and moved into acting and filmmaking to explore his interest in creative and cutting-edge expressions of ministry.
Rossi's first Hollywood role was in the 1998 short film Jesus 2000. In 1998, he appeared on stage in his own adaptation of Elmer Gantry, which he wrote, produced and starred. His stage performance resulted in an offer to Rossi to play the role in a new film version.
He started "Eternal Grace", a movement of Hollywood house churches for actors and celebrities who had difficulty attending public services due to paparazzi, and also for AIDS victims and others not welcome to attend other churches. He was protested by followers of Fred Phelps from Westboro Baptist Church of Topeka, Kansas, who decried his lenient attitude toward homosexuals. Rossi's wife Sherrie worked with puppets in their children's ministry.
In 2001, Rossi wrote and directed Saving Sister Aimee, a short documentary film about 1920s evangelist Aimee McPherson. Though some considered it a sensationalized depiction, it won the Angel Award from the Southern California Motion Picture Council for best documentary.
In 2005, Rossi revisited Sister Aimee's story in the low-budget feature biographical film Sister Aimee: The Aimee Semple McPherson Story, (aka Aimee Semple McPherson), featuring Mimi Michaels in the lead and Rance Howard as the preacher's father. It attracted a record crowd to Hollywood's New Beverly Cinema, a revival house specializing in independent and cult films owned by Quentin Tarantino. A group of Evangelicals offered to invest $2 million in the film, but with conditions that the movie did not depict McPherson's divorce or drug overdose and that the actor playing the lead be a Pentecostal Christian. Rossi turned them down. "By saying no to conditions that religious people put on me, I feel I'm actually of more service to God and people because I make an honest film," he said. In addition to his film work, Rossi acted on stage in plays and musicals to positive reviews, remaining active in the Los Angeles theater community.
Clemente film
Between acting jobs that included small roles on TV shows, among them The King of Queens, Ally McBeal, The X-Files, Gilmore Girls and several movies, Rossi began working on Baseball's Last Hero: 21 Clemente Stories, a film about his childhood hero, baseball great Roberto Clemente, planning a "bicoastal" return to Pittsburgh to premiere his film on Roberto Clemente's birthday, August 18, 2013 before exhibiting the film in New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, other cities, small art theaters, Roberto Clemente High School in Chicago, the Wild Goose Festival in North Carolina, and on DVD. The feature film was a labor of love for Rossi and the cadre of actors and technicians who volunteered their time and donated their services to the project. Olympian Jamie Nieto starred as Roberto Clemente. Rossi's telling of Clemente's story of commitment, loyalty, and devotion attempts to provide a counterpoint to today's baseball culture of players suspected of steroid abuse. The dramatic fulcrum of Baseball's Last Hero is a conversation Clemente has with a nun. "She talks to him about the cross. 'Greater love has no man than to lay down his life for his friends,' is what the nun quotes to him from Scripture, talking about sacrificial love and Christ's sacrificial love," Rossi said. "This is the theme I wanted to point out – an allegory of Christ on the cross." Rossi was pressured to delete the scene from the movie for being "too preachy and too Catholic."
The controversial scene turned out to be one of the most popular scenes in the film and won over fans to the idea of pitching for Clemente's canonization as a saint in the Catholic Church.
Rossi says he has received support for his efforts to canonize Clemente from various people including Archbishop José Horacio Gómez of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles. "I've never thought of him in terms of being a saint", said MLB second baseman Neil Walker, a devout Catholic whose father knew Clemente. "But he's somebody who lived his life serving others, really. So if it would happen, I wouldn't be terribly surprised by it."
Some claim the canonization church requirement of a miracle was met on July 22, 2017, when Jaime Nieto, who was paralyzed from the neck down in a backflip accident three years after the Clemente film was released, walked 130 steps at his own wedding to fellow Olympian Shevon Stoddart. The miracle was predicted by Rossi as a demonstration of the power of God in a letter he wrote to Pope Francis. Nieto stated that the success was due to his hard work, and the Holy See stated that they were not in continued contact with Rossi.
Recent news
2014–2015
On November 28, 2014, Rossi was in the news again regarding the controversy over the shooting of Michael Brown. Rossi wrote and recorded a protest song expressing his feelings about a grand jury's decision not to charge a white police officer in the death of the unarmed black teen in Ferguson, Missouri. "I wrote the song in five minutes as a way to express my emotions about the danger of trigger-happy police," Rossi said. "I filmed it on my laptop at my kitchen table and uploaded it to YouTube." Rossi uploaded the video on November 26, and provided the song's lyrics in the video description. Here is a sample from the song's beginning, printed in the Los Angeles Daily News: "Down at the courthouse on a Monday afternoon/Justice was thrown right out the window when a young white cop entered the room."
Rossi continues to host his radio talk-show "Richard Rossi Live" as a podcast on BlogTalkRadio. In 2015, the format of the program changed from its Christian roots on WPIT, a Salem Radio Network station, by broadening its content for a general audience. Although Rossi still on occasion discusses religion, the program's focus is on known artists, writers, and celebrity guests.
Following the positive Pittsburgh reception to Rossi's Roberto Clemente project, Rossi said they were coming home, living "bicoastal," maintaining homes in Hollywood and Pittsburgh. "We'd like to spend more time in our home, where most of our family and friends live, in the North Hills of Pittsburgh," Rossi said.
2016–Present
In March, 2016, it was reported that Rossi was in pre-production on his film Canaan Land. Rebecca Holden played Sister Sara Sunday.
On September 30, 2017, CBS KCAL-TV channel 9 news reported on Rossi's founding of the support group Families Fighting Fentanyl to combat the fentanyl epidemic, to help addicts, work with law enforcement to hold drug dealers accountable, and support grieving families who lost a loved one to fentanyl. Rossi discussed the 2017 death of his youngest brother due to an overdose of heroin laced with fentanyl.
On January 31, 2018, Rossi and his family, in tandem with Pittsburgh Police, offered a cash reward for information leading to the arrest of the individual(s) who gave his brother the fatal fentanyl dose.
In May 2019, Rossi and other actors performed monologues based on interviews with homeless people as part of Homeward L.A., an effort to raise money for the Midnight Mission, a Los Angeles skid row shelter.
In the first week of February, 2021, Variety (magazine) and TheWrap reported five of his songs from his newly released film Canaan Land were a curiosity on the list for Best Song consideration, with a longshot at an Academy Awards nomination.
Rossi has also co-written a children's book Lucy & the Lake Monster, with retired fourth grade school teacher Kelly Tabor. It tells the story of a 9-year-old orphan girl and her grandfather searching for Champ, the legendary sea serpent of Lake Champlain. The book will also be a film, and was in post-production as of May, 2023.
Filmography
Film
References
External links
American experimental filmmakers
American male screenwriters
American talk radio hosts
American performers of Christian music
Musicians from Pittsburgh
American Christian clergy
American Charismatics
American faith healers
Founders of new religious movements
Liberty University alumni
Los Angeles Valley College people
Living people
Male actors from Pittsburgh
Postmodern writers
Writers from Pittsburgh
Radio personalities from Pittsburgh
American male stage actors
American male film actors
Contestants on American game shows
American people of Italian descent
People from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
People with bipolar disorder
American substance abuse counselors
Film directors from Pennsylvania
Guitarists from Pennsylvania
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Screenwriters from Pennsylvania
Year of birth missing (living people) |
4244141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20Land%20and%20Labour%20Association | Irish Land and Labour Association | The Irish Land and Labour Association (ILLA) was a progressive movement founded in the early 1890s in Munster, Ireland, to organise and pursue political agitation for small tenant farmers' and rural labourers' rights. Its branches also spread into Connacht. The ILLA was known under different names—Land and Labour Association (LLA) or League (LLL). Its branches were active for almost thirty years, and had considerable success in propagating labour ideals before their traditions became the basis for the new labour and trade unions movements, with which they gradually amalgamated.
Background
Following the early formation of the Tenant Right League in 1850, which first demanded the adoption and enforcement of the Three Fs to aid Irish tenant farmers, namely
fair rent;
fixity of tenure;
free sale;
all of whom lacked these rights, the first ineffective Irish Land Acts of 1870, 1880 and 1881 followed. By giving priority to farming interests, the Acts severely restricted labourers' cottage building, generally in the hands of landowners. The additional half-heartedness shown towards labourers' housing by the Acts was symptomatic of the fact that rural labourers had been little involved in the Irish Land League's Land War waged on behalf of small tenant farmers by Michael Davitt and William O'Brien from 1879 to 1882 in the poorer regions of Connacht and Munster, where conditions were especially severe. Together with Charles Stewart Parnell and his party lieutenants, they went into a bitter verbal offensive and were imprisoned in October 1881 under the Irish Coercion Act in Kilmainham Jail for "sabotaging the Land Act", from where the No Rent Manifesto was issued calling for a national tenant farmer rent strike which was partially followed. Although the League discouraged violence, agrarian crimes increased widely.
In 1881, nearly 75% of Irish people lived in rural areas. About 38% of these comprised the agricultural workforce, of which nearly 70% were agricultural labourers, 25% of these forming a class of 'landless' labourers, an estimated 60,000 in number, together with their families amounting to nearly a quarter of a million of the rural population, struggling to survive in the squalor of 40,000 one room 'cabins' (together with their animals if they could afford them). Their simple twin demand was for a decent home and a small piece of land. The Land League was thus forced to also address labourer's issues.
The first phase of Irish Tenant and Labourers (Land Purchase) Acts from 1883 to 1906 began with the 1883 Land Purchase (Ireland) Act, which was cumbersome, as was the Purchase of Land (Ireland) Act 1885 or Ashbourne Act. Both had to be amended in 1886 but nevertheless were a tentative start to land purchase under which initially 25,867 tenants were turned into owners of their farms. The Acts empowered to initiate schemes for building labourers' cottages with half acre allotments, the expenses of these to be met from local rates. They were therefore unpopular and few were built, as both the empowered Guardians and local farmers were themselves the ratepayers. The Acts were further overshadowed by two events: first, due to falling prices for agricultural produce and bad weather tenants could not pay their rent and united in the Plan of Campaign to withhold excessive rents. At the same time, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) held the balance of power in the House of Commons. Their key concern in 1886 turned to Gladstone's First Irish Home Rule Bill, which was subsequently defeated.
Although Parnell had become converted to the labourers' cause whilst in Kilmainham Gaol, after he became leader of the IPP their cause fell victim to his distancing himself from the Plan of Campaign in the interest of pursuing Home Rule. Then further by his fall from power in 1891 and the ensuing Party split, aggravated by the rejection of the Second Irish Home Rule Bill by the House of Lords in 1893. Not least, from the middle of the 1890s less than 1,000 cottages a year were being built for small tenant farmers or privileged labourers.
Origins
Acting in response to specific local needs, be it housing, land or employment, steadfast local spirits sustained Trade and Labour Leagues in parts of Cos Wicklow, Kilkenny, Laois, Kildare, Roscommon, Tyrone and Tipperary. However it was not until the formation of the Knights of the Plough a farm labourers' body founded by Benjamin Pellin, a small land-owner in the William Thompson tradition, at Narraghmore, County Kildare in June 1892, and of the National Labour League in Kanturk in January 1893, that the required organisation of the labourers began to take shape.
The rural area of North Cork around Kanturk and Duhallow had been since the 1860s a centre of labourer agitation and strikes, forming a number of early trade unions. In 1869 P. F. Johnson founded the Kanturk Labourers' Club (the first organised body to represent agricultural labourers) as well as the Irish Agricultural Labourers' Union (IALU) 1873 also in Kanturk, but these faded by 1875 due to lack of support from the nationalist home rule directory.
The most successful organisation was later the Kanturk Trade and Labour Association established in 1889 with the assistance amongst others, of a young man as its secretary, D. D. Sheehan who had experienced eviction with his family at the height of the Land League's Land War in 1880, when his father followed William O'Brien's "Pay No Rent" manifesto, their farm taken over by a "land-grabber" who paid their rent arrears. The Kanturk Association spread to other districts under a new title, the Duhallow Trade and Labour Association, in which Michael Davitt also became involved, until it broke up under the Irish Party's "Parnell split" in 1891.
It was realised on all sides, that the 1884 enfranchisement of the labourers had been insufficient in itself to wrest solutions to grievances from the state and the rural upper- and middle-classes. The control exercised over the implementation of the labourers' acts by conservative elements in rural society had had a ruinous affect. This finally brought the labourers' bodies together to gain political muscle. It became the raison d'être for calling a labour convention at Limerick Junction, County Tipperary on 15 August 1894, at which the Irish Land and Labour Association was created and officially launched, its founders D. D. Sheehan as chairman together with a young Carrick-on-Suir solicitor J. J. O'Shee as its secretary. It was formed to agitate on behalf of small tenant farmers and agrarian labourers as follower organisation to Michael Davitts' and Michael Austins' 1890 founded Irish Democratic Trade and Labour Federation, setting forth its broad but short-lived achievements.
Sheehan founded the Association to pursue tenant-farmer and labourer's grievances as a labour lobby within the nationalist movement, demanding radical changes to the inadequate Irish Land Acts. With labourers "as strangers in a strange land, without influence and without rights" it was to be expected that obstructions placed in the path of the labourers' welfare by landowners and farmers would invite bitter recrimination at the new Associations meetings. The Association would prove itself to be the most enduring of the labour groups. Agrarian agitation was unique in that it was an all-Ireland agitation. Ulster tenant-farmers and labourers equally demanded rights, their movement the Farmers and Labourers Union led by T. W. Russell. The Irish Trade Union Congress passed a motion in 1896 which recommended that in every parish in Ireland, a branch of the ILLA be founded.
Programme
The passing of the revolutionary Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, a "grass roots home rule" Act, totally reorganised the old aristocratic landlord "Grand Juries", eliminating their power by transferring it to Local County Councils elected by tenant farmers, town traders and labourers. The creation of the new councils had a significant effect on Ireland as it allowed local people to take decisions affecting themselves. The County and the sub-county District Councils also created a political platform for proponents of Irish Home Rule, displacing Unionist influence in many areas. The enfranchisement of local electors allowed the development of a new political class, creating a significant body of experienced politicians who began to take local affairs into their own hands. This coincided with William O'Brien founding the United Irish League (UIL), the wide expansion of the agricultural co-operative movement established earlier by Horace Plunkett and Sheehan becoming both President of the ILLA and editor of the Skibbereen based The Southern Star newspaper. He assured that the ILLA as well as the UIL were given weekly press coverage of their branch reports, particularly crucial for the expansion and growth of the UIL in Cork.
The Act was immediately recognised by the labourers, who for the first time held both active and passive electoral franchise, as a means to achieving their interests and facilitating those who desired to help them on local county councils. The prospects offered by the Act of radically overhauling the socio-economic distribution of political power in the countryside was not lost on the labourer movement. The ILLA took resolute steps to both organise the voting power of the labourers and to see to the 'proposal of labour candidates'.
Modelling themselves on Davitt’s concepts, the ILLA platform included demands for:
– land for the people
– houses for the people
– work and wages for the people
– education for the people
– state pensions for old people
– all local rents shall be paid by the ground landlords.
Its strategy was to achieve these through political and parliamentary leverage, pressure of the press and public agitation rather than by physical-force means or trade union action.
Objectives
The name of the association was somewhat anomalous, as it strived to represent and pursue the twofold interests of small tenant farmers and rural agrarian labourers. Both were a deprived and down trodden class supporting each other in their common plight, tenant farmers paying excessive rents or suffering eviction, labourers "compelled to live in hovels not fit to house the brute beast of the field" (Sheehan's later House of Commons speech). The objectives of the ILLA were therefore to achieve tenant land purchase, new and improved housing, welfare working conditions and access to land holdings for rural labourers.
ILLA concern for other labour issues developed after the Local Government Act transferred responsibility for cottage building, land reclamation, drainage, road building, their repair and maintenance, to the County and District Councils. This called for considerable ILLA involvement when it came to tenders for contract work and the fair employment of local contractors and labour, settling disputes and complaints, often arising out of local political patronage. The situation of previously evicted tenants, now reduced to landless labourers, was also on their agenda.
Propertied classes' hostility
However where initial success such as the election of five of the Association's Central Council to County Councils, it was nullified by the continued domination of farmers and landowners in the local authorities. Where the Land and Labour Association clashed with the propertied classes' interests, it was excluded from all effective political action, which even led to the exclusion of the labourers from United Irish League meetings. The belief of J.F.X. O'Brien and others was that there should be no separate labour organisation alongside the UIL, which attempted to tactfully bring the Association and its followers under its wing. John Redmond's sedulous refusal to consider direct Parliamentary representation for the Land and Labour Association was but an instance of the propertied classes' obsession with maintaining their hold over national politics.
The desire to keep the labouring classes in tow prompted the United Irish League to eventually give the Land and Labour Association entry to national councils in 1900. The failure of the UIL and the Irish Party to either refer to the labourers in their deliberations or to do anything for them at Westminster indicated the Associations intended subservient position. It took the Mid-Cork by-election of 1901 to show that the understanding between the UIL and the ILLA was paper-thin. When it became clear that the ILLA candidate, D. D. Sheehan, was going to make an impact, he was accused of being an "anti-Healyite" and that his first allegiance was to the labourers rather than to the party, expressed the class bias of the Irish Party against the workers.
Land proprietors
By the turn of the century the working class segment of the electorate were a new labour power to be reckoned with, a very worthy class to be courted and flattered at election time. They displayed their depth of support for the labour movement in Cork at the UIL selection convention for the Mid-Cork by-election of May 1901. Amidst turbulent and occasionally violent scenes in Macroom on 10 May, their President D. D. Sheehan, standing on a strictly labour platform, defeated the local UIL candidate of the Irish Party on a second ballot. This after an initial attempt by Joseph Devlin (representing the UIL National Directory), to exclude a number of ILLA branches from the convention. In this respect Sheehans’ return on a labour-nationalist ticket as Mid-Cork Member of Parliament (1901–1918) to the House of Commons exposed the divide between rural labourers and the elitist nationalism of the UIL/IPP classes, which was to deepen by the end of the decade.
Rural workers were quick to grasp the potential of local democracy for plots, cottages and direct labour on council road-works. Their ILLA organisation had grown to 98 branches by 1899, expanding to 144 branches in 1904 mainly in counties Cork, Limerick and Tipperary.
UIL agitation by tenant farmers continued to press for compulsory land purchase and resulted in the calling of the December 1902 Land Conference, an initiative by moderate landlords led by Lord Dunraven on the one hand and William O'Brien, John Redmond MP, Timothy Harrington MP and Ulster's T. W. Russell MP representing tenant farmers on the other hand. It strove for a settlement by conciliatory agreement between landlord and tenant. After six sittings all eight tenant's demands were conceded, O'Brien having guided the official nationalist movement into endorsement of a new policy of conciliation. He followed this by campaigning vigorously for the greatest piece of social legislation Ireland had yet seen, orchestrating the Wyndham Land Purchase Act (1903) through Parliament. The Act provided very generous bonus subsidy terms to landowners on sale.
Purchases between tenants and landlords were negotiated by Sheehan and the ILLA branches after O'Brien and Sheehan formed a Cork Advisory Committee in September 1904, to mediate between landlords and tenants in their negotiations. They thereby achieved purchase terms with low interest annuities which produced an exceptionally high take-up of land purchase. Munster tenants availed of land purchase in higher numbers than in any other province, whereby in county Cork alone there were 16,159 tenant land purchases, the highest numbers of any single county.
The Act effectively fulfilled the first important demand of the ILLA, the abolition of "landlordism", replaced by land purchase, to finally resolve the Land Question. The result was the formation of a new proud farming proprietorship and the steady extinction of the dominant Anglo-Irish landed gentry. Whereas in 1870 only 3% of Irish farmers owned their land, by 1908, this jumped to nearly 50%. By the early 1920s, the figure was at 70%, the process being later completed.
Despite some deficiencies of the Land Act, O'Brien could take some pride in its working since its passage. The social effects of the Act were immediate The year 1903 alone saw a 33% drop in reports of intimidation, a 70% decline in boycotting cases, 60% fewer people needing police protection, and a 50% decrease in the number and acreage of grazing farms unlet or unstocked because of agitation. In the period 1903 to 1909 over 200,000 small peasant tenant-farmers became "owneroccupiers" of their holdings under the Acts. By 1914 75% of occupiers were buying out their landlords under the 1903 Act and the later Birrell Land Purchase (Ireland) Act (1909) which extended the 1903 Act by allowing for the compulsory purchase of tenanted farmland by the Land Commission. In all, under these pre-1921 Land Acts over 316,000 tenants purchased their holdings amounting to out of a total of 20 million in the country.
Cottage ownership
In November 1903 O'Brien left the Irish Party when his policy of "conciliation" with landowners was rejected by the party leaders John Redmond and John Dillon, who feared O’Brien’s course and popularity would drive a wedge between the farming and labouring community allegiance to the Irish party.
O'Brien then joined forces a year later with Sheehan's ILLA organisation, identifying himself with Sheehan's demand for agricultural labourers' housing, who up to then were dependent on limited provision of cottages by local County Councils or landowners at unfavourable terms. A breakthrough occurred when a scheme was made public at "the largest labour demonstration ever held in Ireland" (Cork Examiner), a memorable rally in Macroom on 10 December 1904 addressed by William O'Brien. His concepts became known as the `Macroom Programme´, its principles and measures subsequently carried into law in 1906.
The Second Phase of the Labourers Acts (1906–1914) began after the unprecedented Labourers (Ireland) Act, long demanded by the ILLA was won in 1906, for which both the Redmondite and O'Brienite factions were zealous in claiming credit. Credit was also claimed for an O'Brien ally, Thomas Russell, MP, the son of an evicted Scottish crofter, who had broken with the Conservatives in the Irish Unionist Alliance and was returned to Westminster from South Tyrone as the champion of the Ulster Farmers and Labourers Union.
The so called 'Labourers Act' provided large scale funding for extensive state sponsored housing to accommodate rural labourers and others of the working classes. The labourer-owned cottages erected by the Local County Councils brought about a major socio-economic transformation, by simultaneously erasing the previous inhuman habitations. O'Brien saying that the Labourers Acts – "were scarcely less wonderworking than the abolition of landlordism itself". In 1904 Davitt going so far as to declare that the Labourers Acts constituted – "a rational principle of state Socialism".
In the next five years the programme produced a complete 'municipalisation' of over 40,000 additional commodious working-class dwellings dotting the rural Irish countryside, the proportionally larger number of 7,560 cottages erected in County Cork in co-ordination with Sheehan and the ILLA branches became known locally as "Sheehans' cottages". At first the compulsory surrender of an acre of choice land to each labourer who claimed it was resisted by the new land owning farmers. In due course they too reaped the benefits, gone the days when a farmer never knew when or where to find labour to work his fields. Either they were migrants or drink ridden. Now occupying their own proud family home and vegetable patch at the corner of his farm, they worked cooperatively for him all year round. This had enormous long-term consequences for rural Irish society.
Only 17 per cent of labourers had lived in houses with five or more rooms in 1841; in 1861 one rural family in ten still lived in what were classed by the census as fourth class accommodation, essentially meaning one room per family. By 1911 only one per cent of families did. The bulk of the labourers' cottages were erected by 1916, resulting in a widespread decline of rampant tuberculosis, typhoid and scarlet fever. Up to a quarter of a million were housed under the Labourers Acts by 1921. It is not an exaggeration to term it a social revolution, in a sense it was the first large-scale public-housing schemes in the country, a development neglected by historians, because the houses, rural based and more scattered, were not as evident as the urban tenements, that officialdom would not even look into.
Aims accomplished
Additional funding for the erection of a further 5000 cottages was won under the follow-on Labourers (Ireland) Act (1911), Sheehan making the concluding speech during the passage of the bill. Although he retired from the LLA in 1910, Sheehan remained active in the labour movement as its leader in Munster. Around 1912, Ireland was economically one of the prosperous small countries of Europe. D. D. Sheehan maintained in 1921, that the labourers, as a result of these housing acts (particularly the landmark 1906 bill), "were no longer a people to be kicked and cuffed and ordered about by the schoneens and squireens of the district; they became a very worthy class indeed, to be courted and flattered at election times and wheedled with all sorts of fair promises of what could be done for them".
Having successfully settled the main grievances of small tenant farmers and agrarian labourers, O'Brien and Sheehan moved on by turning their attention to the unresolved question of the Home Rule Movement, founding for this purpose a new organisation, the All-for-Ireland League, many LLA branches joining the League.
Adversity
The Irish Parliamentary Party, after had it alienated O'Brien from the party in 1903, tried by every means to curtail his activities after he became associated with Sheehan's ILLA, regarding their conciliatory approach in the land question as a dangerous deviation from party policy. In the manner in which the Party took control of O'Brien's UIL through the involvement of Joseph Devlin, Redmond and Dillon were determined to undermine O'Brien and "squelch that body by getting a few reliable Munster MPs to start a new Land and Labour group and claim it as the legitimate continuation of the original association". In 1905, Dillon's loyal "Redmonite" ally and ILLA secretary J. J. O'Shee was tasked with forming a break-away 'party-subservient' organisation in answer to Sheehan's domination of the original one. Sheehan had however created that domination on order to realize the great democratic principle of the government of the people by the people and for the people in the teeth of party autocracy. A larger section, mainly in counties Cork, Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary, followed Sheehan who renamed it the 'Land and Labour Association' (LLA). Its members sat on most Rural and District County Councils. Splitting-off and in-fighting became symptomatic of all national movements after the Parnell split.
O'Brien and some others rejoined the IPP in 1908 for the sake of unity, but he was again driven out on the occasion of the rigged Dublin National Convention in February 1909, called the "Baton Convention", in a dispute over the financial arrangements for the next stage of the 1909 Land Purchase Act. Regarding himself as having been driven from the party by Hibernian hooligans, O’Brien formed a new movement, the "All-for-Ireland League". By January 1910 further ILLA groups split off, in Cork city P. J. Bradley, building an empire on the title, and William Field MP, as president of a Dublin-based Land and Labour League (LLL), each claiming Irish Party credit for the earlier ILLA achievements. Sheehan resigned the LLA presidency in July 1910, his colleague Cornelius Buckley taking over. Cork then had three LLA factions from 1910 to 1915.
This greatly damaged the labourer’s movement as soon nobody knew which organisation they belonged to. In other counties where branches were long established, they remained independent with divergent local activities, in some cases in Connacht under R. A. Corr, with the dual title Trade and Labour Association (T&LA), as successor to Davitt’s Democratic Labour Federation.
New Labour
By the end of 1919, most ILLA and LLA branches had completed amalgamation with the expanding Irish Transport and General Workers' Union (ITGWU), some independent branches remaining active in outlying areas of Munster and Connacht into the 1920s, when they in turn fused with the ITGWU, all forming the basis of the new labour movement. Thomas Johnson, first parliamentary leader of the Irish Labour Party is recorded as saying that Labour's strength outside of the urban areas could in part be attributed to the role played by organisations such as the ILLA.
Following the Great War a further 5000 cottage homes were built in both parts of Ireland for returning soldiers, under the Irish Land (Provision for Sailors and Soldiers) Act 1919 which related to the provision of cottages, plots, or gardens and the building of mostly small new housing estates for the veterans at the edge of towns. It was effected by the "Irish soldiers' and sailors' Land Trust", which co-operated with the new Irish Free State.
Later Irish governments continued rural cottage building well into the middle of the 20th. Century, though at a much slower rate, local government funding now largely focused on developing urban rather than hitherto rural housing.
Notes
References
Sheehan, D. D.: Ireland since Parnell (1921) Chapter 14 on the ILLA; accessed May 2009
McKay, Enda: The Housing of the Rural Labourer, 1883–1916, Irish Labour History Society, SAOTHAR Vol.17 pp. 27–38 (1992)
Lane, Pádraig G.: The Land and Labour Association 1894–1914, Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society, Vol.98, pp. 90–106 (1993), Cork City Council Library
Cunningham, John: Labour in the West of Ireland, Athol Books, Belfast (1995),
Frazer, Murray: John Bull's Other Homes, State Housing and British Policy in Ireland, 1883–1922, Liverpool University Press (1995)
Lane, Fintan: The Origins of Modern Irish Socialism, Cork University Press (1995)
O’Donovan, John: Daniel Desmond (D. D.) Sheehan and the Rural Labour Question in Cork, 1894–1910 in Casey, Brian (Ed.): Defying the Law of the Land: Agrarian Radicals in Irish History , History Press (2013)
External links
History of Ireland (1801–1923)
Irish nationalist organisations
Land reform in Ireland |
4244395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Kenya | LGBT rights in Kenya | Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Kenya face significant challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Sodomy is a felony per Section 162 of the Kenyan Penal Code, punishable by 21 years' imprisonment, and any sexual practices (termed "gross indecency") are a felony under section 165 of the same statute, punishable by 5 years' imprisonment. On 24 May 2019, the High Court of Kenya refused an order to declare sections 162 and 165 unconstitutional. The state does not recognise any relationships between persons of the same sex; same-sex marriage is banned under the Kenyan Constitution since 2010. There are no explicit protections against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Adoption is prohibited to same-sex couples.
Transgender people have historically suffered discrimination, and there are no statutory provisions relating to transgender rights. However, there have been a series of court rulings in favour of transgender rights, such as the right to change the names appearing on legal documents. It is currently unclear as to whether these rulings constitute substantive law on the issue of changing legal gender.
Kenyan society is highly conservative, and a large majority of people hold negative views of LGBT people. Despite this, public support has slowly been growing and various organisations are working to protect and improve LGBT rights.
Laws about same-sex sexual activity
Statutes
Same sex acts are illegal under Kenyan statutes and carry a maximum penalty of 14 years' imprisonment to 21 years in certain aggravating circumstances. Sex acts between women are mentioned under the gender-neutral term "person" in Section 162 of the Penal Code and are enforced equally. Indeed, Prime Minister Raila Odinga on 28 November 2010 called for them to be arrested along with gay men.
The Kenyan Penal Code of 1930, as revised in 2006, provides as follows:
Section 162. Unnatural offenses.
Any person who –
(a) has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature; or
(c) permits a male person to have carnal knowledge of him or her against the order of nature, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for fourteen years:
Provided that, in the case of an offence under paragraph (a), the offender shall be liable to imprisonment for twenty-one years if –
(i) the offence was committed without the consent of the person who was carnally known; or
(ii) the offence was committed with that person's consent but the consent was obtained by force or by means of threats or intimidation of some kind, or by fear of bodily harm, or by means of false representations as to the nature of the act.
Section 163. Attempt to commit unnatural offenses.
Any person who attempts to commit any of the offences specified in section 162 is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for seven years.
Section 165. Indecent practices between males.
Any male person who, whether in public or private, commits any act of gross indecency with another male person, or procures another male person to commit any act of gross indecency with him, or attempts to procure the commission of any such act by any male person with himself or with another male person, whether in public or private, is guilty of a felony and is liable to imprisonment for five years.
The Kenya Human Rights Commission reported in 2011 about how these statutes have indirect but very adverse effects on LGBTI persons, saying,
Same sex sexual practices remain criminalized ... and even though there are few convictions based on sections 162 to 165 of the Penal Code ..., LGBTI persons are routinely harassed by the police, held in remand houses beyond the constitutional period without charges being preferred against them, and presented in court on trumped-up charges. Closely related to this, is a cartel of corrupt police officials who routinely extort and blackmail LGBTI persons with the threat of arrest and imprisonment if they do not give those bribes. ... LGBTI sex workers, mostly MSMs [men who have sex with men] are often asked for bribes and sexual favours by male police officers in exchange for their freedom and security. ... Those who fail to give bribes or sexual favours are charged with tramped up charges and sometimes raped by state security officers.
Constitutional provisions
The Constitution of Kenya, which took effect 27 August 2010, does not expressly protect the rights of LGBTI persons because, according to the experts who drafted the constitution, a majority of Kenyans would have rejected the constitution in the referendum to adopt it.
Nevertheless, few argue that Kenya's statutes discriminating against LGBTI persons are unconstitutional and void because of the constitution's broad protection of civil and human rights. Peter Anaminyi, the national director of Feba Radio Kenya, predicted in June 2011 that within 18 months there would be a challenge to the constitutionality of the Kenya Penal Code.
Article 2
Article 2 of the Constitution of Kenya provides, in paragraph (5) that "the general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya" and, in paragraph (6), that "[a]ny treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution". In paragraph (4), the constitution states, "[a]ny law, including customary law, that is inconsistent with [the] Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of [the] Constitution is invalid." A subsequent section of this article lists Kenya's obligations under international law and treaties concerning LGBTI rights. To the extent that any Kenyan law violates Kenya's voluntary or involuntary obligations under international law, the law is arguably void under Article 2.
Article 10
Article 10(2)(b) of the Constitution of Kenya provides that, "The national values and principles of governance include ... human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, non-discrimination and protection of the marginalised...." Concerning this provision, "Right there, there is a firm basis [for] one to argue against the violation of their [LGBTI persons'] dignity ... on the basis of their gender or sexual orientation. There is firm ground to contest for inclusion, non-discrimination and equality too".
Article 19
Article 19 of the Constitution of Kenya provides that,
(1) The Bill of Rights [Articles 19-59] is an integral part of Kenya’s democratic state and is the framework for social, economic and cultural policies.
(2) The purpose of recognizing and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms is to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the realization of the potential of all human beings.
Article 20
Article 20(3)(b) of the Constitution of Kenya requires courts, when applying a provision of the Bill of Rights, to "adopt the legal interpretation that most favours the enforcement of a right or fundamental freedom". Concerning this article, Makau Mutua, the chair of the Kenya Human Rights Commission and the dean at the University at Buffalo Law School, The State University of New York, says that "where a right is contested, the courts must take the most liberal interpretation of the law to avoid denying the right".
Article 24
Article 24(1) of the Constitution of Kenya provides that, "A right or fundamental freedom in the Bill of Rights shall not be limited except by law, and then only to the extent that the limitation is reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom, taking into account all relevant factors...."
Article 27
Article 27 of the Constitution of Kenya provides that,
Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law.
Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and fundamental freedoms.
Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal opportunities in political, economic, cultural and social spheres.
The State shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language or birth.
A person shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against another person on any of the grounds specified or contemplated in clause (4).
Concerning this article, The Equal Rights Trust and the non-governmental Kenya Human Rights Commission said in 2012,
While the Constitution does not explicitly provide for non-discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity, there is scope for this to be rectified through the courts or subsequent legislation. Article 27(4) of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 provides that the "state shall not discriminate directly or indirectly on any ground, including [listed characteristics]", while Article 27(5) states that persons shall not discriminate on any of the grounds "specified or contemplated in clause (4)". Thus defined, the prohibition on discrimination by both the state and non-state actors should be read as inclusive of sexual orientation and gender identity.
In a May 2012 submission to the United Nations Human Rights Committee, the government of Kenya agreed with this interpretation of Article 27(4).
Makau Mutua argues that the Kenya Penal Code is unconstitutional under this article. He said,
Article 27, which is the Equal Protection of the Constitution, provides "every person" is "equal before the law" and has the "right to equal protection" before the law. That's an unequivocal, categorical, and blanket protection against discrimination. The article doesn't exclude homosexuals from the ambit of constitutional protection. Further, Article 27(4) prohibits discrimination on the grounds of "sex". The prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of sex has been understood to include sexual orientation. The Constitution eliminates all wiggle room by prohibiting both direct and indirect discrimination.
Article 28
Article 28 of the Constitution of Kenya provides that, "Every person has inherent dignity and the right to have that dignity respected and protected." This article offers "fresh impetus to the rights of the LGBTI community".
Article 31
Article 31 of the Constitution of Kenya provides that, "Every person has the right to privacy...."
Privacy is a fundamental human right, enshrined in numerous international human rights instruments.
Failed decriminalisation efforts
In 2013, the Cosmopolitan Affirming Church (CAC) opened in Nairobi, becoming the first openly LGBT church in the country. The church is considered to be a rare space where Kenya's LGBT community can escape hostility from society. In 2016, The Employment and Relations Court in the Kenyan town of Nyeri ordered the Anglican Church of Kenya to reinstate three priests who were suspended in 2015 after allegations surfaced that they were gay. The priests later sued Bishop Joseph Kagunda of the Mount Kenya West Diocese, and it was later agreed that they would settle the lawsuit through mediation. In December 2018, it was announced that the Anglican Church in Kenya had given each of the three priests individual compensations of KSh.6.8 million/=.
The High Court of Kenya heard a legal challenge against on 22 and 23 February 2018, filed by the Kenyan National Gay and Lesbian Rights Commission (NGLHRC) will argue that sections of the Kenyan Penal Code are in breach of the Constitution and deny basic rights to Kenyan citizens.
The case, Eric Gitari v Attorney General & another (Petition no. 150 of 2016) filed in 2016, seeks to strike down sections Section 162 (a) and (c) and section 165 of the Penal Code (Cap 63) that criminalise consensual same sex relations between adults.
Eric Gitari, executive director of NGLHRC—and the main petitioner—states that sections of the Penal Code are used to justify violence against LGBT persons in Kenya. The constitutional division of Kenya's High Court will hear submissions from both parties on 25 October on the relevance of the decision by the Supreme Court of India to legalise gay sex by overturning Section 377 to Kenya, given that both countries have shared the law—dating back to the days of British colonial rule—that criminalises "sexual acts against the order of nature".
The High Court was expected to announce its ruling on 22 February 2019. On the scheduled date, however, it was announced that the ruling would be delayed until 24 May 2019. On 24 May 2019, the High Court of Kenya refused an order to declare sections 162 and 165 unconstitutional. LGBT activists vowed to file an appeal in the Court of Appeal.
In a separate case, a Court of Appeal in Mombasa, Kenya, ruled on 22 March 2018, that conducting forced anal examinations on people who are accused of same-sex relations is unconstitutional. The ruling reversed a 2016 High Court decision that had upheld the Kenyan authorities' use of forced anal exams to attempt to provide evidence of homosexual conduct. The National Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (NGLHRC), a nongovernmental organisation based in Nairobi, filed a constitutional challenge after police arrested two men in Kwale County in February 2015 on charges of homosexuality, and subjected them to forced anal exams, HIV tests, and hepatitis B tests at Mombasa's Madaraka Hospital. Following this decision, Empowering Marginalized Communities (EMAC), a non governmental organization based in Machakos county prosecuted a case that involved two members of the LGBT community who were allegedly caught having sex in Kakuyuni area of Kangundo sub-county. The two men were taken for anal examination at the Kangundo Level 4 hospital. This was contested at the magistrate court of Kangundo and thus the anal examination was halted.
Pending bill to punish homosexuality with death
Copying the Anti-Homosexuality Act of Uganda, a carbon copy bill called the Family Protection Act has been introduced. This law allows "aggravated homosexuality" to be punished with death and would ban all promotion of LGBT activity. It will be voted on in the upcoming month.
Recognition of same-sex unions
Article 45(2) of the Constitution of Kenya specifically authorises opposite sex marriage but is silent about same-sex marriage. "Every adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties".
In October 2009, two Kenyan men, Charles Ngengi and Daniel Chege, became civil partners at a ceremony in London, United Kingdom. The ceremony received widespread attention in Kenya, most of it critical. Chege's relatives were harassed severely by people living in his home village of Gathiru in Murang'a District.
False rumor about impending same-sex marriage in Mtwapa
In February 2010, a rumor spread in the coastal town of Mtwapa that two Kenyan men were going to marry in a local hotel. The rumor unleashed a "house-to-house witch hunt by anti-gay vigilantes, street attacks targeting gay men, the sacking of an AIDS-fighting medical center, and a widening wave of ultra-homophobic national media coverage". A local radio station, Kaya FM, picked up the story and started a series of programs on gays, which "included phone-in talk shows filled with homophobic discourse and incitements to violence". Baraka FM, Rahma FM, and ultimately national radio stations including Kiss and Classic FM also ran the story. Five days before the date of the non-existent wedding, "many of the muftis and imams discussed the impending wedding during Friday prayers and asked the community to be vigilant against homosexuals. They told their congregants to demonstrate and to flush out homosexuals from the midst of Mtwapa and to ensure that no gay wedding took place".
The day before the non-existent wedding, a press conference condemning the wedding was held by Sheikh Ali Hussein, regional coordinator of the Council of Imams and Preachers of Kenya, together with Bishop Lawrence Chai, regional representative of the National Council of Churches of Kenya. They warned that "God is about to punish the fastest-growing town in the Coast region. Come night, come day, we shall not allow that marriage to be conducted in this town tomorrow. We shall stand firm to flush out gays who throng this town every weekend from all corners of this country".
They also warned the owner of a building in the town, who was allegedly renting rooms only to homosexuals, to evict them within seven days or face their wrath. The two denounced the Mtwapa clinic run by the Kenya Medical Research Institute, which has an AIDS program for counseling and treating men who have sex with men. "We ask that the government shut it down with immediate effect or we will descend on its officials". A former member of Kenya's parliament, Omar Masumbuko, addressed the mob gathered outside the police station. He said that "homosexuality must be stopped and every means used to make that happen". He told the crowd "they should not even bother to bring the homosexuals they find to the police station but should take care of the issue themselves".
Traditional female same-sex marriage
Female same-sex marriage is practiced among the Gikuyu, Nandi, Kamba, Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. Approximately 5–10% of women in these nations are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family. The couples are considered married, though the terms used for them are mother-in-law and daughter-in-law. The female "husband" (the "mother-in-law") carries on the family name and property, while the female "wife" (the "daughter-in-law") bears children, with the intention of having a son. The female "husband" may be widowed, but may also have a living male husband, but he will not be the father of the female "wife's" children, and the identity of the biological father, though often kin, is kept secret. Such marriages may be polygamous; in 2010 a woman was interviewed who had taken five wives.
Adoption and family planning
The Children Act, 2001 makes homosexuals and unmarried couples ineligible to adopt children. Even if that ineligibility does not apply specifically, "a court may refuse to make an adoption order in respect of any person or persons if it is satisfied for any reason that it would not be in the best interests of the welfare of the child to do so".
Gender identity and expression
With respect to transgender persons, there is no legal means to change your gender in Kenya. The governmental Kenya National Commission on Human Rights reported in April 2012 that the transgender community face much discrimination in the country:
[T]ransgender people in Kenya suffer stigma and discrimination and are not able to access gender re-assignment therapy. A witness who testified at the Inquiry indicated that she had undergone all the processes of re-assignment but Kenyatta National Hospital declined the surgery and did not offer any reasons for declining. Her attempts to appeal to the Kenya Medical Practitioners and Dentist's Board have not been successful. Without being allowed to complete the therapy, transgender people suffer identity problems since they are biologically either male or female, yet they present themselves in one of the gender by mode of dressing, personality expressions or through other socially defined roles. When arrested, police often face difficulties regarding what cells (male or female) to detain transgender individuals. When at entertainment areas, they are afraid of using bathrooms designated for either sex for fear of being caught by other people and accused or mistaken to be using bathrooms for sexual crimes. The witness testified that sometimes they meet opposite sex partners who demand to have sexual relationships with them. When they discover that they are not female or male (depending on the gender of the sex partner), they scream and attract members of public to the hotel room causing public nuisance, stigma and embarrassment to the transgender person.
Transgender people face stigma, discrimination, and violence in Kenya. Discrimination in particular is prevalent, as is sexual violence. This is in the areas of recognition of a third sex by the government, access to justice, employment and other spheres of public life.
Transgender Education and Advocacy (TEA) is "a human rights organisation working towards ending human rights violations against transgender / transsexual people. Established in December 2008, the TEA aims to change the public mentality towards transgender / transsexual people through awareness raising campaigns, advocating for legal and policy reforms[,] and empowering transgender / transsexual people".
Intersex rights
Intersex people face stigma, discrimination, and violence in Kenya, including mutilation and non-consensual medical interventions, and difficulties in obtaining documentation.
International pressure on Kenya to legalise same-sex sexual activities
Reports and recommendations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Kenya became a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on 1 May 1972. Under Article 40 of the Covenant, the United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC) reviewed and made recommendations on 24 March 2005 concerning Kenya's 18-years-late second periodic report. The UNHRC urged Kenya to repeal Section 162, Penal Code, which criminalises homosexuality. On 19 August 2010 in its third periodic report, Kenya responded formally to this recommendation:
Kenya may not decriminalize same sex unions at this stage as such acts are considered as taboo and offences against the order of nature which are repugnant to cultural values and morality. Indeed the public gave overwhelming presentations to the Committee of Experts [on Constitutional Review] against the inclusion of same sex rights under the new constitution. It must however be reiterated that the government does not discriminate against anyone in the provision of services. No one is ever required under the law to declare their sexual orientation under any circumstances.
Kenya further addressed these issues in May 2012:
Kenya is currently not undertaking any measures to decriminalize same sex unions. Public opinion is strongly against the legalization of same sex unions. The Constitution provides under article 45 (2) that a person has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of both parties. However, under article 27 (4), the Constitution, the grounds prohibited for non-discrimination are not limited and therefore this allows room for individuals to claim the violation of their rights on the grounds of their sexual orientation, in the event that they are discriminated against either directly or indirectly by the State or other individuals. ... Until such time that public opinion will change, the Government has tried to accord certain protections to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender ... persons.
Universal Periodic Reviews
The United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC) in May 2010 completed a Universal Periodic Review of the human rights situation in Kenya. During the review, Kenya stated:
With regard to same-sex relationships, there had been serious intolerance because of cultural beliefs and overwhelming opposition to the decriminalization of such relationships, as observed during the constitutional review process. However, the Government did not support discrimination in terms of access to services.
The following recommendations were made to Kenya (the country that initiated the recommendation is listed in parentheses):
Take concrete steps to provide for the protection and equal treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons (Netherlands); decriminalize same-sex activity between consenting adults (Czech Republic); repeal all legislative provisions which criminalize sexual activity between consenting adults (United States of America); decriminalize homosexuality by abrogating the legal provisions currently punishing sexual relations between consenting individuals of the same sex, and subscribe to the December 2008 General Assembly Declaration on sexual orientation and human rights (France)
In response, Kenya indicated on 6 May 2010 that same-sex unions were culturally unacceptable in Kenya. More specifically, Geoffrey Kibara, Secretary, Justice and Constitutional Affairs, Ministry of Justice, National Cohesion and Constitutional Affairs, said on behalf of the Kenyan delegation:
We wish to state as follows. One, there has been a serious intolerance to homosexual relationships in the country because of cultural beliefs. In fact, these relationships are considered taboo in Kenya. The only way we see these being accepted would be over the long term if there are cultural changes. But currently there is serious opposition to decriminalizing same-sex relationships. In fact, during the constitution-making process, public views were received on this and they were overwhelmingly towards continuing the current criminalization of same-sex relationships. But we also want to state that as a government, we do not support discrimination on people who practice same-sex relationships. Discrimination whether in terms of access to services is expressly outlawed, particularly with regard to access to HIV/AIDS prevention and support facilities. The law that is HIV and AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 2006 expressly prohibits any discrimination towards same-sex relationships or people on the basis of their sexual orientation.
Pressure from the U.S. Department of State
The U.S. Department of State's 2011 human rights report found that "societal discrimination based on sexual orientation was widespread [in 2011] and resulted in loss of employment and educational opportunities. Violence against the LGBT community also occurred, particularly in rural areas and among refugees. [Nongovernmental organisation] groups reported that police intervened to stop attacks but were not generally sympathetic to LGBT individuals or concerns".
On 26 June 2012, the United States embassy in Nairobi held what was believed to be the first ever LGBT pride event in Kenya. A public affairs officer at the embassy said, "The U.S. government for its part has made it clear that the advancement of human rights for LGBT people is central to our human rights policies around the world and to the realisation of our foreign policy goals". Similar events were held at other U.S. embassies around the world.
Public opinion and living conditions
According to the 2020 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 14% of Kenyans said homosexuality should be accepted by society up from 1% in 2002. However, a majority (83%) responded that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.
The non-governmental Kenya Human Rights Commission published, in 2011, the first research paper on the legal and social status of LGBTI people in Kenya. Among those who came out or were outed to their family members, 89 percent reported that they were disowned. Employees were reported to have been terminated or subjected to hostility, ridicule, humiliation, and discrimination when their sexual orientation or gender identity became known in the workplace.
Traditional religious and cultural values play a substantial role in this figures. Leaders within the three dominate religions in Kenya, Catholic, Anglican and Islamic, condemn homosexuality and transgender identity as signs of decadence, disease, and immorality.
In June 2011, Kisauni Islamic College principal Sheikh Majid Obeid blamed inflation and drought on people who engage in same-sex acts. Council of Imams and Preachers of Kenya Organizing secretary Sheikh Mohammed Khalifa said, "We are asking Kenyans to shun businesses owned by such people and further show them open discrimination as a way of stopping the beastly act. They grossly abuse rights of others and should not be accepted among the society".
A mob of 100 people led by religious leaders and village elders on 23 February 2012 stormed a meeting of homosexuals at the Likoni CDF Youth Empowerment and Library Centre. Likoni police boss Abagarro Guyo and district officer Moses Ouma then ordered the meeting closed. Sheikh Amir Zani of the Muzadhalfa mosque described the seminar as "illegal, ungodly and unacceptable". He threatened to "mobilise the community to cane the gays if they organised such a meeting again". But the Ministry of Youth and Sports district officer, David Ogal, defended the organisers of the seminar and accused residents of misunderstanding their aims:
Here we are dealing with very vital education to vulnerable groups, including ... gays.... We are offering peer and HIV/AIDS education to the youth because they are at the highest risk of infection. ... The gay community, like other groups, approached us and requested to be educated on safe sex. They have a right to safe sex. By doing this, we are not promoting homosexuality but imparting knowledge. There is a lot of social discrimination and stigma about the issue and we as a society must fight it.
The governmental Kenya National Commission on Human Rights reported in April 2012 that,
LGBIs are discriminated, stigmatised and subjected to violence because of their sexual orientation. In cases where they need medical care, they suffer stigma perpetuated by health care providers who breach their privacy and confidentiality by exposing their sexual orientation to other colleagues at the facilities. The health care providers are not friendly and hardly understand their sexual and reproductive health needs. ... LGBIs face physical harassment by members of public who mock and assault them for practicing "unnatural" sexual relations. In cases of assault by mob justice, the police often fail to come to their rescue. Upon arrest, police subject them to unnecessary body and house searches allegedly looking for evidence that could link them to other crimes. They are profiled as drug users, past prison convicts or individuals with track records of crimes. They often face arbitrary arrest, are often detained at the police stations, subjected to torture and unnecessary harassment by the police who extort money from them and are only released after bribing their way out. They also suffer sexual abuse from the arresting officers. ... When their identities are discovered, LGBIs cannot seek employment or undertake other forms of business—for example, running a kiosk. Sometimes, they have to keep relocating to different residential areas to hide their identity. ... Further they are often evicted from their rental houses by neighbours and condemned for their orientation which is termed evil. In cases where they are not evicted ..., they are not allowed to use common utilities in the residential compounds such as swimming pools. LGBIs are also unable to access spiritual nourishment from the society because they are labelled as evil and the teachings in places of worship interpret LGBI activities as unnatural and unacceptable.
In response, Peter Karanja, the general secretary of the National Council of Churches of Kenya, said on 11 May 2012,
We are concerned that the direction the debate has taken is that of the recognition of homosexuality and prostitution which are against African beliefs and more so our Christian principles. This is a matter that deserves reflective discussion by our society in recognition of our values and beliefs. This is a view shared by our Muslim brothers and sisters. We do not however imply that those who practice them should be locked up, we believe they need assistance to change from these.
Julius Kalu, a bishop of the Anglican Church of Kenya in Mombasa, was reported to have said in July 2012 that the movement to allow same-sex marriages is a bigger threat to the Christian church than terrorism, even though Christians in Kenya have endured several terror attacks in 2012. However, on 11 August 2012 during a meeting with LGBT Christians, Kalu denied having made that statement: "It was not me who said that gays are worse than terrorists. Never. However, all things work together for good to those who love God and I confess to you that, that article, however disparaging and infamous, has helped me know a lot about LGBT people. Because of it, I have been contacted by my fellow bishops in the listening group in the UK, Canada[,] and individual LGBTI people in Kenya. Therefore, let me clear the air on this issue, I never said anything of that sort! This is my very first time to ever see or even meet with LGBTI people and especially from Kenya. It is indeed a shame to me that I've been shepherding to LGBTI people in the Anglican Church when I even don't know!" The July 2012 murder of Tanzanian LGBT rights campaigner Maurice Mjomba was raised during the meeting and Kalu was reported to have "appeared visibly disturbed, saddened[,] and struck with grief" by the news. According to the report, "he stated that there was a need for human societies to live in love, care[,] and harmony with one another without assigning indifferences." He condemned the murder of Mjomba as a "heinous and cowardly" act and expressed the wish that someday soon LGBTI people will live in a free world without "violence and discrimination".
In 2014, the Kenya Film Classification Board (KFCB) banned the LGBT-themed film Stories of Our Lives, made by a Nairobi-based arts collective, from distribution or screening in Kenya, on the grounds that it "promotes" homosexuality.
In 2015, Mark Kariuki, head of the Evangelical Alliance in Kenya and a bishop, said that then U.S. President Barack Obama should "leave the gay talk in America" during his state visit to Kenya. He also said that he does not want to "open doors for [Kenya] to be destroyed."
Rafiki, a 2018 Kenyan drama film directed by Wanuri Kahiu was internationally successful and the first Kenyan film to be screened at the prestigious Cannes Film Festival in France. However it was banned by the KFCB "due to its homosexual theme and clear intent to promote lesbianism in Kenya contrary to the law". The KFCB warned that anyone found in possession of the film would be in breach of the law in Kenya, where gay sex is punishable by 14 years in jail. The ban raised international outrage by the supporters of LGBT rights.
The film's director, Wanuri Kahiu, sued Kenya's government, to allow the film to be screened and become eligible to be submitted as Kenya's entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 91st Academy Awards. On 21 September 2018, the Kenyan High Court lifted the ban on the film, allowing it to be screened in the country for seven days, therefore meeting the eligibility requirements. After the ban was lifted, the film was shown to a sold-out crowd at a cinema in Nairobi. Despite the ban being lifted, it was not selected as Kenya's submission in the Foreign Language Film category, with Supa Modo being sent instead.
Views of government officials
In November 2010, Kenyan Prime Minister Raila Odinga said the behavior of gay couples was "unnatural" and that, "If found the homosexuals should be arrested and taken to relevant authorities". He asserted that "there was no need for homosexual relationships" because the most recent census showed there were more women than men. He said it was "madness for a man to fall in love with another man while there were plenty of women" and that "there was no need for women to engage in lesbianism yet they can bear children". Days later, Odinga denied ordering the arrest of gay couples, saying he meant only that same-sex marriages are illegal in Kenya.
In November 2010, the commissioner of prisons, Isaiah Osugo, announced a plan for closed-circuit television surveillance in Kenyan prisons to curb sex between male inmates.
The chief justice of the Kenyan Supreme Court, Willy Munyoki Mutunga, said at a groundbreaking ceremony for FIDA Uganda in Kampala on 8 September 2011,
The other frontier of marginalization is the gay rights movement. Gay rights are human rights. Here I'm simply confining my statement to the context of human rights and social justice paradigm, and avoiding the controversy that exists in our constitutions and various legislation. As far as I know, human rights principles that we work on, do not allow us to implement human rights selectively. We need clarity on this issue within the human rights movement in East Africa, if we are to face the challenges that are spearheaded by powerful political and religious forces in our midst. I find the arguments made by some of our human rights activists, the so-called "moral arguments", simply rationalizations for using human rights principles opportunistically and selectively. We need to bring together the opposing viewpoints in the movement of this issue for final and conclusive debate.
When former U.S. President Barack Obama visited Kenya in July 2015, Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta rebutted Obama's stance on equal rights for all, including sexual orientation, by stating that for Kenyans LGBT rights are a non-issue and not in line with Kenyan culture.
In April 2018, Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta said that LGBT rights are "not acceptable" and "of no importance to the people of the Republic of Kenya." He also added that the LGBT rights issue in Kenya is not an "issue of human rights" but an "issue of [Kenyan] society and culture."
LGBT rights movement in Kenya
LGBT rights organisations in Kenya include the Gay and Lesbian Coalition of Kenya, Gay Kenya Trust, National Gay & Lesbian Human Rights Commission, and the East Africa Trans Health & Advocacy Network.
In March 2019, 3 out of 5 judges in the Court of Appeal ruled that the government could not use colonial-era laws criminalising gay sexual activity to block the National Gay Lesbian Human Rights Commission (NGLHRC) from being registered as a non-profit organization, and dismissed the appeal after the government's Non-Governmental Organisations Coordination Board rejecting its application for registration as a charity on the basis that it was for gay and lesbian people. The government appealed the judgment to the Supreme Court, which in a 3-2 decision dismissed the appeal.
The body of murdered LGBTQ activist and fashion business owner, Edwin Chiloba was found in Uasin Gishu on 3 January 2023.
Summary table
See also
Human rights in Kenya
Kenya Human Rights Commission
LGBT rights in Africa
Denis Nzioka
References
External links
UK government travel advice for Kenya: Local laws and customs
Rainbow Kenya
Human rights in Kenya
Law of Kenya
Rights
Kenya
Politics of Kenya |
4244428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%20uploading%20in%20fiction | Mind uploading in fiction | Mind uploading, whole brain emulation, or substrate-independent minds, is a use of a computer or another substrate as an emulated human brain. The term "mind transfer" also refers to a hypothetical transfer of a mind from one biological brain to another. Uploaded minds and societies of minds, often in simulated realities, are recurring themes in science-fiction novels and films since the 1950s.
Early and particularly important examples
A story featuring an artificial brain that replicates the personality of a specific person is "The Infinite Brain" by John Scott Campbell, written under the name John C. Campbell, and published in the May 1930 issue of Science Wonder Stories. The artificial brain is created by an inventor named Anton Des Roubles, who tells the narrator that "I am attempting to construct a mechanism exactly duplicating the mechanical and electrical processes occurring in the human brain and constituting the phenomena known as thought." The narrator later learns that Des Roubles has died, and on visiting his laboratory, finds a machine that can communicate with him via typed messages, and which tells him "I, Anton Des Roubles, am dead—my body is dead—but I still live. I am this machine. These racks of apparatus are my brains, which is thinking even as yours is. Anton Des Roubles is dead but he has built me, his exact mental duplicate, to carry on his life and work." The machine also tells him "He made my brain precisely like his, built three hundred thousand cells for my memory, and filled two hundred thousand of them with his own knowledge. I have his personality; it is my own through a process I will tell you of later. ... I think just as you do. I have a consciousness as have other men." He then explains his discovery that the electrical impulses in the brain create magnetic fields that can be detected by a device he built called a "Telepather", and that "[t]hrough this instrument any one's mental condition can be exactly duplicated." Later, he enlists the narrator's help in constructing a new type of artificial brain that will retain his memories but possess an expanded intellect, though the experiment does not go as planned, as the new intelligence has a radically different personality and soon sets out to conquer the world.
An early story featuring technological transfer of memories and personality from one brain to another is "Intelligence Undying" by Edmond Hamilton, first published in the April 1936 issue of Amazing Stories. In this story, an elderly scientist named John Hanley explains that when humans are first born, "our minds are a blank sheet except for certain reflexes which we all inherit. But from our birth onward, our minds are affected by all about us, our reflexes are conditioned, as the behaviorists say. All we experience is printed on the sheet of our minds. ... Everything a human being learns, therefore, simply establishes new connections between the nerve cells of the brain. ... As I said, a newborn child has no such knowledge connections in his cortex at all—he has not yet formed any. Now if I take that child immediately after birth and establish in his brain exactly the same web of intricate neurone connections I have built up in my own brain, he will have exactly the same mind, memories, knowledge, as I have ... his mind will be exactly identical with my mind!" He then explains he has developed a technique to do just this, saying "I've devised a way to scan my brain's intricate web of neurone connections by electrical impulses, and by means of those impulses to build up an exactly identical web of neurone connections in the infant's brain. Just as a television scanning-disk can break down a complicated picture into impulses that reproduce the picture elsewhere." He adds that the impulses scanning his brain will kill him, but the "counter-impulses" imprinting the same pattern on the baby's brain will not harm him. The story shows the successful transfer of John Hanley's mind to the baby, whom he describes as "John Hanley 2nd", and then skips forward to the year 3144 to depict "John Hanley, 21st" using his advanced technology to become the ruler of the Earth in order to end a war between the two great political powers of the time, and then further ahead to "John Hanley, 416th" helping to evacuate humanity to the planet Mercury in response to the Sun shrinking into a white dwarf. He chooses to remain on Earth awaiting death, so that people would "learn once more to do for themselves, would become again a strong a self-reliant race", with Hanley concluding that he "had been wrong in living as a single super-mind down through the ages. He saw that now, and now he was undoing that wrong."
A story featuring human minds replicated in a computer is the novella Izzard and the Membrane by Walter M. Miller, Jr., first published in May 1951. In this story, an American cyberneticist named Scott MacDonney is captured by Russians and made to work on an advanced computer, Izzard, which they plan to use to coordinate an attack on the United States. He has conversations with Izzard as he works on it, and when he asks it if it is self-aware, it says "answer indeterminate" and then asks "can human individual's self-awareness transor be mechanically duplicated?" MacDonney is unfamiliar with the concept of a self-awareness transor (it is later revealed that this information was loaded into Izzard by a mysterious entity who may nor may not be God), and Izzard defines it by saying "A self-awareness transor is the mathematical function which describes the specific consciousness pattern of one human individual." It is later found that this mathematical function can indeed be duplicated, although not by a detailed scan of the individual's brain as in later notions of mind uploading; instead, Donney just has to describe the individual verbally in sufficient detail, and Izzard uses this information to locate the transor in the appropriate "mathematical region". In Izzard's words, "to duplicate consciousness of deceased, it will be necessary for you to furnish anthropometric and psychic characteristics of the individual. These characteristics will not determine transor, but will only give its general form. Knowing its form, will enable me to sweep my circuit pattern through its mathematical region until the proper transor is reached. At that point, the consciousness will appear among the circuits." Using this method, MacDonney is able to recreate the mind of his dead wife in Izzard's memory, as well as create a virtual duplicate of himself, which seems to have a shared awareness with the biological MacDonney.
In The Altered Ego by Jerry Sohl (1954), a person's mind can be "recorded" and used to create a "restoration" in the event of their death. In a restoration, the person's biological body is repaired and brought back to life, and their memories are restored to the last time that they had their minds recorded (what the story calls a 'brain record'), an early example of a story in which a person can create periodic backups of their own mind which are stored in an artificial medium. The recording process is not described in great detail, but it is mentioned that the recording is used to create a duplicate or "dupe" which is stored in the "restoration bank", and at one point a lecturer says that "The experience of the years, the neurograms, simple memory circuits—neurons, if you wish—stored among these nerve cells, are transferred to the dupe, a group of more than ten billion molecules in colloidal suspension. They are charged much as you would charge the plates of a battery, the small neuroelectrical impulses emanating from your brain during the recording session being duplicated on the molecular structure in the solution." During restoration, they take the dupe and "infuse it into an empty brain", and the plot turns on the fact that it is possible to install one person's dupe in the body of a completely different person.
An early example featuring uploaded minds in robotic bodies can be found in Frederik Pohl's story "The Tunnel Under the World" from 1955. In this story, the protagonist Guy Burckhardt continually wakes up on the same date from a dream of dying in an explosion. Burckhardt is already familiar with the idea of putting human minds in robotic bodies, since this is what is done with the robot workers at the nearby Contro Chemical factory. As someone has once explained it to him, "each machine was controlled by a sort of computer which reproduced, in its electronic snarl, the actual memory and mind of a human being ... It was only a matter, he said, of transferring a man's habit patterns from brain cells to vacuum-tube cells." Later in the story, Pohl gives some additional description of the procedure: "Take a master petroleum chemist, infinitely skilled in the separation of crude oil into its fractions. Strap him down, probe into his brain with searching electronic needles. The machine scans the patterns of the mind, translates what it sees into charts and sine waves. Impress these same waves on a robot computer and you have your chemist. Or a thousand copies of your chemist, if you wish, with all of his knowledge and skill, and no human limitations at all." After some investigation, Burckhardt learns that his entire town had been killed in a chemical explosion, and the brains of the dead townspeople had been scanned and placed into miniature robotic bodies in a miniature replica of the town (as a character explains to him, 'It's as easy to transfer a pattern from a dead brain as a living one'), so that a businessman named Mr. Dorchin could charge companies to use the townspeople as test subjects for new products and advertisements.
Something close to the notion of mind uploading is very briefly mentioned in Isaac Asimov's 1956 short story The Last Question: "One by one Man fused with AC, each physical body losing its mental identity in a manner that was somehow not a loss but a gain." A more detailed exploration of the idea (and one in which individual identity is preserved, unlike in Asimov's story) can be found in Arthur C. Clarke's novel The City and the Stars, also from 1956 (this novel was a revised and expanded version of Clarke's earlier story Against the Fall of Night, but the earlier version did not contain the elements relating to mind uploading). The story is set in a city named Diaspar one billion years in the future, where the minds of inhabitants are stored as patterns of information in the city's Central Computer in between a series of 1000-year lives in cloned bodies. Various commentators identify this story as one of the first (if not the first) to deal with mind uploading, human–machine synthesis, and computerized immortality.
Another of the "firsts" is the novel Detta är verkligheten (This is reality), 1968, by the renowned philosopher and logician Bertil Mårtensson, a novel in which he describes people living in an uploaded state as a means to control overpopulation. The uploaded people believe that they are "alive", but in reality they are playing elaborate and advanced fantasy games. In a twist at the end, the author changes everything into one of the best "multiverse" ideas of science fiction.
In Robert Silverberg's To Live Again (1969), an entire worldwide economy is built up around the buying and selling of "souls" (personas that have been tape-recorded at six-month intervals), allowing well-heeled consumers the opportunity to spend tens of millions of dollars on a medical treatment that uploads the most recent recordings of archived personalities into the minds of the buyers. Federal law prevents people from buying a "personality recording" unless the possessor first had died; similarly, two or more buyers were not allowed to own a "share" of the persona. In this novel, the personality recording always went to the highest bidder. However, when one attempted to buy (and therefore possess) too many personalities, there was the risk that one of the personas would wrest control of the body from the possessor.
In the 1982 novel Software, part of the Ware Tetralogy by Rudy Rucker, one of the main characters, Cobb Anderson, has his mind downloaded and his body replaced with an extremely human-like android body. The robots who persuade Anderson into doing this sell the process to him as a way to become immortal.
In William Gibson's award-winning Neuromancer (1984), which popularized the concept of "cyberspace", a hacking tool used by the main character is an artificial infomorph of a notorious cyber-criminal, Dixie Flatline. The infomorph only assists in exchange for the promise that he be deleted after the mission is complete.
The fiction of Greg Egan has explored many of the philosophical, ethical, legal, and identity aspects of mind transfer, as well as the financial and computing aspects (i.e. hardware, software, processing power) of maintaining "copies." In Egan's Permutation City (1994), Diaspora (1997) and Zendegi (2010), "copies" are made by computer simulation of scanned brain physiology. See also Egan's "jewelhead" stories, where the mind is transferred from the organic brain to a small, immortal backup computer at the base of the skull, the organic brain then being surgically removed.
The movie The Matrix is commonly mistaken for a mind uploading movie, but with exception to suggestions in later movies, it is only about virtual reality and simulated reality, since the main character Neo's physical brain still is required for his mind to reside in. The mind (the information content of the brain) is not copied into an emulated brain in a computer. Neo's physical brain is connected into the Matrix via a brain–computer interface. Only the rest of the physical body is simulated. Neo is disconnected from and reconnected to this dreamworld.
James Cameron's 2009 movie Avatar has so far been the commercially most successful example of a work of fiction that features a form of mind uploading. Throughout most of the movie, the hero's mind has not actually been uploaded and transferred to another body, but is simply controlling the body from a distance, a form of telepresence. However, at the end of the movie the hero's mind is uploaded into Eywa, the mind of the planet, and then back into his Avatar body.
Further examples
Mind transfer is a theme in many other works of science fiction in a wide range of media. Specific examples include the following:
Literature
Frederik Pohl's story The Tunnel under the World (1955). See above article.
Isaac Asimov's short story The Last Question (1956). See above article.
Arthur C. Clarke's The City and the Stars (1956). See above article.
In the Noon Universe created by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, the Great Encoding of 2121 was the first known attempt to completely store an individual's personality on an artificial medium. The final stages of the Encoding are described in the chapter 14 of Noon: 22nd Century (Candles Before the Control Board), first published in 1961.
Clifford D. Simak's Hugo-shortlisted novel Time is the Simplest Thing (1961) is based around mind copying and uploading. The initial swap involves 'the Pinkness' giving 'Shep Blaine' a very large number of minds that it has collected over the aeons in exchange for a copy of his mind.
Philip José Farmer's World of Tiers series (1965–1993) introduces the villainous Bellers, who were laboratory machines designed to temporarily hold Lord's consciousness between clone bodies, which became sentient and self replicating.onto a Holopox unit shortly before being nuked by the KGB.
In Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), the beings controlling the monoliths were once alien lifeforms that had uploaded their minds into robotic bodies and finally into the fabric of space and time itself. The character Dave Bowman undergoes an uploading from the body of a human into a "ghost", as he is described in later books.
Bertil Mårtensson's novel Detta är verkligheten (This is reality), 1968. See above article for details.
Robert Silverberg's novel To Live Again (1969). See opening section for details.
Gene Wolfe's novella The Fifth Head of Cerberus (1972) features a robot named "Mr. Million" whose mind is an uploaded version of the original man who the narrator ('Number Five') was cloned from, and who acts as the narrator's tutor.
John Sladek's satirical The Muller-Fokker Effect (1973), in which a human mind could be recorded on cassette tapes and then imprinted on a human body using tailored viruses.
In an interesting reversal of the typical mind-transfer story, in Robert A Heinlein's Time Enough for Love (1973) a sentient computer transfers "her" mind into a genetically engineered human body.
In George R. R. Martin's novella A Song for Lya (1974), an organism called the Greeshka has the ability to upload the minds of those it consumes, allowing them to live on as bodyless minds.
In James P. Hogan's The Giants novels (1977–2005), stable FTL travel takes weeks if not months, so people upload their minds into an intergalactic network controlled by the AI known as VISAR. The network also supports a large series of virtual worlds for people to interact.
Michael Berlyn's The Integrated Man (1980), where a human mind, or part of it (or even just a set of skills) can be encoded on a chip and inserted into a special socket at the base of the brain.
Rudy Rucker's novel Software (1982). See opening section for details.
C. J. Cherryh's novel Voyager in Night (1984). An ancient alien vessel uploads various beings that it meets.
In Heroes Unlimited (1984) under the Robot category, a human pilot has a transferred intelligence category that transfers a human intelligence over a distance into the body of a robot. This option is also available in Rifts Sourcebook 1. In either case it can be permanent.
William Gibson's novel Neuromancer (1984). See opening section for details.
Frederik Pohl's Beyond the Blue Event Horizon (1982), the second of four novels in the Heechee Saga, introduces uploading technology. In the next, Heechee Rendezvous (1984), the protagonist Robinette Broadhead has died and been uploaded into a computer.
Larry Niven deals with mind-transfer in his short stories: memories from 'corpsicles' (cryogenically frozen bodies) are transferred to mindwiped criminals. In the novels The Smoke Ring (1987) and The Integral Trees (1984), a human is voluntarily 'translated' into a computer program to operate as a starship's guiding intelligence.
Iain M. Banks's Culture series (1987–) make extensive reference to the transfer of mind-states.
Greg Bear's novel Eternity (1988) features a main character discovering a captured uploaded mind of a type of alien called a "Jart", whose civilization is later discovered to have the goal of uploading and digitizing as many minds and life-forms as possible with the hope of preserving them in a future "Final Mind" similar to Teilhard or Tipler's conception of the Omega Point. The story also features Bear's notion of the Taylor algorithms which allow a mentality to discover what type of system it is running on (for example, Bear writes on p. 109 that with these algorithms, "a downloaded mentality could tell whether or not it had been downloaded").
Janet Asimov's Mind Transfer (1988) journeys through the birth, life, death, and second life of a man whose family pioneers human-to-android mind transfer. It also explores the ethical and moral issues of transferring consciousness into an android at the moment of death, and examines the idea of prematurely activating an android which has not yet accepted a human brain scan.
Several characters in Kyle Allen's The Archon Conspiracy (1989) are repeatedly killed and resurrected in prosthetic bodies, once a "pattern map" of their brains is recovered and hard-wired into an artificial neural net. The main antagonist uses a similar process to construct a memetic computer virus, in the process uploading the personality of a notorious serial killer into several thousand people.
Roger MacBride Allen's The Modular Man (1992) portrays the interior experience of a personality copied into a vacuum cleaner and his legal battle for recognition as a legal personality. See also Political ideas in science fiction.
Peter James' Host (1993). A group of scientists is researching the feasibility of the upload to achieve immortality. Unfortunately it turns out that there are some unforeseen problems with the combination of human emotions and the power to use computers and the internet to manipulate the real world.
In the novel Feersum Endjinn (1994) by Iain M. Banks, the minds of the dead are uploaded into a computer network known as "the data corpus", "cryptosphere" or simply "crypt", allowing them to be routinely reincarnated. The story revolves around two characters who are trying to reactivate a piece of ancient technology, the "Fearsome Engine", which can prevent the Sun from dimming to the point where life on Earth becomes extinct.
Greg Egan's novels Permutation City (1994), Diaspora (1997) and Zendegi (2010). See opening section for details.
In Endgame (1996), the last novel of the Doom series by Dafydd Ab Hugh and Brad Linaweaver, the alien race known as Newbies attempts to transfer Fly Taggart's and Arlene Sanders's souls to a computer simulation based on their memories. However, due to difference between "formats" of human soul and soul of any other being in the galaxy, they accidentally copied their soul, with one copy trapped in the simulation and the other left in their bodies.
In Garth Nix's Shade's Children (1997), Shade is an uploaded consciousness acting in loco parentis to teenagers to help save them from evil Overlords. Shade contemplates at times how human he is, especially as his personality degenerates during the story; and whether or not he should have a new human body.
In Charles Platt's novel The Silicon Man (1997), an FBI agent who has stumbled on a top-secret project called LifeScan is destructively uploaded against his will. Realistically describes the constraints of the process and machinery.
Tad Williams's Otherland series (1998–2002) concerns the activities of a secret society whose goals include creating a virtual reality network where they will be uploaded and in which they will live as gods. Otherland contains a very hard SF approach to the topic, but balances the hard approach with fantastical adventures of the protagonists within the virtual reality network.
Gene Wolfe's trilogy The Book of the Short Sun (1999–2001) features an old generation starship called the Whorl which is run by a group of uploaded rulers who have set themselves up as gods. Once the Whorl arrives at a star system with habitable planets, they send giant "godlings" to the humans on board to encourage them to depart the ship.
In Abduction (2000) by Robin Cook, a group of researchers discover an underwater civilization which achieved immortality by transferring their minds into cloned bodies.
In Alastair Reynolds' Revelation Space universe (2000–), a complete and functioning copy of the mind is described as an alpha-level simulation while a non-sentient copy of the mind based on predictive behavioural pattern of a person's mind is described as a beta-level simulation.
In Eater (2000) by Gregory Benford, mind-uploading (or consciousness-uploading) is a "demand" of the major antagonist, which is a "magnetic intelligence" (composed of similarly encoded minds) anchored on the event horizon of a black hole. The major character's wife, who is dying of cancer, has her consciousness uploaded into a computer and mounts an attack on the entity, achieving a type of immortality in the process.
Kiln People (2002) by David Brin postulates a future where people can create clay duplicates of themselves with all their memories up to that time. The duplicates only last 24 hours, and the original can then choose whether or not to upload the ditto's memories back into himself afterward. Most people use dittos to do their work.
Richard K. Morgan's Altered Carbon (2002) and other Takeshi Kovacs books, where everyone has a "cortical stack" implanted at the base of their skull, soon after being born. The device then records all your memories and experiences in real-time. The stack can be "resleeved" in another body, be it a clone or otherwise, and/or backed up digitally at a remote location.
Jim Munroe's novel Everyone in Silico (2002) is set in Vancouver in 2036; people can upload to a virtual world called Frisco which is loosely based on the now submerged city of San Francisco.
Vernor Vinge's novella The Cookie Monster (2003) explores the possibility of mind uploads who are not aware they have been uploaded, and who are kept as unknowing slaves doing technical research in a simulation running at high speed relative to the outside world.
In Cory Doctorow's Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom (2003), the plot is set in motion when the main character is killed and "restored from backup", a process which entails the creation of a clone and flashing the clone's brain with an image stored on a computer.
In Carlos Atanes' FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions (2004) the Sisterhood of Metacontrol transfer Angeline's consciousness into the virtual world of the Réseau Céleste.
Robert J. Sawyer's novel Mindscan (2005) deals with the issue of uploaded consciousness from the perspective of Jake Sullivan: both of them. The human Jake has a rare, life-threatening disease and to extend his life he decides to upload his consciousness into a robotic body; but things don't go quite as planned.
In the Old Man's War series (2005–) by John Scalzi, the minds of volunteer retirees are transferred to younger, genetically enhanced versions of themselves in order to enable them to fight for the Colonial Defence Forces (CDF). In The Android's Dream, two characters' minds are uploaded onto computers.
In The Battle of the Labyrinth (2008) by Rick Riordan, Daedalus/Quintus transfers his mind to an automaton by means of a combination of mechanics and magic.
The book and podcast novel series 7th Son (2009) from JC Hutchins focuses purely on mind uploading and cloning. Combining two ethically situational sciences and turning it into a thriller series when a terrorist clone can copy his consciousness to other people's minds.
In Peter F. Hamilton's Void Trilogy (2007–2010) humans are able to upload into the machine intelligence known as ANA. The same theme is found in P F Hamilton's Mindstar Rising (1993) in which an industrialist's mind is also uploaded to a storage device.
Similar themes are also found in Broken Angels and Altered Carbon by Richard Morgan.
Hannu Rajaniemi's Quantum Thief series (2010–2014), which includes the novels The Quantum Thief, The Fractal Prince and The Causal Angel, describes a posthuman world where uploaded minds (named gogols) are widely used as intellectual software utilized for various purposes including data analysis, planning and control of embedded systems.
Clyde Dsouza's Memories with Maya (2013) looks at how deep learning processes, and 'Digital Breadcrumbs' left behind by people (tweets, Facebook updates, blogs) combined with memories of living relatives can be used to re-construct a mind and augment it with narrow AI libraries. The resulting 'Dirrogate' or Digital Surrogate can be thought of as a posthumous mind upload.
David T. Wolf's novel Mindclone (2013) describes the first successful brain scan and upload, creating a digital twin of Marc Gregorio, a science writer. Alternating between the points of view of the human and his digital twin, the novel explores the technology and its consequences as the pair establishes a friendly rivalry, and cooperates to fend off an avaricious government contractor.
Damien Boyes's series Lost Time (2015-), features characters whose minds are uploaded and digitally restored into artificial bodies. The series explores the emotional, legal, philosophical, and societal ramifications of mind uploading technology.
In the novel So Far Out to Sea by Dane St. John (2016), the visionary Abraham Trevis must locate a habitable exoplanet and plot out a journey to get there, in which he plans to use an experimental process called "relocation" to allow humans to survive the inhospitable forces of space and time – it consists of specialized nanotechnology called "architects", engineered for the purpose of replicating neurons and all individual experiences, learnings, and emotional traits.
In Steve Toutonghi's 2016 novel, Join, people are able to fuse their individual psyches into shared collective consciousnesses—a shared identity known as a join—in order to live multiple lives simultaneously, enjoy perfect companionship, and never die.
In Adrian Tchaikovsky's novel Children of Time (2016) both Dr. Avrana Kern and Gilgamesh Captain Vrie Guyen experiment with whole brain emulation with varied degrees of success.
Dennis E. Taylor's Bobiverse series (2016–Present) follows a 21st-century man named Bob whose consciousness has been uploaded and copied into many "replicants". These computerized clones then explore the galaxy while struggling with whether they are still human, or simply machines.
In Neal Stephenson's Fall; or, Dodge in Hell a software billionaire's brain is destructively scanned and then emulated in a massive cloud computing simulation. The story is told partially in contemporary real space and also in the simulation space which may exhibit different perceived timescales for the simulated consciousnesses.
Ernest Cline's Ready Player Two (2020) is focused on the OASIS Neural Interface (ONI), a device that connects the user's mind into a virtual reality system by making a complete scan of it prior to use.
Film
In the film The Creation of the Humanoids (1962), set in the future after a nuclear war, the blue-skinned androids known as "humanoids" are trying to infiltrate human society by creating android replicas of humans that have recently died, using a procedure called a "thalamic transplant" to take the memories and personality of the recently deceased human and place them in the replicas.
In the 1979 film Star Trek: The Motion Picture, the entity that calls itself V'Ger is a heavily modified Earth space probe that is capable of converting lifeforms and objects such as spacecraft into digitized "data patterns", which can then be represented in holographic or even physical form. The best example of this is when a probe from V'Ger kills the Starship Enterprise's navigator, Lieutenant Ilia, and then generates a mechanized duplicate of her to act as its representative to the Enterprise crew. In the film, it is stated that the duplicate is so detailed as to simulate humanoid biological functions, as well as contain the original Ilia's memory patterns, which the crew attempts to uncover in order to better understand V'Ger's motives.
In the film Tron (1982), human programmer Flynn is digitized by an artificial intelligence called the "Master Control Program", bringing him inside the virtual world of the computer.
Mamoru Oshii/Masamune Shirow's anime/manga Ghost in the Shell (1989–) portrays a future world in which human beings aggressively mechanize, replacing body and mind with interfacing mechanical/computer/electrical parts, often to the point of complete mechanization/replacement of all original material. Its sequel, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence deals heavily with the philosophical ramifications of this problem.
In the film Robotrix (1991), a criminally insane scientist, Ryuichi Sakamoto, transfers his mind into a cyborg and immediately commits a series of rapes and murders. Among his victims is female police officer Selena Lam. The scientist Dr. Sara transfers Selena's mind into a cyborg named Eve-27, then copies her own persona into a robotic assistant named Ann. The cyborg-robot team pursue the criminal Sakamoto by investigating a series of murdered prostitutes.
The film The Lawnmower Man (1992) deals with attempts by scientists to boost the intelligence of a man named Jobe using a program of accelerated learning, using nootropic drugs, virtual reality input, and cortex stimulation. After becoming superintelligent, Jobe finds a way to transfer his mind completely into virtual reality, leaving his physical body as a wizened husk.
The film Freejack (1992) describes a future where the wealthy can seize people out of the past, moments before their death, and transfer their own mind & consciousness to the newly captured body, at the expense of that person's mind. A "freejack" is what an escapee of this process is called. The computer equipment which stores a mind temporarily while it awaits transplant is referred to as "the spiritual switchboard".
The Thirteenth Floor (1999) is set in late 1990s Los Angeles, where Hannon owns a multibillion-dollar computer enterprise, and is the inventor of a newly completed virtual reality (VR) simulation of 1937 Los Angeles. But Hannon dies and his protégé eventually discovers that the 1990s Los Angeles itself is a simulation.
In the film The 6th Day (2000), the contents of a brain can be downloaded via the optic nerves, and copied to clones.
Chrysalis, a 2007 French movie about an experimental machine capable of partially uploading minds. Minds cannot function in purely digital form, they must be placed back into a human container.
The central conceit of the 2009 science fiction film Avatar is that human consciousness can be used to control genetically grown bodies (Avatars) based on the native inhabitants of an alien world, in order to integrate into their society. This is not true mind uploading, as the humans only control the Avatars remotely (a form of telepresence), but later in the film Grace connects with Eywa (the collective consciousness of the planet) so her mind can be permanently transferred to her Avatar body. Her mind is uploaded to Eywa, but she does not return to her Avatar body and stays within the Tree of Souls. At the end of the film, Jake's mind is uploaded to Eywa and successfully returns to his Avatar body leaving his human body lifeless. The basis for this type of transfer is not explained in detail, but it seems to have a physical basis rather than being something more mystical, given that Grace had earlier described Eywa as a "global network" (like a neural network) made up of electrochemical "connections" (which she said were "like the synapses between neurons") between the roots of trees, and also said that "the Na'vi can access it—they can upload and download data—memories".
In the 2014 movie Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Arnim Zola, a biochemist for HYDRA developed a terminal disease and he transferred his consciousness to a giant computer that took up the entire area of an old, abandoned S.H.I.E.L.D. facility in New Jersey.
In the 2014 movie Transcendence, Dr. Will Caster, an artificial intelligence researcher, is assassinated with a bullet laced with radioactive material and has his consciousness uploaded to several quantum processors (and eventually the internet) in order for him to survive in a digital form.
In the 2015 movie CHAPPiE the title character Chappie transfers the dying Deon's consciousness into a spare robot through a modified neural helmet.
In the 2015 film Advantageous, Gwen Koh is made to choose between having her consciousness transferred to a different body in order to keep her job as the face of a technology company or not having the resources to give her daughter the education that will maintain her position in a socially and economically stratified society.
In the 2015 film Self/less the super wealthy are offered the extension of their lives through the transfer of their minds into what are presented as cloned bodies, but are actually humans whose memories are overwritten and suppressed.
In the 2018 film Replicas a researcher working on creating synthetic robot brains copies his family's minds into cloned human bodies after they are killed in a car accident, in-order to bring them back to life. However, although their minds are copied into cloned bodies, their minds are first uploaded into storage devices called Mem-Drives capable of storing the entire contents of a human brain, until their minds can then later (only after the cloned bodies that first have to be grown are finished maturing) be transferred subsequently into the cloned human bodies. This film also deals with the concept of Mind uploading (into fully artificial robot bodies) as that is exactly what the primary character in the film is trying to accomplish, from nearly the very beginning of the film.
Television
In Galaxy Express 999 (1978), people can achieve effective immortality by transferring their minds into android bodies, if they are wealthy enough to afford them. The main character is set on this as his supreme aspiration in life, but slowly comes to appreciate that it is not quite the panacea he had been led to believe it was.
In the 1985 TV movie Max Headroom and ABC Television series, TV reporter Edison Carter is copied into Network 23's computers creating the TV personality Max Headroom.
Red Dwarf (1988–1999), where a person's memories and personality can be recorded in just a few seconds and, upon their death, they can be recreated as a holographic simulation. Arnold Rimmer is an example of such a person.
In Star Trek: The Next Generation season 2 episode 6 "The Schizoid Man" (1989), Dr Ira Graves uploads his mind into Data's positronic brain. He later downloads his memories into the Enterprise's computer, although his personality has been lost, his memories reduced to raw data of events.
In Star Trek: The Next Generation season 7 episode 10 "Inheritance" (1994), Data encounters his "mother" who, unknown to her, had her mind scanned by synaptic scanner by her husband (and Data's "father") Dr Noonien Soong. This was done while she was unconscious, and days before her death an exact copy of her brain was transferred to a positronic matrix in a synthetic body.
In Battle Angel Alita (1990–, also known as Gunnm), a closely guarded secret of the elite city of Tiphares/Zalem is that its citizens, after being eugenically screened and rigorously tested in a maturity ritual, have their brains scanned, removed and replaced with chips. When this is revealed to a Tipharean/Zalem citizen, the internalized philosophical debate causes most citizens to go insane.
In the Phantom 2040 TV series (1994–) and videogame (1995), Maxwell Madison Sr., the husband of one of the series' main antagonists Rebecca Madison, is killed during a train wreck with the 23rd Phantom and his brainwaves are uploaded onto a computer mainframe. Rebecca plans to download his brainwaves into a living or artificial body to bring him back to life.
The second of the four TekWar TV movies, titled "TekLords" (1994), featured the uploaded intelligence of a drug lord's sister, who had been killed in an attempt on his life.
The antagonist of the M.A.N.T.I.S. episode "Switches" (1995) is a mad scientist on death row, who has designed a device which will upload his mind into the power grid. The device is activated when the scientist is executed in an electric chair. He is thwarted in his attempt to subject his ex-girlfriend to the same process.
In Star Trek: Voyager (1995-2001) season 7 episode 7 "Body and Soul" The Doctor had to upload himself into Seven of Nine due to a race who hated photonic life forms.
In Yu-Gi-Oh! (1996–), Noah Kaiba died in a car accident and his mind was uploaded to a supercomputer.
In the TV series Stargate SG-1 (1997–2007), the Asgard cheat death by transferring their minds into new clone bodies. The mind of Thor, the high commander of the Asgard fleet, was for a time transferred into the computer of a Goa'uld spaceship. In the episode "Tin Man" (1998), the SG-1 team visit a warehouse of an extinct alien civilization, where the android caretaker scans their minds and builds android duplicates of the team, who are unaware that they aren't the originals until they find their original bodies in suspended animation. In "Holiday" (1999) Dr. Daniel Jackson's mind is transferred into Machello's body and vice versa. In "Entity" (2001) Samantha Carter's mind is transferred into a computer. In "Lifeboat" (2003) around 12 minds are transferred into and then out of Daniel Jackson's body. In the two-part opening of season 8, "New Order" (2004), Jack O'Neill's mind is fully interfaced with the main computer of Thor's ship.
In the TV series Stargate Atlantis, after being infected with Asuran (Replicator) Nanites, Dr. Weir is capable of accessing and uploading herself in the Asuran collective network.
In the TV series Stargate Universe, the consciousnesses of a number of deceased characters are uploaded to the Destiny's main computer, where they exist as live computer programs which can interact with the crew via induced audiovisual hallucinations.
Cowboy Bebop episode 23 "Brain Scratch" (1999) is about a cult dedicated towards electronic transference of the mind into a computer network.
In the French animated series Code Lyoko (2003–), the primary characters use devices called Scanners that read the entire physical makeup of the user, digitize their atoms and then teleport the user onto the virtual world of Lyoko.
In the Japanese animated television series Kaiba (2008), memories can be stored as information via a memory chip; when individuals die, their minds live on. This digitization of mental information allows for the transfer of one's mind to someone else's body, and the theft and manipulation of other people's memories has become the norm. Society is largely divided into two classes. In the skies are electrical storms, which cannot be passed through without losing one's memories. Above them lies the realm of the wealthy and powerful, who barter others' bodies and memories for their own enjoyment and longevity. Below the clouds is a troubled and dangerous world where good bodies are hard to come by and real money is scarce.
In the television series Caprica (2009–2010), a prequel to Battlestar Galactica, the ability to upload human consciousnesses into a virtual reality world is featured prominently. (Battlestar Galactica did not itself feature true mind uploading, since the cylons were artificial intelligences that were not based on ordinary human brains, though their minds could be transferred from one body to another in the same manner as is often envisioned for uploads.) While some characters believe that the process only creates an imperfect copy of the original person, as the death of the original consciousness is unnecessary for the creation of the virtual copy, other characters believe that it can be viewed as a form of religious rebirth analogous to the afterlife.
Mind transfer is a central theme in the television series Dollhouse (2009–2010).
In the anime series Serial Experiments Lain, the antagonist Masami Eiri embeds his memories and consciousness into the "Wired", the internet of the story universe. He believed that humanity should evolve by ridding themselves of their physical limitations and live as digital entities only.
In the second installment of the story "The Trial of a Time Lord" in the original Doctor Who series, the Doctor's assistant Perpugilliam Brown has her mind erased and replaced with that of the dying Lord Kiv of the Mentors. The storyline mentions that this is the first time the entire mind of an individual can be transplanted from one body to another. It is a pivotal moment in the history of the series as it is the purported reason that the Time Lords took the Doctor out of time and placed him on trial. It was later shown to be false evidence in the Doctor's trial.
In the episode "Silence in the Library" of the 2005 revival of the British television show Doctor Who Donna Noble is "saved" by the computer Cal, joining several others inside the computer that had been saved previously. Arguably the process of saving the individuals is more involved then simple mind uploading, as the teleportation patterns of the individuals are also stored and in the next episode "Forest of the Dead", the Doctor persuades Cal to return them to the physical world. However, also in "Forest of the Dead", River Song is killed but the Doctor uploads River's consciousness into Cal thus extending her life indefinitely.
In the episode "13.1" of the show Warehouse 13, former Warehouse Agent Hugo Miller's hologram appears when an attempt is made to upgrade the computer systems inside the Warehouse. In fear of being deleted during the upgrade, Hugo locks down the entire Warehouse and attempts to kill everyone inside. Hugo's hologram is later identified as a portion of the agent's mind in which he uploaded onto the Warehouse computers using an artifact, but something went wrong during the transfer and only certain parts of his mind went into the computer, leaving the other parts in Hugo's biological mind. Having only half of an actual brain renders him insane and he is put into an asylum until he is later retrieved by Pete and Myka to reverse what the artifact has done, thus making him a whole person again and deleting the holographic and homicidal half version of Hugo in the Warehouse 13 computer systems.
The 2014 episode "White Christmas" of the British TV show Black Mirror features a procedure where copies of living subjects' minds are uploaded to "cookies", devices capable of running full brain emulation, and then used for household control jobs, judicial investigation, and criminal sentencing. An operator can also adjust the cookie speed to make the emulated mind experiment a different time scale, a feature used to apply a thousand-year long sentence to an individual's mind, which is served in a few hours of real-world time.
In the 2014 episode "Days of Future Future" of The Simpsons, Professor Frink loads Homer's brain onto a USB stick and then brings him to life in a digital environment with his head being shown on (the future equivalents of) TV screens, digital photo frames and computer screens between which Homer can move freely and engage in screensavers and video games. Later Bart buys him a "robot body" (similar to the Surrogates in the movie Surrogates) which he plugs into the "TV" upon which it conflates and Homer's head moves from the screen over to the physical robot.
The 2016 episode San Junipero of the British TV show Black Mirror.
In Westworld (2016), the eponymous theme park is run with the purpose of digitalizing consciousness in order to achieve immortality. This is done by analyzing the human guests' behaviors and adjusting their digital representation until it reacts in the same way as the guest to any given stimulus.
In season 3 of The 100 (2014-2020), which aired in 2016, an AI device known as The Flame is introduced. This device requires merging with a human brain, and is passed down (over many years) to each new Commander of the Grounders, aka Heda. Each new Commander has access to (the ability to see and speak to) all of the prior Commanders, as their minds live on after their deaths, due to being uploaded and saved within The Flame.
In Altered Carbon (2018), nearly all humans have a backup device implanted, which can be used to revive them in another body.
In season 6 of The 100 (2014-2020), which aired in 2019, a group of colonists from Earth inhabited an Earthlike planet called Sanctum. They developed the technology to download the human mind to a drive and upload it to another human being. In order to achieve this, they also developed the technology to wipe the mind of a human being while keeping the brain intact. After wiping the mind of the victim, they could then insert the mind drive into the body and upload the consciousness of the downloaded mind, effectively allowing human consciousness to live forever in different bodies.
In Star Trek: Picard (2020), protagonist Jean-Luc Picard's consciousness is transferred to an android body upon his human body's death. Knowing that Picard would not want to be immortal, creator Altan Intigo Soong and La Sirena crew members Soji Asha and Agnes Jurati deliberately limit his new lifespan to what it would have been without the brain defect that killed him.
Super Sentai
The 2010 instalment Tensou Sentai Goseiger featured the Matrintis leader Robogorg of the 10-sai, who was once a human scientist that transferred his brain into a Matroid body after he was ostracized by his people, ironically saving himself when his civilization perished.
The 2017 instalment Uchu Sentai Kyuranger featured the mad scientist Dr. Anton, who had a dissociative identity disorder, forcing him to transfer his evil self into a receptacle while his good half remains in his human body to defect from the Jark Matter.
The ultimate main antagonist of Amphibia (2019) is the Core, the product of a group of immortality-seeking Amphibian scientists transferring their minds to a shared consciousness. The resulting entity was left inhabiting a large, cumbersome robotic body, causing it to seek a far more mobile host, eventually choosing supporting character Marcy Wu due to her genius-level intellect after she won a game of Flipwart against King Andrias Leviathan. After the events of "True Colors", Marcy is held captive in a healing tank until the events of "Olivia & Yunan", at which point the title characters attempt to rescue her but are foiled and ultimately forced to watch as she is taken over by the Core.
In Upload (2020–) by Greg Daniels, set in 2033, humans can upload themselves into a virtual afterlife of their choosing, with different levels similar to socioeconomic strata of society, and they are cared for by "handlers". When computer programmer Nathan Brown dies prematurely, he is uploaded to the very expensive Lakeview, but then finds himself under the thumb of his possessive, still-living girlfriend Ingrid. As Nathan adjusts to the pros and cons of digital heaven, he bonds with Nora, his living customer service rep. Nora struggles with the pressures of her job, her dying father who does not want to be uploaded, and her growing feelings for Nathan while slowly coming to believe that Nathan was murdered.
Comics
In the Marvel Comics universe, Adolf Hitler's mind was transferred into a cloned body upon his death; this clone became the supervillain called the Hate-Monger, first introduced in 1963.
The 1966 comic book superhero NoMan "was a human mind housed in a robotic body. The mind, that of Anthony Dunn, had been transferred into the robotic form as his human body passed away."
In the 1990 Japanese manga series Battle Angel Alita, one of the main plot points orbits around the "secret of Tiphares". In the aerial city of Tiphares everyone who turns 19 undergoes an "initiation" to obtain Tipharean citizenship: officially this implies just gaining a small tattoo on the forehead but secretly the Medical Investigation Bureau, which controls the city, has the brain of every initiated person to be mechanically surgically removed and, while their body remained in a temporary suspended animation until the end of the process, transfers the individual's mind along with all his memories and informations in a so-called "brain bio-chip", which mimics every aspect of a human brain, which is then implanted where the brain was.
In Frank Miller's comic RoboCop Versus The Terminator (1992), the human brain of RoboCop is uploaded into Skynet, the malevolent artificial intelligence from the Terminator series. RoboCop's mind waits hidden inside Skynet for many years until he finally gets an opportunity to strike against it.
In Journey Into Mystery (2013) The aliens Beta Ray Bill and Ti Asha Ra as well as his ship Skuttlebutt are all representative uploaded entities. Bill is a cyborg and Ti Asha Ra is created from within the Celestial Galactus himself. In issues #652-55, Skuttlebutt is destroyed, and Ti Asha Ra is killed; however, the ship entity Bill had been chasing is a form of cosmic life collector and partitions Ti Asha Ra's mind to upload Skuttlebutt's consciousness into her physical body, apparently resurrecting her from the dead. It also uploads the life goddess Gaea and Ti Asha Ra into itself, which allows the Asgardian warrior maiden Sif and Bill to rescue them later as all is returned to normal.
In Amazing Spider-Man, Otto Octavius was able to house copy of his mind in a robotic body of the Living Brain. After its destruction, Octavius transferred his mind into a clone body and then, into a new clone body of Spider-Man.
In DC Comics, the hero "NoMan" was a 76-year-old man before having his consciousness uploaded.
Video games
In the computer game Space Quest IV: Roger Wilco and the Time Rippers (1991) from Sierra Entertainment, the hero Roger Wilco is chased through time by an uploaded version of his old enemy Sludge Vohaul, whose consciousness has been stored on the missing floppies from a never-produced fourth installment of the Leisure Suit Larry series (also made by Sierra).
In Delphine Software's game Flashback (1992), the protagonist Conrad Hart discovers that the Morph alien race is plotting to invade Earth. Knowing that the Morphs will erase his memory if they discover that he knows about them, he copies his memory and records a message of himself in his holocube in case if his memory is erased.
In Cyborg Justice (1993), a game for the Sega Genesis, the player is uploaded into a robotic body.
In the Mega Man X video games (1993–), X's creator Doctor Light had uploaded his brainwaves into a computer before he died, and effectively "lives beyond the grave" as a sentient hologram that can communicate with X and Zero. Additionally, one stage (Cyber Peacock) and the game Mega Man Xtreme involved the protagonists (artificial humans) being uploaded into "cyberspace".
The computer game Independence War (1997), in which the player is assisted by a recreation of CNV-301 Dreadnoughts former captain, who is bitter about having been recreated without his consent.
In the computer game Total Annihilation (1997), a multi-millennia galactic war rages between a society demanding mandatory destructive uploading and a rebellion against it.
In the Japanese release of Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere (1999), the main antagonist is the result of a mind uploading experiment, which is referred to in the game as "sublimation" after the phase transition.
In the Mega Man Battle Network series (2001–), Hub Hikari, twin brother of protagonist Lan Hikari, was uploaded and configured into the Navi (artificial intelligence) Megaman.EXE to escape a lethal birth defect.
In Metroid Fusion (2002), Samus Aran's commander and friend Adam had his brain uploaded to the Federation's network, a process that is apparently common for scientists and leaders.
In the video game Doom Eternal, the Seraphim, Samur Maykr, uploaded his consciousness into a cloned body in order to move among the humans more easily as Dr. Samuel Hayden. Samur transferred his consciousness once again, this time into a technological shell of UAC design, enabling him to sidestep ancient laws and enter Hell during the earliest human expeditions. He located and took possession of the Slayer's sarcophagus, knowing he would be key to stopping the coming conflict. After aiding the Slayer in the war against Hell, the Seraphim's original body was reclaimed.
In the MMO Eve Online (2003), players take the role of pilots for hire known as "capsuleers" or "Empyreans". Through usage of capsule technology, they have their minds downloaded and transferred to a new clone through the galactic network at the moment before death.
In the RPG game Harbinger (2003) one of the playable characters is uploaded being in a gladiator robotic body, on a generational starship.
In the computer game City of Heroes (2004–), the arch-villain known as Nemesis was born in Prussia during the 18th century, but has since then put his mind into a complex, steam-powered robotic body.
In the video game Jak 3 (2004), the character Vin uploads his mind into a computer before he is killed.
In the Destroy All Humans! series (2005–), Orthopox 13 uploads a "copy of my [his] exquisite mind" onto a Holopox unit just before his ship is nuked by the KGB.
In the games Portal and Portal 2, the character GLaDOS is actually Aperture Science's CEO Cave Johnson's assistant Caroline, transferred into a computer. Cave originally opted for himself to be transferred into a computer, but died before it could happen, and hence Caroline was transferred instead. At the end of Portal, GLaDOS also claims to have Chell's brain "scanned and permanently backed up in case something terrible happens".
In the game Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII (2006), the character Professor Hojo is revealed to have uploaded his consciousness into the worldwide network moments before his death in the original Final Fantasy VII (1997) as a means to survive the encounter with the protagonists and ultimately download himself into a new, stronger body 3 years later.
In the iPhone RPG Chaos Rings (2010), a human named Theia transferred her consciousness and memories into the mainframe of the Ark Arena, a highly advanced spaceship and time travel machine, in order to oversee its activities.
In Assassin's Creed: Revelations (2011) it turns out that Subject 16 uploaded his mind into the Animus virtual machine shortly before committing suicide in the first game.
In Watch Dogs: Legion, several people had their mind uploaded by one of the antagonists "Skye Larsen", eventually having had part of their consciousness deleted to turn them into AI programmes, such as driving a taxi or managing a house.
In the game Deponia (2012) the character "Goal" has her personality backed up onto a disc, inserted inside her head.
Cortana from Halo series is based on a cloned brain.
In Halo 4 (2012), this is the main purpose of the Forerunner device known as the Composer. It digitizes organic intelligences, allowing them to live as AIs. However, the process corrupts the minds that are converted and is irreversible.
In Mass Effect 3 (2012), Legion (member of a race of Synthetic Intelligences known as the Geth) temporarily uploads Commander Shepard's consciousness into the Geth Consensus, the network that houses all Geth programs.
In Crysis 3 (2013), it was revealed that in the time since Crysis 2, the personality of "Alcatraz"—the protagonist of Crysis 2—was effectively supplanted by "Prophets" whose memories and consciousness were embedded in the "nanosuit" that Alcatraz was wearing.
In the MMO first-person shooter Dust 514 (2013), mercenary foot soldiers use a device called a Neural Interface System (NIS) implant to transfer conscientiousness to a clone body at the moment of death.
In the thriller game Master Reboot (2013) the players' character is uploaded into the "Soul Cloud" upon biological death, where all the data that makes up a person's soul is stored in vast data banks.
In Warframe (2013), the titular Warframe suits are actually biomechanical shells which are connected the conscience of the actual Tenno, human children who were given unpredictable powers by the Void.
In the video game Elite: Dangerous (2014) from Frontier Developments, Utopia, one of possible Powerplay factions to be joined by players, was created over idea of preservation of human mind through mind uploading.
In the horror/thriller game SOMA (2015), which centers around the concept and ethics of mind uploading. Taking place after an apocalypse renders the surface uninhabitable, the player explores the underwater research station Pathos-II, encountering and evading a malfunctioning artificial intelligence called the Wau.
In the JRPG Xenoblade Chronicles X (2015), where humans who escaped the Earth's destruction had their consciousnesses recorded and stored inside a database where they can control artificial bodies known as Mimeosomes.
In the visual novel Steins;Gate 0 (2015), a main character Makise Kurisu, persists in the form of a digital copy of her brain powered by the experimental program "Amadeus".
In the RPG game Cyberpunk 2077 (2020), where the main character steals a chip which stores the consciousness of a terrorist and "rock legend" named Johnny Silverhand. The main plotline also evolves around the concept with a fictional product named "the Relic" allowing a user to create a copy of themselves for their families, this is then stored in a digital prison named Mikoshi.
Other media
In the tabletop game Car Wars (1980) characters' bodies are routinely cloned and their stored memories uploaded into the new bodies, which are activated upon the death of the old versions.
In the Rifts role-playing game Dimension Book 2: Phase World (1994), a member of an artificial race called the Machine People named Annie integrates her consciousness permanently with a spacecraft.
In the online collaborative world-building project "Orion's Arm" (2000–) the concepts of mind copying and uploading are used extensively, particularly in the e-novel Betrayals.
The award-winning RPG Transhuman Space (2002) tackles the mind-uploading issue with the concept of xoxing, which is the illegal perfect copy of a mind. Mind emulation (called ghosts) is always destructive, so a living person cannot co-exist with their digital copy. Nevertheless, this doesn't prevent multiple digital versions from being simultaneously active. Law prohibits more than one active copy of a brain emulation or a strong artificial intelligence at a time (security backups being considered inactive), and the RPG delves into the possible abuses of this (like cult leaders implanting a copies of their own minds in every cult followers' neural interfaces).
The RPG Eclipse Phase takes place in a frightening future after a technological singularity in which a group of superintelligent Seed AIs known as TITANs that were infected by an alien nano-virus forcibly destructively uploaded most humans and transhumans alive at the time and kidnapped their egos (term used for brain emulations in the setting), while destroying the surface in an event called "The Fall". Most of the survivors live in space, and have uploaded their personalities (or "egos") and can regularly switch between physical bodies ("morphs"), or inhabit simulated bodies ("infomorphs") in virtual environments. Duplication of uploaded personalities is also possible ("forking").
See also
Body swap appearances in media
Cyborgs in fiction (includes examples of the related notion of placing a biological brain in an artificial body)
Technologically enabled telepathy
Whole-body transplants in popular culture
References
External links
Machine Intelligence List – list of stories with machine intelligences, those marked with "H" include "humans in computerized/program/digitized form"
Science fiction themes |
4244871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20M.%20Gleason | Andrew M. Gleason | Andrew Mattei Gleason (November 4, 1921October 17, 2008) was an American mathematician who made fundamental contributions to widely varied areas of mathematics, including the solution of Hilbert's fifth problem, and was a leader in reform and innovation in teaching at all levels.<ref
name="mactutor"></ref> Gleason's theorem in quantum logic and the Greenwood–Gleason graph, an important example in Ramsey theory, are named for him.
As a young World War II naval officer, Gleason broke German and Japanese military codes. After the war he spent his entire academic career at Harvard University, from which he retired in 1992. His numerous academic and scholarly leadership posts included chairmanship of the Harvard Mathematics Department and the Harvard Society of Fellows, and presidency of the American Mathematical Society. He continued to advise the United States government on cryptographic security, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on education for children, almost until the end of his life.
Gleason won the Newcomb Cleveland Prize in 1952 and the Gung–Hu Distinguished Service Award of the American Mathematical Society in 1996. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and of the American Philosophical Society, and held the Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Harvard.
He was fond of saying that proofs "really aren't there to convince you that something is truethey're there to show you why it is true." The Notices of the American Mathematical Society called him "one of the quiet giants of twentieth-century mathematics, the consummate professor dedicated to scholarship, teaching, and service in equal measure."
Biography
Gleason was born in Fresno, California, the youngest of three children;
his father Henry Gleason was a botanist and a member of the Mayflower Society, and his mother was the daughter of Swiss-American winemaker Andrew Mattei.
His older brother Henry Jr. became a linguist.
He grew up in Bronxville, New York, where his father was the curator of the New York Botanical Garden.<ref
name="mmp">
.
</ref>
After briefly attending Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California)
he graduated from Roosevelt High School in Yonkers, winning a scholarship to Yale University.
Though Gleason's mathematics education had gone only so far as some self-taught calculus, Yale mathematician William Raymond Longley urged him to try a course in mechanics normally intended for juniors.
One month later he enrolled in a differential equations course ("mostly full of seniors") as well. When Einar Hille temporarily replaced the regular instructor, Gleason found Hille's style "unbelievably different ... He had a view of mathematics that was just vastly different ... That was a very important experience for me. So after that I took a lot of courses from Hille" including, in his sophomore year, graduate-level real analysis. "Starting with that course with Hille, I began to have some sense of what mathematics is about."
While at Yale he competed three times (1940, 1941 and 1942) in the recently founded William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition, always placing among the top five entrants in the country (making him the second three-time Putnam Fellow).
After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor during his senior year, Gleason applied for a commission in the US Navy,<ref
name="secret-life">.
</ref>
and on graduation
joined the team working to break Japanese naval codes.
(Others on this team included his future collaborator Robert E. Greenwood and Yale professor Marshall Hall Jr.)
He also collaborated with British researchers attacking the German Enigma cipher;
Alan Turing, who spent substantial time with Gleason while visiting Washington, called him "the brilliant young Yale graduate mathematician" in a report of his visit.
In 1946, at the recommendation of Navy colleague Donald Howard Menzel, Gleason was appointed a Junior Fellow at Harvard.
An early goal of the Junior Fellows program was to allow young scholars showing extraordinary promise to sidestep the lengthy PhD process; four years later Harvard appointed Gleason an assistant professor of mathematics,
though he was almost immediately recalled to Washington for cryptographic work related to the Korean War.
He returned to Harvard in the fall of 1952, and soon after published the most important of his results on Hilbert's fifth problem (see below).
Harvard awarded him tenure the following year.
In January 1959 he married Jean Berko
whom he had met at a party featuring the music of Tom Lehrer.<ref
name="lww">.
</ref>
Berko, a psycholinguist, worked for many years at Boston University.
They had three daughters.
In 1969 Gleason took the Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Established in 1727, this is the oldest scientific endowed professorship in the US.
He retired from Harvard in 1992 but remained active in service to Harvard (as chair of the Society of Fellows, for example)
and to mathematics: in particular, promoting the Harvard Calculus Reform Project and working with the Massachusetts Board of Education.
He died in 2008 from complications following surgery.
Teaching and education reform
Gleason said he "always enjoyed helping other people with math"a colleague said he "regarded teaching mathematicslike doing mathematicsas both important and also genuinely fun."
At fourteen, during his brief attendance at Berkeley High School, he found himself not only bored with first-semester geometry, but also helping other students with their homeworkincluding those taking the second half of the course, which he soon began auditing.<ref
name="amsx">.
</ref>
At Harvard he "regularly taught at every level", including administratively burdensome multisection courses.
One class presented Gleason with a framed print of Picasso's Mother and Child in recognition of his care for them.
In 1964 he created "the first of the 'bridge' courses now ubiquitous for math majors, only twenty years before its time." Such a course is designed to teach new students, accustomed to rote learning of mathematics in secondary school, how to reason abstractly and construct mathematical proofs. That effort led to publication of his Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis, of which one reviewer wrote:
But Gleason's "talent for exposition" did not always imply that the reader would be enlightened without effort of his own. Even in a wartime memo on the urgently important decryption of the German Enigma cipher, Gleason and his colleagues wrote:
His notes and exercises on probability and statistics, drawn up for his lectures to code-breaking colleagues during the war (see below) remained in use in National Security Agency training for several decades; they were published openly in 1985.
In a 1964 Science article, Gleason wrote of an apparent paradox arising in attempts to explain mathematics to nonmathematicians:
Gleason was the first chairman of the advisory committee of the School Mathematics Study Group, which helped define the New Math of the 1960sambitious changes in American elementary and high school mathematics teaching emphasizing understanding of concepts over rote algorithms. Gleason was "always interested in how people learn"; as part of the New Math effort he spent most mornings over several months with second-graders. Some years later he gave a talk in which he described his goal as having been:
In 1986 he helped found the Calculus Consortium, which has published a successful and influential series of "calculus reform" textbooks for college and high school, on precalculus, calculus, and other areas. His "credo for this program as for all of his teaching was that the ideas should be based in equal parts of geometry for visualization of the concepts, computation for grounding in the real world, and algebraic manipulation for power." However, the program faced heavy criticism from the mathematics community for its omission of topics such as the mean value theorem, and for its perceived lack of mathematical rigor.
Cryptanalysis work
During World War II Gleason was part of OP-20-G, the U.S. Navy's signals intelligence and cryptanalysis group.
One task of this group, in collaboration with British cryptographers at Bletchley Park such as Alan Turing, was to penetrate German Enigma machine communications networks. The British had great success with two of these networks, but the third, used for German-Japanese naval coordination, remained unbroken because of a faulty assumption that it employed a simplified version of Enigma. After OP-20-G's Marshall Hall observed that certain metadata in Berlin-to-Tokyo transmissions used letter sets disjoint from those used in Tokyo-to-Berlin metadata, Gleason hypothesized that the corresponding unencrypted letters sets were A-M (in one direction) and N-Z (in the other), then devised novel statistical tests by which he confirmed this hypothesis. The result was routine decryption of this third network by 1944. (This work also involved deeper related to permutation groups and the graph isomorphism problem.)
OP-20-G then turned to the Japanese navy's "Coral" cipher. A key tool for the attack on Coral was the "Gleason crutch", a form of Chernoff bound on tail distributions of sums of independent random variables. Gleason's classified work on this bound predated Chernoff's work by a decade.
Toward the end of the war he concentrated on documenting the work of OP-20-G and developing systems for training new cryptographers.
In 1950 Gleason returned to active duty for the Korean War, serving as a Lieutenant Commander in the Nebraska Avenue Complex (which much later became the home of the DHS Cyber Security Division). His cryptographic work from this period remains classified, but it is known that he recruited mathematicians and taught them cryptanalysis.
He served on the advisory boards for the National Security Agency and the Institute for Defense Analyses, and he continued to recruit, and to advise the military on cryptanalysis, almost to the end of his life.
Mathematics research
Gleason made fundamental contributions to widely varied areas of mathematics, including the theory of Lie groups, quantum mechanics,<ref
name="ag-qm">.
</ref>
and combinatorics.
According to Freeman Dyson's famous classification of mathematicians as being either birds or frogs,
Gleason was a frog: he worked as a problem solver rather than a visionary formulating grand theories.<ref
name=50years>.</ref>
Hilbert's fifth problem
In 1900 David Hilbert posed 23 problems he felt would be central to next century of mathematics research. Hilbert's fifth problem concerns the characterization of Lie groups by their actions on topological spaces: to what extent does their topology provide information sufficient to determine their geometry?
The "restricted" version of Hilbert's fifth problem (solved by Gleason) asks, more specifically, whether every locally Euclidean topological group is a Lie group. That is, if a group G has the structure of a topological manifold, can that structure be strengthened to a real analytic structure, so that within any neighborhood of an element of G, the group law is defined by a convergent power series, and so that overlapping neighborhoods have compatible power series definitions? Prior to Gleason's work, special cases of the problem had been solved by Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, John von Neumann, Lev Pontryagin, and Garrett Birkhoff, among others.<ref
name="illman">.
</ref>
Gleason's interest in the fifth problem began in the late 1940s, sparked by a course he took from George Mackey.
In 1949 he published a paper introducing the "no small subgroups" property of Lie groups (the existence of a neighborhood of the identity within which no nontrivial subgroup exists) that would eventually be crucial to its solution.
His 1952 paper on the subject, together with a paper published concurrently by Deane Montgomery and Leo Zippin, solves affirmatively the restricted version of Hilbert's fifth problem, showing that indeed every locally Euclidean group is a Lie group. Gleason's contribution was to prove that this is true when G has the no small subgroups property; Montgomery and Zippin showed every locally Euclidean group has this property. As Gleason told the story, the key insight of his proof was to apply the fact that monotonic functions are differentiable almost everywhere. On finding the solution, he took a week of leave to write it up, and it was printed in the Annals of Mathematics alongside the paper of Montgomery and Zippin; another paper a year later by Hidehiko Yamabe removed some technical side conditions from Gleason's proof.
The "unrestricted" version of Hilbert's fifth problem, closer to Hilbert's original formulation, considers both a locally Euclidean group G and another manifold M on which G has a continuous action. Hilbert asked whether, in this case, M and the action of G could be given a real analytic structure. It was quickly realized that the answer was negative, after which attention centered on the restricted problem. However, with some additional smoothness assumptions on G and M, it might yet be possible to prove the existence of a real analytic structure on the group action. The Hilbert–Smith conjecture, still unsolved, encapsulates the remaining difficulties of this case.
Quantum mechanics
The Born rule states that an observable property of a quantum system is defined by a Hermitian operator on a separable Hilbert space, that the only observable values of the property are the eigenvalues of the operator, and that the probability of the system being observed in a particular eigenvalue is the square of the absolute value of the complex number obtained by projecting the state vector (a point in the Hilbert space) onto the corresponding eigenvector.
George Mackey had asked whether Born's rule is a necessary consequence of a particular set of axioms for quantum mechanics, and more specifically whether every measure on the lattice of projections of a Hilbert space can be defined by a positive operator with unit trace. Though Richard Kadison proved this was false for two-dimensional Hilbert spaces, Gleason's theorem (published 1957) shows it to be true for higher dimensions.
Gleason's theorem implies the nonexistence of certain types of hidden variable theories for quantum mechanics, strengthening a previous argument of John von Neumann. Von Neumann had claimed to show that hidden variable theories were impossible, but (as Grete Hermann pointed out) his demonstration made an assumption that quantum systems obeyed a form of additivity of expectation for noncommuting operators that might not hold a priori. In 1966, John Stewart Bell showed that Gleason's theorem could be used to remove this extra assumption from von Neumann's argument.
Ramsey theory
The Ramsey number R(k,l) is the smallest number r such that every graph with at least r vertices contains either a k-vertex clique or an l-vertex independent set. Ramsey numbers require enormous effort to compute; when max(k,l) ≥ 3 only finitely many of them are known precisely, and an exact computation of R(6,6) is believed to be out of reach. In 1953, the calculation of R(3,3) was given as a question in the Putnam Competition; in 1955, motivated by this problem, Gleason and his co-author Robert E. Greenwood made significant progress in the computation of Ramsey numbers with their proof that R(3,4) = 9, R(3,5) = 14, and R(4,4) = 18. Since then, only five more of these values have been found. In the same 1955 paper, Greenwood and Gleason also computed the multicolor Ramsey number R(3,3,3): the smallest number r such that, if a complete graph on r vertices has its edges colored with three colors, then it necessarily contains a monochromatic triangle. As they showed, R(3,3,3) = 17; this remains the only nontrivial multicolor Ramsey number whose exact value is known. As part of their proof, they used an algebraic construction to show that a 16-vertex complete graph can be decomposed into three disjoint copies of a triangle-free 5-regular graph with 16 vertices and 40 edges<ref
name="spencer-dm">.
</ref>
(sometimes called the Greenwood–Gleason graph).
Ronald Graham writes that the paper by Greenwood and Gleason "is now recognized as a classic in the development of Ramsey theory". In the late 1960s, Gleason became the doctoral advisor of Joel Spencer, who also became known for his contributions to Ramsey theory.<ref
name="mathgenealogy">
</ref>
Coding theory
Gleason published few contributions to coding theory, but they were influential ones, and included "many of the seminal ideas and early results" in algebraic coding theory. During the 1950s and 1960s, he attended monthly meetings on coding theory with Vera Pless and others at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory. Pless, who had previously worked in abstract algebra but became one of the world's leading experts in coding theory during this time, writes that "these monthly meetings were what I
lived for." She frequently posed her mathematical problems to Gleason and was often rewarded with a quick and insightful response.
The Gleason–Prange theorem is named after Gleason's work with AFCRL researcher Eugene Prange; it was originally published in a 1964 AFCRL research report by H. F. Mattson Jr. and E. F. Assmus Jr.
It concerns the quadratic residue code of order n, extended by adding a single parity check bit. This "remarkable theorem" shows that this code is highly symmetric, having the projective linear group PSL2(n) as a subgroup of its symmetries.
Gleason is the namesake of the Gleason polynomials, a system of polynomials that generate the weight enumerators of linear codes. These polynomials take a particularly simple form for self-dual codes: in this case there are just two of them, the two bivariate polynomials x2 + y2 and x8 + 14x2y2 + y8. Gleason's student Jessie MacWilliams continued Gleason's work in this area, proving a relationship between the weight enumerators of codes and their duals that has become known as the MacWilliams identity.
In this area, he also did pioneering work in experimental mathematics, performing computer experiments in 1960. This work studied the average distance to a codeword, for a code related to the Berlekamp switching game.
Other areas
Gleason founded the theory of Dirichlet algebras,
and made other contributions including work on
finite geometry and on
the enumerative combinatorics of permutations.
(In 1959 he wrote that his research "sidelines" included "an intense interest in combinatorial problems.")
As well, he was not above publishing research in more elementary mathematics, such as the derivation of the set of polygons that can be constructed with compass, straightedge, and an angle trisector.
Awards and honors
In 1952 Gleason was awarded the American Association for the Advancement of Science's Newcomb Cleveland Prize
for his work on Hilbert's fifth problem.
He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society, was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and belonged to the Société Mathématique de France.
In 1981 and 1982 he was president of the American Mathematical Society,
and at various times held numerous other posts in professional and scholarly organizations,
including chairmanship of the Harvard Department of Mathematics.
In 1986 he chaired the organizing committee for the International Congress of Mathematicians in Berkeley, California, and was president of the Congress.
In 1996 the Harvard Society of Fellows held a special symposium honoring Gleason on his retirement after seven years as its chairman;
that same year, the Mathematics Association of America awarded him the Yueh-Gin Gung and Dr. Charles Y. Hu Distinguished Service to Mathematics Award.
A past president of the Association wrote:
After his death a 32-page collection of essays in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society recalled "the life and work of [this] eminent American mathematician",
calling him "one of the quiet giants of twentieth-century mathematics, the consummate professor dedicated to scholarship, teaching, and service in equal measure."
Selected publications
Research papers
.
.
.
.
.
.
Books
. Corrected reprint, Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1991, .
.
. Unclassified reprint of a book originally published in 1957 by the National Security Agency, Office of Research and Development, Mathematical Research Division.
. Since its original publications this book has been extended to many different editions and variations with additional co-authors.
Film
. 63 minutes, black & white. Produced by Richard G. Long and directed by Allan Hinderstein.
See also
Bell's critique of von Neumann's proof
Pierpont prime, a class of prime numbers conjectured by Gleason to be infinite
Notes
References
External links
1921 births
2008 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
American cryptographers
Mathematical analysts
Coding theorists
Graph theorists
Quantum physicists
Harvard University Department of Mathematics faculty
Harvard University faculty
Putnam Fellows
Yale University alumni
Presidents of the American Mathematical Society
Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
People from Fresno, California
Topologists
Mathematicians from California
United States Navy personnel of World War II |
4245735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Labour%20Party%20%28UK%29%20MPs | List of Labour Party (UK) MPs | This is a list of United Kingdom Labour Party MPs. It includes all members of Parliament (MPs) elected to the British House of Commons representing the Labour Party from 1900 to 1923 and since 1992. Members of the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd or the European Parliament are not listed. Those in italics are overall leaders of the Labour Party, those in bold are prime ministers.
List of MPs
A
Diane Abbott, Hackney North and Stoke Newington, 1987–present
William Abraham, Rhondda, 1910–18; Rhondda West, 1918–20
Debbie Abrahams, Oldham East and Saddleworth, 2011–present
Leo Abse, Pontypool, 1958–83; Torfaen, 1983–87
Richard Acland, Gravesend, 1947–55
Allen Adams, Paisley, 1979–83; Paisley North, 1983–90
David Adams, Newcastle-upon-Tyne West, 1922–23; Consett, 1935–43
Irene Adams, Paisley North, 1990–2005
Richard Adams, Balham and Tooting, 1945–50; Wandsworth Central, 1950–55
Jennie Adamson, Dartford, 1938–45; Bexley, 1945–46
William Adamson, West Fife, 1910–31
William Murdoch Adamson, Cannock, 1922–31; 1935–45
Christopher Addison, Swindon, 1929–31; 1934–35
Nick Ainger, Pembroke, 1992–97; Carmarthen West and South Pembrokeshire, 1997–2010
William Ainsley, North West Durham, 1955–64
Bob Ainsworth, Coventry North East, 1997–2015
Craigie Aitchison, Kilmarnock, 1929–31
Austen Albu, Edmonton, 1948–74
Percy Alden, Tottenham South, 1923–24
A. V. Alexander, Sheffield Hillsborough, 1927–31; 1935–50
Douglas Alexander, Paisley South, 1997–2005; Paisley and South Renfrewshire, 2005–2015
Heidi Alexander, Lewisham East, 2010–2018
Rushanara Ali, Bethnal Green and Bow, 2010–present
Tahir Ali, Birmingham Hall Green, 2019–present
Frank Allaun, Salford East, 1955–83
Walter Alldritt, Liverpool Scotland, 1964–71
Arthur Allen, Bosworth, 1945–59
Graham Allen, Nottingham North, 1987–2017
Scholefield Allen, Crewe, 1945–74
Garry Allighan, Gravesend, 1945–47
Rosena Allin-Khan, Tooting, 2016–present
Joseph Alpass, Bristol Central, 1929–31; Thornbury, 1945–50
Mike Amesbury, Weaver Vale, 2017–present
Charles Ammon, Camberwell North, 1922–31; 1935–44
Alexander Anderson, Motherwell, 1945–54
David Anderson, Blaydon, 2005–2017
Donald Anderson, Monmouth, 1966–70; Swansea East, 1974–2005
Fleur Anderson, Putney, 2019–present
Frank Anderson, Whitehaven, 1935–59
Janet Anderson, Rossendale and Darwen, 1992–2010
William Crawford Anderson, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1914–18
Norman Angell, Bradford North, 1929–31
Tonia Antoniazzi, Gower, 2017–present
Peter Archer, Rowley Regis and Tipton, 1966–74; Warley West, 1974–92
Ernest Armstrong, North West Durham, 1964–87
Hilary Armstrong, North West Durham, 1987–2010
Jack Ashley, Baron Ashley of Stoke, Stoke-on-Trent South, 1966–92
Joe Ashton, Bassetlaw, 1968–2001
Jon Ashworth, Leicester South, 2011–present
Candy Atherton, Falmouth and Camborne, 1997–2005
Charlotte Atkins, Staffordshire Moorlands, 1997–2010
Ronald Atkins, Preston North, 1966–70; 1974–79
Norman Atkinson, Tottenham, 1964–87
Clement Attlee, Limehouse, 1922–50; Walthamstow West, 1950–56
Herschel Lewis Austin, Stretford, 1945–50
Ian Austin, Dudley North, 2005–2019
John Austin, Woolwich, 1992–97; Erith and Thamesmead, 1997–2010
Stan Awbery, Bristol Central, 1945–64
Walter Henry Ayles, Bristol North, 1923–24, 1929–31; Southall, 1945–50; Hayes and Harlington, 1950–53
Barbara Ayrton-Gould, Hendon North, 1945–50
B
Alice Bacon, Leeds North East, 1945–55; Leeds South East, 1955–70
Gordon Bagier, Sunderland South, 1964–87
Adrian Bailey, West Bromwich West, 2000–2019
Willie Bain, Glasgow North East, 2009–2015
John Baird, Wolverhampton East, 1945–50; Wolverhampton North East, 1950–64
Vera Baird, Redcar, 2001–2010
John Baker, Bilston, 1924–31
Walter John Baker, Bristol East, 1923–31
Oliver Baldwin, Dudley, 1929–31; Paisley, 1945–47
Alfred Balfour, West Stirlingshire, 1945–59
Ed Balls, Normanton, 2005–2010; Morley and Outwood, 2010–2015
John Banfield, Wednesbury, 1932–45
Gordon Banks, Ochil and South Perthshire, 2005–2015
Tony Banks, Newham North West, 1986–97; West Ham, 1997–2005
George Banton, Leicester East, 1922; 1923–24
George Barker, Abertillery, 1920–29
Paula Barker, Liverpool Wavertree, 2019–present
Celia Barlow, Hove, 2005–2010
Alfred Barnes East Ham South 1922–31, 1935–55
George Nicoll Barnes, Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, 1906–18, Glasgow Gorbals, 1918
Harry Barnes, North East Derbyshire, 1987–2005
Michael Barnes, Brentford and Chiswick, 1966–74
Guy Barnett, South Dorset, 1962–64; Greenwich, 1971–86
Joel Barnett, Heywood and Royton, 1964–1983
James Barr, Motherwell, 1924–31; Coatbridge, 1935–45
Kevin Barron, Rother Valley, 1983–2019
Percy Barstow, Pontefract, 1941–50
Patrick Bartley, Chester-le-Street, 1950–56
Alfred Bates, Bebington and Ellesmere Port, 1974–79
Joseph Batey, Spennymoor, 1922–42
John Battle, Leeds West, 1987–2010
John Battley, Clapham, 1945–50
William Baxter, West Stirlingshire, 1959–74
Hugh Bayley, City of York, 1992–2010; York Central, 2010–2015
Robert Bean, Rochester and Chatham, 1974–79
Alan Beaney, Hemsworth, 1959–74
Nigel Beard, Bexleyheath and Crayford, 1997–2005
Hubert Beaumont, Batley and Morley, 1939–48
John Beckett, Gateshead, 1924–29; Peckham, 1929–31
Margaret Beckett, Lincoln, 1974–79; Derby South, 1983–present
Anne Begg, Aberdeen South, 1997–2015
Apsana Begum, Poplar and Limehouse, 2019–present
James Bell, Ormskirk, 1918–22
Joseph Nicholas Bell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne East, 1922–23
Richard Bell, Derby, 1900–04
Stuart Bell, Middlesbrough, 1983–2012
Hilary Benn, Leeds Central, 1999–present
Tony Benn, Bristol South East, 1950–61, 1963–83; Chesterfield, 1984–2001
Andrew Bennett, Stockport South, 1974–1983; Denton and Reddish, 1983–2005
Joe Benton, Bootle, 1990–2015
Luciana Berger, Liverpool Riverside, 2010–2019
Gerry Bermingham, St Helens South, 1983–2001
Roger Berry, Kingswood, 1992–2010
Harold Best, Leeds North West, 1997–2005
Frank Beswick, Uxbridge, 1945–59
Clive Betts, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1992–2010; Sheffield South East, 2010–present
Aneurin Bevan Ebbw Vale 1929–60
Liz Blackman, Erewash, 1997–2010
Roberta Blackman-Woods, City of Durham, 2005–2019
Tony Blair, Sedgefield, 1983–2007
Olivia Blake, Sheffield Hallam, 2019–present
Hazel Blears, Salford, 1997–2010; Salford and Eccles, 2010–2015
Tom Blenkinsop, Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland, 2010–2017
Bob Blizzard, Waveney, 1997–2010
Paul Blomfield, Sheffield Central, 2010–present
David Blunkett, Sheffield Brightside, 1987–2010; Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2010–2015
Paul Boateng, Brent South, 1987–2005
Margaret Bondfield, Northampton, 1923–24; Wallsend, 1926–31
Betty Boothroyd, West Bromwich, 1973–74; West Bromwich West, 1974–92
David Borrow, South Ribble, 1997–2010
Herbert Bowden, Leicester South 1945–50, Leicester South West, 1950–67
Charles Bowerman, Deptford, 1906–31
Jimmy Boyce, Rotherham, 1992–94
Roland Boyes, Houghton and Washington, 1983–97
Tracy Brabin, Batley and Spen, 2016–present
William Brace, South Glamorgan, 1910–18; Abertillery, 1918–20
Keith Bradley, Manchester Withington, 1987–2005
Peter Bradley, The Wrekin, 1997–2005
Ben Bradshaw, Exeter, 1997–present
Jeremy Bray, Middlesbrough West 1962–70, Motherwell and Wishaw 1974–83, Motherwell South 1983–97
Kevin Brennan, Cardiff West, 2001–present
Frank Broad, Edmonton, 1922–31; 1935–45
William Bromfield, Leek, 1918–31; 1935–45
John Bromley, Barrow-in-Furness, 1924–31
John Brotherton, Gateshead, 1922–23
George Brown, Belper, 1945–70
Gordon Brown, Dunfermline East, 1983–2005; Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, 2005–2015
James Brown, Ayrshire South, 1918–31, 1935–39
Ron Brown, Edinburgh Leith 1979–92
Lyn Brown, West Ham, 2005–present
Nick Brown, Newcastle-upon-Tyne East, 1983–1997 and 2010–present; Newcastle-upon-Tyne East and Wallsend, 1997–2010
Russell Brown, Dumfries, 1997–2005; Dumfries and Galloway, 2005–15
Des Browne, Kilmarnock and Loudoun, 1997–2010
Chris Bryant, Rhondda, 2001–present
Norman Buchan, West Renfrewshire 1964–83, Paisley South 1983–90
George Buchanan, Glasgow Gorbals, 1922–31; 1939–48
Karen Buck, Regent's Park and Kensington North, 1997–2010, Westminster North, 2010–present
John Buckle, Eccles, 1922–24
George Buckley, Hemsworth 1987–91
Richard Burden, Birmingham Northfield, 1992–2019
Stanley Burgess, Rochdale, 1922–23
Colin Burgon, Elmet, 1997–2010
Richard Burgon, Leeds East, 2015–present
Andy Burnham, Leigh, 2001–2017
Elaine Burton, Coventry South, 1950-1959
Christine Butler, Castle Point, 1997–2001
Dawn Butler, Brent South, 2005–2010, Brent Central, 2015–present
Joyce Butler, Wood Green, 1955–79
Charles Roden Buxton, Accrington, 1922–23; Elland, 1929–31
Noel Noel-Buxton, North Norfolk, 1922–30
Stephen Byers, Wallsend, 1992–97; North Tyneside, 1997–2010
Ian Byrne, Birmingham Hall Green, 2019–present
Liam Byrne, Liverpool West Derby, 2004–present
C
Richard Caborn, Sheffield Central, 1983–2010
Ruth Cadbury, Brentford and Isleworth, 2015–present
David Cairns, Greenock and Inverclyde, 2001–05; Inverclyde, 2005–11
John Cairns, Morpeth, 1918–23
James Callaghan, Cardiff South 1945–50, Cardiff South East 1950–83, Cardiff South and Penarth 1983–87
James Callaghan, Middleton and Prestwich 1974–83, Heywood and Middleton 1983–97
Alan Campbell, Tynemouth, 1997–present
Anne Campbell, Cambridge, 1992–2005
Ronnie Campbell, Blyth Valley, 1987–2019
Dale Campbell-Savours, Workington, 1979–2001
Dennis Canavan, West Stirlingshire, 1974–83; Falkirk West, 1983–2000
Jamie Cann, Ipswich, 1992–2001
Thomas Cape, Workington, 1918–45
Ivor Caplin, Hove, 1997–2005
Dan Carden, Liverpool Walton, 2017–present
Roger Casale, Wimbledon, 1997–2005
Barbara Castle, Blackburn, 1945–50; 55–79; Blackburn East 1950–55
Martin Caton, Gower, 1997–2015
William Carter, Mansfield, 1918–22
Ian Cawsey, Brigg and Goole, 1997–2010
Colin Challen, Morley and Rothwell, 2001–2010
Arthur Champion South Derbyshire 1945–50, South East Derbyshire 1950–59
Sarah Champion, Rotherham, 2012–present
Ben Chapman, Wirral South, 1997–2010
Jenny Chapman, Darlington, 2010–2019
Bambos Charalambous, Enfield Southgate, 2017–present
Henry Charles Charleton, Leeds South, 1922–31; 35–45
David Chaytor, Bury North, 1997–2010
Malcolm Chisholm, Edinburgh Leith, 1992–1997; Edinburgh North and Leith, 1997–2001
Archibald George Church, Leyton East, 1923–24; Wandsworth Central, 1929–31
Judith Church, Dagenham, 1994–2001
Michael Clapham, Barnsley West and Penistone, 1992–2010
David Clark, Colne Valley, 1970–74; South Shields, 1979–2001
Feryal Clark, Enfield North, 2019–present
Helen Clark, Peterborough, 1997–2005
Katy Clark, North Ayrshire and Arran, 2005–2015
Paul Clark, Gillingham, 1997–2010
Andrew Bathgate Clarke, Midlothian and Peebles Northern, 1923–24; 29
Charles Clarke, Norwich South, 1997–2010
Eric Clarke, Midlothian, 1992–2001
Tom Clarke, Coatbridge and Airdrie, 1982–83; Monklands West, 1983–97; Coatbridge and Chryston, 1997–2005; Coatbridge, Chryston and Bellshill, 2005–2015
Tony Clarke, Northampton South, 1997–2005
David Clelland, Tyne Bridge, 1985–2010
Robert Climie, Kilmarnock, 1923–24, 1929
William Sampson Cluse, Islington South, 1923–31, 35–50
John Clynes, Manchester North East, 1906–18; Manchester Platting 1918–31, 35–45
Ann Clwyd, Cynon Valley, 1984–2019
Emma Dent Coad, Kensington, 2017–2019
Vernon Coaker, Gedling, 1997–2019
Ann Coffey, Stockport, 1992–2019
Harry Cohen, Leyton, 1983–97; Leyton and Wanstead, 1997–2010
Iain Coleman, Hammersmith and Fulham, 1997–2005
Joseph Compton, Manchester Gorton, 1923–31; 35–37
Michael Connarty, Falkirk East, 1992–2005; Linlithgow and Falkirk East, 2005–2015
Frank Cook, Stockton North, 1983–2010
Robin Cook, Edinburgh Central, 1974–83; Livingston, 1983–2005
Julie Cooper, Burnley, 2015–2019
Rosie Cooper, West Lancashire, 2005–present
Yvette Cooper, Pontefract and Castleford, 1997–2010; Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford, 2010–present
Robin Corbett, Hemel Hempstead, 1974–79; Birmingham Erdington, 1983–2001
Jeremy Corbyn, Islington North, 1983–present
Jean Corston, Bristol East, 1992–2005
Frank Cousins, Nuneaton, 1965–66
Jim Cousins, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central, 1987–2010
William Cove, Wellingborough, 1923–29; Aberavon, 1929–59
Jo Cox, Batley and Spen, 2015–2016
Tom Cox, Wandsworth Central, 1970–74; Tooting, 1974–2005
Neil Coyle, Bermondsey and Old Southwark, 2015–present
Ross Cranston, Dudley North, 1997–2005
David Crausby, Bolton North East, 1997–2019
Mary Creagh, Wakefield, 2005–2019
Stella Creasy, Walthamstow, 2010–present
Valentine Crittall, Maldon, 1923–24
Will Crooks, Woolwich, 1903–10, 10–21
Jon Cruddas, Dagenham and Rainham, 2001–present
Ann Cryer, Keighley, 1997–2010
Bob Cryer, Keighley, 1974–83; Bradford South, 1987–94
John Cryer, Hornchurch, 1997–2005; Leyton and Wanstead, 2010–present
John Cummings, Easington, 1987–2010
Judith Cummins, Bradford South, 2015–present
Lawrence Cunliffe, Leigh, 1979–2001
Alex Cunningham, Stockton North, 2010–present
Jack Cunningham, Whitehaven, 1970–83; Copeland, 1983–2005
Jim Cunningham, Coventry South East, 1992–97; Coventry South, 1997–2019
Tony Cunningham, Workington, 2001–2015
Peter Curran, Jarrow, 1906–10
Claire Curtis-Thomas, Crosby, 1997–2010
D
Janet Daby, Lewisham East, 2018–present
Paul Daisley, Brent East, 2001–2003
Nic Dakin, Scunthorpe, 2010–2019
Tam Dalyell, West Lothian, 1962–1983; Linlithgow, 1983–2005
Simon Danczuk, Rochdale, 2010–2017
Alistair Darling, Edinburgh Central, 1987–2005; Edinburgh South West, 2005–2015
Keith Darvill, Upminster, 1997–2001
Valerie Davey, Bristol West, 1997–2005
Wayne David, Caerphilly, 2001–present
Ian Davidson, Glasgow Govan, 1992–1997, Glasgow Pollok, 1997–2005; Glasgow South West, 2005–2015
Alfred Davies, Clitheroe, 1918–1922
Bryan Davies, Enfield North, 1974–1979; Oldham Central and Royton, 1992–1997
Denzil Davies, Llanelli, 1970–2005
Evan Davies, Ebbw Vale, 1920-1929
Geraint Davies, Croydon Central, 1997–2005; Swansea West, 2010–present
Quentin Davies, Grantham and Stamford, 2007–2010
Rhys Davies, Westhoughton, 1921–1951
Ron Davies, Caerphilly, 1983–2001
Alex Davies-Jones, Pontypridd, 2019–present
Terry Davis, Bromsgrove, 1971–1974; Birmingham Stechford, 1979–1983; Birmingham Hodge Hill, 1983–2004
John Emanuel Davison, Smethwick, 1918–1926
Hilton Dawson, Lancaster and Wyre, 1997–2005
Gloria De Piero, Ashfield, 2010–2019
Marsha de Cordova, Battersea, 2017–present
Janet Dean, Burton, 1997–2010
Thangam Debbonaire, Bristol West, 2015–present
George Deer, Lincoln, 1945–1950; Newark, 1950–1964
John Denham, Southampton Itchen, 1992–2015
Robert Dennison, Birmingham King's Norton, 1924–1929
Jim Devine, Livingston, 2005–2010
Donald Dewar, Aberdeen South, 1966–70; Glasgow Garscadden, 1978–1997; Glasgow Anniesland, 1997–2000
Parmjit Dhanda, Gloucester, 2001–2010
Tanmanjeet Singh Dhesi, Slough, 2017–present
Thomas Scott Dickson, Lanark, 1923–24, 1929–1931
Andrew Dismore, Hendon, 1997–2010
Jim Dobbin, Heywood and Middleton, 1997–2014
Frank Dobson, Holborn and St Pancras South, 1979–1983; Holborn and St Pancras, 1983–2015
Thomas Docherty, Dunfermline and West Fife, 2010–2015
Anneliese Dodds, Oxford East, 2017–present
Brian Donohoe, Cunninghame South, 1992–2005; Central Ayrshire, 2005–2015
Frank Doran, Aberdeen South, 1987–1997; Aberdeen Central, 1997–2005; Aberdeen North, 2005–2015
Jim Dowd, Lewisham West, 1992–2010; Lewisham West and Penge, 2010–2017
Peter Dowd, Bootle, 2015–present
Gemma Doyle, West Dunbartonshire, 2010–2015
David Drew, Stroud, 1997–2010; 2017–2019
Jack Dromey, Birmingham Erdington, 2010–present
Julia Drown, Swindon South, 1997–2005
Rosie Duffield, Canterbury, 2017–present
Thomas Gavan Duffy, Whitehaven, 1922–1924
Michael Dugher, Barnsley East, 2010–2017
Charles Dukes, Warrington, 1923–1924; 1929–1931
Charles Duncan, Barrow, 1906–18; Clay Cross, 1922–1933
Jimmy Dunnachie, Glasgow Pollok, 1987–1997
Herbert Dunnico, Consett, 1922–1931
Gwyneth Dunwoody, Exeter, 1966–1970; Crewe, 1974–1983; Crewe and Nantwich, 1983–2008
E
Angela Eagle, Wallasey, 1992–present
Maria Eagle, Liverpool Garston, 1997–2010; Garston and Halewood, 2010–present
James Chuter Ede, Mitcham, 1923; South Shields, 1929–31; 35–64
Charles Edwards, Bedwellty, 1918–50
Enoch Edwards, Hanley, 1910–12
George Edwards, South Norfolk, 1919–22; 23–24
Huw Edwards, Monmouth, 1991–92; 97–2005
Clive Efford, Eltham, 1997–present
William Henry Egan, Birkenhead West, 1923–24; 29–31
Julie Elliott, Sunderland Central, 2010–present
Louise Ellman, Liverpool Riverside, 1997–2019
Chris Elmore, Ogmore, 2016–present
Natascha Engel, North East Derbyshire 2005–present
Jeff Ennis, Barnsley East and Mexborough, 1996–2010
Derek Enright, Hemsworth, 1991–95
Florence Eshalomi, Vauxhall, 2019–present
Bill Esterson, Sefton Central, 2010–present
Bill Etherington, Sunderland North, 1992–2010
Chris Evans, Islwyn, 2010–present
Ioan Evans, Birmingham Yardley 1964–70, Aberdare 1974–83, Cynon Valley 1983–84
F
Paul Farrelly, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 2001–2019
Walter Farthing, Frome, 1945–50
Derek Fatchett, Leeds Central, 1983–99
Frank Field, Birkenhead, 1979–2018
Samuel Finney, North West Staffordshire, 1916–18; Stoke-on-Trent Burslem, 1918–22
Mark Fisher, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 1983–2010
Jim Fitzpatrick, Poplar and Canning Town, 1997–2010; Poplar and Limehouse, 2010–2019
Lorna Fitzsimons, Rochdale, 1997–2005
Robert Flello, Stoke-on-Trent South, 2005–2017
Colleen Fletcher, Coventry North East, 2015–present
Caroline Flint, Don Valley, 1997–2019
Paul Flynn, Newport West, 1987–2019
Barbara Follett, Stevenage, 1997–2010
Dingle Foot, Ipswich, 1957–70
Michael Foot, Plymouth Devonport, 1945–55; Ebbw Vale, 1960–83; Blaenau Gwent, 1983–92
Lisa Forbes, Peterborough, June–November 2019
Derek Foster, Bishop Auckland, 1979–2005
Michael Jabez Foster, Hastings and Rye, 1997–2010
Michael John Foster, Worcester, 1997–2010
George Foulkes, South Ayrshire, 1979–83; Carrick, Cumnock and Doon Valley, 1983–2005
Yvonne Fovargue, Makerfield, 2010–present
Vicky Foxcroft, Lewisham Deptford, 2015–present
Mary Foy, City of Durham, 2019–present
Hywel Francis, Aberavon, 2001–2015
James Frith, Bury North, 2017–2019
Gill Furniss, Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2016–present
Maria Fyfe, Glasgow Maryhill, 1987–2001
G
Hugh Gaffney, Coatbridge, Chryston and Bellshill, 2017–2019
Hugh Gaitskell, Leeds South, 1945–63
Sam Galbraith, Strathkelvin and Bearsden, 1987–2001
George Galloway, Glasgow Hillhead, 1987–97; Glasgow Kelvin, 1997–2003
Mike Gapes, Ilford South, 1992–2019
Barry Gardiner, Brent North, 1997–present
Benjamin Gardiner, Upton, 1923–24; 29–31; 34–45
James Patrick Gardner, Hammersmith North, 1923–24; 26–31
Alex Garrow, Glasgow Pollok, 1964–1967
Bruce George, Walsall South, 1970–2010
Ruth George, High Peak, 2017–2019
Neil Gerrard, Walthamstow, 1992–2010
Joseph Gibbins, Liverpool West Derby, 1924–31; 35–50
Ian Gibson, Norwich North, 1997–2009
Alfred Gill, Bolton, 1906–14
Preet Gill, Birmingham Edgbaston, 2017–present
George Masterman Gillett, Finsbury, 1923–31
William Gillis, Penistone, 1921–22
Sheila Gilmore, Edinburgh East, 2010–2015
Linda Gilroy, Plymouth Sutton, 1997–2010
Pat Glass, North West Durham, 2010–2017
Mary Glindon, North Tyneside, 2010–present
Thomas Glover, St Helens, 1906–10
Norman Godman, Greenock and Port Glasgow, 1983–1997; Greenock and Inverclyde, 1997–2001
Roger Godsiff, Birmingham Small Heath, 1992–1997; Birmingham Sparkbrook and Small Heath, 1997–2010; Birmingham Hall Green 2010–2019
Paul Goggins, Wythenshawe and Sale East, 1997–2014
Llin Golding, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1986–2001
Frank Walter Goldstone, Sunderland, 1910–18
Helen Goodman, Bishop Auckland, 2005–2019
Eileen Gordon, Romford, 1997–2001
Harry Gosling, Whitechapel and St George's, 1923–30
Archibald Gossling, Birmingham Yardley 1929–31
Bryan Gould, Southampton Test, 1974–79; Dagenham, 1983–94
Frederick Gould, Frome, 1923–24, 29–31
Duncan Macgregor Graham, Hamilton, 1918–43
Robinson Graham, Nelson and Colne, 1920–22
Tommy Graham, Renfrew West and Inverclyde, 1987–97; Renfrewshire West, 1997–98
William Graham, Edinburgh Central, 1918–31
Bernie Grant, Tottenham, 1987–2000
Tom Greatrex, Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2010–2015
Kate Green, Stretford and Urmston, 2010–present
Thomas Greenall, Farnworth, 1922–29
Arthur Greenwood, Nelson and Colne, 1922–31; Wakefield, 1932–51
Lilian Greenwood, Nottingham South, 2010–present
Margaret Greenwood, Wirral West, 2015–present
David Grenfell, Gower, 1922–59
Nia Griffith, Llanelli, 2005–present
Jane Griffiths, Reading East, 1997–2005
Nigel Griffiths, Edinburgh South, 1987–2010
Thomas Griffiths, Pontypool, 1918–35
Win Griffiths, Bridgend, 1987–2005
Bruce Grocott, Lichfield and Tamworth, 1974–79; The Wrekin, 1987–97; Telford, 1997–2001
John Grogan, Selby, 1997–2010; Keighley, 2017–2019
Thomas Edward Groves, Stratford West Ham, 1922–45
Thomas Walter Grundy, Rother Valley, 1918–35
John Guest, Hemsworth, 1918–31
John Gunnell, Morley and Leeds South, 1992–97; Morley and Rothwell, 1997–2001
Andrew Gwynne, Denton and Reddish, 2005–present
H
Leslie Haden-Guest, Southwark North, 1923–27; Islington North, 1938–50
Louise Haigh, Sheffield Heeley, 2015–present
Peter Hain, Neath, 1991–2015
Frederick Hall, Normanton, 1910–33
George Hall, Aberdare, 1922–46
Mike Hall, Weaver Vale, 1997–2010
Patrick Hall, Bedford, 1997–2010
Walter Halls, Heywood and Radcliffe, 1921–23
David Hamilton, Midlothian, 2001–2015
Fabian Hamilton, Leeds North East, 1997–present
John Hancock, Mid Derbyshire, 1909–?
David Hanson, Delyn, 1992–2019
George Hardie, Glasgow Springburn, 1922–31; 35–37
Keir Hardie, Merthyr Tydfil, 1900–15
Emma Hardy, Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle, 2017–present
Harriet Harman, Peckham, 1982–97; Camberwell and Peckham, 1997–present
Harry Harpham, Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, 2015–2016
Carolyn Harris, Swansea East, 2015–present
Tom Harris, Glasgow Cathcart, 2001–05; Glasgow South, 2005–2015
Vernon Hartshorn, Ogmore, 1918–31
Dai Havard, Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 2001–2015
W. E. Harvey, North East Derbyshire, 1910–14
James Haslam, Chesterfield, 1910–13
Somerville Hastings, Reading, 1923–24; 29–31; Barking, 1945–59
Patrick Hastings, Wallsend, 1922–26
John Primrose Hay, Glasgow Cathcart, 1922–23
Alexander Haycock, Salford West, 1923–24; 29–31
Helen Hayes, Dulwich and West Norwood, 2015–present
Jack Hayes, Liverpool Edge Hill, 1923–31
Sue Hayman, Workington, 2015–2019
Arthur Hayday, Nottingham West, 1918–31; 35–45
Sylvia Heal, Mid Staffordshire, 1990–92; Halesowen and Rowley Regis, 1997–2010
John Healey, Wentworth, 1997–2010, Wentworth and Dearne, 2010–present
Edward George Hemmerde, Crewe, 1922–24
Arthur Henderson, Barnard Castle, 1903–18; Widnes, 1919–22; Newcastle East, 1922–23; Burnley, 1923–31; Clay Cross, 1933–35
Arthur Henderson, Baron Rowley, Cardiff South, 1923–24, 29–31; Kingswinford, 1935–50; Rowley Regis and Tipton, 1950–66
Doug Henderson, Newcastle-upon-Tyne North, 1987–2010
Ivan Henderson, Harwich, 1997–2005
Thomas Henderson, Glasgow Tradeston, 1927–31; 35–45
William Henderson, Enfield, 1923–24; 29–31
Sir Mark Hendrick, Preston, 2000–present
Stephen Hepburn, Jarrow, 1997–2019
John Heppell, Nottingham East, 1992–2010
John Herriotts, Sedgefield, 1922–23; 29–31
Stephen Hesford, Wirral West, 1997–2010
Patricia Hewitt, Leicester West, 1997–2010
David Heyes, Ashton under Lyne, 2001–2015
Alfred Hill, Leicester West, 1922–23
Keith Hill, Streatham, 1992–2010
Mike Hill, Hartlepool, 2017–2021
Meg Hillier, Hackney South and Shoreditch, 2005–present
Julie Hilling, Bolton West, 2010–2015
David Hinchliffe, Wakefield, 1987–2005
George Harry Hirst, Wentworth, 1918–33
John Hodge, Manchester Gorton, 1906–16 2
Margaret Hodge, Barking, 1994–present
Frank Hodges, Lichfield, 1923–24
Sharon Hodgson, Gateshead East and Washington West, 2005–2010; Washington and Sunderland West, 2010–present
Kate Hoey, Vauxhall, 1989–2019
Philip Hoffman, South East Essex, 1923–24; Sheffield Central, 1929–31
Alfred Holland, Clay Cross, 1935–1936
Kate Hollern, Blackburn, 2015–present
Jimmy Hood, Clydesdale, 1987–2005; Lanark and Hamilton East, 2005–2015
Geoff Hoon, Ashfield, 1992–2010
Phil Hope, Corby, 1997–2010
Kelvin Hopkins, Luton North, 1997–2019
Rachel Hopkins, Luton South, 2019–present
Alan Howarth, Stratford-on-Avon, 1995–97; Newport East, 1997–2005
George Howarth, Knowsley North, 1986–97; Knowsley North and Sefton East, 1997–2010; Knowsley, 2010–present
Kim Howells, Pontypridd, 1989–2010
Dennis Howell, Birmingham, 1955–1959, Birmingham, 1961–1992
Lindsay Hoyle, Chorley, 1997–2019
Les Huckfield, Nuneaton, 1967–83
James Hudson, Huddersfield, 1923–31; Ealing West, 1945–50; Ealing North, 1950–55
Walter Hudson, Newcastle, 1906–18
Beverley Hughes, Stretford and Urmston, 1997–2010
Kevin Hughes, Doncaster North, 1992–2005
Joan Humble, Blackpool North and Fleetwood, 1997–2010
Tristram Hunt, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 2010–2017
Rupa Huq, Ealing Central and Acton, 2015–present
Alan Hurst, Braintree, 1997–2005
Imran Hussain, Bradford East, 2015–present
John Hutton, Barrow and Furness, 1992–2010
I
Brian Iddon, Bolton South East, 1997–2010
Eric Illsley, Barnsley Central, 1987–2011
Adam Ingram, East Kilbride, 1987–2005; East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow, 2005–10
Huw Irranca-Davies, Ogmore, 2002–2016
Arthur Irvine, Liverpool Edge Hill, 1947–79
David Irving, Burnley, 1918–24
Sydney Irving, Dartford, 1955–70; 74–79
William Irving, Tottenham North, 1945–50; Wood Green, 1950–55
George Isaacs, Gravesend, 1923–24; Southwark North, 1929–31; 39–50; Southwark, 1950–59
J
Glenda Jackson, Hampstead and Highgate, 1992–2010; Hampstead and Kilburn, 2010–2015
Helen Jackson, Sheffield Hillsborough, 1992–2005
Robert Jackson, Ipswich, 1923–24
Robert V. Jackson, Wantage, 2005
Cathy Jamieson, Kilmarnock and Loudoun, 2010–2015
David Jamieson, Plymouth Devonport, 1992–2005
Sian James, Swansea East, 1997–2015
Dan Jarvis, Barnsley Central, 2011–present
Brian Jenkins, South East Staffordshire, 1996–97; Tamworth, 1997–2010
John Jenkins, Chatham, 1906–10
William Jenkins, Neath, 1922–1944
Dorothy Jewson, Norwich, 1923–24
William John, Rhondda West, 1920–50
Alan Johnson, Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle, 1997–2017
Diana Johnson, Kingston upon Hull North, 2005–present
Kim Johnson, Liverpool Riverside, 2019–present
Melanie Johnson, Welwyn Hatfield, 1997–2005
William Johnson, Nuneaton, 1910–18
Thomas Johnston, Stirling and Clackmannan West, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45; Dundee, 1924–29
Arthur Creech Jones Shipley 1935–50, Wakefield 1954–64
Barry Jones, East Flintshire, 1979–83; Alyn and Deeside, 1983–2001
Darren Jones, Bristol North West, 2017–present
Fiona Jones, Newark, 1997–2001
Gerald Jones, Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 2015–present
Graham Jones, Hyndburn, 2010–2019
Helen Jones, Warrington North, 1997–present
Jenny Jones, Wolverhampton South West, 1997–2001
John Joseph Jones, Silvertown, 1919–40
Jon Owen Jones, Cardiff Central, 1992–2005
Kevan Jones, North Durham, 2001–present
Lynne Jones, Birmingham Selly Oak, 1992–2010
Martyn Jones, Clwyd South West, 1987–1997; Clwyd South, 1997–2010
Morgan Jones, Caerphilly, 1921–39
Robert Thomas Jones, Caernarvonshire, 1922–23
Ruth Jones, Newport West, 2019–present
Sarah Jones, Croydon Central 2017–present
Susan Elan Jones, Clwyd South, 2010–2019
Thomas Isaac Mardy Jones, Pontypridd, 1922–31
Tessa Jowell, Dulwich, 1992–97; Dulwich and West Norwood, 1997–2015
Fred Jowett, Bradford West, 1906–18; Bradford East, 1922–24; 29–31
Eric Joyce, Falkirk West, 2000–05; Falkirk, 2005–2015 (suspended 2012)
K
Mike Kane, Wythenshawe and Sale East, 2014–present
Gerald Kaufman, Manchester Ardwick, 1970–83; Manchester Gorton, 1983–2017
Sally Keeble, Northampton North, 1997–2010
Barbara Keeley, Worsley, 2005–2010; Worsley and Eccles South, 2010–present
Alan Keen, Feltham and Heston, 1992–2011
Ann Keen, Brentford and Isleworth, 1997–2010
George Davy Kelley, Manchester South West, 1906–10
Ruth Kelly, Bolton West, 1997–2010
Fraser Kemp, Houghton and Washington East, 1997–2010
Liz Kendall, Leicester West, 2010–present
Jane Kennedy, Liverpool Broadgreen, 1992–97; Liverpool Wavertree, 1997–2010
Tom Kennedy, Kirkcaldy Burghs, 1921–22; 23–31; 35–44
Joseph Kenworthy, Kingston upon Hull Central, 1926–31
Barnet Kenyon, Chesterfield, 1914–29
Piara Khabra, Ealing Southall, 1992–2007
Afzal Khan, Manchester Gorton, 2017–present
Sadiq Khan, Tooting, 2005–2016
David Kidney, Stafford, 1997–2010
Peter Kilfoyle, Liverpool Walton, 1991–2010
Gerard Killen, Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2017–2019
Robert Kilroy-Silk, Ormskirk, 1974–83; Knowsley North, 1983–86
Andy King, Rugby and Kenilworth, 1997–2005
Oona King, Bethnal Green and Bow, 1997–2005
Tess Kingham, Gloucester, 1997–2001Neil Kinnock, Islwyn, 1970–95
Stephen Kinnock, Aberavon, 2015–present
David Kirkwood, Dumbarton Burghs, 1922–50; East Dunbartonshire, 1950–51
Jim Knight, South Dorset, 2001–2010
Ashok Kumar, Langbaurgh, 1991–92; Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland, 1997–2010
Peter Kyle, Hove, 2015–present
L
Stephen Ladyman, South Thanet, 1997–2010
Lesley Laird, Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath, 2017–2019
David Lammy, Tottenham 2000–presentGeorge Lansbury, Bow and Bromley, 1910–12, 22–40
Ian Lavery, Wansbeck, 2010–present
Jackie Lawrence, Preseli Pembrokeshire, 1997–2005
Susan Lawrence, East Ham North, 1923–24, 26–31
John James Lawson, Chester-le-Street, 1919–50
Robert Laxton, Derby North, 1997–2010
Mark Lazarowicz, Edinburgh North and Leith, 2001–2015
William Leach, Bradford Central, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–45
Kim Leadbeater, Batley and Spen, 2021–present
Frank Lee, North East Derbyshire, 1922–31; 35–41
Fred Lee, Manchester Hulme, 1945-1950; Newton, 1950-1974
Jennie Lee, North Lanarkshire, 1929-1931; Cannock, 1945-1970
Karen Lee, Lincoln, 2017–2019
Hastings Lees-Smith, Keighley, 1922–23; 24–31; 35–42
Ron Leighton, Newham North East, 1979–94
David Lepper, Brighton Pavilion, 1997–2010
Chris Leslie, Shipley, 1997–2005; Nottingham East, 2010–2019
Tom Levitt, High Peak, 1997–2010
Emma Lewell-Buck, South Shields, 2013–present
Clive Lewis, Norwich South, 2015–present
Ivan Lewis, Bury South, 1997–2018
Terence Lewis, Worsley, 1983–2005
Helen Liddell, Monklands East, 1994–97; Airdrie and Shotts, 1997–2005
Fred Lindley, Rotherham, 1923–31
Martin Linton, Battersea, 1997–2010
Ken Livingstone, Brent East, 1987–2000
Tony Lloyd, Stretford, 1983–97; Manchester Central, 1997–2012; Rochdale, 2017–present
David Lock, Wyre Forest, 1997–2001
Rebecca Long-Bailey, Salford and Eccles, 2015–present
Thomas Lowth, Manchester Ardwick, 1922–31
Andy Love, Edmonton, 1997–2015
Ian Lucas, Wrexham, 2001–2019
Iain Luke, Dundee East, 2001–05
William Lunn, Rothwell, 1918–42
Holly Lynch, Halifax, 2015–present
John Lyons, Strathkelvin and Bearsden, 2001–05
M
John McAllion, Dundee East, 1987–2001
Tommy McAvoy, Glasgow Rutherglen, 1987–2005; Rutherglen and Hamilton West, 2005–2010
Steve McCabe, Birmingham Hall Green, 1997–2010; Birmingham Selly Oak, 2010–present
Christine McCafferty, Calder Valley, 1997–2010
Michael McCann, East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow, 2010–2015
Kerry McCarthy, Bristol East, 2005–present
Sarah McCarthy-Fry, Portsmouth North, 2005–2010
Ian McCartney, Makerfield, 1987–2010
Gregg McClymont, Cumbernauld, Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch East, 2010–2015
Siobhain McDonagh, Mitcham and Morden, 1997–present
Andy McDonald, Middlesbrough, 2012–present
Calum MacDonald, Western Isles, 1987–2005Ramsay MacDonald, Leicester, 1906–18; Aberavon, 1922–29; Seaham, 1929–31Expelled from the Labour Party in September 1931, founded National Labour.
John McDonnell, Hayes and Harlington, 1997–present
John MacDougall, Central Fife, 2001–05; Glenrothes, 2005–08
Valentine McEntee, Walthamstow West, 1922–24; 29–50
Pat McFadden, Wolverhampton South East, 2005–present
John McFall, Dumbarton, 1987–2005; West Dunbartonshire, 2005–2010
Conor McGinn, St Helens North, 2015–present
Alison McGovern, Wirral South, 2010–present
Jim McGovern, Dundee West, 2005–2015
Anne McGuire, Stirling, 1997–2015
Liz McInnes, Heywood and Middleton, 2014–2019
Shona McIsaac, Cleethorpes, 1997–2010
Ann McKechin, Glasgow Maryhill, 2001–05; Glasgow North, 2005–2015
Rosemary McKenna, Cumbernauld and Kilsyth, 1997–2005; Cumbernauld, Kilsyth and Kirkintilloch East, 2005–2010
Iain McKenzie, Inverclyde, 2011–2015
William Mackinder, Shipley, 1923–30
Andrew MacKinlay, Thurrock, 1992–2010
Catherine McKinnell, Newcastle upon Tyne North, 2010–present
Andrew MacLaren, North West Staffordshire, 1916–18; Stoke-on-Trent Burslem, 1922–23; 24–31; 35–45
Neil Maclean, Glasgow Govan, 1918–50
Henry McLeish, Central Fife, 1987–2001
Jim McMahon, Oldham West and Royton, 2015–present
Gordon McMaster, Paisley South, 1990–97
Anna McMorrin, Cardiff North, 2017–present
Kevin McNamara, Kingston upon Hull North, 1966–74; Kingston upon Hull Central, 1974–83; Kingston upon Hull North, 1983–2005
Tony McNulty, Harrow East, 1997–2010
John Thomas Macpherson, Preston, 1906–10
Denis MacShane, Rotherham, 1994–2012
Fiona Mactaggart, Slough, 1997–2017
Tony McWalter, Hemel Hempstead, 1997–2005
John David McWilliam, Blaydon, 1979–2005
Dickson Mabon, Greenock, 1959–1974; Greenock and Port Glasgow 1974 (February)-1983
George Machin, Dundee East, 1973-1974
Justin Madders, Ellesmere Port and Neston, 2015–present
Khalid Mahmood, Birmingham Perry Barr, 2001–present
Shabana Mahmood, Birmingham Ladywood, 2010–present
Alice Mahon, Halifax, 1987–2005
Seema Malhotra, Feltham and Heston, 2011–present
Shahid Malik, Dewsbury, 2005–2010
Judy Mallaber, Amber Valley, 1997–2010
Peter Mandelson, Hartlepool, 1992–2004
John Mann, Bassetlaw, 2001–2019
Samuel March, Poplar South, 1922–31
Michael Marcus, Dundee 1929–31
John Marek, Wrexham, 1983–2001
James Marley, St Pancras North, 1923–24; 29–31
Rob Marris, Wolverhampton South West, 2001–2010, 2015–2017
Gordon Marsden, Blackpool South, 1997–2019
Paul Marsden, Shrewsbury and Atcham, 1997–2001
David Marshall, Glasgow Shettleston, 1979–2005; Glasgow East, 2005–08
Jim Marshall, Leicester South, 1974–83; 87–2004
Bob Marshall-Andrews, Medway, 1997–2010
Joseph Martin, St Pancras East, 1910–18
Michael Martin, Glasgow Springburn, 1979–2000
Sandy Martin, Ipswich, 2017–2019
William Henry Porteous Martin, Dunbartonshire, 1923–24
Eric Martlew, Carlisle, 1987–2010
Rachael Maskell, York Central, 2015–present
Chris Matheson, City of Chester, 2015–present
Charles James Mathew, Whitechapel and St George's, 1922–23
James Maxton, Glasgow Bridgeton, 1922–31
John Maxton, Glasgow Cathcart, 1979–2001
Michael Meacher, Oldham West, 1970–97; Oldham West and Royton, 1997–2015
Alan Meale, Mansfield, 1987–2017
Ian Mearns, Gateshead, 2010–present
Gillian Merron, Lincoln, 1997–2010
Alun Michael, Cardiff South and Penarth, 1987–2012
Bill Michie, Sheffield Heeley, 1983–2001
George Middleton, Carlisle, 1922–23; 29–31
Alan Milburn, Darlington, 1992–2010
David Miliband, South Shields, 2001–2013Edward Miliband, Doncaster North, 2005–present Bruce Millan
Andrew Miller, Ellesmere Port and Neston, 1992–2015
John Edmund Mills, Dartford, 1920–22, 23–24, 29–31
Navendu Mishra, Stockport, 2019–present
Austin Mitchell, Great Grimsby, 1977–2015
Laura Moffatt, Crawley, 1997–2010
Chris Mole, Ipswich, 2001–2010
Frederick Montague, Islington West, 1923–31, 35–47
Madeleine Moon, Bridgend, 2005–2019
Lewis Moonie, Kirkcaldy, 1987–2005
Margaret Moran, Luton South, 1997–2010
Jessica Morden, Newport East, 2005–present
Edmund Dene Morel, Dundee, 1922–24
David Watts-Morgan, Rhondda East, 1918–33
Julie Morgan, Cardiff North, 1997–2010
Rhodri Morgan, Cardiff West, 1987–2001
Stephen Morgan, Portsmouth South, 2017–present
Elliot Morley, Glanford and Scunthorpe, 1987–97; Scunthorpe, 1997–2010
Graeme Morrice, Livingston, 2010–2015
Alf Morris, Manchester Wythenshawe, 1964–1997
Estelle Morris, Birmingham Yardley, 1992–2005
Grahame Morris, Easington, 2010–present
John Morris, Aberavon, 1959–2001Herbert Morrison, Hackney South, 1923–24; 29–31; 35–45; Lewisham East, 1945–50; Lewisham South, 1950–59
Robert Morrison, Tottenham North, 1927–31; 35–45
Kali Mountford, Colne Valley, 1997–2010
Mo Mowlam, Redcar, 1987–2001
George Mudie, Leeds East, 1992–2015
John William Muir, Glasgow Maryhill, 1922–24
Chris Mullin, Sunderland South, 1987–2010
Meg Munn, Sheffield Heeley, 2001–2015
Hugh Murnin, Stirling and Falkirk, 1922–23; 24–31
Denis Murphy, Wansbeck, 1997–2010
Jim Murphy, Eastwood, 1997–2005; East Renfrewshire, 2005–2015
Paul Murphy, Torfaen, 1987–2015
Ian Murray, Edinburgh South, 2010–present
James Murray, Ealing North, 2019–present
Robert Murray, West Renfrewshire, 1922–24
Thomas Myers, Spen Valley, 1919–22
N
Lisa Nandy, Wigan, 2010–present
Pamela Nash, Airdrie and Shotts, 2010–2015
Thomas Ellis Naylor, Southwark South East, 1921–22; 23–31; 35–50
Doug Naysmith, Bristol North West, 1997–2010
Dave Nellist, Coventry South East, 1983–92
Robert Nichol, East Renfrewshire, 1922–24
Charlotte Nichols, Warrington North, 2019–present
Henry Nixon, The Wrekin, 1923–24
Alex Norris, Nottingham North, 2017–present
Dan Norris, Wansdyke, 1997–2010
O
Bill O'Brien, Normanton, 1983–2005
Mike O'Brien, North Warwickshire, 1992–2010
Fiona O'Donnell, East Lothian, 2010–2015
James O'Grady, Leeds East, 1906–18; Leeds South East, 1918–24
Edward O'Hara, Knowsley South, 1990–2010
Jared O'Mara, Sheffield Hallam, 2017–2018
Martin O'Neill, Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire, 1979–83; Clackmannan, 1983–97; Ochil, 1997–2005
George Oliver, Ilkeston, 1922–31; 35–64
Bill Olner, Nuneaton, 1992–2010
Fiona Onasanya, Peterborough, 2017–2019
Alfred Onions, Caerphilly, 1918–22
Melanie Onn, Great Grimsby, 2015–2019
Chi Onwurah, Newcastle upon Tyne Central, 2010–present
Abena Oppong-Asare, Erith and Thamesmead, 2019–present
Diana Mary Organ, Forest of Dean, 1997–2005
Kate Osamor, Edmonton, 2017–present
Kate Osborne, Jarrow, 2019–present
Sandra Osborne, Ayr, 1997–2005; Ayr, Carrick and Cumnock, 2005–2015
Taiwo Owatemi, Coventry North West, 2019–present
Albert Owen, Ynys Môn, 2001–2019
Sarah Owen, Luton North, 2019–present
P
Wilfred Paling, Doncaster, 1922–31; Wentworth, 1933–50; Dearne Valley, 1950–59
Edward Timothy Palmer, Greenwich, 1923–24; 29–31
Nick Palmer, Broxtowe, 1997–2010
James Parker, Halifax, 1906–18
Myles Harper Parker, Stoke-on-Trent Stoke, 1922–24
John Parkinson, Wigan, 1918–41
Terry Patchett, Barnsley East, 1983–96
Laurence Pavitt, Willesden West, 1959–1974; Brent South, 1974–1987
Stephanie Peacock, Barnsley East, 2017–present
Teresa Pearce, Erith and Thamesmead, 2010–2019
Ian Pearson, Dudley West, 1994–97; Dudley South, 1997–2010
Tom Pendry, Stalybridge and Hyde, 1970–2001
Matthew Pennycook, Greenwich and Woolwich, 2015–present
Linda Perham, Ilford North, 1997–2005
Toby Perkins, Chesterfield, 2010–present
Wesley Perrins, Birmingham Yardley 1945–1950
Samuel Perry, Kettering, 1929–31
Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, Leicester West, 1923–31; Edinburgh East, 1935–45
Jess Phillips, Birmingham Yardley, 2015–present
Bridget Phillipson, Houghton and Sunderland South, 2010–present
Anne Picking, East Lothian, 2001–2010
Colin Pickthall, West Lancashire, 1992–2005
Laura Pidcock, North West Durham, 2017–2019
Peter Pike, Burnley, 1983–2005
James Plaskitt, Warwick and Leamington, 1997–2010
Joanne Platt, Leigh, 2017–2019
Joseph Pointer, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1909–14
Kerry Pollard, St Albans, 1997–2005
Luke Pollard, Plymouth Sutton and Devonport, 2017–present
Chris Pond, Gravesham, 1997–2005
Arthur Ponsonby, Sheffield Brightside, 1922–30
Greg Pope, Hyndburn, 1992–2010
Edward Porter, Warrington, 1945–1950
John Samuel Potts, Barnsley, 1922–31
Stephen Pound, Ealing North, 1997–2019
Lucy Powell, Manchester Central, 2012–present
Ray Powell, Ogmore, 1979–2001
Bridget Prentice, Lewisham East, 1992–2010
Gordon Prentice, Pendle, 1992–2010
John Prescott, Kingston upon Hull East, 1970–2010
Dawn Primarolo, Bristol South, 1987–2015
Gwyn Prosser, Dover, 1997–2010
Albert Arthur Purcell, Coventry, 1923–1924; Forest of Dean 1925–1929
Ken Purchase, Wolverhampton North East, 1992–2010
James Purnell, Stalybridge and Hyde, 2001–2010
Q
David Quibell, Brigg, 1929–31, 35–45
Joyce Quin, Gateshead East, 1987–97; Gateshead East and Washington West, 1997–2005
Lawrie Quinn, Scarborough and Whitby, 1997–2005
Yasmin Qureshi, Bolton South East, 2010–present
R
Giles Radice, Chester-le-Street, 1973–83; North Durham, 1983–2001
Bill Rammell, Harlow, 1997–2010
Syd Rapson, Portsmouth North, 1997–2005
Faisal Rashid, Warrington South, 2017–2019
Angela Rayner, Ashton-under-Lyne, 2015–present
William Robert Raynes, Derby, 1923–24; 29–31
Nick Raynsford, Fulham, 1986–87; Greenwich, 1992–97; Greenwich and Woolwich, 1997–2015
Andy Reed, Loughborough, 1997–2010
Jamie Reed, Copeland, 2005–2017
Steve Reed, Croydon North, 2012–present
Christina Rees, Neath, 2015–present
Ellie Reeves, Lewisham West and Penge, 2017–present
Rachel Reeves, Leeds West, 2010–present
John Reid, Motherwell North, 1987–97; Hamilton North and Bellshill, 1997–2005; Airdrie and Shotts, 2005–2010
Emma Reynolds, Wolverhampton North East, 2010–2019
Jonathan Reynolds, Stalybridge and Hyde, 2010–present
Geoffrey Rhodes, Newcastle upon Tyne East, 1964–1974
Bell Ribeiro-Addy, Streatham, 2019–present
Freddy Richards, Wolverhampton West, 1906–10
Robert Richards, Wrexham, 1922–24; 29–31; 35–54
Tom Richards, Ebbw Vale, 1910–23
Jo Richardson, Barking, 1974–94
Robert Richardson, Houghton-le-Spring, 1918–31
Thomas Richardson, Whitehaven, 1910–18
Benjamin Riley, Dewsbury, 1922–23, 24–31, 35–45
Marie Rimmer, St Helens South and Whiston, 2015–present
Linda Riordan, Halifax, 2005–2015
Joshua Ritson, City of Durham, 1922–31; 35–45
Alfred Robens, Wansbeck 1945–50, Blyth 1950–60
Frederick Owen Roberts, West Bromwich, 1918–31; 35–41
George Henry Roberts, Norwich, 1906–16
George Robertson, Hamilton, 1978–97; Hamilton South, 1997–99
John Robertson, Bothwell, 1919–26
John Robertson, Glasgow Anniesland, 2000–05; Glasgow North West, 2005–2015
John Home Robertson, Berwick and East Lothian, 1978–1983; East Lothian, 1983–2001
Geoffrey Robinson, Coventry North West, 1976–2019
William Cornforth Robinson, Elland, 1922–23; 24–29
Barbara Roche, Hornsey and Wood Green, 1992–2005
Matt Rodda, Reading East, 2017–present
Bill Rodgers, Stockton-on-Tees, 1962-1981
Allan Rogers, Rhondda, 1983–200
Herbert George Romeril, St Pancras South East, 1923–24; 29–31
Jeff Rooker, Birmingham Perry Barr, 1974–2001
Terry Rooney, Bradford North, 1990–2010
John Roper, Farnworth, 1970–1983
Frank Herbert Rose, Aberdeen North, 1918–28
Ernie Ross, Dundee West, 1979–2005
Willie Ross, Kilmarnock, 1946-1979
Steve Rotheram, Liverpool Walton, 2010–2017
Ted Rowlands, Merthyr Tydfil, 1972–1983; Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney, 1983–2001
Danielle Rowley, Midlothian, 2017–2019
Frank Roy, Motherwell and Wishaw, 1997–2015
Lindsay Roy, Glenrothes, 2008–2015
William Stapleton Royce, Holland with Boston, 1918–24
Chris Ruane, Vale of Clwyd, 1997–2015; 2017–2019
Joan Ruddock, Lewisham Deptford, 1987–2015
Christine Russell, City of Chester, 1997–2010
Lloyd Russell-Moyle, Brighton Kemptown, 2017–present
Joan Ryan, Enfield North, 1997–2010; 2015–2019
S
Shapurji Saklatvala, Battersea North, 1922–23
Alfred Salter, Bermondsey West, 1922–23; 24–45
Martin Salter, Reading West, 1997–2010
Howel Walter Samuel, Swansea West, 1923–24; 29–31
Anas Sarwar, Glasgow Central, 2010–2015
Mohammed Sarwar, Glasgow Govan, 1997–2005; Glasgow Central, 2005–2010
Malcolm Savidge, Aberdeen North, 1997–2005
Phil Sawford, Kettering, 1997–2005
John Scurr, Mile End, 1923–31
Alison Seabeck, Plymouth Devonport, 2005–2010; Plymouth Moor View, 2010–2015
James Seddon, Newton, 1906–10
Brian Sedgemore, Luton West, 1974–79; Hackney South and Shoreditch, 1983–2005
James Sexton, St Helens, 1918–31
David Shackleton, Clitheroe, 1902–10
Naz Shah, Bradford West, 2015–present
Virendra Sharma, Ealing Southall, 2007–present
Jonathan Shaw, Chatham and Aylesford, 1997–2010
Thomas Shaw, Preston, 1918–31
Barry Sheerman, Huddersfield East, 1979–83; Huddersfield, 1983–present
Robert Sheldon, Ashton under Lyne, 1964–2001
James Sheridan, West Renfrewshire, 2001–05; Paisley and North Renfrewshire, 2005–2015
Paula Sherriff, Dewsbury, 2015–2019
Drummond Shiels, Edinburgh East, 1924–31
Manny Shinwell, Linlithgow, 1922–24, 28–31; Seaham, 1935–50; Easington, 1950–70
Debra Shipley, Stourbridge, 1997–2005
Alfred Short, Wednesbury, 1918–31
Clare Short, Birmingham Ladywood, 1983–2006
Gavin Shuker, Luton South, 2010–2019
Tulip Siddiq, Hampstead and Kilburn, 2015–present
Dennis Skinner, Bolsover, 1970–2019
Siôn Simon, Birmingham Erdington, 2001–2010
Alan Simpson, Nottingham South, 1992–2010
Marsha Singh, Bradford South, 1997–2012
Charles Henry Sitch, Kingswinford, 1918–31
Andy Slaughter, Ealing, Acton and Shepherd's Bush, 2005–2010; Hammersmith, 2010–present
Henry Slesser, Leeds South East, 1924–29
Robert Smillie, Morpeth, 1923–29
Albert Smith, Clitheroe, 1910–18; Nelson and Colne, 1918–20
Andrew Smith, Oxford East, 1987–2017
Angela Smith, Sheffield Hillsborough, 2005–2010; Penistone and Stocksbridge, 2010–2019
Angela Smith, Basildon, 1997–2010
Benjamin Smith, Rotherhithe, 1923–31; 35–46
Cat Smith, Lancaster and Fleetwood, 2015–present
Chris Smith, Islington South and Finsbury, 1983–2005
Eleanor Smith, Wolverhampton South West, 2017–2019
Geraldine Smith, Morecambe and Lunesdale, 1997–2010
Jacqui Smith, Redditch, 1997–2010
Jeff Smith, Manchester Withington, 2015–presentJohn Smith, North Lanarkshire, 1970–83; Monklands East, 1983–94
John Smith, Vale of Glamorgan, 1989–92; 1997–2010
Laura Smith, Crewe and Nantwich, 2017–2019
Llew Smith, Blaenau Gwent, 1992–2005
Nick Smith, Blaenau Gwent, 2010–present
Owen Smith, Pontypridd, 2010–2019
Rennie Smith, Penistone, 1924–1931
Ruth Smeeth, Stoke-on-Trent North, 2015–2019
Tom Smith, Pontefract, 1922–24; 29–31; Pontefract, 1933–47
Walter Robert Smith, Wellingborough, 1918–22
Karin Smyth, Bristol South, 2015–present
Peter Snape, West Bromwich East, 1974–2001
Anne Snelgrove, Swindon South, 2005–2010
Gareth Snell, Stoke-on-Trent Central, 2017–2019
Harry Snell, Woolwich East, 1922–31
Philip Snowden, Blackburn, 1906–18; Colne Valley, 1922–31
Alex Sobel, Leeds North West, 2017–present
Clive Soley, Hammersmith North, 1979–83; Hammersmith, 1983–97; Ealing, Acton and Shepherd's Bush, 1997–2005
Peter Soulsby, Leicester South, 2005–11
Helen Southworth, Warrington South, 1997–2010
John Spellar, Birmingham Northfield, 1982–83; Warley, 1997–present
Robert Spence, Berwick and Haddington, 1923–24
George Alfred Spencer, Broxtowe, 1918–29
Benjamin Charles Spoor, Bishop Auckland, 1918–29
Rachel Squire, Dunfermline West, 1992–2005; Dunfermline and West Fife, 2005–06
Thomas William Stamford, Leeds West, 1923–31
Albert Stanley, North West Staffordshire, 1910–16
Phyllis Starkey, Milton Keynes South West, 1997–2010Keir Starmer, Holborn and St Pancras, 2015–present
Gerry Steinberg, City of Durham, 1987–2005
Campbell Stephen, Glasgow Camlachie, 1922–31; 47–48
Jo Stevens, Cardiff Central, 2015–present
Lewis Stevens, Nuneaton, 1983–92
George Stevenson, Stoke-on-Trent South, 1992–2005
David Stewart, Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber, 1997–2005
Ian Stewart, Eccles, 1997–2010
James Stewart, Glasgow St Rollox, 1922–31
Paul Stinchcombe, Wellingborough, 1997–2005
Howard Stoate, Dartford, 1997–2010
John Stonehouse, Wednesbury 1959–1974; Walsall North 1974 (February)-1976
Roger Stott, Westhoughton, 1973–83; Wigan, 1983–99
Gavin Strang, Edinburgh East, 1970–97; Edinburgh East and Musselburgh, 1997–2005; Edinburgh East, 2005–2010
Jack Straw, Blackburn, 1979–2015
Wes Streeting, Ilford North, 2015–present
Graham Stringer, Manchester Blackley, 1997–2010; Blackley and Broughton, 2010–present
Barnett Stross, Hanely, 1945–1950
Gisela Stuart, Birmingham Edgbaston, 1997–2017
Joseph Sullivan, North Lanarkshire, 1922–24
Zarah Sultana, Coventry South, 2019–present
Thomas Summerbell, Sunderland, 1906–10
Gerry Sutcliffe, Bradford South, 1994–2015
John Edward Sutton, Manchester East, 1910–18; Manchester Clayton, 1922; 23–31
John Edmund Swan, Barnard Castle, 1918–22
Paul Sweeney, Glasgow North East, 2017–2019
T
Mark Tami, Alyn and Deeside, 2001–present
Sam Tarry, Ilford South, 2019–present
Ann Taylor, Bolton West, 1974–83; Dewsbury, 1987–2005
Dari Taylor, Stockton South, 1997–2010
David Taylor, North West Leicestershire, 1997–2009
John Wilkinson Taylor, Chester-le-Street, 1906–19
Robert Arthur Taylor, Lincoln, 1924–31
Peter Temple-Morris, Leominster, 1998–2001
James Henry Thomas, Derby, 1910–31
Gareth Thomas, Harrow West, 1997–present
Gareth Thomas, Clwyd West, 1997–2005
Owen Thomas, Anglesey, 1919–20
Nick Thomas-Symonds, Torfaen, 2015–present
Emily Thornberry, Islington South and Finsbury, 2005–present
Will Thorne, West Ham, 1906–18; Plaistow, 1918–45
Ernest Thurtle, Shoreditch, 1923–31; 35–50; Shoreditch and Finsbury, 1950–54
Sydney Tierney, Birmingham Yardley 1974–79
Ben Tillett, Salford, 1917–24; 29–31
Stephen Timms, Newham North East, 1994–97; East Ham, 1997–present
John Joseph Tinker, Leigh, 1923–45
Paddy Tipping, Sherwood, 1992–2010
Mark Todd, South Derbyshire, 1997–2010
Joseph Toole, Salford South, 1923–24; 29–31
Robert Tootill, Bolton, 1914–22
Don Touhig, Islwyn, 1995–2010
William John Tout, Oldham, 1922–24; Sowerby, 1929–31
Charles Trevelyan, Elland, 1918; Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central, 1922–31
Jon Trickett, Hemsworth, 1996–present
Paul Truswell, Pudsey, 1997–2010
Anna Turley, Redcar, 2015–2019
Ben Turner, Batley and Morley, 1922–24; 29–31
Dennis Turner, Wolverhampton South East, 1987–2005
Des Turner, Brighton Kemptown, 1997–2010
George Turner, North West Norfolk, 1997–2001
Karl Turner, Kingston upon Hull East, 2010–present
Neil Turner, Wigan, 1999–2010
Moss Turner-Samuels, Barnard Castle, 1923–24; Gloucester, 1945–57
Derek Twigg, Halton, 1997–present
Stephen Twigg, Enfield Southgate, 1997–2005; Liverpool West Derby, 2010–2019
Henry Twist, Leigh, 1922–23
Liz Twist, Blaydon, 2017–present
Bill Tynan, Hamilton South, 1999–2005
U
Chuka Umunna, Streatham, 2010–2019
Lynn Ungoed-Thomas, Leicester South East, 1945–62
Henry Usborne, Birmingham Yardley 1950–59
Kitty Ussher, Burnley, 2005–2010
V
Eric Varley, Chesterfield, 1964–84
Frank Varley, Mansfield, 1923–29
David John Vaughan, Forest of Dean, 1929–31
Keith Vaz, Leicester East, 1987–2019
Valerie Vaz, Walsall South, 2010–present
Wilfrid Vernon, Dulwich, 1945–51
Samuel Viant, Willesden West, 1923–31; 35–59
Rudi Vis, Finchley and Golders Green, 1997–2010
W
John Wadsworth, Hallamshire, 1910–18
Christian Wakeford, Bury South, 2022–present
Thelma Walker, Colne Valley, 2017–2019
Pat Wall, Bradford North, 1987–90
Joan Walley, Stoke-on-Trent North, 1987–2015
Richard Wallhead, Merthyr, 1922–31; 33–34
Stephen Walsh, Ince, 1906–29
Lynda Waltho, Stourbridge, 2005–2010
Claire Ward, Watford, 1997–2010
George Wardle, Stockport, 1906–16
Bob Wareing, Liverpool West Derby, 1983–2010
George Warne, Wansbeck, 1922–28
Tom Watson, West Bromwich East, 2001–2019
William McLean Watson, Dunfermline Burghs, 1922–31; 35–50
David Watts, St Helens North, 1997–2015
Claudia Webbe, Leicester East, 2019–suspended 2020Sidney Webb, Seaham, 1922–29
Josiah Wedgwood, Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1919–42
Lauchlin MacNeill Weir, Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire, 1922–31; 35–39
James Welsh, Paisley, 1929–31
James C. Welsh, Coatbridge, 1922–31; Bothwell, 1935–45
Catherine West, Hornsey and Wood Green, 2015–present
Matthew Western, Warwick and Leamington, 2017–present
John Wheatley, Glasgow Shettleston, 1922–30
Brian White, North East Milton Keynes, 1997–2005
James White, Glasgow Pollok, 1970–1987
Alan Whitehead, Southampton Test, 1997–present
William Whiteley, Blaydon, 1922–31; 35–55
Mick Whitley, Birkenhead, 2019–present
Nadia Whittome, Notthingham East, 2019–present
Martin Whitfield East Lothian, 2017–2019
Malcolm Wicks, Croydon North West, 1992–97; Croydon North, 1997–2012
James Wignall, Forest of Dean, 1918–25
Lyall Wilkes, Newcastle upon Tyne Central, 1945–51
Alex Wilkie, Dundee, 1906–22
Ellen Wilkinson, Middlesbrough East, 1924–31; Jarrow, 1935–47
Alan Williams, Swansea West, 1964–2010
Betty Williams, Conwy, 1997–2010
David Williams, Swansea East, 1922–40
John Henry Williams, Llanelli, 1922–36
John T. Williams, Gower, 1910–22
Paul Williams, Stockton South, 2017–2019
Thomas Williams, Kennington, 1923–24
Tom Williams, Don Valley, 1922–59
Chris Williamson, Derby North, 2010-2015, 2017–2019
Michael Wills, Swindon North, 1997–2010
Brian Wilson, Cunninghame North, 1987–2005
Cecil Henry Wilson, Sheffield Attercliffe, 1922–31; 35–44Harold Wilson'', Ormskirk, 1945–50; Huyton, 1950–83
James Wilson, Dudley, 1921–23
Phil Wilson, Sedgefield, 2007–2019
Robert John Wilson, Jarrow, 1922–31
William Tyson Wilson, Westhoughton, 1906–21
Walter Windsor, Bethnal Green North East, 1923–29; Kingston upon Hull Central, 1935–45
David Winnick, Croydon South, 1966–70; Walsall North, 1979–2017
Beth Winter, Cynon Valley, 2019–present
Rosie Winterton, Doncaster Central, 1997–present
Audrey Wise, Coventry South West, 1974–79; Preston, 1987–2000
Mike Wood, Batley and Spen, 1997–2015
Arthur Woodburn Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire 1939–70
John Woodcock, Barrow and Furness, 2010–2018
Shaun Woodward, Witney, 1999–2001; St Helens South, 2001–2010; St Helens South and Whiston, 2010–2015
Phil Woolas, Oldham East and Saddleworth, 1997–2010
Tony Worthington, Clydebank and Milngavie, 1987–2005
Jimmy Wray, Glasgow Provan, 1987–97; Glasgow Baillieston, 1997–2005
David Wright, Telford, 2001–2015
Iain Wright, Hartlepool, 2004–2017
Tony Wright, Cannock and Burntwood, 1992–97; Cannock Chase, 1997–2010
Tony Wright, Great Yarmouth, 1997–2010
William Wright, Rutherglen, 1922–31
Derek Wyatt, Sittingbourne and Sheppey, 1997–2010
X
Y
Mohammad Yasin, Bedford, 2017–present
Victor Yates, Birmingham Ladywood, 1945–69
Andrew Young, Glasgow Partick, 1923–24
Robert Young, Newton, 1918–31; 35–50
Robert Stanley Young, Islington North, 1929–31
Kenneth Younger, Great Grimsby, 1945–59
Z
Daniel Zeichner, Cambridge, 2015–present
Konni Zilliacus, Gateshead, 1945–49; Manchester Gorton, 1955–67
See also
List of Labour Co-operative Members of Parliament
Notes |
4246346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Bay-Westfield | Grand Bay-Westfield | Grand Bay-Westfield is a town in New Brunswick on the west bank of the Saint John River immediately north of the boundary between Kings County and Saint John County.
Name
The town's hyphenated name is the product of a series of amalgamations since 1966. The Parish, and later the village, of Westfield was named in honour of either Westfield, Massachusetts, or Westfield, New Jersey, by the Loyalists. The name may also simply be in reference to its location in the western corner of Kings County, New Brunswick. While the name Grand Bay (or as it appears on Monckton's 1758 map, Grand Baye) was used for the body of water by the Acadians and Loyalists, the name only became associated with the settlement at the edge of Westfield Parish around 1869.
History
Wolastoqey Period
The town of Grand Bay-Westfield exists on traditional Wolastoqey land. The river that runs along the town is known as Wolastoq, along which the Wolastoqiyik, the people of the beautiful and bountiful river, have lived since time immemorial.
The history of Indigenous lands in New Brunswick, and so too Grand Bay-Westfield, is complicated by the fact that no land treaties were concluded between the Indigenous peoples and the Crown. As one of the Wabanaki people, the Wolastoqiyik were recognized in a series of Peace and Friendship Treaties with the British Crown which established an ongoing relationship of peace, friendship, and mutual respect between nations, but no land agreements were made whether before the province of New Brunswick was formed in 1784 or afterwards.
Though no Wolastoqey name for the area now incorporated as Grand Bay-Westfield is known, W. F. Ganong recorded the original name for the Grand Bay as Pekweetaypaykek. The Nerepis river - formerly Nelepitchk but now written as Nali'pits in Wolastoqey - which runs through the north of the town was also frequently used as part of a portage route traveling to the Musquash watershed. As Joseph Robineau de Villebon noted in a letter dated October 22, 1696, there was a fortified Wolastoqey settlement and fort at the confluence of the Nerepis and Wolastoq rivers just outside the town of Grand Bay-Westfield at Woodman's Point. This settlement was one of many stockaded outposts erected by the Wolastoqiyik; presumably for defense against the Iroquois. While the fortified settlement fell into disuse during the 18th century, many Wolastoqiyik continued to summer near the mouth of the Nerepis at Westfield Beach and Lingley into the 1920s. Westfield Beach was a particularly important summer encampment used to trap muskrat, gather fiddleheads, and collect wood and reeds for basketry and furniture making.
Acadian Period
It is a common misconception that Samuel de Champlain and Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons visited and named the Grand Bay. There is no mention of this event in Champlain's journals and the story is likely apocryphal. However, following Champlain's discovery of the St. John River on June 24, 1604, French settlement of the area began in earnest. In 1672, Martin D'Arprendestiguy was created Sieur de Martignon. The Martignon seigneury extended from the mouth of the Wolastoq up the west bank across the Nerepis to Long Reach. It also extended inland some distance and included the area of present day Grand Bay-Westfield.
In 1749, a small French fort was built at Woodman's Point by Charles Deschamps de Boishébert; likely on the site of the former Wolastoqiyik stronghold. The site remained a French foothold for their operations against the British until around 1755 when British forces under Colonel Robert Monckton began the expulsion of Acadian French settlers throughout the region. W. F. Ganong observed that without doubt Acadian place names were numerous in New Brunswick prior to the expulsion, but the conditions under which the English replace the French in the province were not favourable to the transfer of place names. One exception to this in the Grand Bay-Westfield area is the name Ononette, which derives from the French Pointe au Ognonette - the Acadians' name for Brandy Point. By 1758, the Acadians were almost entirely expelled from the St. John River area, and permanent British settlement began.
Loyalist Period
From 1765 to 1785 the territory north of the Bay of Fundy had been divided between only two counties, Sunbury, which included the settlements on the Wolastoq and the Passamaquoddy Bay, and Cumberland, which included the settlements at the head of the Bay of Fundy. When Loyalist transport ships arrived at Saint John in 1783, the area now referred to as Grand Bay-Westfield was part of Sunbury County, most of it within the Township of Conway. It was not until June 18, 1784, that Britain included Sunbury County and northern Cumberland County in the colony of New Brunswick. Separation from Nova Scotia only became complete in November with the public reading on the commission of newly arrived Governor Thomas Carleton. The Loyalists established the Parish of Westfield within Kings County in 1786.
Among the Loyalists who settled in present-day Grand Bay-Westfield were a small group of 31 Black Loyalists. The British promised land grants and provisions for three years to Loyalists who immigrated to Saint John, but most of the free Black Loyalists arriving in the area did not see this promise fulfilled. Most settled into what is now the north end of Saint John and many were forced into slavery, which was still prevalent in New Brunswick, or became indentured servants. Others found menial jobs in order to survive. In 1787, 31 petitioners received a total of 1550 acres in Grand Bay-Westfield and created a small community. The group was led by Richard Corankapone Wheeler. Notably, the areas granted were nearly unfarmable.
The Black Loyalist community struggled to survive and many returned to Saint John. By 1790, many of the freed slaves had become disillusioned with life in Westfield and abandoned the land or sold out to other settlers. Some of the land was reverted back to the government and was re-granted. One community member, Thomas Peters, went to England to persuade the British to provide free transport to Sierra Leone and land grants there for anyone interested. Richard Corankapone Wheeler was so desperate to leave Westfield that he and several companions spent fifteen days walking from Westfield to Halifax in December 1791 to catch one of the ships going to Sierra Leone. On January 15, 1792, he and approximately 1200 others left Halifax.
Other early black residents of the area came as slaves. Major John Coffin's wife, for instance, had two slaves while Coffin had four.
In the early Loyalist period, lumbering was the most important industry of the Grand Bay-Westfield area. Records indicate that the first road through Grand Bay was built in 1788. By 1840, three stagecoaches traveled through the area en route from Saint John to Fredericton. The first railway to operate through Grand Bay, the New Brunswick Railway, began operation in 1869. The improvement of transportation routes enabled new businesses to develop and expand. James Ready first brewed his product on one of the second tiers of land grants back from the Wolastoq. His beer was transported to Saint John by wagon and train.
Municipal Chronology and Boundary Changes
County government
In 1851, the Provincial Legislature passed the Municipal Act to provide for the establishment of municipal governments in the counties. Municipal incorporation transferred to elected municipal or county councils most of the legislative and executive authority formerly vested in the Quarter Sessions – the form of local administration which had previously dominated Loyalist New Brunswick. The law was permissive and did not compel incorporation. Upon the petition of at least fifty taxpayers in a county, the sheriff would convene public meetings of households and ratepayers in the county's parishes. If two thirds of those present and voting at such meetings favoured incorporation, an application would then be entertained by the Provincial government. While many counties including Carleton, York, and Sunbury took advantage of the opportunity, Kings County was not incorporated until a general act requiring all counties to incorporate received majority assent in the legislature in 1877.
The Act of 1877 remained the basis for rural local government in New Brunswick until 1966. The basic unit for county electoral purposes was the parish with two councillors generally elected for each parish. County elections were held at various times of the year and councillors retained office for varying periods of time. The area now encompassed by the town of Grand Bay-Westfield was at this point part of the larger Westfield Parish.
Local Improvement Districts
As urban and suburban populations began to expand on the outskirts of more established urban centres, many areas began demanding more specialized and localized service provision than could be delivered by county governments. The 1945 Local Improvement Districts Act facilitated incorporation for limited municipal purposes in many centres, including the communities of Westfield and Pamdenec. Pamdenec was established as a Local Improvement District on January 6, 1948. The boundaries of the District were later altered in 1952, and additional services were added in 1965. Westfield was established as a Local Improvement District on 23 October 1952. The services offered by the Westfield Local Improvement District were altered twice in 1957 and 1959.
Equal Opportunity Program
The first incorporated villages in the area now incorporated as Grand Bay-Westfield were created during the Equal Opportunity Program after the abolition of county government. The villages of Pamdenec and Westfield incorporated in 1966. In 1972, the village of Westfield absorbed the neighbourhoods of Lingley, Sagwa, and Nerepis. Pamdenec absorbed the neighbourhoods of Grand Bay, Epworth Park, and Ingleside to become the village of Grand Bay in 1973. In 1988, Grand Bay became a town.
Cormier Report and Municipal Consolidation
Following the December 1992 release of a government discussion paper entitled "Strengthening Municipal Government in New Brunswick's Urban Centres", a series of localized feasibility studies were commissioned by the Frank McKenna Liberals targeting six geographic areas: Edmundston, Campbellton, Dalhousie, Miramichi, Moncton, and Saint John. In each instance, a panel composed of local representatives and expert consulting staff made specific recommendations for each urban-centred region. The report for the Greater Saint John area, "A Community of Communities: Creating a stronger future" - often referred to simply as the Cormier Report - offered two potential solutions to the Province for consolidating the many municipalities in Greater Saint John, neither of which was ultimately adopted by government.
Option one offered by the Cormier Report was to create three communities with regionalization of some services. Under this option, the six Kennebecasis Valley communities (East Riverside-Kinghurst, Fairvale, Gondola Point, Quispamsis, Renforth, and Rothesay) plus the local service district of the Parish of Rothesay would be consolidated into one new municipality. The town of Grand Bay and various unincorporated areas around Saint John would also be consolidated into the city of Saint John to form the second new municipality. The third municipality in this scenario would be Westfield, which would remain separate because it was more rural and less populated. However, Cormier recommended that the rest of the Parish of Westfield join the village to form a new, larger Rural Community. In this scenario, many services including water and sewerage, planning, and economic development would be regionalized across the three municipalities.
The second option offered by Cormier was a full consolidation of eight of the existing communities into one new city. In this scenario, only Westfield would remain a separate municipality. Full consolidation was unpopular among residents outside the city of Saint John. Suburban residents stated generally that they were pleased with their communities as they were and that they liked their lower tax rates. As Cormier summarized it, residents "perceive Saint John as an expensive, poorly managed bureaucracy that does not serve its citizens well. They fear loss of control, loss of services, and loss of neighbourhood friendliness and sense of community." Suburban residents' comments at public meetings support this description. One resident stated that he resented the questionnaire Commissioner Cormier had circulated to residents that asked them to rank their order of preference for his five reorganization schemes because it meant that the worst that full amalgamation could do is fifth place. As the resident put it, "full amalgamation into one city would come about three million, nine hundred and fifty-sixth on anybody's choice. That would come just above amalgamation with Red China."
Ultimately, neither of the two options was implemented. Rather, the provincial government chose to proceed with partial consolidations and opted to legislate cost sharing for five specific regional facilities. The town of Grand Bay and village of Westfield were amalgamated on January 1, 1998. Despite Cormier's insistence that Westfield be expanded in either consolidation scenario to "serve as a buffer zone where development is planned and well regulated" to "ensure they would prevent migration and urban sprawl.", no additional portions of the Parish of Westfield not already part of the village of Westfield or town of Grand Bay were annexed. At the time, residents were not given a choice on the name of their new community. Instead, the Province decided to repurpose the name of the Provincial electoral district established in 1994: Grand Bay-Westfield.
The Higgs-Allain Local Governance Reforms
The town of Grand Bay-Westfield underwent another amalgamation as part of the Higgs-Allain Local Governance Reforms. In November 2021, the Province announced it would engage in strategic local restructuring to reduce the total number of local governments from 104 to just 78. As part of this strategic restructuring, the town of Grand Bay-Westfield and part of the neighbouring local service district of Westfield would amalgamate into a new municipality temporarily referred to as Entity 51. Like all New Brunswick municipalities impacted by Local Governance Reform, the new municipality was informed that the Transition Committee needed to find a permanent name to replace Entity 51 before May 16, 2022.
At a Special Council Meeting on February 17, 2022, Town Council and the Local Service District Transition Committee Representatives approved the naming process for Entity 51. Residents of Grand Bay-Westfield and a portion of the LSD of Westfield were invited to participate in the local decision-making process of naming Entity 51 by becoming a volunteer member on the Naming Committee. Following the Council meeting of February 28, 2022, the nine-member Naming Committee was appointed on March 1. Committee membership included residents and elected representatives from both town and local service district.
Using a naming process designed by Grand Bay-Westfield Town Council and staff, residents of the new Entity 51 were invited by the Naming Committee to participate in a two phase naming process. The first phase of the naming process was a public contest. Residents were asked to submit potential names for the new town along with a short written explanation of their choice. Notably, it was predetermined by the Town Council that the name “Grand Bay-Westfield” would automatically be included on the final voting ballot. The contest ran from March 11 to 28. From 369 total submissions, 116 were unique names.
Once all submissions were received, the town created a decision-making tool based on Canada's Guiding Principles for Geographic Naming. The tool – a name matrix – was designed with and approved by both the town's Transition Facilitator and the Province's appointed toponymy expert. The naming committee used the matrix to narrow the list from 116 to a top 15.
Those top 15 names were then reviewed by the Province. Some names were eliminated for being too long, too general, or for not meeting the Province's standard of full and proper consultation. Next, the committee voted on the ten remaining names using ranked ballots to arrive at our final five choices. On April 6, the Naming Committee held its final regular meeting. After a detailed review of the process from town staff, the committee resolved a tie between two names by eliminating one of two finalists with very similar names. Ultimately, the 5 names selected to appear on the ballot were Hillandale, Nerepis Valley, Three Rivers, Westfield, and Grand Bay-Westfield.
The voting period ran from April 13 to May 2. Residents and businesses within the boundaries of Entity 51 received a flyer in the mail with complete details including voting access keys for vote. The ballot used preferential voting and was operated through the ElectionBuddy voting platform. At the final meeting of the Naming Committee on May 4, 2022, the winning named was revealed to be Grand Bay-Westfield. There were 2,165 votes cast, with Grand Bay-Westfield receiving at least 51% of the vote. Pending approval by the province, Grand Bay-Westfield will come into effect as the name for the governing body of Entity 51 on Jan. 1, 2023.
Prior to the official creation of the new local government of Grand Bay-Westfield, there will be a by-election in the portion of the local service district of Westfield. While Grand Bay-Westfield's councillors are usually elected at-large, for the purposes of providing representation to the annexed portion of Westfield the town will be divided into two wards until the next quadrennial municipal election. Ward 1 will include the current town of Grand Bay-Westfield and Ward 2 will be the portion of the local service district (LSD) of Westfield.
Beyond the addition of a portion of the adjacent LSD, there will be other minor changes to the boundaries of Grand Bay-Westfield. These changes include some alterations along the county line, the Loch Alva Wilderness Area, and at Robin Hood Lake.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Grand Bay-Westfield had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Transportation
Rail
In 1869 the European and North American Railway Western Extension was opened through the area between Saint John and Vanceboro, Maine. The rail line changed ownership to the New Brunswick Railway before becoming part of the Canadian Pacific Railway mainline from Saint John to Montreal in the 1880s. CPR established several stations through the area (Grand Bay, Pamdenec, Epworth Park, Ingleside, Ononette, Hillandale, Westfield Beach, Lingley, Sagwa, and Nerepis). The rail line was sold in 1995 and is now operated as the New Brunswick Southern Railway.
Roads
Route 177 is the town's main road, called River Valley Drive in the Grand Bay section of town and Nerepis Road in the Westfield part. Other main streets are Woolastook Drive, which winds through the highlands of Grand Bay, and Inglewood Drive is host to the Pamdenec, Epworth Park, Brandy Point & Ingleside subdivisions on Grand Bay's shore front. Also, NB Route 102 which begins north of Fredericton ends in Westfield. Highway 7, the main route from Saint John to Fredericton, passes through the western extremity of the town.
In September, 2008, part of the ground that supports the railway tracks were washed away after Hurricane Hannah.
Marine
From 1816 to 1946, steamship transport was the primary means of both passenger and cargo transportation between Saint John and Fredericton. Along the river, various stopping places were established. The area encompassed by the present town of Grand Bay-Westfield included two such stops, the Westfield Wharf and the Epworth Park Wharf. The former was owned by the Provincial and later Federal governments for public use and eventually came to be repurposed as a ferry landing and boat launch after the steamboat traffic stopped. The latter was privately owned, and ceased to be maintained in the 1930s.
The town has a ferry landing at the end of Ferry Road in Westfield. The Westfield Ferry, a cable ferry route operated by the provincial Department of Transportation using a pair of ferries, connects Westfield with the community of Hardings Point on the Kingston Peninsula. There is a popular campground just a few feet from the Hardings Point ferry landing.
The Canadian Coast Guard maintains a seasonal (summer only) search and rescue station at Brundage Point near the Westfield ferry landing. Inshore Rescue Boat Station Saint John (IRB Station Saint John) operates a Zodiac Hurricane 733 fast rescue craft in the lower Saint John River, covering all areas downstream from Evandale to the Reversing Falls, including the Kennebecasis River and Belleisle Bay. IRB Station Saint John is tasked by Joint Rescue Coordination Centre Halifax.
Neighbourhoods
Grand Bay
Grand Bay – These three neighbourhoods (areas around Murray St, Thompson Rd & Bayview Rd) constitute the original village of Grand Bay. It is the downtown core of the town. Most businesses are located here and the area borders the city of Saint John.
Highlands/Round Lake – heavily wooded and very steep, wind through the backlands and end at Round Lake.
Pamdenec – The town hall and fire department are located here at 609-615 River Valley Drive.
Epworth Park – Loyalist Captain John Hayter was granted 400 acres on land on the St. John River and settled at what is now Epworth Park. His brother William later built the first frame house near Epworth Park, to which his brother John Hayter and his family moved when they left the log house which they had erected in 1783. About 1907, two Saint John Methodist Ministers, Rev. James Crisp and Rev. Neil MacLaughlan hoped to establish a campground in the area similar to the Beulah Camp at Browns Flat. Charles Hayter, a descendant of John Hayter, sold the pair a parcel of land near the river for $1500 which they named Epworth Park after the hometown of John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church. Cottages began to be built, mainly for Methodist familiar from Saint John. Eventually the Church campground idea was abandoned and families of various denominations started building summer cottages.
Brandy Point Estates – A suburban-type neighbourhood built in the 1970s and 1980s. Historically part of Epworth Park, it is now much larger in population than Epworth.
Ingleside – The last community before Milligan Brook before you enter Westfield.
Panoramic Estates – This is a new neighbourhood being built just north of the Centrum.
Epworth Park Heights – This neighbourhood is west of Epworth Park and is much higher. Epworth Park Heights is very distinct from Epworth Park proper.
Beverly Hills & Valley View Estates – This growing neighbourhood is located off Woolastook Drive. The streets of the area are characterized by extremely steep hills and dense woods.
Brookdale Heights – A hilly neighbourhood on the edge of Milligan Brook. Brookside Park is a small garden area located near the entrance to the neighbourhood.
Westfield
Ononette – In 1902, the name Ononette was given to the Canadian Pacific Railway station serving the area from Milligan Brook to the Inglewood Road. The name Ononette was given to the community by William Francis Ganong. Prior to 1902, the station had been named Riverbank. The name is derived from Pointe au Ognonette, the Acadians' name for Brandy Point. Although Brandy Point had once been its own flag station on the Canadian Pacific Railway, by 1898 the flag station and surrounding neighbourhood had been renamed Ingleside. Since he liked the name and it was no longer in use elsewhere, Ganong reappropriated the name Ononette for the next station up the river.
Hillandale – Formerly called Ballentine or Woolastook, Hillandale was the name given to the Canadian Pacific Railway station serving the area from Inglewood Road to the ferry landing at Brundage Point. Hillandale remains the name of a prominent road stretching all the way to the backlands, but the name also saw a brief resurgence in popularity as a finalist on the ballot for the new town name during the Higgs-Allain Local Governance Reforms.
Westfield Beach – In the 1800s this sandy stretch along the banks of the Wolastoq was a summer community for residents of Saint John. The Westfield Beach station became a hub for two railways, where one from Maine and the other from Fredericton joined here en route to Saint John. Accordingly, the Westfield Beach station was larger than others in the area, housing a telegraph office and manicured park.
Lingley – Lingley was named for Peter and Mary Lingley, Loyalists from New York State who established a large farm there. This community, extending from the mouth of the Nerepis River to the lower end of Chestnut Drive, sustained more damage than any other during the Great Fire of 1921.
Sagwa – The entire community was part of the 6000-acre grant known as Glazier's Manor, which was acquired by General John Coffin in 1783.
Nerepis – The railway station at Nerepis was only a shelter and quite small. It was built on the downriver side of the beginning of the Brittain Road. Boxcars were often left here on a siding near the station. This community around the former Nerepis Station, commonly called Nerepis, is not to be confused with the separate community of Nerepis, which lies on the other side of the Nerepis River across the Brittain Road Bridge. Nerepis is part of Grand Bay-Westfield.
Municipal Symbols
Grand Bay (1973)
The village of Grand Bay's 1973 crest featured four elements: a sailboat, a tree on a small hill, and the letters "G" and "B". The sailboat would be reused in future iconography (and remains the principal symbol for the town today). The tree on the hill was presumably a reference to the former village of Pamdenec, as the name Pamdenec means "little hill".
Grand Bay (1988)
Upon incorporation as a town in 1988, the Grand Bay adopted a new logo. The new crest featured an enlarged image of the same sailboat depicted on the original 1973 crest and featured the tagline "A Community of Friends".
Westfield (1989)
Westfield was the first New Brunswick municipality to be granted armorial bearings from the Sovereign through Her Majesty's Canadian Officers of Arms. Early in 1988, it was suggested to the Village Council that a symbol be developed for use by the village. Westfield's official request for a coat of arms was made to the Chief Herald of Canada by Mayor Kevin Thorne on behalf of the Council on October 25, 1988. Following the development of design proposals by a committee of councillors, the Westfield Council agreed on a proposed design and motto to be submitted on December 13, 1988. Westfield received its Coat of Arms on June 30, 1989.
In Westfield's shield of arms the basic tinctures, white and green, and the green cross-crosslets are taken from the arms of John Coffin.
The next device on the shield is the so-called Tudor Rose with a yellow disc in the centre bearing the numeral 4. This is the same badge used on the tunic buttons of the Kings American Regiment. In recognition of its service the regiment was placed on the British Army's regular establishment in 1782 and designated the 4th American Regiment, hence the numeral in the centre of the rose. This device was chosen because Ensign Henry Nase, the first Loyalist settler of Westfield, served in the unit for six years until it was disbanded in New Brunswick in 1783. Nase became a colonel in the New Brunswick militia, a respected magistrate, and a prominent churchman.
Across the upper third of the shield there is a broad band known in heraldic terms as a chief. In the Westfield arms this is coloured black with five heraldic representations of ermine tails to represent fur as a nod to the early French regime in the area. Sieur of Martignon Martin D'Arprendestiguy - whose seigneury included the lands which would become Westfield - made his living from the fur trade.
The crest consists of a wreath of twisted cloth in the main colours of the shield, white and green, on which there sits a Loyalist coronet. It consists of a gold rim inscribed with the motto "UNITAS IMPERII" or "Unity of Empire". The rim is topped with red Canadian maple and green English oak leaves. From the coronet there rises an Eastern Panther. The panther supports a staff which bears the Union Flag of 1707 under which the Loyalists fought in the American Revolution.
The motto associated with the coat of arms is "INTER AGROS ET FLUMINA HABITENS", or "Dwelling between fields and rivers" in reference to the local geography.
Grand Bay-Westfield (1998)
When the town of Grand Bay and village of Westfield amalgamated in 1998, the new town crest incorporated elements of both the Grand Bay logo and the painting featured on signs at the Westfield River Landing. While the logo reused the Grand Bay motto, "A Community of Friends", and generally resembled the town's 1988 logo, the 1998 iteration added additional detail to the sailboat depicted and incorporated the Westfield Wharf and boat launch as a means of making Westfield residents feel included.
Grand Bay-Westfield (2021)
In March 2021, the town's new corporate branding and website were launched. The new logo maintained the sailboat associated with both Grand Bay and Westfield since the 1970s, but abstracted the icon into three simple shapes coloured yellow, green, and blue. The new corporate branding also resulted in a new town motto: Neighbours by Nature. New welcome signs with the updated branding were installed on the town's southern border in May 2021 in advance of the new Council's term, but the gradual rollout of the branding was put on hold until the impact of the Higgs-Allain local governance reforms on town boundaries and identity was known.
Parks
Grand Bay-Westfield has many parks, from simple greenspace to ballfields and playgrounds. They are listed below, in geographical order from south to north.
Henderson Brook Nature Park: A tiny, new park, Henderson Brook is a great place to watch beavers and birds. It is located on Shannon Road.
Southwood Park: playground at corner of Bayview Road and Cavalier Lane.
Inglewood School: playground and baseball diamond.
Grand Bay Primary School: playground and fieldspace.
Grand Bay Tennis Courts: 3 regulation-sized tennis courts, located at the corner of Inglewood Drive and Pamdenec Road.
Pamdenec Place: The former location of the Tennis Courts, now a simple park setting accessible from Pamdenec Road and Frederick Street.
Lions Field: On Inglewood Drive near Broad Street, two ballfields and a playground.
Epworth Park Field: green space at corner of Central Avenue and Smith Lane.
River Valley Middle School: Baseball field, soccer field, football field and, as of summer 2008, a running and walking track
Brookside Park: A small sitting area near the corner of Brookdale Avenue and Woolastook Drive.
Unity Park: Could be considered the town's commons, this park was created to symbolize the joining of the two communities. It is located next to Milligan Brook where the former boundary was (corner of Nerepis Road and Mullen Lane). The small stage is used in the summer for events every Wednesday, including children's nights, folk music, local talent, etc.
Westfield School: A large playground.
Brundage Point
Westfield River Landing: Located at Ferry Road and Brundage Point Road.
Notable people
John Coffin - Judge and army officer
See also
The Grand Bay (Body of Water)
Amalgamations of New Brunswick
Fundy-River Valley (provincial electoral district)
New Brunswick School District 08
New Brunswick Southwest (federal electoral district)
List of communities in New Brunswick
Notes
References
External links
Town of Grand Bay-Westfield
Communities in Kings County, New Brunswick
Towns in New Brunswick
Communities in Greater Saint John |
4247330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology%20of%20S%C3%B8ren%20Kierkegaard | Theology of Søren Kierkegaard | The theology of Søren Kierkegaard has been a major influence in the development of 20th century theology. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was a 19th-century Danish philosopher who has been generally considered the "Father of Existentialism". During his later years (1848–1855), most of his writings shifted from philosophical in nature to religious.
Kierkegaard's theology focuses on the single individual in relation to a known God based on a subjective truth. Many of his writings were a directed assault against all of Christendom, Christianity as a political and social entity. His target was the Danish State Church, which represented Christendom in Denmark. Christendom, in Kierkegaard's view, made individuals lazy in their religion. Many of the citizens were officially "Christians", without having any idea of what it meant to be a Christian. Kierkegaard attempted to awaken Christians to the need for unconditional religious commitment. However, he was also against party spirit in religion as well as other areas of study and system building.
Religious background
Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard was born to a Lutheran Protestant family. His father, Michael Pederson Kierkegaard, was a Lutheran Pietist, but he questioned how God could let him suffer so much. One day, he climbed a mountain and cursed God. For this sin, Michael believed that a family curse was placed upon him, that none of his children would live a full life. And indeed, Kierkegaard's family suffered with early deaths of Søren's siblings, ranging from childbirth to the age of 25. Only Søren and his brother Peter survived past 25. His father died in 1838, but before his death, he asked Søren to become a pastor. Søren was deeply influenced by his father's religious experience and life, and felt obligated to fulfill his wish. In 1840, Søren was awarded his theology degree and although Søren was eligible to become a pastor, he decided to pursue a degree in philosophy instead.
He decided not to become a pastor or a professor either because if he had he would have had to write under the authority of the State or the Church. He craved freedom, and for that reason he wrote "without authority". He also believed in Christ as the ultimate authority in matters of personal faith. He was against beginning a "new religion", unlike Hegel, the religion of reason, and Schelling, the religion of nature. He always wrote to students of religion as a student of religion. J. Loewenberg of Harvard University described Hegel's God in the following terms in 1913: as Hegel puts his fundamental idea, “the truth is the whole.” Neither things nor categories, neither histories nor religion, neither sciences nor arts, express or exhaust by themselves the whole essence of the universe. The essence of the universe is the life of the totality of all things, not their sum. As the life of man is not the sum of his bodily and mental functions, the whole man being present in each and all of these, so must the universe be conceived as omnipresent in each of its parts and expressions. This is the significance of Hegel’s conception of the universe as an organism. The World-Spirit-Hegel’s God-constitutes, thinks, lives, wills, and is all in unity. The evolution of the universe is thus the evolution of God himself. The task of philosophy, then, as Hegel conceives it, is to portray in systematic form the evolution of the World-Spirit in all its necessary ramifications.The Life of George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, p. 13-14
Søren Kierkegaard questioned this evolution of God because if God is evolving in a systematic way then the awe and wonder of religion is replaced with speculations about where God is in relation to the system about God.What does the task look like in everyday life, for I continually have my favorite theme in mind: whether everything is indeed all right with the craving of our theocentric nineteenth century to go beyond Christianity, the craving to speculate, the craving for continued development, the craving for a new religion or for the abolition of Christianity. As for my own insignificant person, the reader will please recall that I am the one who finds the issue and the task so very difficult, which seems to suggest that I have not carried it out, I, who do not even pretend to be a Christian by going beyond it. But it is always something to point out that it is difficult, even if it is done, as it is here, only in an upbuilding divertissement, which is carried out essentially with the aid of a spy whom I have go out among people on weekdays, and with the support of a few dilettantes who against their will come to join in the game." Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846) p. 466, Hong
This "going beyond faith" for Kierkegaard means the same as going beyond oneself. Philosophers, theologians, historians, and anthropologists tend to go beyond themselves and apply what they learn to the course of world history or national history. In this view we come to a Christian nation or a Christian world, but Søren Kierkegaard felt that God comes into the single individual, and that's where the place of God is. It's not "out there" somewhere. This point was brought home by Kierkegaard in his 1845 book, Thoughts on Crucial Situations in Human Life and in 1960 by Ronald Gregor Smith in his book, J G Hamann 1730-1788 A Study In Christian Existence,
Denmark and Europe
Kierkegaard accused Christian religious institutions of not being genuinely religious. Intellectual scholarship in Christianity was becoming more and more like Hegelianism, which he called Christian "evolution", rather than Christianity. This made the scholars of religion and philosophy examine the Gospels from a supposedly higher objective standpoint in order to demonstrate how correct reasoning can reveal an objective truth. This was outrageous to Kierkegaard because this presupposed that an infinite God and his infinite wisdom could be grasped by finite human understanding. Kierkegaard believed that Christianity was not a doctrine to be taught, but rather a life to be lived. He considered that many Christians who were relying totally on external proofs of God were missing out a true Christian experience, which is precisely the relationship one individual can have with God.
Kierkegaard's audience
Kierkegaard's primary religious audience was Christian readers, especially those who did not fully grasp what Christianity was all about. It was not his intention to convert non-Christians to Christianity, although much of Kierkegaard's religious writings do appeal to some non-Christian readers. For example, Martin Buber was a Jewish existentialist theologian who critiqued many of Kierkegaard's ideas.
Kierkegaard delivered religious discourses because he didn't become a theologian or a philosopher of religion. His audience was any single individual who is laboring to become what God wants him to become.
Striving can be done for the individual goal of becoming famous or just striving to make a living and the hope to have a future. Kierkegaard writes about the "divinely appointed teachers" of what it means to be a human being. And Christ is the prototype for what it means to be a human being from Kierkegaard's point of view. He put it this way in his Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits (1847):
He wrote for individuals who struggle with sin and forgiveness and he began this in Either/Or (1843) and continued through 1851 with a repetition of his theme from his three discourse of 1843 Love Will Hide a Multitude of Sins. He sees the spiritual connection between God and the single individual much akin to Luther's idea of the priesthood of all believers.
Themes in his theology
Faith
Faith is a hallmark of Kierkegaardian philosophical and religious thought. Two of his key ideas are based on faith: the leap to faith and the knight of faith. Some regard Kierkegaard as a Christian Universalist, writing in his journals, "If others go to Hell, I will go too. But I do not believe that; on the contrary, I believe that all will be saved, myself with them—something which arouses my deepest amazement." However, this view is not always supported by Kierkegaard's own writings. He presupposes the individual who has decided to become a Christian has an interest in becoming that, is interested enough to attempt to develop a relationship with Christ, and has enough faith to believe that the possibility extends to all individuals equally. Faith is what makes each individual equal before God. He put it this way in his Four Upbuilding Discourses 1844 (Against Cowardliness).
He wrote the following in his 1846 book, Concluding Unscientific Postscript:
Although an outsider, I have at least understood this much, that the only unforgivable high treason against Christianity is the single individual’s taking his relation to it for granted. I must therefore most respectfully refuse all theocentric helpers and the assistance of helper’s helpers to help me into Christianity in that way. So I prefer to remain where I am, with my infinite interest, with the issue, with the possibility. In other words, it is not impossible that the individual who is infinitely interested in his own eternal happiness can some day become eternally happy; on the other hand, it is certainly impossible that the person who has lost a sense for it (and such a sense can scarcely be anything but an infinite concern) can become eternally happy. Indeed, once lost, it is perhaps impossible to regain it. Page 16
And reinforced the same idea in his 1850 book, Practice in Christianity:
Faith, for Kierkegaard, was more than intellectual understanding. He began his great book Either/Or with a quotation from Edward Young, "Is reason then alone baptized, are the passions pagans?" and later explained what he meant in his Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, which Rollo May called "the declaration of independence for existentialism". Intellect is important but not all-inclusive in the realm of religion. "A" in Either/Or wanted to use the arts to teach Christianity. "B" wanted to use the science of ethics to teach Christianity. Both can lead to an intellectual understanding devoid of passionate involvement in the act of becoming a Christian.
Richard McKeon (1900–1985) thought the imitators of Plato had misapplied his ideas and left the passions out of philosophy in favor of intellectualism. He wrote the following in his 1953 book Thought, Action, and Passion:
The Young Man in Repetition was mediated by his psychologist, Constantin Constantius, as he tried to solve his problem. They represent the intellectual side of the human being and Abraham in Fear and Trembling represented the passion of inwardness because he was alone with God. Abraham believed in the actuality of God and could say nothing either artistically or ethically about it. Yet neither the Young Man nor Abraham is the prototype for the Christian, because the Christian is to follow Christ as the example.
Paradox
Briefly stated, a paradox is an apparently true statement or group of statements that seems to lead to a contradiction or to a situation that defies intuition. It is said to be resolved when we show that the contradiction is only apparent. Kierkegaard's story of Abraham in Fear and Trembling exhibits such a paradox. Abraham could not prove he had heard the voice of God, yet he believes, and risked his only son based on this belief. The paradox of Abraham is that the believer acts and risks much on less than complete knowledge (incomplete knowledge is not sufficient for faith for Kierkegaard; one must believe by virtue of the absurd, that is to say because something is a contradiction). The god in time is a paradox just as much as the statement that "God is love" is a parody for an individual existing in time. Was it so easy for Abraham, Job, and the Apostle Paul to continue to believe that God is love? Kierkegaard continually stresses the tension between the inner and outer self before God. What a human being knows by himself about love is very superficial; he must come to know the deeper love from God-that is, in self-denial he must become what every human being can become (since self-denial is related to the universally human and thus is distinguished from the particular call and election), an instrument for God. Thus every human being can come to know everything about love, just as every human being can come to know that he, like every human being, is loved by God. Some find this thought adequate for the longest life (which doesn’t seem surprising to me); so even at the age of seventy they do not think that they have marveled over it enough, whereas others find this thought so insignificant (which seems to me very strange and deplorable), since to be loved by God is no more than every human being is-as if it were, therefore, less significant.
The work of praising love must be done outwardly in self-sacrificing unselfishness. Through self-denial a human being gains the ability to be an instrument by inwardly making himself into nothing before God. Through self-sacrificing unselfishness he outwardly makes himself into nothing, an unworthy servant. Inwardly he does not become self-important, since he is nothing, and outwardly he does not become self-important either, since he is nothing before God – and he does not forget that right where he is he is before God.
Alas, it can happen that a person makes a mistake at the last moment, in that he, though truly humble before God, becomes proud of what he is able to do as he turns toward people. It is then a temptation of comparison that becomes his downfall. He understood that he could not compare himself to God; before him he became conscious of himself as a nothing; but in comparison with people he still thought himself to be something. That is, he forgot the self-denial; he is trapped in an illusion, as if he were before God only during specific hours, just as one has an audience with His Royal Majesty at a specific hour.
Soren Kierkegaard, Works of Love 1847, Hong 1995 p. 364-365
Isaac was "the whole world" to Abraham and God had just introduced Abraham to the notion of "the soul". Was Abraham willing to give up the whole world in order to save his soul? Kierkegaard dealt with this question in Either/Or in this way: "The Bible says: For what would it profit a person if he gained the whole world but damaged his own soul; what would he have in return? Scripture does not state the antithesis to this, but it is implicit in the sentence. The antitheses would read something like this: What damage would there be to a person if he lost the whole world and yet did not damage his soul; what would he need in return?" This question brings Abraham to despair. Abraham was used as a prototype in Fear and Trembling and The Young Man was his counterpoint in Repetition. Abraham followed the inner voice without mediation from his wife, Sarah, his servant, or Isaac. He just heard and obeyed. The Young Man made a promise and wanted to change his mind. He consulted with a psychologist who was engaged in trying to prove the theory of eternal return. Then he appealed to Job and complained not only to the world but also to God himself. Abraham's love of God never changed but The Young Man's love for his fiancé was ever changing. Change was the theme of Kierkegaard's Three Upbuilding Discourses of 1843. These three books were published on the same day and should be considered together.
The paradox and the absurd are ultimately related to the Christian relationship with Christ, the God-Man. That God became a single individual and wants to be in a relationship with single individuals, not to the masses, was Kierkegaard's main conflict with the nineteenth-century church. The single individual can make and keep a resolution. Those who aren't interested in becoming a Christian claim they can't understand Christianity and quite often they will point to historical events to justify their position. Kierkegaard is against basing Christian belief solely on external events because it leads to doubt since externals are in constant flux. Doubt leads to speculation and this detracts from the single individual making a decision to imitate Christ. He wanted to be known as the philosopher of the internal and was against scientific proofs of Christianity through history, anthropology, and philosophy and the creation of systematic theology. Becoming a Christian is a decision to be made in time, just like becoming good is a decision/resolution made in time, and not just for consideration because the individual offers the "self" to God.
Kierkegaard said Socrates was his teacher and that Christ was his Teacher. (See Philosophical Fragments)
This Christian belief in the absurd notion that God became man separates one from the world in such a way that the Christian is estranged from the world. The world believes that reason guides all our actions, or should, and can't accept Christianity and is therefore offended and the Christian can't accept the reason of the world and is therefore offended by the world. Kierkegaard put it this way in his Attack Upon Christendom:
Despair and sin
According to Kierkegaard, the self is freedom. Not simply the freedom to choose, but the freedom to create choices for oneself. Therefore, human beings are fundamentally neither their thoughts nor their feelings but rather they are themselves. The self relates directly to itself and is subject to no one and everyone at the same time. Yet this self is that which is in relation to his body and his soul in Kierkegaard's view. The spirit constitutes the relationship in which the self is established in totality by and unto God, and unto his body and soul. His body is his being in the world, his actions and outworked decisions, and his soul is his self-conception (that which determines his actions), and his spirit is the self which relates the soul and the body, and therefore itself, to God. In effect, when a person does not come to a full consciousness of himself or herself, then he or she is said to be in despair. Just like a physician might say that no one is completely healthy, it follows that human beings must despair at certain moments in their lives. To be in despair is to reflect upon the self. If someone does not engage in the art of despair, then he or she shall become stuck in a state of inertia with no effective progression or regression and that is the worst state of all.
Kierkegaard calls sickness, the sickness of the spirit. He wrote the following in Concluding Unscientific Postscript in 1846.
Kierkegaard asked sharp questions that can only be answered by the "single individual" him or her self. This is an example from his 1847 book, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits where he speaks of the third person and the crowd.:
Sin is separation from God but despair over sin is separation again. Kierkegaard said, "The consciousness of sin definitely belongs to the consciousness of the forgiveness of sin." Why would someone sit and reflect on sin to such an extent that an eternal happiness is exchanged for an eternal unhappiness or even a temporal unhappiness? This reflection is done in time but the consequence of the reflection leads one to lose hope in the possibility of any good coming from oneself. Kierkegaard says Christianity invites the single individual to become a partaker not only of the consciousness of sin but also of the consciousness of forgiveness but we seem to concentrate on the former to a remarkable degree. He said the following in Three Discourses on Imagined Occasions (1845) and Practice in Christianity (1850):
Christian doctrine
Kierkegaard believed that Christ was the originator of Christian doctrine and he had discussed some of the doctrinal points in his Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses. In these he discussed love, patience, equality, hope, and faith. It's easy to think you have faith but tougher to think your "neighbor" has faith. Kierkegaard made that point in his first Two Upbuilding Discourses, 1843. Therefore, faith is qualitatively different. It is not only the highest good, but it is a good in which all are able to share, and the person who rejoices in the possession of it also rejoices in the countless human race, “because what I possess.” He says, “every human being has or could possess.” The person who wishes it for another person wishes it for himself; the person who wishes it for himself wishes it for every other human being, because that by which another person has faith is not that by which he is different from him but is that by which he is like him; that by which he possesses it is not that by which he is different from others but that by which he is altogether like all. It was that kind of wish the perplexed man was seeking, one he could wish for another person with all his heart, with all his might, and with his whole soul, a wish he would dare to go on wishing, ever more fervently, even as his love became ever more fervent. –That was the wish that he would wish.
Soren Kierkegaard, Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Hong p. 10
Christianity has two parts, law and gospel, and Kierkegaard emphasized that Christ put an end to law with his law of love. "Just make the attempt, whether you find the sum that way no matter how long you go on counting, and you will see that it is useless labor, because the concept of the Law is to be inexhaustible, limitless, endless in its provisions; every provision begets of itself an even more precise provision, and in turn a still more precise provision by reference and in relation to the new provision, and so on infinitely. The relation of love to the Law is here like the relation of faith to understanding. The understanding counts and counts, calculates and calculates, but it never arrives at the certainty that faith possesses; in the same way the Law defines and defines but never arrives at the sum, which is love."
Loving the neighbor has a "double danger." The same with faith and hope. We not only wish that we could have love and peace but that our neighbor can have the same because it is a free gift from God. He nicely summed up the idea he had in his 1847 book Works of Love.
Selected religious works
(1847) Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits
(1847) Works of Love
(1848) Christian Discourses
(1848) The Book on Adler
(1849) The Sickness Unto Death
(1850) Training in Christianity
(1851) For Self-Examination
(1851) Judge for Yourselves!
References
Sources
Alexander Dru. The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard, Oxford University Press, 1938.
Duncan, Elmer. Søren Kierkegaard: Maker of the Modern Theological Mind, Word Books 1976,
Joakim Garff. Søren Kierkegaard: A Biography, Princeton University Press 2005, .
Hannay, Alastair and Gordon Marino (eds). The Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard, Cambridge University Press 1997,
Alastair Hannay. Kierkegaard: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, New edition 2003, .
External links
Edifying Discourses, by Soren Kierkegaard, translated by David F. Swenson, 1958
Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing Translation of part one of Edifying Discourses in Various Spirits 1938 Douglas V. Steere
D. Anthony Storm's Commentary On Kierkegaard
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Søren Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard's attack upon "Christendom," 1854-1855 Princeton University Press (1946) Retrieved May 18, 2012
Universidad Iberoamericana - Kierkegaard en español
Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard |
4247804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20in%20New%20Zealand | 1996 in New Zealand | The following lists events that happened during 1996 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,762,300.
Increase since 31 December 1995: 55,600 (1.50%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State - Elizabeth II
Governor-General - The Rt Hon. Sir Michael Hardie Boys GNZM, GCMG, QSO
Government
The 44th New Zealand Parliament continued. Government was The National Party, led by Jim Bolger. In the 1996 New Zealand general election National was returned to power, but had to form a coalition with the New Zealand First.
Speaker of the House - Peter Tapsell then Doug Kidd
Prime Minister - Jim Bolger
Deputy Prime Minister - Don McKinnon then Winston Peters
Minister of Finance - Bill Birch
Minister of Foreign Affairs - Don McKinnon
Chief Justice — Sir Thomas Eichelbaum
Opposition leaders
See: :Category:Parliament of New Zealand, :New Zealand elections
Act - Roger Douglas then Richard Prebble
New Zealand First - Winston Peters
United Future - Peter Dunne
Labour - Helen Clark (Leader of the Opposition)
Alliance - Jim Anderton
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland - Les Mills
Mayor of Hamilton - Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington - Mark Blumsky
Mayor of Christchurch - Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin - Sukhi Turner
Events
April: The New Zealand Tablet winds up. The weekly Catholic newspaper started publication in 1873.
1 November: Cartoon Network debuts on New Zealand television.
November: Michael Jackson, the king of pop, performed in Auckland both nights (November 9 and November 11), as a part of his world tour, HIStory World Tour.
Leaded petrol is phased out.
Arts and literature
Bernadette Hall wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
Montana New Zealand Book Awards:
Book of the Year/Cultural Heritage: Judith Binney, Redemption Songs - A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki
First Book Awards
Fiction: Emily Perkins, Not Her Real Name
Poetry: James Brown, Go Round Power Please
Non-Fiction: Alex Frame, Salmond: Southern Jurist
f*INK, Dunedin's weekly entertainment magazine is founded
See 1996 in art, 1996 in literature, :Category:1996 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: Shihad - Killjoy
Finn Brothers - Finn
Howard Morrison - Songs of New Zealand
Max Lines - Beautiful Panflute I
Starlight String Quartet - Romantic Strings
Suzanne Prentice - 25th Anniversary
Single of the Year: OMC – How Bizarre
D-Faction - Down in the Boondocks
Herbs - French Letter '95
Jan Hellriegel - Manic
The Exponents - La La Lulu
Strawpeople - Sweet Disorder
Best Male Vocalist: Jon Toogood – Shihad
Greg Johnson
Dave Dobbyn
Best Female Vocalist: Teremoana Rapley
Sulata
Jan Hellriegel
Best Group: Shihad
The Exponents
The Mutton Birds
Finn Brothers
Rising Star Award: Kylie Harris
Bic Runga
Glen Moffat
Most Promising Male Vocalist: Paul Fuemana (OMC)
Jeremy Eade (Garageland)
Otis Frizzell (Joint Force)
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Bic Runga
Celia Mancini (King Loser)
Jordan Reyne
Most Promising Group: OMC
Garageland
Joint Force
International Achievement: Shihad
Finn Brothers
Dave Dobbyn
Supergroove
Best Video: Sigi Spath / Jo Fisher – You Gotta Know (Supergroove)
Greg Page - Honeyblonde (Throw)
M Noonan and J Frizzell - Static PTI (Joint Force)
Best Producer: Eddie Rayner - World Stand Still
Alan Jansson, Nathan Haines and James Pinker - Shift Left (Nathan Haines)
Malcolm Welsford - La La Lulu (The Exponents)
Best Engineer: Alan Jansson – How Bizarre (Omc)
Chris Sinclair - Black Sand Shore (Grace)
Malcolm Welsford - La La Lulu (The Exponents)
Best Jazz Album: Nathan Haines – Shift Left
Hattie St John - Flying High at Iguacu
Christchurch Polytechnic Sextet - Collaboration
Best Classical Album: Michael Houston - Beethoven Piano Sonatas from the Middle Period
Alexander Ivashkin and Tamas Vesmas - Alfred Schnittke
L Subramaniam - Pacific Rendezvous
Best Country Album: Kylie Harris – Let It Be Love
Glen Moffat - Somewhere in New Zealand Tonight
Kevin Greaves - Over the Storm
Best Folk Album: Rua – Harbour Lights
Chris Thompson - Song for Laura
Peter Skandera and Dave Maybee - Acoustic Spirit
Best Gospel Album: Brent Chambers – Living Sacrifices
Alastair Brown - Narrow
Paul Stephens - Apocalypse
Best Mana Maori Album: Southside of Bombay with Mina Ripia – Kia Mau
Maree Sheehan - Past to Present
Moana and The Moahunters - Give it Up Now
Ruia - Ka Tangi te Tiitii Ka Tangi to Kaakaa
Best Mana Reo Album: Southside of Bombay with Mina Ripia – Kia Mau
Ruia - Ka Tangi te Tiitii Ka Tangi te Kaakaa
Moana and the Moa Hunters - Akona Te Reo '95
Best Children's Album: Nga Pihi - 1 & 2
Radha and the Kiwis - Sing the World Around
Kids TV - You and Me Songbook (Suzy Cato)
Best Polynesian Album: Southside of Bombay - Umbadada
D-Faction - Down in the Boondocks
John Akaata - Ura Mai Koe
Purest Form - If I Fell/U Can Do It
Best Songwriter: Mark Tierney / Paul Casserly / Anthony Ioasa - Sweet Disorder (Strawpeople)
Glen Moffat - Somewhere in New Zealand Tonight
Greg Johnson - Don't Wait Another Day
Best Cover: Alec Bathgate – Abbasalutely
Chris Knox - Songs of You and Me
Neil Finn and Wayne Conway - Finn
See: 1996 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Keith Leggett.
Radio and television
See: 1996 in New Zealand television, 1996 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, TV3 (New Zealand), Public broadcasting in New Zealand
The New Zealand Government sells the Radio New Zealand commercial arm to Clear Channel creating The Radio Network
Film
Broken English
Chicken
Jack Brown Genius
Flight of the Albatross
Someone Else's Country
The Frighteners
The Whole of the Moon
See: :Category:1996 film awards, 1996 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1996 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
Athletics
Phil Costley wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:20:32 on 27 October in Auckland, while Tracey Clissold claims her first in the women's championship (2:39:03).
Basketball
The NBL was won by Auckland.
Cricket
Various Tours, New Zealand cricket team, Chappell–Hadlee Trophy, Cricket World Cup
Golf
New Zealand Open
Check :Category:New Zealand golfers in overseas tournaments.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Il Vicolo - 2nd win
Auckland Trotting Cup: Sharp And Telford
Thoroughbred racing
Netball
Silver Ferns
National Bank Cup
Olympic Games
New Zealand sends a team of 97 competitors.
Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of 30 competitors across seven sports.
Rugby league
The Lion Red Cup was won by the Counties Manukau Heroes who beat the Waitakere City Raiders 34–22 in the grand final. Waitakere were the minor premiers.
In their second season the Auckland Warriors placed 11th of 20 teams in the Australian National Rugby League competition. They had been in finals contention until losing their last six games.
5 October, New Zealand defeated Papua New Guinea 62-8
11 October, New Zealand defeated Papua New Guinea 64-0
The 1996 Great Britain Lions tour saw the three Tet matches played in New Zealand:
18 October, New Zealand defeated Great Britain 17-12
25 October, New Zealand defeated Great Britain 18-15
1 November, New Zealand defeated Great Britain 32-12
Rugby union
:Category:Rugby union in New Zealand, Super 14, Rugby Union World Cup, National Provincial Championship, :Category:All Blacks, Bledisloe Cup, Tri Nations Series, Ranfurly Shield
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Graeme Ballinger (Levin)
Soccer
The National Summer Soccer League was inaugurated to replace the New Zealand National Soccer League, so there was no 1996 league champion.
The New Zealand national soccer team placed third in the OFC Nations Cup, which this year was played as a league rather than a tournament.
The Chatham Cup is won by Waitakere City F.C. who beat Mt Wellington 3–1 in the final.
Births
January
1 January – Ben Lister, cricketer
5 January – James Fisher-Harris, rugby league player
10 January – Jamie-Lee Price, netballer
13 January
Mitch Jacobson, rugby union player
Oliver Sail, association footballer
28 January – Gabby Westbrook-Patrick, model
31 January – Jordan Trainor, rugby union player
February
6 February – Rhett Purcell, tennis player
7 February – Piera Hudson, alpine skier
10 February – Nicole van der Kaay, triathlete
11 February – Jack Salt, basketball player
14 February – Poasa Faamausili, rugby league player
19 February – Amy Robinson, field hockey player
28 February – Rosa Flanagan, athlete
29 February
Nelson Asofa-Solomona, rugby league player
Tarryn Davey, field hockey player
Claudia Williams, tennis player
March
8 March – Leni Apisai, rugby league player
11 March – Matthew Ridenton, association footballer
14 March – Andrew Blake, association footballer
16 March – Tyrel Lomax, rugby union player
20 March – Deklan Wynne, association footballer
22 March – Tamupiwa Dimairo, association footballer
24 March – Jack Boyle, cricketer
26 March – Zane Musgrove, rugby league player
April
3 April – Cory Brown, association footballer
14 April – Jessee Wyatt, athlete
15 April – Nathaniel Roache, rugby league player
20 April – Caleb Makene, rugby union player
23 April – Ollie Jones, cyclist
29 April – Nicholas Kergozou, cyclist
May
9 May – Jonah Lowe, rugby union player
10 May
Henry Shipley, cricketer
Taniela Tupou, rugby league player
12 May – Hugh Renton, rugby union player
23 May – Maddison Keeney, diver
27 May – Sio Tomkinson, rugby union player
29 May – Holly Rose Emery, model
31 May – Brandon Smith, rugby league player
June
1 June – Adam Mitchell, association footballer
4 June – Meikayla Moore, association footballer
5 June
Gayle Broughton, rugby union player
Jamayne Isaako, rugby league player
6 June – Ofahiki Ogden, rugby league player
7 June – Jackie Gowler, rower
10 June – TJ Va'a, rugby union player
12 June
Luke Mudgway, cyclist
Alex Rufer, association footballer
18 June – Sam Nock, rugby union player
29 June
Joseph Manu, rugby league player
Mikayla Pirini, basketball player
30 June – Louisa Tuilotolava, field hockey player
July
1 July – Lauchie Johns, cricketer
3 July – Aidan Sarikaya, field hockey player
5 July – Alex Ridley, cricketer
11 July – David Liti, weightlifter
16 July – Josh Iosefa-Scott, rugby union player
20 July – Jasmine Pereira, association footballer
26 July – Jamie Curry, vlogger, comedian
27 July – Luther Hirini, rugby union player
29 July – Marata Niukore, rugby league player
August
16 August – Sefo Kautai, rugby union player
17 August
Hamish Kerr, high jumper
Esan Marsters, rugby league player
20 August – Bunty Afoa, rugby league player
21 August – Quinten Strange, rugby union player
September
5 September – Isaac Salmon, rugby union player
6 September – Nicholas Reddish, cyclist
12 September
Aaron Booth, decathlete
Ryan Christensen, cyclist
Pari Pari Parkinson, rugby union player
13 September – Botille Vette-Welsh, rugby league player
19 September – Lukhan Salakaia-Loto, rugby union player
25 September – Salesi Rayasi, rugby union player
29 September – Jahrome Brown, rugby union player
October
2 October
Tayler Reid, triathlete
Michaela Sokolich-Beatson, netball player
3 October – Hannah Rowe, cricketer
4 October – Brett Cameron, rugby union player
5 October
Lisati Milo-Harris, rugby union player
Jayden Nikorima, rugby league player
6 October
Regan Gough, cyclist
Elizabeth Ross, rower
9 October – Eliza Grigg, alpine skier
18 October – Frances Davies, field hockey player
22 October – Kelly Jury, netball player
24 October – Ayden Johnstone, rugby union player
25 October – Alex Nankivell, rugby union player
November
2 November – Andre de Jong, association footballer
4 November – Jana Radosavljević, association footballer
7 November
Hades, Thoroughbred racehorse
Ella Yelich-O'Connor (aka Lorde), singer-songwriter
10 November – Emma Rolston, association footballer
14 November – Shaun Stevenson, rugby union player
15 November – Georgia Marris, swimmer
December
5 December – Holly Edmondston, cyclist
6 December
Glenn Phillips, cricketer
Mark Telea, rugby union player
8 December – Josh Finnie, cricketer
9 December – Monty Patterson, association footballer
11 December – Eliza McCartney, pole vaulter
23 December – Nik Tzanev, association footballer
24 December – Richard Kam, ice dancer
28 December – Fin Hoeata, rugby union player
30 December – Brad Abbey, rugby league player
Deaths
January–March
4 January – Jim Robertson, historian (born 1896)
6 January – Beeban McKnight, entertainer, cinema operator, community leader (born 1897)
9 January – Herbert Money, evangelical missionary (born 1899)
17 January – Arnold Anderson, athlete (born 1912)
30 January – Guy Doleman, actor (born 1923)
31 January – Sir Peter Tait, politician (born 1915)
24 February – Graeme Moran, rower (born 1938)
26 February – Don Oliver, weightlifter, fitness entrepreneur (born 1937)
4 March − John Spencer, yacht designer (born 1931)
9 March – Harold Baigent, actor (born 1916)
April–June
16 April – Archie Dunningham, librarian (born 1907)
17 April – Robbie Robson, lawn bowls player (born 1918)
21 April – Paraone Reweti, politician (born 1916)
26 April – Terence Vaughan, musician, performing arts administrator (born 1915)
1 May – Bruce McLeod, rugby union player (born 1940)
10 May – Ronald Bush, rugby union player and coach, cricketer (born 1909)
11 May – Rob Hall, mountaineer (born 1961)
16 May – Robert Hurst, nuclear scientist (born 1915)
22 May – John George, politician (born 1901)
26 May – Vince Bevan, rugby union player (born 1921)
30 May – Balmerino, thoroughbred racehorse (foaled 1972)
31 May – Robert Holden, motorcycle racer (born 1958)
1 June – Jack Hemi, rugby union and rugby league player (born 1914)
2 June – Freda Bream, writer (born 1918)
3 June – Ben Couch, rugby union player, politician (born 1925)
5 June – Ian Grey, historian (born 1918)
7 June – Tom Puna, cricketer (born 1929)
9 June – Leo Schultz, politician (born 1914)
16 June – Richard Sylvan, philosopher (born 1935)
17 June – Doug Harris, athlete (born 1919)
18 June – Florence Andrews, fencer (born 1912)
19 June – Eric Fisher, cricketer (born 1924)
20 June – Colin Gillies, rugby union player (born 1912)
July–September
3 July – Barry Crump, author (born 1935)
11 July – Bob Whaitiri, community leader (born 1916)
17 July – Nell Rose, nurse (born 1996)
25 July – Andy Keyworth, master mariner (born 1923)
10 August – Les George, rugby union player and administrator (born 1908)
16 August – Lena Manuel, community leader (born 1915)
27 August – Josie Yelas, netball player (born 1924)
10 September – Patrick Rhind, rugby union player (born 1915)
13 September – Dot Simons, sports journalist and writer (born 1912)
23 September – Sir Jack Newman, cricketer, businessman (born 1902)
26 September – Athol Rafter, nuclear chemist (born 1913)
October–December
1 October
James Beal, boxer (born 1929)
Patrick Jameson, World War II flying ace (born 1912)
10 October – Harold Cleghorn, weightlifter (born 1912)
12 October – Fred Miller, journalist, historian (born 1904)
22 October – Noel Hilliard, author and novelist (born 1929)
24 October – Robert Anderson, politician (born 1936)
27 October – Piet van Asch, aviator, aerial photographer and surveyor (born 1911)
28 October – Jimmy Haig, rugby union and rugby league player (born 1924)
5 November – Hugh Sew Hoy, businessman, community leader (born 1901)
15 November – Les Watt, cricketer (born 1924)
23 November – Eve Rimmer, athlete (born 1937)
26 November
Dame Joan Hammond, opera singer (born 1912)
Te Waari Whaitiri, master mariner, community leader (born 1912)
12 December – Elaine Gurr, doctor and medical administrator (born 1896)
17 December
Lawrie Miller, cricketer (born 1923)
Violet Walrond, swimmer (born 1905)
22 December – William Lunn, rugby union player (born 1926)
25 December – Harry Watson, cyclist (born 1904)
References
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand |
4248342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20African-American%20mathematicians | List of African-American mathematicians | The bestselling book and film, Hidden Figures, celebrated the role of African-American women mathematicians in the space race, and the barriers they had to overcome to study and pursue a career in mathematics and related fields. Although much of African Americans' other achievements in careers in mathematical science, in research, education, and applied fields have also been "hidden", the community of mathematicians has been growing. African Americans represented around 4-6% of the graduates majoring in mathematics and statistics in the US between 2000 and 2015. This list catalogs Wikipedia articles on African Americans in mathematics, as well as early recipients of doctoral degrees in mathematics and mathematics education and other landmarks, and books and studies about African-American mathematicians.
Historical landmarks
1792: Benjamin Banneker calculated planetary movements and predicted eclipses in his Almanac.
1867: Howard University established its Department of Mathematics.
1895: Joseph Carter Corbin, president of Branch Normal College (now University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff), published his first problem in American Mathematical Monthly.
1916: Dudley Weldon Woodard became a charter member of the Mathematical Association of America (MAA).
1925: Elbert Frank Cox is the first African-American awarded a doctoral degree in mathematics, from Cornell University.
1929: Dudley Weldon Woodard is the first African-American mathematician known to publish in a mathematics journal, with an article "On two-dimensional analysis situs with special reference to the Jordan curve-theorem" in Fundamenta Mathematicae.
1943: Euphemia Lofton Haynes is the first African-American woman to gain a doctoral degree in mathematics.
1951: The MAA Board of Governors adopted a resolution to conduct their scientific and business meetings, and social gatherings "without discrimination as to race, creed, or color".
1956: Gloria Ford Gilmer is believed to be the first African-American woman to publish mathematical research, co-authoring an article in Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society and another in Pacific Journal of Mathematics.
1969: 17 African-American mathematicians met in New Orleans, forming the National Association of Mathematicians to "promote excellence in the mathematical sciences and to promote the mathematical development of under-represented American minorities".
1973: Mathematician David Blackwell becomes the first African-American in any field to be elected to membership of the National Academy of Sciences.
1976: Howard University establishes the first PhD program in mathematics at a historically black college or university under mathematics department chair James Donaldson and professor J. Ernest Wilkins Jr.
1980: The Claytor Lecture – now the Claytor-Woodard Lecture in honor of William W S Claytor and Dudley Weldon Woodard – is established at MAA.
1982: Civil rights leader, Bob Moses (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), used his MacArthur Fellowship to start the Algebra Project, a national mathematics literacy program for high schools.
1988: The MAA established a task force that led to the formation in 1990 of SUMMA, a program for the Strengthening of Underrepresented Minority Mathematics Achievement.
1992: Mathematician Freeman Hrabowski becomes President of the University of Maryland.
1994: The Blackwell Lecture is established for MAA meetings, jointly by MAA and NAM, as well as the NAM Wilkins Lecture and Bharucha-Reid Lecture.
1995: The first CAARMS – Conference for African American Researchers in Mathematical Sciences – was held, to highlight the work of researchers and students and encourage the careers of under-represented groups in mathematics. Proceedings are published by the American Mathematical Society in its Contemporary Mathematics series.
1995: Gregory Battle becomes first African American awarded doctorate degree in theoretical algebra from Washington University in St. Louis.
1997: Kathleen Adebola Okikiolu was the first African American awarded a Sloan Research Fellowship and Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers.
1997 Scott W. Williams produced the website, Mathematicians of the African Diaspora, a collection of African-American mathematicians, newsletter, and resources on Africans in mathematics. By early 2007 it had close to 5 million visitors. The website has been cataloged by the Library of Congress.
1999: The mathematics departments of the 25 highest-ranked universities in the US had more than 900 faculty members, of whom 4 were African-American.
2003: Clarence F. Stephens is the first African-American to be honored with the Mathematical Association of America's (MAA) most prestigious award, for Distinguished Service to Mathematics.
2004: The Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM) and MAA formally established the Etta Zuber Falconer Lecture.
2015: Katherine Coleman Johnson received the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
2016: Hidden Figures, by Margot Lee Shetterley, is published, going on to win multiple awards and reach number 1 on the New York Times bestseller list. It tells the story of African-American women mathematicians at NASA during the space race.
2017: The film adaptation, Hidden Figures, is nominated for best movie at the Academy Awards, and Katherine Johnson makes an appearance at the ceremony.
2020: The updated website Mathematicians of the African Diaspora debuted in October. The new site is supported by the National Association of Mathematicians (NAM) and the Educational Advancement Foundation (EAF).
Doctoral degrees in mathematics
The lists of doctoral degrees, including the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in mathematics and Doctor of Education (EdD), draw from these sources: Turner (1971), Greene (1974), Williams (1997), Zeitz (2008), Shakil (2010), and the Mathematical Association of America.
(Please add any further candidates for these lists here, or on the talk page.)
First men and women
These are the first 12 known PhDs by African-American men and women in mathematics, in alphabetical order for years with multiple doctorate holders, with women first.
Doctoral degrees 1925 to 1975
This list includes PhDs awarded to African-Americans and to African immigrants by academic institutions in the United States.
Doctoral degrees in mathematics education to 1975
This list includes doctorates specifically in mathematics education and doctorates in education by mathematicians/mathematics educators.
Books and articles about African-American mathematicians
This list includes books and dissertations published about individual African-Americans in mathematics, and studies, biographical anthologies or histories dedicated to African-Americans in mathematics. (This list is incomplete. You can help by expanding it.)
Individuals
Benjamin Banneker:
Bedini, Silvio A (1999). The life of Benjamin Banneker: the first African-American man of science. Maryland Historical Society.
Hinman, Bonnie (2000). Benjamin Banneker: American Mathematician and Astronomer (Colonial Leaders).
David Blackwell:
Blackwell, David; Wilmot, Nadine (2003). An oral history with David Blackwell. Bancroft Library.
Black, Robert (2019). David Blackwell and the Deadliest Duel. Royal Fireworks Press.
Joseph James Dennis:
Williams, Sherese LaTrelle (2016). To Humbly Serve: Joseph James Dennis and His Contributions to Clark College. Clark Atlanta University.
Marjorie Kimbrough
Kimbrouogh, Marjorie (1991). Accept no limitations: a black woman encounters corporate America. Abingdon Press.
Shirley Mathis McBay:
Verheyden-Hilliard, Mary Ellen (1985). Mathematician and Administrator, Shirley Mathis McBay. Equity Institute.
J. Ernest Wilkins Jr.:
Nkwanta, Asamoah; Barber, Janet E. (2018). "Episodes in the Life of a Genius: J. Ernest Wilkins Jr." Notices of the American Mathematical Society. Volume 65, Number 2.
Anthologies and studies
Borum, Viveka; Hilton, Adriel Adon; Walker, Erica (2016). The Role of Black Colleges in the Development of Mathematicians. Journal of Research Initiatives.
Carlson, Cob; Parks, Yolanda; et al. (1996). Breakthrough: profiles of scientists of color. Working with Numbers. Blackside.
Dean, Nathaniel (ed) (1997). African Americans in mathematics: DIMACS workshop, June 26–28, 1996. American Mathematical Society.
Farmer, Vernon L; Shepherd-Wynn, Evelyn (2012). Voices of historical and contemporary Black American pioneers.
Harmon, Marylen; Guertler, Sherry (1994). Visions of a dream: history makers: contributions of Africans and African Americans in science and mathematics. M.E. Harmon.
Houston, Johnny L (2000). The History of the National Association of Mathematicians (NAM): The First Thirty (30) Years, 1969–1999. NAM.
Kenschaft, Patricia Clark (2005). Change is possible: Stories of women and minorities in mathematics.
Lang, Mozell P. Contributions of African American scientists and mathematicians. Harcourt School Publishers.
Newell, Victoria; Gipson, Joella; Rich, Waldo L.; Stubblefield, B (1980). Black Mathematicians and Their Works.
Paul, Richard; Moss, Steven (2015). We Could Not Fail: The First African Americans in the Space Program. University of Texas Press.
Shetterly, Margot Lee (2016). Hidden Figures: The American dream and the untold story of the black women mathematicians who helped win the space race.
Walker, Erica N (2014). Beyond Banneker: Black mathematicians and the path to excellence.
Williams, Lisa D (2000). The trials, tribulations, and triumphs of black faculty in the math and science pipeline: a life history approach (Dissertation). University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
Williams, Talithia M (2018). Power in numbers: The rebel women of mathematics. Race Point Publishing.
For young people
Becker, Helaine; Phumiruk, Dow (2018). Counting on Katherine: How Katherine Johnson Saved Apollo 13. Henry Holt and co.
Pinkney, Andrea Davis (1998). Dear Benjamin Banneker.
Schwartz, Heather E (2017). NASA Mathematician Katherine Johnson. Lerner Publications.
Shetterly, Margot Lee; Conkling, Winifred; Freeman, Laura (2018). Hidden Figures: The True Story of Four Black Women and the Space Race. HarperCollins.
List of Wikipedia articles
This list includes Wikipedia articles for people from the African diaspora who have postgraduate degrees in mathematics or statistics, have worked in mathematics, or are known for mathematical accomplishments in the United States (African-Americans). The list is grouped by the time the person's first degree in mathematics was awarded, or when they began their work in mathematics. Individuals are listed alphabetically within time periods. PhDs in mathematics education are included.
Before 1900
Thomas Fuller (1710–1782).
Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806).
Charles Reason (1818–1893).
Kelly Miller (1863–1939) degrees from Howard University, including law degree.
1900s
Dudley Weldon Woodard (1881–1965), degrees from Wilberforce University, University of Chicago, University of Pennsylvania (PhD).
1910s
Elbert Frank Cox (1895–1969), degrees from Indiana University, Cornell University (PhD).
Euphemia Haynes (1890–1980), Smith College, Catholic University of America (PhD).
1920s
Joseph J. Dennis (1905–1977), degrees from Clark College, Northwestern University (PhD).
Angie Turner King (1905–2004), degrees from West Virginia State College, including chemistry, University of Pittsburgh (PhD, mathematics education).
Georgia Caldwell Smith (1909–1961), degrees from University of Kansas, University of Chicago, University of Pittsburgh (PhD).
Dorothy Vaughan (1910–2008), degree from Wilberforce University.
1930s
David Blackwell (1919–2010), degrees from University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (PhD).
Marjorie Lee Browne (1914–1979), degrees from Howard University, University of Michigan (PhD).
Katherine Johnson (1918–2020), degree from West Virginia State College.
Clarence F. Stephens (1917–2018), degrees from Johnson C. Smith University, University of Michigan (PhD).
1940s
Albert Turner Bharucha-Reid (1927–1985), degree from Iowa State University.
Gloria Ford Gilmer, degrees from Morgan State University, University of Pennsylvania, Marquette University (PhD, education).
Evelyn Boyd Granville (born 1924), Smith College, Yale University (PhD).
Mary Winston Jackson (1921–2005), degree from Hampton Institute.
Eleanor Green Dawley Jones (1929-2021), degrees from Howard University, Syracuse University (PhD).
Abdulalim A. Shabazz (1927–2014), degrees from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cornell University (PhD).
Louise Nixon Sutton (1925–2006), degrees from North Carolina A&T State University, New York University (PhD, education).
J. Ernest Wilkins, Jr. (1923–2011), degrees from University of Chicago, New York University (including degrees in engineering).
1950s
Geraldine Claudette Darden (born 1936), degrees from Hampton Institute, University of Illinois, Syracuse University (PhD).
M. Lovenia DeConge-Watson (born 1933), degrees from Seton Hill College, Louisiana State University, St. Louis University (PhD).
Annie Easley (1933–2011), degrees from Xavier University, mathematics at Cleveland State University.
Etta Zuber Falconer (1933–2002), degrees from Fisk University, University of Wisconsin, Emory University (PhD).
William Thomas Fletcher, degrees from North Carolina Central University, University of Idaho (PhD).
Gloria Conyers Hewitt (born 1935), degrees from Fisk University, University of Washington (PhD).
Vivienne Malone-Mayes (1932–1995), degrees from Fisk University, University of Texas (PhD).
Melba Roy Mouton (1929–1990), degrees from Howard University.
Dolores Margaret Richard Spikes (1936–2015), degrees from Southern University, University of Illinois (PhD).
Thyrsa Frazier Svager (1930–1999), degrees from Antioch College, Ohio State University (PhD).
Argelia Velez-Rodriguez (b. 1936 in Cuba), degrees from Marianao Institute, University of Havana (PhD).
Grace Alele Williams (1932–2022), degrees from University of Ibadan, University of Chicago (PhD, education).
1960s
Sylvia D. Trimble Bozeman (born 1947), degrees from Alabama A&M University, Vanderbilt University, Emory University (PhD).
Christine Darden (born 1942), degrees from Hampton Institute, Virginia State University, George Washington University (PhD, engineering).
James A. Donaldson (1941–2019), degrees from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (PhD).
Fern Y. Hunt (born 1948), degrees from Bryn Mawr College, New York University (PhD).
Jeanette Scissum, degrees from Alabama A&M University, computer science PhD.
Raymond L. Johnson (born 1943), degrees from University of Texas at Austin, Rice University (PhD).
Ronald Elbert Mickens (born 1943), degrees from Fisk University, Vanderbilt University (PhD, physics).
Scott W. Williams (born 1943), degrees from Morgan State University, Lehigh University (PhD).
Lloyd Demetrius, degrees from University of Cambridge, University of Chicago (PhD).
1970s
Augustin Banyaga (b. 1947 in Rwanda), degrees from University of Geneva (PhD).
Emery N. Brown, degree from Harvard College and Harvard University (PhD, statistics).
Freeman Alphonsa Hrabowski III (born 1950), degrees from Hampton Institute, University of Illinois (PhD, higher education administration/statistics)
Iris Marie Mack, degrees from Vassar College (double major with physics), University of California, Los Angeles, Harvard University (PhD).
Carolyn Ray Boone Mahoney (born 1946), degrees from Siena College, Ohio University (PhD).
William Alfred Massey (born 1956), degrees from Princeton University, Stanford University (PhD).
Lee Stiff (1949–2021), degrees from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Duke University, North Carolina State University (PhD, education).
1980s
Idris Assani (b. in Niger), degrees from Paris Dauphine University, Pierre and Marie Curie University (PhD, mathematics).
Emery Neal Brown, degrees from Harvard University (PhD, statistics) and Harvard Medical School (MD).
Melvin Currie (born 1948), degrees from Yale University and University of Pittsburgh (PhD, mathematics).
Clifford Victor Johnson (b. 1968 in UK), degrees from Imperial College London and University of Southampton (PhD, mathematics and physics).
Bob Moses (1935–2021), degrees from Hamilton College, and Harvard University (MA, philosophy). Founder of Algebra Project (1982).
Arlie Oswald Petters (b. 1964 in Belize), degrees from City University of New York and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (PhD, mathematics).
Suzanne L. Weekes (b. in Trinidad & Tobago), degrees from Indiana University and University of Michigan (PhD, mathematics and scientific computing).
1990s
Ron Buckmire (b. 1968 in Grenada), degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (PhD, mathematics).
Edray Goins (born 1972), degrees from California Institute of Technology and Stanford University (PhD, mathematics).
Rudy Horne (1968–2017), degrees from University of Oklahoma and University of Colorado Boulder (PhD, applied mathematics). Mathematical consultant for the movie Hidden Figures.
Trachette Jackson (born 1972), degrees from Arizona State University and University of Washington (PhD, mathematics).
Chawne Kimber (born 1971), degrees from University of North Carolina and University of Florida (PhD, mathematics).
Marilyn Strutchens (born 1962), degrees from the University of Georgia (PhD, mathematics education).
Aissa Wade (b. 1967 in Senegal), degrees from University Montpellier 2, France (PhD, mathematics).
Talitha Washington (born 1974), degrees from Spelman College and University of Connecticut (PhD, mathematics).
2000s
Carla Cotwright-Williams (born 1973), degrees from California State University, Long Beach, Southern University, and University of Mississippi (PhD, mathematics).
Christina Eubanks-Turner, degrees from Xavier University of Louisiana and University of Nebraska-Lincoln (PhD, mathematics).
Omayra Ortega, degrees from Pomona College and University of Iowa (PhD, mathematics).
Candice Price, degrees from California State University, Chico, San Francisco State University, and University of Iowa (PhD, mathematics).
Dionne Price, degrees from Norfolk State University, University of North Carolina, and Emory University (PhD, biostatistics).
Chelsea Walton (born 1983), degrees from Michigan State University and the University of Michigan (PhD, mathematics).
Talithia Williams, degrees from Spelman College, Howard University, Rice University (PhD, statistics).
Ulrica Wilson, degrees from Spelman College and Emory University (PhD, mathematics).
2010s
John Urschel (b. 1991 in Canada), degrees from Pennsylvania State University (MS, Mathematics) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D., Mathematics).
References
Mathematicians
African-American |
4248457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabuji%20Ki%20Phad | Pabuji Ki Phad | Pabuji Ki Phad is a religious scroll painting of folk deities, which is used for a musical rendition of the only surviving ancient traditional folk art form, Phad painting in the world of the epic of Pabuji, the Rathore Rajput chief.
Bhopas of Pabusar are the bards and also priests who are the traditional narrators of this art form. The Phad is also spelt as "Par". This art form is popular in the Indian state of Rajasthan. Literally, 'Pabuji Ki Phad' translates into two versions namely, "The Screen of Pabuji or O, Read of Pabuji!. Pabuji is also known as "the Ascetic Deity of Sand Desert".
The three basic features associated with this art form are: the epic story of Pabuji, the Rathore chief of Rajasthan in the 14th century, who is extolled as an incarnation of Hindu God, and worshipped by the Rabari tribals of Rajasthan; the Phad or Par, which is a long scroll painting (or sewn) made on cloth, with the martial heroics of Pabuji richly displayed for worship; and the bard priests, known as the Bhopas (who belong to the cult of Pabuji) of the nomadic tribe of Nayakas and specialists in narrating the story of the Pabuji in their sartorial best through the medium of the Phads used as a portable temple, all over the desert lands of the Thar in Rajasthan.
History
Pabuji is worshipped as a folk-deity. He lived in the 14th century (the 16th century is also mentioned) in a remote village known as Kulu in Rajasthan. Dhadal Rathore of village Kolu had four children: two boys, Buro the older and Pabuji the younger brother, and two girls, Sona and Pema. However, Pabuji was stated to be born to a nymph and as foretold by the nymph she was to return after 12 years as a mare to be with him. In his young age, Pabuji fought against the Khici clan to evict them from his land that they had encroached and killed their leader, Jindrav Khinchi. During this period, he also acquired a black horse from Lady Daval (goddess worshipped in Kolu) of Charan Clan and it is believed that this horse was in the reborn form of his own mother. He then went on to defeat Mirza Khan who was indulging in the killing of cows, which are held sacred by the Hindus and Muslim plunderer named Muslim marauder Mirza Khan Patan and also protected honour of the womenfolk.
An eventful part of Pabuji’s life was the marriage of Kelam, his favourite niece, to his friend, the snake deity of Rajasthan, known as Gogaji. At this wedding, while the wedding guests presented the couple with rich gifts (such as diamonds, pearls, an exquisite dress made from best cloth of South India, white cows, horses, elephants and so forth), Pabuji only promised her camels from Lanka (Lanka referred here is not the island of Sri Lanka, but refers to a kingdom west of the Indus River). He then went in search of a herd of camels to Lanka. After fighting and defeating the local ruler Ravana of Lanka, he then brought the herd of camels for his niece. When he was returning with the camels, he passed through Umarkot in Sindh (now in Pakistan). There, he fell in love with the princess Pulvati and after lot of persuasion married her.
The Kulu village where Pabu was born, now has only two conventional but small temples within a courtyard, where Puja (worship) is offered to the Pabuji. This village was known as the "great village fortress of Kolu" and it included the shrine of goddess Daval. The deity has still not attained the status for universal worship through building of many other temples elsewhere. Hence, only small shrines and commemorative stones are found in and around Kolu. Another reason attributed to the inadequate representation in the form of many temples to Pabuji is that the Bhopas are semi-nomadic and a traveling group who are not rooted to one place where they could build a temple for daily worship. Rabaris, also a semi-nomadic tribe and who are cattle herders of the region also revere Pabuji and consider it as the "myth of their origin".
In villages of Rajasthan, Pabuji was considered an ascetic and hence his blessings were sought for veterinary services provided by his disciples, the Bhopas. He is also invoked to cure children possessed of spirits by driving away the djinn; this is done by tying an amulet created during the early hours of the morning, towards the end of the narration of the Phad, by circling a holy thread seven times around the flame and then seven knots.
The epic story of Pabuji has been analysed by historians with respect to the other epic stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata and the conclusion drawn is that the Pabuji tradition is "one multilayered and collective narrative construction of different Rajasthani performers, transmitted in oral and written forms."
The Phad
The Phad canvas is usually of sheet cloth, on which are painted (or sewn) miniature scenes depicting the life of Pabuji and his adventures.
The Phad or Par represents, in its painting, the court of Pabuji (as a historical true Rajput chief who sacrifices his life for protection of others), his palace and his divine character as an incarnation of Laksmana, brother of the Rama of the Ramayana Hindu epic story, the forts in which he lived as well as the sanctum of his goddess Deval. The backdrop of such narrations is invariably in the desert villages of Rajasthan. The images in the painting are arranged logically, also showing revengeful exploits of his nephew on his enemy, Jindrav Khici. However, iconographically it is considered as "extremely complex and intricate."
The depictions (as shown in the image in the infobox) shows according to historian William Dalrymple a "panorama of medieval Rajasthan: women, horses, peacocks, carts, archers, battles, washer-men and fishermen, kings and queens, huge grey elephants and herds of white cows and buff camels, many-armed demons, fish-tailed wonder-creatures and blue-skinned gods, all arranged around the central outsized figure of Pabuji, his magnificent black mare, Kesar Kalami, and his four great companions and brothers-in-arms."
The sequence of images (see infobox) painted on the Pabuji Ki Phad is: the main deity - Pabuji - is at the centre and to his right is his court with his four principal companions, on the left of the main deity, is the court of Buro, his brother. At the extreme left is Umarkot and at the left edge, Lanka. To the right of Pabuji's court is the court of the Lady Deval (goddess of Kolu). At the far right of the painting is Khici's court. The blank spaces in between are depicted with scenes of Pabuji's journey from Rajasthan to Umarkot, and also images of Ganesh, Sarasvati and Vishnu in different incarnations that are painted at the top of the Phad or Par.
The Phad, from the time it is painted by the renowned painters of this art form, is treated with utmost reverence by the Bophas. They make daily offerings to the Phad. It is considered a hereditary possession and is passed on to one of their kin to continue the tradition. As the Phad gets worn or torn or becomes threadbare, a formal religious procedure is followed to decommission it. This procedure is called tandakarna in Hindi, which means to cool or remove its divine power. This is done by confining to the holy waters of the Ganges or Pushkar Lake.
Bhopas
Bhopa community in Rajasthan is considered to be of priest singers of Pabuji. They hail from the village of Pabusar(named after the hero of the epic) and are traced to the 16th century, though 14th century is also mentioned. It is also said that sweet water well was located in the village by Pabuji. They belong to the Nayak community, a Scheduled Caste community of Rajasthan. Phads are integral to the Bhopas' vocation and are considered the “epic qua religious service.” They perform this art form through a combination of folk singing and dancing interspersed with interludes to interact with the audience in front of a scroll or canvas, known as Phad or Par in Rajasthani that depicts the episodes of the narrative of the folk deity. The Phad functions as a 'portable temple.' The Bhopas carry the Phad traditionally and are invited by villagers to perform in their localities during times of sickness and misfortune. The Phads are kept rolled during transit. After reaching a village or town, the Bhopas erect the Phad between two poles under a shamiana (an open tent)in a suitable public place shortly after nightfall. The performance goes on throughout the night and terminates only towards dawn.
Narration
The narrative usually held by the Bhopas in the backdrop of Rajasthani deserts, is narrated by the poet-singers as a structured rendition of the epic story, called the Pabuprakasa, glorifying Pabuji as a divine being. The rendering is highly "stylized and formulistic in its narration". The text, which has a number of episodes, belongs to two different types namely, the parvaros and the sayls. The narrative of Pabuji, in particular, is recorded in the Khyata of Muhato Nainasi, a text with the title Vata Pabujiri. The entire narration relates to Pabuji and his heroic deeds. This epic, a courtly religious poem invoking Pabuji has 4,000 lines. Its recitation, from start to the end, takes full five nights of 8 hours duration from dusk to dawn; it is rarely fully recited now. The present trend of narration has many intermissions for taking tea, singing devotional songs (bhajans), popular film music, thus making it partly an entertainment coupled with the "religious ritual of invoking Pabuji as a living deity".
The musical and sometimes chanted narration is in colloquial Rajasthani dialect. Bhopa is the main singer (narrator) who does it with an accompaniment of a musical instrument, called the ravanhattho (a desert zither or a spike fiddle with eighteen strings but without frets), which he crafts by himself. A dholak or drum is also part of the musical ensemble. During the entire narration, Bhopa’s wife called the Bhopi, is present with him and joins him in singing. She also carries a lantern to shed light on the Phad when Bhopa is indicating to some scenes on the Phad linked to his narration. The singer has a stick with which he points out each scene and narrates the story. He also sometimes dances to his songs and interjects his performance with jokes and banter with the audience. There are several such itinerant Bhopa groups performing in various parts of Rajasthan. One of the famous narrators of the epic named Mohan from Pabusar was an illiterate but he could recite the entire 4000 lines of the epic.
The narration of the epic is done in the jagarans (night-wakes) time to invoke the prakas, meaning the presence of the folk deities, in the Rajasthani dialect. The set sequence for the narration, which in local language, called the phad vacno or performance is in the following order.
Purification rites involving erecting of the Phad is preceded by sanctifying the site by cleaning the land below the Phad and lighting incense sticks. A small jyot (lamp) made of cowdung is lit in front of the Phad and then circled around the Phad of Phabuji.
The procedure for stretching the Phad involves running a string through the red band stitched at the top and then tie the rope to wooden or bamboo posts at both ends.
The bard narrating the epic, the Bhopa, is dressed in a costume called the baga. The Bhopa announces the start of the narration by blowing the Conch shell
Devotees offer grains and money for consecrating the Phad
The deities depicted on the Phad are then invoked.
The narration of the epic story by the Bhopas is "prosimetric." The narration of verse sections is called gavs, which has a number of couplets known as karis. This is followed by the narration of the prose sections called arthavs (explanations). Each scene on the Phad is specifically shown with a wand by the Bhopas and then narrated
Collection of monetary contributions is part of the frequent intermissions for food, tea, tobacco or rest. Every time a donation is received, the Bhopa makes the announcement by blowing a conch-shell and mentioning the name of the donor.
At the conclusion of the performance, the Bhopas do an arati (offering of a lighted lamp for the deities) to the characters on the Phad, which is followed by another round of donations before the Phad is rolled up before dawn
The Phad's epic narrations are attended primarily by the traditionally nomadic and camel-herding Rabari caste (for Pabuji is their principal deity). The Rajputs of Pabuji’s own warrior caste also attend. It represents navrasas or nine forms of Indian classical aesthetics such as love, war, devotion and so forth in it. Its particular theme is enthralling and is more on bravery so much so that it is said that due to "a narration of the tale, the gross gets burned around it". Though they cater to the village Rajputs, narration is also attended by the Rajputs of the royal class. Present day narratives have drawn parallels with the Ramayana episodes to create divine attributes of the deities to Pabuji and the other characters. One writer attributes this development as "regarding Pabuji and other characters as avatars of Sanskritic deities and personages, though Brahmin influence is still minimal. Pabuji seems to be worshipped for very worldly ends, namely sound health, or its recovery, prosperity, a good marriage, a successful childbirth, and so on. Traditional Brahminic spirituality of moksha and mention of the Vedas is still virtually absent."
An annual festival of Pabuji Ki Phad epic narration is held at Pabusar when 10,000 to 15,000 people are said to attend. This annual event is arranged and popularised by the Jaipur Virasat Foundation.
Phad painters
The Phads or Pars are painted by professional painters called citero. Well known professional painters are known by the clan name 'Josi' of the Chipa caste. Their expertise is in textile-printing and they operate from their traditional towns of Shahpura and Bhilwara in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan. There are at least seventeen or eighteen painters involved in painting this art form. However, Shree Lal Joshi and Shanti Lal Joshi are the most noted artists of the phad painting, who are known for their innovations and creativity. Bhopas also say that the painting made by Shree Lal Joshi have "the powers to exorcise any spirit...once the Phad was complete and the eyes of the hero were painted in, neither the artist nor the Bhopa regarded it as a piece of art. Instead it instantly became a mobile temple: as Pabuji's devotees were semi-nomadic herders, his temple -the Phad visited the worshippers rather than the other way round."
Painting method
It is a hereditary art form, which is passed on from father to son. A Bhopa commission's this painting for religious purpose. The painting is drawn on a cotton cloth. The cloth is first prepared by applying a paste of flour and gum. It is then polished with a stone. An auspicious date is chosen for starting the painting since it is used for religious purpose by the Bhopa. A virgin girl only has the privilege of giving the first stroke of the brush on the Phad painting; normally the girl belongs to the painter's family or to a high-caste. An outline of the painting is drawn by the artist with light yellow colour paint; only earth colours or vegetable colours or indigo are used. The colours are then mixed with gum and water, and painted one colour after the other, in the order of orange, yellow, and so forth. Black is the last colour paint used for the border. Again, on an auspicious day, the painting is signed by the artist at the centre of the painting, close to the image of the main deity. Signature of the Bhopa who commissions the painting is also included, but it is optional. As a last act, the artist is said to give 'life' or "awaken the deity" of the painting by opening the pupil in the eyes of the main deity at the centre of the painting. It then becomes the Pabuji Ki Phad of the Bhopa who has commissioned it.
The earliest painting of a Phad or Par, as mentioned by John Smith, a scholar of the "Epic of Pabuji", is dated to 1867. Colonel James Tod, the British Lieutenant reported of a ceremony that included a Par painting in 1819. With the emphasis on bardic narration of Pabuji Ki Phad said to be on the decline in recent times, painters of Pars or Phads are also making Phads as collector's items in smaller sizes, and with different religious and other themes.
See also
Bhopa
Devnarayan
References
Bibliography
External links
Bhopas Live Performance: The Folkloric Picture Story_Tellers from Rajasthan
A website on phad painting and phad artist prakash joshi
A website on phad painting
Folk deities of Rajasthan
Hindu deities in art
Indian painting
Rajasthani arts |
4248823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno%20Senna | Bruno Senna | Bruno Senna Lalli (, born 15 October 1983) is a Brazilian professional racing driver. He is the nephew of the late Ayrton Senna, three-time Formula One world champion. He is also the first driver to win a race in every class in the FIA World Endurance Championship, and was the 2017 WEC world champion in the LMP2 class.
Bruno Senna raced in Formula One from 2010 to 2012. He made his debut driving for Hispania Racing in 2010, raced for Renault from August 2011 as a replacement for Nick Heidfeld, and drove for the Williams team in 2012. Between 2014 and 2016, he drove for Mahindra Racing in Formula E. His mother is Ayrton's older sister, Viviane. His father, Flávio Lalli, died in a motorcycle crash in 1996. The colour scheme of Bruno's helmet is a slightly modified version of that used by his uncle Ayrton.
Career
Early career
Born in São Paulo, he was first taught the skills of motor racing by his grandfather Milton da Silva at the age of five. Bruno raced go-karts against his uncle on the family farm, and Ayrton regarded his nephew's potential very highly. When leaving McLaren at the end of , Ayrton said: "If you think I'm fast, just wait until you see my nephew Bruno". Ayrton's death while driving a Williams at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, however, brought Bruno's own racing career to an abrupt halt. Despite these setbacks including the death of his father in a motorbike accident in 1996, Bruno's mother and his uncle Ayrton's sister Viviane had reluctantly backed her son's interest in motor racing.
At Imola in 2004, on the 10th anniversary of his uncle's death, Senna was given an example of his uncle's 1986 Lotus 98T as a gift from an Italian friend. Senna drove the car at the 2004 Brazilian Grand Prix meeting in São Paulo, at Interlagos, where Ayrton had won in 1991 and 1993. Ayrton's McLaren teammate from to , Gerhard Berger is a close friend of the Senna family and has advised Senna on his career. Senna's sister, Bianca, meanwhile, has managed his affairs and sponsorship acquisition.
In 2004, Bruno competed in six races of the Formula BMW UK series for Carlin Motorsport, scoring six points.
Formula Three (2005–2006)
In 2005, he moved on to the British Formula Three Championship, driving for the Räikkönen Robertson Racing team owned by then-McLaren Formula One driver Kimi Räikkönen and his business managers David and Steve Robertson. His results included three podium finishes in the last seven races of the season, as he finished tenth in the final standings. In 2006 he stayed with the team and finished third in the series standings behind champion and teammate Mike Conway and Oliver Jarvis, taking five victories. He won the opening two races of the series at Oulton Park in the wet. He again won the first race at Donington Park and then won the second race at Mugello in Italy, again in the wet.
Senna had a massive crash during the first race of round five of the series at Snetterton. On lap 2, he and Hitech Racing's Salvador Durán clashed wheels on the Revett Straight at nearly . Senna's car took off just before the bridge, and may have even clipped it, while cartwheeling through the air. His car landed violently and careered along and down the safety barrier for some distance, but Senna walked away. His car however was damaged beyond immediate repair and Senna missed out on the second race of the day. On the rear wing of the car he had advertised his uncle's foundation.
In 2006, Senna competed in the Formula Three support races at the 2006 Australian Grand Prix, winning three of the four races. Driving a Spiess Opel powered Dallara F304, Senna set the Formula Three lap record of 1:50.8640 in the first race of the meeting which as of 2016 remains the fastest ever non-F1 lap of the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit. Senna finished 3rd in the race, the only one of the 4 races he did not win over the weekend.
On 28 May Senna made his first appearance on Monaco circuit, as a guest in the Porsche Supercup event. Unfortunately, he was forced to retire at the first corner because of a clutch failure.
In October 2006 he appeared in an eight-part weekly series called Vroom Vroom on British TV station Sky One. Each week he would drive a different car being tested on the show, as quickly as possible, to the top of a multi-storey car park.
GP2 Series (2007–2008)
In October 2006 Senna was said to be targeting a seat on the Formula One grid by . He signed to drive for the Red Bull-sponsored Arden International team for the 2007 GP2 Series. He finished fourth on his debut at Bahrain and soon after scored his first win in the feature race in Spain. In the single race Monaco event, Senna struggled owing to poor tyres.
During the four-week break in the GP2 series between the Monaco and French races, Senna took part in the third round of the Ferrari Challenge Trofeo Pirelli European series at Silverstone on 9 and 10 June 2007. Driving an F430 on a weekend devoted to the 60th anniversary of Ferrari, Senna won both races, starting each from pole. The purpose of this involvement was to gain a better understanding of the circuit, which is on the GP2 calendar.
At Silverstone, a mistake during qualifying on the Friday meant Senna started 26th and last. After a great start Senna was able to finish 11th in the feature race. The sprint race was not any better in terms of points with a 10th-place finish. A poor qualifying session at the Nurburgring for the feature race meant Senna started 16th but was up to ninth after a cleverly timed first pit stop. However he was given a drive-through penalty after being involved in a collision with Adam Carroll and ended up finishing a poor 15th. The Sprint race ended on the first lap after a collision. At Hungary for both races, Senna finished out of the top ten after struggling with the set-up of the car. The feature race in Turkey brought another poor result, however Senna finished sixth in the sprint race and with it came his first points since France. At Monza Senna finished fourth after starting fourteenth. Starting fifth for the sprint race Senna had an excellent start by moving up to second, however after contact with Luca Filippi resulted in bent steering, Senna managed to finish third and on the podium for the first time since France in July. At Spa Senna showed raw pace through practice and set the third fastest time early on during Qualifying for the feature race. However a stall on the grid meant he started 22nd and while fighting to make up ground he got a bit of oversteer and then the camber changed, ending his day in the tyre barrier. Starting at the back of the grid for the sprint race, Senna finished eighth leaving Belgium pointless. At the season finale in Valencia Spain, Senna ended the feature race with a DNF and thus starting the sprint race from 19th could only manage to finish 14th. This was a positive season on the whole for Senna finishing in the top 10 in only his third full year of single seater racing, with one win and three podiums.
Senna switched teams for the 2008 season, moving to iSport International, where his teammate was Karun Chandhok. He also drove for the team in the 2008 GP2 Asia Series. In the second round of the season at Istanbul Senna collided with a stray dog during the sprint race. The suspension of Senna's car was damaged in the incident, causing him to retire. Senna himself escaped without injury, while the dog died in the incident. Senna won the GP2 Feature race at Monte Carlo, the first time in 15 years since the Senna name has shown at the top of the leaderboards at the principality. It also moved Senna to first position in the points table, although he was to eventually finish runner-up in the championship to Giorgio Pantano.
Le Mans Series (2009)
Senna had been holding out for a Formula One drive for , and after he realised this would not happen, he began looking at other opportunities to keep him "race fit" ahead of negotiations for a drive in Formula One. He tested with the Mercedes-AMG DTM team, but after holding talks with the outfit he decided he did not want to commit himself to the series.
After testing an Oreca LMP1 car, Senna joined the team to race the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Le Mans Series. His first race was the 2009 1000 km of Catalunya, teamed with Stéphane Ortelli, finishing 3rd.
Formula One
Bruno Senna sampled a contemporary Formula One car for the first time in November 2008 when he tested for Honda in Barcelona. Honda assessed the Brazilian during their first winter test at the Circuit de Catalunya on 17–19 November. His tasks included an initial familiarisation with Honda's RA108 car and its systems before progressing to a full programme during which the team intended to evaluate his performance, technical skill and ability to work within a large team organisation.
Despite Senna, over the course of the three-day test, coming to within 0.3 seconds of then Honda F1 racing driver Jenson Button, the later announcement that Honda would withdraw from Formula One with immediate effect amid the economic crisis appeared to have significantly lessened his opportunity of a 2009 race seat in Formula One, unless the squad were to find a buyer before the beginning of the season in March. Senna was expected to be the team's second driver were it to make the 2009 grid, until Rubens Barrichello was reported to have re-signed with the team. Senna decided not to sign with Mercedes for the 2009 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters season "to focus completely on his Formula One chances". Bruno Senna said to the BBC in an interview that he did not want to negotiate with Lotus because of sentimental reasons as his uncle Ayrton Senna took his first win with Team Lotus. He also told the BBC that "I felt important to enter F1 now otherwise I would never be in it". He also told the BBC he had been negotiating with Manor GP, Campos Meta and one existing outfit rumoured to be Brawn GP as he was close to securing a drive the previous season but Barrichello renewed his contract with Brawn.
Rubens Barrichello admitted he was lucky to be driving for Brawn. Barrichello said "I'm just lucky that at this time F1 has changed a little bit". He also wished Bruno the very best in the future, saying he only had a position as Ross Brawn chose the more experienced person because of lack of testing time. He also said he was sure due to Senna's potential that he would get a drive next season.
HRT (2010)
On 30 October 2009, Senna announced that he had signed a deal to race in Formula One in 2010; on 31 October 2009, Adrián Campos confirmed that Senna would be driving for Campos Meta. It was unclear whether Senna still had the drive after the takeover of Campos by José Ramón Carabante, with new team principal Colin Kolles saying the new-look team would need to find extra funding, review the existing operation, and announce the driver line up in due course, with no mention of Senna. On 2 March, Campos announced a name change to Hispania Racing. Two days later, Karun Chandhok was confirmed as Senna's teammate.
After nine races, Senna was replaced for the , with Sakon Yamamoto filling his seat. Senna returned to the driver's seat for the with Yamamoto replacing Chandhok in the team's other car.
On 7 January 2011, HRT announced that Senna would not drive for them during the 2011 season.
Renault (2011)
On 31 January 2011, Senna was announced as a test and reserve driver for the Renault team. On 9 February, the team confirmed that Senna would be sharing testing duties with Nick Heidfeld on the Saturday and Sunday of the four-day test at Jerez. This was to evaluate the drivers in preparation of replacing the injured Robert Kubica for the season. Heidfeld was given the race seat on 16 February 2011. On 24 July 2011, after the conclusion of the , it was confirmed that Senna would make his first appearance of the season, replacing Heidfeld in the first free-practice session at the .
On 22 August, Eddie Jordan reported that Senna would replace Nick Heidfeld for the remaining races of the 2011 season. On 24 August this was confirmed by Renault. He qualified seventh for his first race with the team, the , and finished 13th after colliding with Jaime Alguersuari at the first corner, for which Senna received a drive-through penalty. He finished ninth at the , scoring his first Formula One points. In Singapore, the Renault cars struggled with grip on the slow street circuit, with Senna qualifying and finishing 15th, ahead of teammate Petrov. Senna finished 16th in Japan, 13th in Korea, and 12th in the first , after being forced to change tyres late in the race. In Abu Dhabi, Senna again finished 16th after receiving a drive-through penalty for ignoring blue flags, and suffering a KERS failure. In the final race of the season, his home race in Brazil, Senna outqualified Petrov for the third time, by starting ninth on the grid. On lap 10 of the race, Senna was involved in a collision with Michael Schumacher, for which Senna received a drive-through penalty, and finished the race in 17th place.
On 9 December, it was announced that Romain Grosjean would partner Kimi Räikkönen at the team in , leaving Senna without a drive.
Williams (2012)
On 17 January 2012, Senna was confirmed as a Williams driver, where he was partnered by Venezuelan Pastor Maldonado. As his uncle had been racing for Williams at the time of his death, Senna first sought out his family's blessing before joining the team. Senna qualified 14th for the , and retired in the race's closing stages after contact with Felipe Massa; both drivers later agreed that it was a racing incident. He was classified 16th, having completed around 90% of the race distance. On 25 March, Senna scored his first points for Williams at the Malaysian Grand Prix, finishing in sixth place, for which he earned eight points after coming through the field in changeable conditions. Senna's result in Sepang gained more points for the team than Williams had earned throughout the whole of the 2011 season, Senna finished 7th in China and classified 22nd in Bahrain after retiring due to brake issues. Three races later, Maldonado won his first Grand Prix in Spain as Senna retired in a collision with Michael Schumacher. After the race, a fire broke out in the Williams garage. Senna's car was damaged and four crew members were treated for injuries.
Senna finished 10th in Monaco, 17th in Canada and in Europe Senna picked up a drive through penalty after a collision with Kamui Kobayashi, the damage from the collision and the penalty dropped Senna to 22nd and last, Senna finished the race in 11th which became 10th after teammate Maldonado was given a 20-second time penalty after a collision with Lewis Hamilton. In Britain, Senna qualified 15th after he had to slow in his last lap as Romain Grosjean spun in the last corner, he started 13th after grid penalties and after a strong start finished the race in 9th. At the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix Senna scored the first fastest lap of his career after a late puncture dropped him from 8th place to 12th place. Senna finished the season 16th in the Championship on 31 points and was dropped by Williams for in favour of Finnish rookie Valtteri Bottas on 28 November 2012.
FIA World Endurance Championship and Le Mans return
Aston Martin (2013–2014)
On 5 February 2013, it was confirmed that Senna would be racing for Aston Martin Racing in the FIA World Endurance Championship and the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2013.
Senna and his co-drivers had a successful start to the championship, winning at Silverstone and then collecting another podium at Spa. At Le Mans, the Aston Martin Vantage GT2 #99 driven by Senna, Rob Bell and Frédéric Makowiecki started from pole position in the GTE class but did not finish the race after serious crash with 5 hours to the end, when running 3rd. Makowiecki had no major injures from the accident. In Brazil at São Paulo there was contact with other cars just in front of Senna resulting in Senna making contact with one of the cars causing suspension damage that forced him to retire from the race.
McLaren (2015–)
On 9 February 2015 it was confirmed that Senna would be a factory driver for the McLaren GT3 project.
Rebellion Racing (2017–2020)
For 2017, Senna joined the Swiss flagged Vaillante Rebellion Racing. Driving the number 13 car in the LMP2 class, Senna and his teammate Julien Canal won the world championship. The LMP2 championship came down to the last race of the season. That final, the six hours of Bahrain, saw Rebellion's #13 (driven by Julien Canal, Bruno Senna, and Nico Prost) and rivals Jackie Chan DC Racing both within one race of clenching the season title. After trailing to their rivals for much of the race, the Rebellion #13 car took the lead. However, with Senna at the wheel, the car suffered a loss of power steering during the final stint. Despite the power steering failure, Senna muscled through for the final 50 minutes of the race to win the race and the championship.
Formula E (2014–2016)
On 26 May 2014, Mahindra Racing confirmed Karun Chandhok and Senna as their Formula E drivers for the 2014–15 season. Senna remained with the team for the 2015–16 season. He did not re-sign ahead of the 2016–17 season and left the series.
Airspeeder (2022–)
On March 10 2022, electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) racing series Airspeeder confirmed Senna as a development pilot and global ambassador. Senna will play a major role in developing the sport as it moves towards the first crewed Airspeeder Grand Prix's in 2023 working with the company’s leading team of engineers on developing onboard safety technology.
Television punditry
On 7 March 2014, Senna was added to Sky Sports F1's line-up for seven races: Malaysia, China, Hungary, Singapore, Russia, USA and Brazil. Senna also commentated during practice sessions alongside David Croft as well as providing race analysis with the presentation day throughout the seven Grand Prix weekends.
Senna also made guest appearances on The F1 Show and operated the Skypad.
On 8 March 2016, Senna was announced as part of Channel 4's Formula One coverage, appearing in special features throughout the season.
Awards
On 15 July 2012, Senna collected the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy in Brisighella, Italy he was the 19th driver to collect the award.
Helmet design
Bruno Senna's helmet is a modified version of his uncle's helmet design: a yellow helmet with a green and blue S shaped stripe. The green stripe has a blue and white outline, while the blue stripe has a green and white outline. There is a green stripe under the chin area and a blue rounded rectangle in the top area.
Personal life
Senna dated Ramóna Kiss, a Hungarian TV presenter and actress, in 2011.
Racing record
Career summary
† As Senna was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score points.
Complete GP2 Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete GP2 Asia Series results
(key) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
Complete European Le Mans Series results
Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results
Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
Complete WeatherTech SportsCar Championship results
Complete Stock Car Brasil results
† Ineligible for championship points.
Complete Formula E results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 75% of the race distance.
Notes and references
External links
BBC Sport 'Meet the New Senna' 16 July 2008
1983 births
Living people
Brazilian expatriate sportspeople in the United Kingdom
Brazilian Formula One drivers
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Asian Formula Renault Challenge drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
European Le Mans Series drivers
Formula BMW UK drivers
GP2 Series drivers
Brazilian GP2 Series drivers
GP2 Asia Series drivers
HRT Formula One drivers
Racing drivers from São Paulo
Porsche Supercup drivers
Renault Formula One drivers
Williams Formula One drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
American Le Mans Series drivers
FIA World Endurance Championship drivers
Blancpain Endurance Series drivers
Stock Car Brasil drivers
24 Hours of Spa drivers
Brazilian Formula E drivers
Brazilian WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
Carlin racing drivers
Double R Racing drivers
Arden International drivers
ISport International drivers
Oreca drivers
Aston Martin Racing drivers
Mahindra Racing drivers
Morand Racing drivers
Rebellion Racing drivers
Extreme Speed Motorsports drivers
United Autosports drivers
Campos Racing drivers
McLaren Racing drivers
Porsche Carrera Cup Germany drivers
Brazilian racing drivers
Ferrari Challenge drivers |
4248905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Wetherall | David Wetherall | David Wetherall (born 14 March 1971) is an English football coach and former professional footballer, who is an academy strategic advisor at Huddersfield Town.
As a player, he was a central defender, he played most of his career in the Premier League for Leeds United and Bradford City. He started his playing career with Sheffield Wednesday but having failed to make an appearance, he transferred to Leeds and made more than 200 appearances. After this he joined Bradford City for a then club-record fee of £1.4 million and played every minute of every match in his first season for the club and scored the decisive goal which kept the club in the premier league on the final day of the season. Wetherall became the team captain, later finishing his playing career at the end of the 2007–08 season.
He had two spells as caretaker manager of Bradford City, and was an integral part of club's coaching setup following his retirement as a player. He left Bradford in June 2011 after 12 years with the club to take up a position with the Football League. He was inducted into Show Racism The Red Card's hall of fame for his involvement in their anti-racism campaign.
Playing career
Early life and career
Wetherall was born in Sheffield, he supported Sheffield Wednesday as a child, He was capped by England at schoolboy level, and in 1989, when he left school, he signed for Wednesday under the management of Howard Wilkinson. Wetherall had attended Rotherham sixth form college where he achieved four A-levels at grade A, and chose to study for his BSc in chemistry at the University of Sheffield, so that he could live at home with his parents and combine his education with playing for Sheffield Wednesday's reserve team. He graduated with a first-class honours degree in 1992, becoming the first Premier League player to achieve such a qualification. In 1990, he was part of a British squad which travelled to Italy for the world student five-a-side football championship, and represented Great Britain as they won the association football bronze medal at the 1991 World Student Games hosted in Sheffield.
Leeds United
Wilkinson, by then Leeds United manager, returned to his former club in July 1991 to sign two young centre-backs, Jon Newsome first and Wetherall a few days later, for a combined fee of £275,000. The 20-year-old Wetherall's first season at Leeds was the final year of his degree course, so he played for the reserves while training part-time. He made a brief debut in the First Division, on 3 September 1991 at Elland Road as a late substitute against Arsenal; Leeds went on to win the 1991–92 league title. He remembers it as "With 20 minutes to go, we were 2–1 down and I was on the touchline ready to go on, then Lee Chapman scored and the gaffer (Howard Wilkinson) told me to sit down again. But he threw me on for the last two minutes. I always tell people that made the difference in winning the title!" As his teammates took the league trophy on a celebratory open top bus tour, Wetherall chose to revise for his examinations, a decision he came to regret, because "those experiences don't come around that often". Though the revision bore fruit: he graduated with first-class honours.
Wetherall made his first start for Leeds in the newly formed Premier League in September 1992 against Southampton, scored his first goal for the club the following March to secure a draw at home to Chelsea and finished the 1992–93 season with 13 league appearances. He "noticed a massive difference in [his] fitness coming in full-time after just having two blasts a week." In the 1993–94 season, he established himself as a regular first-team player. The following season, he scored in a 2–1 defeat of defending champions Manchester United, and continued his knack of scoring vital goals with a last-minute equaliser to avoid an embarrassing defeat by Walsall of Division Three in the 1995 FA Cup. In the replay, he scored for both Leeds and Walsall, the own goal taking the match into extra time. Leeds finished in fifth place in the league, and Wetherall was chosen manager Wilkinson's player of the season. Wilkinson also singled him out for praise for his performance in a 3–0 UEFA Cup first-round win against AS Monaco in Monaco in September 1995, though they were heavily defeated by PSV Eindhoven in the next round. Wetherall played in the League Cup Final in 1996, his first major final, but Leeds were outclassed, beaten 3–0 by Aston Villa.
In the 1996–97 season, Wetherall played less regularly as new manager George Graham experimented with defensive combinations, though by the following season he had re-established himself in the starting eleven, sometimes acting as captain, and signed a new five-year contract. On 27 September 1997, he scored in the 1–0 victory over arch-rivals Manchester United when Roy Keane's knee was badly injured in the act of fouling Alfie Haaland, who then accused Keane of feigning injury. Keane later took revenge on Haaland during a Manchester derby and said to Haaland as he lay on the ground: "And don't ever stand over me again sneering about fake injuries, and tell your pal Wetherall there's some for him as well." Later that season Wetherall was among the Leeds travelling party who escaped unhurt as their aircraft crash-landed after an engine caught fire on takeoff.
When David O'Leary replaced Graham as manager it became clear that his centre-back pairing of choice would be Lucas Radebe and the 18-year-old Jonathan Woodgate, so Wetherall decided to leave Leeds for a club where he could play regular first-team football. A transfer to nearby Huddersfield Town fell through after terms had been agreed, and the player's reluctance to move house while wife Caroline was heavily pregnant with their second son caused him to reject an offer from Southampton. After eight years with Leeds, having scored 18 goals from 250 games in all competitions, he accepted an offer from fellow West Yorkshire club Bradford City.
Bradford City
Bradford City signed Wetherall for a club record £1.4 million, to give experience to a side who had just been promoted to the Premier League. Wetherall was aged just 28, but manager Paul Jewell had made a number of signings aged over 30, prompting journalists to call his team "Dad's Army". Bradford won their first game 1–0 with a last-minute goal at Middlesbrough scored by Dean Saunders who started a celebration pouring scorn at the club's cynics. Wetherall's first goal for Bradford was in a League Cup game at Reading before he scored again in the following round as Bradford were knocked out by Barnsley. His first league goal came in a 2–0 win against Newcastle United on 18 December. Wetherall missed only two cup game for Bradford City during his first season, and was the only player in the Premier League to have played every minute of the league season. His partnership with the emerging Andy O'Brien in central defence was the front line in Bradford's survival attempt. Bradford went into the final game of the season facing possible relegation. After only 12 minutes of their final game with Liverpool, Wetherall headed home a Gunnar Halle free-kick. Bradford held on for a 1–0 win and with Wimbledon's defeat at Southampton, Bradford stayed up with a then-record low of 36 points. The goal directly resulted in Wetherall's former club Leeds United qualifying for the next season's Champions League.
The 2000–01 season started early for Bradford after chairman Geoffrey Richmond decided to enter the Intertoto Cup. Wetherall did not play in the team's first game away at FK Atlantas, and after playing in the second leg and the two third-round games, he missed the semi-final with Zenit St Petersburg because of an ankle injury. Bradford subsequently lost both legs. Wetherall started the league season but after playing all 52 league games since joining Bradford without leaving the field, Wetherall limped off before half-time during a 2–0 defeat to their nearest rivals Derby County in November 2000. Days after new manager Jim Jefferies took over, Wetherall was ruled out until the following February following a groin operation. His first game back was on 24 February 2001 as Bradford lost 2–1 to West Ham United. His return to league action lasted just four games when, after scoring in a 2–2 draw with Newcastle United, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with a recurrence of the groin injury. Bradford lost their Premier League status a month later after losing 2–1 at Everton.
Wetherall's start to the 2001–02 season was hampered by a groin injury and his first full game of the campaign came on 14 September 2001 when he scored in a 5–1 Division One victory over Gillingham, which put Bradford second in the table. A groin injury again kept Wetherall out of the side for nearly five months, during which time he was linked with moves back to the Premier League at either Southampton or Manchester City, but he opted to stay at Valley Parade. He returned from injury for a reserve game in March after four months out with just over two months of the season left. He returned to the side against Burnley in a game noted for Paul Gascoigne's debut for Burnley, and scored in his next game as Bradford eased any relegation worries by defeating Crewe Alexandra 2–0. He played in the club's final seven games and was named club captain for the following season after Stuart McCall left the club.
Wetherall was one of 19 senior first-team players to be laid off by chairman Richmond in May 2002, after the club were put into administration and the players unpaid since April. Those players went as far as taking strike action before a pre-season friendly at Hull City, even though Wetherall, as their Professional Footballers' Association representative, had initially denied they would do so, before the club was saved and players reinstated. Wetherall played in the club's opening game of the season as Bradford drew 0–0 with Wolverhampton Wanderers live on television, but was again ruled out through an injury, this time to his hip. A planned comeback was put off five weeks later, before he sought the advice of a specialist in Denmark. After sitting out another three months through injury, Wetherall made his return as a substitute against Gillingham in December 2002 but was again injured in a reserve team comeback three days later. He again returned in February 2003 against Coventry City and played 15 games during the final three months of the season.
Wetherall kept off his injury problems and played in the first 15 games of the 2003–04 season, but was ruled out for two months after suffering medial ligament damage, following a knee injury sustained during the club's 1–0 defeat to Watford. He returned on 28 December 2003 in a 1–0 victory which gave Bradford their first win in six games. His return to the defence added a second successive clean sheet. The revival in form was short-lived and despite Wetherall missing just one more game, when he sustained a calf injury, Bradford were threatened with another relegation. Wetherall scored a header against Reading in a 2–1 win and gave Bradford a "slim chance" of avoiding relegation, only for that to be confirmed two weeks later after a 3–2 defeat to Wimbledon.
Despite the club's relegation to League One and another spell in administration, Wetherall turned down a move away from Bradford City after snubbing Coventry City during the 2004 summer. In October 2004, Wetherall and fellow veteran player Dean Windass both signed year's extensions to their contracts, with Wetherall's keeping him at Bradford until the end of the 2007–08 season. He also put his injury problems to one side for the 2004–05 season and missed just one league game – a 1–1 draw with Walsall in February when he was ruled out because of suspension ending his run of 42 consecutive games. Bradford manager Colin Todd had identified Wetherall as a key player for the season, but despite scoring four goals and striker Windass' 27 goals earning him the league's top scorer's crown, Bradford could only finish 11th.
In October 2006, days after playing his 250th game for Bradford, he signed a new deal keeping him at the club until 2010 with a clause allowing him to move into a coaching role when his playing career ended or continue playing beyond 2010. He received the first red card of his career in a 2–2 draw with Cheltenham Town on 30 December for two bookable offences.
When he took over as Bradford caretaker manager, Wetherall stepped down as captain and instead handed the armband to centre-back partner Mark Bower. But when McCall was appointed the new manager in June 2007, Wetherall was reinstated as club captain for the 2007–08 season. On 20 February 2008, he announced the 2007–08 season would be his last as a player, although Bradford City would keep his registration, and instead he would join the club's coaching staff. Wetherall said: "I was becoming increasingly frustrated at not being able to do the things that I used to be able to do. Situations I would normally deal with comfortably were suddenly becoming a struggle." Bradford fans held a special day to celebrate Wetherall's career, when they took banners and wore fancy dress and laboratory coats during the club's 1–1 draw with Rotherham United on 22 March 2008. In his penultimate month as a footballer, Wetherall was also named the League Two fans' player of the month by the Professional Footballers' Association. He played his final game for Bradford against Wycombe Wanderers on 3 May 2008 in a 2–1 defeat.
Managerial career
Wetherall was one of four senior players to act as Bradford City manager for two weeks during November 2003, following the sacking of Nicky Law. He, as well as Peter Atherton, Wayne Jacobs and Dean Windass oversaw training but just one game when Bradford City lost 1–0 to Stoke City with Jacobs taking charge from the touchline. Wetherall took his first full steps into management on a caretaker basis when he was appointed player-manager at Bradford City following the sacking of Colin Todd on 12 February 2007. The side were on a poor run of form but Wetherall, whose role was extended in March, could not reverse the fortunes and the side were relegated to League Two. During Wetherall's short stint in charge the club won just two games and drew another four. During his spell in charge of Bradford, Wetherall appointed his former Leeds teammate Nigel Martyn as goalkeeping coach, a position he kept under McCall. Wetherall returned to concentrate on his playing career after Stuart McCall was named full-time manager during the summer of 2007.
Wetherall holds the UEFA B coaching licence and returned to the Bradford City coaching set up during the summer of 2008. He managed the club's reserves upon his return, and in the summer of 2009, he combined it with the role of youth side management, after Chris Casper left the club. He added he had been put off by senior management because of the day-to-day pressure of the job: "Football is a results-based business first and foremost and that's totally and utterly the case at first-team level." When McCall was sacked as manager, new manager Peter Taylor brought Junior Lewis into the coaching set-up at Bradford, leaving Wetherall to concentrate on his role as youth team manager. After Taylor left the club in February 2011 and Lewis and assistant manager Jacobs were placed on gardening leave, Wetherall acted as assistant to interim manager Peter Jackson. He stayed with Bradford until the end of the season but then left the club to take up a position as head of youth development with the Football League.
In September 2023, he became an academy strategic advisor at Huddersfield Town.
Managerial statistics
As of 5 February 2008.
Personal life
Wetherall was inducted into Show Racism The Red Card's hall of fame in December 2007 for his work with their anti-racism campaign. He had become involved with the campaign with former colleague Gunnar Halle while they played at Leeds United. On 30 August 2009 he took part in a charity football match, that included many former Bradford City and Leeds United players, to raise money for Martin House Children's Hospice.
References
External links
David Wetherall at Bantams Past: The Bradford City Football Club Museum (via archive.org)
1971 births
Footballers from Sheffield
Living people
English men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players
Leeds United F.C. players
Bradford City A.F.C. players
English Football League players
Premier League players
English football managers
Bradford City A.F.C. managers
Alumni of the University of Sheffield
Huddersfield Town A.F.C. non-playing staff |
4249104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jieh | Jieh | Jieh (or Jiyé, Jiyeh, الجية) is a seaside town in Lebanon with an estimated population of 5000, 23 km south of Beirut, in the Chouf district via a 20-minute drive along the Beirut to Sidon highway south of the capital. In Phoenician times it was known as Porphyreon and was a thriving natural seaport, which still functions today. The town is also known for its seven kilometre sandy beach, a rarity along Lebanon's mainly rocky coastline.
The Hebrew prophet Jonah was said to have landed on its shores when he was spat out of the giant fish described in the Old Testament, and a temple was built which stands until today. Many invaders passed through Porphyreon such as Tohomtmos the Egyptian who landed his soldiers on its natural seaport in order to fight the North. Alexander the Great relaxed on its shore preparing for the attack on Tyre. St Peter and St Paul also walked through Jieh several times.
In modern times Jieh took some of the harshest blows of the Lebanese Civil War that raged from 1975–1990. Being a coastal town made it vulnerable to the countless numbers of Palestine Liberation Organization raids on the area, as well as Israeli army invasions during the 1980s, but the worst being on January 20, 1976.
During the war years the PSP controlled the seaport at Jieh. In March 1989 General Michel Aoun established a blockade of the port which resulted in artillery exchanges between his forces and a combination of PSP, Amal and the Syrian Army in Beirut and the Chouf. At least 90 people were killed and several hundred wounded. Jieh is being rebuilt, albeit at a slower pace than the nearby capital city of Beirut.
Archaeological site
The town houses some of Lebanon's finest archaeological ruins, some of them buried under modern buildings, others waiting to be dug up by excavators, and others having already been removed and placed in museums. Mosaics depicting the story of the Prophet Jonah and the giant fish in the Old Testament have been found in churches dug from underground over time. Examples of these are the grand floor mosaics from the Byzantine Empire period which were so big that trucks were needed to transport them to museums as was the case with the fine collection owned by Walid Jumblatt, a local politician, which are on display at his Beiteddine Palace Museum.
Jieh has recently been the scene of accidental excavations of a Byzantine era Christian church and surrounding tombs which had been buried underground for centuries. Nothing is being done to protect them at the moment due to political hearings on the matters of the people versus the government - sec. landlords rights to preserve historical artifacts found on said property with viable direct ancestry value and or documentation. The people versus the government - sec. landlords rights to preserve historical artifacts found on said property which directly pertain to all local populous religious beliefs, practices, and or scriptures or text. All which fall under the world preservation of historical and archaeological acts of 1971.
Archaeological research
In 1914, Georges Contenau located the basilica, the residential quarter, and the necropolis. The first excavations on the site were carried out in 1975 by Roger Saidah from the Lebanese Direction Générale des Antiquités (DGA). They uncovered most of the domestic architecture from the Byzantine period. The outbreak of civil war in Lebanon interrupted the work. The mosaics found during these excavations are currently on display in the museum in Beiteddine. Since 2004, research in Jiyeh has been conducted by the Polish-Lebanese archaeological expedition from the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw (PCMA UW), headed by Prof. Tomasz Waliszewski.
Polish-Lebanese archaeological expedition in Jiyeh (Porphyreon)
The Polish-Lebanese Archaeological Mission from the PCMA UW conducts its research in cooperation with the DGA and the Faculty of Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art of the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw. In 2004, salvage excavations were conducted due to the construction of a hotel in the area of the necropolis. The team documented graves from the Roman and Byzantine periods, as well as large numbers of Hellenistic and Roman pottery vessels, both imported and locally produced. In the following years, work focused on the basilica and the residential quarter. Test pits in the basilica confirmed its use in the 5th century, although it could have been built earlier, i.e., in the 4th century. About 100 rooms dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods were excavated in the residential quarter. Test pits dug in some of the houses revealed ancient layers, as well as earlier ones – from the Bronze and Iron Ages. Three main phases of the functioning of the domestic architecture were distinguished:
Iron Age II (8th–7th century BC)
Persian-Hellenistic-Roman period (5th century BC–2nd century AD)
Late Antique period (4th–5th century AD) The analysis of finds, mainly coins and ceramics, suggests that the settlement was abandoned in the 7th century.
A pottery production center and remains of a wine production installation were discovered to the north of the residential quarter. The economy of the settlement could have been based on trade in locally-produced goods, such as olive oil, wine, pottery vessels. Fishing was also practiced, as attested by the equipment discovered on the site: fishing hooks and net sinkers.
Religion
Jieh is home to many religious groups, mostly Maronite Christians and Shia Muslims with some Melkites, Druze and Sunni Muslims. The Shiite Muslims of this area mainly occupy the high rise section of Nabi Younes (Prophet Jonah) located in the central western and southern parts of the town on the coast. While the northern and central eastern area is occupied by the Christian and Sunni populous in the section of St. George's and Our Lady of the Star's Cathedrals. The rebuilding of Jieh's two churches took effect a few years after the civil war ended during the construction boom. On the left below is Our Lady of the Star, Maronite Catholic Church whose construction finished in 2017, as well as the new St Georges Church featured to the right.
Many Christian families who fled the town of Jieh have sent money back to rebuild Our Lady of the Star, which is now completed and regularly hosts weddings and other religious events. The rebuilding of St George's has also begun. While the original mosque of the town built directly over the tomb of the Nabi Younes to safe-guard the tomb, built around a century ago by the El Hajj family (one of the predominant Shia families in the village) still lies in ruins due to a dispute between Shia and Sunni factions on the placement and erection of the new facility. This has caused strife between all the religious denominations in the region. More now than ever since Hezbollah stepped into the middle of the dispute and erected a Shia mosque without finding a common ground between both Muslim parties and the consent on placement of the facility with the Christian denominations in the area to confirm that the voluminous call to prayers would not be a hindrance upon their religious practices.
Jieh also hosts many resorts that take advantage of the 7km of sandy beaches as well as the towns close proximity to Beirut that allows for many people staying in Beirut to easily visit for the day.
On the 28 October 2010, St George's Catholic Cemetery was the subject of an attack by graveyard vandals. An exhumed body in the lone casket of one of the tombs was removed, dragged out of its resting place and disfigured.
Tourism
Jieh's main tourist attraction is its 7 km sand strip hosting a set of clean sandy beaches. Close to Beirut and still clean to swim in, Jieh is a go-to destination for beach lovers who like the sand, the sun, and some waves away from the hustle and bustle of the city. The mainly privately owned beach resorts that occupy the beach front range in themes that cater for all classes of society, including women's only beaches.
Education
Jieh is a town that houses the popular St Charbel College. The convent of Saint Charbel and the attached High School are run by the Lebanese Maronite Order of Monks. It was the direct result of repeated demands by the local residents and two decades of planning and negotiations. Construction was completed in 1965.
The mission of this project was to provide education to students of different faiths from Jieh and neighboring villages in the Chouf district south of Beirut.
The convent and school were lightly damaged during the 1975 war and then evacuated in 1985 when the Christian population of the town was forced out. This time the structure sustained heavy damages and for the next six years became a living quarter for Palestinian refugees. Renovations started in 1991 after generous contributions from charitable organizations, local politicians and residents. As soon as the work was completed, 600 students enrolled of whom only 18 were Christians.
Today both the convent and the school are fully restored and became a center of culture and education for students from the southern suburbs of Beirut to Sidon.
Power
Jieh is home to Lebanon's largest and oldest thermal power plant. Located on the southern tip of Jieh's border with neighbouring town Wadi El Zeina, this power station houses 5 units; the first two Toshiba units having been installed in 1970, while the three remaining turbines from the Brown Boveri Company in Switzerland were put into service later on between 1980 and 1981. The Toshiba units produce 65MW while the Brown Boveri Company (BBC) units each produce 72MW of electricity, totalling 346MW for the Jieh plant when at full capacity. Although this is only the second highest total capacity after Zouk from Lebanon's 7 thermal power plants, it must be commended for being the first and only one from during the 1970s and mid 1980s until the first unit at Zouk was put into service in 1984.
The power station at Jieh was closed for a period after the Israeli invasion in 1982, and so technicians who came to repair the older Toshiba turbines were deterred away from the country due to kidnappings of foreigners and the raging of the civil war. Likewise, the three Brown Boveri turbines had managed to get some service from BBC's India technicians rather than from the Switzerland headquarters. This meant that only minor repairs could be done, and so the generators could not run at full capacity. In 1982, the Lebanese Pound fell by a factor of 600 and so Electricite du Liban, Lebanon's government owned power company, could not afford to buy spare parts from overseas for its power stations. Hundreds of communities and ghettos across the country also refused (and still refuse) to pay electricity bills that funded the maintenance. This, as well as significant electricity piracy, resulted in deteriorating conditions of the power plant at Jieh.
On 19 August 1997 the power station was hit by Israeli airstrikes. It was the culmination of a spike in violence which began the day before when two teenagers were killed by a roadside bomb near Jezzine. In response, 18 August, the South Lebanon Army had shelled Sidon, killing seven people. This led to Hizbullah firing a barrage of rockets into northern Israel and hence the airstrike.
On 23 July 1999 the Lebanese headquarters of the Cellis telephone company in Jeih was destroyed by an Israeli airstike. The strike was part of two extensive air raids on 24/25 July which left Beirut without electricity, five bridges on the Beirut to Sidon road destroyed, as well as a radio station in Baalbek demolished. Eight Lebanese were killed and an estimated $52 million damage caused. Two Israeli were killed by Hizbullah rockets in Kiryat Shimona.
Foreign investment, however, helped revive the plant numerous times until presently, although today the main problem is the lack of adequate fuel supply from the government that is needed to run the plant. Recent deals with the Arab states of the Persian Gulf have been sought to receive discounted fuel to ensure good supply to the power plants.
According to current news articles, Jieh's power plant is undergoing extensive maintenance due to neighbouring Syria's recent cut of power supply to parts of Lebanon, meaning that the Jieh plant is on its way to full service again.
The July 2006 war between the Hezbollah and the Israeli Defence Forces resulted in the fuel stores at the power plant being bombed, leading to a catastrophic environmental disaster with crude oil spilling into the sea. On Friday July 14 at around 3am, the Jieh power plant was struck by missiles from navy destroyers off the Lebanese coast aimed at one of its six fuel tanks. It was hit once more the next day when two bridges on the main highway in Jieh were also destroyed by missile attacks. Ongoing black smoke continued to rise from the plant for weeks after the attack as the nearby tankers exploded one after the other from the heat while the remaining tens of thousands of litres of oil spilled endlessly into the Mediterranean sea.
Environmental Problems
As a result of crude violations of the environment directly by the council of Barja up in the nearby mountains, the Jieh coastline has been subject to the continual release of unclean water through the Barja to Jieh sewerage canal. This canal routinely dumps Barja's human faeces and other liquid waste into Jieh's coastal waters and directly affects tourism and the environment in this town.
There have also recently been plans to build a landfill in Jiyyeh. This has met some hard opposition by some government ministers and angry locals who don't want their town being turned into a garbage dump, and so at the moment the solution to the problem is not quite clear.
Jiyeh Power Station Oil Spill
The power station oil spill from a July 14-15th 2006 Israeli airstrike released over 16,000 tonnes of crude oil into the Mediterranean sea and threatened marine life along the coast of Lebanon, mainly from Jieh stretching as far north as Syria and Turkey.
Oil pollution from ships
See Oil pollution from ships in Zouk Mikael.
Jieh Sub-districts
Jieh is divided locally into sub districts namely: , Beit Madi, Beit Chahine, Haret el Kaneese, Qassouba, Nabi Younes, El Sahl & Maqsabe.
Notes
Azzi, C., Technical Opinion On the proposed Landfill
Azzi, A., Jieh Through history Atallah Family Website
United Nations General Assembly Security Council, Letter dated 5 January 1988 from the Permanent Representative of Lebanon to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
Jieh Online, 30 Year Anniversary
The story of the Prophet Jonah and the giant fish
Pictures of Byzantine church excavations, Dec 2004
Bamboo Bay Jieh, 360° Panoramic View
$8 million new resort near Beirut - 5/20/2005
College St Charbel (French)
Electricite du Liban information about Lebanon's power plants
Lebanese ration power after Syria cuts off supplies
Daily Star Article: 'Lebanon will drown in solid waste'
Greenpeace "Right To Know" tour calls for a toxics use and release inventory on chemical-use by industries in Lebanon
Grave robbers raid cemetery in Jiyeh
Footnotes
References
Jieh Of ficial website - www.jieh.gov.lb
JiehOnline
jieh official Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/pages/Jieh/204587569609638?ref=hl
Pollution in Lebanon
USA Trade Online: Lebanon Country Analysis
Blank, S.J. (Ed), Mediterranean Security into the coming Millennium, 1999
St Charbel College Website (French)
Electricite du Liban website
North York Knights of Columbus Website for fundraising the rebuilding of churches where Jesus walked and preached
Bamboo Bay Jieh, 360° Panoramic View
Kazzi, Antoine Naji, 1988, Porphyreon: The path of history, Khalifh publishing, Beirut, Lebanon
Jiyeh, Localiban
Sources
Bibliography - archaeology
Mariusz Gwiazda, Economy of Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Settlement in Jiyeh (Porphyreon), Lebanon, dx.doi.org, 2 marca 2017
Urszula Wicenciak, Porphyreon. Hellenistic and Roman pottery production in the Sidon hinterland (=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean Monograph Series 7). Warszawa: PCMA 2016
Tomasz Waliszewski, Magdalena Antos, Piotr Jaworski, Piotr Makowski, Marcin Romaniuk, Rafał Solecki, Agnieszka Szymczak, Preliminary report on the 2012 and 2013 excavation seasons at Jiyeh (Porphyreon): work in sector D (residential Quarter), „Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean”, XXIV (1), 2015 DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.0087
Agnieszka Szulc-Kajak, Fishing gear from Jiyeh (Porphyreon)., „Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean”, 22, 2013.
Tomasz Waliszewski, Mariusz Gwiazda, Preliminary report on the 2010 excavation season at Jiyeh (Porphyreon), „Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean”, 22, 2013.
Tomasz Waliszewski, Jiyeh (Porphyreon): Explorations 2003-2004, „Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean”, 16, 2005.
Krzysztof Domżalski, Urszula Wicenciak, Mahmoud El-Tayeb, Tomasz Waliszewski, Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery Production Center at Jiyeh :Rescue Excavations, 2004, „Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean”, 16, 2005.
René Dussaud, Topographie historique de la Syrie antique et médiévale, Presses de l’Ifpo, 1927, , .
External links - archaeology
Jiyeh, localiban
Polish-Lebanese Archaeological Mission in Jiyeh (Porphyreon)
Populated places in Chouf District
Shia Muslim communities in Lebanon
Sunni Muslim communities in Lebanon
Maronite Christian communities in Lebanon
Melkite Christian communities in Lebanon
Tourist attractions in Lebanon
Tourism in Lebanon |
4249124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription%20in%20Turkey | Conscription in Turkey | In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from 21 to 41 years of age. It is 6 months for all males regardless of education degree. Different rules apply to Turks abroad. For Turks with multiple citizenship, the conscription lapses if they have already served in the army of another country.
Conscripts can be deployed in all parts of the Turkish armed forces, except in combat operations or active conflicts. For example, only professional soldiers are used in operations by Turkey against the PKK.
Women are not conscripted, but they are permitted to become officers.
History
The Conscription Law was introduced in 1919 and has stayed in force since then. However, the length of service has been successively reduced over time. Between 1919 and 1998, the average length of service was 18 months for non-educated males and 12 months for educated (university level). In 1998, these lengths were reduced to 12 months for non-educated conscripts and 6 months for educated ones. After 2001, the current length of service was introduced, with a bar on further reductions until 2024.
Legislation
The rules and procedures for conscription are set out in the Military Service Law in accordance with Article 72 of the Turkish Constitution. Ministerial circulars set out the rules and procedures for exemption from military service in exchange for a financial contribution or other form of compensation, and for discharge from military service in exchange for working in other government agencies.
Articles 2, 25 and 26 of Turkey's Military Service Law stipulate that every man in Turkey must be conscripted and registered from 1 January of the year in which he turns twenty. Military service does not apply to women. A conscripted man is conscripted until 1 January of the year in which he turns 41. In the case of mobilization, men can be called up for military service up to the age of sixty-five. Turkish men legally residing abroad are required to do military service from the year they turn 19 until the end of the year they turn 38. Men who voluntarily enlist in the armed forces can do so from the age of eighteen. Turkish women can voluntarily serve in the Turkish army as non-commissioned officers or officers and in that case they can be called up as reservists until their forty-first year of life. Until 2014, the normal conscription period was fifteen months. Thereafter, the maximum conscription period was reduced to twelve months. There are different variants in the conscription system as used until the amendment of the law of 26 June 2019. For persons with two years of vocational training or a low level of education, the maximum conscription period of twelve months applies. Two variants apply to conscripts with four years of secondary school and higher education: either twelve months as an officer (Third Lieutenant), or a reduced conscription of six months as a non-commissioned officer.
Registration and inspection
Each year, approximately 300,000 men over the age of twenty are called up for military service. According to 2018 data from the Turkish government, a total of 1.9 million young men have been deferred from military service because of their studies. Three million other men have asked for a postponement for other reasons. An exception was 2017, the year after the coup attempt, when the Turkish government did not call on new conscripts to register. No professional soldiers were hired in that year either.
Call system
The Ministry of National Defense broadcasts the call for conscription through Turkish state radio and television. Anyone enlisting for the first time that year is called up, along with those who received a temporary exemption or deferment the previous year. Conscripts do not receive a personal call for registration. Everyone who has completed his military service remains a reservist up to the upper limit described. People are expected to respond to the call by presenting themselves with the necessary documents at one of the military registration offices, or in case of residence abroad, at the Turkish consulate or embassy.
If a person has not responded to the general call to register and be examined for military service, the military authorities will send a notice to the address of the person concerned stating that the person concerned must still report to the military authorities in order to complete the relevant procedures. If the registration and examination of the person concerned has still not taken place by the time the other conscripts from the same year are due to take office, this constitutes an offence.
Examination
During the examination, an inventory is made of the conscript's state of health, level of education, profession and special skills such as knowledge of languages. The military registration office sends the conscript a written notification that information about attendance can be obtained from the office. Nowadays, conscripts can also look up this information digitally.
Documents
The legislation makes no mention of the specific time when certain turnout-related documents are provided to conscripts. The only reference is that a military ID (askerlik cüzdanı) will be reinforced during the conscription. It is known that after a person is approved for military service, he receives a written notification from the military registration office stating that he can collect the documents regarding his registration and attendance at that office. These documents also state to which unit one has been assigned and to which training center one must report for basic military training. The Military ID is the official ID for members of the Turkish Armed Forces. Members of the armed forces are required to carry their military ID at all times, even if they are wearing civilian clothes. Conscripts receive the military ID at the beginning of their military service.
The general information collection system is linked to the authorities that issue passports, but also to other authorities, for example the police. As a result, conscription evaders and deserters can be apprehended in various situations, such as at the border or at traffic controls. A 2010 constitutional amendment allowed conscripts to travel out legally. The purport is that the freedom of Turkish nationals to leave the country may only be restricted on the basis of a court decision following a criminal investigation or prosecution. If the Turkish nationality is lost, the citizenship is also lost and one cannot serve in the army.
Induction and placement
The Department of Defense's Directorate General of Drafting Services (ASAL) is responsible for conscript deployment planning. The information about the turnout such as location and date can be viewed by the conscript at the military district registration offices, and can now also be requested by the conscript via the online government website e-Devlet. Conscripts can only object to their placement on the grounds of health complaints.
Deployment of conscripts in armed conflicts
Turkish law does not discriminate between persons of different ethnicity or religion. This also applies to the rules regarding conscription and recruitment. The army stopped using conscripts in combat operations a few years ago. The military operations are only carried out by professional soldiers, both in southeastern Turkey and in Iraq and Syria. While this may have been the case in the 1990s and early 2000s, conscripts are no longer deployed in active conflict or military operations, including counter-terrorism operations.
Components of the Turkish military organization
The Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) consists of the army (Türk Kara Kuvvetleri), the navy (Türk Deniz Kuvvetleri; including the naval air force and infantry) and the air force (Türk Hava Kuvvetleri). Turkey has the largest army in NATO after the United States, with an estimated number of more than 615,000 on active duty or in reserve. Since the late 1990s, the proportion of professional soldiers and professionals within the armed forces has increased sharply to about fifty percent of the total number of active duty personnel. Conscripts are deployed in all parts of the TSK, including the Gendarmerie and Coast Guard, but not in elite units. Only professional soldiers are deployed in operations against armed groups such as the PKK.
According to statements by the Chief of Staff at the end of 2017, the army is the largest Turkish military unit with approximately 355,000 troops, including approximately 197,000 conscripts. The army consists of four armies (ordu), namely the First Army, stationed in Istanbul, the Second Army, stationed in the southeast with headquarters in Malatya, the Third Army, stationed in the northeast with headquarters in Erzincan and the Fourth Army (also known as the Aegean Army), stationed on the west coast with headquarters in Izmir. In addition to the Armed Forces that fall under the Ministry of Defence, there is the Gendarmerie. Conscripts can also be posted to the gendarmerie. The gendarmerie (Jandarma Genel Komutanlığı) falls under the Ministry of Defense as far as training and education are concerned.
Postponement, exemption and alternative service
Postponement
Deferral of military service can be obtained on the basis of law 1111, article 35:
On request due to indispensability if one works for the government, (defense) industry, or as a sports professional (article 35 e);
If one is still studying, in that case universities will apply for a standard deferral for their students (article 35 f);
When working abroad (Article 35 g);
In case of poor health (with doctor's statement)
One can also request a deferment of conscription because of being held in detention. As a rule, a postponement is requested for one year, which can be extended by one year upon presentation of the correct documents. The Turkish Military Service Law allows conscripted students to first complete their university education (until the year they turn 30) or postgraduate training and research (up to the year they turn 36). Depending on the situation, the person requesting a deferral must provide evidence to the military district registry office that reviews the deferral application. This includes, for example, medical reports, documents from the educational institution, or a document explaining the reasons for detention. These documents form the basis for approving or rejecting the postponement request
Turks abroad who cannot participate in military service for medical reasons must undergo a medical examination at a hospital recognized by the Turkish consulate or embassy. The medical evaluation report approved by a consulate or embassy is shared with the Ministry of Defense, which decides on individual cases. In case of objection to this decision, a subsequent medical examination can be carried out in a military hospital in the country concerned. Persons who have been granted a postponement of conscription will receive a written statement about this from the military registration office.
Exemption
The Military Service Act sets out that persons who are physically or mentally unfit for military service can be exempted from conscription. To obtain this exemption, one must submit a medical report. In the event of non-complete disapproval due to physical condition, the person will have to undergo renewed checks every two years during the period of service to ensure that they are still unfit to stand.
Conscript brothers of conscripts who died in combat automatically receive an exemption from military service. The same applies to brothers and sons of conscripts who die in a terrorist attack during their military service. Turkish citizens who obtained their citizenship through naturalization and who completed their military service in their country of origin can, on application, be exempted from Turkish military service. It is also possible to be exempted from military service by reporting that one is homosexual.
Buy-out
On 25 June 2019, the Turkish parliament approved the government's proposal to amend the law on military service. Conscription is reduced from twelve months to six months for soldiers and non-commissioned officers. Reserve officers remain on duty for twelve months. All Turkish conscripts residing in Turkey must follow a one-month basic military training. After that month, a conscript can be exempted from the remaining conscription by paying a certain amount. After six months of military service, a conscript may, if deemed suitable, continue for six months in paid military service. Soldiers who perform six months of paid military service in the southeast or east, such as in Gaziantep, Şırnak and Hakkâri, receive an additional amount per month. The amounts in may be adjusted semi-annually in connection with inflation. Conscripts residing abroad do not have to follow a month's military training after the buy-out of their conscription. However, prior to the surrender of military service, they must follow an online course from the Turkish Ministry of Defense.
Evasion
The Military Service Act distinguishes between three types of evasion of military service (asker kaçakçılıǧı):
Evasion of registration/examination (yoklama kaçakçılığı)
Evasion of enlistment (bakaya)
Desertion (firar)
Withdrawal from registration and attendance is considered a refusal to conscription and is punishable by law. In practice, the Turkish authorities often impose a lighter sentence than the harshest possible measure of imprisonment. The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection (EBCO) indicates that nowadays in Turkey conscientious objectors are not detained because of their refusal to perform military service. A fine is imposed instead. As long as conscientious refusal continues, those involved run the risk of being fined again and from a legal point of view there is still the possibility of being sentenced to a prison sentence. The Turkish Military Penal Code (Article 63) sets out the system of penalties for refusing military service. If a conscript still has not registered and/or has been examined before the attendance date of those who were called up in the same year, this constitutes an offence. The article distinguishes between people who report themselves and people who are arrested. People who turn themselves in within seven days face a maximum of one month in prison, while those apprehended within seven days face a maximum of three months in prison.
Articles 50 and 51 of the Turkish Military Penal Code indicate that the court may convert prison sentences of less than one year into a fine. In addition, prison sentences of less than two years may be conditionally suspended by a judge. In case of desertion, higher penalties apply to both conscripts and professional soldiers.
Conscientious objection
Similar to Israel and South Korea, Turkey does not recognize the right of conscientious objection (vicdani retçi). There is no possibility under Turkish law for exemption from military service for conscientious objections, including objections for religious reasons. Refusing to serve is illegal. Turkey has no alternative military service.
Attitude towards conscription, the army and conscripts (draftees)
Most companies require men to have completed their military service before their job candidacies can be accepted. Traditionally, families do not consent to their daughters marrying men who have not served their terms. The reason behind this requirement is an irregular loss of workforce; the companies are legally bound to discharge draft evaders or face legal consequences, however valuable an asset these people are. It is a common opinion that having completed military service carries a symbolic value to the majority of Turks. It is commonly regarded as a rite of passage to manhood, and most men grow up with the anticipation of serving out their time.
On the other hand, it is held to be one of the main reasons behind the brain drain prevalent among well-educated young professionals.
Turkish Economics Professor Cevdet Akçay has stated that conscription always results in a net loss of wealth for any country, and that politicians do not discuss the topic of conscription based on objective and logical arguments. Akçay states: "One side might say that, mandatory military service is a net loss for our economy and therefore I don't support it. Whereas the other side might support it despite its effect on the economy and explain their reasons, but such discussion does not happen in our country."
References
Military of Turkey
Turkey |
4249442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint%20logic%20programming | Constraint logic programming | Constraint logic programming is a form of constraint programming, in which logic programming is extended to include concepts from constraint satisfaction. A constraint logic program is a logic program that contains constraints in the body of clauses. An example of a clause including a constraint is . In this clause, is a constraint; A(X,Y), B(X), and C(Y) are literals as in regular logic programming. This clause states one condition under which the statement A(X,Y) holds: X+Y is greater than zero and both B(X) and C(Y) are true.
As in regular logic programming, programs are queried about the provability of a goal, which itself may contain constraints in addition to literals. A proof for a goal is composed of clauses whose bodies are satisfiable constraints and literals that can in turn be proved using other clauses. Execution is performed by an interpreter, which starts from the goal and recursively scans the clauses trying to prove the goal. Constraints encountered during this scan are placed in a set called the constraint store. If this set is found out to be unsatisfiable, the interpreter backtracks, trying to use other clauses for proving the goal. In practice, satisfiability of the constraint store may be checked using an incomplete algorithm, which does not always detect inconsistency.
Overview
Formally, constraint logic programs are like regular logic programs, but the body of clauses can contain constraints, in addition to the regular logic programming literals. As an example, X>0 is a constraint, and is included in the last clause of the following constraint logic program.
B(X,1):- X<0.
B(X,Y):- X=1, Y>0.
A(X,Y):- X>0, B(X,Y).
Like in regular logic programming, evaluating a goal such as A(X,1) requires evaluating the body of the last clause with Y=1. Like in regular logic programming, this in turn requires proving the goal B(X,1). Contrary to regular logic programming, this also requires a constraint to be satisfied: X>0, the constraint in the body of the last clause. (In regular logic programming, X>0 cannot be proved unless X is bound to a fully ground term and execution of the program will fail if that is not the case.)
Whether a constraint is satisfied cannot always be determined when the constraint is encountered. In this case, for example, the value of X is not determined when the last clause is evaluated. As a result, the constraint X>0 is neither satisfied nor violated at this point. Rather than proceeding in the evaluation of B(X,1) and then checking whether the resulting value of X is positive afterwards, the interpreter stores the constraint X>0 and then proceeds in the evaluation of B(X,1); this way, the interpreter can detect violation of the constraint X>0 during the evaluation of B(X,1), and backtrack immediately if this is the case, rather than waiting for the evaluation of B(X,1) to conclude.
In general, the evaluation of a constraint logic program proceeds as does a regular logic program. However, constraints encountered during evaluation are placed in a set called a constraint store. As an example, the evaluation of the goal A(X,1) proceeds by evaluating the body of the first clause with Y=1; this evaluation adds X>0 to the constraint store and requires the goal B(X,1) to be proven. While trying to prove this goal, the first clause is applied but its evaluation adds X<0 to the constraint store. This addition makes the constraint store unsatisfiable. The interpreter then backtracks, removing the last addition from the constraint store. The evaluation of the second clause adds X=1 and Y>0 to the constraint store. Since the constraint store is satisfiable and no other literal is left to prove, the interpreter stops with the solution X=1, Y=1.
Semantics
The semantics of constraint logic programs can be defined in terms of a virtual interpreter that maintains a pair during execution. The first element of this pair is called current goal; the second element is called constraint store. The current goal contains the literals the interpreter is trying to prove and may also contain some constraints it is trying to satisfy; the constraint store contains all constraints the interpreter has assumed satisfiable so far.
Initially, the current goal is the goal and the constraint store is empty. The interpreter proceeds by removing the first element from the current goal and analyzing it. The details of this analysis are explained below, but in the end this analysis may produce a successful termination or a failure. This analysis may involve recursive calls and addition of new literals to the current goal and new constraint to the constraint store. The interpreter backtracks if a failure is generated. A successful termination is generated when the current goal is empty and the constraint store is satisfiable.
The details of the analysis of a literal removed from the goal is as follows. After having removed this literal from the front of the goal, it is checked whether it is a constraint or a literal. If it is a constraint, it is added to the constraint store. If it is a literal, a clause whose head has the same predicate as the literal is chosen; the clause is rewritten by replacing its variables with new variables (variables not occurring in the goal): the result is called a fresh variant of the clause; the body of the fresh variant of the clause is then placed at the front of the goal; the equality of each argument of the literal with the corresponding one of the fresh variant head is placed at the front of the goal as well.
Some checks are done during these operations. In particular, the constraint store is checked for consistency every time a new constraint is added to it. In principle, whenever the constraint store is unsatisfiable the algorithm could backtrack. However, checking unsatisfiability at each step would be inefficient. For this reason, an incomplete satisfiability checker may be used instead. In practice, satisfiability is checked using methods that simplify the constraint store, that is, rewrite it into an equivalent but simpler-to-solve form. These methods can sometimes but not always prove unsatisfiability of an unsatisfiable constraint store.
The interpreter has proved the goal when the current goal is empty and the constraint store is not detected unsatisfiable. The result of execution is the current set of (simplified) constraints. This set may include constraints such as that force variables to a specific value, but may also include constraints like that only bound variables without giving them a specific value.
Formally, the semantics of constraint logic programming is defined in terms of derivations. A transition is a pair of pairs goal/store, noted . Such a pair states the possibility of going from state to state . Such a transition is possible in three possible cases:
an element of is a constraint , and we have and ; in other words, a constraint can be moved from the goal to the constraint store
an element of is a literal , there exists a clause that, rewritten using new variables, is , the set is with replaced by , and ; in other words, a literal can be replaced by the body of a fresh variant of a clause having the same predicate in the head, adding the body of the fresh variant and the above equalities of terms to the goal
and are equivalent according to the specific constraint semantics
A sequence of transitions is a derivation. A goal can be proved if there exists a derivation from to for some satisfiable constraint store . This semantics formalizes the possible evolutions of an interpreter that arbitrarily chooses the literal of the goal to process and the clause to replace literals. In other words, a goal is proved under this semantics if there exists a sequence of choices of literals and clauses, among the possibly many ones, that lead to an empty goal and satisfiable store.
Actual interpreters process the goal elements in a LIFO order: elements are added in the front and processed from the front. They also choose the clause of the second rule according to the order in which they are written, and rewrite the constraint store when it is modified.
The third possible kind of transition is a replacement of the constraint store with an equivalent one. This replacement is limited to those done by specific methods, such as constraint propagation. The semantics of constraint logic programming is parametric not only to the kind of constraints used but also to the method for rewriting the constraint store. The specific methods used in practice replace the constraint store with one that is simpler to solve. If the constraint store is unsatisfiable, this simplification may detect this unsatisfiability sometimes, but not always.
The result of evaluating a goal against a constraint logic program is defined if the goal is proved. In this case, there exists a derivation from the initial pair to a pair where the goal is empty. The constraint store of this second pair is considered the result of the evaluation. This is because the constraint store contains all constraints assumed satisfiable to prove the goal. In other words, the goal is proved for all variable evaluations that satisfy these constraints.
The pairwise equality of the arguments of two literals is often compactly denoted by : this is a shorthand for the constraints . A common variant of the semantics for constraint logic programming adds directly to the constraint store rather than to the goal.
Terms and conditions
Different definitions of terms are used, generating different kinds of constraint logic programming: over trees, reals, or finite domains. A kind of constraint that is always present is the equality of terms. Such constraints are necessary because the interpreter adds t1=t2 to the goal whenever a literal P(...t1...) is replaced with the body of a clause fresh variant whose head is P(...t2...).
Tree terms
Constraint logic programming with tree terms emulates regular logic programming by storing substitutions as constraints in the constraint store. Terms are variables, constants, and function symbols applied to other terms. The only constraints considered are equalities and disequalities between terms. Equality is particularly important, as constraints like t1=t2 are often generated by the interpreter. Equality constraints on terms can be simplified, that is solved, via unification:
A constraint t1=t2 can be simplified if both terms are function symbols applied to other terms. If the two function symbols are the same and the number of subterms is also the same, this constraint can be replaced with the pairwise equality of subterms. If the terms are composed of different function symbols or the same functor but on different number of terms, the constraint is unsatisfiable.
If one of the two terms is a variable, the only allowed value the variable can take is the other term. As a result, the other term can replace the variable in the current goal and constraint store, thus practically removing the variable from consideration. In the particular case of equality of a variable with itself, the constraint can be removed as always satisfied.
In this form of constraint satisfaction, variable values are terms.
Reals
Constraint logic programming with real numbers uses real expressions as terms. When no function symbols are used, terms are expressions over reals, possibly including variables. In this case, each variable can only take a real number as a value.
To be precise, terms are expressions over variables and real constants. Equality between terms is a kind of constraint that is always present, as the interpreter generates equality of terms during execution. As an example, if the first literal of the current goal is A(X+1) and the interpreter has chosen a clause that is A(Y-1):-Y=1 after rewriting is variables, the constraints added to the current goal are X+1=Y-1 and . The rules of simplification used for function symbols are obviously not used: X+1=Y-1 is not unsatisfiable just because the first expression is built using + and the second using -.
Reals and function symbols can be combined, leading to terms that are expressions over reals and function symbols applied to other terms. Formally, variables and real constants are expressions, as any arithmetic operator over other expressions. Variables, constants (zero-arity-function symbols), and expressions are terms, as any function symbol applied to terms. In other words, terms are built over expressions, while expressions are built over numbers and variables. In this case, variables ranges over real numbers and terms. In other words, a variable can take a real number as a value, while another takes a term.
Equality of two terms can be simplified using the rules for tree terms if none of the two terms is a real expression. For example, if the two terms have the same function symbol and number of subterms, their equality constraint can be replaced with the equality of subterms.
Finite domains
The third class of constraints used in constraint logic programming is that of finite domains. Values of variables are in this case taken from a finite domain, often that of integer numbers. For each variable, a different domain can be specified: X::[1..5] for example means that the value of X is between 1 and 5. The domain of a variable can also be given by enumerating all values a variable can take; therefore, the above domain declaration can be also written X::[1,2,3,4,5]. This second way of specifying a domain allows for domains that are not composed of integers, such as X::[george,mary,john]. If the domain of a variable is not specified, it is assumed to be the set of integers representable in the language. A group of variables can be given the same domain using a declaration like [X,Y,Z]::[1..5].
The domain of a variable may be reduced during execution. Indeed, as the interpreter adds constraints to the constraint store, it performs constraint propagation to enforce a form of local consistency, and these operations may reduce the domain of variables. If the domain of a variable becomes empty, the constraint store is inconsistent, and the algorithm backtracks. If the domain of a variable becomes a singleton, the variable can be assigned the unique value in its domain. The forms of consistency typically enforced are arc consistency, hyper-arc consistency, and bound consistency. The current domain of a variable can be inspected using specific literals; for example, dom(X,D) finds out the current domain D of a variable X.
As for domains of reals, functors can be used with domains of integers. In this case, a term can be an expression over integers, a constant, or the application of a functor over other terms. A variable can take an arbitrary term as a value, if its domain has not been specified to be a set of integers or constants.
The constraint store
The constraint store contains the constraints that are currently assumed satisfiable. It can be considered what the current substitution is for regular logic programming. When only tree terms are allowed, the constraint store contains constraints in the form t1=t2; these constraints are simplified by unification, resulting in constraints of the form variable=term; such constraints are equivalent to a substitution.
However, the constraint store may also contain constraints in the form t1!=t2, if the difference != between terms is allowed. When constraints over reals or finite domains are allowed, the constraint store may also contain domain-specific constraints like X+2=Y/2, etc.
The constraint store extends the concept of current substitution in two ways. First, it does not only contain the constraints derived from equating a literal with the head of a fresh variant of a clause, but also the constraints of the body of clauses. Second, it does not only contain constraints of the form variable=value but also constraints on the considered constraint language. While the result of a successful evaluation of a regular logic program is the final substitution, the result for a constraint logic program is the final constraint store, which may contain constraint of the form variable=value but in general may contain arbitrary constraints.
Domain-specific constraints may come to the constraint store both from the body of a clauses and from equating a literal with a clause head: for example, if the interpreter rewrites the literal A(X+2) with a clause whose fresh variant head is A(Y/2), the constraint X+2=Y/2 is added to the constraint store. If a variable appears in a real or finite domain expression, it can only take a value in the reals or the finite domain. Such a variable cannot take a term made of a functor applied to other terms as a value. The constraint store is unsatisfiable if a variable is bound to take both a value of the specific domain and a functor applied to terms.
After a constraint is added to the constraint store, some operations are performed on the constraint store. Which operations are performed depends on the considered domain and constraints. For example, unification is used for finite tree equalities, variable elimination for polynomial equations over reals, constraint propagation to enforce a form of local consistency for finite domains. These operations are aimed at making the constraint store simpler to be checked for satisfiability and solved.
As a result of these operations, the addition of new constraints may change the old ones. It is essential that the interpreter is able to undo these changes when it backtracks. The simplest case method is for the interpreter to save the complete state of the store every time it makes a choice (it chooses a clause to rewrite a goal). More efficient methods for allowing the constraint store to return to a previous state exist. In particular, one may just save the changes to the constraint store made between two points of choice, including the changes made to the old constraints. This can be done by simply saving the old value of the constraints that have been modified; this method is called trailing. A more advanced method is to save the changes that have been done on the modified constraints. For example, a linear constraint is changed by modifying its coefficient: saving the difference between the old and new coefficient allows reverting a change. This second method is called semantic backtracking,
because the semantics of the change is saved rather than the old version of the constraints only.
Labeling
The labeling literals are used on variables over finite domains to check satisfiability or partial satisfiability of the constraint store and to find a satisfying assignment. A labeling literal is of the form labeling([variables]), where the argument is a list of variables over finite domains. Whenever the interpreter evaluates such a literal, it performs a search over the domains of the variables of the list to find an assignment that satisfies all relevant constraints. Typically, this is done by a form of backtracking: variables are evaluated in order, trying all possible values for each of them, and backtracking when inconsistency is detected.
The first use of the labeling literal is to actual check satisfiability or partial satisfiability of the constraint store. When the interpreter adds a constraint to the constraint store, it only enforces a form of local consistency on it. This operation may not detect inconsistency even if the constraint store is unsatisfiable. A labeling literal over a set of variables enforces a satisfiability check of the constraints over these variables. As a result, using all variables mentioned in the constraint store results in checking satisfiability of the store.
The second use of the labeling literal is to actually determine an evaluation of the variables that satisfies the constraint store. Without the labeling literal, variables are assigned values only when the constraint store contains a constraint of the form X=value and when local consistency reduces the domain of a variable to a single value. A labeling literal over some variables forces these variables to be evaluated. In other words, after the labeling literal has been considered, all variables are assigned a value.
Typically, constraint logic programs are written in such a way labeling literals are evaluated only after as many constraints as possible have been accumulated in the constraint store. This is because labeling literals enforce search, and search is more efficient if there are more constraints to be satisfied. A constraint satisfaction problem is typical solved by a constraint logic program having the following structure:
When the interpreter evaluates the goal solve(args), it places the body of a fresh variant of the first clause in the current goal. Since the first goal is constraints(X'), the second clause is evaluated, and this operation moves all constraints in the current goal and eventually in the constraint store. The literal labeling(X') is then evaluated, forcing a search for a solution of the constraint store. Since the constraint store contains exactly the constraints of the original constraint satisfaction problem, this operation searches for a solution of the original problem.
Program reformulations
A given constraint logic program may be reformulated to improve its efficiency. A first rule is that labeling literals should be placed after as much constraints on the labeled literals are accumulated in the constraint store. While in theory is equivalent to , the search that is performed when the interpreter encounters the labeling literal is on a constraint store that does not contain the constraint X>0. As a result, it may generate solutions, such as X=-1, that are later found out not to satisfy this constraint. On the other hand, in the second formulation the search is performed only when the constraint is already in the constraint store. As a result, search only returns solutions that are consistent with it, taking advantage of the fact that additional constraints reduce the search space.
A second reformulation that can increase efficiency is to place constraints before literals in the body of clauses. Again, and are in principle equivalent. However, the first may require more computation. For example, if the constraint store contains the constraint X<-2, the interpreter recursively evaluates B(X) in the first case; if it succeeds, it then finds out that the constraint store is inconsistent when adding X>0. In the second case, when evaluating that clause, the interpreter first adds X>0 to the constraint store and then possibly evaluates B(X). Since the constraint store after the addition of X>0 turns out to be inconsistent, the recursive evaluation of B(X) is not performed at all.
A third reformulation that can increase efficiency is the addition of redundant constraints. If the programmer knows (by whatever means) that the solution of a problem satisfies a specific constraint, they can include that constraint to cause inconsistency of the constraint store as soon as possible. For example, if it is known beforehand that the evaluation of B(X) will result in a positive value for X, the programmer may add X>0 before any occurrence of B(X). As an example, A(X,Y):-B(X),C(X) will fail on the goal A(-2,Z), but this is only found out during the evaluation of the subgoal B(X). On the other hand, if the above clause is replaced by , the interpreter backtracks as soon as the constraint X>0 is added to the constraint store, which happens before the evaluation of B(X) even starts.
Constraint handling rules
Constraint handling rules were initially defined as a stand-alone formalism for specifying constraint solvers, and were later embedded in logic programming. There are two kinds of constraint handling rules. The rules of the first kind specify that, under a given condition, a set of constraints is equivalent to another one. The rules of the second kind specify that, under a given condition, a set of constraints implies another one. In a constraint logic programming language supporting constraint handling rules, a programmer can use these rules to specify possible rewritings of the constraint store and possible additions of constraints to it. The following are example rules:
A(X) <=> B(X) | C(X)
A(X) ==> B(X) | C(X)
The first rule tells that, if B(X) is entailed by the store, the constraint A(X) can be rewritten as C(X). As an example, N*X>0 can be rewritten as X>0 if the store implies that N>0. The symbol <=> resembles equivalence in logic, and tells that the first constraint is equivalent to the latter. In practice, this implies that the first constraint can be replaced with the latter.
The second rule instead specifies that the latter constraint is a consequence of the first, if the constraint in the middle is entailed by the constraint store. As a result, if A(X) is in the constraint store and B(X) is entailed by the constraint store, then C(X) can be added to the store. Differently from the case of equivalence, this is an addition and not a replacement: the new constraint is added but the old one remains.
Equivalence allows for simplifying the constraint store by replacing some constraints with simpler ones; in particular, if the third constraint in an equivalence rule is true, and the second constraint is entailed, the first constraint is removed from the constraint store. Inference allows for the addition of new constraints, which may lead to proving inconsistency of the constraint store, and may generally reduce the amount of search needed to establish its satisfiability.
Logic programming clauses in conjunction with constraint handling rules can be used to specify a method for establishing the satisfiability of the constraint store. Different clauses are used to implement the different choices of the method; the constraint handling rules are used for rewriting the constraint store during execution. As an example, one can implement backtracking with unit propagation this way. Let holds(L) represents a propositional clause, in which the literals in the list L are in the same order as they are evaluated. The algorithm can be implemented using clauses for the choice of assigning a literal to true or false, and constraint handling rules to specify propagation. These rules specify that holds([l|L]) can be removed if l=true follows from the store, and it can be rewritten as holds(L) if l=false follows from the store. Similarly, holds([l]) can be replaced by l=true. In this
example, the choice of value for a variable is implemented using clauses of logic programming; however, it can be encoded in constraint handling rules using an extension called disjunctive constraint handling rules or CHR∨.
Bottom-up evaluation
The standard strategy of evaluation of logic programs is top-down and depth-first: from the goal, a number of clauses are identified as being possibly able to prove the goal, and recursion over the literals of their bodies is performed. An alternative strategy is to start from the facts and use clauses to derive new facts; this strategy is called bottom-up. It is considered better than the top-down one when the aim is that of producing all consequences of a given program, rather than proving a single goal. In particular, finding all consequences of a program in the standard top-down and depth-first manner may not terminate while the bottom-up evaluation strategy terminates.
The bottom-up evaluation strategy maintains the set of facts proved so far during evaluation. This set is initially empty. With each step, new facts are derived by applying a program clause to the existing facts, and are added to the set. For example, the bottom up evaluation of the following program requires two steps:
A(q).
B(X):-A(X).
The set of consequences is initially empty. At the first step, A(q) is the only clause whose body can be proved (because it is empty), and A(q) is therefore added to the current set of consequences. At the second step, since A(q) is proved, the second clause can be used and B(q) is added to the consequences. Since no other consequence can be proved from {A(q),B(q)}, execution terminates.
The advantage of the bottom-up evaluation over the top-down one is that cycles of derivations do not produce an infinite loop. This is because adding a consequence to the current set of consequences that already contains it has no effect. As an example, adding a third clause to the above program generates a cycle of derivations in the top-down evaluation:
A(q).
B(X):-A(X).
A(X):-B(X).
For example, while evaluating all answers to the goal A(X), the top-down strategy would produce the following derivations:
A(q)
A(q):-B(q), B(q):-A(q), A(q)
A(q):-B(q), B(q):-A(q), A(q):-B(q), B(q):-A(q), A(q)
In other words, the only consequence A(q) is produced first, but then the algorithm cycles over derivations that do not produce any other answer. More generally, the top-down evaluation strategy may cycle over possible derivations, possibly when other ones exist.
The bottom-up strategy does not have the same drawback, as consequences that were already derived has no effect. On the above program, the bottom-up strategy starts adding A(q) to the set of consequences; in the second step, B(X):-A(X) is used to derive B(q); in the third step, the only facts that can be derived from the current consequences are A(q) and B(q), which are however already in the set of consequences. As a result, the algorithm stops.
In the above example, the only used facts were ground literals. In general, every clause that only contains constraints in the body is considered a fact. For example, a clause A(X):-X>0,X<10 is considered a fact as well. For this extended definition of facts, some facts may be equivalent while not syntactically equal. For example, A(q) is equivalent to A(X):-X=q and both are equivalent to A(X):-X=Y, Y=q. To solve this problem, facts are translated into a normal form in which the head contains a tuple of all-different variables; two facts are then equivalent if their bodies are equivalent on the variables of the head, that is, their sets of solutions are the same when restricted to these variables.
As described, the bottom-up approach has the advantage of not considering consequences that have already been derived. However, it still may derive consequences that are entailed by those already derived while not being equal to any of them. As an example, the bottom up evaluation of the following program is infinite:
A(0).
A(X):-X>0.
A(X):-X=Y+1, A(Y).
The bottom-up evaluation algorithm first derives that A(X) is true for X=0 and X>0. In the second step, the first fact with the third clause allows for the derivation of A(1). In the third step, A(2) is derived, etc. However, these facts are already entailed by the fact that A(X) is true for any nonnegative X. This drawback can be overcome by checking for entailment facts that are to be added to the current set of consequences. If the new consequence is already entailed by the set, it is not added to it. Since facts are stored as clauses, possibly with "local variables", entailment is restricted over the variables of their heads.
Concurrent constraint logic programming
The concurrent versions of constraint logic programming are aimed at programming concurrent processes rather than solving constraint satisfaction problems. Goals in constraint logic programming are evaluated concurrently; a concurrent process is therefore programmed as the evaluation of a goal by the interpreter.
Syntactically, concurrent constraints logic programs are similar to non-concurrent programs, the only exception being that clauses includes guards, which are constraints that may block the applicability of the clause under some conditions. Semantically, concurrent constraint logic programming differs from its non-concurrent versions because a goal evaluation is intended to realize a concurrent process rather than finding a solution to a problem. Most notably, this difference affects how the interpreter behaves when more than one clause is applicable: non-concurrent constraint logic programming recursively tries all clauses; concurrent constraint logic programming chooses only one. This is the most evident effect of an intended directionality of the interpreter, which never revises a choice it has previously taken. Other effects of this are the semantical possibility of having a goal that cannot be proved while the whole evaluation does not fail, and a particular way for equating a goal and a clause head.
Applications
Constraint logic programming has been applied to a number of fields, such as automated scheduling, type inference, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, digital circuit verification, air traffic control, finance, and others.
History
Constraint logic programming was introduced by Jaffar and Lassez in 1987. They generalized the observation that the term equations and disequations of Prolog II were a specific form of constraints, and generalized this idea to arbitrary constraint languages. The first implementations of this concept were Prolog III, CLP(R), and CHIP.
See also
B-Prolog
BNR Prolog (aka CLP(BNR))
Constraint Handling Rules
Ciao
CLP(R)
Distributed Oz Mozart
ECLiPSe
GNU Prolog
SWI-Prolog
References
References
Logic programming
Constraint programming |
4250002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart%20McCall | Stuart McCall | Andrew Stuart Murray McCall (born 10 June 1964) is a professional football coach and former player. He is assistant manager at Sheffield United.
McCall played in a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career.
McCall started his career with Bradford City, where he made his first-team debut in 1982. He played six seasons at Valley Parade, during which time he won the Division Three championship, a title which was overshadowed by the Bradford City stadium fire when 56 people died and in which his father Andy was injured. After missing out on promotion in 1987–88, McCall moved to Everton, for whom he scored twice but finished on the losing side in the 1989 FA Cup Final. In 1991, he moved to Rangers, with whom he spent seven seasons and won five league titles, three Scottish Cups and two Scottish League Cups. McCall returned to Bradford City as captain to take them into the top division of English football for the first time in 77 years. After four seasons he moved to Sheffield United, where he retired as a player in 2005.
Born and raised in England, McCall qualified to play for Scotland through his Scottish father. He won 40 international caps and scored one goal in the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. He also played in two European Championships but his international career ended after he was left out of the 1998 World Cup squad.
McCall was part of the coaching staff during his second playing spell at Bradford City, briefly serving as caretaker-player manager in 2000. He continued his coaching at Sheffield United and was assistant manager to Neil Warnock until May 2007, when he returned to Bradford City as their manager. He spent two-and-a-half seasons in charge of Bradford City, leaving in February 2010. Just before the end of 2010, he was appointed Motherwell manager. He stayed at Fir Park for four years, helping the club finish second in the league twice. After a poor start to the 2014–15 season, he resigned in November 2014. McCall was appointed manager of Rangers in March 2015, but left the club at the end of a short-term contract.
McCall returned to Bradford City for a second spell as manager in June 2016. The team reached the play-off final in his first season, but this was lost and he was sacked in February 2018. After a short spell with Scunthorpe United, McCall was appointed Bradford manager for a third time in February 2020.
Early and personal life
Stuart McCall was born in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, to Scottish parents Andy, a former professional footballer, and Jean McCall. He was the couple's third child after Leslie and Janette, who were 20 and 15 respectively when Stuart was born. The family home was just round the corner from Leeds United's Elland Road ground where McCall would spend many Saturday afternoons watching United, dreaming of following his father and playing for Leeds, even after the family moved to Wortley.
McCall played football for Upper Wortley Primary School and Thornhill Middle School, even scoring a winning goal for the latter in a cup final when he came on as a substitute with his arm in a sling. While McCall also played table tennis as a schoolboy, football was a focus, and he captained the Leeds under-11 boys team and played for other Leeds representative sides.
McCall's parents split and he made up for his size when he moved to one of Leeds' toughest estates and played for pub sides by the age of 14. He moved schools to Harrington High and also played for local young sides Pudsey Juniors, Holbeck and later Farsley Celtic. McCall thought he had missed his chance of playing professionally after a string of other players were signed by professional clubs, until Farsley played Bradford City's junior side in a friendly and he impressed coach Bryan Edwards enough to be asked for a trial.
Playing career
Club career
Bradford City
McCall was signed by George Mulhall in 1980 from Farsley Celtic on his 16th birthday, before becoming one of the club's two apprentices in June 1981. Mulhall's successor, Roy McFarland, gave McCall his first-team debut at Reading on 28 August 1982 – the opening day of the 1982–83 season – when he deputised for Ces Podd at right back. He had played just six league games by 29 January 1983 when he made the first of 134 consecutive league appearances, all in midfield under new manager Trevor Cherry. City finished 12th in Division Three that season. The following season City struggled to make up for the absence of Bobby Campbell, who had left to join Derby County, and won just one of their first fifteen games, until Cherry bought Campbell back from Derby, and City won a record ten consecutive games on their way to a seventh-place finish.
During the summer of 1984, Cherry made the two key signings of central defender Dave Evans and right winger John Hendrie to build on the previous season's high finish. McCall was an integral part of the team as City won the Division Three championship in 1984–85, during which he scored eight goals as one of two ever-present players. The title was assured in the penultimate game when McCall scored the second goal in a 2–0 victory over Bolton Wanderers. The league title was paraded before the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 at home to Lincoln City. However, the club's title was overshadowed when 56 people died in the Bradford City stadium fire when the Valley Parade ground's main stand caught fire after 40 minutes of play, during which McCall's father, who was with other family members, was badly injured. After the fire, McCall, still in his kit, spent several hours driving from the ground to his sister's house, then to Bradford Royal Infirmary and Pinderfields Hospital trying to find his father. His father had suffered severe burns and needed skin grafts on his hands and head and was in hospital for several weeks.
For the following 19 months, the club played games away from Valley Parade. Cherry and the players became a close-knit team, attending funerals of the victims and other engagements in the months that followed, and the club's 13th-place finish in Division Two in 1985–86 was hailed a major achievement. During Bradford's time away from Valley Parade, McCall also turned his back on Leeds United, the team he had supported as a child, after their fans set fire to a chip van at Odsal Stadium. McCall became club captain in November 1986, aged just 21, after Peter Jackson moved to Newcastle United. Under Cherry's replacement, Terry Dolan, the club held off any relegation threats to finish tenth in 1986–87. Like Jackson, McCall and Hendrie were both keen to move to a Division One club, but they agreed in 1987 to stay for one final season.
Dolan brought in Paul Tomlinson, Brian Mitchell and Lee Sinnott in a bid to help McCall and Hendrie realise their dreams with City. They mounted a promotion challenge in 1987–88 and were top for much of the season until they faltered in the New Year. When promotion was missed initially by one point on the last day of the season after a 3–2 defeat against Ipswich Town and then through play-off defeat to Middlesbrough, McCall left the club, signing for Everton for £850,000 in June 1988. He had played 238 league games for the club, scoring 37 goals, and in total played 285 games, scoring 46 goals. McCall was later outspoken in his autobiography, The Real McCall, about City's failure to strengthen the side to secure promotion.
His departure was soured when he was forced to go to the Football League with a Professional Footballers' Association representative to win £8,327.15 of an unpaid signing-on fee.
Everton
McCall joined Everton at a time when its former triumphant side of the mid-1980s had broken up, following the ban on English sides competing in Europe, which marked the start of a period of underachievement at Goodison Park. His Everton debut came in a 4–0 victory over Newcastle United on 27 August 1988 against his former teammate Hendrie, who was making his debut for Newcastle. McCall also returned to Valley Parade for a League Cup tie, but his Everton side were knocked out by Bradford 3–1 on 14 December 1988. He started 29 league games in 1988–89 as well as another four substitute appearances, but failed to score in the league. He was also a substitute in the 1989 FA Cup Final when he scored Everton's stoppage time equaliser in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool to take the game into extra-time. He scored another equaliser during extra-time, but Liverpool's own substitute Ian Rush also scored two to secure a 3–2 victory for Liverpool.
McCall made a second appearance in an Everton shirt at Valley Parade, when he was invited by former teammate Mark Ellis to bring a side for his testimonial. In three seasons at Everton, McCall played 103 league games as well as earned his first caps with Scotland but he failed to lift any trophies as the club finished eighth, sixth and ninth in the league. Apart from the FA Cup final defeat in 1989, the closest he came to winning a trophy at Everton was in the 1989–90 season, when Everton topped the league in late autumn and remained in contention for the title for the most the rest of the season until disappointing form in the run-in saw them finish sixth.
Rangers
In the summer of 1991, McCall signed for Scottish club Rangers for £1.2 million. Rangers had just won their third successive Scottish Premier Division title.
Under newly appointed manager Walter Smith, McCall ended up playing in the final six of the club's nine successive Scottish league titles, and with Rangers also winning a string of cup competitions during that time, McCall picked up a total of ten major trophies north of the border. In his first season at Ibrox, Rangers won the league and cup double, before they achieved greater success in 1992–93, winning both cups 2–1 against Aberdeen and coming nine points ahead of Aberdeen in the league. McCall also enjoyed European success that season when the Glasgow club narrowly missed out on an appearance in the UEFA Champions League 1992–93 final, coming second in the semi-final group stage to eventual winners Olympique de Marseille. Citing the reason for their success as the spirit which Smith instilled in the team, McCall later said: "It was an incredible season. We won the domestic Treble, we went 44 games unbeaten and we did not lose a single game in Europe. And, though we said we would do it again next year, we all knew it was unrepeatable."
In 1993–94, Rangers added another Scottish League Cup title along with the league championship, but lost 1–0 in the final of the Scottish Cup to Dundee United, surprisingly being denied a second successive treble. The following season saw Rangers win the league by their greatest margin as they finished 15 points ahead of Motherwell, but they failed to reach the final of either of the domestic cups. Although their winning margin was reduced to four points, from city rivals Celtic, in 1995–96, Rangers' points tally of 87 was a record-high total.
McCall played in his fourth Scottish Cup final as Rangers defeated Hearts 5–1. His Rangers side again pushed Celtic into second place in 1996–97 and defeated Hearts 4–3 in the Scottish League Cup (McCall had suffered an injury prior to that final which ruled him out until the end of the season, and he did not play in sufficient league games for a medal). But with the club chasing an unprecedented 10th straight title in 1997–98 they had to settle for the runners-up position, with Celtic winning the league by two points on the final day of the season. McCall was substituted in the Scottish Cup final defeat to Hearts as Rangers went the season without picking up a single title for the first season in McCall's time at the club.
In February 2008, McCall became the 71st inductee into the Rangers hall of fame. McCall's former teammate and Rangers assistant manager Ally McCoist presented him with the award.
Return to Bradford City
McCall still had one year left on his Rangers contract in 1998, but much of the team that Walter Smith had built had left and McCall was allowed to leave on a free transfer by new manager Dick Advocaat, as long as he joined an English club. Barnsley and Huddersfield Town were both interested in signing McCall, but he rejoined Bradford City as club captain. Rookie manager Paul Jewell put together a squad which emerged as surprise promotion contenders after two seasons spent battling relegation, adding other new signings, including central midfield partner Gareth Whalley and striker Lee Mills, who went on to be club's top goal-scorer. The season started off slowly with just one win from the first seven games, but by the latter half of the season, City were vying with Ipswich Town and Birmingham City for the second promotion spot behind runaway leaders Sunderland. Loan signing Lee Sharpe and Dean Windass were added to the ranks and City had the chance to seal promotion in their penultimate game against relegation-threatened Oxford United. The game finished as a 0–0 draw, with McCall heading over the goal in the final minutes, taking the promotion bid to the final game of the season. Days later he was named the club's player of the year. A 3–2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 9 May 1999 ensured promotion to the Premier League and denied Ipswich Town – the team that had thwarted McCall and Bradford 11 years before.
Bradford were expected to struggle in their first season in the top flight for 77 years. Jewell signed David Wetherall, Dean Saunders and Neil Redfearn, all experienced top flight performers, but City were in the bottom four teams for most of the season. It was Bradford's home form – they earned 26 of their 36 points at Valley Parade – that was key to City avoiding relegation, which was narrowly averted by two points after a shock 1–0 final day victory over Liverpool in 1999–2000, sending Wimbledon down instead. When Jewell left only days after the season ended, McCall was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings, and subsequently served as caretaker manager for two games when Hutchings was sacked after just 12 games of the 2000–01 league season. City were relegated with just 26 points. During a 6–1 defeat to West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United in the penultimate game, McCall and team-mate Andy Myers fought on the pitch.
McCall stayed on for one more season before he was released by manager Nicky Law in May 2002, shortly before the club went into administration for the first time after finishing 15th in Division One. His playing career at Bradford City had looked uncertain in December 2001 before Law arrived, when previous manager Jim Jefferies had left McCall out of the side in a 3–1 defeat at Manchester City following a training ground dispute. However, it was Jefferies who lost out in the dispute when he resigned his post a week later after summit talks with chairman Geoffrey Richmond. In April 2002, McCall's testimonial match against Rangers attracted a crowd of more than 21,000 to Valley Parade. McCall gave part of the proceeds from his testimonial to the Bradford burns research unit, which was set up following the 1985 fire. Two years after his benefit match, McCall played one more time in City colours in a Save Our City appeal match organised by Bradford's evening newspaper, the Telegraph & Argus, to raise funds for the club, who were now in administration for a second time.
Sheffield United
On 2 July 2002. McCall joined Sheffield United, where he played an integral part in their first-team side, despite being 38, and also coached the reserves to the league title. He played 71 league games over the next two seasons, and scored twice, including a winner against former side Bradford. He was in the side that reached the Division One play-off final in 2003 as well as the semi-finals of both cup competitions that year. However he and Dean Windass, who was also now at Sheffield United, were both left out of the play-off final, as United lost 3–0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers. McCall played just two League Cup games in the 2004–05 season, and retired just a few weeks before his 41st birthday. His career total of 763 league games placed him in 13th position on the all-time appearance list of British footballers.
International career
McCall was picked for England and Scotland under-21 sides on the same day in 1984, and chose to join the England under-21 squad for their game against Turkey. However he was only picked as a substitute and the referee blew the final whistle, with McCall waiting to come on. He later told Scottish newspaper Glasgow Herald, "I felt it was a mistake almost from the start. I was put on the bench and they tried to bring me on with a minute to go. But I took my time re-tying my boots and generally warming up and luckily didn't get on, otherwise that would have been that." Since he had not actually played for England, McCall was still eligible for Scotland. He eventually switched allegiances to the latter, for whom he qualified through his father. He made his Scotland debut at under-21 level in March 1988, ironically against England. McCall made one more appearance for Scotland under 21s, against France in 1990.
Later the same year, McCall was called up to the Scottish senior team. He won his first cap on 28 March 1990 in a 1–0 friendly victory over Argentina. He played in five friendlies in 1990 which earned him a call up to the Italia 90 World Cup squad. He played in all three of Scotland's World Cup games. They lost their first game 1–0 to Costa Rica, before McCall scored what would be his only international goal against Sweden in a 2–1 victory. However, Scotland failed to qualify for the knock-out stage when they were defeated 1–0 by Brazil.
McCall represented Scotland at the European Championships in 1992, when they again failed to go beyond the group stage after defeats to Netherlands and Germany, and in 1996 when they were edged out in the first round by Netherlands. Scotland failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1994. McCall played just two qualifying games for the 1998 World Cup and his last cap came in a friendly against Denmark on 25 March 1998, as he was overlooked for the final squad for the finals in France along with team-mate Ally McCoist. He was capped a total of 40 times for Scotland, scoring one goal. McCall's caps included 11 while at Everton and 29 during his career with Rangers.
Coaching and managerial career
Early coaching career
In July 2000, McCall accepted his first coaching role, when he was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings at Bradford City, after Hutchings was promoted from the role to replace Paul Jewell as City manager. Just four months later, Hutchings was sacked, and McCall was appointed as caretaker-player manager. His first game in the role was against his former team Everton, who were led by his former manager Walter Smith, but ended with a 1–0 defeat. He was in charge for one more game, which also ended in defeat, until Jim Jefferies was appointed the new manager. Jefferies brought with him his own assistant Billy Brown, and McCall was appointed first-team coach.
After leaving Bradford City, he joined Sheffield United, where he also took up a coaching role. When he retired in 2004, he remained at Sheffield United as assistant to Neil Warnock. Working alongside Warnock and learning the managerial ropes from him, he helped mastermind The Blades' promotion to the Premier League in 2006. United were relegated to the Championship on the final day of the 2006–07 season and Warnock resigned three days later. McCall had already decided that the 2006–07 season would be his last as assistant manager, and when he was overlooked as a successor to the United manager's position, in favour of Bryan Robson, he decided to leave after five years with the club.
Bradford City (first period as manager)
McCall admitted in his autobiography, The Real McCall, he wanted to manage Bradford.
He had been linked with the manager's position at Bradford City on numerous previous occasions, and after Colin Todd was sacked on 12 February 2007, City chairman Julian Rhodes made McCall his number one target to take over in the summer. Club captain David Wetherall temporarily took over and was later announced as caretaker manager for the rest of the 2006–07 season. On 22 May 2007, it was announced McCall would become manager of the club where he started his career, and on 1 June 2007 he assumed the position. In less than seven years since McCall's first two-game reign, serious financial problems had driven the club to the verge of closure, and although they survived the threat of oblivion, they were unable to avoid a terrible on-the-pitch decline, which continued after the financial nightmare had been relieved. On McCall's return to Valley Parade, the Bantams had just been relegated to League Two—meaning that they would be playing in the bottom division for the first time in 25 years. McCall set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season.
Bradford had just 13 players when McCall took over, and he made a number of summer signings including defender Darren Williams, midfielders Kyle Nix, Alex Rhodes and Scott Phelan, and strikers Barry Conlon, Guylain Ndumbu-Nsungu and Peter Thorne. McCall recorded his first win as a manager against Wrexham on 25 August 2007 after substitute Luke Medley scored a late winner, but despite his pre-season target his team spent much of the first half of the season in the bottom half of the table. After going unbeaten in January, the club were still 15th in League Two, and McCall told the Telegraph & Argus he did not regret his pre-season target but was carried away with the euphoria at the time. City's form continued to improve during the second half of the season, and McCall led his side to 10th place in League Two.
Despite City finishing outside the play-off places, they were again installed as favourites for promotion by bookmakers for the 2008–09 season. McCall released 13 players from his squad and replaced them with a number of signings with experience in a higher division, as well as Michael Boulding, who was one of League Two's top goalscorers during the 2007–08 campaign. McCall's side made a good start to the season, and after winning five of their opening six league games, went top of the league – the first time City had led the table in seven years.
As a result of maintaining a place in the promotion places during the first half of the season and his "stabling influence" on the club, chairmen Julian Rhodes and Mark Lawn offered McCall a new contract in January 2009. Later in the month, Lawn gave further backing to McCall, who was coming under pressure from the club's fans following a run of one win in nine games; during the run McCall was also charged by The Football Association for the first time of his managerial career after he had contested a refereeing decision during a game with Luton Town. McCall signed a new contract in February, which extended his deal by another two years and would have kept him at the club until 2011. He set himself the goal of earning two promotions to put City in the Championship. However, less than a month later, McCall offered to resign if they did not reach the play-offs after his side lost 4–1 to AFC Bournemouth – their fifth consecutive away defeat. "Nobody is hurting more than me but it's as simple as that, if we miss out I don't deserve to be here," he said. City eventually missed out on promotion, but McCall decided to stay on as manager and took a voluntary pay cut in the process because of the club's budget being reduced.
As a result of the cuts, McCall made a number of changes to his squad during the summer of 2009. His team started the 2009–10 season by going four games without scoring, until they recorded a 5–4 victory against Cheltenham Town. After the game, McCall said: "That was the youngest, and certainly cheapest, team Bradford have put out for a long time and I'm really proud of them." City continued by going ten games unbeaten and reached the area semi-finals of the Football League Trophy where they lost to Carlisle United, managed by McCall's friend Greg Abbott, but at the start of 2010 found themselves 16th in League Two and eight points off the play-offs after a run of five defeats in seven games. McCall laid down a challenge to his team to win three of their next four games, saying: "The bottom line is that the players and me personally will get judged on results. And the results aren't good enough." Despite the club's slide down the table, he denied he would resign, but it was reported that two late goals from summer signing Gareth Evans to give City a late 2–1 away at Torquay United saved McCall from being sacked. However, defeat to Bury in the club's following fixture was McCall's last game as manager, with McCall saying after the game: "It's time for somebody else to come in and take up the reins and hopefully do well." He won a little more than one-third of his 133 games in charge of City. McCall left by mutual consent.
Motherwell
After leaving Bradford, McCall spent some time out of the game before being recruited to work as a scout for Norwich City by Rangers former chief scout Ewan Chester. At the end of 2010, he was among a number of men interviewed for the managerial vacancy at Scottish Premier League club Motherwell to succeed Craig Brown, before being given the job on a two-and-a-half-year contract. His first game in charge was a 0–0 draw away to Hamilton Academical on New Year's Day 2011, with McCall stating: "It was a fair result. You take positives, a clean sheet, but we can be better and we will be better." He followed it up with a 4–0 victory in the Scottish Cup against Dundee before his maiden league victory – and the club's first since November – against Hibernian by the end of January.
McCall was partly selected as new manager because of his knowledge of the lower leagues of English football; he was active in the transfer market in his early days, bringing in Steve Jones – a player he had at Bradford – and Mike Grella from Leeds United, although the latter move was cancelled because of a FIFA ruling limiting the number of clubs a player can sign for in one season. Having operated without an assistant for his first few weeks in charge, McCall chose former Airdrie United manager Kenny Black as his number two. McCall led Motherwell to the semi-finals of both Scottish Cup competitions – they were defeated 2–1 by his former side Rangers in the League Cup but reached the final of the Scottish Cup by defeating St Johnstone 3–0.
At the start of the following season, Motherwell lost only one match in their first six making them joint leaders of the Scottish Premier League, which led to McCall being named the Clydesdale Bank Premier League manager of the month for July and August. Well continued their good form, with McCall winning the award again in October, alongside player of the month Keith Lasley, in a month when the side went unbeaten. Motherwell's final position in the Premier League was in 3rd, allowing them into the Champions League for the first time in the club's history.
At the start of the 2012–13 season, McCall was unable to make signings after losing ten players. In the summer transfer window, he made two signings Simon Ramsden and Fraser Kerr. McCall attempted to sign the returning James McFadden and Ryan Stevenson, but both were unsuccessful. McCall then managed the club's first Champions League match in the second round against Panathinaikos, but they proved to be too strong and Motherwell failed to win either leg losing 2–0 and 3–0 respectively, which McCall described as "cruel". After the match, Motherwell entered the Europa League play-offs to face Levante; McCall wanted to play with an "up-and-at-them approach" against the Spaniards. Once again, their opposition proved to be too strong and they lost each leg 2–0 and 1–0 respectively, ending the club's European competitions; the second game at the Estadi Ciutat de València had Motherwell playing with a youthful and inexperienced squad due to injuries.
On 24 January 2013, it was announced McCall would join the backroom staff of new Scotland national football team manager Gordon Strachan. During the 2012/13 season, the club managed to stay in the top-six. On 28 March 2013, McCall signed a new two-year contract with Motherwell. In April 2013, McCall was awarded March's SPL manager of month for helping the club win three and draw one of their games during the month. At the end of the season, Motherwell finished second for the first time, their highest league position since 1994–95 season, which he described as "incredible". As a result, McCall won Clydesdale Bank Manager of the Year. On 22 May 2013, it was reported that he was set to open talks with Sheffield United about their managerial vacancy in the next 24 hours and that he had cut short a family holiday to intend the interview. Eventually, McCall rejected a move to Sheffield United, following talks between the two and was happy to continue as manager of Motherwell.
At the start of the 2013–14 season, key players Darren Randolph, Nicky Law, Chris Humphrey, Michael Higdon and Henrik Ojamaa all left the club. McCall replaced them by signing Paul Lawson, Iain Vigurs, John Sutton, Fraser Kerr, Gunnar Nielsen and Stephen McManus. He also managed to persuade James McFadden to stay at the club. Motherwell enjoyed another successful season, finishing second in the 2013–14 Scottish Premiership. The position was achieved by winning on the final day against nearest rivals Aberdeen. After a bad start to the 2014–15 season left Motherwell second from bottom, McCall resigned as manager on 2 November.
Rangers
McCall was appointed manager of Rangers on 12 March 2015, agreeing a contract with the club to the end of the 2014–15 season. In his first match in charge Rangers were held to a 1–1 draw at home by bottom-placed Livingston on 14 March 2015. Rangers finished third in the 2014–15 Scottish Championship and in the Premiership play-off final they were beaten 6–1 on aggregate by McCall's former team Motherwell. Insisting he had "done a decent job" he wanted to extend his contract for the following season. Rangers instead opted to appoint Mark Warburton as manager for the new season.
Bradford City (second period as manager)
McCall returned for a second period as manager of Bradford City on 20 June 2016, replacing Phil Parkinson. McCall gave up his coaching role with the Scotland national team. In his first season the team reached the 2017 EFL League One play-off final, but lost 1–0 to Millwall. After a run of six consecutive defeats, McCall was sacked by Bradford on 5 February 2018. The team were still sitting in sixth place in 2017–18 EFL League One when McCall was sacked, but had fallen 13 points behind the automatic promotion places.
Scunthorpe United
McCall was appointed manager of League One club Scunthorpe United on 27 August 2018. After winning four out of their five games in January 2019, and climbing up the table to 14th position (and out of the relegation zone), McCall won the January 2019 League One Manager of the Month award. After this good run, however, the team won only two further matches and had dropped to 18th place when McCall was sacked in March 2019. Shortly afterwards, he stated he might not return to management, preferring the coaching side instead, stating: "It's a hard gig. I just like working with players, so I'd like to go out on a Monday to Friday or whatever it is and work with players and try and help improve them, put plans in there, formations, etc. And on the Saturday when it comes together – no better feeling."
In November 2019 he interviewed for the vacant post at Hearts.
Bradford City (third period as manager)
On 4 February 2020, McCall was appointed Bradford manager for a third time. He left the club on 13 December 2020.
Blackpool
McCall joined newly promoted Blackpool, as assistant head coach to Neil Critchley, on 22 July 2021. McCall's father played for the club in the 1940s and 1950s, and his sister was born in the town.
Sheffield United
On 25 November 2021, McCall left Blackpool to become assistant manager to Paul Heckingbottom at Sheffield United.
Style of play
McCall was a box-to-box midfielder characterised by his tireless running, tackling and also weighing in with an average of one goal every 11 games. Despite his position in the middle of the park he was rarely suspended and was sent off just once in his career – in the final minute of a 2–0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 4 November 2000. He also had a never-say-die attitude proven by a number of key late goals including his equaliser which sent the 1989 FA Cup Final into extra-time, and a 93rd-minute equaliser against Tottenham Hotspur during Bradford's difficult start to their Premier League campaign in the 1999–2000 season. He was a passionate player with a strong desire to win games.
Career statistics
Club
International appearances
International goals
Scores and results list Scotland's goal tally first.
Manager
Honours
As a player
Bradford City
Football League Third Division: 1984–85
Football League First Division promotion: 1998–99
Everton
FA Cup: Runner-up 1988–89
Rangers
Scottish Premier Division (5): 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96
Runner-up 1997–98
Scottish Cup: 1991–92, 1992–93, 1995–96
Runner-up 1993–94, 1997–98
Scottish League Cup: 1992–93, 1993–94
Individual
PFA Team of the Year:
Second Division: 1987, 1988
Third Division: 1985
As a manager
Individual
Manager of the Month: July/August 2011, October 2011, March 2013
SPL Manager of the Season: 2012–13
League Two Manager of the Month: January 2019
See also
List of footballers in England by number of league appearances (500+)
List of Scotland international footballers born outside Scotland
References
External links
1964 births
Living people
Footballers from Leeds
English people of Scottish descent
Anglo-Scots
English men's footballers
Scottish men's footballers
Scotland men's under-21 international footballers
Scotland men's international footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Bradford City A.F.C. players
Everton F.C. players
Rangers F.C. players
Sheffield United F.C. players
English Football League players
Premier League players
Scottish Football League players
1990 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 1992 players
UEFA Euro 1996 players
English football managers
Scottish football managers
Sheffield United F.C. non-playing staff
Blackpool F.C. non-playing staff
Bradford City A.F.C. managers
Motherwell F.C. managers
Rangers F.C. managers
Scunthorpe United F.C. managers
Premier League managers
English Football League managers
Scottish Premier League managers
Scottish Professional Football League managers
Farsley Celtic F.C. players |
4250405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Librarians%20in%20popular%20culture | Librarians in popular culture | Librarians in popular culture can be found across many different mediums, including film, television, music and literature. Their portrayal is varied and can represent or subvert various stereotypes. Libraries and librarians are recurring elements in fiction.
Films
According to Ann Seidl, director of the documentary The Hollywood Librarian, librarians in film are often portrayed as meek, timid, and unassertive in nature. After indexing hundreds of appearances of librarians in film, she found that "the shorter the reference to a librarian in a film, the worse the stereotype." Additionally, in an article looking at library stereotypes perpetrated in Hollywood movies, academic librarian Jennifer Snoek-Brown argued that films, as well as TV shows, often get "library call numbers wrong," but stated that "the usefulness, trustworthiness, and purpose of librarians" is often conveyed, and librarians in film are "becoming more ethnically diverse."
By the 1950s, movies had established the stereotype of librarians as "spinsters" and "eggheads". Thus, female movie librarians are usually unmarried, prim, and introverted. They are usually young and may be attractive, but dress drably and are sexually repressed. The "fate-worse-than-death view of librarians" is particularly evident in movies such as It's a Wonderful Life and The Music Man. In It's a Wonderful Life (1946), Mary Hatch Bailey (played by Donna Reed), is depicted as an "old maid." It is also evident in films like Foul Play which features a shy San Francisco librarian fall in love with a "goofy cop." In contrast, male movie librarians – mild, intelligent, and timid – have fewer and less important roles.
Another stereotype mentioned is the staggeringly rude and unhelpful librarian (John Rothman) in Sophie's Choice (1982), who barks at Sophie Zawistowski (Meryl Streep) "Do you want me to draw you a map?!" More recently and continuing the stereotype of unpleasant librarians, in the Disney/Pixar film Monsters University (2013), Alison Nastasi of Flavorwire says the university librarian "isn't fond of noise and doesn't think twice about tossing rowdy students out the window into a pond below". Another example of this librarian type is depicted in Citizen Kane.
These negative portrayals are in contrast with such more well-rounded characters, such as librarian Bunny Watson (played by Katharine Hepburn) who teaches Richard Sumner (played by Spencer Tracy) a few things about modern research methods in the movie Desk Set (1957) and the no-nonsense "Marian the Librarian" (Shirley Jones) in the movie The Music Man. Mary (played by Parker Posey) as the ultimate Party Girl (1995) who discovers, "I want to be a librarian!" in a notable exception to the prim librarian stereotype.
Librarians in film are usually ordinary people caught up in circumstances, rather than being heroes; likewise they are rarely villainous although they may have flaws, such as racism in Goodbye, Columbus. The Public, a 2018 movie by Emilio Estevez depicts a librarian, Stuart Goodson, who is comfortable with the homeless people who use his public library every day. Goodson becomes involved in a fight over doing the right thing: in this case finding shelter for the homeless on a bitterly cold night. Goodson, as the film reveals, has overcome his own personal demons in order to achieve a career as a librarian. Alicia Hull (played by Bette Davis), is a small town librarian, who befriends young Freddie Slater (Kevin Coughlin) but is herself ostracized for refusing to remove a book on Communism from the public library during the height of the Red Scare in Storm Center (1956). This movie was inspired by the real-life dismissal of Ruth Brown, a librarian in Bartlesville, Oklahoma.
The comedy film Tomcats (2001) features Heather Stephens as Jill, a seemingly shy, repressed librarian who leads a double life as a lifestyle (nonoccupational) dominatrix. In Only Two Can Play (1962), Peter Sellers portrays a poorly paid and professionally frustrated Welsh librarian and occasional drama critic, whose affections fluctuate between glamorous Liz and his long-suffering wife Jean. In the comedic UHF by "Weird Al" Yankovic, the character Conan the Librarian makes a brief appearance. This character has exaggerated muscles, speaks in Austrian-accented English patterned after Arnold Schwarzenegger's portrayal of Conan, chastises a library patron for not knowing the Dewey Decimal System, and slices a patron in two for returning a book overdue. In an article in January 2021, Brian Cronin of CBR added that this character did not originate in a Monty Python episode.
Librarians can serve a function in fantasy films. In 1994's live-action animated film The Pagemaster, frightened and pessimistic Richard Tyler (Macaulay Culkin) meets an eccentric librarian, Mr. Dewey (Christopher Lloyd), who encourages Richard to get a library card and starting off an adventure. By the end of the film, Mr. Dewey is hinted at being the titular Pagemaster and none of the adventure in the film was a dream. Mr. Dewey introduced Richard to the adventures possible in libraries and books as he "knows just how magical of a place a library can be." Similarly, a librarian appears in the beginning of the 1984 Hollywood box office hit, Ghostbusters and the "bitter old librarian" in Indiana Jones & The Last Crusade who thinks all the banging in the librarian is coming from his stamp, but it is actually coming from Indiana Jones "trying to break the floor apart. Similarly, in the 1983 film, Something Wicked This Way Comes there is a librarian in a small town who is the only person other than the protagonists who wants to face "the mysterious leader of an evil carnival" and Madam Irma Pince in the Harry Potter film series who heads the library at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and is fiercely protective of the books. The protagonist of The Time Traveler's Wife is Henry DeTamble, a reference librarian who travels randomly into his own future or past.
Kettnich and Jaeger discuss dramas that highlight librarians' challenges to access in films.
Finally, the main character of The Mummy (1999) is a librarian named Evelyn Carnahan (Rachel Weisz), who is clumsy and later moves away from her profession in the sequels. A memorable quote from her, upon introduction to the other main character shows a more positive depiction of librarians:
Evelyn: "Look, I... I may not be an explorer, or an adventurer, or a treasure-seeker, or a gunfighter, Mr. O'Connell, but I am proud of what I am."
Rick: "And what is that?"
Evelyn: "I... am a librarian."
From 2004 to 2008, the John Rogers fantasy-adventure television film franchise, The Librarian, aired on TNT. The three films focus on a librarian (portrayed by Noah Wyle) who protects secret artifacts in the Metropolitan Public Library in New York.
Literature
Children's literature offers a generally positive portrayal of librarians as knowledgeable, helpful, amazing, and friendly, becoming more positive over the course of the 20th century. Adult literature, however, portrays the profession more negatively. Between these, portrayals of librarians in young adult fiction are neutral to negative. Here librarians are predominantly female, middle-aged, usually unattractive in some way, and mostly unmarried. Personality is mixed between positive traits such as intelligence, likeability, and kind-heartedness; and negative traits such as strictness, timidity, excess fastidiousness, and eccentricity. While some provide assistance to the main characters, several are the villains of the story. Duties generally include reference, but may only show clerical tasks; however the amount of technology used by librarian characters has increased over time. Ashanti White, author of the 2012 book, Not Your Ordinary Librarian: Debunking the Popular Perceptions of Librarians, wrote that the shushing buttoned-down, older librarian was the most common depiction of librarians, in fiction, followed by the sexy librarian, stereotype.
A disproportionate number of the librarians represented in novels are in the detective fiction genre, frequently as an amateur detective and protagonist. Although the stereotype of the librarian as a "passive bore" does not seem reconcilable with the intensity of a mystery, the stereotypical librarian does share many traits with the successful detective. Their mindset is focused, calm, unbiased in considering viewpoints, and focused on the world around them. By personality they are industrious perfectionists—and eccentric. The drab and innocuous look of the stereotypical librarian is perfect for avoiding suspicion, while their research skills and ability to ask the right questions allow them to procure and evaluate the information necessary to solve the case. The knowledge they have gained from wide reading successfully competes with a private investigator's personal experience. For example, Jacqueline Kirby is drawn into the mystery in Elizabeth Peters' novel The Seventh Sinner (1972) due to her awareness of her surroundings. Wearing the stereotypical bun, glasses, and practical clothes, together with an eccentrically large purse, she is self-possessed and resourceful, knowledgeable in a variety of fields and skilled at research. Batgirl as Dr. Barbara Gorden in DC comics is depicted as working as librarian in Gotham City's Public Library.
Librarians appeared in other literature as well. For instance, Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash features a commercialized melding of the Central Intelligence Agency and the Library of Congress, along with a virtual librarian who assists the main character, and raises questions of the role of the librarian in an increasingly information-rich world. Also, the eponymous character in Garth Nix's Lirael (2001) is an assistant librarian whose curiosity about the library she works in leads her into trouble and whose research skills save her. The head librarian is intimidating and the library itself is a dangerous place.
There are other fictional librarians in literature as well. Allison Carroll in Jo Walton's Among Others serves as a mentor to the main protagonist and Madam Irma Pince is the librarian at Hogwarts during the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. Madam Pince embodies many negative librarian stereotypes — she's controlling, intimidating, she shushes, and she values books over patrons. Similarly, there is the Librarian in Terry Pratchett's Discworld fantasy series, a once-human wizard who manages the library at the Unseen University, Lucien serves on the Dream Castle's staff as chief librarian in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series, and the podcast Welcome to Nightvale'''s Rabid Librarians will go to incredibly violent ends to ensure that the community is reading. In Audrey Niffenegger's The Time Traveler's Wife, Henry, one of the two central characters, is a librarian working in the Newberry Library; one of his fears about his Chrono-Displacement disorder is that he may one day get trapped in the "Cage" in the library.
Television and streamed media
Librarians have often been depicted in broadcast and streamed television series.Last of the Summer Wine, a BBC comedy that ran from 1973 to 2010 was originally titled The Library Mob. Many episodes took place in the local library and featured library staff.
CBS, NBC, Cartoon Network, and Disney Channel had a number of shows which depicted librarians. For instance, in season 2 episode 6 ("Caged") of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, a CBS show, actor Michael A. Goorjian plays Aaron Pratt, an autistic librarian who witnesses the death of a colleague. Pratt states that he has "a master's in library science and an English degree from UNLV." Additionally, in an episode of another CBS show, The Crazy Ones, "The Monster", actress Melody Thomas Scott plays Flora, a drunk librarian who uses a lot of big and complex words, whose library is on a verge of shutting down but with the help of Simon and the group, her library was saved. NBC also featured librarians in one of its most popular shows. In the 2009 Parks and Recreation episode "Ron and Tammy", Leslie Knope's dreams of a local park are almost squashed by Tammy, the new library director at the Pawnee Public Library and Ron Swanson's ex-wife. Tammy places a claim for the lot that Leslie intended to use for her park. Tammy then tries to sexually manipulate Ron into giving her the lot for the library. Leslie calls librarians "diabolical, ruthless bunch of bureaucrats" as well as "punk-ass book jockeys." In "Ron and Tammy: II", Leslie says Tammy is "just a manipulative, psychotic, library book-peddling, sex-crazed, she-demon." Tammy also has books on "Approved" and "Rejected" shelves, which insinuates that the library operates in a biased manner. The depictions of the library on Parks and Recreation "illuminate the nature of library anxiety." A more positive depiction appears in an episode of Cartoon Network's We Bare Bears, titled "The Library". In the episode, the old librarian lady helps Panda print Chloe's practice test, with the help of outdated technology in one scene. Finally, the Disney Channel featured librarians in the show Big City Greens. In the episode titled "Quiet Please," a librarian at a city library shushes the protagonists and threatens to push them out if they make a sound. As a result, the protagonists communicate with each other using ASL after seeing two deaf library patrons communicating the same way.
CBS, NBC, Cartoon Network, and Disney Channel were not alone in having characters who were librarians. In the PBS puppet series Between the Lions, which broadcast from 2000 to 2010, and promotes early reading to little children, features Theo and Cleo Lion as the librarians. Also, in an episode of Are You Afraid of the Dark? called "The Tale of the Quiet Librarian", an elderly librarian named Mercy MacGregor haunts the library during closing hours and uses the box to steal the patrons' voices, mostly noisy children. On the other hand, a SyFy show The Magicians (based on the series by Lev Grossman) has a strong focus on libraries. In the show, the Library of the Netherlands is an archive that contains all of the knowledge in the universe. Librarians formed the Order of the Librarians, a group that protects that knowledge. The Library is staffed by Zelda Schiff, a prim, glasses-and-cardigan-wearing librarian whose biggest concern is the possible defacement of library books. Uniquely, when creating the Australian miniseries The Librarians, co-producers and writers Wayne Hope and Robyn Butler consulted with real librarians for research and took their advice to avoid shushing and cardigan-wearing librarian characters. This contrasts with the stereotypical school librarian, Rupert Giles in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer series. The character wears old-fashioned clothes and spectacles, is intelligent and well-read although he dislikes computers, and is overly concerned with following regulations, although he later is given an opportunity to develop beyond these stereotypes. There was also a TNT series, The Librarians, an extension of the eponymous film franchise of the same name. It follows a new team of librarians who solve mysteries, recover powerful artifacts, and fight against supernatural threats. Additionally, Belle plays a princess-turned-librarian in "Once Upon A Time", which broadcast on ABC.
Various streamed shows have featured librarians. For instance, in Hilda, there is a character known as "The Librarian." One reviewer, a librarian named Burkely Hermann, called her character "among the most positive pop culture depictions of librarians," apart with libraries in Cleopatra in Space and She-Ra and the Princesses of Power. Hermann also states that the nine minutes in the first season of Hilda within a library setting makes a "strong impression," as it includes an episode featuring a special collections room. They further argued that the series makes clear the "importance of librarians and libraries for years to come." In another article by Hermann, they examine the second season of Hilda, calling the character, who gets a name in the season, the "most intriguing librarian characters in recent TV memory," who gets more screen time. This review further said that the season continually highlights the value of libraries and librarians time and again, along with knowledge and proper organization. In another article, Hermann looked at library settings in Cleopatra in Space and She-Ra and the Princesses of Power. In terms of the latter show, they noted the season 2 finale focuses "around two middle-aged gay Black librarians," George and Lance which contrasts with the depiction of a white and long-haired stereotypical librarian in She-Ra: Princess of Power, and argued that the series, as a whole, "shows librarians as helpful, welcoming, and diverse."
Apart from the above-named shows, Orange Is the New Black, which streamed on Netflix as well, featured a librarian. Specifically, Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson, within the Litchfield Penitentiary with other women, is an outspoken librarian who is loyal, ambitious, and learned. Another review pointed to an animated web series, Too Loud, describing it as a show which those of all ages can enjoy, especially "its message about the value of libraries." One review in March 2021 pointed to library scenes in the series Mira, Royal Detective, comparing the series to Hilda, while noting that the show's 22nd episode emphasizes the "value of libraries," complete with a bookmobile, and the characters singing a song "about the importance of reading and libraries" while the show's protagonist and her father serve as librarians. The reviewer hoped that the series continues to make clear the "importance of libraries" in the future. He also reviewed libraries and librarians in the series Welcome to the Wayne in April 2021. He argued that in this series a "special and magnificent library" is central, going beyond positive depictions in recent years, with the chief librarian as a Black woman named Clara Rhone, voiced by Harriett D. Foy. This included episodes, he wrote, where "the issues of underfunded libraries and the value of knowledge," were central, as was the focus on librarians as gatekeepers, and others which made clear the value of librarians, and libraries, as "places of knowledge and diversity."
Marienne Bellamy, librarian in the fictional town of Madre Linda, acted by Tati Gabrielle, was a love interest in the third series of You (TV series). Dante Ferguson, another librarian at Madre Linda was played by Ben Mehl.
In the ever-popular Nickelodeon cartoon titled Avatar: The Last Airbender, an elephant-sized black owl by the name of Wan Shi Tong tends a towering library in the middle of the desert. He refers to his library as the "Spirit Library," and to himself as "He Who Knows Ten Thousand Things." Despite being a talking animal, he is given the same strict and intimidating personality that accompanies most fictional librarians. The massively successful mature cartoon Bob's Burgers features a high-strung school librarian named Mr. Ambrose. He is given a personality that does not correspond with the most common librarian stereotypes. Instead of being stoic and controlling, he pays little attention to the students and expresses dissatisfaction with his job.
Other media
Librarians have appeared in interactive entertainment and in online mediums. They are often portrayed as guides and/or purveyors of knowledge who help the user progress within the game like in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
In 2006, Microsoft introduced an early version of what was to become the Bing search engine that used over 600 pre-recorded video clips of actor Janina Gavankar, portraying the character of "Ms Dewey", described as a sexy librarian character. Ramirose Ilene Attebury, in Library Philosophy and Practice, reported she found that the sexy librarian stereotype was more popular than the old maid stereotype, in YouTube videos.
Similarly, various songs focus on librarians. For instance, the retrospective compilation album of Tori Amos is called Tales of a Librarian, while My Morning Jacket's 2008 album Evil Urges features a song called "Librarian" and 2013 album of the American punk band Swingin' Utters, Poorly Formed includes a song titled "The Librarians Are Hiding Something." Additionally, the song, "Karen" of the Go-Betweens' album Lee Remick (1978), is an ode to a librarian, and Velocity Girl's 1993 album Copacetic contains the song titled "Lisa Librarian." In the same vein, Mrs. Phelps in Matilda was a librarian. She worked to help young readers, giving their advice, saying things like "sit back and allow the words to wash around you, like music."
Librarians appeared in other media too, including model figures. In 2003, Archie McPhee brought out a librarian action figure, modeled on Seattle Public Library librarian Nancy Pearl. 28,000 action figures were sold in the first week of their availability. Wearing a suit, hair bun and glasses, the action figure sparked controversy, particularly for the button-triggered shushing motion. Many librarians took it in a light-hearted spirit, while others felt it perpetuated negative stereotypes. The original version of the action figure was discontinued, but Archie McPhee now sells a super-hero version of Pearl with a "removable cape and a deep understanding of how knowledge is organized."
Stereotypes
Stereotypes of librarians in popular culture are frequently negative: librarians are portrayed as puritanical, punitive, unattractive, and introverted if female, or timid and effeminate if male. Such inaccurate stereotypes are likely to have a negative impact on the attractiveness of librarianship as a profession to young people.
In modern times, the archetype of the "sexy librarian" has also begun to gain some traction, introduced in an effort to subvert the popular matriarchal image and make them more appealing to the average consumer. Both archetypes boil down to a similar idea, however – an authoritative, implacable guardian of the books who, through either power or sex appeal, keeps the library patrons in fear and thus remains exclusive guardian of the otherwise obscure organization system in the library. In 2015, librarian Gretchen Keer gave a broader view, writing that these stereotypes have roots in anxieties about the librarian profession itself:
"We cannot separate our understanding of library stereotypes from the history of librarianship that influenced their development in the first place...There are numerous librarian stereotypes, with the most recognizable being the middle-aged, bun-wearing, comfortably shod, shushing librarian. Others include the sexy librarian, the superhero librarian, and the hipster or tattooed librarian. These stereotypes are all characterized predominantly as feminine, white women. Newer librarian stereotypes, particularly those proffered by librarians themselves, tend to be depicted as younger white women. The original librarian stereotype, which was superseded by the introduction of his prudish sister, was that of the fussy (white) male curmudgeon...Librarian stereotypes can be traced, in part, to cultural anxieties about the emergence of the profession...we can conclude that, despite being beloved by a number of prominent and not-so-prominent individuals, librarianship as we know it is often treated in popular culture as a low- status profession or not a profession at all...It is important to acknowledge that stereotype threat is at work within librarianship because of the raced, classed, and gendered reality of individual librarians' lives."
Notable examples
Books and comics
(Alphabetized by author's surname)
Library War is a manga centered on armed librarians who defend their books from censors. It was later adapted into an anime series, an animated film in 2012, and two live-action films in 2013 and 2015.
Batgirl as Dr. Barbara Gordon, who is depicted as working as librarian in Gotham City's Public Library.
Jorge Luis Borges' short story, "The Library of Babel" (1941), depicts a universe consisting of a library of hexagonal rooms.
In Ray Bradbury's science fiction novel, Fahrenheit 451 (1953), books are outlawed and some rebels fight back by memorizing works, making themselves living libraries.
Audrey Niffenegger's The Time Traveler's Wife features Henry, who works in the Newberry Library, and also appears in the film adaptation.
Garth Nix's Lirael (2001) features Lirael, an assistant librarian.
The Elizabeth Peters' novel The Seventh Sinner (1972) features Jacqueline Kirby, a librarian.
In Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, The Librarian of the Unseen University is a recurring character that first appears in 1983.
Philip Roth's Goodbye, Columbus features a librarian who is racist.
In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, the castle of Hogwarts features a library. Madam Irma Pince is the librarian at Hogwarts during the series.
Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash features a virtual librarian.
In Jo Walton's Among Others, Allison Carroll is a librarian.
Yakusoku wa Toshokan no Katasumi de is a manga about a university librarian who works alongside her crush.
Film and stage
(Alphabetical by series or title)
In Angels and Demons (2009), the sequel to The Da Vinci Code (2006), Robert Langdon visits the Vatican Library and the Vatican archives several times to carry out research on the meaning and significance of various symbols.
The Breakfast Club (1985), five high school students serve a Saturday detention in the school's library.
Citizen Kane stars a librarian.
The Day After Tomorrow (2004), a group of people takes shelter from sudden freezing cold in the New York Public Library, burning books to keep warm.
Desk Set (1957) stars Katharine Hepburn as the head of a reference library; she and her staff are seemingly threatened with replacement by an early computer invented by Spencer Tracy's character.
Doctor Strange (2016) features the Kamar-Taj library, which houses ancient books about powerful magical lore.
Fahrenheit 451 (1966), an adaptation of Ray Bradbury's book.
Foul Play features Gloria Mundy, a shy San Francisco librarian.
The opening scenes of Ghostbusters (1984) include a haunted library with three librarian ghosts, filmed at the iconic central branch of the New York Public Library.
Harry Potter films Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001), Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002), Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), and Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2009) feature the Hogwarts Library.
Indiana Jones & The Last Crusade features a trip to a Venetian Library and stereotypical male librarian.
It's a Wonderful Life features Mary Hatch Bailey, an "old maid" librarian in Pottersville.
John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019) features a scene that takes place in the New York Public Library.
In The Librarian franchise, Flynn Carsen (Noah Wyle) is hired by the New York Metropolitan Library, and recruited into an ancient clandestine order of Librarians. He's introduced in the first original film of the franchise, The Librarian: Quest for the Spear (2004), where he is entrusted with the role of protecting the historical, and often magical, contents of a secret section of the library. He returns in The Librarian: Return to King Solomon's Mines (2006) and in The Librarian: Curse of the Judas Chalice (2008).
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), Gandalf travels to Gondor to research in Lord Denethor's Library the Ring in Bilbo's possession.
The Disney/Pixar film Monsters University (2013) features a librarian.
The Mummy (1999) features Evelyn Carnahan, the female lead who is a clumsy librarian. She also appeared in the two sequels of this film.
The female lead in The Music Man is a librarian at the Madison Public Library and the musical features the song "Marian the Librarian". This Broadway show won five Tony Awards and its cast album won the first Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album and spent 245 weeks on the Billboard charts. It was also made into a film of the same name that was nominated for six Academy Awards and won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy.
The Name of the Rose (1986), an adaptation of Umberto Eco's novel.
Only Two Can Play (1962) stars a Welsh librarian and occasional drama critic.
The Party Girl (1995) stars Mary, a party girl who discovers she wants to be a librarian.
The Pagemaster features Mr. Dewey, an eccentric librarian.
The Public stars librarian Stuart Goodson, who is comfortable with the homeless people who use his public library every day.
Oblivion (2013) takes place in an imagined future amidst the ruins of New York, including those of the New York Public Library.
Red (2010) has Frank Moses (Bruce Willis), a former black-ops CIA agent, visiting a New York college library to look up a book after he obtained a postcard with a Dewey classification number on it.
The musical She Loves Me (1963) includes the song "A Trip to the Library".
Something Wicked This Way Comes (1983) features a librarian.
Storm Center (1956) includes protagonist, Alicia Hull, a small town librarian.
The Time Machine (2002), a film adaptation of H. G. Wells's novel, features a holographic artificial intelligence librarian at the New York Public Library in the year 2030 and afterwards.
UHF (1989) features the character Conan the Librarian.
Television
(Alphabetical by series, then chronological by episode)
A Good Librarian Like a Good Shepherd features a library which contains books which have the histories of every person's lives.
Ascendance of a Bookworm centers on Myne, a former college librarian reincarnated as a sickly young girl who tries to bring printed books to the masses and works as a church librarian.
The Big City Greens episode "Quiet Please" features an unnamed librarian at a city library.
The Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2001) character, librarian Rupert Giles, serves as Buffy Summers' mentor and surrogate father figure; beneath the school library lies a secret gateway to the demon realms.
An episode of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation features Aaron Pratt, an autistic librarian.
In the Doctor Who episode "Silence in the Library" (2008), Donna Noble and Tenth Doctor visit a planet which is a 51st-century book repository simply called "The Library".
In the Doctor Who episode "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS" (2013), Clara visits the TARDIS library.
In Game of Thrones, several libraries figure prominently: in Oldtown at The Citadel, maintained by maesters; in King's Landing at the Red Keep, maintained by septons; at Winterfell (where in the season 8 "Battle of Winterfell", Arya Stark is stalked by wights), maintained by House Stark's maestre; and at the Wall at Castle Black, maintained by Maester Aemon Targaryen of the Night's Watch; additionally, Shireen Baratheon uses books from her collection at Dragonstone to teach the imprisoned Davos Seaworth to read.
Hilda features Kaisa, the librarian of the Trolberg Library and a witch.
The Inspector Morse episode "Twilight of the Gods" (1993), featured the Bodleian Library
Kokoro Library centers on sisters who work at small rural library in the "middle of nowhere".
In one episode of Mira, Royal Detective, Mira and her father Sahil operate a bookmobile.
In "Once Upon A Time", Belle is a princess-turned-librarian.
Orange Is the New Black features Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson, a librarian at Litchfield Penitentiary.
Episodes of Parks and Recreation feature Tammy, a librarian.
Read or Die OVA centers on Yomiko Readman, a spy for British Library's Special Operations Division, who can manipulate paper, while the R.O.D the TV series focuses on others who can do the same, with Readman continuing to have a role.
She-Ra and the Princesses of Power features George and Lance, two gay historians who run a family library.
Silent Library was a television game show with a public library setting that aired on MTV from 2009 to 2011.
In the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "All Our Yesterdays" (1969), Captain Kirk, McCoy, and Spock are transported back in time by the sole remaining inhabitant of a doomed planet: the librarian Mr. Atoz.
In the Stranger Things (2016-2017), in the third episode of both seasons 1 and 2, the librarian of the Hawkins Public Library helps characters research information.
Tatakau Shisho focuses on librarians who guard "books of the dead", with the past lives of people read in a book, after they die.
The Ancient Magus' Bride: Those Awaiting a Star tells the story of a girl who finds a secret library and a librarian who protects her from monsters.
The Crazy Ones features Flora, a drunk librarian.
The Librarians (2007-2010) is an Australian television comedy series that has a librarian as the protagonist.
The Librarians (2014-2018), a continuation of The Librarian film series, features several characters who work for The Library.
In The Twilight Zone episode "The Obsolete Man" (1961), a totalitarian state, having banned books, sentences a librarian to death for the crime of being obsolete.
The We Bare Bears episode "The Library" features an unnamed female librarian.
Welcome to the Wayne features Clare Rhona, head librarian of The Stanza.
Whispered Words includes an openly lesbian protagonist, Kazema, having a crush on her fellow librarian, Sumika.
Yami to Bōshi to Hon no Tabibito has a protagonist named Lillith, who is guardian to the library of the worlds, allowing her to search for Eve, a former library caretaker.
Other
"Ms Dewey", a sexy librarian character for the Bing search engine.
Pearl, a librarian action figure, modeled on Seattle Public Library librarian Nancy Pearl.
The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim'' features a librarian.
See also
Films set in libraries category
New York Public Library in popular culture
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
I Love Libraries - ALA initiative to promote the value of libraries
Reel Librarians – a blog about librarians in film, plus filmographies, librarian character types, and extra resources
Librarian Wardrobe – a user-submitted blog of what real librarians look like and what they wear to work
You Don't Look Like a Librarian! – a collection of resources relating to the perception of librarians in the Internet age
Libraries at the Movies – a blog about the representation of libraries and librarians in movies
Librarians in the Movies – an annotated filmography
The Hollywood Librarian
Songs about Libraries and Librarians
This is What a Librarian Looks Like – going beyond the bun to challenge outdated librarian stereotypes
Popular culture
Education in popular culture
Librarians |
4250543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20Days%20%28video%20game%29 | School Days (video game) | School Days is a Japanese visual novel developed by 0verflow, released on April 2005, for Windows as an adult game. It was later ported as a DVD game and for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) and PlayStation Portable (PSP). The story, a dramatic slice-of-life, follows Makoto Ito, a high school student who becomes the ambivalent love interest of several girls during his second term, and the effects this has on himself and his relationships with other characters. Though the game requires little interaction from users, School Days engages the player through a plot that they are given opportunities to change the course of during play. The game concludes with an ending specific to the outcome of the story, some of which became notorious for their graphic violence.
0verflow announced work on School Days in October 2004 and marketed it through public venues that showcased the game's innovative use of anime-like cinematics and voice. The game ranked as the best-selling visual novel in Japan for the time of its release, continuing to chart in the national top 50 for nearly five months afterward. 0verflow would then go on to produce multiple sequels including a spin-off of the original story called Summer Days, and a parallel story called Cross Days. Another spin-off, Island Days, has been developed by Klon for the Nintendo 3DS. School Days was remastered as School Days HQ on October 2010, and localized in North America on June 2012. The original game was officially discontinued on April 2011.
Following the game's release, School Days made several transitions into other media. The original story was adapted into a manga and serialized in the Kadokawa Shoten magazine Comp Ace; it was later published into two volumes. Comic anthologies, light novels and art books were also published, as were audio dramas and several albums of music. An animated television series, two direct-to-video (OVA) single releases and a concert film were also produced, the first of which became a precursor for an internet meme when its finale was pulled from broadcast.
Gameplay
As a visual novel, School Days contains extremely minimal gameplay. The game's core onscreen presentation is composed of scenes that are viewed from a mostly third-person perspective. At predetermined intervals, the game pauses, and players are presented with one to two responses or actions relevant to the scene in progress to make, or not make, on behalf of characters. Each selection branches the game's progress up to that point in an alternate direction, while also causing the player's love toward a character to blossom, plateau, or diminish, thus providing for a nonlinear storytelling experience. Being an erotic title, relationships between characters may become sexual; scenes of this kind depict a varying combination of French kissing, masturbation, oral sex, intercourse, and nudity (both female and male) or a combination thereof. Genitalia are pixelated in the original Japanese releases, but the Western release of School Days HQ is uncensored. Sex scenes are omitted from the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable ports of the game.
Each route the game takes invariably concludes with an ending specific to the choices made up to that point. Depending on these choices, the outcome of the story will either be good or bad. School Days became popularly known for its bad endings, which depict the deaths of characters. In one ending titled "Bloody End", a yandere Kotonoha slits Sekai's jugular vein open with a dōzuki, causing Sekai to collapse and die in a fountain of blood to the manic laughter of her assailant and the horror of Makoto. In another called "Forever", Kotonoha commits suicide leaning over and falling off the roof of a school, landing headfirst on a sidewalk to the horror of Makoto and Sekai. The game's good endings, by contrast, depict the well-being of characters and their relationships. In the ending "Christmas Eve", Makoto and Kotonoha share an embrace and make love in a hotel room as snow falls around a surrounding cityscape. In another titled "Two Lovers", Kotonoha and Sekai agree to have a polyamorous relationship with Makoto instead of rivaling with each other. Because of the numerous alternate endings that can be achieved, players who wish to watch additional endings and sex scenes will have to play through the game more than once.
Unlike traditional visual novels that consist of static characters with subtitled dialogue, School Days is unusual in that it incorporates motion and voice, making it reminiscent of an animated series. Cinematics naturally play on their own, and players are afforded the ability to pause, fast-forward, and even skip those they've seen before. Male and female voices can be muted, subtitles can be turned on or off and the game can be played from a window or fullscreen ratio. Progress can be saved at any time in up to 100 slots and loaded from either the main menu or during play.
Plot
School Days focuses on the life of Makoto Itou, a first-year high school student living with his divorced and unseen mother in the fictional city of Haramihama. During his second term, he becomes infatuated with Kotonoha Katsura, a shy schoolmate who shares train rides with him to and from campus. When the classroom seating plan of his class is rearranged, he becomes acquaintanced with Sekai Saionji, an upbeat girl who takes a special interest in his newfound crush, introducing the two and providing them the grounds to meet. Despite her triumphant efforts, however, Sekai becomes jealous of the new couple, having developed feelings for Makoto herself.
Development
School Days was 0verflow's tenth game to develop. News of School Days first surfaced on October 5, 2004, when 0verflow posted a link to the game's then-live website and development log on their official site. In the blog, 0verflow revealed that School Days had been in pre-production for roughly two years and would be a fully animated game. Updates on the development of the game were scheduled for Tuesdays and Fridays, and the company encouraged fans to attend Dream Party 2004, an upcoming anime convention at Tokyo Big Sight in Ariake, on October 11, where it would make its first public showcase of the game and characters. A follow-up of the venue was made on October 15. Toward the end of the month on October 26, 0verflow posted that new information about School Days would be circulated in the November issue of Tech Gian, an adult magazine published by Enterbrain.
Promotion for the game began shortly after. In a November 6 development post, 0verflow announced that it was planning a public screening of new game material, but was experiencing difficulty acquiring space for it. The company had initially chosen to have the venue in Akihabara but was unable to find a retailer willing to host it, prompting a visit to Osaka the following week. News that the game would contain music by artists such as Minami Kuribayashi, Haruko Momoi, Yozuca* and YURIA was posted on November 30, along with a release date change to February 25, 2005.
On December 28, 2004, 0verflow released a public trial of School Days and announced that the company would be attending Comiket 67 at Tokyo Big Sight from December 29 to 30, handing out phonecards to the first 50 visitors to their booth. Two months later, on February 2, 2005, the company announced that the game had been postponed again to April 28. From April 5 to April 8, 0verflow concluded their development log with comments from Soyogi Tōno, Kaname Yuzuki, Tatsuya Hirai, Yuki Matsunaga, Hikaru Isshiki and Hana Yamamoto, the respective voices of Kotonoha, Sekai, Makoto, Otome, Hikari and Setsuna. To address bugs that were later found in the game, 0verflow released a patch to bring School Days to a stable build of 1.11.
On June 26, 2007, 0verflow and Lantis-net radio began to air an internet radio drama called "Radio School Days". Broadcasts finished on March 28, 2008, with 39 episodes aired. On April 21, 2011, 0verflow announced via their blog that support for School Days was being discontinued.
Release
School Days was ported to three other platforms. The first of these was by AiCherry, an interactive movie developer, who announced on August 20, 2007, that it had picked up the game for development, releasing it as a four disc DVD game on September 28. That same year, on August 31, Interchannel posted a link on their blog to the official website of School Days L×H, a PlayStation 2 (PS2) port in development by Guyzware, that would be edited of explicit sexual content and fanservice. The game was released on January 17, 2008 and assessed by the Computer Entertainment Rating Organization (CERO), Japan's primary video game content rating system, receiving a 15-years-or-older "C" rating for sexual themes and profanity. The third and final port was developed by PalaceGame for the PlayStation Portable (PSP). After postponing the game on May 11, it was released as four UMDs on June 30, 2010.
0verflow opened what would become the homepage for School Days HQ on May 21, 2010, a remastering of the original game initially scheduled for release in August. The site was finished June 3, and on July 16, the game was postponed to September 24. A trial was publicly released for download on August 7, and from August 20 to September 28, 0verflow promoted the game. Customers who had purchased the original School Days would be given the opportunity to upgrade to HQ for a fee until October 11, by either mailing in their game disc or visiting stores in Akihabara, Osaka or Nagoya. Distributors offered collectable phonecards for reservations, and after a second date change on September 10, the game was released October 8.
On March 3, 2011, 0verflow acknowledged Sekai Project, an unofficial fan translation group, who had reportedly begun localizing School Days in April 2006. Partnering with American distributor JAST USA, School Days HQ, uncensored in English, was announced for a North American release on March 11, 2011. Development instead continued into 2012, and on May 18, JAST announced that the company had begun taking pre-orders for the Collector's Edition, a bundled release of the game packaged with a keychain and mousepad. The company announced weeks later on June 1 that School Days HQ had gone gold. Following news on June 26 that the company would exhibit the game at Anime Expo 2012, JAST made an update to the June 1 announcement that School Days HQ had begun shipping. The downloadable version of the game was later released on August 6.
Sales
In a national sales ranking of bishōjo games in PCNEWS, a now-defunct Japanese online magazine, School Days premiered as the number one game sold for the second half of April 2005, the second and seventeenth for the first and second halves of May, the fifth and twenty-sixth for the first and second halves of June, and twenty-seventh for the first half of July. The School Days renewal edition, released a week after the previous ranking, continued to chart on behalf of the game; it ranked as the thirty-third most sold game for the second half of July, before ending as the thirty-fifth and forty-ninth for the first and second halves of August.
Getchu.com, a major distributor of visual novels and domestic anime products, recorded similar sales. School Days for Windows premiered as the number one game sold for the month of its release, and seventh most for May, ranking as the number one game sold for the first half of 2005 and ninth for the year. The following year, the School Days renewal edition charted as the twentieth most sold game for July 2007, dropping to thirtieth from August to October. School Days HQ ranked as the sixth most sold game for October 2010 but failed to chart thereafter.
According to Gamasutra, a video gaming news site, School Days L×H ranked as the number one PlayStation 2 game sold for January 2008.
Media
Related visual novels
0verflow developed several visual novels related to School Days, sharing the same universe. Prior to the development of School Days, 0verflow developed the Radish Vacation visual novel series. The first is Snow Radish Vacation released on December 28, 2001, followed by Summer Radish Vacation on April 1, 2003, and finally Summer Radish Vacation 2 on August 13, 2004.
A prequel titled Summer Days, was released on June 23, 2006, retelling the original game during summer vacation and from the perspective of Setsuna Kiyoura. Unlike its predecessor, however, Summer Days was almost universally panned for its heavily bugged state, loads of patches, and recall. Another spin-off titled Cross Days was released on March 19, 2010. Set in the same continuity as School Days, Cross Days follows the life of another protagonist, Yuuki Ashikaga, a high school freshman who also finds himself caught between the affection of two girls, Roka Kitsuregawa and Kotonoha Katsura, during his second term at Sakakino Academy. The game also features yaoi scenarios, during which Yuuki cross-dresses as a maid. 0verflow released Shiny Days on February 2, 2012, which is a remastered version of Summer Days with a new heroine and higher quality animations. A spin-off, Island Days, was developed for the Nintendo 3DS and was released in Japan on July 3, 2014. The game, developed by Klon, focuses on Makoto and the girls becoming trapped on a remote island and includes tower defense elements.
Manga
Based on the story of the original game, School Days was reimagined as a manga, illustrated by Homare Sakazuki and serialized in the Kadokawa Shoten magazine Comp Ace from May 26, 2006 to September 26, 2007. On July 12, 2007, 0verflow announced that the manga had been collected into its first volume, comprising five chapters set to be released on July 24. Later that year, the second and final volume, comprising the remaining seven chapters, was released on November 21.
Various artists also produced short manga of School Days that were compiled into two comic anthologies. The "School Days Comic Anthology" was released by Ohzora Publishing on October 25, 2005, under their P-mate Comics imprint, containing nine short manga by individual artists. On February 25, 2008, Ichijinsha printed the "School Days Kotonoha Anthology" under their DNA Media Comics imprint, a collection of manga primarily featuring the character Kotonoha Katsura.
Books and publications
In addition to the manga, School Days was adapted into other print media. The first of these was the "School Days Visual Guide Book" published by Jive on September 16, 2005, an artbook of character illustrations, model sheets, screenplay, storyboards and a visual hierarchy of the choices and corresponding scenes in the game. Separate editions for the anime television series and Playstation 2 game were also published, on December 1, 2007 and March 21, 2008, respectively. Collections of production work from the Windows game such as character and environment art, screenplay, artist commentaries and all manufactured promotional items were collected in the on December 16, 2005 and also featured in the "SummerDays & School Days Visual Collection" on August 31, 2006.
The first of four light novels, all illustrated by Junji Goto, was written by Ryuna Okada and printed by Harvest Publishing under their Harvest Novels imprint. Released on December 1, 2005, retells the original story from the perspective of Sekai. Okada would follow up the book with on January 1, 2006, switching to the perspective of Kotonoha. Two light novels were also published by Jive, the first of which was written by Takuya Baba, and printed on December 16, 2005, and a second by Hiro Akiduki, "School Days: Innocent Blue", released on April 28.
Anime
School Days was adapted into a twelve-episode anime television series by TNK. Concrete news of this first appeared on June 1, 2007, when 0verflow announced via its blog that the show's official website had gone live. Stations participating in the broadcast included TV Kanagawa, Chiba TV, TV Aichi, TV Osaka, TV Saitama and AT-X, the premiere of which would air on TV Kanagawa on July 3. The anime was aired until September 27 and finished its broadcast on AT-X. From September 26, 2007, to February 27, 2008, the series was compiled into six limited and regular edition DVDs.
TNK also produced two direct-to-video (OVA) episodes of School Days. The first, titled "Valentine Days", was bundled with limited edition copies of School Days L×H, and features an unrelated comedic romp through Valentine's Day as Kotonoha, Sekai, and Otome try to give Makoto giri chocos. The second, "Magical Heart Kokoro-chan", jaunts the series into magical girl territory, portraying Kokoro Katsura as the superheroine Magical Heart; it was released on March 26, 2008.
Discotek Media has acquired the television series and the "Magical Heart Kokoro-chan" OVA to be released on DVD on June 24, 2014, with English subtitles.
Delay of finale
On September 17, 2007, the day before the twelfth and final episode of the televised anime was to air on TV Kanagawa, a sixteen-year-old girl murdered her forty-five-year-old father in their Kyoto home with an axe. TV Kanagawa promptly cancelled the Tuesday airing of the finale for its similarly violent content, replacing it instead with a thirty-minute video compilation of scenery footage from Europe including Norway, played to August Wilhelmj's "Air on the G String". Newspapers such as The Japan Times and Mainichi Shimbun reported on the killing and episode preempt on September 19. According to Mainichi Shimbun, Chiba TV and TV Aichi had also cancelled their airings, with AT-X the only station remaining indecisive. 0verflow issued an apology through their blog the same day, asking viewers to stay tuned for updates. In the following week, 0verflow announced that it had arranged for two screenings of the edited finale at the Akihabara 3D Theater on September 27. Those wishing to attend would be required to register a seat by email, be at least 18 years old with photo ID, and bring a Windows copy of School Days or Summer Days. That same day AT-X announced that it had decided to air the unedited finale on September 27 and October 1.
In the wake of the broadcast change, a screen capture of the Norwegian M/S Skagastøl from the slideshow surfaced on 4chan alongside the caption "Nice boat.", a phrase which gained popularity in Japan. Google Trends recorded a spike in "Nice Boat" searches around the third quarter of 2007 while Yomiuri Shinbun, a Japanese newspaper, reported that "Nice boat" was the tenth most popular Yahoo! Japan search from September 17 to September 23.
Nice Boat had become so well known that it was used in other media. The meme appeared as an Easter egg in the first episode of Ef: A Tale of Memories., and was parodied on February 13, 2009, when the Kadokawa Pictures YouTube channel uploaded a short montage of sailboats instead of the previously scheduled premiere of The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya. 0verflow capitalized on the popularity of the phrase, naming their booth at Comiket 73 "Nice boat." and selling meme-inspired merchandise. TNK also paid homage to the meme in "Magical Heart Kokoro-chan", a special direct-to-video episode of the animated series.
Concert film
Besides the video releases of the School Days anime, a concert film, the School Days Secret Live DVD, was also produced by HOBiRECORDS. Released on June 26, 2006, in conjunction with Summer Days, the film contains footage of a concert held on June 15, 2005 featuring the performances of Miyuki Hashimoto, YURIA, rino, yozuca* and Minami Kuribayashi.
Audio CDs
From 2005 to 2010, Lantis published six albums of School Days music. The "School Days Vocal Album", a compilation featuring all nine of the game's closing themes, as performed by artists Kiriko, Yozuca*, Miyuki Hashimoto, Yuria, Halko Momoi, Minami Kuribayashi, Rino, and Kanako Ito was the first to be distributed, sharing its April 28, 2005, date with the release of the game itself. The remaining twenty-eight background scores, composed by KIRIKO/HIKO Sound, were released on July 21, officially completing the game's soundtrack. Another compilation, the "School Days Vocal Complete Album" featuring songs from Summer Days and Cross Days, was released on October 8, 2010.
Three weeks after the premiere of the televised anime on July 25, 2007, Lantis published the single "Innocent Blue" by DeviceHigh, a four-track disc featuring the anime opening of the same name, a disco-inspired song called Dancin' Joker, and their instrumentals. Lantis followed with "School Days: Ending Theme+" on August 22, a sixteen-track disc containing all of the show's closing themes and background scores on September 26.
In addition to music albums, six audio dramas were also produced. "School Days Little Promise", a chronicle of Sekai and Setsuna's childhoods, was the first. Featuring music by Kiriko/Hiko Sound and Kanako Ito, Hobirecords published "Little Promise" as a two-disc set, which 0verflow scheduled for release January 27, 2006. Pre-releases were sold at Comiket 69 from December 29 to 30, 2005. Sometime afterward however, 0verflow announced that pre-released copies of Little Promise were defective, and asked customers to mail in their discs for replacements. The release was also postponed to February 24. Lantis released the remaining five dramas. "School Days Drama CD Vol. 1 Himitsu Hanazono" (ヒ・ミ・ツの花園), a merrymaking of the series six main girls, was released on August 8, 2007. A second, "School Days Drama CD Vol 2. Koi no Nou-hau" (恋のノ・ウ・ハ・ウ), was released October 24, 2007. Radio School Days was compiled into three separate albums: was released on November 21, 2007, on February 6, 2008, and on June 21.
Merchandise
Considerable effort was made to market and promote School Days before and after its release, including the sale of brand merchandise and use of incentives. Through public venues and through the company's online store, 0verflow sold brand keystraps, mousepads, phonecards, book covers, mugs, t-shirts, dakimakura cases, PVC figures, lanyards, business card holders and cosplay material such as the girls' school uniforms and plastic dōzuki.
Reception
The anime series has won the Hisashi Maeda Award in the 7th Japanese Otaku Awards in 2007.
Anime News Network'''s Theron Martin enjoyed the anime series and gave it a B+, saying "Despite its efforts to analyze and reinterpret harem series, School Days probably would have sunk into anime obscurity if not for the nature of its final episode and the circumstances surrounding it not airing. However, those analytical efforts give it a value beyond its sensationalism. If viewers find Makoto unlikable, it is because he was meant to be an object lesson, not someone that they should want to relate to. That the actions of him and the others progressively push the series away from what's expected of harem series holds a fascination akin to watching a train wreck play out in very slow motion". UK Anime Network, a British online anime and manga magazine, gave the television series a 7 out of 10, summarizing it as "An utter subversion of the high school romance genre, which is disturbing and unsettling... yet oddly compelling in its own way." Takato of the french website Manga News gave the anime series 17 out of 20, and describes the series as "School Days is not a joyful romance but rather oppressive, destabilizing and unhealthy because of the behavior of the characters. We are certainly shocked, but this is precisely what makes the strength of this unique series. School Days is certainly a series to watch to be amazed, or to be amused by all these humiliations if you are sadistic." THEM Anime Reviews, a website devoted to the review of anime, gave the series a less favorable 1 out of 5 stars, citing "overblown, shallow, and flat" characters and that although "School Days looks fascinating when you see screenshots of it and read episode guides", the reviewer found it to be "annoying, stupid, mean-spirited, and full of some of the biggest idiots [he had] seen in an anime in a long time."
On June 12, 2015, the Chinese Ministry of Culture listed School Days'' among 38 anime and manga titles banned in China.
References
Further reading
External links
School Days HQ English website
School Days HQ visual novel at 0verflow
Sekai Project
2005 video games
2007 anime television series debuts
2007 Japanese television series endings
2007 manga
2008 anime OVAs
Anime television series based on video games
Audio plays
Bandai Namco franchises
Bishōjo games
Censored television series
Days series
Discotek Media
DVD interactive technology
Eroge
Harem anime and manga
High school-themed video games
Lantis (company)
Manga based on video games
Obscenity controversies
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation Portable games
Romance anime and manga
School life in anime and manga
Films with screenplays by Makoto Uezu
Slice of life anime and manga
Fiction about suicide
Television censorship in China
TNK (company)
Video games developed in Japan
Visual novels
Windows games
Works banned in China
Polyamory in fiction
Regista games
Interchannel games |
4250553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene | Gene | In biology, the word gene (from , ; meaning generation or birth or gender) can have several different meanings. The Mendelian gene is a basic unit of heredity and the molecular gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that is transcribed to produce a functional RNA. There are two types of molecular genes: protein-coding genes and non-coding genes.
During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA. The RNA can be directly functional or be the intermediate template for a protein that performs a function. (Some viruses have an RNA genome so the genes are made of RNA that may function directly without being copied into RNA. This is an exception to the strict definition of a gene described above.)
The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes. Genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye color or the number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, the risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that constitute life.
A gene can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a gene, which may cause different phenotypical traits. Usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair color gene") typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection / survival of the fittest and genetic drift of the alleles.
The term gene was introduced by Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1909. It is inspired by the Ancient Greek: γόνος, gonos, that means offspring and procreation.
Definitions
There are many different ways to use the term "gene" based on different aspects of their inheritance, selection, biological function, or molecular structure but most of these definitions fall into two categories, the Mendelian gene or the molecular gene.
The Mendelian gene is the classical gene of genetics and it refers to any heritable trait. This is the gene described in "The Selfish Gene." More thorough discussions of this version of a gene can be found in the articles on Genetics and Gene-centered view of evolution.
The molecular gene definition is more commonly used across biochemistry, molecular biology, and most of genetics — the gene that's described in terms of DNA sequence. There are many different definitions of this gene — some of which are misleading or incorrect.
Very early work in the field that became molecular genetics suggested the concept that one gene makes one protein (originally 'one gene - one enzyme'). However, genes that produce repressor RNAs were proposed in the 1950s and by the 1960s, textbooks were using molecular gene definitions that included those that specified functional RNA molecules such as ribosomal RNA and tRNA (noncoding genes) as well as protein-coding genes.
This idea of two kinds of genes is still part of the definition of a gene in most textbooks. For example,
"The primary function of the genome is to produce RNA molecules. Selected portions of the DNA nucleotide sequence are copied into a corresponding RNA nucleotide sequence, which either encodes a protein (if it is an mRNA) or forms a 'structural' RNA, such as a transfer RNA (tRNA) or ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecule. Each region of the DNA helix that produces a functional RNA molecule constitutes a gene."
"We define a gene as a DNA sequence that is transcribed. This definition includes genes that do not encode proteins (not all transcripts are messenger RNA). The definition normally excludes regions of the genome that control transcription but are not themselves transcribed. We will encounter some exceptions to our definition of a gene - surprisingly, there is no definition that is entirely satisfactory."
"A gene is a DNA sequence that codes for a diffusible product. This product may be protein (as is the case in the majority of genes) or may be RNA (as is the case of genes that code for tRNA and rRNA). The crucial feature is that the product diffuses away from its site of synthesis to act elsewhere."
The important parts of such definitions are: (1) that a gene corresponds to a transcription unit; (2) that genes produce both mRNA and noncoding RNAs; and (3) regulatory sequences control gene expression but are not part of the gene itself. However, there's one other important part of the definition and it is emphasized in Kostas Kampourakis' book "Making Sense of Genes."
"Therefore in this book I will consider genes as DNA sequences encoding information for functional products, be it proteins or RNA molecules. With 'encoding information,' I mean that the DNA sequence is used as a template for the production of an RNA molecule or a protein that performs some function.'
The emphasis on function is essential because there are stretches of DNA that produce non-functional transcripts and they do not qualify as genes. These include obvious examples such as transcribed pseudogenes as well as less obvious examples such as junk RNA produced as noise due to transcription errors. In order to qualify as a true gene, by this definition, one has to prove that the transcript has a biological function.
Early speculations on the size of a typical gene were based on high resolution genetic mapping and on the size of proteins and RNA molecules. A length of 1500 base pairs seemed reasonable at the time (1965). This was based on the idea that the gene was the DNA that was directly responsible for production of the functional product. The discovery of introns in the 1970s meant that many eukaryotic genes were much larger than the size of the functional product would imply. Typical mammalian protein-coding genes, for example, are about 62,000 base pairs in length (transcribed region) and since there are about 20,000 of them they occupy about 35–40% of the mammalian genome (including the human genome).
In spite of the fact that both protein-coding genes and noncoding genes have been known for more than 50 years, there are still a number of textbooks, websites, and scientific publications that define a gene as a DNA sequence that specifies a protein. In other words, the definition is restricted to protein-coding genes. Here is an example from a recent article in American Scientist.
... to truly assess the potential significance of de novo genes, we relied on a strict definition of the word "gene" with which nearly every expert can agree. First, in order for a nucleotide sequence to be considered a true gene, an open reading frame (ORF) must be present. The ORF can be thought of as the "gene itself"; it begins with a starting mark common for every gene and ends with one of three possible finish line signals. One of the key enzymes in this process, the RNA polymerase, zips along the strand of DNA like a train on a monorail, transcribing it into its messenger RNA form. This point brings us to our second important criterion: A true gene is one that is both transcribed and translated. That is, a true gene is first used as a template to make transient messenger RNA, which is then translated into a protein.
This restricted definition is so common that it has spawned many recent articles that criticize this "standard definition" and call for a new expanded definition that includes noncoding genes. However, this so-called "new" definition has been around for more than half a century and it's not clear why some modern writers are ignoring noncoding genes.
Although some definitions can be more broadly applicable than others, the fundamental complexity of biology means that no definition of a gene can capture all aspects perfectly. Not all genomes are DNA (e.g. RNA viruses), bacterial operons are multiple protein-coding regions transcribed into single large mRNAs, alternative splicing enables a single genomic region to encode multiple district products and trans-splicing concatenates mRNAs from shorter coding sequence across the genome. Since molecular definitions exclude elements such as introns, promotors and other regulatory regions, these are instead thought of as 'associated' with the gene and affect its function.
An even broader operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena, where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products. This definition categorizes genes by their functional products (proteins or RNA) rather than their specific DNA loci, with regulatory elements classified as gene-associated regions.
History
Discovery of discrete inherited units
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, in Brno, Austrian Empire (today's Czech Republic), he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured Wilhelm Johannsen's distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the observable traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.
Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilization process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan ("all, whole") and genesis ("birth") / genos ("origin"). Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction.
Mendel's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866, but was rediscovered in the late 19th century by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who (claimed to have) reached similar conclusions in their own research. Specifically, in 1889, Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. De Vries called these units "pangenes" (Pangens in German), after Darwin's 1868 pangenesis theory.
Twenty years later, in 1909, Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term 'gene' and in 1906, William Bateson, that of 'genetics' while Eduard Strasburger, amongst others, still used the term 'pangene' for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
Discovery of DNA
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication.
In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities arranged like beads on a string. The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 (1955–1959) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA.
Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.
In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: that of Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.
Modern synthesis and its successors
The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley.
This view of evolution was emphasized by George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed that the Mendelian gene is a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency." Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of Mendelian genes and the importance of natural selection in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.
The development of the neutral theory of evolution in the late 1960s led to the recognition that random genetic drift is a major player in evolution and that neutral theory should be the null hypothesis of molecular evolution. This led to the construction of phylogenetic trees and the development of the molecular clock, which is the basis of all dating techniques using DNA sequences. These techniques are not confined to molecular gene sequences but can be used on all DNA segments in the genome.
Molecular basis
DNA
The vast majority of organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiraling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must, therefore, be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.
Chromosomes
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded. The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin. The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequences that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes. Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA". However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein-coding DNA makes up barely 2% of the human genome, about 80% of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA" may be a misnomer.
Structure and function
Structure
The structure of a protein-coding gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include introns and untranslated regions of the mature mRNA. Noncoding genes can also contain introns that are removed during processing to produce the mature functional RNA.
All genes are associated with regulatory sequences that are required for their expression. First, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors that recruit and help RNA polymerase bind to the region to initiate transcription. The recognition typically occurs as a consensus sequence like the TATA box. A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end. Highly transcribed genes have "strong" promoter sequences that form strong associations with transcription factors, thereby initiating transcription at a high rate. Others genes have "weak" promoters that form weak associations with transcription factors and initiate transcription less frequently. Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.
Additionally, genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the gene that alter expression. These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence (and bound transcription factor) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site. For example, enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase.
The mature messenger RNA produced from protein-coding genes contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain binding sites for ribosomes, RNA-binding proteins, miRNA, as well as terminator, and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns, which are removed and exons, which are connected together in a process known as RNA splicing. Finally, the ends of gene transcripts are defined by cleavage and polyadenylation (CPA) sites, where newly produced pre-mRNA gets cleaved and a string of ~200 adenosine monophosphates is added at the 3' end. The poly(A) tail protects mature mRNA from degradation and has other functions, affecting translation, localization, and transport of the transcript from the nucleus. Splicing, followed by CPA, generate the final mature mRNA, which encodes the protein or RNA product. Although the general mechanisms defining locations of human genes are known, identification of the exact factors regulating these cellular processes is an area of active research. For example, known sequence features in the 3'-UTR can only explain half of all human gene ends.
Many noncoding genes in eukaryotes have different transcription termination mechanisms and they do not have pol(A) tails.
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein-coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The genes in an operon are transcribed as a continuous messenger RNA, referred to as a polycistronic mRNA. The term cistron in this context is equivalent to gene. The transcription of an operon's mRNA is often controlled by a repressor that can occur in an active or inactive state depending on the presence of specific metabolites. When active, the repressor binds to a DNA sequence at the beginning of the operon, called the operator region, and represses transcription of the operon; when the repressor is inactive transcription of the operon can occur (see e.g. Lac operon). The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.
Complexity
Though many genes have simple structures, as with much of biology, others can be quite complex or represent unusual edge-cases. Eukaryotic genes often have introns are often much larger than their exons, and those introns can even have other genes nested inside them. Associated enhancers may be many kilobase away, or even on entirely different chromosomes operating via physical contact between two chromosomes. A single gene can encode multiple different functional products by alternative splicing, and conversely gene may be split across chromosomes but those transcripts are concatenated back together into a functional sequence by trans-splicing. It is also possible for overlapping genes to share some of their DNA sequence, either on opposite strands or the same strand (in a different reading frame, or even the same reading frame).
Gene expression
In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA). Second, that mRNA is translated to protein. RNA-coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.
Genetic code
The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid. The principle that three sequential bases of DNA code for each amino acid was demonstrated in 1961 using frameshift mutations in the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4 (see Crick, Brenner et al. experiment).
Additionally, a "start codon", and three "stop codons" indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.
Transcription
Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.
In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5' end of the RNA while the 3' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the cell's DNA is stored. The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode a protein. Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes.
Translation
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein. Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA. The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after synthesis, most new proteins must fold to their active three-dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions.
Regulation
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources. A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.
RNA genes
A typical protein-coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product. In other cases, the RNA molecules are the actual functional products, as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA. Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function, while others such as microRNAs and riboswitches have regulatory roles. The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non-coding RNA genes.
Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA, and contain no DNA at all. Because they use RNA to store genes, their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription. On the other hand, RNA retroviruses, such as HIV, require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized.
Inheritance
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent.
Mendelian inheritance
According to Mendelian inheritance, variations in an organism's phenotype (observable physical and behavioral characteristics) are due in part to variations in its genotype (particular set of genes). Each gene specifies a particular trait with a different sequence of a gene (alleles) giving rise to different phenotypes. Most eukaryotic organisms (such as the pea plants Mendel worked on) have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.
Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait, whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. If you know the genotypes of the organisms, you can determine which alleles are dominant and which are recessive. For example, if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems, then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems. Mendel's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes, or germ cells, ensuring variation in the next generation. Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes (including a number of well-known genetic disorders) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division.
DNA replication and cell division
The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division; the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication. The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "reads" one strand of the double-helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.
The rate of DNA replication in living cells was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli and found to be impressively rapid. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate of elongation was 749 nucleotides per second.
After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells. In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.
Molecular inheritance
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene. The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father.
During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid. This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles. The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together (known as genetic linkage). Genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them.
Molecular evolution
Mutation
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, however errors (mutations) do occur. The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10−8 per nucleotide per replication, whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10−3. This means that each generation, each human genome accumulates 1–2 new mutations. Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted. Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense (change a codon to encode a different amino acid) or nonsense (a premature stop codon). Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication, deletion, rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome. Additionally, DNA repair mechanisms can introduce mutational errors when repairing physical damage to the molecule. The repair, even with mutation, is more important to survival than restoring an exact copy, for example when repairing double-strand breaks.
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species's population it is called polymorphic. Most different alleles are functionally equivalent, however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits. A gene's most common allele is called the wild type, and rare alleles are called mutants. The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift. The wild-type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles, nor is it necessarily fitter.
Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.
Sequence homology
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequences of their DNA. If the level of similarity exceeds a minimum value, one can conclude that the genes descend from a common ancestor; they are homologous. Genes that are related by direct descent from a common ancestor are orthologous genes - they are usually found at the same locus in different species. Genes that are related as a result of a gene duplication event are parologous genes.
It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.
Origins of new genes
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way compose a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.
"Orphan" genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are less common than gene duplicates. The human genome contains an estimate 18 to 60 genes with no identifiable homologs outside humans. Orphan genes arise primarily from either de novo emergence from previously non-coding sequence, or gene duplication followed by such rapid sequence change that the original relationship becomes undetectable. De novo genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Over long evolutionary time periods, de novo gene birth may be responsible for a significant fraction of taxonomically restricted gene families.
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.
Genome
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences. Eukaryotic genes can be annotated using FINDER.
Number of genes
The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses, and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing >46,000 protein-coding genes. The total number of protein-coding genes (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.
Although the number of base-pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1950s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes in the 1960s and 1970s were based on mutation load estimates and the numbers of mRNAs and these estimates tended to be about 30,000 protein-coding genes. During the 1990s there were guesstimates of up to 100,000 genes and early data on detection of mRNAs (expressed sequence tags) suggested more than the traditional value of 30,000 genes that had been reported in the textbooks during the 1980s.
The initial draft sequences of the human genome confirmed the earlier predictions of about 30,000 protein-coding genes however that estimate has fallen to about 19,000 with the ongoing GENCODE annotation project . The number of noncoding genes is not known with certainty but the latest estimates from Ensembl suggest 26,000 noncoding genes.
Essential genes
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250–400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10% of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~20% of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~10% of their genes). The synthetic organism, Syn 3, has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi-essential genes (necessary for fast growth), although 149 have unknown function.
Essential genes include housekeeping genes (critical for basic cell functions) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle. Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression, since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level.
Genetic and genomic nomenclature
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC), a committee of the Human Genome Organisation, for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.
For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Main textbook
– A molecular biology textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf.
Glossary
Ch 1: Cells and genomes
1.1: The Universal Features of Cells on Earth
Ch 2: Cell Chemistry and Biosynthesis
2.1: The Chemical Components of a Cell
Ch 3: Proteins
Ch 4: DNA and Chromosomes
4.1: The Structure and Function of DNA
4.2: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber
Ch 5: DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination
5.2: DNA Replication Mechanisms
5.4: DNA Repair
5.5: General Recombination
Ch 6: How Cells Read the Genome: From DNA to Protein
6.1: DNA to RNA
6.2: RNA to Protein
Ch 7: Control of Gene Expression
7.1: An Overview of Gene Control
7.2: DNA-Binding Motifs in Gene Regulatory Proteins
7.3: How Genetic Switches Work
7.5: Posttranscriptional Controls
7.6: How Genomes Evolve
Ch 14: Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
14.4: The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Plastids
Ch 18: The Mechanics of Cell Division
18.1: An Overview of M Phase
18.2: Mitosis
Ch 20: Germ Cells and Fertilization
20.2: Meiosis
Further reading
External links
Comparative Toxicogenomics Database
DNA From The Beginning – a primer on genes and DNA
Entrez Gene – a searchable database of genes
Genes – an Open Access journal
IDconverter – converts gene IDs between public databases
iHOP – Information Hyperlinked over Proteins
TranscriptomeBrowser – Gene expression profile analysis
The Protein Naming Utility, a database to identify and correct deficient gene names
IMPC (International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium) – Encyclopedia of mammalian gene function
Global Genes Project – Leading non-profit organization supporting people living with genetic diseases
ENCODE threads Explorer Characterization of intergenic regions and gene definition. Nature
Cloning
Molecular biology
Wikipedia articles with sections published in WikiJournal of Medicine |
4250649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Tares | Parable of the Tares | The Parable of the Weeds or Tares (KJV: tares, WNT: darnel, DRB: cockle) is a parable of Jesus which appears in . The parable relates how servants eager to pull up weeds were warned that in so doing they would root out the wheat as well and were told to let both grow together until the harvest. Later in Matthew, the weeds are identified with "the children of the evil one", the wheat with "the children of the Kingdom", and the harvest with "the end of the age". A shorter, compressed version of the parable is found without any interpretation in the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas.
Narrative
The parable in the Gospel of Matthew goes as follows:
Analysis
The word translated "tares" in the King James Version is (zizania), plural of (zizanion). This word is thought to mean darnel (Lolium temulentum), a ryegrass which looks much like wheat in its early stages of growth. The Weymouth New Testament, a translation of the Greek, translates the word as "Darnel". The Douay-Rheims Bible translates the word as "Cockle", possibly referring to the "White Cockle". Roman law prohibited sowing darnel among the wheat of an enemy, suggesting that the scenario presented here is realistic. Many translations use "weeds" instead of "tares".
A similar metaphor is wheat and chaff, replacing (growing) tares by (waste) chaff, and in other places in the Bible "wicked ones" are likened to chaff.
Interpretation
An eschatological interpretation is provided by Jesus in :
Although Jesus has distinguished between people who are part of the Kingdom of Heaven and those who are not, this difference may not always be readily apparent, as the parable of the Leaven indicates. However, the final judgment will be the "ultimate turning-point when the period of the secret growth of God's kingdom alongside the continued activity of the evil one will be brought to an end, and the new age which was inaugurated in principle in Jesus' earthly ministry will be gloriously consummated."
St. Augustine pointed out that the invisible distinction between "wheat" and "tares" also runs through the Church:
Some Christians understand "the children of the evil one" and "the children of the kingdom" to be something else than humans. Origen for instance offered such an interpretation. He also argued that Jesus's interpretation of the parable needs an interpretation of its own, pointing to the phrase with which Jesus followed his exposition of the parable, namely, "He who has ears to hear, let him hear", which occurs after biblical passages with a hidden meaning (see and ). Here is an abridged version of Origen's commentary on Jesus's interpretation of the parable:
The parable seems to have been interpreted in a similar way by Athenagoras who stated that "false opinions are an aftergrowth from another sowing", and by St. Gregory Nazianzen who exhorted those who were going to be baptized: "Only be not ignorant of the measure of grace; only let not the enemy, while you sleep, maliciously sow tares." Moreover, St. Gregory of Nyssa relates how his sister St. Macrina cited the parable as a scriptural support for her idea that God gave humans a passionate nature for a good purpose and that passions become vices when we fail to use our reason properly. In her opinion, the "impulses of the soul, each one of which, if only they are cultured for good, necessarily puts forth the fruit of virtue within us", are the good seed, among which "the bad seed of the error of judgment as to the true Beauty" has been scattered. From the bad seed, "the growth of delusion" springs up by which the true Beauty "has been thrown into the shade." Due to this, "the seed of anger does not steel us to be brave, but only arms us to fight with our own people; and the power of loving deserts its intellectual objects and becomes completely mad for the immoderate enjoyment of pleasures of sense; and so in like manner our other affections put forth the worse instead of the better growths." But "the wise Husbandman" leaves the growth of the "error as to Beauty" to remain among his seed, "so as to secure our not being altogether stripped of better hopes" by our passions having been rooted out along with it. For "if love is taken from us, how shall we be united to God? If anger is to be extinguished, what arms shall we possess against the adversary? Therefore the Husbandman leaves those bastard seeds within us, not for them always to overwhelm the more precious crop, but in order that the land itself (for so, in his allegory, he calls the heart) by its native inherent power, which is that of reasoning, may wither up the one growth and may render the other fruitful and abundant: but if that is not done, then he commissions the fire to mark the distinction in the crops." Finally, Theophylact of Ohrid believed that the parable has a double meaning, writing that the field "is the world, or, each one’s soul", that the "good seed is good people, or, good thoughts", and that the tares are heretics, or, bad thoughts.
Religious toleration
The Parable of the Tares has often been cited in support of various degrees of religious toleration. Once the wheat is identified with orthodox believers and the tares with heretics, the command Let both grow together until the harvest becomes a call for toleration (at least to some degree). However, the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church explicitly reject such an interpretation, interpreting the tares as bad but right-believing members of the Church, but excluding manifest heretics from the Church altogether.
Preaching on the parable, St. John Chrysostom declared that "it is not right to put a heretic to death, since an implacable war would be brought into the world" which would lead to the death of many saints. Furthermore, he suggested that the phrase Lest ye root up the wheat with them can mean "that of the very tares it is likely that many may change and become wheat." However, he also asserted that God does not forbid depriving heretics of their freedom of speech, and "breaking up their assemblies and confederacies".
In his "Letter to Bishop Roger of Chalons", Bishop Wazo of Liege (c. 985-1048 AD) relied on the parable to argue that "the church should let dissent grow with orthodoxy until the Lord comes to separate and judge them", a remarkable departure from the standard Catholic view of the time of handing over heretics to the secular arm to be punished.
Opponents of toleration, such as Thomas Aquinas and the inquisitors, but also John Calvin and Theodore Beza, did not interpret the parable as excluding the execution of heretics. Some argued that a number of tares can be carefully uprooted without harming the wheat. What is more, the tares could be identified with moral offenders within the Church, not heretics who were never considered to be true members of the Church, or alternatively the prohibition of pulling up the tares could be applied only to the clergy, not to the magistrates. As a millennialist, Thomas Müntzer could call for rooting up the tares, claiming that the time of harvest had come.
Martin Luther preached a sermon on the parable in which he affirmed that only God can separate false from true believers and stressed that killing heretics ends any opportunity they may have for salvation:
From this observe what raging and furious people we have been these many years, in that we desired to force others to believe; the Turks with the sword, heretics with fire, the Jews with death, and thus outroot the tares by our own power, as if we were the ones who could reign over hearts and spirits, and make them pious and right, which God's Word alone must do. But by murder we separate the people from the Word, so that it cannot possibly work upon them and we bring thus, with one stroke a double murder upon ourselves, as far as it lies in our power, namely, in that we murder the body for time and the soul for eternity, and afterwards say we did God a service by our actions, and wish to merit something special in heaven.
He concluded that "although the tares hinder the wheat, yet they make it the more beautiful to behold". Several years later, however, Luther emphasized that the magistrates should eliminate heretics: "The magistrate bears the sword with the command to cut off offense. ... Now the most dangerous and atrocious offense is false teaching and an incorrect church service." Ironically, the Catholic Church considered Martin Luther and the rest of the Protestant Reformers to be heretics themselves.
Roger Williams, a Baptist theologian and founder of Rhode Island, used this parable to support government toleration of all of the "weeds" (heretics) in the world, because civil persecution often inadvertently hurts the "wheat" (believers) too. Instead, Williams believed it was God's duty to judge in the end, not man's. This parable lent further support to Williams' Biblical philosophy of a wall of separation between church and state as described in his 1644 book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution.
The Protestant John Milton, in Areopagitica (1644), calling for freedom of speech and condemning Parliament's attempt to license printing, referred to this parable and the Parable of Drawing in the Net, both found in Matthew 13:
[I]t is not possible for man to sever the wheat from the tares, the good fish from the other fry; that must be the Angels' ministry at the end of mortal things.
Commentary from the Church Fathers
Chrysostom: "In the foregoing parable the Lord spoke to such as do not receive the word of God; here of those who receive a corrupting seed. This is the contrivance of the Devil, ever to mix error with truth."
Jerome: "He set forth also this other parable, as it were a rich householder refreshing his guests with various meats, that each one according to the nature of his stomach might find some food adapted to him. He said not ‘a second parable,’ but another; for had He said ‘a second,’ we could not have looked for a third; but another prepares us for many more."
Saint Remigius: "Here He calls the Son of God Himself the kingdom of heaven; for He saith, The kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that sowed good seed in his field."
Chrysostom: "He then points out the manner of the Devil’s snares, saying, While men slept, his enemy came and sowed tares in the midst of the wheat, and departed. He here shows that error arose after truth, as indeed the course of events testifies; for the false prophets came after the Prophets, the false apostles after the Apostles, and Antichrist after Christ. For unless the Devil sees somewhat to imitate, and some to lay in wait against, he does not attempt any thing. Therefore because he saw that this man bears fruit an hundred, this sixty, and this thirty-fold, and that he was not able to carry off or to choke that which had. taken root, he turns to other insidious practices, mixing up his own seed, which is a counterfeit of the true, and thereby imposes upon such as are prone to be deceived. So the parable speaks, not of another seed, but of tares which bear a great likeness to wheat corn. Further, the malignity of the Devil is shown in this, that he sowed when all else was completed, that he might do the greater hurt to the husbandman."
Chrysostom: "In what follows He more particularly draws the picture of an heretic, in the words, When the blade grew, and put forth fruit, then appeared the tares also. For heretics at first keep themselves in the shade; but when they have had long license, and when men have held communication with them in discourse, then they pour forth their venom."
Augustine: "Or otherwise; When a man begins to be spiritual, discerning between things, then he begins to see errors; for he judges concerning whatsoever he hears or reads, whether it departs from the rule of truth; but until he is perfected in the same spiritual things, he might be disturbed at so many false heresies having existed under the Christian name, whence it follows, And the servants of the householder coming to him said unto him, Didst thou not sow good seed in thy field? whence then hath it tares? Are these servants then the same as those whom He afterwards calls reapers? Because in His exposition of the parable, He expounds the reapers to be the Angels, and none would dare to say that the Angels were ignorant who had sowed tares, we should the rather understand that the faithful are here intended by the servants. And no wonder if they are also signified by the good seed; for the same thing admits of different likenesses according to its different significations; as speaking of Himself He says that He is the door, he is the shepherd."
Saint Remigius: "They came to the Lord not with the body, but with the heart and desire of the soul; and from Him they gather that this was done by the craft of the Devil, whence it follows, And he saith unto them, An enemy hath done this."
Jerome: "The Devil is called a man that is an enemy because he has ceased to be God; and in the ninth Psalm it is written of him, Up, Lord, and let not man have the upper hand. Wherefore let not him sleep that is set over the Church, lest through his carelessness the enemy should sow therein tares, that is, the dogmas of the heretics."
Chrysostom: "He is called the enemy on account of the losses he inflicts on men; for the assaults of the Devil are made upon us, though their origin is not in his enmity towards us, but in his enmity towards God."
Augustine: "And when the servants of God knew that it was the Devil who had contrived this fraud, whereby when he found that he had no power in open warfare against a Master of such great name, he had introduced his fallacies under cover of that name itself, the desire might readily arise in them to remove such men from out of human affairs if opportunity should be given them; but they first appeal to God’s justice whether they should so do; The servants said, Wilt thou that we go and gather them out?"
Chrysostom: "Wherein observe the thoughtfulness and affection of the servants; they hasten to root up the tares, thus showing their anxiety about the good seed; for this is all to which they look, not that any should be punished, but that that which is sown should not perish. The Lord’s answer follows, And he saith unto them, Nay."
Jerome: "For room for repentance is left, and we are warned that we should not hastily cut off a brother, since one who is to-day corrupted with an erroneous dogma, may grow wiser tomorrow, and begin to defend the truth; wherefore it is added, Lest in gathering together the tares ye root out the wheat also."
Jerome: "But this seems to contradict that command, Put away the evil from among you. (1 Cor. 5:13) For if the rooting up be forbidden, and we are to abide in patience till the harvest-time, how are we to cast forth any from among us? But between wheat and tares (which in Latin we call ‘lolium’) so long as it is only in blade, before the stalk has put forth an ear, there is very great resemblance, and none or little difference to distinguish them by. The Lord then warns us not to pass a hasty sentence on an ambiguous word, but to reserve it for His judgment, that when the day of judgment shall come, He may cast forth from the assembly of the saints no longer on suspicion but on manifest guilt."
Chrysostom: "This the Lord spake to forbid any putting to death. For we ought not to kill an heretic, seeing that so a never-ending war would be introduced into the world; and therefore He says, Lest ye root out with them the wheat also; that is, if you draw the sword and put the heretic to death, it must needs be that many of the saints will fall with them. Hereby He does not indeed forbid all restraint upon heretics, that their freedom of speech should be cut off, that their synods and their confessions should be broken up—but only forbids that they should be put to death."
Saint Remigius: "It follows, And in the time of harvest I will say to the reapers, Gather together first the tares, and bind them in bundles to burn them. The harvest is the season of reaping which here designates the day of judgment, in which the good are to be separated from the bad."
Chrysostom: "But why does He say, Gather first the tares? That the good should have no fears lest the wheat should be rooted up with them:"
Jerome: "In that He says that the bundles of tares are to be cast into the fire, and the wheat gathered into barns, it is clear that heretics also and hypocrites are to be consumed in the fires of hell, while the saints who are here represented by the wheat are received into the barns, that is into heavenly mansions."
Augustine: "It may be asked why He commands more than one bundle or heap of tares to be formed? Perhaps because of the variety of heretics differing not only from the wheat, but also among themselves, each several heresy, separated from communion with all the others, is designated as a bundle; and perhaps they may even then begin to be bound together for burning, when they first sever themselves from the Catholic communion, and begin to have their independent church, so that it is the burning and not the binding into bundles that will take place at the end of the world. But were this so, there would not be so many who would become wise again, and return from error into the Catholic Church. Wherefore we must understand the binding into bundles to be what shall come to pass in the end, that punishment should fall on them not promiscuously, but in due proportion to the obstinacy and wilfulness of each separate error."
Rabanus Maurus: "when He says, Sowed good seed, He intends that good will which is in the elect; when He adds, An enemy came, He intimates that watch should be kept against him; when as the tares grow up, He suffers it patiently, saying, An enemy hath done this, He recommends to us patience; when He says, Lest haply in gathering the tares, &c. He sets us an example of discretion; when He says, Suffer both to grow together till the harvest, He teaches us long-suffering; and, lastly, He inculcates justice, when He says, Bind them into bundles to burn."
Depictions
This parable has been depicted by several artists, including William Blake, Abraham Bloemaert, Albin Egger-Lienz, Domenico Fetti, Jan Luyken, John Everett Millais, Félicien Rops, James Tissot, and Roger Wagner.
Henry Alford used the parable as the primary basis for his harvest hymn "Come, Ye Thankful People, Come".
See also
Five Discourses of Matthew
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Ministry of Jesus
References
Tares, Parable of the
Gospel of Matthew
Satan |
4250744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20American%20Civil%20War%20Memorial%20Museum | African American Civil War Memorial Museum | The African American Civil War Memorial Museum, in the U Street district of Washington, D.C., recognizes the contributions of the 209,145 members of the United States Colored Troops (USCT). The eponymous memorial, dedicated in July 1998 by the African American Civil War Memorial Freedom Foundation, commemorates the service of 209,145 African-American soldiers and about 7,000 white and 2,145 Hispanic soldiers, together with the approximate 20,000 unsegregated Navy sailors, who fought for the Union in the American Civil War, mostly among the 175 regiments of United States Colored Troops.
The Memorial is at the corner of Vermont Avenue, 10th Street, and U Street NW in Washington, D.C. It holds a 9-foot bronze statue, The Spirit of Freedom, by Ed Hamilton of Louisville, Kentucky, commissioned by the DC Commission on the Arts and Humanities in 1993 and completed in 1997. The memorial includes a walking area with curved panel short walls inscribed with the names of the men who served in the war.
The Museum is across the street from the Memorial, at 1925 Vermont Ave. NW. Plans are in place for it to move into the former Grimké School, at 1923 Vermont Ave. NW. As of 2018 the Museum is housed in the former gymnasium of the school, which was converted into an office building in the 1980s.
Both are served by the U Street station on the Washington Metro, served by the Yellow and Green Lines.
History
The memorial
The memorial was developed by the African American Civil War Memorial Freedom Foundation and Museum. It was transferred to the National Park Service (NPS) on October 27, 2004. The National Mall and Memorial Parks office of the NPS now manages the site.
The museum
The African American Civil War Museum is located directly across from the memorial at 1925 Vermont Avenue. From July 16–18, 2011, it celebrated its grand opening in a new facility, with a weekend of speakers and events devoted to racial reconciliation. It planned four years of activities to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the war and African-American contributions.
The museum opened in January 1999 in a building two blocks west of the memorial in the historic U Street Corridor, a neighborhood traditionally the heart of African-American entertainment and theater in Washington. The museum enables visitors, researchers, and descendants of the United States Colored Troops to better understand their stories. It displays photographs, newspaper articles, and replicas of period clothing, and uniforms and weaponry of the Civil War.
The African American Civil War Memorial Registry at the museum documents the family trees of more than 2,000 descendants of those men who served with the USCT. Other descendants may register. Visitors can easily search the database to find ancestors and relatives registered in the Descendants Registry.
Notable people
A number of men have had their service and lives noted. Among the nearly 220,000 names here are some whose service and lives have been documented. Many earned a Medal of Honor, the highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that may be awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who distinguished themselves by acts of valor, during their service in a black regiment during the war. Additionally many earned a brevet promotion which was a warrant giving a commissioned officer a higher rank title as a reward for gallantry or meritorious conduct, but without conferring the authority, precedence, or pay of real rank.
George E. Albee (January 27, 1845 – March 24, 1918) was a lieutenant in the 36th United States Colored Infantry.
Samuel C. Armstrong (January 30, 1839 – May 11, 1893, in Maui, Hawaii) Commanded union black soldiers in the civil war, established Hampton University 1868. Served as a lieutenant colonel assigned to the 9th United States Colored Infantry and then command of the 8th United States Colored Troops.
John F. Appleton (August 29, 1838 – August 31, 1870) had command of the 81st Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops.
William H. Appleton (March 24, 1843 – September 9, 1912) served in the 4th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Alexander Thomas Augusta (March 8, 1825 – December 21, 1890) was a Regimental Surgeon of the 7th United States Colored Troops.
William H. Barnes (c. 1840 or 1845 – December 24, 1866) served in the 38th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Charles L. Barrell (August 1, 1842 – April 18, 1914) served in the 102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops as a flag holder, attained the rank of first lieutenant, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Jesse T. Barrick (January 18, 1841 – November 3, 1923) served in the 57th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Powhatan Beaty (October 8, 1837 – December 6, 1916) served in the 5th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Orson W. Bennett (November 17, 1841 – January 8, 1904) served in the 102nd Regiment United States Colored Troops and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Frederick Benteen (August 24, 1834 – June 22, 1898) served in the 138th United States Colored Volunteers and was given awards for his service during the war.
William Birney (May 28, 1819 – August 14, 1907) was a colonel of the 22nd United States Colored Troops and then with the 3rd Division of the X Corps and given awards for his service during the war.
Lionel F. Booth was a commander of the 6th United States Regiment Colored Heavy Artillery and was killed in action on April 12, 1864, at the Battle of Fort Pillow.
Felix Brannigan (1844 – June 10, 1907) was officer in the 103rd United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
James H. Bronson (1838 – March 16, 1884) served in the 5th U.S. Colored Infantry Regiment, rose to the rank of first sergeant, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Peter Bruner (1845 – April 6, 1938) escaped slavery and served in the 12th Regiment Heavy Artillery United States Colored Troops.
George W. Brush (October 4, 1842 – November 18, 1927) served in the 34th Infantry Regiment United States Colored Troops and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Edward Lyon Buchwalter (June 1, 1841 – October 4, 1933) served as captain of the 53rd Mississippi Colored Volunteers Infantry
Louis H. Carpenter (February 11, 1839 – January 21, 1916) served as commander in the 5th United States Colored Cavalry.
Peter J. Carter (May 29, 1845 – July 19, 1886) served in the 10th United States Colored Infantry.
Thornton Chase (February 22, 1847 – September 30, 1912) served as first lieutenant of 26th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops and then as a captain in the 104th United States Colored Infantry.
Emmet Crawford (December 22, 1844 – January 18, 1886) served in the 13th United States Colored Artillery at the end of the war.
Samuel J. Crawford (April 10, 1835 – October 21, 1913) served as colonel of the 2nd Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry (Colored).
Andrew Davidson (February 12, 1840 – November 10, 1902) served with the 30th United States Colored Troops where he was promoted to first lieutenant and later regimental adjutant and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Hasbrouck Davis (April 19, 1827 – October 19, 1870) and served with the 3rd Regiment Cavalry United States Colored Troops.
Martin Delany (May 6, 1812 – January 24, 1885) was commissioned as a major, the first black line field officer in the war and achieving the highest rank an African American during the war.
Charles DeRudio (August 26, 1832 – November 1, 1910) served as second lieutenant in the 2nd United States Colored Infantry.
Joel Dewey (September 20, 1840 – June 17, 1873) served as lieutenant colonel of the 111th United States Colored Infantry.
John Eaton (December 5, 1829 – February 9, 1906) served in the 63rd United States Colored Infantry and rose to brevet brigadier general.
Alonzo J. Edgerton (June 7, 1827 – August 9, 1896) served as colonel of the 67th Regiment Infantry United States Colored Troops and rose to the rank of a brigadier general.
Nathan H. Edgerton (August 28, 1839 – October 27, 1932) was commissioned a first lieutenant in the 6th United States Colored Infantry and became the adjutant of the unit.
Ira Hobart Evans (April 11, 1844 – April 19, 1922) was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the 9th United States Colored Troops. In January, 1865 he was promoted to captain in the 116th United States Colored Troops, promoted to brevet major and assigned as assistant Adjutant of the XXV Army Corps, Army of the James. He received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Bernard Gaines Farrar Jr (1831–1916) served with the 6th United States Colored Heavy Artillery.
Berthold Fernow (November 28, 1837 – March 3, 1908) served as lieutenant of the 3rd United States Colored troops.
Christian Fleetwood (July 21, 1840 – September 28, 1914) was commissioned as sergeant the 4th Regiment United States Colored Infantry and rose to sergeant major.
James Daniel Gardner (September 16, 1839 – September 29, 1905) served in the 36th Regiment United States Colored Troops and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Gordon or "Whipped Peter" escaped slavery and served in one of many Louisiana Union Civil War units.
Adolphus Greely (March 27, 1844 – October 20, 1935) commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant in the 81st United States Colored Infantry, promoted to 1st lieutenant and then captain.
Henry M. Hardenbergh (c. 1843 – August 28, 1865) earned a lieutenant's commission in the 36th United States Colored Troops during the war and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
James H. Harris (1828 – January 28, 1898) served in the 38th United States Colored Troops quickly promoted and then sergeant and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Llewellyn F. Haskell (October 8, 1842 – November 26, 1929) was commissioned as lieutenant colonel of the 7th United States Colored Infantry and later promoted to the command of the 41st United States Colored Infantry.
Thomas R. Hawkins (1840 – February 28, 1870) rose to the rank of sergeant major of the 6th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Alfred B. Hilton (1842 – October 21, 1864) served with the 4th Regiment United States Colored Infantry and posthumously received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Edward Winslow Hinks (May 30, 1830 – February 14, 1894) served as a commander in the XVIII Corps.
Milton M. Holland (August 1, 1844 – May 15, 1910) initially as the serving as a sergeant major of the 5th United States Colored Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Charles Henry Howard (August 28, 1838 – January 27, 1908) commanding the United States Colored Troops training camp at Beaufort, South Carolina, as well as the 128th United States Colored Infantry, and was promoted to brevet brigadier general
Joshua B. Howell (September 11, 1806 – September 14, 1864) serving in the XVIII and X Corps, died during battle and was posthumously promoted to brigadier general.
Miles James (1829 – August 28, 1871) serving as corporal in the 36th United States Colored Troops, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
J. R. Kealoha (? – March 5, 1877) serving in the 41st United States Colored Infantry.
Alexander Kelly (April 7, 1840 – June 19, 1907) rising to a first sergeant of the 6th U.S. Colored Infantry, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Bradford Leavitt (1868 – after 1912) serving in the 70th United States Colored Infantry as well as the 12th United States Colored Heavy Artillery.
Hermann Lieb (May 24, 1826 – March 5, 1908) started with the 9th Louisiana Regiment Infantry (African Descent) which eventually became the 5th U.S. Colored Heavy Artillery and promoted to brevet brigadier general.
Samuel R. Lowery (December 9, 1830– circa 1900) serving initially as chaplain of the 9th United States Heavy Artillery U.S. Colored Troops and later as teacher for the 2nd United States Colored Light Artillery.
Elijah P. Marrs (January 1840 – August 30, 1910) serving as sergeant in the 12th Regiment Heavy Artillery U.S. Colored Troops.
Edelmiro Mayer (28 May 1834 – 4 January 1897) was promoted to lieutenant colonel commanding the 45th United States Infantry Colored regiment.
Selah Merrill (May 2, 1837 – January 22, 1909) serving as chaplain of the 49th United States Colored Infantry.
Thomas Mower McDougall (21 May 1845 – 3 July 1909) serving as 2nd lieutenant of the 10th United States Louisiana Volunteers of African Descent, later redesignated as 48th US Colored Infantry.
Charles E. Nash (May 23, 1844 – June 21, 1913) serving in the 82nd Regiment United States Volunteers and was promoted to the rank of sergeant major.
Wyatt Outlaw (1820 – February 26, 1870) serving in the 2nd Regiment United States Colored Cavalry.
P. B. S. Pinchback (May 10, 1837 – December 21, 1921) serving as a company commander in the 2nd Louisiana Regiment Native Guard Infantry, made up mostly of escaped slaves, later reformed as the 74th US Colored Infantry Regiment.
Robert Pinn (March 1, 1843 – January 5, 1911) serving as first sergeant in the 5th United States Colored Infantry Regiment, also known as the 127th Ohio Volunteer Infantry and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
Samuel Miller Quincy (1832 – March 24, 1887) was recommissioned as the lieutenant colonel of the 73rd United States Colored Infantry Regiment and was promoted to colonel in command of the regiment.
Benjamin F. Randolph (1820 – October 16, 1868) as chaplain in the 26th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops.
William Gould (W.G.) Raymond (1819–1893) serving as chaplain in the 1st United States Colored Infantry.
Pleasant Richardson (1845 – May 30, 1935) was a former slave, and served in the 45th United States Colored Infantry Regiment.
Edward Ratcliff (February 8, 1835 – March 10, 1915) serving as first sergeant in the 38th Regiment United States Colored Troops.
Hiram Scofield (July 1, 1830 – December 30, 1906) serving in the 8th Louisiana Regiment Infantry (African Descent), later reorganized as the 47th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops and rising as a brevet brigadier general.
Robert Smalls (April 5, 1839 – February 23, 1915) was commissioned second lieutenant of the 1st South Carolina Volunteers (later re-designated as the 33rd US Colored Infantry,) and his service in the navy was also recognized.
Preston Taylor (November 7, 1849 – April 13, 1931) enlisted the 116th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops as a drummer.
Walter Thorn (November 18, 1844 – July 20, 1920) served as second lieutenant in the 116th United States Colored Troops, attained the rank of major, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
David Torrance (March 3, 1840 – September 5, 1906) was commissioned a captain in the 29th Regiment U.S. Colored Troops and rose to serve as a lieutenant colonel.
Benjamin F. Tracy (April 26, 1830 – August 6, 1915) was appointed a colonel of the 127th Infantry, U.S. Colored Troops.
Henry McNeal Turner (February 1, 1834 – May 8, 1915) served as a chaplain in one of the first regiments of black troops.
John B. Weber (September 21, 1842 – December 18, 1926) commanded of the 89th United States Colored Infantry.
James F. Wade (April 14, 1843 – August 23, 1921) was promoted as a brevet lieutenant colonel of the 6th United States Colored Cavalry.
Josiah T. Walls (December 30, 1842 – May 15, 1905) volunteered and was assigned to a United States Colored Troops regiment and rose to the rank of corporal.
Godfrey Weitzel (November 1, 1835 – March 19, 1884) was assigned command of the XXV Corps.
Lewis Ledyard Weld (May 13, 1833 – January 10, 1865) enrolled as a major, and subsequently became a lieutenant colonel of the 41st United States Colored Troops.
Edward A. Wild (November 25, 1825 – August 28, 1891) was a brigadier general with a command of a brigade of black infantry comprised the 55th Massachusetts Infantry, and the 2nd and 3rd North Carolina Colored Volunteers (which later became renumbered as the 36th and 37th United States Colored Troops respectively).
James Monroe Williams (September 12, 1833 – February 15, 1907) was the initial commander of the 1st Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry (Colored) and then commissioned as a lieutenant colonel as the 79th Regiment Infantry U.S. Colored Troops, and was later promoted to the rank of colonel.
Henry Wilson (February 16, 1812 – November 22, 1875) served in the 31st and 104th Regiments of United States Colored Troops, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the 104th.
Stewart L. Woodford (September 3, 1835 – February 14, 1913) was a colonel of the 103rd Colored Infantry Regiment and rose to brevet brigadier general.
C. C. Vaughn (December 27, 1846 – October 21, 1923) enlisted in the 13th Regiment Heavy Artillery U.S. Colored Troops and was promoted to orderly sergeant.
Charles Veale (1838 – July 27, 1872) enlisting as a private in the 4th Regiment United States Colored Infantry and was promoted to corporal, and received the Medal of Honor for service during the war.
George Ziegler (1832–1912) was colonel of the 52nd Regiment of U.S. Colored Troops and was promoted to brevet brigadier general.
See also
Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War
List of United States Colored Troops Civil War units
List of museums focused on African Americans
References
External links
African American Civil War Memorial and Museum
African American Civil War Memorial – National Park Service
18 photos, Sites of Memory Website
Ed Hamilton, The Spirit of Freedom, Ed Hamilton Official Web Site
Spirit of Freedom Inventory of American Sculpture Survey
"African Americans and the Civil War", image slideshow, Life magazine
1997 sculptures
2004 establishments in Washington, D.C.
African-American military monuments and memorials
African-American museums in Washington, D.C.
Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War
American Civil War museums in Washington, D.C.
Bronze sculptures in Washington, D.C.
National Mall and Memorial Parks
Sculptures of African Americans
Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in Washington, D.C. |
4250972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helspont | Helspont | Helspont is a fictional character and a former supervillain in Wildstorm's comics who was transplanted to the DC Universe. In addition to the WildC.A.T.s, he has also fought Team One, Gen¹³, Backlash, and when folded into the DC Universe, Superman.
Fictional character biography
A member of the alien race known as the Daemonites, Helspont was a military lord. He was, essentially, the general who would command Daemonite forces in the field. Helspont possessed a being from another alien race (before the Wildstorm Universe separated from the Image universe, the being he possessed was an Acurian) at some unknown point in time (centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, according to Spartan), becoming his usual form. Helspont was stationed on the Daemonite ship that crashed on Earth thousands of years ago. He, along with the two other highest-ranked surviving Daemonites, took the title High Lord and became a leader to the other Daemonites. Helspont had many Daemonites serving under him, though another lord, Defile, formed his rival faction. Helspont and his servants also formed alliances with several humans over the years, using the name "The Cabal" to refer to their organization at least once before the mid-20th Century.
During the Third Crusade, Helspont found an English crusader, Dakor of Cambria, who intended to commit suicide. Dakor had previously been found, severely injured, by the Kherubim warrior Zealot, then known as Constance, who attempted to train him in the ways of the Coda, the female warrior society to which she belonged. However, Dakor had failed Constance's tests and she and another Coda defeated him in combat. Shamed by having been defeated by women, Dakor attempted suicide, only to be stopped by Helspont, who convinced him that Constance had used magic to steal his strength and leading him to believe the duel was unfair as he was outnumbered. Helspont, wanting his own organization to counter-balance the Coda, had Dakor create a group of warriors known as the Quiet Men. The Quiet Men would go on to fight against the Coda and Zealot multiple times over the following centuries.
In the 1960s, Helspont encountered post-human mobster Slaughterhouse Smith and his gang, offering Smith control over North America by the end of the decade if he allied himself with Helspont against humanity, although how Helspont planned to achieve this has yet to be revealed. Helspont, his Daemonite foot-soldiers and Smith and his gang formed a new Cabal. Helspont led the Cabal in an attack on a U.S. nuclear missile base with the aim of using the nuclear missiles in the base to hold the country for ransom. Helspont ordered the Cabal to nuke New York City as a warning to the government, though Smith refused, since his family lived in New York, and his men turned against him, siding with Helspont. Helspont revealed his true goal to Smith as the destruction of the world. The U.S. government strike team known as Team One attempted to foil the Cabal's plans. Helspont briefly engaged in battle with Marc Slayton, before the fight was interrupted by Cabal member Daniel Pike. Helspont then found himself locked in battle with one his most hated enemies, Mr. Majestic, the two being evenly-matched. Helspont's plan failed due to Team One's intervention, and he went on to escape.
Reunification
Helspont returned with a new plan in the 90s. Instead of eradicating the human race on his own, he planned on contacting a Daemonite armada. Once contact was established, the next stage of his plan was to open a stargate in Earth's orbit so the fleet of alien ships at Daemon could reach Earth quickly and attack from space. The name of the process was the Reunification. To create and maintain the portal needed for the Reunification, Helspont needed one of several magical orbs of power. One of the other orbs was carried inside the body of Void, a member of the WildC.A.T.s. Since she carried an orb inside her, she knew when another one was being targeted and was able to warn Lord Emp, leader of the WildC.A.T.s before it was too late, and they fought to prevent Helspont from succeeding. To help him get the orb before the WildC.A.T.s could stop him, Helspont created his own group, a new incarnation of The Cabal. This Cabal was made up of Helspont, a Coda, Pike, a psychic named Providence, and a few humans and numerous Daemonites.
The first battle between the WildC.A.T.s and Helspont's people occurred in the first issue of WildC.A.T.S: Covert Action Teams, when Grifter was sent to recruit Voodoo. Helspont's hired Coda warrior and two Daemonites attacked him as he tried to recruit her. The attack ended with the destruction of the entire location in a fiery explosion, the deaths of Helspont's warriors, and the WildC.A.T.s' escape. However, Helspont continued with his goal for Reunification believing that they had died.
The next stage involved having one of his Daemonites break into a NASA compound and steal the orb. After the orb was stolen, the last step was getting a Daemonite into the body of Dan Quayle, the Vice President of the United States. This went without incident and now, with an inside man, he was able to secure a military base which provided the right machinery to operate the orb. Operating the orb would create the stargate.
To keep the WildC.A.T.s off his back, he'd tricked them into fight the Youngblood, another Wildstorm Team. Before the two teams could figure out they had been tricked, Spartan was almost totally destroyed. Voodoo and Maul were also incapacitated, and the rest of the team was forced abandon them and go after Helspont alone. Just as Helspont and his scientists had started to activate the machines to begin the Reunification, the remainder of the WildC.A.T.s (Emp, Zealot, Grifter, Warblade and Void) arrived and attacked. While Helspont tried to hurry up the process of Reunification, the super powered members of his Cabal (Pike and The Coda and a Daemonite) fought the WildC.A.T.s. Meanwhile, elsewhere in the base, another member of Helspont's Cabal arrived with his own minions. Gnome had planned on betraying Helspont from the start so he could wield the power of the orb on his own. He'd hired the Troika and his own Coda warrior and while Helspont's people fought the C.A.T.s, he made his way towards them. Unbeknown to all of these people, back where the Youngblood and WildC.A.T.s had been fighting, Voodoo, Maul and Spartan had all regained enough strength to kill the Daemonite in the body of the Vice President and fill the Youngblood in on what was happening. Back in the heart of the base, Helspont saw Emp for the first time that night and recognized him as an enemy he'd thought he'd killed when he fought Team One. This obviously angered Helspont and he started fighting on his own, no longer relying on Pike and The Coda to do it for him. With a few energy attacks and psychic assaults, he quickly took down the WildC.A.T.s on his own. With all his enemies out of the picture, Helspont activated the orb, opened a stargate in Earth-space and the night sky began to fill with Daemonite ships.
As Helspont basked in his victory, Voodoo, Maul and the entire Youngblood team (accompanied by Dan Quayle) attacked. This didn't bother him though. He laughed as he created a powerful energy shield that stopped the combined attack and then disabled the entire team in one blast. As the orb continued to bring in more ships, Emp used a hidden communicator to contact Spartan, who was at the buildings core, where the machines that powered the whole place were. Still damaged from before, he used the last of his power to shut down the entire compound. As a result, the orb stopped working properly (destroying ships in transit as well as ones near the stargate) and the machines that had been powering it exploded. Helspont was thrown back by the explosion but wouldn't give up on his chance to take over the world. He went to get what was left of the orb so he could use it, but when he reached the machine, he found Gnome and his men. Gnome revealed that he had rigged the whole place to blow and before anyone could react, he unleashed all of the power of the orb onto Helspont in an attempt to kill him. As Helspont lay motionless on the ground, the WildC.A.T.s attacked Gnome and the Troika. Emp blew off the arm of Gnome and he dropped the orb down a shaft. He dove after it while everyone that was still alive escaped the building. The entire compound exploded moments later and Helspont, Gnome and the orb were all assumed dead or destroyed.
Mr. Majestic
Helspont went on to pose as James Wyvern, owner of technology company Pacificon. Much of the technology created by Pacificon was reverse-engineered from Kherubim tech. Majestic, his partner Desmond and Zealot of the Wildcats encountered Wyvern in a defective Planet Shaper, which Wyvern had designs on. Helspont went on to reveal his true identity and obtain control over the Planet Shaper, using to reveal its purpose and means of operation. The Planet Shaper revealed that it existed to not only alter planets to better match the conditions necessary for Kherubim life, but also generate Kherubim life forms and alter existing beings into servant species and keep them from rebelling against the Kherubims, the Daemonites being a potential servant species that were considered too aberrant, leading the Kherubim to attempt to exterminate them, leading to the Daemonite-Kherubim War. This revelation led Helspont to feel his hatred of Khera and the Kherubims was further justified, and he attacked Khera. Helspont eventually ceased his attack and fled.
Desmond, still attached to the Planet Shaper, contacted Helspont telepathically. When Majestic (and Spartan) were ready to go fight the other Kherubim, they were met by Helspont, who was to be their ally. What Majestic and Spartan didn't know, was that Helspont planned on taking the Planet Shaper for himself after they took it from the someone's mother.
Once inside the machine, Hell fought Imperator (a uranium with powers like Majestic) while Majestic and Spartan took on other enemies. Helspont put up a good fight, easily beating Imperator for most of their battle, but the more they fought, the more his hate for uranium grew, and he stopped fighting smart. Imperator took the opportunity to laser Hell throat, then punch through him, ending his life. Or so he thought. Helspont, using his Daemonite powers, jumped into the body of Desmond, who was still connected to the machine. His mind now part of the Planet Shaper, he used the machines holograms to trick Imperator into thinking the world had been destroyed, which left him in a coma. Majestic arrived and took away Imperator's body, but wasn't fooled by the corpse of Hell old host. He knew that his enemy was still alive and would use the Planet Shaper to take over the world if he wasn't stopped. For almost three months Helspont and Majestic fought a new kind of battle. Instead of a physical one, it was a game of patience. Hell kept trying to activate the machines terraforming processes and Majestic kept shutting them down. It couldn't go on forever though, since Majestic was dying of a disease, he'd gotten from time traveling too much. Against all probability, Helspont was the one to lose. The Planet Shaper could only remain functional while there were living things on Earth, but right when Majestic was about to die, all life on Earth was kidnapped by a powerful alien force, something Majestic knew was going to happen thanks to his time traveling. With the machine deactivated, Helspont was trapped in Desmond's dead body. Majestic, dying as he did it, took Desmond's body off the machine and blasted it to ash with laser vision, killing Helspont once and for all. Helspont's victory had been snatched from him yet again.
Helspont Redux
In the Wildstorm Universe relaunch (WildCats v4) Helspont is alive and well but very different from how he was before. Though he looks mostly the same, everything about Helspont has changed. Instead of being a normal Daemonite with an amazingly powerful body, Helspont is now super evolved, living hive mind. When the number of Daemonites reaches a certain number, a "central mind" is created. It has the knowledge and intelligence of every member of the entire Daemonite race and its (synthetic) body is a mix of flesh, metal and fire. Not only does Helspont now have the minds of every Daemonite within his own, but now he can control every single Daemonite with a thought. Because of all this, he is leagues more powerful than he was before, but the state of his personal powers levels has not been addressed yet. The only thing we know about him is that he has a Daemonite armada, and he's teamed up with Kaizen Gamorra to try to take over the world.
Other schemes
Helspont has tried many times to either take over or destroy the world, but most of them weren't major enough to get their own stories. His plan to use America's own nukes to jump start a nuclear holocaust and wipe out all of humanity was very nearly successful and prompted the creation of a superhero team, so the event was cataloged. Likewise, Project Reunification actually did work, and, if not for the last-minute interference of Spartan and the work of a traitorous ally, Helspont would have ruled the world. These were the major attempts, but there were others. Going by human history, his very first plot involved him traveling through time. It is unknown when he started from, but he arrived Ancient Rome. This was just a stop on his way to when the Daemonites and Kherubim first landed on Earth, though. He planned on traveling back to the Kherubim ship and using his Acurian body and powers (which he didn't have originally at that point in time) to take out the Kherubim ship and stop his from crashing. This plan was foiled by the WildC.A.T.s who were also traveling back in time to stop someone else from rewriting history. Helspont was prevented from traveling further back in time, but one of his henchmen, a Daemonite named Mortuus, was able to make it back as planned. He made it back to the Kherubim ship, but was killed by Zealot in the past before he could do anything.
Sometime after his first run in with the WildC.A.T.s and his failed attempt at Reunification, the event Wildstorm Rising took place. Wildstorm Rising involved most of the other Wildstorm Universe characters and teams and gave Helspont a chance to become the enemy of them all. During the crossover event, rumors of a Daemonite vessel from the original crash to Earth started to fly around. Characters from all over the place were investigating these rumors and everyone wanted the ship. Along with all the good guys that were after it, there were many villains who wanted it too, and Helspont was just one of them. He wanted to take the ship and get to Daemon where he could gather a force to come back to Earth to take over or just leave the planet and never return. The ship turned out not to be a Daemonite one, but a Kheran one. This didn't deter Helspont (or anyone else) and they all continued to fight over it. At one point, Helspont stood against every Wildstorm hero and was ready to take them all on. In the fight that followed, he effortlessly swept most of them aside with his amazing telekinetic and energy manipulation powers, but eventually got locked in a battle with none other than Mr. Majestic. The battle was going nowhere but while Majestic kept him busy, the WildC.A.T.s were able to get aboard the ship and take off, but not before shooting Helspont with the ships lasers. Though he survived, he failed to get the ship.
Shortly after Wildstorm Rising, Helspont tried to rule the world by getting as much power as he could as a human. This plan was the least obvious and so he got away with it without the interference of super groups. Instead of trying to destroy the world straight out, he first tried to control it like humans did, with money. To this end, he created Pacificon, a legitimate company, and started selling alien technology as a human named James Wyvern. This strategy took years, but eventually he became a supplier for governments worldwide and was well on his way to economic domination. This plan came to an end when Helspont learned of the Planet Shaper, a machine he wanted to use to turn the world into a place suitable only for Daemonites. When he went to secure the machine, he ran into Mr. Majestic and was forced to abandon his previous plan and secret identity.
One of Helspont's schemes for world domination didn't even occur in this reality. In the Heroes Reborn: World War 3 event, Helspont joined forces with Doctor Doom and the Skrulls to take over Earth. After Doom went back in time to avert a disaster, the Wildstorm and Marvel realities mixed. Doom seized an opportunity and took advantage of being the first to know about the melding of the universes. He forged an alliance with Helspont to have access to Daemonite troops. Helspont was his second in command in all things and together with the Skrulls, they succeeded in taking over this new world. They ruled from Latveria and thanks to Daemonite troops and special genetic monstrosities that Helspont provided, there was almost no force that could stop them. The only reason they lost control was because they were separated, and also because of Deathblow and the Thing. Doom went to The Negative Zone to stop the heroes from destroying a device he had hidden there. If they destroyed it and similar device in the real world, the universes would go back to normal. While he was gone, Deathblow, who had only just appeared in this universe tackled Helspont into the device in the real world, destroying it. With one device weakened, the other was easy to destroy, so as usual, the combined forces of all of Earth's heroes was able to set things right. The universes were split and all the Wildstorm characters were sent back to their own world, with neither universe remembering what had happened.
Influence
Though he is a major force in the Wildstorm Universe, Helspont himself has not been in very many comics (less than 25 in total). However, the effects of his few appearances have had consequences that have rippled throughout the entire Wildstorm Universe, even bridging into other comics and story lines. The most obvious was the creation of I.O.'s Teams. Team 1 was created in response to Helspont's first attacks, and all the members of the team went on to create or be in teams of their own or even work solo, (Stormwatch, The Authority, WildC.A.T.s, Backlash) but it didn't stop there. Other teams (Team 7 being the most well-known) were created in much the same fashion. Their targets weren't Helspont (at least not the teams we know about) but they would not have been instituted if not for the example of Team 1. During his fight with Team 1, Helspont forced Mr. Majestic to kill John Colt (Spartan). After John Colt died, his body returned to life and became Kaizen Gamorra, another major Wildstorm villain. Helspont was also major force in Wildstorm Rising and helped shape its outcome. He took out everyone else so only the WildC.A.T.s could get the ship. This led to the discovery that the war was over, the creation of the new team on Earth (which led to Tao and the Sleeper series), and the change in direction of the old team when it returned to Earth. So, though he isn't often seen, the repercussions of Helspont's actions have leaked through Wildstorm history and made him one of the most notable villains in the Wildstorm Universe.
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, which merges the Wildstorm universe, the Helspont and the Daemonites origin is adjusted. Nearly four thousand years ago, the Daemonite prince Artus returned to his mother's castle carrying the body of his dead wife, a victim of what he believes is the genetic decline of their species. The combination of Daemonite DNA with other species resulted in the spread of auto-immune deficiencies, cancers, higher infant mortality rates and Artus believed this weakened their race. As a result of this, he was cast out of court by his mother, all while he swore that he would return his people to their proper place as conquerors of the universe. Taking the name Helspont, Artus' peoples' fear caused him to be imprisoned in the Eye, which would eventually become the headquarters of Stormwatch.
Some 4,000 years later, when Harry Tanner set off an explosion that ripped the Eye apart, Helspont's prison cell crashed on Earth in the Himalayas. Helspont, now freed, established a new base, and confronted Superman, who destroyed his base. The villain returns and sends a full-scale assault against Superman and other alien heroes such as Starfire and Hawkman, trying to recruit them, during which he admits that never intended destroy earth or to see Superman dead. In fact, by protecting people, he protects the human genes from the corruption that destroyed his race. Helspont believes Superman may need to be "tamed" by surviving Daemonites.
Before disappearing, Helspont mentioned Jor-El, leaving Superman to contemplate the high risk of a future invasion from Helspont.
The Wild Storm
In the 2017 reboot of the Wildstorm Universe, "Ragnar Helspont" is named as the chief scientist of the Thunderbook program (the reboot's analogue to Gen12 ) responsible for implanting human subjects with Kheran DNA.
Powers and abilities
Helspont's host body has shown superhuman strength and durability, comparable to Mister Majestic. Furthermore, his Acurian host gives him vast psionic powers including telekinesis and mental attacks as well as energy blasts. Helspont can change his shape, appearing like a normal human, but this may be a telepathic illusion rather than a physical power.
Like all Daemonites, he can possess host bodies at will, though doing so would mean he has to give up his powerful Acurian host body. He can presumably take the shape of his true Daemonite form, however, he always appears in his Acurian form.
As a Daemonite, Helspont has access to highly advanced technology. As the High Lord of all Daemonites on Earth, he can command dozens of Daemonites to do his bidding. Some Daemonites don't obey him though, like Lord Defile and Hightower. Furthermore, many Daemonites deserted after hearing about the end of the war.
In other media
Helspont appears in the animated series Wild C.A.T.s, voiced by Maurice Dean Wint.
A Helspont figure from Playmates Toys was released in 1994.
References
External links
- DC Wikia character profile
- Character page on Comic Book Database
Comic Vine forum discussion
Characters created by Jim Lee
Comics characters introduced in 1992
DC Comics characters who are shapeshifters
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters who have mental powers
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with immortality
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics extraterrestrial supervillains
DC Comics telekinetics
DC Comics telepaths
Fictional characters who can manipulate time
Fictional characters who can turn intangible
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with spirit possession or body swapping abilities
Fictional lords and ladies
Fictional warlords
Male characters in animated series
WildCats characters
Wildstorm Universe supervillains |
4251074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s%20in%20fashion | 2000s in fashion | 2000s fashion is often described as a global mash up, where trends saw the fusion of vintage styles, global and ethnic clothing (e.g. boho), as well as the fashions of numerous music-based subcultures. Hip-hop fashion generally was the most popular among young people of all sexes, followed by the retro inspired indie look later in the decade.
Those usually age 25 and older adopted a dressy casual style which was popular throughout the decade. Globalization also influenced the decade's clothing trends, with the incorporation of Middle Eastern and Asian dress into mainstream European, American, and Australasian fashion. Furthermore, eco-friendly and ethical clothing, such as recycled fashions and fake fur, were prominent in the decade.
In the early 2000s, many mid and late 1990s fashions remained fashionable around the globe, while simultaneously introducing newer trends. The later years of the decade saw a large-scale revival of clothing designs primarily from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
General trends
The rise of fast fashion
The early to mid-2000s saw a rise in the consumption of fast fashion: affordable off-the-peg high street clothing based on the latest high fashion designs. With its low cost appeal driven by trends straight off the runway, fast fashion was a significant factor in the fashion industry's growth. As affordable clothing became even more important in the entrance to the new age, brands started to develop strategies to keep up with consumers' new spending habits.
During the year 1999, department stores such as Macy's, J.C. Penney, Kohl's and more had sales totaling $230 billion. In the years that followed, that number began to fall. By the early 2000s, the rise of online retail and in-store fast fashion caused department store sales to dwindle as retailers offered new styles quicker than ever before. Retail giants of the new millennium included H&M, Forever 21, and Zara. Target found major success in collaborating with various fashion designers to create affordable designer pieces, making them available to the average consumer.
This trend in fast fashion allowed shoppers to own designer items at lower prices, and also allowed the production and public normalization of copycat styles. Designers noticed that their designs were being copied, and many designers began to adapt; in 2004, the retailer H&M, a prominent fast fashion brand, collaborated with fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld to introduce a one-time collection which proved to be a huge success, as women flocked to H&M stores to own a piece of the designer's 30 selections available in the collection.
Stores such as Wet Seal and American Apparel are said to be "American precursors to the fast fashion empire". As well as the retail stores Hollister, Abercrombie & Fitch and possibly on a much smaller scale Limited Too, but in the end, stores like Forever 21 were better able to stay on top of the retail game.
Ethics
The ethics of fast fashion has been the topic of numerous debates and questioning of business practices. Producing fashion at such fast rates involves less than secure worker conditions, and non-livable wages for the laborers. It also involves a lot of waste. Americans throw out 14 million tons of clothing a year, with the help of fast fashion. Retailers like Forever 21 and H&M have come under fire, not only for their wasteful fast fashion practices that have grown steadily since the beginning of 2000, but for the involvement of cheap labor. The appeal of fast fashion lies in the copying of higher end brands; however, after something is no longer trendy it is on to the next, leaving clothes to go to waste, and workers to continue to live on unlivable wages.
Socio-economics and the logo purse
At the same time that fast fashion became able to supply vast quantities of imitation luxury goods, Western income inequalities had risen steadily. To create an image of belonging to a higher income consumer group, people sought real or copied branded items of "high fashion" items. In haute couture, designers were becoming increasingly inspired by pop culture and street style. These designs could succeed in high fashion because some top percentile earners wanted to present as being less wealthy: to communicate "street cred" or equality ideals. In addition, designer street style enabled the few social climbers that did exist (in entertainment industry, for example), to show that they valued their roots. The tensions of income inequalities and fast fashion therefore led to the blending of street style and haute couture, so that the designer logo was seen boldly printed on all types of clothing, particularly items that needed to be replaced less often, such as a purse or pair of sunglasses. A logo purse was a visual unifier, worn by celebrities, models and "middle class" shoppers (who, because of growing income inequalities, earned increasingly less than habitual haute couture customers). Thanks to outlet stores and plentiful supplies of fast fashion "knock-offs", a logo purse became available to everyone. For the majority of shoppers, a branded purse was a form of escapism; a unifying factor that let people forget how much money they made, and present themselves as being like the rest.
As the decade went on, it became increasingly popular to mix designer and fast fashion clothing. In response, a counter-culture of vintage and thrift clothing - not a new phenomenon, but not yet part of the mainstream either began to re-establish itself in some areas, growing in popularity after the hit of the 2008/9 recession.
Women's fashion
Early 2000s (2000–2002)
Y2K fashion
Fashion in the 2000s was profoundly influenced by technology. Around this time, there was a monochromatic futuristic approach to fashion, with metallics, shiny blacks, heavy use of gray, straps, and buckles becoming commonplace. Y2K fashion, as it came to be known as, aimed to reflect the sleek appearance of its era's new technology. When the original iPod was introduced in 2001, the white earbuds, as well as the gadget itself, became something of an accessory for early adopters.
Particular pieces of Y2K clothing included mesh tops, wraparound sunglasses, wireframe rectangle glasses, box-pleated skirts, handkerchief tops (often in a metallic pattern such as silver or gold for a disco feel), satin skirts, leather skirts, concert t-shirts with rhinestones, sparkling shoes, halter tops, sequined pants (popularized by Peter Morrissey), and embroidered and sequined tops (inspired by Easton Pearson), along with the famous pearl printed black cocktail dress by Karen Walker, which was successful worldwide.
In the year 2000, some examples of the casual women's and girl's fashion trends were oversized sunglasses, mini shoulder handbags/purses, aviator sunglasses, oversized hoop earrings, jeans worn in various ways (such as mid-rise, boot-cut, fabric accents down the sides, fabric accents sewn into the flares, lace-up sides and tie-dye), wedge flip flops, hot pants, denim jackets, chunky sweaters, pashmina scarves, Skechers, belly shirts, and tube tops.
Casual chic
In Africa, Europe, North America, East Asia, South America, and Oceania, the early 2000s saw the continuation of many mid and late 1990s fashions due to the continued influence of teen pop stars such as Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera, such as the military look, while introducing newer more vaguely dystopian post modern trends. From 2001 onwards, women wore long-sleeved shirts with bell sleeves, cowl-neck tops, crop tops, Burberry, hoodies, flare jeans, hip-huggers, low rise pants, white jeans, whale tails, cargo pants (especially ones made out of silk, satin, and velvet) hip-hop inspired sweatpants, daisy dukes, thong underwear, and solid bright-colored tights.
9/11 and the mortgage crisis of 2008 impacted fashion by bringing in a new wave of conservatism. This created a rise in denim, the American fabric of the working person. Jeans became acceptable in every situation, from the supermarket to the red carpet. It was a slow shift to conservatism, seen in how jeans started low-rise in reflection of the free-spirited Y2K style and moved through various waistlines and leg widths. As mentioned with the social classes, corporate logos became a form of stability and comfort in fashion. There was a sense of unity in the country because all kinds of people were buying the same brands and sporting the same American companies.
Possibly in reaction to the streamlined, futuristic, outer space-themed Y2K styles of the year 2000, distressed denim became popular in America from 2001 to 2008. Pants became lower waisted and significantly more flared than they were previously, and often featured elaborate embroidery rather than the utilitarian, no-frills style of before. In the UK, it was popular for women to wear skirts over trousers, floral print shift dresses, and colors like black, purple and pink. Big, chunky shoes and sandals were popular, with thick wedge heels and imitation leather straps decorated with floral embroidery, while previously successful sneaker brands like Skechers declined in popularity.
First-wave 1980s revival
Although the 1980s fashion revival wasn't in full swing until 2001, the first movement had started in the late 1990s and continued into the early 2000s. This first wave primarily focused on the early 1980s. Such trends that emerged during this period included denim miniskirts, ripped "distressed" jeans, denim jackets, tracksuits, trench coats (often in pleather), puffy jackets (revived by Hip-Hop artists), and preppy polo shirts with popped collars. These remained popular until about 2008 when the revival of late 1980s fashions occurred.
European and American women and girls wore low-top sneakers, such as Skechers, Heelys, Adidas shoes, Reebok shoes, and Nike, as well as knee-high boots with spiked heels and pointed toes (or conversely, thick low heels and round or square toes). Popular accessories of the early 2000s include white belts, aviator sunglasses, trucker hats, hoop earrings, block heeled mary janes, leg warmers (worn with mini skirts), ugg boots, flip-flops, jelly shoes, lace-up sandals, newsboy caps, ponchos, and jelly bracelets.
Sex and the City
The American television series Sex and the City impacted how women cared about fashion and how they shopped. The show depicted women as empowered consumers, each with their own independent styles that shopped based on what they wanted, not what they were told to wear. The main characters became fashion icons, inspiring window displays, fashion lines, magazines, and women globally. Carrie Bradshaw, the main character, is credited for making Manolo Blahnik a household name from her obsession with the Spanish designer's high-heeled shoes. Trends inspired by the show include stilettos, designer handbags (with two episodes centered around the latest "It bag"), large fabric flowers, and berets.
Mid 2000s (2003–2006)
It items and 1960s revival
It items were very popular in the 2000s, particularly the early and middle years. Examples of some highly sought-after It items of the mid-2000s included Kate Spade wallets, Prada sneakers, Christian Dior saddle bags, designer-brand jeans such as True Religion low-rise boot-cut jeans and 7 for all Mankind skinny jeans, Juicy Couture velour tracksuits, Balenciaga cargo pants, Von Dutch trucker hats, and Takashi Murakami's collaboration with Louis Vuitton for their iconic It bag.
Popular mid 2000s trends for women were embroidered low-rise jeans, yoga pants, thong underwear, cowl-neck tops, tube tops, denim jackets, bell-sleeved shirts, jean shorts, crop tops, whale tails, tracksuits, cargo pants, capri pants, trench coats, puffy jackets, longer tank tops worn with a main blouse or shirt, infantile dresses, 1940s inspired New Look dresses and sandals, leggings, 1960s style peacoats, tunics worn with wide or thin belts, and "vintage clothing" including hippie and Boho inspired dresses with paisley patterns. Crocs were a brief fad for all sexes in the summer of 2006, despite their kitsch connotations, and in 2006 the minidress made a comeback with the hemlines being unusually short.
Introduced in 2005, skinny jeans became popular in 2006. High heeled shoes were replaced with ballet flats, Sperry Top-Siders, Converse Chucks, and the Keds popularized by Mischa Barton.
Popular accessories included trucker hats, aviator sunglasses, small red glass or pearl drop earrings rather than the large hoop earrings of the early 2000s, jelly bracelets, knee-high boots with pointed toes, uggs, Heelys, platform boots, ballet flats, mary janes, studded belts, shutter shades, crucifixes and rosaries, large silver belt buckles with rhinestones, black nail polish, fairtrade African bangles, Native American beaded jewelry, Indian and Middle Eastern slave bracelets, purity rings, small leather handbags, small scarves, and simple jewelry made from recycled eco friendly materials like hemp, wood, sea shells, glass, seeds, and white metal.
Military influences
From 2005 until the end of the decade, more elaborate military inspired clothing became a unisex trend in Britain. Due to the popularity of the Pirates of the Caribbean films, and a resurgence of interest in 1980s fashion, teen and college age women frequently wore cavalier boots, Greek fisherman's caps, jewelry with anchor motifs, leather look drainpipe trousers, frilly satin poet shirts, sashes, harem pants, braided hussar jackets, and dress uniforms with epaulets inspired by female pop stars, British indie/garage rock band The Libertines and MCR's The Black Parade.
African clothing
Throughout the mid and late 2000s, women's clothing in Africa comprised either brightly colored kente cloth or mudcloth traditional dress such as the boubou, pagne, and doek, or secondhand Western dress donated and distributed by British and American charities. Mitumba clothing had been imported into Tanzania and Kenya since the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, and was more desirable than newly made Chinese textiles due to its higher quality of construction and recognizable brand labels.
Late 2000s (2007–2009)
Carry over styles
Many early and mid 2000s fashions remained fashionable in 2007; This included items such as denim miniskirts, whale tail, hip-huggers, boot-cut jeans, tank-tops, ripped jeans, hoodies, cargo pants, white belts, cropped jackets, capris, infantile dresses, boho-chic, and Crocs.
Second wave 1980s revival
In the late 2000s, there was a large scale 1980s revival in Europe and the US, which incorporated general items of late 1980s and early 1990s streetwear, such as neon colors, gladiator sandals, boat shoes especially Sperrys, animal print or polka dot headbands, knitted sweater dresses, Nike Tempo shorts, jean skirts with tights or capri leggings, Wonderbra and sloggi underwear, sundresses, geometric pattern tops, slap bracelets, ballet flats, black spandex leggings, pale denim jeggings, oversized shirts, sweaters, and sweatshirts worn with leggings, light, translucent tartan shirts worn with a camisole underneath, kinky boots, riding boots, ripped acid wash skinny jeans, and neon leg warmers worn with bare legs and a dress or skirt. In America, the crop tops that exposed the navel were replaced with longer camisole tops, boat neck blouses and mid rise pants, and miniskirts were replaced with longer dresses like the babydoll, bubble skirt, skater dress, and sweater dress popularly worn with ankle or capri length leggings or tights and ballet flats or sometimes Keds, low cut Converse Chucks or Uggs. Long, baggy empire line shirts were taken in at the bustline and often paired with a belt. Fur coats made a comeback, although many women used "fish fur" due to real fur's association with animal cruelty.
The canary yellow dress Reese Witherspoon wore to the Golden Globes helped establish that hue as a signature color in 2007.
Eastern and fairtrade fashion
Summer 2007 saw a resurgence of interest in ethnic fashion from India and the Middle East, including harem pants, embroidered kurti, silk sashes, sarongs, gypsy tops, and the saree as young British and American women discovered Bollywood cinema and belly dancing, popularized by Shakira.
In Britain and the US, some younger women and teen girls, especially those affiliated with the scene subculture and geek chic, became influenced by Japanese street fashion due to the media coverage of Japanese popular culture and J-pop music from 2005 to 2009. Although a small minority wore anime or manga inspired sailor dresses, kawaii or full Gothic Lolita outfits, most incorporated a single garment such as striped neon knee socks, petticoats, rainbow dresses, knitted leg warmers, hair bows, silk floral kimono pajamas, unisex brands like A Bathing Ape, and cupcake, cherry or Hello Kitty jewelry for an ageless, child or doll-like appearance.
Activist chic
In Britain and Australia, Middle Eastern shemaghs were worn as scarves as a protest against the Iraq War and demonstration of solidarity with the Palestinians.
In 2007, Che Guevara chic was popular in Europe and Latin America, with olive green fatigue jackets, boonie hats, berets, and T-shirts featuring red stars or the face of the famous revolutionary.
Men's fashion
Early 2000s (2000–2002)
Y2K fashion
At the beginning of the decade, the excitement of entering the new millennium had become evident in fashion in the first couple of years and it was becoming a new era. However, this was only prominent in nightclubs and "going out" attire. Clothing was mostly made in black, though silver was also fashionable. An example of this would be a tracksuit, Rockport boots, a dress shirt, a pair of pants, a camp shirt, or a jacket in a fancy metallic pattern for going out; while also including of items such as leather coats and pants, puffy vests, jackets, ribbed sweaters, shirts, and chunky dress shoes, usually in futuristic colors such as black, silver, light gray, and white. It lasted from late 1999 until late 2001.
Leisurewear
After the events of 9/11, fashion became more conservative, forgoing the futuristic styles of before. Distressed denim made a comeback, with sandblasted highlights, frosted jeans, ripped jeans, and whiskering becoming commonplace. A lower rise jean had emerged during this part of the decade, effectively getting rid of the high-waisted styles of the 1990s.
Generally, many fashion trends from 1995 onwards continued to be worn in the early years of the decade. Newer fashion trends in the early 2000s included wearing sportswear and military wear as everyday clothes. This included tracksuits, light-colored polo shirts (sometimes striped and with collars popped), cargo pants (even ones made out of linen during warmer months), khaki chinos, bootcut jeans, corduroy pants, and rugby shirts. Practical hiking jackets (of the type made by Berghaus), fleeces, puffer jackets, and padded tartan lumberjack-type shirts were worn as winter outerwear along with brown, grey, burgundy, rust, maroon, or forest green turtleneck sweaters, and odd navy blue, stone grey, beige, or natural linen sportcoats that fastened with three buttons. These fashions continued into the 2003-2008
Men's Accessories of the early 2000s included white belts, Aviator sunglasses, trucker hats, flip-flops, oxford shoes, argyle socks (usually worn over tracksuit bottoms), Rockport boots, sneakers from brands such as Nike, Adidas, and Puma, baseball caps (bearing the logos of football, soccer, basketball, and baseball teams), and jelly bracelets.
Asian fashions
From 2001 onwards, Astrakhan caps, kufis and the pakol were fashionable among Muslim men in Afghanistan, Pakistan, France and Italy. In India, traditional rustic male attire such as the dhoti and Lungi declined in popularity among the younger generation in favor of Westernised fashions such as Levi Strauss or Arvind Mills jeans, cargo pants, shorts, tracksuits, and sneakers.
Mid 2000s (2003–2006)
1960s revival
In the mid-2000s, retro fashions inspired by British indie pop, garage rock revivalist groups, and the 1960s mod culture gained mainstream popularity. From 2003 to 2006, common items of clothing in the US and Europe included bootcut jeans with a light wash, wide-leg pants, cargo pants, cargo shorts, camp shirts with elaborate designs, vintage Classic rock T-shirts, throwback uniforms, T-shirts bearing retro pre-1980 advertisements or street art, army surplus dress uniforms, paisley shirts, Mod-style velvet sportcoats, parkas, windbreakers Harris tweed jackets, and fitted 1970s-style Western shirts with pearl snaps (popularized by blues-rock band the White Stripes).
Retro movie inspirations
In 2004, men's fashion was inspired by movies from the 1960s and 1980s. Of particular inspiration were the movies Top Gun, Bullitt, and Midnight Cowboy. The clothes which were derived from these movies included Henley shirts, muscle shirts, hoodies, cargo pants, American football shirts, aviator jackets, cable-knit sweaters, khakis, seersucker suits, western shirts, blazers, and peacoats.
Popular men's accessories of the mid-2000s included black brogue shoes, square-toed Steve Madden ankle boots, Adidas sneakers, loafers, casual shoes, Oxford dress shoes, Converse All Stars, winklepickers (taken to extremes by individuals within the Mexican cholo and lowrider subcultures), flip-flops, chokers, puka shell necklaces, shell bracelets, hemp jewelry, charity bracelets, trucker hats, and earrings.
Business suits
In the UK workplace, black, navy or charcoal pinstripe three-buttoned office suits remained common, but Nehru suits or mandarin collar shirts inspired by the Beatles, James Bond, and science fiction movies like the Matrix, were a popular alternative from 2003 to 2006. In the US, men favored the smart casual look, with striped purple dress shirts, flat front charcoal chinos, beige cardigans, argyle pullovers, black or brown leather blazers, and houndstooth sportcoats.
Late 2000s (2007–2009)
Throwback fashions
In the late 2000s, 1950s and 1980s fashions became popular: Letterman jackets, black leather jackets like the Perfecto, windbreakers, dashiki or Hawaiian shirts, ski jackets, slim and straight leg jeans, wool topcoats, Ed Hardy T-shirts with low necklines, neon colors inspired by the rave scene, roll sleeve tartan flannel shirts worn with white T-shirts, cardigans and knitted V-neck sweaters.
In the late 2000s, common accessories worn by men included retro Patek Philippe, Casio G-Shock and Rolex wristwatches, Ray Ban Wayfarers and Aviator sunglasses, and geek chic inspired horn rimmed glasses. Desirable footwear in Europe and America included Sperry Top-Siders, Keds, motorcycle boots, Nike Air Jordans, checkerboard pattern Vans, and Converse All-Stars.
Ed Hardy
Due to the mainstream acceptance of body modification, T-shirts, baseball caps and hoodies featuring vintage tattoo designs were desirable items in the US, Britain and India, where they were worn with black leather jackets, oversized belt buckles, gold chains, and dark slim-fit jeans by celebrity trendsetters such as Jon Gosselin or the cast of Jersey Shore. V-neck T-shirts and graphic printed hoodies became popular among younger British men, in contrast to the designer brands with prominent logos previously worn by the chav subculture. Ed Hardy T-shirts, often embellished with rhinestones, were fashionable from late 2008 until the mid-2010s, when they fell out of favour due to their unintended popularity among young clubgoers stereotyped for being thugs, jocks or guidos.
Slim-fit suits
In the European workplace, the cut of suits changed, as the three buttoned jackets popular in the 1990s were replaced with 1950s inspired suits comprising a two-buttoned blazer and matching trousers while in the US the power suit made a comeback. Single-breasted European suits sometimes featured contrasting Edwardian style piping on the lapels and were often worn with slim ties and waistcoats.
Youth fashion
Youth fashion was strongly influenced by many music-based subcultures such as emo, indie kids, scene kids, psychobilly, preppy, skater, goth, nu metal (known as moshers in the UK), ravers and hip hop, including the British chav, US gangsta rapper and Mexican Cholo styles of the early 2000s.
Hip hop
The clothing of American hip hop fans underwent an evolution from the sagging baggy gangster jeans of the late 1990s to a more retro look by the end of the decade. Popular items of clothing included wide leg jeans, baseball jackets, Nike Air Jordans, tracksuits, sweatpants, bucket hats, stunna shades, fur-lined puffer jackets, and flat-brim trucker hats or baseball caps (often retaining the store label).
During the early 2000s, many wealthy white jocks and preppies imitated the gangsta lifestyle, eschewing the semi-formal conservative look of the 1980s and 90s in favor of gold bling, expensive designer clothes, sneakers, dark jeans, and sweatpants. Rich girls who dressed this way were known as Queen Bees, plastics, or airheads, and believed their designer clothing was key to being popular.
Another common American subculture were the cholos and chicanos who wore baggy khaki slacks, gold chains, white T-shirts, and slicked back hair or shaved heads in imitation of Mexican prison gangs.
Chavs and moshers
In the early 2000s, the most common British subcultures were the chavs and skate punks who had a (sometimes violent) rivalry. Chavs favored hip hop fashions like tracksuits, burberry baseball caps, white Nike or Adidas trainers, and cheap sportswear made by Reebok or Puma. Common haircuts included spiky hair, a fauxhawk, a heavily gelled quiff, or (for girls) a Croydon facelift.
The skaters (nicknamed grebos or moshers) had long hair or dreadlocks and wore grunge inspired padded flannel overshirts and baggy pants as these were less likely to rip when skateboarding. Popular clothing included No Fear T-shirts, webbing belts, army surplus patrol caps, band T-shirts, dog tags, shark tooth necklaces, camouflage cargo pants, carpenter jeans, tuques, and fingerless gloves in dark colors like black, olive drab, burgundy, and navy blue. From 2001 to 2008, brands favoured by British skaters and their American counterparts included Quiksilver, Inc., Bape hoodies, Volcom, Element Skateboards, Billabong International Limited, Zoo York Skateboard Company, O'Neill, Bullhead jeans, Vans sneakers, Pacific Sunwear and Journeys.
Nu metal, rave, and goth
In America, common subcultures of the early 2000s included the nu metal fans and goths who wore black leather duster coats and tripp pants.
In the rave subculture, fashion trends that had developed in the 1990s persisted. Some ravers favored spiky hair and phat pants, while members of the cybergoth and rivethead subcultures opted for shaved heads, synthetic neon dreadlocks, camouflage, tight leather pants, chains, platform boots, stretched body piercings, sleeve tattoos, goggles, corsets, PVC or leather skirts, and black trenchcoats decorated with metal studs.
Psychobilly and rockabilly
From the early-mid-2000s, black leather jackets, cowboy boots and Levi's jeans were popular in Scandinavia, Russia and Germany among the hot rod, psychobilly and rockabilly subcultures. Common hairstyles included the quiff, pompadour, and psychobilly mohican.
Later in the decade, it was popular for women to dress like 1950s pin-up girls in polkadot dresses, pencil skirts, sheath dresses, capri pants, platform heels, 1940s style sandals, retro lingerie like garter belts, stockings, babydolls, petticoats, slips, and corsets, and (real or fake) old school tattoos. This trend, popularised by models like Dita Von Teese, gave rise to the popularity among all sexes of Ed Hardy clothing which lasted from 2007 until 2012.
Indie and emo
In 2005, indie pop fashions went mainstream in Europe and North America, prompting a revival of 1960s mod and British Invasion fashions, vintage or thrift store clothing, and the popularization of activist fashions like the keffiyeh. The closely related hipster subculture, which wore vintage clothing ironically rather than as a counterculture statement, emerged in America in the late 2000s to early 2010s. Other subcultures, including American preppies and even rappers like Kanye West, imitated indie fashions or combined them with elements of Japanese street style, like the Harajuku and Lolita fashion popularized by Gwen Stefani.
The other notable youth group of the mid-late 2000s were the emo kids, identifiable by their black or purple hoodies, T-shirts featuring rock bands like Fall Out Boy, My Chemical Romance, or Taking Back Sunday. Lowrise skinny jeans, snakebites, silver jewellery, and checkerboard pattern Vans. Hair was thin, flat and straight, with long, matte bangs (US) or fringe (UK), usually dyed black.
Scene kids
By early 2009 the most conspicuous subculture was the "scene kids.". The style, originally comprising tripp pants, stripes, tartan, spiky hair, Chucks, Vans, and trucker hats derived from grunge and skate punk fashion, evolved to incorporate androgynous, matted, flat and straight hair sometimes dyed bright colors, tight jeans, cartoon print hoodies, shutter shades, promise rings, checked shirts, and many bright colors. The name was originally derived from "scene queen", a derogatory term within the 1970s glam rock scene for a heterosexual musician who pretended to be gay and later applied to poseurs within the UK goth, heavy metal and punk subcultures. Later, "scene queen" itself was adopted by leading female members of the modern subculture who were unaware of its original meaning, like supermodel Audrey Kitching.
Preppy
Items seen in the late 2000s for preppy youth, teens, and college age included footwear Sperrys, Keds, ballet flats, Converse Chucks, Uggs, riding boots, especially worn with knee socks or legwarmers slouch at the top of the boots, Hunter rain boots, and other white casual sneakers. Items worn included skirts and dresses such as pleated skirts, skater skirts, skater dresses, babydoll dresses, bubble skirts, jeans skirts, 2fer leggings and skirt combo, sweater dresses, skimp dresses and belted shirt dresses with ankle or capri leggings, footless or footed opaque tights. Also oversized shirts, sweaters and sweatshirts worn with leggings, polo shirts, layered short sleeve polo or t-shirts with a long sleeved shirt under, argyle print clothing including sweaters, knee socks, headbands, etc., cardigans, skinny jeans and colored jeans, translucent tartan shirts worn with a camisole underneath, cropped sweaters, jeggings, neon and pastel colored socks, Nike tempo shorts, dressy shorts, headbands and headwraps.
2000s beauty trends
Hairstyles
Women
In the early 2000s, women's hair was often long and straight. The early 2000s featured "zig-zag partings", in which the hairline is parted in a zig-zag fashion. Hair lengths varied from below the earlobes at the shortest to just below the shoulders at the longest. From 1995 until 2008 highlights and lowlights made of blonde, red, and light brown went mainstream. In 2000, highlights were soft and subtle for a sun-kissed look. In 2002 bold and unblended highlights called "chunky highlights" burst onto the scene. This trend was kickstarted by Kelly Clarkson during her time on American Idol, lasting until 2006. The early 2000s also continued the Farrah Fawcett hairstyle revival of the late 1990s. Crimped hair was popular in the early and mid 2000s.
For black women, cornrows, dreadlocks and curly weaves were popular until the late 2000s, when toned-down versions of the Afro, Jheri curl and short pixie cuts were popularized by artists like Janet Jackson and Rihanna. Another popular hairstyle throughout the decade was the braid, rejuvenated by the likes of Alicia Keys and Lauren Conrad. Throughout the early and middle years braids and plaits would often be meticulously put in intricate patterns and would purposely be styled as a way to blend in better with women's clothing styles.
In the mid-2000s, many women favored the bob haircut, as well as its longer version, the long bob or "the lob". By the late 00's, it became unfashionable to center-part one's hair, and the side-swept Bangs of the 1980s made a comeback.
In the late 2000s, dark haired women (and even light-haired ones) favored the jet black hair, as worn by Katy Perry or Amy Winehouse with her trademark beehive hairstyle. Textured hair with volume, natural wavy hair, and the bob cut became popular from 2007 onwards in both Britain and the USA. In 2009, many women sought to imitate the hairstyle Kate Gosselin had that year, briefly bringing back blended highlights into the mainstream. This look ended up only being a fad. Other popular late 2000s trends included Headbands, headwraps and Scrunchies, side ponytails, and braiding on one side of the head.
Men
For European men aged 25–40, shorter hair styles that usually took the form of a quiff were fashionable in the early 2000s, as well as spiked hair and fauxhawks for men aged 18–30. Dark-haired young British men often had dyed-blonde weaves and streaks until the late 2000s when a natural hair color became the norm again. A common haircut among American men and boys was the frosted spiky hair popularized by boybands and pop punk bands from 1997 through 2004, 2005-2008.
Long, shaggy Mod or surfer hair became popular among many young men between 2003 and 2006 in the UK as many bands moved away from punk rock and rap metal in favor of a 1960s inspired indie or garage rock sound pioneered by groups like The Strokes, Jet, The Killers, The Hives, The Vines, Coldplay, and The White Stripes. These hairstyles gradually replaced the shaggy, grown out curtained hair popular since the late 1990s among American celebrities like Tom Cruise, Jim Adkins of Jimmy Eat World, Alex Band, Jason Wade, Mehmet Okur and Hanno Möttölä.
By the late 2000s, many young British men opted for a clean-cut 1950s inspired hairstyle, kept in place with pomade. Shaved and bald hairstyles along with beards, moustaches, stubble, sideburns, and the goatee became popular in Europe and North America in reaction to the effeminate early and mid 2000s metrosexual look, with charitable events like Movember further increasing their acceptability.
Children and teenagers
For boys, short haircuts such as the quiff, the buzzcut, curtains, crew cut, and Caesar cut were popular in the early 2000s. Girls favored straight hair extensions and chunky highlights. It also became fashionable to sport curly hair with a "zig-zag" side parting and blended highlights around 2002/03. Back in the late 90s and early 2000s, butterfly hair clips and crimped hair became extremely popular for preteens and teenage girls.
In the mid-2000s, longer hair on teenage boys became popular in the UK and America, including the wings haircut, influenced by the 1960s Mod subculture, and British indie pop stars. Hairstyles among teenage girls experienced little change, being largely the same as they were in the early 2000s. Curly hair became less popular in Britain, while straight hair grew more dominant. Highlights remained popular, as well as extensions. Hair was often tied into a ponytail and incorporated long bangs or a fringe.
In 2009, the androgynous Harajuku inspired scene hairstyles (often dyed bright colors) and eyeliner were popular among girls and boys alike: first in Japan, and later in the US and Europe. As an alternative to the scene hairstyles, many teenage girls in the US and Australasia opted for a preppy hairstyle that involved long, straight hair, side-swept and regular bangs and a side part, while boys wore basic skater hair. Many girls wore headbands, headwraps and 80s inspired scrunchies with either a side ponytail or french braid falling over one shoulder.
In between 2006 and 2008, Middle Eastern teenage boys in Australia, namely those of Lebanese descent, acquired the high and tight haircut. Some had the cut with a mullet.
Makeup and cosmetic trends
The year 2000, was based on the glittery Y2K inspired makeup of the late 1990s. With the turn of the millennium, the idea was for women to capture a futuristic, space-age style, with makeup including bronze specks for a metallic shine with ecstatic colors. An alternative for those who did not like metallics was a purple and brown color scheme. Lip gloss was more popular than lipstick among both women and girls. By the spring/summer season of 2001, this look took a backseat in favor of a more low-maintenance, natural style that showed off ones features. However, the glittery looks continued to be popular. In 2002, mineral makeup broke into the mainstream with Bare Minerals, a product of Bare Escentuals. This fueled the trend for natural looking makeup, and became the standard of the 2000s. By 2004, the glittery looks had disappeared.
By around 2005/06, retro-styled makeup from the 1940s had made a comeback, such as bright red lips and cat eyes. In the mid and late 2000s, lip gloss remained popular, and the "Smoky Eye" emerged, with more emphasis on eyeliner, mascara, and eyeshadow. Another emerging trend was a more natural "less is more" approach to makeup around the same time. Also around the second half of the decade, there was an increasing amount of emphasis on the perfection of complexions, with illuminators and shimmer products becoming must-have items. In the late 2000s, there was a craze for fake eyelashes, started by Lady Gaga. This resulted in lash tinting, lash extensions, and fake lashes. Makeup styles generally became simpler and more individualistic with the rise of How-to YouTube videos.
Body care and grooming
The year 2000 featured natural-colored skin as the most desirable, and did not feature many body care trends other than the rise of hair removal, teeth whitening, and anti-aging creams. In the summer of 2001, the sunless tanning trend broke into the mainstream for all genders, prompted by Jennifer Lopez and Christina Aguilera. This included both self-tanners and spray tans. Cosmetic contacts also became more widespread among all genders this year. In 2002, botox was approved for public use and became hugely popular with women and men. By 2009, fake tanning had gone out of style in favor a pale complexion, inspired by the Twilight film.
The 2000s, continued the unisex trend of bikini waxing which had started in the 1990s. Although waxing in general had been popular among women for several years, it was in the 1990s that complete male body hair removal went mainstream. Being considered suggestive and indecent in the 90s, male waxing became ubiquitous as a result of the metrosexual trend in the early and mid 2000s. Also during this time, it was popular to have a completely clean-shaven face, as if to make one look underage. Male hair removal declined in the late 2000s.
Tattoos and piercings
The 2000s continued the trend of tattoos and piercings among both genders which had begun during the 1990s. Commonplace tattoos in Europe, Australasia, Hong Kong, and North America included tramp stamps and tribal arm tattoos from the early to mid 2000s, and Hindu Sanskrit or Chinese Kanji words from 2007 to 2010. Old school tattoos depicting hearts, skulls, flowers or female figures were considered unfashionable and unsophisticated for much of the decade, especially among women. However, these made a comeback in 2008 at the same time Ed Hardy accessories and the pin-up girl look were becoming popular. Getting a mustache tattoo on a finger, as a "fingerstache", was an ironic tattoo trend starting in around 2003.
In the early 2000s, navel piercings reached their peak, as did tongue rings. Other popular piercings throughout the decade include labret piercings, nostril piercings, nipple piercings, and eyebrow piercings. Piercings and tattoos reached the height of their popularity during the mid-2000s but remained a common sight among young people well into the 2010s.
Gallery
A selection of images related to the period.
See also
2000s
1970s in fashion
1980s in fashion
1990s in fashion
Fashion design
References
Fashion |
4251353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20North%20Korea | Religion in North Korea | There are no known official statistics of religions in North Korea. Officially, North Korea is an atheist state, although its constitution guarantees free exercise of religion, provided that religious practice does not introduce foreign forces, harm the state, or harm the existing social order. Based on estimates from the late 1990s and the 2000s, North Korea is mostly irreligious, with the main religions being Shamanism and Chondoism. There are small communities of Buddhists and Christians. Chondoism is represented in politics by the Party of the Young Friends of the Heavenly Way, and is regarded by the government as Korea's "national religion" because of its identity as a minjung (popular) and "revolutionary anti-imperialist" movement.
History
Before 1945
In ancient times, most Koreans believed in their indigenous religion socially guided by mu (shamans). Buddhism was introduced from the Chinese Former Qin state in 372 to the northern Korean state of Goguryeo, and developed into distinctive Korean forms. At that time, the Korean peninsula was divided into three kingdoms: the aforementioned Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. Buddhism reached Silla only in the 5th century, but it was made the state religion only in that kingdom in the year 552. In Goguryeo, the Korean indigenous religion remained dominant, while Buddhism became more widespread in Silla and Baekje (both areas comprehended in modern South Korea).
In the following unified state of Goryeo (918–1392), that developed from Goguryeo incorporating the southern kingdoms, Buddhism flourished even becoming a political force. In the same period, the influence of Chinese Confucianism penetrated the country and led to the formation of Korean Confucianism that would have become the state ideology and religion of the following Joseon state.
The Joseon kingdom (1392–1910), strictly Neo-Confucian, harshly suppressed Buddhism and Shamanism. Buddhist monasteries were destroyed and their number dropped from several hundreds to a mere thirty-six; Buddhism was eradicated from the life of towns as monks and nuns were prohibited from entering them and were marginalised to the mountains. These restrictions lasted until the 19th century.
In this environment, Christianity began to rapidly gain foothold since the late 18th century, due to an intense missionary activity that was aided by the endorsement at first by the Silhak and Seohak intellectual parties, and then at the end of the following century by the king of Korea himself and the intellectual elite of the crumbling Joseon state, who were looking for a new social factor to invigorate the Korean nation. In the late 19th century, the Joseon state was politically and culturally collapsing. The intelligentsia was looking for solutions to invigorate and transform the nation. It was in this critical period that they came into contact with Western Protestant missionaries who offered a solution to the plight of Koreans. Christian communities already existed in Joseon, however it was only by the 1880s that the government allowed a large number of Western missionaries to enter the country. Protestant missionaries set up schools, hospitals and publishing agencies. The king of Korea and his family tacitly supported Christianity. From the late nineteenth century, the northwest of Korea, and Pyongyang in particular, became a stronghold of Christianity. As a result, Pyongyang was called the "Jerusalem of the East".
At the dawn of the 20th century, almost the totality of the population of Korea believed in the indigenous shamanic religion and practiced Confucian rites and ancestral worship. Buddhism was nearly dead, reduced to a tiny and weak minority of monks, despite its long history and cultural influence, because of 500 years of suppression by the ruling Neo-Confucian Joseon kingdom, which also disregarded traditional cults.
During the absorption of Korea into the Japanese Empire (1910–1945) the already formed link of Christianity with Korean nationalism was strengthened, as the Japanese tried to impose State Shinto and Christians refused to take part in Shinto rituals. At the same time, numerous religious movements that since the 19th century had been trying to reform the Korean indigenous religion, notably Chondoism, flourished. Christianity became widespread especially in the north of the peninsula, as did Chondoism which aimed to counter Christian influence.
North Korean revolutionary leader Kim Il Sung's writings address religion in the context of the national liberation struggle against Japan. Kim argued stated that if a religion "prays for dealing out divine punishment to Japan and blessing the Korean nation" then it is a "patriotic religion" and its believers are patriots and that in the context of a struggle for national salvation against Japan, religionists who share the agenda of liberation must be welcomed into the ranks. Kim criticized the protestant Christian creed, stating that while "[t]here is no law preventing religious believers from making the revolution," the lack of action led to "non-resistance" and psalms alone could not block the Japanese guns when "decisive battles" were necessary.
After the division
The Korean Peninsula was divided into two states in 1945, the communist north and the capitalist south. Most of the Korean Christians, that had been until then in the northern half of the peninsula, fled to South Korea. By contrast, most of Korean Chondoists remained in the newly formed North Korea. At the time of the partition they were 1.5 million, or 16% of North Korea's population. They participate to the politics of North Korea through the Party of the Young Friends of the Heavenly Way.
North Korean leader Kim Il Sung attributed the relative lack of religious practice the north in part as a result of the bombing campaigns of the United States in the Korean War, which destroyed places of worship, crucifixes, icons, and Bibles: "believers were killed and passed into the world beyond." Kim recounted that believers saw their places of worship destroyed by Christians, and that Koreans in the north found their faith "powerless in shaping the destiny of human beings." In his analysis, Kim stated that Koreans in the north focused on rebuilding the country rather than churches, and additionally that the younger generation simply did not believe paradise could be obtained through worship and simply chose not to embrace religion.
After the war, Christians generally organized in house churches or small congregations. In the 1960's, the government permitted two hundred informal congregations in former centers of Christianity.
According to some estimates in 2005 in North Korea there are 3,846,000 (16% of the total population) believers of Shamanists, 3,245,000 (13.5%) Chondoists, 1,082,000 (4.5%) Buddhists, and 406,000 (1.7%) Christians.
In 1994 the Central Guidance Committee of the Korean Chondoist Association organised an impressive ceremony at the newly constructed Mausoleum of Dangun (mythical founder of the Korean nation) near Pyongyang. In 2007 there were approximately 800 Chondoist churches throughout the country and a large central building in Pyongyang, 60 Buddhist temples (maintained more as cultural relics than places of worship), and 5 Christian churches—three Protestant churches, one Catholic church, and one Russian Orthodox church, all of which located in Pyongyang.
In 2014, the Korea Conference of Religions for Peace held an inter-Korean meeting at Mount Kumgang, North Korea, and another took place in 2017 in Pyongyang.
Religion and politics
Although its constitution guarantees freedom of religion in Article 68, the principle is limited by the requirement that religion may not be used as a pretext to harm the state, introduce foreign forces, or harm the existing social order.
North Korean anti-religion campaigns and contrary views
It is very difficult for outside observers to know what has happened to North Korean religious bodies over the past 60 years due to the extreme isolation of the state. One interpretation has held that all open religious activity in North Korea was persecuted and eradicated after Kim Il-sung took power, only to be revived in the present as part of a political show. Another interpretation has held that religion survived and has genuinely been revived in the past few decades.
Kim Il-sung criticized religion in his writings, and North Korean propaganda in literature, movies and other media have presented religion in a negative light. Kim Il-sung's attack on religion was strongly based on the idea that religion had been used as a tool for imperialists in the Korean peninsula. He criticized Christians for collaborating with the United Nations' forces against him during the Korean War, although he praised Christians who supported him.
Accounts from the Korean War speak of harsh persecution of religion by Kim Il-sung in the areas he controlled. Prior to the war, the Christian population of the Korean peninsula was most heavily concentrated in the north; during the war, many of these Christians fled to the South. Some interpretations have considered that the Christian community was often of a higher socio-economic class than the rest of the population, which may have prompted its departure for fear of persecution. The large-scale destruction caused by the massive air raids and the suffering experienced by North Koreans during the Korean War helped foster hatred of Christianity as being the American religion. It was seen by many Koreans in the north as the religion of the imperialists.
According to a study by Ryu Dae Young, however:
Religion was attacked in the ensuing years as an obstacle to the construction of communism, and many people abandoned their former religions in order to conform to the new reality. On the basis of accounts from the Korean War as well as information from defectors, an interpretation has held that the North Korea was the second country (after Albania) to have completely eradicated religion by the 1960s.
Other interpretations have thought that they do represent genuine faith communities that survived the persecutions. An interpretation has considered that these religious communities may have been believers who genuinely adhered to Marxism–Leninism and the leadership of Kim Il-sung, thus ensuring their survival. This interpretation has been supported by recent evidence gathered that has shown that the North Korean government may have tolerated the existence of up to 200 pro-communist Christian congregations during the 1960s, and by the fact that several high-ranking people in the government were Christians and they were buried with high honours (for instance Kang Yang Wook was a Presbyterian minister who served as vice president of North Korea from 1972 to 1982, and Kim Chang Jun was a Methodist minister who served as vice chairman of the Supreme People's Assembly). Differing interpretations often agree on the disappearance of religion under Kim Il-sung in the first few decades of his rule. The government never made an open public policy statement about religion, leading to unresolved speculation among scholars as to what exactly the government's position was at any point in time.
Freedom of religion in the 2020s
In 2023, the country was scored zero out of 4 for religious freedom; as of May 2021, Christian Solidarity Worldwide estimated that almost 200,000 people were held in prison camps, mainly due to their Christian beliefs.
In the same year, the country was ranked as the worst place in the world to be a Christian.
Main religions
Cheondoism
Chondoism (천도교 Ch'ŏndogyo) or Cheondoism (South Korean spelling) is a religion with roots in Confucianised indigenous shamanism. It is the religious dimension of the Donghak ("Eastern Learning") movement that was founded by Choe Je-u (1824–1864), a member of an impoverished yangban (aristocratic) family, in 1860 as a counter-force to the rise of "foreign religions", which in his view included Buddhism and Christianity (part of Seohak, the wave of Western influence that penetrated Korean life at the end of the 19th century). Choe Je-u founded Chondoism after having been allegedly healed from illness by an experience of Sangje or Haneullim, the god of the universal Heaven in traditional shamanism.
The Donghak movement became so influential among common people that in 1864 the Joseon government sentenced Choe Je-u to death. The movement grew and in 1894 the members gave rise to the Donghak Peasant Revolution against the royal government. With the division of Korea in 1945, most of the Chondoist community remained in the north, where the majority of them dwelled.
Chondoism is the sole religion to be favoured by the North Korean government. It has political representation as the Party of the Young Friends of the Heavenly Way, and is regarded by the government as Korea's "national religion" because of its identity as a minjung (popular) and "revolutionary anti-imperialist" movement.
Korean shamanism
Korean shamanism, also known as "Muism" (무교 Mugyo, "mu [shaman] religion") or "Sinism" (신교 Singyo, "religion of the shin () [gods]"), is the ethnic religion of Korea and the Koreans. Although used synonymously, the two terms are not identical: Jung Young Lee describes Muism as a form of Sinism – the shamanic tradition within the religion. Other names for the religion are "Sindo" (신도 "Way of the Gods") or "Sindoism" (신도교 Sindogyo, "religion of the Way of the Gods").
In contemporary Korean language the shaman-priest or mu () is known as a mudang ( ) if female or baksu if male, although other names and locutions are used. Korean mu "shaman" is synonymous with Chinese wu, which defines priests both male and female. The role of the mudang is to act as intermediary between the spirits or gods, and the human plain, through gut (rituals), seeking to resolve problems in the patterns of development of human life.
Central to the faith is the belief in Haneullim or Hwanin, meaning "source of all being", and of all gods of nature, the utmost god or the supreme mind. The mu are mythically described as descendants of the "Heavenly King", son of the "Holy Mother [of the Heavenly King]", with investiture often passed down through female princely lineage. However, other myths link the heritage of the traditional faith to Dangun, male son of the Heavenly King and initiator of the Korean nation.
Korean Muism has similarities with Chinese Wuism, Japanese Shinto, and with the Siberian, Mongolian, and Manchurian religious traditions. As highlighted by anthropological studies, the Korean ancestral god Dangun is related to the Ural-Altaic Tengri "Heaven", the shaman and the prince. The mudang is similar to the Japanese miko and the Ryukyuan yuta. Muism has exerted an influence on some Korean new religions, such as Chondoism in North Korea. According to various sociological studies, many Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in shamanism as the Korean shamanic theology has affinity to that of Christianity.
In the 1890s, the twilight years of the Joseon kingdom, Protestant missionaries gained significant influence, and led a demonisation of the traditional religion through the press, and even carried out campaigns of physical suppression of local cults. The Protestant discourse would have had an influence on all further attempts to uproot Muism.
There is no knowledge about the survival of Korean shamanism in contemporary North Korea. Many northern shamans, displaced by war and politics, migrated to South Korea. Shamans in North Korea were (or are) of the same type of those of northern and central areas of South Korea (kangshinmu).
Minor religions
Buddhism
Buddhism (불교 Pulgyo) entered Korea from China during the period of the three kingdoms (372, or the 4th century). Buddhism was the dominant religious and cultural influence in the Silla (668–935) and subsequent Goryeo (918–1392) states. Confucianism was also brought to Korea from China in early centuries, and was formulated as Korean Confucianism in Goryeo. However, it was only in the subsequent Joseon kingdom (1392–1910) that Korean Confucianism was established as the state ideology and religion, and Korean Buddhism underwent 500 years of suppression, from which it began to recover only in the 20th century.
Buddhists are a minority in North Korea, and their traditions have developed differently from those of South Korean Buddhists after the division of the country. Buddhism in North Korea is practiced under the auspices of the official Korea Buddhist Federation, an organ of the North Korean state apparatus. North Korean Buddhist monks are entirely dependent on state wages for their livelihood as well as state authorization to practice. As of 2009, the leader of the Korean Buddhist Federation is Yu Yong-sun.
There are only 60 Buddhist temples in the country, and they are viewed as cultural relics from Korea's past rather than places of active worship. Also, there is a three-year college for training Buddhist clergy. A limited revival of Buddhism is apparently taking place. This includes the establishment of an academy for Buddhist studies and the publication of a twenty-five-volume translation of the Korean Tripitaka, or Buddhist scriptures, which had been carved on 80,000 wooden blocks and kept in the Buddhist temple, Pohyonsa which is located at Myohyangsan in central North Korea. Recently, South Korean Buddhist leaders have been allowed to travel to North Korea and participate in religious ceremonies or give aid to civilians.
Despite the North Korean government's official stance on religion, Buddhism along with Confucianism both still have an effect on cultural life in North Korea as they are traditional religions of traditional Korean culture.
Christianity
Christianity () became very popular in northern Korea from the late 18th century to the 19th century. The first Catholic missionaries arrived in 1794, a decade after the return of Yi Sung-hun, a diplomat who was the first baptised Korean in Beijing. He established a grassroots lay Catholic movement in the peninsula. However, the writings of the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci, who was resident at the imperial court in Beijing, had been already brought to Korea from China in the 17th century. Scholars of the Silhak ("Practical Learning"), were attracted to Catholic doctrines, and this was a key factor for the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s. The penetration of Western ideas and Christianity in Korea became known as Seohak ("Western Learning"). A study of 1801 found that more than half of the families that had converted to Catholicism were linked to the Silhak school. Largely because converts refused to perform Confucian ancestral rituals, the Joseon government prohibited the proselytisation of Christianity. Some Catholics were executed during the early 19th century, but the restrictive law was not strictly enforced.
Protestant missionaries entered Korea during the 1880s and, along with Catholic priests, converted a remarkable number of Koreans, this time with the tacit support of the royal government. Methodist and Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. They established schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages and played a significant role in the modernisation of the country. During the Japanese colonial occupation, Christians were in the front ranks of the struggle for independence. Factors contributing to the growth of Catholicism and Protestantism included the decayed state of Korean Buddhism, the support of the intellectual elite, and the encouragement of self-support and self-government among members of the Korean church, and finally the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism.
A large number of Christians lived in the northern half of the peninsula (it was part of the so-called "Manchurian revival") where Confucian influence was not as strong as in the south. Before 1948, Pyongyang was an important Christian center: The city was known as the "Jerusalem of the East".
Many Korean Communists came from a Christian background; Kim Il-sung's mother, Kang Pan-sok, was a Presbyterian deaconess. He attended a mission school and played the organ in church. In his memoir With the Century, he wrote: "I do not think the spirit of Christianity that preaches universal peace and harmony contradicts my idea advocating an independent life for man". In 1945, with the establishment of the communist regime in the north, however, most Christians fled to South Korea to escape persecution. Christianity came to be discouraged by the North Korean government because of its association with America.
In the 1980s, North Korea produced its own translation of the Bible, which has since been used by Southern missionaries attempting to evangelize the North. By the late 1980s, it became apparent that Christians were active in the governmental elite. In those years, three new churches, two Protestant and one Catholic, were opened in Pyongyang. The number of churchgoing North Korean Christians more than doubled between the 1980s and the early 2000s, with a total of thirty ministers and 300 church officials. Proselytizing is prohibited based on the theory that it opens North Korea to impermissible foreign influence and the increase in churchgoing Christians is attributable to an active search for North Koreans who previously practiced privately or in small home congregations.
Other signs of the regime's changing attitude towards Christianity included holding the "International Seminar of Christians of the North and South for the Peace and Reunification of Korea" in Switzerland in 1988, allowing papal representatives to attend the opening of the Changchung Cathedral of Pyongyang in that same year, and sending two North Korean novice priests to study in Rome. A Protestant seminary in Pyongyang taught future leaders of the North Korean government. A new association of Roman Catholics was established in June 1988. A North Korean Protestant pastor reported at a 1989 meeting of the National Council of Churches in Washington that his country had 10,000 Protestants and 1,000 Catholics who worshiped in 500 home churches. Today, the total number of Christians in North Korea is liberally estimated to be no more than somewhere between 12,000 and 15,000. In 1992 and 1994, American evangelist Billy Graham visited North Korea. He met Kim Il-sung, giving him a Bible, and preached at Kim Il-sung University. In 2008, his son Franklin Graham visited the country. In 1991, North Korea invited the Pope to visit. In 2018, the government invited Pope Francis to visit. In late 2018, Metropolitan Hilarion Alfeyev of the Russian Orthodox Church visited North Korea, meeting with officials and leading a service at the Church of the Life-Giving Trinity in Pyongyang.
North Korean Christians are officially represented by the Korean Christian Federation, a state-controlled body responsible for contacts with churches and governments abroad. In Pyongyang there are five church buildings: the Catholic Changchung Cathedral, three Protestant churches inaugurated in 1988 in the presence of South Korean church officials, and a Russian Orthodox church consecrated in 2006.
The internationally-supported Pyongyang University of Science and Technology, which opened in 2010, operates with a Christian ethos. Christian aid groups, including the American Friends Service Committee, the Mennonite Central Committee, the Eugene Bell Foundation, and World Vision, are able to operate in the country, but not allowed to proselytize.
In 2016, Christmas was celebrated in North Korea, but with the religious overtones downplayed. In 2018, the North Korean Council of Religionists sent a Christmas message to South Korea that expressed the wish that believers on both sides "go hand in hand towards peace and unification, filled with blessings by Christ the Lord".
North Korea is number two on Open Doors’ 2022 World Watch List, an annual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.
Islam
The Pew Research Center estimated that there were 3,000 Muslims in North Korea in 2010, an increase from the 1,000 Muslims in 1990. There is a mosque in the Iranian embassy in Pyongyang called Ar-Rahman Mosque, the only mosque in the country. The mosque was likely built for the embassy staff, but visits by other foreigners are deemed possible, too.
See also
Ethnic minorities in North Korea
Freedom of religion in North Korea
Human rights in North Korea
Irreligion in North Korea
Misin tapa undong
Religion in Japan
Religion in Korea
Religion in South Korea
Footnotes
References
Sources
Alton, David. Building Bridges: Is There Hope for North Korea?. Lion Hudson, 2013.
Choi, Joon-sik . Folk-Religion: The Customs in Korea. Ewha Womans University Press, 2006.
Chryssides, George D.; Geaves, Ron. The Study of Religion: An Introduction to Key Ideas and Methods. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2007.
Corfield, Justin. Historical Dictionary of Pyongyang. Anthem Press, 2013.
Grayson, James H. Korea – A Religious History. Routledge, 2002.
Kendall, Laurel. Shamans, Nostalgias, and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. University of Hawaii Press, 2010.
Lee, Chi-ran. Chief Director, Haedong Younghan Academy. The Emergence of National Religions in Korea.
Park, Young. Korea and the Imperialists: In Search of a National Identity. Author House, 2009.
Min, Pyong Gap. Development of Protestantism in South Korea: Positive and Negative Elements. On: Asian American Theological Forum (AATF) 2014, VOL. 1 NO. 3, ISSN 2374-8133
Sorensen, Clark W. University of Washington. The Political Message of Folklore in South Korea's Student Demonstrations of the Eighties: An Approach to the Analysis of Political Theater. Paper presented at the conference "Fifty Years of Korean Independence", sponsored by the Korean Political Science Association, Seoul, Korea, July 1995.
Tudor, Daniel. Korea: The Impossible Country. Tuttle Publishing, 2012.
Walter, Mariko N.; Eva J. Neumann Fridman. Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture. ABC-CLIO, 2004.
External links
World Atlas: Religious Beliefs in North Korea
Religion and Superstition in North Korea |
4251595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1942%20in%20baseball | 1942 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: St. Louis Cardinals over New York Yankees (4-1)
All-Star Game, July 6 at Polo Grounds: American League, 3-1
Other champions
Amateur World Series: Cuba
Negro World Series: Kansas City Monarchs over Homestead Grays (4-0)
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: East, 5-2
Minor leagues
Northern League: Winnipeg Maroons
Awards and honors
Baseball Hall of Fame
Rogers Hornsby
Most Valuable Player
Joe Gordon (AL) – New York Yankees (2B)
Mort Cooper (NL) – St. Louis Cardinals (P)
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Ted Williams – Boston Red Sox (LF)
The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award
Joe Gordon (AL) – New York Yankees (2B)
Mort Cooper (NL) – St. Louis Cardinals (P)
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Billy Southworth – St. Louis Cardinals
Ted Williams was MLB Triple Crown winner.
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
Negro National League final standings
Events
January–March
January 14 – The Boston Red Sox release catcher Moe Berg. Berg would go on the greater fame as one of the top U.S. spies during World War II.
January 15 – President Franklin Delano Roosevelt sent a letter to Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, encouraging Major League Baseball to continue playing despite American entry into World War II. Roosevelt's famed "Green Light" letter ensured that the 1942 season would be played as planned, negating rumors of a shutdown following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Despite a loss of many star players to military service, such as Joe DiMaggio, Bob Feller & Ted Williams, all 16 teams continued to play regular schedules for the duration of World War II.
February 12 – Minor league outfielder Gordon Houston becomes the first player in Organized Baseball to die during active duty in World War II. Houston had played with Texarkana in .
March 18 – Jackie Robinson and Nate Moreland request try-outs with the White Sox. Sox manager Jimmie Dykes praises Robinson's baserunning to Pittsburgh Courier sportswriter Herman Hill, saying that "he stole everything but my infielders' gloves." Dykes goes on record to the Courier, saying "Personally, I would welcome Negro players on the White Sox and I believe every one of the other 15 managers would do so likewise. As for the players, they'd all get along too." Ultimately, Dykes is unable to even consider offering contracts to either, stating that it is a matter for club owners, league officials, and the Commissioner of Baseball to allow it.
April–June
June 2 – Ted Williams of the Boston Red Sox enlists in the United States Navy.
May 13 – Jim Tobin of the Boston Braves almost single-handedly beats the Chicago Cubs at Braves Field, 6–5, by pitching a five-hitter and hitting three consecutive home runs. Tobin, who hit a pinch-homer the day before, becomes the only pitcher in modern history to collect three home runs in a Major League game. His fourth at-bat results in a fly ball caught against the fence in left field.
The St. Louis Browns purchase the contract of Babe Dahlgren, who became part of baseball lore when he replaced Lou Gehrig at first base for the Yankees, thus ending the consecutive playing streak, from the Chicago Cubs. Less than a week later, the Browns return him to the Cubs, who then sell his contract to the Brooklyn Dodgers.
June 1 – Jimmie Foxx, who'd been placed on waivers by the Boston Red Sox, is claimed by the Chicago Cubs.
June 19 – Paul Waner of the Boston Braves joins the 3,000 hit club.
June 26 – Shortly after an Army baseball game, Chicago White Sox minor league pitcher Gene Stack dies from a fatal heart attack, making him the first major league player drafted into military service to die on active duty.
July–September
July 6 – At the Polo Grounds, home of the New York Giants, the American League defeated the National League, 3-1, in the All–Star Game.
July 19 – Boston Red Sox pitcher Mike Ryba catches both games of a doubleheader against the Cleveland Indians at Fenway Park.
August 23 – Babe Ruth dons a uniform for the first time in 7 years for a hitting exhibition against Walter Johnson at Yankee Stadium. On Johnson's fifth pitch, Ruth hit a drive into the lower right field stands as the crowd thundered its approval. On the final pitch, Ruth hit a towering upper-deck shot that was just foul. He circled the bases doffing his cap and saluting the roaring crowd with every step. Ruth and Johnson then left the field together to a thunderous ovation. $80,000 was raised for the Army-Navy relief fund.
September 11 – Chicago Cubs catcher Paul Gillespie homers in his first major league at bat. In 1945 he will homer in his final major league at bat and become the only player in MLB history to do both.
September 13 – In the second inning of a doubleheader at Braves Field, Lennie Merullo commits four errors in the second inning of the Chicago Cubs' 12-8 victory over the Boston Braves. Merullo had just been informed by Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley that his wife had just delivered their first child, son Len Jr. The next day, the Chicago newspapers suggest that the newborn be nicknamed "Boots" in honor of the occasion.
September 27 – The St. Louis Cardinals clinch the National League pennant on the last day of the regular season by defeating the Chicago Cubs, 9-2, in the first game of a double header at Sportsman's Park, St. Louis. The Cardinals also win Game 2 of the double header and finish the season with a record of 106-48, giving them the most victories by any National League team since Pittsburgh's 110 wins in 1909. Meanwhile, the Brooklyn Dodgers win their season finale, 4-3, against Philadelphia to end the season in second place at 104-50.
September 29 – The Kansas City Monarchs defeat the Washington-Homestead Grays 9 to 5 at Shibe Park in Philadelphia and sweep the 1942 Negro World Series four games to none. Satchel Paige pitches 5 hitless innings in relief to shut down the Grays and clinch the title.
October–December
October 5 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the New York Yankees, 4-2, in Game 5 of the World Series to win their fourth World Championship, four games to one. The loss was the Yankees' first since the 1926 World Series to the Cardinals. They had won eight Series in the interim.
November 1 – The Brooklyn Dodgers name Branch Rickey as the team president, replacing Larry MacPhail who enters the military service. Rickey had resigned as vice-president of the St. Louis Cardinals only three days earlier.
December 1 – At major league meetings in Chicago, World War II travel restrictions are the order of the day. Owners decide to restrict travel to a three-trip schedule rather than the customary four. Spring training in 1943 will be limited to locations north of the Potomac or Ohio rivers and east of the Mississippi.
Movies
The Pride of the Yankees
Births
January
January 1 – Bill Bethea
January 3 – Epy Guerrero
January 5 – Wally Wolf
January 7 – Jim Lefebvre
January 11 – Danny Napoleon
January 14 – Dave Campbell
January 14 – Billy Parker
January 18 – Dick Estelle
January 25 – Ernie Fazio
February
February 4 – Joe Sparma
February 8 – Fritz Peterson
February 8 – Costen Shockley
February 9 – Hal Gilson
February 12 – Steve Bailey
February 12 – Pat Dobson
February 15 – Bill Henry
February 16 – Tim Cullen
February 21 – Fred Newman
March
March 3 – Don Dennis
March 3 – Bob Garibaldi
March 8 – Dick Allen
March 8 – George Gerberman
March 9 – Bert Campaneris
March 10 – Tom Hilgendorf
March 12 – Jim Wynn
March 13 – Marv Staehle
March 14 – Bob Raudman
March 21 – Len Church
March 23 – Danny Coombs
March 24 – Jesús Alou
March 26 – Mel Queen
March 30 – Conrad Cardinal
April
April 1 – Jake Jaeckel
April 4 – Tom Fisher
April 4 – Jim Fregosi
April 4 – Ron Locke
April 5 – Peter Magowan
April 6 – John Wojcik
April 7 – Tom Phoebus
April 8 – José Herrera
April 12 – Dale Roberts
April 12 – Tommie Sisk
April 13 – Ike Brown
April 16 – Jim Lonborg
April 18 – Steve Blass
April 18 – Chuck Taylor
April 19 – Aaron Pointer
May
May 7 – John Flavin
May 9 – Jerry Buchek
May 12 – Ted Kubiak
May 13 – Billy MacLeod
May 14 – Tony Pérez
May 26 – Chuck Hartenstein
May 28 – Buddy Booker
May 30 – John Felske
June
June 1 – Randy Hundley
June 1 – Ken McMullen
June 3 – Duane Josephson
June 6 – Bill Davis
June 8 – Larry Colton
June 8 – Pete Magrini
June 17 – Luis Peraza
June 22 – Roy Heiser
June 27 – Danny Breeden
June 28 – Tom Fletcher
July
July 4 – Hal Lanier
July 11 – John Sevcik
July 14 – Juan Ríos
July 15 – Don Bosch
July 16 – John Purdin
July 17 – Don Kessinger
July 20 – Mickey Stanley
July 21 – Mike Hegan
July 22 – Frank Johnson
July 24 – Cotton Nash
July 26 – José Martínez
July 27 – Jack Hiatt
August
August 4 – Ángel Bravo
August 4 – Cleon Jones
August 7 – Gary Dotter
August 9 – Tommie Agee
August 11 – Sal Campisi
August 15 – Cap Peterson
August 20 – Fred Norman
August 23 – Dave Dowling
August 23 – Danny Murphy
August 25 – Shaun Fitzmaurice
August 29 – Dan Schneider
August 31 – Tom Dukes
August 31 – Ramón Webster
September
September 5 – Dave Morehead
September 8 – Steve Hargan
September 9 – Ron Stone
September 21 – Sam McDowell
September 21 – Bill Wilson
September 23 – Jim Rooker
September 23 – Woody Woodward
September 24 – Chuck Nieson
September 28 – Grant Jackson
October
October 6 – Jerry Grote
October 8 – Bill Landis
October 13 – Bob Bailey
October 16 – Pete Lovrich
October 17 – Pete Cimino
October 18 – Vern Holtgrave
October 18 – Willie Horton
October 22 – Cecil Upshaw
October 31 – Dave McNally
November
November 2 – Ron Reed
November 4 – Jack Whillock
November 5 – Richie Scheinblum
November 6 – Jim Gosger
November 19 – Larry Haney
November 23 – Jerry Nyman
November 24 – Fred Beene
November 25 – Bobby Etheridge
December
December 3 – José Peña
December 4 – Dick Billings
December 5 – Steve Shea
December 6 – Arnold Umbach
December 7 – Alex Johnson
December 13 – Ferguson Jenkins
December 14 – Jim Roland
December 21 – Pete Charton
December 22 – Jack Jenkins
December 23 – Jerry Koosman
December 27 – Byron Browne
Deaths
January
January 4 – Herold Juul, 48, pitcher for the 1914 Brooklyn Tip-Tops of the Federal League.
January 8 – Harry Pearce, 52, second baseman who played from 1917 through 1919 for the Philadelphia Phillies.
January 22 – Louis Santop, 52, Hall of Fame catcher in the Negro leagues, an amazing .406 lifetime hitter and the first legitimate home run slugger in black baseball history.
January 31 – Henry Larkin, 82, 19th century first baseman and manager who hit .303 in 10 seasons with the Philadelphia Athletics, Cleveland Infants/Indians and Washington Senators.
January 31 – Ed Phelps, 62, catcher who played with four teams in 11 seasons spanning 1902–1913, and a member of the Pittsburgh Pirates teams who the 1902 and 1903 National League Pennants and played in the 1903 World Series.
February
February 3 – Frank Luce, 45, outfielder who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1923 season.
February 3 – Happy Finneran, 51, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Phillies, Brooklyn Tip-Tops, Detroit Tigers and New York Yankees, in a span of five seasons from 1912 to 1918.
February 7 – Joe Poetz, 41, pitcher who played in two games for the New York Giants in 1926.
February 9 – John Fischer, 86, pitcher who played from 1884 to 1885 with the Philadelphia Keystones and the Buffalo Bisons.
February 16 – Orson Baldwin, 60, pitcher for the 1908 St. Louis Cardinals.
March
March 1 – Bill Delaney, 78, second baseman for the 1890 Cleveland Spiders of the National League.
March 3 – John Buckley, 72, pitcher who played with the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League in 1890.
March 3 – Clay Fauver, 69, pitcher who played for the Louisville Colonels of the National League in 1899, and also a distinguished college professor and athletic coach both in baseball and football.
March 3 – Dan O'Connor, 73, Canadian first baseman who appeared in six games with the Louisville Colonels club who won the 1890 American Association pennant.
March 4 – Jack Hammond, 51, second baseman who played for the Cleveland Indians in 1915 and divided his playing time with Cleveland and the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1922.
March 5 – Dutch Wetzel, 48, outfielder who played for the St. Louis Browns of the American League in the 1920 and 1921 seasons.
March 12 – Owen Conway, 51, third baseman who played for the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1915 season.
March 13 – Gene Steere, 69, shortstop for the 1894 Pittsburgh Pirates.
March 26 – Jimmy Burke, 67, third baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1903 to 1905 and player-manager of the club for part of 1905, who then moved to the Minor Leagues to manage several teams, returning to the majors to coach for the Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs and New York Yankees between 1914 and 1933, while managing the St. Louis Browns from 1918 to 1920.
March 31 – Ray O'Brien, 47, backup outfielder for the 1916 Pittsburgh Pirates.
April
April 3 – John Rudderham, 78, left fielder who appeared in one game with the Boston Reds of the Union Association in its 1884 season.
April 8 – Pat Bohen, 51, pitcher who played from 1913 to 1914 for the Philadelphia Athletics and the Pittsburgh Pirates.
April 11 – Norm McNeil, 49, reserve catcher who played briefly for the Boston Red Sox during the 1919 season.
April 26 – Al Montgomery, 21, catcher who played for the Boston Braves in 1941.
April 26 – Hack Simmons, 57, infielder and outfielder who spent two seasons in the American League with the Detroit Tigers (1910) and New York Highlanders (1912), before moving to the outlaw Federal League to play for the Baltimore Terrapins (1914–1915).
May
May 9 – Herm Malloy, 56, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers teams who won the American League pennants in the 1907 and 1908 seasons.
May 13 – C. J. McDiarmid, 72, executive with the St. Louis Browns and Cincinnati Reds between 1907 and 1929; president and principal owner of Reds from 1927 to 1929.
May 15 – Larry Milton, 63, pitcher who played for the St. Louis Cardinals in its 1903 season.
May 20 – Amby McConnell, 59, second baseman who played from 1908 through 1911 for the Boston Red Sox and Chicago White Sox, better known as the player that lined into the first unassisted triple play in Major League Baseball history (1909), and also for setting the Red Sox record for most stolen bases in a single-season by a rookie with 31 (1908), which stood until being broken by Jacoby Ellsbury (2008).
May 25 – Bill James, 65, pitcher who played for five teams in all or part of eight seasons between 1911 and 1919, as well as one of the clean members on the 1919 Chicago White Sox club which was made famous by the Black Sox Scandal.
May 26 – Ed Gremminger, 68, third baseman who played for the Cleveland Spiders, Boston Beaneaters and Detroit Tigers in part of four seasons between 1895 and 1904.
May 28 – Charley Bassett, 79, infielder for five National League teams in a span of eight seasons from 1884 to 1892, who led the league's second basemen in assists in 1887, and fielding percentage in 1887 and 1890.
May 28 – Mike Welday, 63, outfielder who played for the Chicago White Sox in the 1907 and 1909 seasons.
May 30 – Ed Burns, 54, catcher who played from 1912 to 1918 for the St. Louis Cardinals and Philadelphia Phillies.
May 30 – Lee Fyfe, 62, umpire who officiated in the Federal League in 1915 and the National League in 1920.
June
June 1 – Danny Friend, 69, pitcher who played for the Chicago Colts of the National League from 1895 through 1898.
June 10 – Matt Zieser, 53, pitcher for the 1914 Boston Red Sox.
June 26 – Gene Stack, 24, pitcher in the Chicago White Sox minor league system, who in December 1940 became the first player on a Major League roster to be drafted for World War II service.
June 29 – Manuel Cueto, 50, Cuban outfielder who spent more than 20 years in professional baseball, including stints with the St. Louis Terriers in 1914 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1917 until 1919.
June 30 – Cad Coles, 56, outfielder who played for the 1914 Kansas City Packers of the Federal League.
July
July 1 – Harry Spies, 76, first baseman and catcher who played for the Louisville Colonels and Cincinnati Reds during the 1895 season.
July 17 – Lefty Johnson, 79, outfielder for the Philadelphia Keystones, Indianapolis Hoosiers and Baltimore Orioles in parts of five seasons from 1884 to 1892.
July 20 – Rap Dixon, 39, All-Star outfielder in the Negro leagues from 1922 through 1937; a power hitter who could also hit for average as well as one of the fastest players and best defensive outfielders in Negro league history.
July 30 – Jim Baskette, 54, pitcher for the Cleveland Naps from 1911 until 1913.
August
August 3 – Jack Hayden, 61, outfielder who played for the Philadelphia Athletics, Boston Americans and Chicago Cubs in the early 20th century.
August 6 – Gordon McNaughton, 32, pitcher for the 1932 Boston Red Sox.
September
September 2 – Henry Thielman, 61, pitcher for the New York Giants, Cincinnati Reds and Brooklyn Superbas from 1902 until 1903.
September 26 – Joe Giannini, 54, shortstop for the 1911 Boston Red Sox.
October
October 3 – Pinky Hargrave, 46, catcher for the Washington Senators, St. Louis Browns, Detroit Tigers and Boston Braves between 1923 and 1930.
November
November 8 – Birdie Cree, 60, outfielder who spent his entire career with the New York Highlanders/Yankees from 1908 to 1915, while hitting .292 in 742 games.
November 14 – Scrappy Carroll, 82, Outfielder for three teams from 1884 to 1887.
November 15 – Joe Gunson, 79, catcher/outfielder who played four seasons in the majors from 1884, 1889, 1892–1893.
November 24 – Frank Owen, 62, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers and Chicago White Sox from 1901 to 1908, who posted an 82-67 with a 2,55 ERA.
November 30 – Slim Love, 52, pitcher who posted a 28-21 record with a 3.04 ERA in six seasons with the Senators, Yankees and Tigers.
December
December 1 – Frank Connaughton, 73, shortstop-outfielder who played in the National League for Boston (1894 and 1906) and New York (1896).
December 3 – Chad Kimsey, 36, appeared in 222 games, 198 as a pitcher, for the St. Louis Browns, Chicago White Sox and Detroit Tigers over six seasons between 1929 and 1936.
December 5 – Val Picinich, 46, catcher in 1307 games for the Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox, Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Robins/Dodgers and Pittsburgh Pirates between 1916 and 1933.
December 6 – Amos Rusie, 71, Hall of Fame fireball pitcher whose powerful delivery was the main reason to move the pitching mound in 1893 from 50 feet to its present 60 feet, 6 inches; who retired with a 246-174 record, 1,950 strikeouts and 3.07 ERA in what was really an eight-year career with the New York Giants, collecting 30 or more wins four years in a row and winning 20 or more games eight successive times, while leading the National League in strikeouts five years and leading or tying for most shutouts five times, including a no-hitter, and the Triple Crown in 1894 with a 36-13 mark, 195 strikeouts and a 2.78 ERA en route to a 4–0 four-game sweep of the Baltimore Orioles in the first Temple Cup Championship Series.
References
External links
Baseball Reference – 1942 MLB Season Summary
Baseball Reference – MLB Players born in 1942
Baseball Almanac – MLB Players died in 1942 |
4251631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEMA%20%28German%20organization%29 | GEMA (German organization) | The Gesellschaft für musikalische Aufführungs- und mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte (GEMA; "Society for musical performing and mechanical reproduction rights") is a government-mandated collecting society and performance rights organization based in Germany, with administrative offices in Berlin and Munich. GEMA represents the usage rights stemming from authors' rights (e.g., mechanical licensing, broadcast licensing, synchronization licensing) for the musical works of those composers, lyricists, and publishers who are members in the organization. It is the only such institution in Germany and a member of BIEM and CISAC. Other collecting societies include the (AKM) Society of authors, composers and music publishers (de) in Austria and SUISA in Switzerland.
As an "accredited profit-making association with legal capacity" (de: rechtsfähiger wirtschaftlicher Verein), GEMA's capacity to be a subject of legal rights and duties is based upon state conferral (under Article 22 of the German civil code). The chairperson of the executive board (CEO) is Harald Heker (since 2007); the chairperson of the board of directors is Ralf Weigand.
Structure and membership
GEMA is organized according to (German law of association). It directly represents some 3,300 composers, lyricists, and music publishers as full members, along with approximately 6,400 more as members with sharply restricted rights and another 55,000 authors who have entered into a deed of assignment with GEMA without fulfilling the professional requirements for full membership. Members of this last group are termed "associated members" within the organization, but they do not enjoy the rights associated with membership under German law of association. As of 2010, GEMA also represents a further 2 million international rights-holders within Germany, through reciprocal arrangements with other performance rights organizations.
Membership in GEMA is necessarily voluntary, since all usage rights (stemming from German authors' rights law) are reserved exclusively by the author. In contrast with copyright as it usually appears in common law, authors' rights are inalienable (i.e., non-transferable), which means that the author can transfer only the exercise of these rights to another natural or legal person. Therefore, the author theoretically reserves the right to exercise her/his own rights or to transfer these duties to another third party (e.g., a collecting society or performance rights organization). The de facto situation remains in GEMA's favor, however, as all efforts to found a competing institution have thus far been hindered by the German Patent and Trademark Office, and the sole management of one's own authors' rights remains a daunting task for lone artists.
In order to be represented by GEMA, authors (i.e., composers and lyricists along with their publishers and heirs) must become a member and sign a deed of assignment () with GEMA, transferring the exercise and exploitation of media rights for the author's entire repertoire to GEMA. Member authors are entitled to apply for full membership after spending five years as extraordinary members, fulfilling the requirement of maintaining a payout-level from GEMA above a certain minimum value. Until then, they belong to the status category of "extraordinary member," with limited voting rights (and usually a meagre share of fee revenues, ca. 4.8% in 2010). Other people, who are indeed authors but neither composers nor lyricists (nor publishers nor inheritors of authors), can also enter into a deed of assignment with GEMA; however, these authors cannot gain full membership, instead remaining so-called "associated members." The overwhelming majority of those represented by GEMA have no access to membership status as defined and protected under the German civil code (see Articles 21–79), holding instead the pseudo-title of "associated member." In 2010, approximately 24.11% of fee revenues were distributed to associated members.
GEMA is organized by professional and status groupings. German members of GEMA can be divided into three groups: 54,605 associated members (), 6,406 extraordinary members () and 3,343 full members (). Those who have signed a deed of assignment with GEMA but do not fulfill the requirements for extraordinary membership can become associated members—along with those whose application for membership status has been refused. Associated members do not count as members in the legal sense, as defined in the German civil code concerning associations. Full and extraordinary members must be either composers, lyricists, or music publishers. Extraordinary members can become full members, when they have received at least €30,000 in fee payouts from GEMA over five consecutive years (of which the yearly income must be at least €1,800 for four of the five years). There is an elevated minimum revenue for publishers, currently at €75,000 over five years (with a yearly minimum of €4,500 for four of those years).
The purpose of GEMA is to collect royalty fees from the organisers of events where music protected by this organization is played as well as media manufacturers, publishers, and broadcasting stations. GEMA collected 850 million euros in copyright fees in 2008. Disbursements go largely to the full members (2010: 64%), whose repertoire represents the lion's share of the listed works. The distribution of revenue and disbursement procedures are decided annually at the general assembly, which consists of approximately 3,000 full members as well as 64 delegates representing the associated and extraordinary members. The general assembly elects the 15 members of the board of directors (6 composers, 4 lyricists, 5 publishers). The board of directors appoints the chairperson.
According to GEMA by-laws, the delegates for the extraordinary and associated members must be appointed according to the following pattern: 32 delegates must be composers (of which at least 12 must be inheritors/legal successors), 12 lyricists (of which at least 6 inheritors), and 20 publishers. In 2010, there were 6 inheritors among the extraordinary members (0.1%) and 3,749 among the associated members (6.9%). As a consequence, a minority of 26 currently-active composers and lyricists must contend with a majority of 38 rights managers and legal successors.
Users of GEMA-protected works—primarily manufacturers of audio/video media, radio and television broadcasters, and the organizers of events such as music festivals, street festivals, Christmas markets and many more—procure the always-required usage rights from GEMA by paying a fee, which is to be paid to the rights-holders after the deduction of an administrative handling charge.
Fees and private copying levy
Licensing fees must be paid to GEMA for the public performance of protected musical works belonging to GEMA's so-called "world inventory" (); these are then paid out to its members according to a complex distribution scheme. The division of royalties operates through a points system, which distinguishes between "entertainment music" () and "serious music" (); for example, a single pop song is worth 12 points in this system, whereas a large orchestral work with a playing time longer than 70 minutes is worth 1,200 points.
According to Article 54 of , a private copying levy (or: blank media tax) can be applied to devices and media that "[...] are used for the making of reproductions [...]", which is already included in the price. This levy first goes to the German , and from there a portion is forwarded to GEMA. In 2004, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) applied to lower the licensing fee rates for sound recording media from 9.009% to 5.6% of the manufacturer's price. GEMA criticized this push as "an attempt by the German phonographic industry to solve their problems on the backs and at the expense of creative composers and lyricists." In 2005, the board of arbitration of the German Patent and Trademark Office in Munich decided in favor of GEMA, preventing the proposed licensing fee rate-reduction. Other arbitration processes attempted by the IFPI (regarding music videos, downloads, and ring tones) in 2006 were decided in favor of GEMA by the board of arbitration of the German Patent and Trademark Office.
GEMA also exercises the rights of authors in the online sector. GEMA licenses responsible content providers, such as Musicload, Apple's iTunes Store, Spotify, Napster, and others. The data is provided by GEMA itself; since 1 January 2007, the exercise of online usage rights for certain parts of its inventory is no longer managed by GEMA, but rather through .
The charges for performances and background music are tiered.
The playback of GEMA-protected music in telephone systems as background music for answering messages or on-hold music also must be declared to GEMA. Many businesses (especially small ones) are unaware of this obligation. The same applies to the valorization of internet presence through audio-branding involving the use of music.
Since April 2003, GEMA offers access to its database of musical works on its website, including approximately 1.6 Million copyrighted musical works.
Legal basis
All collective rights management societies operate on the basis of laws and ordinances. Within the European Community, these collecting societies derive their legitimacy from constitutional protections for intellectual property and intangible assets, in the form of intellectual property law, which is enshrined in the constitutions of European states.
Although the concept of intellectual property had already been established in the 1866 constitution of the North German Confederation as well as in the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire, Article 14 of the current Grundgesetz () only generally addresses property rights, inheritance law, and expropriation, including the issue of intellectual property. By contrast, in the constitution of the free state of Bavaria—and also previously in Baden and Greater Hesse, which were formed before the Grundgesetz (1949)—the intellectual property of authors, inventors, and artists come under the direct protection of the state, which explicitly allows for the existence of collecting societies.
Furthermore, collecting societies receive their legitimacy from German author's rights (), which is legally regulated in all European states. German author's rights law () grants authors a range of exploitation rights () that the individual author would find difficult to exercise without the assistance of a collecting society, which is why the author transfers them. Transferred exploitation rights become usage rights () in the form of licenses.
In Germany, for example, this is regulated through the "law concerning the exercise of author's rights" () of 9 September 1965. The core of this law is the obligation to administer (Article 6, ) and the obligation to contract (Article 11, ). The former obligation means that collecting societies must prosecute all rights that have been transferred to them. The latter obligation means that they cannot refuse entry to any author (in the case of GEMA: composer, lyricist, or publisher) who has fulfilled all the entry requirements.
GEMA is governed by a double-obligation to contract, that is: 1) on the one hand, it must take on and exercise any usage rights that have been transferred to it from its members; 2) on the other hand, it must also provide licensing in exchange for money to any music-user making a request.
Copyright collecting societies in the European Union usually hold monopolies in their respective national markets, and German law recognizes GEMA as an effective monopoly. German case law has established the so-called , a presumption that works are managed by GEMA due to its effective monopoly position. As such, in Germany the burden of proof is on the accused infringer that the work is not managed by GEMA.
History
Antecedents: 1902–1933
Upon coming into effect in January 1902, the Law Concerning Author's Rights to Works of Literature and Musical Art () first set down in law that the public performance of a musical work required the permission of the author.
The Consortium of German Composers (; GDT) subsequently founded the Institute for Musical Performing Rights (; AFMA) in 1903. This came much later than in other states such as France, where the collecting society SACEM had already been founded in 1851, having its roots in the Agence Centrale, an interest group of musicians and publishers. Founders of the AFMA included Richard Strauss, Hans Sommer and . The GDT was headed by some of the most successful composers of the time, including Engelbert Humperdinck, Georg Schumann and most notably Richard Strauss.
In 1904, the GDT published a memorandum on the spirit and purpose of the AFMA, as there remained a great deal of confusion—as much among musicians as among event promoters and users. A central point of the memo was the following paragraph, most of whose contents now appear in the association rules of GEMA:
"The Institute pursues absolutely no private business purposes. It is only an intermediary agency. It does not collect reserve funds. A trade profit is out of the question. Administrative costs will be deducted from incoming fees, along with a further 10% contribution to the co-operative's relief fund. All remaining income, down to the last penny, will be distributed to the beneficiary composers, lyricists, and publishers."
The time after the foundation of the AFMA was quite turbulent.
In 1909, the GDT founded a second society focused exclusively on the exploitation of mechanical reproduction for phonograph records, the Institute for Mechanical-Musical Rights LLC (; AMMRE).
In 1913, the Austrian Society of Authors, Composers, and Music Publishers (; AKM) entered the German market and opened a German branch office.
In 1915, a few members of the GDT split off from the organization and founded GEMA (Genossenschaft zur Verwertung musikalischer Aufführungsrechte, which is not identical to the present-day GEMA). One of the founding members was composer Leon Jessel. In 1916, GEMA and AKM's German branch merged into the Association for the Protection of Musical Performing Rights in Germany ().
All of this resulted in a situation that had effects contrary to the original interests of authors and promoters as well as users—that is, two competing collecting societies.
In 1930, the GDT (in the form of the AFMA) joined with the Verband under the label Verband zum Schutze musikalischer Aufführungsrechte für Deutschland. However, the business units and facilities of both societies were not impacted by the consolidation. Both collecting societies continued to operate separately—all the while pretending to operate under a unified corporate name.
This came to an end during the Third Reich with the Reich Law regarding the Intermediation of Musical Performance Rights (). The legislator responsible for this law, Joseph Goebbels, did so with the aim of bringing all collecting societies into line and granting them a monopoly position.
1933–2000
On 28 September 1933, the State-Approved Society for the Exploitation of Musical Performing Rights (; STAGMA) arose out of the Verband zum Schutze musikalischer Afführungsrechte für Deutschland and was issued a monopoly on the exercise of musical performing rights. The still-existing AMMRE was annexed into STAGMA in 1938. The Reichsmusikkammer (), under the direction of then-president Richard Strauss, stipulated in its guidelines that, "non-Aryans are categorically not to be viewed as bearers and stewards of German cultural goods." This amounted to an occupational ban on the approximately 8000 Jews active in the Reichsmusikkammer. STAGMA was tightly enmeshed in the Nazi power structure, and the leading members of STAGMA were die-hard and voluntary Nazis. The CEO of STAGMA was Leo Ritter, who occupied the same position in the original GEMA and was in the habit of giving Hitler's Mein Kampf as a prize to worthy employees.
STAGMA continued its work after the Second World War, but under the title of GEMA (Gesellschaft für musikalische Aufführungs- und mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte) starting from 24 August 1947. was the chairman and general director from 1947 to 1989, to whom was dedicated the Erich Schulze Fountain in front of the GEMA headquarters in Munich. Starting in 1950, the chairman of the board of directors was Werner Egk. Both Schulze and Egk already occupied leading positions in STAGMA. Albrecht Dümling's book, Musik hat ihren Wert () was published to mark the 100-year anniversary of the first collection society in Germany. This book shed light on the role of the collecting society after the Nazi era.
In 1950, after the founding of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the partition of Germany (and as a consequence of the division in currencies), a society with comparable functions came into being in the GDR, the Institute for the Preservation of Performing and Reproduction Rights in the Area of Music (; AWA).
In 1982, GEMA collected 532.8 Million Deutschmarks.
In 1990, CSU politician succeeded Erich Schulze as chairman of the board. Towards the end of his term of office, he dedicated himself to fighting against digitalization. He characterized GEMA as the "Lighthouse of Culture" and a "rock in the surf of the waves of digitalization." According to him, GEMA succeeded in avoiding "pointless competition." To him, the internet was "nothing but a virtual department store," that should be assimilated in a hostile takeover. He went into retirement at the end of 2005.
After the reunification of Germany, many composers from the former GDR joined GEMA, but not all. The AWA has been dissolved since 1990, but it nonetheless persists as a society under liquidation.
2000–present
Harald Heker took over chairmanship of the board of directors in 2007.
Revenues
See Structure and membership for definitions of full member, extraordinary member, and associated member.
After the deduction of expenditures, GEMA's income is paid out to rights holders (approximately 40% to members and 60% to other rights-holders). During the payout process in 2010, an average of ca. €58,000 were apportioned to each full member, ca. €2,270 to each extraordinary member, and ca. €1,300 to each associated member. The internal distribution within these status groups remains confidential. In 2010, 33 (1%) legal successors had full membership, while 6 were extraordinary members (0.1%) and 3,749 associated members (6.9%).
These numbers illustrate that, since the appearance of YouTube on 15 February 2005, absolutely no negative effects on earnings from usage rights can be detected to date. On the contrary, there has even been a considerable increase in income since 2005 (see Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany).
It can also be seen that the share of revenues has continually increased for full members—at the expense of extraordinary members.
Reciprocal agreements
GEMA has entered into reciprocal agreements over performing and broadcasting rights with 73 of its foreign sister companies. For mechanical reproduction rights, GEMA entered into reciprocal agreements with 51 different collecting societies.
A reciprocal agreement facilitates the mutual granting of rights; foreign collecting societies transfer to GEMA the exercise of performance, broadcast, and reproduction rights of their entire inventory within Germany, along with the collection of corresponding usage fees, and in return GEMA grants the same rights and duties to foreign counterparts holding corresponding legal positions in their own territories. In each case, a foreign society operates as a trustee for the rights-exercising collecting society: it has no influence over how and when the collecting society will disburse the collected royalties to its member authors.
As of 2009 and based on a total of 151 agreements, GEMA represents more than 2 Million musical authors from the entire world and maintains data on over 8.5 Million musical works in its works-documentation files.
Collecting societies have joined together internationally into umbrella groups such as the Confédération Internationale des Sociétés d'Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC), using this organization as a lobby group to influence governments, international organisations, and the European Community.
Current debates
GEMA often features in discussions about copyright, private copying, webradio and file sharing. For example, the private copying levy on blank recordable media and recording devices was brought into question, especially as it not clear what rights the buyer acquires by paying this sum.
In an online petition initiated by Monika Bestle on 19 May 2003, artists and event-organizers demanded a revision of GEMA's regulations with respect to better transparency, adjusted payment methods and other critical points. The petition was signed by 106,575 citizens and remains under parliamentary review since 17 July 2009.
From 2009 to 2016, many music videos on YouTube were not accessible from a German IP address. This is because, after the expiration of the original contract, YouTube and GEMA had not yet come to an agreement on a new contract (see section Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany below).
On 2 April 2009, a lawsuit took place before the regional court of Munich, in which the plaintiff, German singer , demanded a court-backed disclosure of GEMA's business practices. According her own statements, Clear paid a total of €80,000 in fees for her concerts between 2004 and 2007 and received around €10,000 in payouts, despite more than half of the performed music being composed, texted, and performed by herself. By her own calculations, she expected a return of approximately €33,000. The verdict, made on 10 June 2010 in the Munich regional court, found in favor of GEMA on all points and, due to incomplete information from Clear, negotiated payments were limited to approximately €23,000 in fees to GEMA and ca. €10,000 in payouts to Clear. The grounds for judgment stated that any claim to payment that may arise does not do so out of the deed of assignment signed between the two parties. On 21 January 2010, the Munich regional higher court of appeal () rejected Clear's appeal against the Munich regional court's () verdict in its entirety.
It came to light on 28 May 2010, that two employees along with ten GEMA members were embroiled in a fraud scandal, in which money was paid out for events that never took place. At the same time, another fraud trial was already being litigated against another GEMA employee for another case. At a press briefing related to these cases, Harald Heker proclaimed that, "When a system such as this is circumvented by high criminal energies, such a system is powerless."
GEMA garnered a great deal of attention in January 2011 when it sent a letter to 36,000 Kindergartens, charging them a yearly lump-sum fee of €56 for the photocopying of music scores with children's songs on them. More importantly, the Kindergartens were obligated to maintain an exact itemization of each song used. GEMA replied in a statement that the media had misrepresented the facts. In Bavaria, the dispute was settled by signing a lump-sum agreement amounting to €290,000, which would be paid out from the communal budget. Other states of Germany are also in the process of negotiating similar agreements.
In 2011, GEMA's web presence was the target of two cyber attacks over the failure to reach an agreement with YouTube. The hacktivist group Anonymous claimed responsibility for both attacks, accusing GEMA of making exorbitant demands in regarding the required licensing fees for accessed videos. During the first attack in June 2011, GEMA's server was incapacitated by a denial of service attack. On 22 August, the hackers directly attacked the content of the website, redirecting viewers to an image that played on the dispute with YouTube. Anonymous additionally succeeded in penetrating the company's intranet, collecting usernames and passwords that they later published on Twitter.
On 3 December 2011, another online petition explicitly called for the elimination of Article 13c—the so-called GEMA-Vorbehalt ()—of the Urheberrechtswahrnehmungsgesetz (). This section of the law contains a full power of attorney, which GEMA also invokes: "If a rights-holder has not transferred to any collecting society the exercise of his rights of cable retransmission in accordance with Article 20b, Paragraph 1, Sentence 1 of the Urheberrechtswahrnehmungsgesetz, then the collecting society that exercises rights of this sort will be considered to be entitled to exercise these rights."
A radio interview with artist Sven Regener (from the band Element of Crime) caused a stir in March 2012. On Bavarian Radio, Regener railed against "no-cost-culture" in the music industry and vehemently advocated the strengthening of authors' rights and of GEMA (Regener: "We are GEMA, the composers and lyricists"). He accused opponents of copyright with undermining the value of art. He also criticized YouTube, the video portal for the internet company Google. According to him, Google earns billions, but it is not willing to give some of its profits to artists.
In 2012, the organizers of the non-profit organization demo party Evoke decided not to admit any competitors that were members of GEMA or any other international collection society, because otherwise they would incur GEMA licensing fees amounting to €4,500. These costs would endanger the event itself. Another demo party, Revision, made a similar decision in 2013 after having to pay GEMA because of GEMA-registered artists participating in music competitions during the previous year's event.
Blocking of YouTube videos in Germany
Music videos for major label artists on YouTube, as well as many videos containing background music, have been unavailable in Germany since the end of March 2009 after the previous agreement had expired and negotiations for a new license agreement were stopped. According to Google, GEMA sought to raise its fee charged to YouTube to a "prohibitive" 12 euro cents per streamed video - a claim that is disputed by GEMA speaker Bettina Müller stating their proposal was 1 euro cent only plus a breakdown by composer. The issue was to be taken up by a California court. Google Inc., the world's biggest Internet search engine company, partly lost a German copyright infringement suit over how much it must do to remove illegal music videos from its YouTube website.
On 20 April 2012, the regional court of Hamburg decided in favor of GEMA in the dispute with YouTube, ordering the removal of seven copyright-protected videos from its platform. Despite its victory, GEMA nonetheless launched an appeal against the verdict on 21 May 2012, because according to GEMA the talks following the verdict remained fruitless, and so the collecting society could not ensure legal certainty for its members. Moreover, GEMA demanded more transparency from the Google-subsidiary in their ongoing negotiations. YouTube also launched an appeal against the 20 April verdict, on the grounds that "the implementation of filters would compromise innovation and freedom of speech."
In February 2014, GEMA won a lawsuit against YouTube at the District Court of Munich which ordered the website to remove blocking messages which claim GEMA is to blame for thousands of videos being unavailable in Germany on copyright grounds.
On 31 October 2016, YouTube agreed to pay an undisclosed amount of money to GEMA for video views of GEMA-protected artists.
Criticism
As of 5 November 2012, the German parliament had already received 1863 petitions against GEMA.
From members
GEMA members with voting rights, who are responsible for the majority of performances, received 62.99% of the disbursements in 2008. Event-organizer Marcus Gloria characterizes these payouts as a non-transparent distribution process. Independent artist complains that the rental costs of the same concert hall have fluctuated from €2,007 (2004) to €459 (2005) to €1,233 (2006).
According to contract terms, every member is obligated to register every single one of his/her works that will be released publicly. According to Article 1 of the GEMA deed of assignment, the rights-holder grants GEMA comprehensive exclusive usage rights as a trustee to all of his/her current and future creative works. It is thereafter impossible to publish single works under another license (e.g., a free license). It is likewise impossible to release works for non-commercial use—such as the "nc" varieties available through Creative Commons—which is currently possible in France. In GEMA's view, such arrangements would prevent the society from ensuring the effective and commercial exercise of legal rights, which the EU-Commission should also recognize (according to evidence and business decisions from 1971 to 1974). One can only revoke the transfer of usage rights and manage them oneself in individual law sectors () and/or territories—and for all works.
The conventional term of a contract for members of EU-member states is three months. As a general rule, works registered at one point cannot simply be de-registered, because it comes into conflict with other already-standing contracts with its clients. The original six-year term of contract was forbidden by the European Commission in two decisions (1971; 1972), due to the abusive exploitation of monopoly positions, which was confirmed in a verdict by the European Court of Justice. However, six-year contracts remain the norm for citizens of non-EU states.
Another charge against GEMA is that there is a disparity between the revenues and disbursements for the playback of (Unterhaltungsmusik; , or pop music) versus live musical performances. GEMA explains this difference by pointing out the high acquisition efforts for the latter events. "Playlists" must always be prepared manually and require a signature, in order to count as a legally-valid document.
In 1998, GEMA introduced new PRO extrapolation procedures. This system for dividing up royalties led to drastic deficits for a portion of members, since oft-played but seldom-reported works became more expensive during the settlement process. Dance bands, solo entertainers, etc. play the standard repertoire but rarely feel compelled to fill out "playlists," since, as non-authors, they will not receive any royalties for the performance. On the other hand, performers of their own works report nearly 100% of their performances, since they are bound to earn royalties from them.
Authors who perform their own works must also pay music event fees to GEMA, if they are also organizing the event themselves. If more than 80% of their performance consists of their own works, they can use a "net individual invoice" () to get these fees back—less the handling fees. However, this only applies when all authors participating in the same event are included, which makes no provisions for festivals and supporting acts.
If an author wishes to make their music available on their own website, they must still pay GEMA fees and fill out the corresponding information sheet, even if the royalties are to be disbursed to them afterwards. This is somewhat different from the policy of the US performing rights societies ASCAP and BMI.
Since organizers pay concert fees that are calculated using the event venue's size and the admission price, there is a danger that organizer will be saddled with the costs, should the actual sales for the appearance of an artist not cover the incurred GEMA charges. GEMA has implemented a "hardship abatement provision" (), with which one can apply for a retroactive reduction in licensing costs when an unprofitable event fulfills certain conditions.
The spokesperson for the , , charges that the PRO process was introduced by the executive board in a "hush-hush operation" () without a resolution from the General Assembly—and which just happened to benefit the members of the executive board, including its chairman at the time, Otto Krause. He accused him of exploitation and personal enrichment, because he sometimes collected sums that were 100 times the incoming licensing fees collected for his old Schlager songs, while rock musicians only earned 10% of the licensing fees their music earned. Furthermore, he claimed that a statistics professor that had been appointed to assess the rationale for the distribution process had had absolutely no expertise in the field of live music and was deliberately misinformed by the executive board. Furthermore, a 2005 verdict by the federal court demanded that the PRO process be subject to a vote by the membership, which has yet to occur. Seelenmeyer also sharply criticized the term "solidarity principle" (), arguing that it disguises and sugarcoats a planned- and intentionally-unfair distribution process. He cited the former chairman of the GEMA board of directors , who wrote regarding the introduction of the PRO process that, "For an extrapolation process heavily impacting the income distribution of members to be introduced without a membership resolution is simply intolerable and furthermore against regulations, according to the opinion of many legal experts." Evers further charged: "This paternalism would rob GEMA members of their voting rights regarding an essential domain of their assets. They are almost being deprived of their right of decision by their own trustees!" Evers demanded that: "The only way that the executive board and directorial board can get out of this crisis of confidence that has arisen through the patronization of members lies in the immediate dismissal of the PRO process and the development of a new process with the participation and approval of its members!"
Edgar Berger, President and international CEO of Sony Music Entertainment outside of the US, criticized the authors' rights practices of GEMA in an interview with the daily newspaper Die Welt on 23 February 2012, questioning why in Germany, in contrast with other countries, no official music videos can be viewed on YouTube: "It's not because of us. We have licensed our content to market players. You need to ask this question to the collecting society GEMA, who is very restrictive in its copyright licensing. We're losing millions in revenue as a result. By the way, this is one of the main reasons why digital music sales in Germany are less prevalent than elsewhere."
From users
For the public use of "entertainment" music () or dance music (), GEMA assumes that all songs/tracks belong to the GEMA Repertoire by default—until such time as the user submits a completed playlist that indicates which authors are either non-members and/or which tracks are in public domain. In doing so, GEMA is exercising a legally-sanctioned and much-debated reversal of the burden of proof, which is usually termed the GEMA-Vermutung ().
From club managers and disco owners
In April 2012, disco owners were angered by the announcement of GEMA's new licensing fee scheme (dubbed the Tarifreform), because they predicted a more than 1000% increase for them in the year 2013. GEMA did not deny that the new tariffs could mean ten-fold fee hikes for certain venues—especially discotheques—but they were of the opinion that such cases would be isolated. The tariff reforms were based on requests made to GEMA for a simplified tariff structure and a fairer distribution of tariffs between cultural event-organizers and discos. For years discos have paid much less than cultural event-organizers, and there has been a great deal of criticism—including from the political sphere—of the subvention of discos. GEMA also criticized for their one-sided misrepresentation of the issue, charging them with having concealed the impact of the Angemessenheitsregel () cost-abatement, which is based on the actual audience turnout at events. GEMA also argues that 60% of event organizers will pay the same or less under the new tariff system. In particular, smaller clubs will be relieved of paying fees.
A table on the GEMA website indicates that most of the licensing fees will go down in 2013, but nevertheless a club in Frankfurt with a surface area of 300 m2 (3230 sq. ft.) will currently pay a yearly lump sum between €8,000 and €10,000 for GEMA fees. This would constitute a 500% increase in tariffs. According to a fee-calculator on the website of the Bundesverband Deutscher Discotheken und Tanzbetriebe (), the tariffs will be far higher. However, the estimates generated by this calculator indicate the theoretical maximum flat-rate charge per event. Also, this calculator does not take the Angemessenheitsregel (see above) into account, which gives organizers the ability to have their licensing payments based on the actual number of spectators at their events. The numbers that have been disseminated in the media have greatly distorted public perceptions of the consequences of the tariff reforms. Additionally, there is a growing assumption in the media that discos will be especially reluctant to calculate their costs based on spectator-turnout numbers, since these numbers were not previously monitored and likewise not fully counted.
By way of a sample fee-estimate, the Bundesvereinigung der Musikveranstalter () calculated that a club with two dance-floors of a combined total surface area of 720 m2 (7750 sq. ft.) charging €8 at the door will see a rise in GEMA fees from €21,553 yearly to €147,916. Under the new system, event licensing fees increase by 50% if the music runs longer than five hours. Many other model calculations made the rounds as well, according to which only one-time events such as a marksmanship festivals and very small clubs would actually profit from the new tariff scheme.
20 dance club owners came together for the initiative, "Clubs am Main," in order to oppose the new tariff regulations. According to Matthias Morgenstern, the leader of this association and the owner of Tanzhaus West, this new fee structure would lead to Clubsterben (). The yearly payments of Frankfurt club Cocoon (club) were slated to jump from €14,000 to €165,000. Another club called Travolta would also see a rise in fee payments from €10,000 to more than €50,000. Tanzhaus West foresees a yearly increase from €1,500 to more than €50,000.
In Berlin, the techno club Berghain indicated that, starting in 2013, it would have to pay %1400 more in GEMA fees than it did before and therefore was considering closing at the end of 2012. Berghain later announced in mid-August that the club would not shut its doors in the new year, but instead would cancel their planned expansion project, the cultural event-space Kubus.
On 30 June 2012, the Bundesverband Deutscher Discotheken und Tanzbetriebe () organized a "moment of silence" protest, in which the music of 500 clubs and discos in Germany fell silent between 23:55 and midnight. The manager of the association, Stephan Büttner, intended to use this collective gesture of protest to inform patrons and spectators about the impact of the new tariff system.
According to Ralf Scheffler, owner of the Frankfurt cultural center Batschkapp, GEMA presumes maximum occupancy at events in clubs and discos. But this does not reflect actual/typical turnout. For example, Scheffler's venue has a capacity of 2,000 people, but nonetheless turnout usually hovers at around 500 visitors. But with the new tariff reforms, he will have to pay for 2000 guests, even if they do not show up in those numbers. Due to this, Scheffler plans to quit organizing disco-format events, since he will have to pay €60,000 instead of €3,000 starting in 2013.
In a letter to GEMA, the head of the Senatskanzlei Berlin (), state secretary Björn Böhning, called for a reconsideration of their plans. According to Böhning, Berlin has a creative and innovative music scene, for which clubs and concerts are important. These require affordable licensing fee rates as a basis for their business operations.
An online petition protesting the GEMA tariff reforms, initiated by event promoter Matthias Rauh (of giga event), was launched shortly after the announcement of the new tariffs in April 2012, closed on 3 October with 305,122 signatures (of which 284,569 were signed with a German address), and presented to Justice Minister Sabine Leutheusser-Schnarrenberger on 13 December 2012. A week later, on 20 December 2012, both GEMA and announced in press statements that they had reached an interim agreement that would delay the implementation of the tariff reforms for a year (until 1 January 2014)—allowing another year to negotiate further over the licensing fee structures—and during the year 2013 all flat-rate event licensing fees will go up by 5% (and, on 1 April 2013, fees will rise a further 10% for discos and clubs).
German Music Authors' Prize
Since 2009, GEMA has been granting the annual German Music Authors' Prize (). With the motto, "Authors Honor Authors" (), the award ceremony takes place in Berlin with about 300 guests in attendance from the worlds of music, culture, business, media, and politics. This award recognizes composers and lyricists for the outstanding quality of their work. The award is conferred in ten categories, and the honorees are selected by an independent jury of experts: composers, lyricists, and producers from a variety of musical genres. The award for the "up-and-coming" category comes with a monetary prize amounting to €10,000. All other categories bestow non-monetary awards.
See also
Bureau International de l'Edition Mecanique
Cultural Commons Collecting Society
GÜFA
Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)
References
External links
Music licensing organizations
1947 establishments in Germany
Music organisations based in Germany |
4251656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuli%20Gurriel | Yuli Gurriel | Yulieski Gourriel Castillo (born June 9, 1984), commonly known as Yuli Gurriel and nicknamed "La Piña", is a Cuban professional baseball first baseman for the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played for Sancti Spiritus in the Cuban National Series (CNS), the Yokohama DeNA BayStars of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), and the Houston Astros of MLB. Gurriel is a former member of Cuba's national team, and an Olympic Games gold medalist in 2004. A versatile infielder, he has also played shortstop, second base, and third base in the major leagues.
The son of former Cuban player Lourdes Gurriel, Yulieski was regarded as the best player in Cuba in 2006. At the World Baseball Classic in 2006, MLB scouts projected that Gurriel would be a first-round draft pick were he eligible for the draft. He defected from Cuba in 2016, and made his major league debut that year.
In his first full MLB season, Gurriel helped lead the Astros to the 2017 World Series championship, making him the fifth player to have won both an Olympic Games gold medal and a World Series title. He also helped lead the club to American League (AL) pennants in 2019 and 2021, and a second World Series title in 2022.
In 2021, Gurriel won the AL batting title, becoming the second Cuban-born player to do so. He was also the AL Gold Glove Award winner for first baseman in 2021, making him the oldest player to win a Gold Glove at that position.
Baseball career
Cuban National Series
Gurriel had a solid season during the 2004–05 Cuban National Series (CNS), leading the league in hits and runs scored. However, he truly dominated in 2005–06, leading the series in runs batted in (RBI), runs, and triples. His 27 home runs, which also led the league, were one short of the record of 28. Gurriel's batting average was .327, and his slugging percentage was .676. He played his Cuban career with Sancti Spíritus and Industriales of the Cuban National Series.
Cuban national team
Gurriel's contributions helped the national team win a gold medal in the 2004 Summer Olympics and World Cup of Baseball championships in 2003 and 2005. During the 2005 World Cup, he led all batters with eight home runs.
Gurriel played second base for the Cuban national baseball team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic (WBC), striking out for the final out for Cuba in their championship game loss to Japan. He batted .273 in the tournament, with a .342 on-base percentage and a .515 slugging percentage. Later in the finals of the 2008 Beijing Olympics tournament, he again made the final out, by grounding into a double play against South Korea.
Gurriel played for Cuba again in the 2009 WBC, as their third baseman. He batted .333 in the tournament with two home runs and six RBIs.
Yokohama DeNA BayStars
On May 11, 2014, Gurriel signed a one-year contract with the Yokohama DeNA BayStars. He joined the team at midseason, and batted .305 with 11 home runs and 30 RBIs in 62 games.
Defection from Cuba
In February 2016, Gurriel and his then-22-year-old brother, Lourdes Jr., defected after competing in the Caribbean Series in the Dominican Republic, and relocated to Haiti to establish residency. It was in Haiti in June 2016 that Gurriel met future Houston Astros teammate—also Cuban—Yordan Álvarez. In June, Major League Baseball declared Gurriel eligible to be signed by a major league team as a free agent.
Lourdes Jr. signed with the Toronto Blue Jays on November 12, 2016.
Nearly 10 years prior, ESPN.com had erroneously reported that Gurriel and another Cuban national player, Eduardo Paret, had defected from Cuba and into Colombia. Gurriel refuted this claim on August 1, 2006, stating that he returned to his home in Cuba immediately after the tournament in which the Cuban national team had been playing.
"Cuban players have been systematically overhyped, but had Yulieski Gurriel defected at 21 rather than 31, he probably ends up in the Hall of Fame," said Joe Kehoskie, a former agent who followed Cuban baseball closely, in August 2016.
Houston Astros
Minor leagues and Major League debut (2016)
On July 16, 2016, Gurriel signed a five-year, $47.5 million contract with the Houston Astros. He played a total of 15 games in the Astros' minor league system that year. He made his American debut in July with the Gulf Coast Astros of the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League, playing in two games. He was then promoted to the Lancaster JetHawks of the Class A-Advanced California League. After playing in four games for Lancaster, the Astros promoted Gurriel to the Corpus Christi Hooks of the Class AA Texas League. He batted 2-for-17 (.118) in five games for Corpus Christi, and was promoted to the Fresno Grizzlies of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League. He was recalled from Fresno to the major league roster on August 21. In his first 19 games with the Astros, he batted .344 with three home runs and eight runs batted in, playing mostly first and third base defensively.
World Series champion (2017)
Over 139 games in 2017, Gurriel batted .299/.332/.486 for a 121 adjusted OPS (OPS+). Other cumulative totals included 564 plate appearances, 43 doubles, 18 home runs, 75 RBI, 22 bases on balls, and 62 strikeouts. He finished seventh overall in the American League (AL) in doubles, second in at bats per strikeout (8.5), while seeing the fewest number of pitches per plate appearance in the major leagues (3.43). He led major league rookies in batting, ranked second among AL rookies in hits (158) and extra base hits (62), and third in runs (69) and OPS (.817). Gurriel set club rookie records for doubles and extra base hits—previously held by Hunter Pence (30 and 56, 2007); for slugging percentage—previously held by Jeff Bagwell (.437, 1991); and for total bases—previously held by Joe Morgan (251, 1965). Defensively, Gurriel ranked second among AL first basemen in assists with 90.
Following the regular season, Gurriel placed fourth in the AL Rookie of the Year voting. The Houston chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) named him the Astros Rookie of the Year.
In Game 3 of the World Series, Gurriel hit a home run off Japanese Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Yu Darvish, and upon returning to the dugout, made a racist gesture mocking the pitcher. Gurriel was caught on camera stretching the sides of his eyes and mouthing the Spanish word chinito, which translates to "little Chinese Boy". Gurriel apologized, and said that anyone from Asia is called a chino in Cuba, although he acknowledged that he knew the term was offensive from having played in Japan. Gurriel was suspended for the first five games of the 2018 season without pay, but not for the World Series. He was required to undergo sensitivity training in the offseason. The Astros said that they would donate Gurriel's salary lost during the suspension to a charity that supports diversity efforts.
In Game 5, Gurriel hit a three-run home run off Dodgers star pitcher Clayton Kershaw in the fourth inning to tie the game 4–4; the Astros would go on to win 13–12. In Game 7, Gurriel faced Darvish again, and tipped his helmet before his at bat as a respectful gesture. The Astros won the game 5–1, giving them their first world championship in franchise history. Gurriel became the fifth player to have won both an Olympic gold medal and a World Series championship, after Orlando Hernández, José Contreras, Pat Borders, and Doug Mientkiewicz.
2018–20
After both hitting two home runs on September 21, 2018, Gurriel and brother Lourdes, Jr., playing for the Toronto Blue Jays, became the first pair of brothers to achieve multi-home run games in the major leagues on the same day. Yuli Gurriel was named AL Player of the Week for the first time on September 23, 2018, having batted .462, .923 SLG, eight runs scored, three home runs, and 10 RBI. For the 2018 season, he batted .291/.323/.428. He hit .403 (56-for-139) with runners in scoring position (RISP), the second-highest average in the mejor leagues behind Joe Mauer (.407, 22-for-81). Gurriel set a new club record for average with RISP in one season, which exceeded José Cruz' .389 average (49-for-126) set in 1986.
Gurriel became the first Astro with a run and RBI in seven consecutive games, and the fifth to homer in five consecutive games, on July 7, 2019, including a game-tying grand slam in doing so in an 11–10 win versus the Los Angeles Angels. He won the AL Player of the Week Award for the week ending July 8, his second weekly honor, after homering in all five of the Astros games for a total of six, among nine hits and an OPS of 1.812. He went on to win the AL Player of the Month Award for July, his first time, after batting .398, .427 OBP, .837 SLG, 18 runs scored, seven doubles, 12 home runs, 31 RBIs over 24 games. In a 14–3 romp over the Colorado Rockies on August 7, Gurriel homered and tied J. R. Towles with eight RBIs for the club record in one game.
Gurriel batted .298/.343./.541/.884 in 2019, with 40 doubles, 31 home runs, 104 RBI, 65 strikeouts and 305 total bases, ranking fifth in the AL in doubles and ninth in RBI. He established career-highs in numerous categories, including in games played (144), on-base percentage, slugging percentage, OPS, runs (85), hits (168), home runs, RBI, and bases on balls (37). At age 35, Gurriel became the oldest player in Astros history to produce 40+ doubles, 30+ HR and 100+ RBI in one season, surpassing Jeff Bagwell's age-33 campaign in 2001. Gurriel was the third-oldest player in MLB history to reach those milestones, after David Ortiz' 2016 season at age 40 and Vinny Castilla at age 36 in 2004.
In Game 7 of the 2019 World Series versus the Washington Nationals, Gurriel hit a second inning solo home run off Max Scherzer to give the Astros a 1–0 lead. The Astros eventually lost the game, 6–2, as the Nationals earned their first major league championship. In the 2019 postseason, Gurriel batted .250, 18-for-72, with five strikeouts and a club-leading 13 RBI.
In 2020, Gurriel endured his most challenging season in the major leagues to date. He batted .232/.274/.384 with 27 runs, six home runs, 22 RBI, and five sacrifice flies (tied for second in the AL) in 211 at bats, playing 55 games at first base and two at DH. In an expanded postseason format, he went 5-for-44 – all singles – as the Tampa Bay Rays defeated the Astros in the ALCS.
On September 29, 2020, the Astros signed Gurriel to a one-year extension with a club option for 2022.
Batting champion and Gold Glove winner (2021)
Following the pandemic-shortened 2020 season, Gurriel lost . On May 7, 2021, versus the Blue Jays, he recorded four hits, including one home run, and four RBIs. Through 31 games in the season, he had surpassed his RBI total (24) and walk total (16) in 2020 while batting .342/.420/.553 and leading the Astros with 12 multi-hit games and in RBIs. In the final game of the 2021 regular season, Gurriel hit a walk-off single to score Jason Castro and defeat the Oakland Athletics.
In 2021, Gurriel batted .319 to edge out teammate Michael Brantley and Blue Jay Vladimir Guerrero Jr. for the AL batting title. At age 37, he was the sixth-oldest player to win a batting title, the oldest to win their first batting title since Barry Bonds in 2002, and the first Cuban player since Tony Oliva in 1971. Gurriel tied for the major league lead in sacrifice flies, with 12. His final slash line included .319/.383/.462, 15 home runs, 81 RBIs, a career-best 59 walks and 68 strikeouts. He also led the Astros in on-base percentage (OBP, .383), hits (169), and walk-to-strikeout ratio (.868). On defense, Gurriel led all AL first basemen with 86 assists and ranked in the top five with five defensive runs saved, 1,147 total chances, 95 double plays and a .994 fielding percentage. He won his first career Gold Glove Award, becoming the second Astro to win the award at the position and first since Bagwell.
In the ALCS versus the Boston Red Sox, Gurriel batted .455./.520/.636, with 10 hits, one home run, one double, six RBI, one stolen base, three bases on balls, and one strikeout. In the World Series, Gurriel batted .273 with no home runs and two RBIs as the Astros lost to the Atlanta Braves in six games. Gurriel was, again, the final out of the series, grounding to Braves shortstop Dansby Swanson. This marked the third time Gurriel was the final out of a championship-clinching game. Game 6 also was the 73rd postseason start together for the infield unit of Gurriel, José Altuve, Alex Bregman, and Carlos Correa, which was more postseason starts than any quartet of teammates in major league history, surpassing the Yankees' Derek Jeter, Tino Martinez, Paul O’Neill, and Bernie Williams, who had started 68 postseason contests together.
2022
An announcement became public on November 3, 2021, that the Astros had selected Gurriel's option for 2022. The club placed him on the paternity list on April 8, 2022, and called up third baseman Joe Perez to take his place on the roster. Gurriel drove in two runs with two hits on April 22 versus the Blue Jays; one hit was a single that started a rally in the ninth versus closer Jordan Romano which fell short as the Astros lost, 4–3. On May 17, Gurriel hit the final of five Astros home runs in the second inning versus starter Nathan Eovaldi of the Boston Red Sox, tying the major league record for home runs hit by a team in one inning as the Astros rolled to a 13–4 victory.
Gurriel collected two hits on May 25 versus the Cleveland Guardians to help key an Astros 2–1 win. Three hits and two runs scored helped lad a 13–3 win over the Chicago White Sox on June 17. On August 11 versus the Texas Rangers, Gurriel broke an 0-for-12 slump with three hits to tie his season high. He connected for his 200th career double in extra innings versus the Atlanta Braves on August 20.
In 2022, Gurriel batted .242/.288/.360 in 545 at bats with 8 home runs, 53 RBIs, and a career-high 8 stolen bases. He led the Astros with 40 doubles, ranking sixth in the AL, and was fifth in the league in AB/SO ratio (7.9).
In the 2022 ALDS, Gurriel played a critical role in a sweep of the Mariners, batting .400/.400/1.000 with one home run, one stolen base, and no strikeouts over 15 at bats. It was his third postseason series with an OPS of at least 1.000, and first since the 2021 ALCS versus Boston. During Game 5 of the World Series, he exited with a knee injury, and was removed from the roster. A resurgent Gurriel batted .347/.360/.490 during the club's postseason. The following day, the Astros defeated the Philadelphia Phillies to give Gurriel his second World Series title.
The Houston Chronicle ranked Gurriel as the fourth-best first baseman in Astros history through the 2022 season among those who played there more for the club than any other position, following Bagwell, Bob Watson, Glenn Davis and ahead of Lee May. Gurriel was an integral piece on squads that made six consecutive six American League Championship Series and won two World Series titles. He batted .284 with 94 home runs, 435 RBI and .776 OPS in his first seven seasons in Houston, and hit another 8 home runs in 85 postseason games.
Following the World Series, Gurriel became a free agent.
Miami Marlins
On March 10, 2023, Gurriel signed a one-year minor league contract with the Miami Marlins. On March 26, the Marlins announced that Gurriel had made the Opening Day roster and would have his contract selected to the 40-man roster.
On April 25, 2023, Gurriel recorded an inside-the-park home run off Atlanta Braves reliever Jesse Chavez after the ball got away from Kevin Pillar in the outfield.
The Houston Astros presented Gurriel his 2022 World Series ring during a pregame ceremony at LoanDepot Park on August 16, 2023, with former teammates Yordan Álvarez, José Altuve, Alex Bregman, Martín Maldonado, Justin Verlander, and manager Dusty Baker.
Batting profile
As a right-handed batter, Gurriel is unusual in the sense that he has a better batting average against right handed pitchers than left-handers, and is better at batting against breaking balls away from the bat, esp. sliders.
Personal life
Gurriel is the older brother of Lourdes Gurriel Jr. who plays for the Arizona Diamondbacks and is the son of Lourdes Gurriel. His family currently resides in Miami, Florida.
See also
Houston Astros award winners and league leaders
Houston Astros sign stealing scandal
List of baseball players who defected from Cuba
List of Major League Baseball players from Cuba
List of Olympic medalists in baseball
List of Olympic Games gold medalists who won World Series
List of other second-generation Major League Baseball personnel
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
American League batting champions
Baseball players at the 2003 Pan American Games
Baseball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Baseball players at the 2007 Pan American Games
Baseball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Baseball players at the 2011 Pan American Games
Central American and Caribbean Games gold medalists for Cuba
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in baseball
Competitors at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games
Corpus Christi Hooks players
Cuban expatriate baseball players in Japan
Cuban expatriate baseball players in the United States
Defecting Cuban baseball players
Fresno Grizzlies players
Gold Glove Award winners
Gulf Coast Astros players
Houston Astros players
Lancaster JetHawks players
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball left fielders
Major League Baseball players from Cuba
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball third basemen
Medalists at the 2003 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2007 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2011 Pan American Games
Miami Marlins players
Nippon Professional Baseball second basemen
Nippon Professional Baseball third basemen
Olympic baseball players for Cuba
Olympic gold medalists for Cuba
Olympic silver medalists for Cuba
Olympic medalists in baseball
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Cuba
Pan American Games gold medalists for Cuba
Pan American Games medalists in baseball
People from Sancti Spíritus
Sportspeople from Sancti Spíritus Province
Yokohama DeNA BayStars players
2006 World Baseball Classic players
2009 World Baseball Classic players
2013 World Baseball Classic players
2015 WBSC Premier12 players |
4252108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20New%20York%20Times%20Building | The New York Times Building | The New York Times Building is a 52-story skyscraper at 620 Eighth Avenue, between 40th and 41st Streets near Times Square, on the west side of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Its chief tenant is the New York Times Company, publisher of The New York Times. The building is tall to its pinnacle, with a roof height of . Designed by Renzo Piano and Fox & Fowle, the building was developed by the New York Times Company, Forest City Ratner, and ING Real Estate. The interiors are divided into separate ownership units, with the Times Company operating the lower office floors and Brookfield Properties operating the upper floors. , the New York Times Building is tied with the Chrysler Building as the twelfth-tallest building in the city.
The building is cruciform in plan and has a steel-framed superstructure with a braced mechanical core. It consists of the office tower on the west side of the land lot as well as four-story podium on the east side. Its facade is largely composed of a glass curtain wall, in front of which are ceramic rods that deflect heat and glare. The steel framing and bracing is exposed at the four corner "notches" of the building. The New York Times Building is designed as a green building. The lower stories have a lobby, retail space, and the Times newsroom surrounding an enclosed garden. The other stories are used as office space.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the city and state governments of New York proposed a merchandise mart for the site as part of a wide-ranging redevelopment of Times Square. In 1999, the New York Times Company offered to develop its new headquarters on the mart's site. Piano and Fox & Fowle were selected following an architectural design competition, and the land was acquired in 2003 following disputes with existing landowners. The building was completed in 2007 for over $1 billion. The Times Company's space was operated by W. P. Carey from 2009 to 2019; meanwhile, Forest City bought out ING's interest and was then acquired by Brookfield Properties in 2018.
Site
The New York Times Building is at 620 Eighth Avenue, occupying the eastern side of the avenue between 40th Street and 41st Street, one block west of Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The land lot is rectangular and covers . It has a frontage of on Eighth Avenue to the west and on both 40th Street to the south and 41st Street to the north. The site takes up the western portion of its city block, which is bounded by Seventh Avenue to the east. The topography of the site generally slopes down from east to west.
The New York Times Building is near Eleven Times Square and the Empire Theatre to the north, the City University of New York's Craig Newmark Graduate School of Journalism to the east, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal to the west. The site is directly bounded on two sides by New York City Subway tunnels. An entrance to the New York City Subway's station, served by the , is next to the building's base.
Prior to the building's construction, the site was occupied by a mixture of buildings. The site had been proposed for redevelopment since 1981 as the southern half of an unbuilt merchandise mart (see ). At Eighth Avenue and 40th Street was a six-story building erected in 1963, which housed the Taylor Business Institute and the SAE Institute. The address 260 West 41st Street contained Sussex House, an eight-story, 140-room dormitory, as well as a mural advertising garment store Seely Shoulder Shapes. Behind it was a 16-story office building at 265 West 40th Street. Sex shops, prostitution, and loitering were prevalent on the 41st Street side of the site. Five sex shops had been relocated from the site before the building's development, out of 55 businesses total.
Architecture
The New York Times Building was designed by Renzo Piano and Fox & Fowle and was developed by the New York Times Company, Forest City Ratner, and ING Real Estate. It was Piano's first design in New York City. Gensler designed the interior under the supervision of Margo Grant Walsh. AMEC was the main contractor for the core and shell, while Turner Construction was the contractor for the Times space in the lower section of the building. Other companies involved with the project included structural engineer Thornton Tomasetti, wind consultant RWDI, sealant supplier Dow Corning Corporation, and steel supplier ArcelorMittal. The mechanical, electrical, and plumbing system was designed by Flack + Kurtz. Officially, the New York City Economic Development Corporation owns the site.
The Times Building is 52 stories tall with one basement, covering a gross floor area of . It has two major condominiums of office space: a lower section operated by the New York Times Company and an upper section operated by Brookfield Properties, which took over Forest City Ratner's stake in 2019. The Times space on the 2nd to 27th stories covers , about 58 percent of the office space, while the 29th to 52nd stories spans , covering the remaining 42 percent. The lobby and the mechanical spaces on the 28th and 51st stories are shared by the building's major operators. The top floor is high. The Times Building rises from the street to its roof, while the exterior curtain wall rises to and its mast rises to . , including its mast, the New York Times Building is the twelfth-tallest building in the city, tied with the Chrysler Building.
The Times Building was designed as a green building. During the building's construction, the architects created a mockup of a portion of the building to test out its environmental features. A yearlong study by the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and Center for the Built Environment found the Times Building had significant reductions in annual electricity use, utilized less than half the heating energy, and decreased the peak electric demand compared to similarly sized office buildings. The developers did not wish to achieve Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification, since that would have required extra expenditures, such as keeping track of construction debris.
Form and facade
The Times Building consists of two sections: the 52-story tower on the western portion of the site and a four-story podium occupying the eastern portion. The tower section covers about , with dimensions of . The corners of the tower are notched, creating a cruciform layout. The outer columns on the west and east elevations are recessed several feet into the building. The center bays of the north and south elevations are cantilevered slightly past the outermost columns to the north and south. The podium measures . The building contains a single basement level underneath the entire site, extending below grade.
There are three office entrances, one each on Eighth Avenue, 40th Street, and 41st Street. The facade consists of a glass curtain wall, with ceramic rods mounted on aluminum frames in front of the curtain wall. The facade was made by Benson Global, while the rods were subcontracted to a German sewer-pipe manufacturer. In designing the building, Piano said he was influenced by the massing of the Seagram Building, also in Midtown.
Ceramic rods
There are about 186,000 ceramic rods in the building. The rods, measuring in diameter, are mounted about in front of the curtain wall and are carried on aluminum "combs". The rods are made of aluminum silicate, a ceramic chosen for its durability and cost-effectiveness. The rods are intended to deflect heat and glare even if the glass panes were not tinted, and they can change color with the sun and weather. The rod spacing increases from the base to the top, adding transparency for the top of the usable space. At each story, the rods contain a slight gap at eye level. The rods extend about above the primary roof. On the north and south elevations, the screens extend slightly past the notched corners. The ceramic rods also rise to , above the main roof.
On the Eighth Avenue elevation is a sign with the logo of The New York Times, designed by Michael Bierut of Pentagram. Measuring long, the logo consists of the Times name in the Fraktur font at a 10,116-point size. The logo itself is made of 959 custom aluminum sleeves measuring about in diameter; these are wrapped around the ceramic rods. Metal halide lamps are also mounted on the facade in front of the rods. They are painted yellow to resemble the taxis of New York City.
The ceramic rods have attracted climbers, in part because the rods were originally spaced closely together. Shortly after completion, in mid-2008, three men illegally and independently climbed the ceramic rods on the facade. On June 5, 2008, professional climber Alain Robert climbed the north elevation to protest global warming; a second climber (Rey Clarke) scaled the west elevation later that day. The third climber, a Connecticut man, scaled the building on July 9 to protest the terrorist group Al-Qaeda. As a result of these incidents, some of the ceramic rods were removed, particularly on the north and south elevations, and glass panels were installed to deter climbing. People still climbed the building in later years, including in 2012 and in 2020.
Glass wall
The glass curtain wall is composed of double-glazed low emissivity panels that extend from the floor to the ceiling of each story. The panels generally measure wide and tall. The use of floor-to-ceiling glass was meant to signify the transparency of the media. It also maximizes natural light and the physical transparency of the facade. The window panes are generally protected by the ceramic rods. Since the rods contain a small gap at each story, the glass panels contain a small ceramic frit near these gaps. At ground level, there are glass storefronts, which allows pedestrians outside to see into the lobby.
The notched corners contain exposed steel and lack screens, a design feature that represents the ideal of journalistic transparency. Instead, the corners contain one- and two-story-high rods, which serve as bracing and are designed in a pattern resembling the letter "X" (see ).
Structural features
Substructure
Underneath the site is durable Hartland bedrock. Before the tower was constructed, the contractors made three sets of borings to extract samples of the composition of the ground. Directly underneath the tower portion of the site, the samples generally contained poor-quality weathered and decomposed rock at a depth of up to . The borings on other parts of the site and underneath the surrounding sidewalk generally contained competent rock at a shallow depth, which increased in quality at greater depths. Furthermore, the northern lot line is adjacent to the IRT Flushing Line subway tunnel (used by the ) below 41st Street, as well as a pedestrian passageway at a shallower level. The western lot line is adjacent to the IND Eighth Avenue Line subway tunnel (used by the ) under Eighth Avenue.
The foundation had to be capable of supporting of pressure. Most of the foundation is on intermediate- or high-quality rock and uses spread footings capable of . Caissons with rock sockets are installed under the southeast corner of the tower section, where the weakest rock exists. There are forty-two caissons with a diameter of , which extend between deep. They are reinforced with steel bars and could hold of vertical pressure. They are filled with concrete with a compressive strength of .
Superstructure
The building contains a superstructure with of steel. More than 95 percent of the beams are made of recycled steel. Steel was chosen over concrete because it allows flexible office spaces. The superstructure contains box columns measuring in diameter. The flanges range from thick at the base to thick at the top stories, giving a lighter appearance. The beams are covered with intumescent coatings for fireproofing. The floor slabs are a composite consisting of of concrete on a metal deck. They are designed to carry live loads of , as well as partitions weighing up to . The Times stories contain a raised floor structural system, with the finished office floors being above the floor slabs. Conversely, on the upper stories, the finished office floors are the slabs themselves.
The superstructure of the tower is braced to the mechanical core, which measures . This allows the perimeter of the tower stories to be no more than from the core. The lower section of the tower, containing the Times offices, contains two sets of bracing frames that surround the core from north to south. The top 21 stories contain a single bracing line extends from north to south. There are outriggers at the mechanical floors on the 28th and 51st stories. "X"-shaped braces are used at the tower's corners because the elevator core limits the extent to which west-east bracing lines could be used. The "X"-braces were pre-tensioned during construction to compensate for the shortening of columns. The braces are built in pairs, rather than as single rods, which would have required larger diameters.
On the north and south elevations, the center bays are cantilevered about past the perimeter columns. The floor girders of the cantilevered sections are arranged into three framing lines: two at the outer ends of the cantilevers and one at the center. The central girder on each floor is supported by a Vierendeel truss. The outer girders are connected to the perimeter columns by diagonal beams and to each other by columns. Because the Times stories have raised floors, the girders on these stories protrude through the facade in an offset "dogleg".
The 51st-story mechanical space contains elevator rooms, air-conditioning, lighting, and telecommunications equipment, as well as a control area for the building's mechanical services. The main roof above the 52nd story consists of an asphalt covering, above which are concrete pavers on stone ballast. The steel mast atop the building is about tall and is made of carbon fiber, allowing it to bend during heavy winds without snapping. It extends from a circular baseplate on the 51st story, where it measures wide, and tapers to a width of at its pinnacle. The mast is also supported from the roof of the 52nd story. To support the mast, trusses were designed within the floor slabs on the 51st and 52nd stories, and vertical trusses were used to shift the weight of the mast to the columns below.
Mechanical features
The New York Times Building has a cogeneration plant, which can provide 40 percent of the building's energy requirements. It is variously cited as being capable of or . The plant is in a mechanical room on the top floor of the podium, at the far eastern end. The cogeneration plant is powered by two natural gas-fired engines. The New York Times Building is also connected to the main New York City power grid, which serves as a backup power source. Because of a disagreement with Consolidated Edison (Con Ed), the cogeneration plant is not connected to the grid. The plant runs at 85 or 89 percent efficiency.
Heat is generated as a byproduct of the cogeneration plant's operation and is used to provide hot water. The recovered hot water is used in the building's perimeter heating system during the winter, while it is fed into the building's chillers during the summer. The New York Times Building contains a single-stage absorption chiller that is capable of . The building also has five electric centrifugal chillers of each, which serve the building's central chilled-water plant. The air from the chillers is delivered from chillers at . It travels to an underfloor air distribution system under each of the Times stories and to the ceilings of the top 21 stories. The steam for heating the building itself is purchased from Con Ed rather than being generated on-site, since the architects determined on-site heat generation to be more expensive. The cellar and the podium's roof contain air handling units with steam coils that take low-pressure steam.
There are over 18,000 lighting fixtures in the offices, all of which can be dimmed. The electrical ballast in each fixture contains a computer chip, which adjusts the lighting based on natural light levels and on whether the office is occupied. There are also automatic shades, which change automatically based on the sun's position, sunlight glare, and interior heat gain. The shades can also be manually overridden. The movable shades reduce energy consumption by about 13 percent and reduce solar heat gain by 30 percent in the Times portion of the building. The upper stories have two data closets and two electric closets each. In addition, the building has emergency generators throughout.
Interior
There are 32 elevators total: 24 for passengers and eight for freight. The elevators can run as quickly as . The building's mechanical core contains four banks of elevators with seven shafts each. The lower stories are served by three elevators from each bank, while the upper stories are served by four elevators from each bank. The elevators contain a destination dispatch system, wherein passengers request their desired floor before entering the cab. Stairways on the tower's western and eastern sides also connect each of the tower stories.
Base
When the New York Times Building was built, the ground floor was designed with a lobby, stores, auditorium, and central garden. Two restaurant spaces were also placed on Eighth Avenue. The retail space covers or of retail and was originally operated by Forest City Ratner. Under the building's lease agreement, space could not be leased to any fast-food or discount stores; educational centers; or any firm that could attract visitors "without appointment", including medical offices, employment agencies, welfare agencies, or court uses. Furthermore, the United Nations and most governmental agencies of any kind were banned if they could attract visitors "without appointment".
The ground-floor lobby includes an art installation called Moveable Type, created by artist Ben Rubin and statistics professor Mark Hansen. The work consists of 280 small electronic screens arranged on either of the lobby's two walls, or 560 total. The screens on each wall are arranged in a grid measuring , with forty columns and seven rows. They display fragments from both the Times archives and current news stories. The lobby is supported by exposed intumescent beams and contains oak floors and full-height glass windows. Also inside the podium is The Times Center, which includes a 378-seat auditorium for events. The Times Center also includes a meeting space.
The Times Center and lobby overlook a garden at the center of the podium, which is visible from the lobby but closed to the public. The garden is surrounded by a glass wall measuring high and 70 feet across on three sides. It contains seven paper birch trees measuring tall. The garden originally had a moss glen, but this was replaced in 2010 with ferns and grasses. The birch trees are placed on the northwestern side of the garden, while the mosses were placed on hills in the rest of the space. A walkway made of Ipe wood runs around the garden, and doors lead to the garden from the north and south sides. The walls of the atrium are transparent, resulting in numerous incidents where birds flew into the walls.
New York Times office unit
The Times owned the 2nd to 27th stories but leased out the top six stories of that space before the building's opening. Within the Times section of the building, the structural floor slabs are below the finished office floors. The girders at the building's core, as well as utilities and mechanical systems, are placed beneath the raised floors. Air is delivered from under the raised floors. Air enters most of the office spaces through diffusers near each workstation, and perforated floor tiles are used in the Times conference rooms. The Times offices can also use outdoor air for ventilation, and the air is generally ventilated through the ceiling. The perimeter of each Times story has a ceiling high, but most of the office space has a ceiling high. The ceiling is divided into a grid of tiles measuring , aligned with the vertical mullions of the facade.
The Times generally arranges its offices in an open plan. The 2nd through 4th stories contain the Times newsroom, which extends into the podium and overlooks the garden. The podium also accommodated the Times web-based staff. Stairs with red banisters connect the newsroom's stories, while a skylight illuminates the workspaces. Throughout the building, the Times offices mainly contain cherry wood furniture. The desks of the Times offices had gypsum-board accents, which themselves are colored in a scarlet red tone, nicknamed "Renzo Red". Copy writers' desks are smaller and have laminate desks without partitions. Two red staircases, one on each side of the building, connect the Times offices. There is also a double-height cafeteria in the Times section of the building. To encourage interactions between staffers, the offices were generally not assigned to specific workers, and various furniture was scattered throughout; even the staircases are designed as wide-open spaces.
The Times space is decorated with about 560 black-and-white prints from the paper's archive. The conference rooms are named after notable figures, supplement by images from the Times archive. There are about 750 distinct photographs, which illustrate not only the conference rooms but also spaces such as mechanical rooms, electrical closets, and restrooms. The elevator lobbies on each story have different pieces of contemporary furniture, as well as a set of ten video screens that display images from that day's newspaper. Lessees within the upper portion of the Times space, such as law firms Goodwin Procter and Seyfarth Shaw, decorated their offices with more ornate finishes to attract clients.
Brookfield office unit
The top 21 stories were designed to be leased to tenants. The rental office floors generally use chilled-water air handlers and receive both cooling and ventilation from the ceiling. On the 29th through 50th stories, the core girders are not depressed below the floor slab, but they can support a raised floor of up to . The minimum height of the office space is , though some parts of the ceiling can be up to high.
The upper floors were generally marketed to law firms. The spaces were, for the most part, also designed by Gensler. Since law firms generally did not require the open-plan layouts that the Times used, Gensler modified the upper stories' floor-plate dimensions to accommodate more attorneys in the same space. According to the firm's managing principal Robin Klehr Avia, this was done "so you don't have a lot of support areas without enough windows". Some tenants did not use the 5-foot-wide modules that the Times used. Gensler designed several tenants' offices with furniture and color schemes similar to those in the Times offices.
History
Context
Previous New York Times buildings
The New York Times, founded in 1851, was first housed in 113 Nassau Street in Lower Manhattan. It moved to 138 Nassau Street, the site of what is now the Potter Building, in 1854. The Times moved to a neighboring five-story edifice at 41 Park Row in 1858. Partially prompted by the development of the neighboring New York Tribune Building, the Times replaced its building in 1889 with a new 13-story building at the same site, one that remains in use by Pace University with some modifications.
In 1905, the paper moved to One Times Square at 42nd Street and Broadway. The area surrounding the new headquarters was renamed from Longacre Square to Times Square. The Times outgrew the slender Times Tower within a decade and, in 1913, moved into the Times Annex at 229 West 43rd Street. By 1999, the Times operated at six locations in Manhattan and had a printing plant in Queens.
Site redevelopment
The Urban Development Corporation (UDC), an agency of the New York state government, had proposed redeveloping the area around a portion of West 42nd Street in 1981. Among the UDC's plans was a garment merchandise mart on Eighth Avenue between 40th and 42nd Streets, opposite Port Authority Bus Terminal. The project was to be completed by the Times Square Redevelopment Corporation, comprising members of the New York state and city governments. David Morse and Richard Reinis were selected in April 1982 to develop the mart, but they were removed from the project that November due to funding issues. Subsequently, the state and city disputed over the replacement development team, leading the city to withdraw from the partnership in August 1983. The state and city reached a compromise on the development team that October, wherein the mart would be developed by Tishman Speyer, operated by Trammell Crow, and funded by Equitable Life Assurance.
Kohn Pedersen Fox designed a 20-story structure with for apparel and computer showrooms. The building would have a limestone and granite facade, a wide arch with a clock spanning 41st Street, arched entrances on Eighth Avenue, and a set of pavilions with ten pyramids on the roof. The proposal was complicated by the fact that developer Paul Milstein wanted to build a 36-story hotel and office building on the northern half of the site, north of what is now the Times building. Kennedy Enterprises was selected to operate a smaller mart in 1987. Chemical Bank had considered occupying office space at the mart before withdrawing in 1989. The mart plan was never completed because of a weakened market.
Development
By mid-1999, state and city officials were planning a request for proposals for the southern half of the merchandise mart site. The Times parent company, the New York Times Company, proposed a headquarters tower, citing its need to enlarge its operations. If this was not possible, the company would keep its headquarters at 43rd Street but move some jobs to New Jersey. In October 1999, the Times reported that its parent company was negotiating for the site. Though the site was highly visible due to the low stature of the Port Authority Bus Terminal to the west, it was also at the extreme corner of both the traditional Times Square area to the north and the Garment District to the south. Nevertheless, as architect Robert A. M. Stern wrote, the New York Times Company likely perceived the site's fringe location as a beneficial attribute. The new site was not commonly considered to be part of Times Square, leading Paul Goldberger of The New Yorker to say that the plan "has implications that go beyond the sentimental".
Selection of developer and architect
The Times selected Forest City Ratner Companies as the developer for its Eighth Avenue tower in February 2000. The following month, the Times began negotiating with the city and state. The Times wanted to pay $75 million and a two-thirds deduction in real estate taxes, but the state wanted $125 million for the site and the city wanted the Times to pay full taxes. Some commentators wrote about how the Times had opposed corporate tax relief despite seeking such relief for itself. The parties signed a nonbinding agreement in June 2000, wherein the Times agreed to pay $100 million. The Times was to occupy half of the planned tower, a single unit covering the second through 28th floors. The remainder of the space would be operated by Forest City and leased to office tenants. At the time, other media headquarters were being developed nearby, such as the Hearst Tower on 57th Street and the Condé Nast Building at 4 Times Square.
Robert A. M. Stern, his colleague Paul Whalen, and Naresh Kapadia of the 42nd Street Development Project created a set of design guidelines in advance of an architectural design competition for the building. They also created a model conforming to ideals set by the chairman of the New York City Planning Commission. The design guidelines were printed in a 48-page program with a statement by Times architecture critic Herbert Muschamp. Times Company vice chairman Michael Golden said of the design: "We need to contribute to the skyline of New York. We don't want to have people say, 'Gee, The New York Times built a four-story brick warehouse in Manhattan.'"
In September 2000, four architects submitted bids for the new tower's design: Renzo Piano, Norman Foster, César Pelli, and the partnership of Frank Gehry and David Childs. Piano called for a rectangular tower rising from a large podium; Foster proposed a right triangle tapering toward the top; Pelli outlined a glass tower with several chamfers; and the Gehry/Childs partnership planned a structure with billowing sheets of glass on the facade. The Gehry/Childs partnership was widely speculated in the media to be the front-runner, but Gehry was worried that the integrity of his design would be compromised in later revisions. As a result, he and Childs withdrew their plan from consideration. Ultimately, the Times selected Piano's proposal in October 2000, and it selected Gensler as the interior architect in February 2001. Piano's plan called for a structure with a ceramic screen rising to and a mast rising to . Fox & Fowle was selected as Piano's co-architect, focusing on smaller design details and costs.
Site acquisition
The Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC) had, since the late 1990s, tried to condemn ten lots on the site through eminent domain, but some existing landlords had sued to stop the condemnation. A state court rejected the landlords' claim and, in February 2001, the New York Court of Appeals denied an appeal. The Times and Forest City Ratner negotiated terms of the project, in which the Times would receive $26.1 million in tax breaks. The company would lease the site from the state for $85.6 million over 99 years, considerably below market value. Its payment in lieu of taxes was equivalent to the site's full property tax assessments.
In September 2001, the ESDC scheduled a public hearing for the project. Following the September 11 attacks, which occurred in the meantime, the Times reaffirmed its commitment to a new headquarters. At the hearing, many large landlords expressed their support for the new Times headquarters, citing the loss of office space that had been caused by the collapse of the World Trade Center during the attacks. The existing property owners opposed the condemnation, saying that the block was no longer legally a blighted area. That December, the ESDC was authorized to condemn the properties on the site. If the acquisition cost exceeded $85.6 million, the additional cost would be covered by taxpayer funds. By law, the ESDC first had to offer to buy the land from the owners, using the condemnation process only as a last resort.
The Times publicly announced plans for the building on December 13, 2001. Piano had originally intended to include an open piazza at the base, but the revised plans called for a tower rising directly from Eighth Avenue, with the Times newsroom surrounding a garden. The main roof would have its own garden and antenna mast. The tower retained its planned glass curtain wall, but the structural system was strengthened. Paul Goldberger wrote that the building, the largest New York City development proposed since the September 11 attacks, "would have drawn plenty of attention even if it had been just another corporate box".
Gary Barnett of Intell Development, one of the landowners on the site, filed a lawsuit that December, alleging that the Times had engaged in "fraud, bad faith, and collusion against the taxpayers of the city" by taking tax breaks. Barnett was joined by five other owners who wanted to build their own structure on the land. During the lawsuit, The Village Voice reported that taxpayer funds would need to cover an additional $79 million of the Times site's cost. A New York state judge ruled against Barnett and his co-plaintiffs in August 2002. Over the following year, the state evicted some 55 businesses on the site. The Times itself reported that the state had only provided modest compensation to displaced property owners. The Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear a challenge brought by the landowners in February 2003. That September, the state had assembled the site and the developers started razing existing buildings. Forest City and ING Real Estate held a 42 percent leasehold stake while the New York Times Company owned the remaining 58 percent.
Funding
In mid-2003, Forest City announced it would request $400 million in tax-free Liberty bonds, allocated for September 11 recovery efforts, to finance the building's construction. Forest City claimed it could not finance its portion of the tower. This request, along with a similar one for the Bank of America Tower three blocks northeast, received public criticism. By October 2003, the construction of the headquarters had been delayed by a year. Forest City had not been able to secure an anchor tenant for its portion of the building, and the Liberty-bond negotiations between Forest City and the state and city governments had stalled. By that time, Forest City had reduced its request to $150 million. ESDC head Charles A. Gargano reportedly held an unfavorable view of Forest City's application for bonds. If financing could not be obtained before construction started in 2004, the project would have to be canceled.
After failing to secure Liberty bonds, the developers applied to GMAC Commercial Mortgage Corporation for financing. GMAC provided $320 million in construction funding for the project in July 2004. Times officials predicted that work would start in the middle of that year. That November, the Times sold its old 229 West 43rd Street building to Tishman Speyer for $175 million, though the paper planned to remain at that building for the time being. This prompted criticism from some of the site's former landowners, and The Village Voice said the proceeds from the sale "wiped out the need for much, if not all, of the taxpayer money the Times asked for". According to the Voice, the Times had predicted that its 43rd Street building would have sold for $45 million in 1999.
Construction
Work began on the new Times building in late 2004, after financing had been secured. Civetta Cousins Joint Venture was hired as the foundation contractor, and work started in August or September 2004. Forest City's executive vice president MaryAnne Gilmartin said the development would conclude a revitalization of the western extremities of Midtown Manhattan. The first steel was erected starting in April 2005, and the foundation was finished that July. Work was slightly delayed during the middle of that year due to a labor strike among ironworkers. The steelwork had reached a height of 400 feet by October 2005. By then, ten of the eleven former landowners were requesting that the city and state governments give them additional compensation, as they alleged their land had been seized at well below market value. The eleventh landowner had been satisfied with a settlement.
A groundbreaking ceremony took place in late 2005. The building still had several hundred thousand square feet of vacant office space, in part due to the higher rent in Midtown compared to Lower Manhattan. Real-estate industry executives also expressed uncertainty that architectural renderings of the ceramic curtain wall, and the site's location near the Port Authority Bus Terminal, would be a drawback for tenants. To advertise the upper stories, Ratner hired photographer Annie Leibovitz to photograph the tower's construction. During construction, in March 2006, a rod fell from the tower and dented the roof of a passing car, slightly injuring its occupants. The steel superstructure was topped out during July 2006. The mast was installed later that year. By that October, the facade had been installed to the 42nd floor and interior finishes were being placed on lower stories.
Usage
Opening and late 2000s
The first office tenant at the New York Times Building was law firm Seyfarth Shaw, which leased the 31st to 33rd stories in May 2006. Law firm Covington & Burling then leased the 39th to 43rd stories, while law firm Osler, Hoskin & Harcourt signed for the 36th and 37th stories. Investment firm Legg Mason signed a lease in August 2006 for the 45th to 50th stories, committing to develop the roof garden and a conference center on the 52nd story. Simultaneously, Forest City also announced its intention to buy ING's stake in the ground-story retail and upper-story office space. By late 2006, there was strong demand for office space in the building, particularly among law firms, and the Times had hired CBRE Group to market the 23rd to 27th stories.
Goodwin Procter leased the 23rd through 27th, 29th, and 30th stories in March 2007. The 38th floor was taken that April by Korean architecture firm Samoo Architects & Engineers and developer JP Properties, while Judicial Arbitration and Mediation Services took the 34th floor. The first New York Times employees started moving into the building by May 2007. The following month, on June 11, the Times shifted its publishing operations from 43rd Street to its new Eighth Avenue headquarters. Times reporter David W. Dunlap wrote that Piano had described the new building as having "lightness, transparency and immateriality", which intentionally did not fit the traditional image of the "old-fashioned newspaper". The Eighth Avenue building officially opened on November 19, 2007. In total, the structure was projected to cost over $1 billion. In two separate incidents in December 2007 and January 2008, several window panes were cracked by wind gusts.
The Japanese company Muji opened a store at the base during May 2008. The four other retail spaces were leased by grocery store Dean & DeLuca, Japanese restaurant Inakaya, Italian restaurant Montenapo by Bice, and a roadside-themed cafe. Also in 2008, the 44th story was occupied by solar energy company First Solar and the Flemish Government. After the tower was scaled several times in mid-2008, workers removed some of the facade's ceramic rods and added glass panels to deter climbing. Piano supported the modifications, but he said that climbing was not even a consideration during the planning process, even though Times executives had focused extensively on reducing the tower's vulnerability to terrorism. By the end of that year, the New York Times Company was facing financial shortfalls and sought to mortgage its building to refinance debt. By January 2009, the Times was negotiating to sell the nineteen stories that it occupied, the 2nd through 21st stories, to W. P. Carey for $225 million. In exchange, the Times would lease back its floors for $24 million a year for 10 years. The leaseback was finalized in March 2009.
2010s to present
Part of the 44th story was sublet in 2010 to Kepos Capital, which occupied the space for eight years. By late 2013, the Times wished to lease out the 21st story, the only part of the building that it still owned. Technology company Bounce Exchange leased the 21st story in early 2015 from the Times, which had previously housed its sales and marketing department there.
In December 2016, the Times announced it was subletting at least eight floors, totaling , to save the costs of occupying that space. Gensler was hired to reorganize the space, including removing some corner offices that belonged to high-ranking executives such as the CEO and the publisher. Over half of the sublet space, covering , was sublet a little more than a year later to financial firm Liquidnet. During late 2018, British outsourcing firm Williams Lea Tag signed a 10-year lease for of space on the 10th story. Covington & Burling also expanded to the 44th story that year.
The Times announced in February 2018 that it would repurchase the building's leasehold from W. P. Carey. Brookfield Properties, which had acquired Forest City Ratner, refinanced the building's first floor and the 28th- through 50th-story condominiums in late 2018 for $635 million. The loan was provided by Deutsche Bank, Bank of America, Barclays Capital, and Citi; it consisted of a $515 million commercial mortgage-backed security and a $120 million junior note. Some $115 million in mezzanine debt was also provided. The Times subsequently exercised its option on the leasehold in late 2019 for $245 million,.
Critical reception
When Piano was selected for the Times Building, architectural critic Martin Filler called the selection "very disappointing", saying that "a lot of [Piano's] commercial work is really terrible". Herbert Muschamp, architecture critic for the Times, wrote that Piano was the "world's greatest living practitioner of what I call 'normative' architecture", though he criticized the base as having "too little contrast with the city outside". After the September 11 attacks, Muschamp wrote, "There may be no more constructive way to fill the architectural void [of the World Trade Center] than to revisit the history of progressive architecture in this town", including the planned Times Building and Hearst Tower. Times design writer Steven Heller lamented the move, saying: "The Piano building will be a showpiece, not a home."
Architecture magazine wrote in early 2002 that, with its paucity of bright signage that characterized other Times Square buildings, "The architect has chosen to speak to the Times, not to Times Square." Just before the start of construction, Justin Davidson of Newsday wrote that "lightness is both a metaphoric and an architectural goal" in the building's design.
In 2006, Paul Goldberger wrote for The New Yorker that the Times Building "comes off as dainty, even flimsy, as if inside this huge tower a little building were struggling to get out", in contrast with Piano's then-recent Morgan Library & Museum expansion. James Gardner of the New York Sun said that he did not believe the Times Building to be "a bad building" but that the ceramic bars "becomes the sort of pure ornamentalism that betrays so much contemporary architecture that overzealously aspires to appear purely functional". When the building was completed, Times architecture critic Nicolai Ouroussoff wrote: "Depending on your point of view, the Times Building can thus be read as a poignant expression of nostalgia or a reassertion of the paper's highest values as it faces an uncertain future. Or, more likely, a bit of both." Suzanne Stephens of Architectural Record wrote that the building "seems strangely bland in New York's architecturally variegated context". Despite the architectural criticism, the building received the American Institute of Architects' 2009 Honor Award.
See also
List of tallest buildings in New York City
List of tallest buildings in the United States
List of tallest freestanding structures in the world
List of tallest freestanding steel structures
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
2007 establishments in New York City
Eighth Avenue (Manhattan)
Forest City Realty Trust
Midtown Manhattan
Modernist architecture in New York City
The New York Times
Newspaper buildings
Newspaper headquarters in the United States
Office buildings completed in 2007
Renzo Piano buildings
Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan |
4252980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20children%27s%20films | List of children's films | This is a list of films primarily marketed to children.
Pre-1940
The Blue Bird (1918)
Pollyanna (1920)
Peter Pan (1924)
A Kiss for Cinderella (1925)
Wizard of Oz (1925)
The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926)
Alice in Wonderland (1933)
Babes in Toyland (1934)
The New Gulliver (1935)
The Littlest Rebel (1935)
Little Lord Fauntleroy (1936)
Heidi (1937)
Wee Willie Winkie (1937)
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)
The Tale of the Fox (1937)
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938)
Alarm (1938)
Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938)
Gulliver's Travels (1939)
The Little Princess (1939)
The Wizard of Oz (1939)
1940s
1940
The Blue Bird
Pinocchio
The Thief of Bagdad
1941
Dumbo
Mr. Bug Goes to Town
1942
Bambi
The Jungle Book
Saludos Amigos
1943
Lassie Come Home
My Friend Flicka
1944
National Velvet
1945
The Enchanted Forest
Son of Lassie
1946
Courage of Lassie
Song of the South
The Yearling
1947
Bush Christmas
Fun and Fancy Free
1948
The Boy with Green Hair
Hills of Home
So Dear to My Heart
1949
Alice in Wonderland
Challenge to Lassie
The Secret Garden
The Sun Comes Up
1950s
1950
Cinderella
The Great Rupert
Heart of Stone
Kim
Treasure Island
1951
Alice in Wonderland
Amazon Symphony
The Painted Hills
Superman and the Mole Men
1952
Aladdin and His Lamp
Hans Christian Andersen
Jack and the Beanstalk
The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men
1953
The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T.
Confidentially Connie
Little Fugitive
Peter Pan
Rob Roy: The Highland Rogue
The Sword and the Rose
White Mane
1954
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea
Hansel and Gretel (directed by Fritz Genschow)
Hansel and Gretel (directed by Walter Janssen)
Mother Holly
Return to Treasure Island
1955
The Court Jester
Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier
John and Julie
Lady and the Tramp
The Littlest Outlaw
A Man Called Peter
The Stolen Airliner
1956
The Brave One
Davy Crockett and the River Pirates
The Red Balloon
1957
Johnny Tremain
Old Yeller
The Snow Queen
1958
Panda and the Magic Serpent
The 7th Voyage of Sinbad
The Light in the Forest
Tonka
1959
1001 Arabian Nights
Darby O'Gill and the Little People
A Dog of Flanders
Magic Boy
Santa Claus
The Shaggy Dog
Sleeping Beauty
1960s
1960
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
Alakazam the Great
The Boy and the Pirates
David and Goliath
The Hound That Thought He Was a Raccoon
Hand in Hand
Kidnapped
Pollyanna
Swiss Family Robinson
Ten Who Dared
Those Calloways
Toby Tyler
1961
The Absent-Minded Professor
Babes in Toyland
Boy Who Caught a Crook
Greyfriars Bobby
The Legend of Lobo
Misty
Mysterious Island
Nikki, Wild Dog of the North
One Hundred and One Dalmatians
The Parent Trap
Snow White and the Three Stooges
Tomboy and the Champ
1962
Big Red
Gay Purr-ee
In Search of the Castaways
Jack the Giant Killer
Little Red Riding Hood and Tom Thumb vs. the Monsters
The Magic Sword
The Two Who Stole the Moon
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm
1963
Captain Sindbad
The Courtship of Eddie's Father
Flipper
The Incredible Journey
Jason and the Argonauts
Lassie's Great Adventure
Miracle of the White Stallions
Savage Sam
Son of Flubber
Spencer's Mountain
Summer Magic
The Sword in the Stone
The Three Lives of Thomasina
When the Cat Comes
1964
Dear Heart
Emil and the Detectives
Flipper's New Adventure
Hey There, It's Yogi Bear!
Island of the Blue Dolphins
Mary Poppins
The Misadventures of Merlin Jones
The Moon-Spinners
The Three Lives of Thomasina
A Tiger Walks
1965
Clarence, the Cross-Eyed Lion
Funny Things Happen Down Under
Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon
Lemon Grove Kids Meet the Monsters
The Magic World of Topo Gigio
The Man from Button Willow
That Darn Cat!
Those Calloways
Willy McBean and His Magic Machine
Zebra in the Kitchen
1966
The Christmas That Almost Wasn't
The Daydreamer
The Fighting Prince of Donegal
Follow Me, Boys!
The Great St. Trinian's Train Robbery
Jimmy, the Boy Wonder
The Magic Serpent
The Man Called Flintstone
Namu, the Killer Whale
Thunderbirds Are Go
The Ugly Dachshund
1967
The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin
Brighty of the Grand Canyon
Charlie, the Lonesome Cougar
Doctor Dolittle
The Gnome Mobile
The Happiest Millionaire
The Heathens of Kummerow
Jack and the Beanstalk
The Jungle Book
Monkeys, Go Home!
The Wacky World of Mother Goose
1968
Asterix and Cleopatra
Blackbeard's Ghost
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang
The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun
Heidi
The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit
The Love Bug
Never a Dull Moment
Oliver!
The One and Only, Genuine, Original Family Band
Robby
Thunderbird 6
The World of Hans Christian Andersen
1969
The Adventures of Goopy and Bagha
A Boy Named Charlie Brown
Captain Nemo and the Underwater City
The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes
Godzilla's Revenge
Kes
My Side of the Mountain
Pippi Goes on Board
Pippi Longstocking
Rascal
Run Wild, Run Free
Tintin and the Temple of the Sun
The Wonderful World of Puss 'n Boots
1970s
1970
Aladdin and His Magic Lamp
The Aristocats
King of the Grizzlies
The Phantom Tollbooth
Pippi in the South Seas
Pippi on the Run
Pufnstuf
The Railway Children
Santa and the Three Bears
The Wild Country
1971
The Barefoot Executive
Bedknobs and Broomsticks
Black Beauty
A Christmas Carol
Flight of the Doves
Here Comes Peter Cottontail
The Million Dollar Duck
The Point!
Scandalous John
Tales of Beatrix Potter
Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory
1972
The Amazing Mr. Blunden
The Biscuit Eater
Hide and Seek
Justin Morgan Had a Horse
Napoleon and Samantha
Now You See Him, Now You Don't
Oliver and the Artful Dodger
Santa and the Ice Cream Bunny
Snoopy, Come Home
Snowball Express
Sounder
Veronica
1973
Charley and the Angel
Charlotte's Web
Digby, the Biggest Dog in the World
From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler
One Little Indian
Robin Hood
Three Wishes for Cinderella
Tom Sawyer
The World's Greatest Athlete
1974
Benji
Castaway Cowboy
The Golden Fortress
Herbie Rides Again
The Island at the Top of the World
Jack and the Beanstalk
Journey Back to Oz
The Little Prince
Professor Popper's Problem
Swallows and Amazons
Where the Lilies Bloom
Where the Red Fern Grows
Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too
1975
Against a Crooked Sky
The Adventures of the Wilderness Family
The Apple Dumpling Gang
Escape to Witch Mountain
Hans Christian Andersen’s The Little Mermaid
One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing
The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix
Ride a Wild Pony
The Strongest Man in the World
Tubby the Tuba
1976
Across the Great Divide
Bugsy Malone
Escape from the Dark
Freaky Friday
Gus
Let the Balloon Go
No Deposit, No Return
The Shaggy D.A.
The Slipper and the Rose
The Smurfs and the Magic Flute
Storm Boy
Treasure of Matecumbe
The Twelve Tasks of Asterix
1977
The Billion Dollar Hobo
Blue Fire Lady
Candleshoe
Dot and the Kangaroo
For the Love of Benji
The Glitterball
Gulliver's Travels
Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo
The Hobbit
The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh
The Mouse and His Child
Pete's Dragon
The Prince and the Pauper
Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown
Raggedy Ann & Andy: A Musical Adventure
The Rescuers
Return to Boggy Creek
Wombling Free
1978
Blue Fin
Candleshoe
Casey's Shadow
The Cat from Outer Space
The Further Adventures of the Wilderness Family
Hot Lead and Cold Feet
International Velvet
The Magic of Lassie
Return From Witch Mountain
Ringing Bell
Sammy's Super T-Shirt
The Sea Gypsies
The Water Babies
1979
The Adventure of Sudsakorn
The Black Stallion
The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie
C.H.O.M.P.S.
Mountain Family Robinson
The North Avenue Irregulars
Scooby Goes Hollywood
Tarka the Otter
Taro the Dragon Boy
Unidentified Flying Oddball
1980s
1980
Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!)
Doraemon: Nobita's Dinosaur
Fatty Finn
The King and the Mockingbird
The Last Flight of Noah's Ark
Little Lord Fauntleroy
Never Never Land
Popeye
The Return of the King: A Story of the Hobbits
Yogi's First Christmas
1981
Doraemon: The Records of Nobita, Spaceblazer
The Fox and the Hound
The Little Fox
The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie
The Mystery of the Third Planet
Revenge of the Mysterons from Mars
Swan Lake
Unico
1982
Aladdin and the Magic Lamp
Annie
Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales
Doraemon: Nobita and the Haunts of Evil
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
The Flight of Dragons
Friend or Foe
Heidi's Song
The Last Unicorn
Mighty Mouse in the Great Space Chase
Oliver Twist
The Secret of NIMH
The Wizard of Oz (anime version)
1983
The Black Stallion Returns
Coolie
Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island
Doraemon: Nobita and the Castle of the Undersea Devil
Dot and the Bunny
Phar Lap
Twice Upon a Time
The Wind in the Willows
Where the Toys Come From
1984
Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure
Doraemon: Nobita's Great Adventure into the Underworld
The Dog Who Stopped the War
Gallavants
The NeverEnding Story
The Old Curiosity Shop
Ronia, the Robber's Daughter
Samson & Sally
The Tale of Tsar Saltan
1985
The Adventures of Mark Twain
Asterix Versus Caesar
The Black Cauldron
The Care Bears Movie
D.A.R.Y.L.
Doraemon: Nobita's Little Star Wars
The Dirt Bike Kid
Give the Devil His Due
He-Man and She-Ra: The Secret of the Sword
Here Come the Littles
The Peanut Butter Solution
The Pickwick Papers
Rainbow Brite and the Star Stealer
Sesame Street Presents Follow That Bird
Star Fairies
1986
The Adventures of the American Rabbit
The Adventures of Milo and Otis
The Adventures of Scamper the Penguin
An American Tail
Babes in Toyland
Care Bears Movie II: A New Generation
Castle in the Sky
Doraemon: Nobita and the Steel Troops
Flight of the Navigator
GoBots: Battle of the Rock Lords
The Great Mouse Detective
Heathcliff: The Movie
Lightning, the White Stallion
Momo
My Little Pony: The Movie
SpaceCamp
Super Mario Bros.: The Great Mission to Rescue Princess Peach!
The Transformers: The Movie
Valhalla
1987
Batteries Not Included
Benji the Hunted
The Brave Little Toaster
The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland
The Chipmunk Adventure
Doraemon: Nobita and the Knights on Dinosaurs
The Garbage Pail Kids Movie
G.I. Joe: The Movie
The Great Land of Small
Harry and the Hendersons
The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones
Mio in the Land of Faraway
Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night
The Puppetoon Movie
Scooby-Doo Meets the Boo Brothers
The Secret Garden
Top Cat and the Beverly Hills Cats
Ultraman: The Adventure Begins
Where Is the Friend's Home?
Yogi Bear and the Magical Flight of the Spruce Goose
Yogi's Great Escape
1988
BraveStarr: The Movie
Care Bears Nutcracker Suite
Daffy Duck's Quackbusters
David and the Magic Pearl
Doraemon: The Record of Nobita's Parallel Visit to the West
Felix the Cat: The Movie
The Good, the Bad, and Huckleberry Hound
Just Ask for Diamond
The Land Before Time
Mac and Me
My Neighbor Totoro
The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking
Oliver & Company
Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw
Purple People Eater
Rockin' with Judy Jetson
Scooby-Doo and the Ghoul School
Scooby-Doo! and the Reluctant Werewolf
Willy the Sparrow
Yogi and the Invasion of the Space Bears
1989
The Adventures of Chatran
All Dogs Go to Heaven
Asterix and the Big Fight
Babar: The Movie
The BFG
Cheetah
Doraemon: Nobita and the Birth of Japan
George's Island
Granpa
The Little Mermaid
Little Monsters
Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland
Looking for Miracles
Prancer
The Wizard
Yaaba
1990s
1990
Courage Mountain
DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp
The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship
A Gnome Named Gnorm
Home Alone
Jetsons: The Movie
A Mom for Christmas
The NeverEnding Story II: The Next Chapter
The Nutcracker Prince
Peter in Magicland
The Rescuers Down Under
Shipwrecked
The Witches
Problem Child
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
1991
Adventures in Dinosaur City
And You Thought Your Parents Were Weird
An American Tail: Fievel Goes West
Beauty and the Beast
Bingo
Ernest Scared Stupid
The Giant of Thunder Mountain
In the Nick of Time
Perfect Harmony
The Princess and the Goblin
Rock-a-Doodle
The Seventh Brother
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze
1992
3 Ninjas
Adventures in Dinosaur City
Aladdin
Alan and Naomi
Beauty and the Beast
Beethoven
Blinky Bill
The Boy and the King
FernGully: The Last Rainforest
Freddie as F.R.O.7
Home Alone 2: Lost in New York
Into the West
The Mighty Ducks
Munchie
Porco Rosso
Split Infinity
The Three Musketeers
Tiny Toon Adventures: How I Spent My Vacation
To Grandmother's House We Go
Tom and Jerry: The Movie
1993
The Adventures of Huck Finn
Beethoven's 2nd
Dennis the Menace
Digger
A Far Off Place
Free Willy
Happily Ever After
Hocus Pocus
Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey
Kid Cop
Little Miss Millions
Magic Kid
Me and the Kid
Mr. Nanny
The Nutcracker
Once Upon a Forest
Prehysteria!
Rigoletto
Rookie of the Year
Sailor Moon R: The Movie
The Secret Garden
The Silver Brumby
Sinbad
The Three Musketeers
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story
Wind Dancer
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III
1994
3 Ninjas Kick Back
Andre
Angels in the Outfield
Asterix Conquers America
Baby's Day Out
Black Beauty
Blank Check
Camp Nowhere
Cinderella
D2: The Mighty Ducks
Dragonworld
Getting Even With Dad
Iron Will
Jock of the Bushveld
The Jungle Book
The Land Before Time II: The Great Valley Adventure
Lassie
Leo the Lion: King of the Jungle
The Lion King
Little Big League
Little Giants
The Little Rascals
Magic Kid 2
Miracle on 34th Street (remake)
Monkey Trouble
Munchie Strikes Back
My Girl 2
The NeverEnding Story III
No Worries
The Pagemaster
Pet Shop
Pocahontas
Pom Poko
Prehysteria! 2
The Return of Jafar
Richie Rich
Sailor Moon S: The Movie
The Santa Clause
Scooby-Doo! in Arabian Nights
The Secret of Roan Inish
The Shaggy Dog
The Swan Princess
Thumbelina
Trading Mom
A Troll in Central Park
War of the Buttons
White Fang 2: Myth of the White Wolf
1995
3 Ninjas Knuckle Up
The Amazing Panda Adventure
Babe
The Baby-Sitters Club
Balto
The Big Green
Born to Be Wild
Bushwhacked
Casper
Catnapped!
Escape to Witch Mountain
Far from Home: The Adventures of Yellow Dog
Fluke
Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home
Friendship's Field
Gargoyles the Movie: The Heroes Awaken
Gold Diggers: The Secret of Bear Mountain
A Goofy Movie
Gordy
Gumby: The Movie
Heavyweights
Here Come the Munsters
The Indian in the Cupboard
It Takes Two
Jonny Quest vs. The Cyber Insects
Jumanji
A Kid in King Arthur's Court
The Land Before Time III: The Time of the Great Giving
A Little Princess
Little Red Riding Hood
Magic Island
Magic in the Water
Man of the House
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie
Monster Mash
Napoleon
The Pebble and the Penguin
Pocahontas
Sailor Moon Super S: The Movie
The Tale of Tillie's Dragon
Three Wishes
Toy Story
The White Balloon
The Wind in the Willows
1996
101 Dalmatians
The Adventures of Pinocchio
Aladdin and the King of Thieves
Alaska
All Dogs Go to Heaven 2
Body Troopers
Bogus
Clubhouse Detectives
D3: The Mighty Ducks
Dunston Checks In
Ed
First Kid
Flipper
Forest Warrior
Harriet the Spy
Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco
House Arrest
How the Toys Saved Christmas
James and the Giant Peach
Kazaam
The Land Before Time IV: Journey Through the Mists
The Last Home Run
Matilda
My Friend Joe
The Paper Brigade
Rainbow
Sabrina the Teenage Witch
Santa With Muscles
Shiloh
Space Jam
Susie Q
The Wind in the Willows
Wish Upon a Star
1997
Air Bud
Anastasia
Angels in the Endzone
Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas
The Borrowers
The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue
Buddy
Casper: A Spirited Beginning
Cats Don't Dance
A Christmas Carol
Cinderella
FairyTale: A True Story
The Fearless Four
Free Willy 3: The Rescue
George of the Jungle
Good Burger
Hercules
Home Alone 3
The Land Before Time V: The Mysterious Island
MouseHunt
Mr. Magoo
Northern Lights
Oliver Twist
Paws
Pippi Longstocking
Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin
RocketMan
The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli & Baloo
A Simple Wish
The Swan Princess II: Escape from Castle Mountain
That Darn Cat
Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie
Under Wraps
Warriors of Virtue
The Wiggles Movie
Zeus and Roxanne
1998
3 Ninjas: High Noon at Mega Mountain
Air Bud: Golden Receiver
An All Dogs Christmas Carol
An American Tail: The Treasure of Manhattan Island
Antz
Babe: Pig in the City
Baby Huey's Great Easter Adventure
Barney's Great Adventure
Beauty and the Beast: Belle's Magical World
Billboard Dad
The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars
A Bug's Life
Casper Meets Wendy
Dennis the Menace Strikes Again
FernGully 2: The Magical Rescue
The First Snow of Winter
Halloweentown
Hercules and Xena – The Animated Movie: The Battle for Mount Olympus
Hercules: Zero to Hero
I'll Be Home for Christmas
Jack Frost
The Land Before Time VI: The Secret of Saurus Rock
The Lion King II: Simba's Pride
Madeline
Meet the Deedles
The Mighty Kong
Mulan
My Date with the President's Daughter
Noah
The Parent Trap
Paulie
Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World
Pokémon: The First Movie
The Prince of Egypt
Quest for Camelot
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer: The Movie
The Rugrats Movie
Rusty: A Dog's Tale
Safety Patrol
Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island
The Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue
Slappy and the Stinkers
Star Kid
Summer of the Monkeys
The Swan Princess: The Mystery of the Enchanted Kingdom
Wide Awake
The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit
You Lucky Dog
1999
The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland
Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet Frankenstein
Animal Farm
Annie
Babar: King of the Elephants
Bartok the Magnificent
Belle's Tales of Friendship
Can of Worms
Cardcaptor Sakura: The Movie
Dillagi
A Dog of Flanders
Don't Look Under the Bed
Doug's 1st Movie
Durango Kids
Faeries (1999 film)
Genius
Horse Sense
I'll Remember April
Inspector Gadget
The Iron Giant
Johnny Tsunami
The King and I
Liang Po Po: The Movie
Madeline: Lost in Paris
My Brother the Pig
The New Adventures of Pinocchio
Nico the Unicorn
The Nuttiest Nutcracker
Passport to Paris
Peppermint
Pirates of the Plain
Pokémon: The Movie 2000
The Prince and the Surfer
Running Free
Scooby-Doo! and the Witch's Ghost
Secret of the Andes
Shiloh 2: Shiloh Season
Smart House
Stuart Little
Switching Goals
Tarzan
The Thirteenth Year
Tom's Midnight Garden
Toy Story 2
Wakko's Wish
Yu-Gi-Oh!
Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century
2000s
2000
102 Dalmatians
Air Bud: World Pup
Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet the Wolfman
Beethoven's 3rd
Blue's Big Musical Movie
Can't Be Heaven
Cardcaptor Sakura Movie 2: The Sealed Card
Casper's Haunted Christmas
Chicken Run
The Color of Friendship
Digimon: The Movie
Dinosaur
Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas
The Emperor's New Groove
Escape to Grizzly Mountain
An Extremely Goofy Movie
The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas
Franklin and the Green Knight
Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer
Help! I'm a Fish
Joseph: King of Dreams
The Land Before Time VII: The Stone of Cold Fire
The Life & Adventures of Santa Claus
Life-Size
The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea
The Little Vampire
Mermaid
Miracle in Lane 2
Mom's Got a Date with a Vampire
Monster Mash
My Dog Skip
Once Upon a Christmas
The Other Me
Our Lips Are Sealed
Phantom of the Megaplex
Pokémon 3: The Movie
Pokémon: Mewtwo Returns
Quints
Ready to Run
The Road to El Dorado
Rugrats in Paris: The Movie
Running Free
The Scarecrow
Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders
Seventeen Again
Stepsister from Planet Weird
A Summer Tale
The Tangerine Bear
Thomas and the Magic Railroad
The Tigger Movie
Titan A.E.
Tom Sawyer
Tweety's High Flying Adventure
Up, Up and Away
2001
Atlantis: The Lost Empire
Back to the Secret Garden
Barbie in the Nutcracker
Beethoven's 4th
The Book of Pooh: Stories from the Heart
Cats & Dogs
Dr. Dolittle 2
The Flintstones: On the Rocks
Franklin's Magic Christmas
Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge
The Happy Cricket
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
Holiday in the Sun
Hounded
The Jar: A Tale from the East
The Jennie Project
Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius
Jumping Ship
Kingdom Come
Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure
The Land Before Time VIII: The Big Freeze
The Little Bear Movie
The Luck of the Irish
Marco Polo: Return to Xanadu
Max Keeble's Big Move
Monsters, Inc.
Motocrossed
MVP: Most Vertical Primate
My Life as McDull
Osmosis Jones
Pokémon 4Ever
The Poof Point
Recess: School's Out
Rugrats: All Growed Up
Scooby-Doo and the Cyber Chase
See Spot Run
Shrek
Spirited Away
Spy Kids
The Trumpet of the Swan
'Twas the Night
Voyage of the Unicorn
Winning London
2002
The Adventures of Tom Thumb and Thumbelina
The Archies in Jugman
Asterix and Obelix: Mission Cleopatra
Balto II: Wolf Quest
Barbie as Rapunzel
Big Fat Liar
Carol's Journey
Catch That Girl
The Cat Returns
Cinderella II: Dreams Come True
The Climb
Clockstoppers
The Country Bears
Dennis the Menace: Cruise Control
Dibu 3
Double Teamed
Elina: As If I Wasn't There
Falling Sky
Get a Clue
Getting There
Gotta Kick It Up!
Grand Champion
Groove Squad
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
Hey Arnold!: The Movie
Home Alone 4
The Hunchback of Notre Dame II
Ice Age
Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie
Kermit's Swamp Years
The Land Before Time IX: Journey to Big Water
Like Mike
Lilo & Stitch
Pinocchio
Pokémon Heroes
The Powerpuff Girls Movie
The Princess and the Pea
Return to Never Land
A Ring of Endless Light
The Rookie
Sabrina: Friends Forever
The Santa Clause 2
Scooby-Doo
The Scream Team
Snow Dogs
Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron
Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams
Stuart Little 2
Tarzan & Jane
Thunderpants
Tom and Jerry: The Magic Ring
Tom and Thomas
Treasure Planet
Tru Confessions
Tuck Everlasting
Virginia's Run
Whale Rider
When in Rome
The Wild Thornberrys Movie
2003
101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure
Agent Cody Banks
Air Bud: Spikes Back
Atlantis: Milo's Return
Barbie of Swan Lake
Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman
Beethoven's 5th
Blizzard
Brother Bear
Caillou's Holiday Movie
Captain Sabertooth
Charlotte's Web 2: Wilbur's Great Adventure
The Cat in the Hat
The Challenge
Eddie's Million Dollar Cook-Off
Finding Nemo
The Flying Classroom
Freaky Friday
Full-Court Miracle
The Ghost Club
Good Boy!
The Haunted Mansion
Holes
Hot Wheels World Race
I, Cesar
The Jungle Book 2
Just for Kicks
Kangaroo Jack
Kim Possible Movie: A Sitch in Time
The Land Before Time X: The Great Longneck Migration
The Legend of Johnny Lingo
A Light in the Forest
Maniac Magee
Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Kids
Peter Pan
Piglet's Big Movie
Pokémon: Jirachi Wish Maker
Quigley
Recess: All Growed Down
Recess: Taking the Fifth Grade
Rescue Heroes: The Movie
Right on Track
Rugrats Go Wild
Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire
Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico
Secondhand Lions
Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas
Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over
Stitch! The Movie
The Story of the Weeping Camel
What a Girl Wants
When Zachary Beaver Came to Town
Wondrous Oblivion
The Wooden Camera
You Wish!
Young Black Stallion
2004
Agent Cody Banks 2: Destination London
Around the World in 80 Days
Barbie as the Princess and the Pauper
Care Bears: Journey to Joke-a-lot
Catch That Kid
Chestnut: Hero of Central Park
Clifford's Really Big Movie
Confessions of a Teenage Drama Queen
The Dust Factory
Ella Enchanted
Fat Albert
Funky Monkey
Garfield: The Movie
Going to the Mat
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
Home on the Range
Howl's Moving Castle
The Incredibles
In Orange
In Search of Santa
Kangaroo Jack: G'Day U.S.A.!
Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events
The Lion King 1½
Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas
Mulan II
My Scene: Jammin' in Jamaica
New York Minute
Pinocchio 3000
Pokémon: Destiny Deoxys
The Polar Express
The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement
Raise Your Voice
Scooby-Doo! and the Loch Ness Monster
Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed
Shark Tale
Shrek 2
Sleepover
The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie
Spookley the Square Pumpkin
The Story of an African Farm
Stuck in the Suburbs
Tainá 2: A New Amazon Adventure
Teacher's Pet
Thunderbirds
Two Brothers
The Winning Season
Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light
Zenon: Z3
2005
The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D
Aloha, Scooby-Doo!
Arashi no Yoru ni
Are We There Yet?
Balto III: Wings of Change
Bailey's Billion$
Barbie and the Magic of Pegasus
Barbie: Fairytopia
The Batman vs. Dracula
Because of Winn-Dixie
The Blue Umbrella
Bob the Butler
Buffalo Dreams
Candy Land: The Great Lollipop Adventure
The Care Bears' Big Wish Movie
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
Cheaper by the Dozen 2
Chicken Little
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
Come Away Home
Digital Monster X-Evolution
Dinotopia: Quest for the Ruby Sunstone
Down and Derby
Duma
Empress Chung
The Golden Blaze
The Great Yokai War
The Happy Elf
Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
Heidi
Hoodwinked!
Hot Wheels AcceleRacers
Kicking and Screaming
Ice Princess
Kim Possible Movie: So the Drama
The Land Before Time XI: Invasion of the Tinysauruses
Lassie
Life Is Ruff
Little Manhattan
Madagascar
The Magic Roundabout
My Little Pony: A Very Minty Christmas
My Scene Goes Hollywood
Nanny McPhee
Once Upon a Halloween
Pokémon: Lucario and the Mystery of Mew
Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie
Pooh's Heffalump Movie
Popstar
The Proud Family Movie
Racing Stripes
Rebound
Robots
School's Out!: The Musical
Scooby-Doo! in Where's My Mummy?
Sky High
Son of the Mask
Stuart Little 3: Call of the Wild
Tarzan II
Tom and Jerry: Blast Off to Mars
Tom and Jerry: The Fast and the Furry
Valiant
Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit
Zathura: A Space Adventure
2006
The Adventures of Brer Rabbit
Air Buddies
Akeelah and the Bee
The Ant Bully
Aquamarine
Arthur and the Invisibles
Azur and Asmar
Bambi II
The Barbie Diaries
Barbie in the 12 Dancing Princesses
Barbie: Mermaidia
Barnyard
The Blue Elephant
Bratz Genie Magic
Brother Bear 2
Cars
Casper's Scare School
Charlotte's Web
A Christmas Carol
Codename: Kids Next Door: Operation: Z.E.R.O
Curious George
Deck the Halls
Dr. Dolittle 3
Eragon
Everyone's Hero
Eye of the Dolphin
Flicka
Flushed Away
The Fox and the Hound 2
Franklin and the Turtle Lake Treasure
Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties
Happy Feet
Hearty Paws
High School Musical
Holly Hobbie and Friends: Christmas Wishes
Holly Hobbie and Friends: Surprise Party
Hoot
How to Eat Fried Worms
Ice Age: The Meltdown
The Land Before Time XII: The Great Day of the Flyers
The Legend of Sasquatch
Leroy & Stitch
Lotte from Gadgetville
Miss Potter
Monster House
A Movie of Eggs
My Little Pony Crystal Princess: The Runaway Rainbow
My Little Pony: The Princess Promenade
Open Season
Over the Hedge
Pokémon: The Mastermind of Mirage Pokémon
Pokémon Ranger and the Temple of the Sea
PollyWorld
The Prince and Me 2: The Royal Wedding
Re-Animated
Return To Halloweentown
The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause
Saving Shiloh
Scooby-Doo! Pirates Ahoy!
The Shaggy Dog
Shark Bait
Stanley's Dinosaur Round-Up
Stormbreaker
Strawberry Shortcake: The Sweet Dreams Movie
Teen Titans: Trouble in Tokyo
The Thief Lord
Tom and Jerry: Shiver Me Whiskers
The Ugly Duckling and Me!
Unaccompanied Minors
The Wild
Zoom
2007
Alice Upside Down
Alvin and the Chipmunks
Arctic Tale
Barbie as the Island Princess
Battle for Terra
Bratz Kidz: Sleep-Over Adventure
Brichos
Bridge to Terabithia
Care Bears: Oopsy Does It!
Chill Out, Scooby-Doo!
Christmas Is Here Again
Cinderella III: A Twist in Time
Daddy Day Camp
Donkey Xote
Fairly OddBaby
Finding Rin Tin Tin
Firehouse Dog
Fishtales
Flight of the Red Balloon
The Fox and the Child
The Game Plan
Garfield Gets Real
The Great Discovery
Happily N'Ever After
Johnny Kapahala: Back on Board
Labou
The Land Before Time XIII: The Wisdom of Friends
Like Stars on Earth
Meet the Robinsons
Mug Travel
My Friends Tigger & Pooh: Super Sleuth Christmas Movie
My Little Pony: A Very Pony Place
Nancy Drew
Nocturna
Pokémon: The Rise of Darkrai
Pride
Ratatouille
The Secret of the Magic Gourd
Shrek the Third
SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis
Stardust
Strawberry Shortcake: Berry Blossom Festival
Strawberry Shortcake: Let's Dance
Surf's Up
The Ten Commandments
TMNT
Tom and Jerry: A Nutcracker Tale
Underdog
The Water Horse: Legend of the Deep
Winx Club: The Secret of the Lost Kingdom
2008
All Roads Lead Home
Asterix at the Olympic Games
Barbie & the Diamond Castle
Barbie Mariposa
Bedtime Stories
Beethoven's Big Break
Beverly Hills Chihuahua
Bolt
The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian
College Road Trip
Dr. Dolittle: Tail to the Chief
Delgo
Dragon Hunters
The Flight Before Christmas
Fly Me to the Moon
Garfield's Fun Fest
The Great Discovery
Hari Puttar: A Comedy of Terrors
Horton Hears a Who!
Igor
Impy's Island
Inkheart
Kit Kittredge: An American Girl
Kung Fu Panda
Lost Stallions: The Journey Home
Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa
Merry Christmas, Drake & Josh
Minutemen
Missing Lynx
Nim's Island
Open Season 2
The Pirates Who Don't Do Anything: A VeggieTales Movie
Pokémon: Giratina and the Sky Warrior
Ponyo
Roadside Romeo
Roxy Hunter and the Secret of the Shaman
The Seven of Daran: Battle of Pareo Rock
Scooby-Doo! and the Goblin King
The Secret of Moonacre
Snow Buddies
Space Chimps
The Spiderwick Chronicles
Spirit of the Forest
Spy School
Strawberry Shortcake: Rockaberry Roll
Summer of the Flying Saucer
The Tale of Despereaux
Tinker Bell
WALL-E
Wubbzy's Big Movie!
2009
Aliens in the Attic
Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel
An American Girl: Chrissa Stands Strong
Another Egg and Chicken Movie
Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard
Astro Boy
Barbie and the Three Musketeers
Barbie Thumbelina
Ben 10: Alien Swarm
Broken Hill
Chal Chalein
Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs
Coraline
Curious George 2: Follow That Monkey!
Dr. Dolittle: Million Dollar Mutts
Ed, Edd n Eddy's Big Picture Show
Fantastic Mr. Fox
G-Force
Gooby
The Gruffalo
Hachi: A Dog's Tale
Hannah Montana: The Movie
Happily N'Ever After 2: Snow White Another Bite @ the Apple
The Happy Cricket and the Giant Bugs
Hatching Pete
Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
Hero of the Rails
Hotel for Dogs
Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs
Inkheart
Just Peck
Looking for Jackie
Monsters vs. Aliens
My Little Pony: Twinkle Wish Adventure
The Perfect Game
Planet 51
Pokémon: Arceus and the Jewel of Life
The Princess and the Frog
Professor Layton and the Eternal Diva
Race to Witch Mountain
Scooby-Doo! and the Samurai Sword
Scooby-Doo! The Mystery Begins
The Secret of Kells
The Secret of Moonacre
A Shine of Rainbows
Shorts
Space Buddies
The Strawberry Shortcake Movie: Sky's the Limit
Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure
Totally Spies! The Movie
Turtles Forever
Up
Vicky the Viking
Where the Wild Things Are
The Wild Stallion
Wishology
Wow! Wow! Wubbzy!: Wubb Idol
2010s
2010
Adventures of a Teenage Dragon Slayer
Alpha and Omega
...And Once Again
Animals United
Arrietty
Arthur 3: The War of the Two Worlds
Barbie: A Fashion Fairytale
Barbie in A Mermaid Tale
Big Time Christmas
Big Time Concert
The Black Tulip
The Boy Who Cried Werewolf
Care Bears: The Giving Festival
Care Bears: Share Bear Shines
A Cat in Paris
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
Despicable Me
Diary of a Wimpy Kid
The Dog Who Saved Christmas Vacation
Elle: A Modern Cinderella Tale
Expecting Mary
Firebreather
Flicka 2
Flipped
Free Willy: Escape from Pirate's Cove
Furry Vengeance
Gaturro
Gulliver's Travels
Harriet the Spy: Blog Wars
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1
How to Train Your Dragon
Kooky
Kung Fu Magoo
Kung Fu Panda Holiday
The Last Airbender
Legend of the Guardians: The Owls of Ga'Hoole
The Legend of Silk Boy
Lego: The Adventures of Clutch Powers
Marmaduke
Megamind
My Friends Tigger & Pooh: Super Duper Super Sleuths
Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang
Open Season 3
Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief
Plumíferos
Pokémon: Zoroark: Master of Illusions
Ramona and Beezus
Scooby-Doo! Abracadabra-Doo
Scooby-Doo! Camp Scare
Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster
The Search for Santa Paws
Shrek Forever After
Space Chimps 2: Zartog Strikes Back
Space Dogs
Tangled
Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue
Tom and Jerry Meet Sherlock Holmes
Tooth Fairy
Toy Story 3
A Turtle's Tale: Sammy's Adventures
Welcome to the Space Show
What If...
Winx Club 3D: Magical Adventure
Yogi Bear
Yu-Gi-Oh!: Bonds Beyond Time
2011
After the Wizard
Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked
Arthur Christmas
Barbie: A Fairy Secret
Barbie: Princess Charm School
Beethoven's Christmas Adventure
Best Player
Beverly Hills Chihuahua 2
Big Time Beach Party
Brasil Animado
Cars 2
Chillar Party
Dolphin Tale
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules
The Dragon Pearl
A Fairly Odd Movie: Grow Up, Timmy Turner!
From Up on Poppy Hill
Gnomeo & Juliet
The Great Bear
The Great Ghost Rescue
The Gruffalo's Child
Happy Feet Two
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2
Hoodwinked Too! Hood vs. Evil
Hop
Horrid Henry: The Movie
I Am Kalam
Judy Moody and the Not Bummer Summer
Koko and the Ghosts
Kung Fu Panda 2
The Lamp
Leafie, A Hen Into the Wild
Legend of a Rabbit
Little Big Panda
The Little Engine That Could
The Magic of Belle Isle
Mars Needs Moms
Monster Mutt
A Monster in Paris
Monte Carlo
Mr. Popper's Penguins
The Muppets
My Angel
Once Upon a Warrior
Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension
Pixie Hollow Games
Pokémon the Movie: Black—Victini and Reshiram and White—Victini and Zekrom
Puss in Boots
Quest for Zhu
Red Dog
Rio
Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur
SeeFood
The Smurfs
Snowflake, the White Gorilla
Spy Kids: All the Time in the World
Tainá 3: The Origin
Tibetan Dog
Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz
Top Cat: The Movie
Winnie the Pooh
2012
The Adventures of Mickey Matson and the Copperhead Treasure
Back to the Sea
Barbie in A Mermaid Tale 2
Barbie: The Princess & the Popstar
Beverly Hills Chihuahua 3
Big Time Movie
Big Top Scooby-Doo!
Brave
Cowgirls 'n Angels
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days
Dino Time
Echo Planet
Ernest & Celestine
A Fairly Odd Christmas
Hotel Transylvania
Ice Age: Continental Drift
The Lorax
Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted
The Oogieloves in the Big Balloon Adventure
Outback
ParaNorman
Peixonauta – Agente Secreto da O.S.T.R.A.
The Pirates! In an Adventure with Scientists!
Pokémon the Movie: Kyurem vs. the Sword of Justice
Rags
The Reef 2: High Tide
Room on the Broom
Sammy's Great Escape
Santa Paws 2: The Santa Pups
Scooby-Doo! Music of the Vampire
Secret of the Wings
The Snow Queen
The Snowman and the Snowdog
So Undercover
The Swan Princess Christmas
Tad, the Lost Explorer
Tinker Bell and the Secret of the Wings
Thunderstruck
Tom and Jerry: Robin Hood and His Merry Mouse
A Turtle's Tale 2: Sammy's Escape from Paradise
Wreck-It Ralph
Yak: The Giant King
Zambezia
2013
Against the Wild
Alpha and Omega 2: A Howl-iday Adventure
Angels Sing
Bunks
Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2
Contest
The Croods
Despicable Me 2
Epic
Escape from Planet Earth
Free Birds
Frozen
The House of Magic
Jinxed
Jungle Master
Justin and the Knights of Valour
Khumba
Legends of Oz: Dorothy's Return
Monsters University
Moshi Monsters: The Movie
My Little Pony: Equestria Girls
Nicky Deuce
Oggy and the Cockroaches: The Movie
Percy Jackson: Sea of Monsters
Planes
Pokémon the Movie: Genesect and the Legend Awakened
Pororo, The Racing Adventure
Return to Nim's Island
Robosapien: Rebooted
Savannah
Scooby-Doo! Adventures: The Mystery Map
Scooby-Doo! Mask of the Blue Falcon
Scooby-Doo! Stage Fright
The Smurfs 2
Super Buddies
Swindle
A Talking Cat!?!
Thunder and the House of Magic
Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure
Transformers Prime Beast Hunters: Predacons Rising
Turbo
Underdogs
Walking with Dinosaurs
Wish You Well
Zambezia
Zip & Zap and the Marble Gang
2014
Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day
Alpha and Omega 3: The Great Wolf Games
Alpha and Omega 4: The Legend of the Saw Tooth Cave
Asterix and Obelix: Mansion of the Gods
Big Hero 6
The Book of Life
Boonie Bears: To the Rescue
The Boxtrolls
Dolphin Tale 2
Dragon Nest: Warriors' Dawn
Earth to Echo
From Up on Poppy Hill
The Frogville
Henry & Me
The Hero of Color City
How to Steal a Dog
How to Train Your Dragon 2
The Incredible Adventures of Professor Branestawm
Jungle Shuffle
The Lego Movie
The Monkey King
Mr. Peabody & Sherman
Muppets Most Wanted
My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Rainbow Rocks
The Nut Job
Paddington
Penguins of Madagascar
Ping Pong Summer
The Pirate Fairy
Planes: Fire & Rescue
Pokémon the Movie: Diancie and the Cocoon of Destruction
Postman Pat: The Movie
Pudsey the Dog: The Movie
Rio 2
Scooby-Doo! Frankencreepy
Scooby-Doo! WrestleMania Mystery
Song of the Sea
Stand by Me Doraemon
The Swan Princess: A Royal Family Tale
Tom and Jerry: The Lost Dragon
Tom and Jerry: Santa's Little Helpers
2015
Alibaba and the Thief
Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip
Blinky Bill the Movie
Brave Rabbit 2 Crazy Circus
Capture the Flag
The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!
The Good Dinosaur
Goosebumps
Heidi
Home
Hotel Transylvania 2
Huevos: Little Rooster's Egg-cellent Adventure
Inside Out
The Invincible Piglet
The Little Prince
Marshall the Miracle Dog
Minions
My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Friendship Games
Oddball
Ooops! Noah Is Gone...
Paper Planes
The Peanuts Movie
Pokémon the Movie: Hoopa and the Clash of Ages
Pororo: Cyberspace Adventure
Scooby-Doo! and Kiss: Rock and Roll Mystery
Scooby-Doo! Moon Monster Madness
Shaun the Sheep Movie
Snowtime!
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water
Strange Magic
Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast
Tom and Jerry: Spy Quest
Top Cat Begins
2016
The Angry Birds Movie
Dear Eleanor
El Americano: The Movie
Finding Dory
Ice Age: Collision Course
Kung Fu Panda 3
The Land Before Time: Journey of the Brave
Lego Scooby-Doo! Haunted Hollywood
Middle School: The Worst Years of My Life
Moana
My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Legend of Everfree
Nine Lives
Norm of the North
Papa
Ratchet & Clank
Robinson Crusoe
Rock Dog
Scooby-Doo! and WWE: Curse of the Speed Demon
The Secret Life of Pets
Sheep and Wolves
Sing
Spark
Storks
Trolls
Zootopia
2017
Animal Crackers
The Boss Baby
Bunyan & Babe
Cars 3
Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie
Coco
Despicable Me 3
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul
The Emoji Movie
Gnome Alone
Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie
The Jetsons & WWE: Robo-WrestleMania!
The Lego Batman Movie
The Lego Ninjago Movie
Lego Scooby-Doo! Blowout Beach Bash
Monster Trucks
My Little Pony: The Movie
The Nut Job 2: Nutty by Nature
Paddington 2
Scooby-Doo! Shaggy's Showdown
Smurfs: The Lost Village
The Star
2018
Duck Duck Goose
Goosebumps 2: Haunted Halloween
The Haunted House: The Secret of the Cave
Hotel Transylvania 3: Summer Vacation
The House with a Clock in Its Walls
Incredibles 2
Mary Poppins Returns
The Nutcracker and the Four Realms
Peter Rabbit
Ralph Breaks the Internet
Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold
Scooby-Doo! and the Gourmet Ghost
Sherlock Gnomes
Smallfoot
Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse
Teen Titans Go! To the Movies
2019
Abominable
The Angry Birds Movie 2
Arctic Dogs
A Dog's Way Home
Dora and the Lost City of Gold
Frozen II
The Haunted House: The Sky Goblin VS Jormungandr
How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World
The Kid Who Would Be King
Klaus
The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part
Missing Link
Playmobil: The Movie
Pokémon Detective Pikachu
Scooby-Doo! and the Curse of the 13th Ghost
Scooby-Doo! Return to Zombie Island
Toy Story 4
The Secret Life of Pets 2
A Shaun the Sheep Movie: Farmageddon
Sheep and Wolves: Pig Deal
Spies in Disguise
Turma da Mônica: Laços
UglyDolls
Wonder Park
2020s
2020
Artemis Fowl
Cats & Dogs 3: Paws Unite!
Dolittle
Curious George: Go West, Go Wild
The Croods: A New Age
Happy Halloween, Scooby-Doo!
Norm of the North: Family Vacation
Onward
The One and Only Ivan
Over the Moon
Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Candace Against the Universe
Scoob!
Soul
The Secret Garden
Sonic the Hedgehog
The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge on the Run
Timmy Failure: Mistakes Were Made
Trolls World Tour
We Bare Bears: The Movie
The Willoughbys
Wolfwalkers
2021
Back to the Outback
The Boss Baby: Family Business
Encanto
Clifford the Big Red Dog
Finding ʻOhana
Flora & Ulysses
Home Sweet Home Alone
The Loud House Movie
Luca
The Mitchells vs. the Machines
My Little Pony: A New Generation
PAW Patrol: The Movie
Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway
Raya and the Last Dragon
Ron's Gone Wrong
Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob
Sing 2
Space Jam: A New Legacy
Spirit Untamed
Straight Outta Nowhere: Scooby-Doo! Meets Courage the Cowardly Dog
Tom & Jerry
Vivo
Wish Dragon
2022
The Amazing Maurice
The Bad Guys
Better Nate Than Ever
Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers
DC League of Super-Pets
The Haunted House: The Dimensional Goblin and the Seven Worlds
Hocus Pocus 2
Hotel Transylvania: Transformania
The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild
King Tweety
Lightyear
Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile
Minions: The Rise of Gru
My Father's Dragon
Paws of Fury: The Legend of Hank
Puss in Boots: The Last Wish
The Sea Beast
Sonic the Hedgehog 2
Strange World
Tom and Jerry: Cowboy Up!
Trick or Treat Scooby-Doo!
2023
Chicken Run: Dawn of the Nugget
Elemental
Ladybug & Cat Noir: The Movie
The Magician's Elephant
Migration
PAW Patrol: The Mighty Movie
Rally Road Racers
Ruby Gillman, Teenage Kraken
Scooby-Doo! and Krypto, Too!
Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse
Spy Kids: Armageddon
The Super Mario Bros. Movie
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Mutant Mayhem
Trolls Band Together
Wish
Wonka
World's Best
2024
The Garfield Movie
Harold and the Purple Crayon
Inside Out 2
Kung Fu Panda 4
Orion and the Dark
See also
Children's television series
Children's literature
References
Children's |
4253063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz%20Fernando%20Carvalho | Luiz Fernando Carvalho | Luiz Fernando Carvalho (born July 28, 1960, in Rio de Janeiro) is a Brazilian filmmaker and television director, known for works closely linked to literature that constitute a renovation in Brazilian audiovisual aesthetics. He has already brought to the screen works by Ariano Suassuna, Raduan Nassar, Machado de Assis, Eça de Queirós, Roland Barthes, Clarice Lispector, Milton Hatoum, José Lins do Rego and Graciliano Ramos, among others.
Some critics compare Luiz Fernando Carvalho's productions to the Brazilian Cinema Novo and icons of film history such as Luchino Visconti and Andrei Tarkovsky. His work is characterized by visual and linguistic experimentation and exploration of the multiplicity of Brazil's cultural identity. The baroque style of overlays and interlacing of narrative genres, the relation to the moment in Time, the archetypal symbols of the Earth and the reflection on the language of social and family melodrama are features of the director's poetic language.
The filmmaker's works have met with both critical and public acclaim. He directed the film To the Left of the Father (Lavoura Arcaica) (2001), based on the homonymous novel by Raduan Nassar, cited by the critic Jean-Philippe Tessé in the French magazine Cahiers du Cinéma as a "ground-breaking promise of renovation, of an upheaval not seen in Brazilian cinema since Glauber Rocha, which won over 50 national and international awards. The telenovelas Renascer (Rebirth) (1993) and The King of the Cattle (O Rei do Gado) (1996), by screenwriter Benedito Ruy Barbosa and directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, are recognized as benchmarks of Brazilian television drama and achieved some of the highest audience ratings of the 1990s.
There is a marked contrast between the director's television works: from the pop design of the 60s in the series Ladies' Mail (Correio Feminino) (2013) to the classic rigor of the mini-series The Maias (Os Maias) (2001), the urban references of the working-class suburbs in the mini-series Suburbia (2012) to the playfulness of the soap My Little Plot of Land (Meu Pedacinho de Chão) (2014), the aesthetic research of the Sertão (backcountry) in Old River (Velho Chico) (2016) to the Brazilian fairytale of the mini-series Today is Maria's Day (Hoje É Dia de Maria) (2005) and the realistic universe of family tragedy in Two Brothers (Dois Irmãos) (2017).
The director's production process is renowned for identifying new talent from all over Brazil and for training actors, revealing new stars of the dramatic arts such as Letícia Sabatella, Eliane Giardini, Bruna Linzmeyer, Johnny Massaro, Irandhir Santos, Simone Spoladore, Caco Ciocler, Marcello Antony, Marco Ricca, Isabel Fillardis, Giselle Itié, Emilio Orciollo Netto, Sheron Menezes, Jackson Antunes, Maria Luísa Mendonça, Eduardo Moscovis, Jackson Costa, Leonardo Vieira, Cacá Carvalho, Luciana Braga, Julia Dalavia, Renato Góes, Cyria Coentro, Marina Nery, Júlio Machado, Bárbara Reis, Lee Taylor, Zezita de Matos, Mariene de Castro and Lucy Alves, among others. The director's actor coaching technique has given rise to a method recounted in the book O processo de criação dos atores de Dois Irmãos (The creation process of the actors in Dois Irmãos), by the photographer Leandro Pagliaro.
Early career: 1980s
Luiz Fernando Carvalho studied architecture and literature. He started out in cinema at 18 in a number of roles: audio technician, assistant director, screenwriter, short film editor, and director. His first TV work came in the early 80s, as assistant director of noteworthy mini-series, such as O Tempo e o Vento, based on the work of Érico Veríssimo, directed by Paulo José, and Grande Sertão: Veredas, from the work of João Guimarães Rosa, in which he started to direct his first scenes, still as assistant director to Walter Avancini.
The Waiting (A Espera)
He wrote and directed the short The Waiting (A Espera), based on the book A Lover's Discourse: Fragments (Fragments d'un discours amoureux) by Roland Barthes. Launched in 1986, the film collected the following awards: Best Short Film, Best Actress (Marieta Severo) and Best Cinematography (Walter Carvalho) at the 13th Festival de Gramado; Best Short Film (Golden Shell) at the San Sebastián International Film Festival (Spain); and the Special Jury Award at the Ste Therèse Festival (Canada).
1990s
Sweet River (Riacho Doce)
Early in the 90s, Luiz Fernando Carvalho directed a 40-chapter mini-series written by Aguinaldo Silva, based on the work of José Lins do Rego and starring Vera Fischer, Osmar Prado, Sebastião Vasconcelos, Carlos Alberto Riccelli and Fernanda Montenegro, with costumes by Beth Filipecki. The then inhospitable island of Fernando de Noronha (PE) served as the scene for the story, which is set in a small fishing village in the Northeast of Brazil.
The Cangaceiro's Revenge (Os Homens Querem Paz)
In 1991, Luiz Fernando Carvalho directed an adaptation of a script by Brazilian TV pioneer Péricles Leal, with costumes by Beth Filipecki. The telefilm was shot in the town of Canindé, Ceará, and reached the finals of the 34th New York Television Festival. This marked the television debut of actress Letícia Sabatella. The critic Rodrigo Fonseca affirmed that his first memory of Letícia Sabatella on TV was also when he discovered the existence of the "genius of direction that is Luiz Fernando".
Stone on Stone (Pedra Sobre Pedra)
In 1992, he directed the telenovela written by Aguinaldo Silva, considered to have reached the 6th largest audience in Brazilian television history. Notable cast members included: Lima Duarte, Renata Sorrah, Armando Bógus, Eva Wilma, Paulo Betti, Andréa Beltrão, Pedro Paulo Rangel and Eduardo Moscovis. Certain characters are regarded as landmarks in TV drama: Sergio Cabeleira (Osmar Prado) and the photographer Jorge Tadeu (Fábio Jr.).
The Tale of Our Lady of Light (O Auto de Nossa Senhora da Luz)
While filming Pedra sobre Pedra, Luiz Fernando Carvalho came up with a significant sequence inspired by Ariano Suassuna's Armorial Movement (Movimento Armorial) . The enormous success of the sequence, confirmed by the record number of requests by viewers for a rerun, was decisive in the transformation of the material into a telefilm, with additional scenes written by Braulio Tavares and interpreted by the actor and musician Antonio Nóbrega. It competed for the International Emmy Award in 1993.
Rebirth (Renascer)
The 1993 soap, written by Benedito Ruy Barbosa and directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, met with critical and public acclaim and was the most-watched in the 90s and 4th in audience ratings in the history of Brazilian television. It was also shown in several other countries. As directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, it is regarded as among the symbols of renovation of the aesthetics of the genre in the 90s. The character Buba, interpreted by Maria Luísa Mendonça, caused a national controversy, as it was the first time that the discussion of gender had been addressed in a telenovela. It received the APCA Award for Best Novela, Best Actor (Antônio Fagundes), Best Supporting Actor (Osmar Prado), Best Supporting Actress (Regina Dourado), Best Male Breakthrough Performance (Jackson Antunes). Leonardo Vieira, Jackson Antunes, Cacá Carvalho, Marco Ricca, Isabel Fillardis and Maria Luísa Mendonça were among the talents revealed in this work. The television entrepreneur José Bonifácio de Oliveira, considered the plot "well structured by Benedito, with a well-crafted first part, masterfully directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho". According to Marilia Martins, few novelas had a first chapter directed with such polish and skill as Rebirth.
A Woman Clothed in Sun (Uma Mulher Vestida de Sol)
In 1994, the telefilm directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho marked the first appearance of Ariano Suassuna's works on television. Based on the writer's unpublished novel of the same name, the script was the work of Ariano himself, in partnership with the director. Director of photography Dib Lufti, costumes by Luciana Buarque, and art production by Lia Renha. Scenography by the artist Fernando Velloso, from the Grupo Corpo dance group, music by Antônio Madureira, a member of the Armorial Quintet (Quinteto Armorial). With A Woman dressed in Sun (Uma Mulher Vestida de Sol), the director commenced his exploration of the limits of television language, combining elements of the popular theater of the Northeast. Luiz Carlos Vasconcelos's Grupo Piolim participated and the cast included Tereza Seiblitz, Lineu Dias, Sebastião Vasconcelos, Ana Lúcia Torre, Raul Cortez and the then novice actor Floriano Peixoto. According to the researcher of Literature Hélio Guimarães, the work gave rise to an impasse at the TV station: was Luíz Fernando Carvalho too big for the Globo screen?
The Farce of Pleasant Idleness (A Farsa da Boa Preguiça)
One year after A Woman dressed in Sun (Uma Mulher Vestida de Sol), in 1995, Luiz Fernando Carvalho resumed his connection with the writer Ariano Suassuna, this time transforming the play The Farce of Pleasant Idleness (A Farsa da Boa Preguiça) into a telefilm . The director continued his search for a hybrid language for television, as a way of criticizing the naturalism of the novelas. Art production and costumes by Yurika Yamasaki and the artist Dantas Suassuna, participation of Antonio Nóbrega, Patrícia França, Ary Fontoura and Marieta Severo. According to the critic Rogério Durst, the telefilm was a major feat of TV drama.
The King of the Cattle (O Rei do Gado)
The King of the Cattle (O Rei do Gado), 1996, the director's next collaboration with the author Benedito Ruy Barbosa, became the novela with the 9th largest audience in Brazilian television history. It was rescreened three times, outrating other productions of the time, and was sold to over 30 countries. It marked the debut of Marcello Antony, Caco Ciocler, Mariana Lima, Emilio Orciollo Netto and Lavínia Vlasak. Other significant aspects of the novela were its social criticism and sensitive approach to the Landless Workers Movement (movimento dos sem-terra). The actors Jackson Antunes and Ana Beatriz Nogueira stand out in this context. The cast included Antônio Fagundes, Patricia Pillar, Leticia Spiller and Raul Cortez with guest appearances in the early stages by Tarcisio Meira, Eva Wilma and Vera Fischer. The character Tião Galinha, interpreted by Osmar Prado, is a landmark of his career. The novela received the Certificate of Merit at the San Francisco International Film Festival and the APCA Award for Best Actor (Raul Cortez), Best Supporting Actor (Leonardo Brício), Best Supporting Actress (Walderez de Barros) and Best Male Breakthrough Performance (Caco Ciocler). Fernando de Barros e Silva wrote, in the Folha de S.Paulo, "The King of the Cattle (O Rei do Gado) swallows up Brazilian cinema". According to critic Rogerio Durst, the novela is "a dramatic epic with first class special appearances and superb photography".
Tiao Galinha belongs to another soap opera: “Renascer”.
Giovanna and Henrico (Giovanna e Henrico)
The quality of the first seven chapters of The King of the Cattle (O Rei do Gado), showing the decline of the coffee cycle and Brazil's participation in World War II, prompted The Globo Network's International Division to transform the first part of the novela into the mini-series Giovanna and Henrico, with Letícia Spiller and Leonardo Brício playing the lead couple. The production was selected as hors-concours at the Banff World Media Festival, in Canada.
May your eyes be blessed (Que Teus Olhos Sejam Atendidos)
Before the end of the 90s, Luiz Fernando Carvalho had already started on research for the feature film To the Left of The Father (Lavoura Arcaica). Together with the author of the novel, Raduan Nassar, he traveled to Lebanon to familiarize himself with Mediterranean culture. The material collected during the trip was used to produce the documentary May your eyes be blessed (Que Teus Olhos Sejam Atendidos), screened on GNT in 1997. In the opinion of critic Rodrigo Fonseca, the documentary "honed to the limit of tragic fatality its investigation of time".
2000s
To the Left of The Father (Lavoura Arcaica)
In 2001, the director made his first feature film, To the Left of the Father (Lavoura Arcaica), in which he was responsible for directing, screenplay and editing, with cinematography by Walter Carvalho, art direction by Yurika Yamazaki and costume design by Beth Filipecki. The cast included Selton Mello, Raul Cortez, Simone Spoladore, Leonardo Medeiros, Caio Blat and Juliana Carneiro da Cunha. Aiming to maintain the connection with the poetic prose of Raduan Nassar's book, the director elected to film without a defined script, based entirely on the actors' improvisations on the theme. This involved intensive coaching of the cast, secluded on a farm for four months. The film's creation and production process was discussed in the book About To the Left of The Father ("Sobre Lavoura Arcaica"), in which the director is interviewed by José Carlos Avellar, Geraldo Sarno, Miguel Pereira, Ivana Bentes, Arnaldo Carrilho and Liliane Heynemann, launched in Portuguese, English and French by the publisher Ateliê Editorial. It was success with the critics and the public, reaching 300 thousand viewers with just two copies, one in Rio de Janeiro and the other in São Paulo. It is considered one of the 100 best Brazilian films of all times, according to the Brazilian Film Critics Association (Abraccine). It had a successful career in a number of national and international festivals, receiving over 50 awards at the Montreal World Film Festival, the Rio Film Festival, the São Paulo International Film Festival, the Grand Prix for Brazilian Film, the Brasília Film Festival, the Havana Film Festival, the Cartagena Film Festival, the Guadalajara International Film Festival, the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema, among others. In the opinion of writer and psychoanalyst Renato Tardivo, author of Porvir que vem antes de tudo – literatura e cinema em Lavoura Arcaica, the film is one of the most important works of Brazilian cinema “of all times”. The critic Carlos Alberto de Mattos described it as the first work of art of the Brazilian cinema in the 21st century. The film was acclaimed by the critics of various countries and, according to the French magazine Cahiers du Cinéma, To the Left of the Father is a "barbarous poem verging on hallucination, of extraordinary power".
The Maias (Os Maias)
A 2001 production, this mini-series based on the homonymous novel by Eça de Queirós and adapted by Maria Adelaide Amaral was another landmark in the director's career. The Maias portrays the decadent Portuguese aristocracy in the second half of the 19th century, through the tragic story of a traditional Lisbon family. Costumes by Beth Filipecki and direction of photography by José Tadeu Ribeiro. In the opinion of writer Luis Fernando Veríssimo, "the extraordinarily mobile camera of Luiz Fernando Carvalho “visited”, more than portrayed, the frivolous Lisbon of the time and all the novel's atmospheres. But beneath it all, there was this majestic progression, from the first scene to the denouement, the moving camera conducting us like a slow tragic theme tune that recalls a symphony. No TV camera has ever been so complicit and seductive, never has TV been so romantic".
Today is Maria's Day (Hoje é Dia de Maria)
Over two seasons, Today is Maria's Day (Hoje É Dia de Maria) (2005), a mini-series in which he was also responsible for creation and script, consolidated the director's linguistic research. His co-writers were Luis Alberto de Abreu and Carlos Alberto Soffredini, basing themselves on a selection of stories taken from popular Brazilian oral storytelling tradition, collected by the writers Câmara Cascudo, Mário de Andrade and Sílvio Romero. Art direction by Lia Renha, guest artist Raimundo Rodriguez, direction of photography by José Tadeu Ribeiro and costumes by Luciana Buarque. The 60 marionettes that represented the animals were produced by the Grupo Giramundo, from Minas Gerais state. The work marked the start of the partnership between the director and psychoanalyst Carlos Byington, as advisor on the mythological dramatization of the text. The mini-series was conceived under a 360º dome, scrap from a rock show stage. The sound track, by Tim Rescala, was based on cirandas (traditional dances) by Heitor Villa-Lobos, César Guerra-Peixe and Francisco Mignone. Designer Jum Nakao was responsible for some of the costumes, with animation of the stop-motion scenes by Cesar Coelho, founder of the Anima Mundi festival. It received the 2005 APCA (Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte) Critics' Choice Award, the ABC Best Photography Award, the Contigo Award for Best Director and Best Child Actress and the Brazil Quality Award (Prêmio Qualidade Brasil ) for Best Director, Television – Best Special Project, Best Author and Best Breakthrough Actress, and reached the finals of the 2005 International Emmy Award, in the categories Best Mini-Series and Best Actress. It was nominated Hors Concours by the Banff World Media Festival, in Canada (2006), and the Input International Board Taipei (2005). Compared with To the Left of the Father on account of its innovative television language, it caught the attention of critics and public by its novel, theatrical and playful language in transporting the universe of popular culture to a sophisticated television production, without losing its authenticity. The critic Nilson Xavier considers it one of the most poetic, original and beautiful productions of recent years. According to Jean-Philippe Tessé, in the French magazine Cahiers du Cinéma, the mini-series was very ambitious and formally very well produced, following other noteworthy projects such as The Maias (Os Maias).
Stone of the Kingdom (A Pedra do Reino)
In 2007, the director's third production based on the works of Ariano Suassuna brought to the TV the Romance d'A Pedra do Reino e o Príncipe do Sangue do Vai-e-Volta. The mini-series is regarded as yet another aesthetic innovation by the director, as in To the Left of the Father (Lavoura Arcaica) and Today is Maria's Day (Hoje é Dia de Maria). The script was the work of Luiz Fernando Carvalho, in collaboration with Luis Alberto de Abreu and Braulio Tavares, direction of photography by Adrian Teijido, scenography by João Irenio Maia, editing by Marcio Hashimoto and costumes by Luciana Buarque. Colorist Sergio Pasqualino. Regional artists, coordinated by the artist Raimundo Rodriguez, assisted with the art production. Music by Antônio Madureira (Quinteto Armorial) and Marco Antônio Guimarães (Uakti). The cast was the fruit of the director's extensive search for talent throughout the backcountry (sertão) of the Northeast. The television debut of the actors Irandhir Santos and Mayana Neiva and the singer Renata Rosa, among many others. It was filmed in the town of Taperoá, where Ariano Suassuna spent his childhood. During the coaching process, the team and cast attended lectures, out in the sertão, by the actress Fernanda Montenegro, the psychoanalyst Carlos Byington and the writer himself. Ariano Suassuna affirmed that Luiz Fernando Carvalho's recreation of his Romance d’A Pedra do Reino resulted in an "extraordinarily beautiful work that moved him as author and individual, as a spectator".
Quadrante Project (Projeto Quadrante)
Based on Stone of the Kingdom (A Pedra do Reino) (2007), the director set up the Quadrante Project with the intention of making a series of regional drama programs to rediscover the Brazilian imaginary through adaptations of literary texts of authors from each Brazilian state. Similarly, local actors act out the texts. The richness of the project lay in the discovery of regional talent: authors, actors, composers, artists in general. The project recognized the human potential of each regional culture, looking beyond the simplistic image of a postcard. In addition to Stone of the Kingdom, the Quadrante is made up of the mini-series Capitu (2008), based on the book Dom Casmurro, by Machado de Assis, and Dois Irmãos (2017), by Milton Hatoum.
Capitu
In 2008, Luiz Fernando Carvalho directed and finalized the script for this adaptation of the book Dom Casmurro, by Machado de Assis. The mini-series was written by Euclydes Marinho in collaboration with Daniel Piza, Luis Alberto de Abreu and Edna Palatnik. Art direction by Raimundo Rodriguez, photography by Adrian Teijido and costumes by Beth Filipecki. Colorist Sergio Pasqualino. It marked the TV debut of actors Letícia Persiles and Michel Melamed, among others. The mini-series was filmed in the abandoned Automóvel Clube building, in downtown Rio de Janeiro, and the whole scenographic universe was created from newspaper and recycled material. The opening credits scene was conceived by the director and created by the designer Carlos Bêla. The production is part of the Quadrante Project and was the director's tribute to Machado de Assis on the centenary of his death. It received the APCA (Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte) Critic's Choice Award (2009), ABC Best Photography Award (from the Associação Brasileira de Cinematografia) and the Creative Review award in the Best in Book and Design and Art Director categories. In the opinion of critic Gustavo Bernardo, the mini-series deserves "to be viewed and reviewed countless times, at least because each fragment of a scene is precious for its beauty". According to theatre director Gabriel Villela, Luiz Fernando Carvalho produces works of art on the screen, calls on the viewer's vivacity so that he accepts nothing masticated, but masticates along with Casmurro. For Randall Johnson, director of the UCLA Latin American Institute, "Luiz Fernando Carvalho is today, without doubt, the director whose work is the most authorial of all TV and cinema production in Brazil".
2010s
After all, what does a woman want (Afinal, O Que Querem as Mulheres?)
In 2010, Luiz Fernando Carvalho created, directed and wrote the mini-series inspired by Sigmund Freud's: famous question "What does a woman want?". João Paulo Cuenca, Cecilia Giannetti and Michel Melamed collaborated on the script. As well as acting in the production, Melamed created the opening sound track. The direction of Photography Adrian Teijido, costumes by Beth Filipecki and art direction by Raimundo Rodriguez. The director launched actress Bruna Linzmeyer’s career in this production. Osmar Prado shared the part of Freud with a model animated by Cesar Coelho, founder of the Anima Mundi festival, using the stop-motion technique. The opening vignette features the work of German artist Olaf Hajek, who also produced special illustrations for the mini-series by invitation of the director. It received the ABC award (Associação Brasileira de Cinematografia) for Best Photography. According to columnist Patrícia Kogut, "it is an oneiric journey, a visual poem that blends realities, full of references to times past, to what has been experienced, to what lingers in memory".
Suburbia
In 2012, Luiz Fernando Carvalho inaugurated in TV drama a production in which all the protagonists are of African descent. The mini-series, created and written by the director in partnership with Paulo Lins, counted on the collaboration of Adrian Teijido (Photography), Luciana Buarque (Costumes), Marcio Hashimoto (Editing) and Sergio Pasqualino (Colorist). It also marked the start of another research cycle, in which the director focused on realist aesthetics, which influenced the language as a whole, but mainly in the choice of non-actors for the main parts. The nearly 40 actors launched in the mini-series include artists of the groups Nós do Morro and Afroreggae. Érika Januza, until then secretary of a school in the interior of Minas Gerais state, was chosen to play the main character of the story. Guest appearance by Fabrício Boliveira, Rosa Marya Colin, Haroldo Costa, Maria Salvadora, Paulo Tiefenthaler and Dani Ornellas, among others. In 2012, the Globo network took the series up again for a second season in 2013 due to its satisfactory audience ratings. Later, however, the director Luiz Fernando Carvalho chose to cancel the new season. In the opinion of anthropologist Luiz Eduardo Soares, the work was a "reconstructive reading of the carioca society, producing a superb result ".
Ladies' Mail (Correio Feminino)
A mini-series in eight episodes, created and directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho based on women's journals written by Clarice Lispector in the 1950s and 1960s, under the pseudonym Helen Palmer. The visual language and narrative were based on 60s pop art and design, from the costumes to the lighting and set; all filmed in a single lightbox, which changed color according to the subjects addressed. Adapted by Maria Camargo, the series was shown in 2013 as part of the program Fantástico, with costumes by Thanara Schönardie and Luciana Buarque, photography by Mikeas and edited by Marcio Hashimoto. The actress Maria Fernanda Cândido played Helen Palmer narrating all the episodes. In the cast, Luiza Brunet interpreted the mature woman, and Alessandra Maestrini, the young woman. The adolescent is Cintia Dicker, an international model whose acting career was launched in the mini-series. In the opinion of critic Patricia Kogut, the series is "inspired, pleasant, in good taste and unpretentious, like Clarice's texts as Helen Palmer".
Alexandre and Other Heroes (Alexandre e Outros Heróis)
A 2013 telefilm, with script by Luis Alberto de Abreu and Luiz Fernando Carvalho based on two stories by the Alagoan writer Graciliano Ramos. Luiz Fernando Carvalho's coaching and directing of the actors revealed a new code of interpretation to Marcelo Serrado and Ney Latorraca, as well as a harmony in the quality of the interpretations. Direction of photography by Mickeas, art direction by Raimundo Rodriguez and costumes by Luciana Buarque. Incidental sound track by Tim Rescala. Opening theme by the Pernambucan Siba. The cast of the TV special, a finalist in the 2014 International Emmy Awards, also included Flávio Bauraqui, Flávio Rocha, Marcélia Cartaxo and Luci Pereira. Critic Patricia Kogut considered the telefilm a miniature work of art on television.
My Little Plot of Land (Meu Pedacinho de Chão)
This 2014 production marked the director's return to the telenovela format after 12 years of dedicating himself to mini-series and more authorial projects. My Little Plot of Land (Meu Pedacinho de Chão) was written by Benedito Ruy Barbosa and directed by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, with art production by Marco Cortez, art work by Raimundo Rodriguez and costumes by Thanara Schönardie. The critics praised various aspects, from the harmony of the quality of acting to the editing, direction, costumes, scenography and aesthetics, inspired by Westerns and Japanese manga (comics). Luiz Fernando Carvalho's direction of the actors revealed a new code of interpretation, noted by the critics, to actors such as Juliana Paes and Rodrigo Lombardi. The team's creative process and cast coaching to shape the aesthetics of My Little Plot of Land took place at TVLiê, known as Galpão, which operated from 2013 to 2017. The space brought together all the creative teams and was conceived by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, at Projac, for collaborative project creation and talent training. In addition to My Little Plot of Land (Meu Pedacinho de Chão), the works Female Messages (Correio Feminino), Alexander and Other Heroes (Alexandre e Outros Heróis), Old River (Velho Chico) and The Brothers (Dois Irmãos) were created in the Galpão. The whole process of creation and production of the novela in the Galpão is described by the journalist Melina Dalboni in the book Meu Pedacinho de Chão, which has drawings, sketches and photos by the director and the team (published by Casa da Palavra). Sets and costumes were envisaged through the playful eye of childhood, and according to the columnist Patrícia Kogut, contributed to a beautiful invented universe, far different from what we are used to seeing on TV. The houses were faced with recycled cans, based on the work of artist Raimundo Rodriguez. The costumes, the subject of an exhibition, mixed technological fabrics and plastic material. Cesar Coelho, of the Anima Mundi Festival, used stop-motion and time-lapse techniques for all the animation. The novela received the APCA (Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte) Award for Best Actor (Irandhir Santos); Contigo Magazine Award for Best Child Actor (Tomás Sampaio) and Best Director; the Extra television award for Best Costumes and Best Makeup (Rubens Libório); and the Quem Magazine award for Best Actor (Irandhir Santos), Best Supporting Actor (Johnny Massaro) and Best Author (Benedito Ruy Barbosa). The critic Cristina Padiglione regards the novela as worthy of a standing ovation, and in the opinion of Alexandra Moraes "the images, at first sight childish, gain relevance with colors and effects of dramatic intent. Good performances and the firm hand of the director give the plot meaning".
Old River (Velho Chico)
In 2016, Old River (Velho Chico) marked Luiz Fernando Carvalho's return to prime time, directing the novela written by Benedito Ruy Barbosa and Bruno Luperi, which again carried the imprint of the new esthetic in TV drama. The novela was divided into two phases, with direction of photography by Alexandre Fructuoso and costumes by Thanara Schönardie. Highlights were the photography and acclaimed performances by the actors Antônio Fagundes, Lucy Alves, Domingos Montagner, Lee Taylor, Marcos Palmeira, Chico Diaz, Renato Góes, Rodrigo Lombardi, Dira Paes, Irandhir Santos, Fabiula Nascimento, Julia Dalavia, Cyria Coentro, Barbara Reis, Julio Machado, Umberto Magnani, Camila Pitanga, Christiane Torloni, Marcelo Serrado, Gabriel Leone, Giulia Buscaccio, Mariene de Castro, Gésio Amadeu, José Dumont, Marcélia Cartaxo and others. The cast was of a uniformity rarely seen in novelas, resulting in countless awards for its actors, including the APCA (Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte) Award for Best Actress for Selma Egrei and the Critics' Choice Award for Domingos Montagner(posthumous) and the production also won Best Supporting Actress (Selma Egrei), Best Supporting Actor (Irandhir Santos), Best Breakthrough Actress (Lucy Alves) and Best Breakthrough Actor (Lee Taylor), with Veja Rio's Carioca of the Year Award going to Luiz Fernando Carvalho for the renovated aesthetic of prime time television. The team's creative process and cast coaching lasted only three months and took place at TVliê, Luiz Fernando Carvalho's collaborative creative space, which operated at Projac between 2013 and 2017 and was known as Galpão. The first phase, applauded by the critics, marked the return of actor Rodrigo Santoro to the Globo fold and revealed the hitherto undiscovered talent of Carol Castro. Tarcísio Meira, in just two episodes, put in an impressive performance, as did actress Selma Egrei, who took part in both phases of the novela. The cast was selected after an extensive search for actors from the Northeast and marked the debut in novelas of Lucy Alves, Renato Góes, Marina Nery, Barbara Reis, Diyo Coelho, Xangai, Veronica Cavalcanti, Lee Taylor, Zezita de Matos, Mariene de Castro, Yara Charry, Raiza Alcântara, Lucas Veloso, Sueli Bispo and the comedian Batoré. The last chapters of the novela pay tribute to the actor Domingos Montagner (Santo), who drowned in the São Francisco river two weeks before the end of the serial. The character was maintained in the plot even after the actor's death through the language created by Luiz Fernando Carvalho, in which a single subjective camera interpreted Santo's viewpoint, so his presence was felt, engaging with all the other characters, to the end. The novela came under strong pressure from the Globo network's drama department, calling for modifications to the text, storyline and esthetics. The director and the author, Benedito Ruy Barbosa, stood firm and refused to make the changes to Old River (Velho Chico). The in-house crisis made the TV columns and was described as a form of public pressure on Luiz Fernando Carvalho. According to the critic Maurício Stycer, Old River (Velho Chico) is a landmark in the recent history of Brazilian TV, on account of its esthetic ambition and cultural relevance. According to Nilson Xavier, the novela “had incontestable technical and artistic quality, from the direction to the photography, sound track and the actors’ performances. It competed for the International Emmy Award for Best Telenovela of 2017.
Lavoura Arcaica, 15 years on
Tribute was paid to the film To the Left of the Father in 2017, 15 years after it was made and on account of it being hailed as one of the most important Brazilian films of all time, at the Rio International Film Festival and the São Paulo International Film Festival, where a 35 mm copy was shown. As part of the tribute at the Rio International Film Festival, artist Raimundo Rodriguez created an installation that went on show for a month at the Estação Net Botafogo, with memorabilia from the film, reviews and the director's notebooks. For Ismail Xavier and Ilana Feldman, Lavoura was born in 2001, emerging as a foreign body in the scenario of early 21st century Brazilian film, marked by its realism and its direct confrontation with Brazilian social and urban issues.
Two Brothers (Dois Irmãos)
Screened in 2017, the mini-series written by Maria Camargo based on the homonymous novel by Milton Hatoum was regarded by critics as another quality contribution to Brazilian television on account of the poetic style applied by the director to the adaptation of the novel. Direction of photography by Alexandre Fructuoso, costumes by Thanara Schönardie, scenography by Danielly Ramos, Juliana Carneiro and Mariana Villas-Bôas, art production by Marco Cortez and Myriam Mendes. The production is part of the Quandrante Project and gained kudos with writer Milton Hatoum's television debut. According to the publishing house Companhia das Letras, the book sales increased by some 500% after the start of the mini-series. Careers launched in Two Brothers include actors Matheus Abreu (Omar and Yaqub as an adolescent), the indigenous Zahy Guajajara (the índia Domingas) and the singer Bruna Caram (Rânia in the adult phase). The Lebanese actor Mounir Maasri made a guest appearance in the mini-series and was also responsible for the prosody (stress patterns) of the cast. The quality of the acting of the whole cast was stressed by the critics and also on social media and reached the worldwide and Brazilian Trending Topics throughout the series: Eliane Giardini and Juliana Paes as Zana; Antônio Fagundes and Antonio Calloni as Halim; and Cauã Reymond and Matheus Abreu as the twins Omar and Yaqub. It was filmed in 2015, but at the request of the Globo network, the director agreed to make the novela Old River (Velho Chico) before he finished editing Dois Irmãos, which was shown in January 2017. A number of innovative relevant points in the director's language were highlighted: the relation between literature and the transposition into images, photography, framing, poetic language and sound track, which included hits from various decades to contextualize the period in which the mini-series was set. In addition, Luiz Fernando Carvalho inaugurated, on TV, the dialogue between the fictional scenes and images from the archives of Brazilian History, with the research of historical material done by Raquel Couto.
According to the critic Maurício Stycer, in an article published in the Folha de S.Paulo newspaper about Netflix's investment in Brazil, the miniseries was a startling revelation to those who normally only have access to terrestrial channels in Brazil. For Luiz Zanin, the miniseries was about Brazil and the thwarted ideal of a multi-ethnic, sensual and carefree nation. “An elegant delicacy served up to the public, and which will leave it wanting more". Critic Carlos Alberto de Mattos wrote that what was seen in The Brothers (Dois Irmãos) “was not a realistic reflection, but an exuberant image, a mythical saga, a work of art”.
In February 2017, Luiz Fernando Carvalho left the Globo Network (Rede Globo) after 30 years of working for the TV station.
In 2017, the director received the APCA Award for Two Brothers (Dois Irmãos), the International Emmy Award for Best Telenovela Nomination for Old River (Velho Chico) and the Bravo Award (Prêmio Bravo) for Artist of the Year, for his trajectory and esthetic renovation on television with Old River (Velho Chico) and Two Brothers (Dois Irmãos) and the 15th anniversary of the film To the Left of The Father (Lavoura Arcaica).
2020s
The Passion According to G.H. (A Paixão Segundo G.H.)
In 2018, Carvalho filmed an adaptation based on based on The Passion According to G.H., novel by Clarice Lispector. It’s in post-production. Is the second feature film by the filmmaker after the award-winning To the Left of the Father (Portuguese: Lavoura Arcaica) (2001), also a cinematographic version of a classic of Brazilian literature. It was during the editing of "Lavoura Arcaica" that Luiz Fernando Carvalho had contact with G.H. - central novel of Clarice Lispector's work. The movie was entirely filmed in a penthouse of the neighbourhood of Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro, and presents Maria Fernanda Candido as the main character, G.H.
IndependênciaS
IndependênciaS was a drama series in 16 episodes developed by Carvalho and written by Luis Alberto de Abreu, Alex Moletta, Paulo Garfunkel and Melina Dalboni with the collaboration of Kaká Werá Djecupé, Ynaê Lopes dos Santos, Cidinha da Silva and Tiganá Santana. The series was premiered to coincide with Brazil's Bicentennial Day, September 7th of 2022, making a contemporary rereading of the facts of the country’s history in the 19th century, from the escape of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil in 1808 to the death of Pedro I of Brazil, in 1834, in Portugal.
The cast comprises a blend of renowned actors, such as Antonio Fagundes, Daniel de Oliveira, Isabel Zuaa, Gabriel Leone, Ilana Kaplan, André Frateschi, Celso Frateschi, Cassio Scapin, Rafael Cortez, Walderez de Barros and Maria Fernanda Candido, and newcomers, such as Alana Ayoká, Marcela Vivan, Veronia Mucúna, Jamila Cazumbá and Ywy'zar Guajajara.
The premise of the series was the need to review the representation of historical processes, such as the "Independence or Death" painting, considered the most consecrated, widespread representation of Brazil's moment of independence. Referring to the portrait of Pedro Américo, director, Luiz Fernando Carvalho wrote, "It all seems false, a kind of fake news of the time, imperialist and exclusionary. We wondered: Where are the women? What happened to Maria Felipa, Leopoldina, Maria Quiteria and martyrs like Soror Joana Angélica, José Bonifácio, Frei Caneca and Chaguinhas? And other people too, anonymous heroes of so many popular uprisings? Where’s Marisqueiras de Itaparica”.
The series was well received by critics. For Estado de S. Paulo critic, Ubiratan Brasil, the series is a "program that will make history. It is certainly one of the best productions of the year."
According to the philosopher, sociologist and regional director of Sesc-SP, Danilo Santos de Miranda, the first episode "left us all impacted by the sheer artistic beauty and the much-needed fresh approach to this chapter of our history."
Folha de S. Paulo journalist, Naief Haddad wrote: "the originality from a visual and narrative point of view, which characterizes Carvalho’s works, is another mark of the series.(...) In the 200 years since the Cry of Ipiranga, an unusual and fallible emperor is silenced, without the hero pose eternalized in the portrait of Pedro Américo."
In the article by critic, Rodrigo Fonseca, "The first episode (...) is synesthetic splendor, mixing file images of villages, photos, paintings and a stunning performance by Ilana Kaplan as Carlota Joaquina. In its dramaturgy (simultaneously baroque and pop), this opening chapter focuses on a cartography of human indignity imposed on peoples from Latin Pangeia and the enslaved Africans. It is a kind of “La Chinoise” (1967), with the entire semiotics of Godard, yesterday and today."
For director, Gabriel Priolli, "IndependênciaS is light years ahead of the unambitious aesthetics of the current soap operas, and even Brazilian series, which are supposed to be an evolution of the progenitor. It is not an entertainment product. Rather, it’s a work of art."
Personal life
He was married to the artist Sandra Burgos.
He was married to the actress Tereza Seiblitz.
He was married to the actress Letícia Persiles.
Bibliography
The following books written by Luiz Fernando Carvalho are references for this article. For the complete list of books about the director, see Luiz Fernando Carvalho Bibliography
Filmography
References
External links
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Official website
*
To The Left of The Father - Mostra de Cinema de SP
A La Gauche du Pere - Comme au Cinema
A La Gauche du Pere - AlloCine
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Enciclopedia Itaú Cultural
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Estadão
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Ateliê Editorial
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Mostra de Cinema de SP
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Filme B
Luiz Fernando Carvalho - Adoro Cinema
Lavoura Arcaica - Festival do Rio
Luiz Fernando Carvalho no Twitter
Luiz Fernando Carvalho no Facebook
1960 births
Living people
Mass media people from Rio de Janeiro (city)
Brazilian film directors |
4253083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20web | Mobile web | The mobile web comprises mobile browser-based World Wide Web services accessed from handheld mobile devices, such as smartphones or feature phones, through a mobile or other wireless network.
History and development
Traditionally, the World Wide Web has been accessed via fixed-line services on laptops and desktop computers. However, the web is now more accessible by portable and wireless devices. Early 2010 ITU (International Telecommunication Union) report said that with current growth rates, web access by people on the go via laptops and smart mobile devices was likely to exceed web access from desktop computers within the following five years. In January 2014, mobile internet use exceeded desktop use in the United States. The shift to mobile Web access has accelerated since 2007 with the rise of larger multitouch smartphones, and since 2010 with the rise of multitouch tablet computers. Both platforms provide better Internet access, screens, and mobile browsers, or application-based user Web experiences than previous generations of mobile devices. Web designers may work separately on such pages, or pages may be automatically converted, as in Mobile Wikipedia. Faster speeds, smaller, feature-rich devices, and a multitude of applications continue to drive explosive growth for mobile internet traffic. The 2017 Virtual Network Index (VNI) report produced by Cisco Systems forecasts that by 2021, there will be 5.5 billion global mobile users (up from 4.9 billion in 2016). Additionally, the same 2017 VNI report forecasts that average access speeds will increase by roughly three times from 6.8 Mbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in that same period with video comprising the bulk of the traffic (78%).
The distinction between mobile web applications and native applications is anticipated to become increasingly blurred, as mobile browsers gain direct access to the hardware of mobile devices (including accelerometers and GPS chips), and the speed and abilities of browser-based applications improve. Persistent storage and access to sophisticated user interface graphics functions may further reduce the need for the development of platform-specific native applications.
The mobile web has also been called Web 3.0, drawing parallels to the changes users were experiencing as Web 2.0 websites proliferated.
The mobile web was first popularized by the silicon valley company, Unwired Planet. In 1997, Unwired Planet, Nokia, Ericsson, and Motorola started the WAP Forum to create and harmonize the standards to ease the transition to bandwidth networks and small display devices. The WAP standard was built on a three-layer, middleware architecture that fueled the early growth of the mobile web but was made virtually irrelevant with faster networks, larger displays, and advanced smartphones based on Apple's iOS and Google's Android software.
Mobile points of access
Mobile Internet refers to Internet access and mainly usage of Internet using a cellular telephone service provider or mobile wireless network. It is wireless Internet access and usage that can easily change to next wireless Internet (radio) tower while mobile user with his/her device is moving across the service area. It can also refer to a desktop computer or other not in move device that stays connected to one tower as using mobile internet, but this is not the prime meaning of "mobile" here. Wi-Fi and other better Internet connectivity methods are commonly available for users not on the move. Cellular base stations are more expensive to provide compared to a wireless base station that connects directly to the network of an internet service provider, rather than through the telephone system.
A mobile phone, such as a smartphone, that connects to Internet hypertext data or voice services without going through the cellular base station is not on the service mobile Internet but connected to wireless mobile Internet. A laptop with a broadband modem and a cellular service provider subscription, that is traveling on a bus through the city is on mobile Internet.
A mobile broadband modem "tethers" the smartphone to one or more computers or other end-user devices to provide access and usage to the Internet via the protocols that cellular telephone service providers may offer.
According to BuzzCity, the mobile internet increased by 30% from Q1 to Q2 2011. The four countries which have advertising impression (?) in total more than 1 billion in one quarter were India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and the United States. As of July 2012, approximately 10.5% of all web traffic occurs through mobile devices (up from 4% in December 2010).
Mobile web access today still suffers from interoperability and usability problems. Interoperability issues stem from the platform fragmentation of mobile devices, mobile operating systems, and browsers. Usability problems are centered on the small physical size of the mobile phone form factors (limits on display resolution and user input/operating). Despite these shortcomings, many mobile developers choose to create apps using mobile web. A June 2011 research on mobile development found mobile web the third most used platform, trailing Android and iOS.
Mobile standards
The Mobile Web Initiative (MWI) was set up by the W3C to develop the best practices and technologies relevant to the mobile web. The goal of the initiative is to make browsing the web from mobile devices more reliable and accessible. The main aim is to evolve standards of data formats from Internet providers that are tailored to the specifications of particular mobile devices. The W3C has published guidelines for mobile content, and is addressing the problem of device diversity by establishing a technology to support a repository of device descriptions.
W3C is also developing a validating scheme to assess the readiness of content for the mobile web, through its mobileOK Scheme, which will help content developers to determine if their content is web-ready quickly. The W3C guidelines and mobileOK approach have not been immune from criticism. This emphasizes adaptation, which is now seen as the key process in achieving the ubiquitous web when combined with a device description repository.
mTLD, the registry for .mobi, has released a free testing tool called the MobiReady Report (see mobiForge) to analyze the mobile readiness of website.
Other standards for the mobile web are being documented and explored for particular applications by interested industry groups, such as the use of the mobile web for education and training.
Development
The first access to the mobile web was commercially offered in Finland at the end of 1996 on the Nokia 9000 Communicator phone via the Sonera and Radiolinja networks. This was access to the real internet. The first commercial launch of a mobile-specific browser-based web service was in 1999 in Japan when i-mode was launched by NTT DoCoMo.
The mobile web primarily utilizes lightweight pages like this one written in Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) or Wireless Markup Language (WML) to deliver content to mobile devices. Many new mobile browsers are moving beyond these limits by supporting a wider range of Web formats, including variants of HTML commonly found on the desktop web.
Growth
At one time, half the world had mobile phones. The articles in 2007-2008 were slightly misleading because the real story at the time was that the number of mobile phone subscriptions had reached half the population of the world. In reality, many people have more than one subscription. For example, in Hong Kong, Italy and Ukraine, the mobile phone penetration rate has passed 140% (source wireless intelligence 2009). By 2009 even the number of unique users of mobile phones had reached half the planet when the ITU reported that the subscriber number was to reach 4.6 billion users which means 3.8 billion activated mobile phones in use, and 3.4 billion unique users of mobile phones. Mobile Internet data connections are following the growth of mobile phone connections albeit at a lower rate. In 2009 Yankee Group reported that 29% of all mobile phone users globally were accessing browser-based internet content on their phones. According to the BBC, there are now (2010) over 5 billion mobile phone users in the world.
According to Statista there were 1.57 billion smartphone owners in 2014, 2.32 billion in 2017 (now) and 2.87 billion are predicted in 2020.
Many users in Europe and the United States are already users of the fixed internet when they first try the same experience on a mobile phone. Meanwhile, in other parts of the world, such as India, their first usage of the internet is on a mobile phone. Growth is fastest in parts of the world where the personal computer (PC) is not the first user experience of the internet. India, South Africa, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia are seeing the fastest growth in mobile internet usage. To a great extent, this is due to the rapid adoption of mobile phones themselves. For example, the Morgan Stanley report states that the highest mobile phone adoption growth in 2006 was in Pakistan and India.
The widespread deployment of Web-enabled mobile devices (such as phones) make them a target of choice for content creators. Understanding their strengths and their limitations, and using technologies that fit these conditions are key to create success mobile-friendly Web content.
Mobile internet has also been adopted in West Africa
China has 155 million mobile internet users as of June 2009.
Top-level domain
The .mobi sponsored top-level domain was launched specifically for the mobile Internet by a consortium of companies including Google, Microsoft, Nokia, Samsung, and Vodafone. By forcing sites to comply with mobile web standards, .mobi tries to ensure visitors a consistent and optimized experience on their mobile device. However, this domain has been criticized by several big names, including Tim Berners-Lee of the W3C, who claims that it breaks the device independence of the web:
It is fundamentally useful to be able to quote the URI for some information and then look up that URI in an entirely different context. For example, I may want to look up a restaurant on my laptop, bookmark it, and then, when I only have my phone, check the bookmark to have a look at the evening menu. Or, my travel agent may send me a pointer to my itinerary for a business trip. I may view the itinerary from my office on a large screen and want to see the map, or I may view it at the airport from my phone when all I want is the gate number.
Dividing the Web into information destined for different devices, or different classes of user, or different classes of information, fundamentally breaks the Web.
I urge ICANN not to create the ".mobi" top-level domain.
Advertising
Advertisers are increasingly using the mobile web as a platform to reach consumers. The total value of advertising on mobile was 2.2 billion dollars in 2007. A recent study by the Online Publishers Association, now called Digital Content Next (DCN), reported that about one-in-ten mobile web users said they have made a purchase based on a mobile web ad, while 23% said they had visited a Web site, 13% said they have requested more information about a product or service and 11% said they have gone to a store to check out a product.
Accelerated Mobile Pages
In the fall of 2015, Google announced it would be rolling out an open source initiative called "Accelerated Mobile Pages" or AMP. The goal of this project is to improve the speed and performance of content-rich pages which include video, animations, and graphics. Since the majority of the population now consumes the web through tablets and smartphones, having web pages that are optimized for these products is the primary need to AMP.
The three main types of AMP are AMP HTML, AMP JS, and Google AMP Cache.
Parity between accelerated mobile pages and canonical pages
A recent requirement beginning 1 February 2018 from Google requires the canonical page content should match the content on accelerated mobile pages. In creating a great user experience and to avoid user interface traps it's important to display the same content on Accelerated Mobile Pages as there are with the standard canonical pages.
Limitations
Though Internet access "on the go" provides advantages to many, such as the ability to communicate by email with others and obtain information anywhere, the web, accessed from mobile devices, has many limits, which may vary, depending on the device. However, newer smartphones overcome some of these restrictions. Some problems which may be encountered include:
Small screen size – this makes it difficult or impossible to see text and graphics dependent on the standard size of a desktop computer screen. To display more information, smartphone screen sizes have been getting bigger.
Lack of windows – on a desktop computer, the ability to open more than one window at a time allows for multi-tasking and easy revert to a previous page. Historically on mobile web, only one page could be displayed at a time, and pages could only be viewed in the sequence they were originally accessed. However, Opera Mini was among the first allowing multiple windows, and browser tabs have become commonplace but few mobile browsers allow overlapping windows on the screen.
Navigation – Navigation is a problem for websites not optimized for mobile devices as the content area is large, the screen size is small, and there is no scroll wheel or hover box feature.
Lack of JavaScript and cookies – most devices do not support client-side scripting and storage of cookies (smartphones excluded), which are now widely used in most web sites to enhance the user experience, facilitating the validation of data entered by the page visitor, etc. This also results in web analytics tools being unable to uniquely identify visitors using mobile devices.
Types of pages accessible – many sites that can be accessed on a desktop cannot on a mobile device. Many devices cannot access pages with a secured connection, Flash, or other similar software, PDFs, or video sites, although as of 2011, this has been changing.
Speed – on most mobile devices, the speed of service is slow, sometimes slower than dial-up Internet access.
Broken pages – on many devices, a single page as viewed on a desktop is broken into segments, each treated as a separate page. This further slows navigation.
Compressed pages – many pages, in their conversion to mobile format, are squeezed into an order different from how they would customarily be viewed on a desktop computer.
Size of messages – many devices have limits on the number of characters that can be sent in an email message.
Cost – the access and bandwidth charges levied by cellphone networks can be high if there is no flat fee per month.
Location of mobile user:
If advertisements reach phone users in private locations, users find them more distressful (Banerjee & Dholakia, 2008)
If the user is abroad the flat fee per month usually does not apply
The situation in which ad reaches user – when advertisements reach users in work-related situations, they may be considered more intrusive than in leisure situations (Banerjee & Dholakia, 2008)
The inability of mobile web applications to access the local capabilities on the mobile device can limit their ability to provide the same features as native applications. The OMTP BONDI activity is acting as a catalyst to enable a set of JavaScript APIs which can securely access local capabilities on the mobile device. Specifications and a reference implementation have been produced. Security is a key aspect of this provision to protect users from malicious web applications and widgets.
In addition to the limits of the device, some limits should be made known to users concerning the interference these devices cause in other electromagnetic technology.
The convergence of the Internet and phone, in particular, has caused hospitals to increase their mobile phone exclusion zones. A study by Erik van Lieshout and colleagues (Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam) have found that the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) used in modern phones can affect machines from up to 3 meters away. The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) signals, used in 3G networks, have a smaller exclusion zone of just a few centimeters. The worst offenders in hospitals are doctors.
See also
.mobi
Mobile app
Mobile application server
Mobile browser
Mobile dating
Mobile content
Mobile touch-responsive web design
Wireless Application Protocol
References
External links
Jo Rabin, mTLD Mobile Top Level Domain (dotMobi), Mobile Web Best Practices, 2 November 2006
Hoschka, Philipp, The W3C Mobile Web Initiative (MWI), W3C, 2005.
W3C mobileOK Checker
Internet Standards |
4253178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese%20heraldry | Portuguese heraldry | Portuguese heraldry encompasses the modern and historic traditions of heraldry in Portugal and the Portuguese Empire. Portuguese heraldry is part of the larger Iberian tradition of heraldry, one of the major schools of heraldic tradition, and grants coats of arms to individuals (usually members of the Portuguese Royal Family or the Portuguese nobility), cities, Portuguese colonies, and other institutions. Heraldry has been practiced in Portugal at least since the 12th century, however it only became standardized and popularized in the 16th century, during the reign of King Manuel I of Portugal, who created the first heraldic ordinances in the country. Like in other Iberian heraldic traditions, the use of quartering and augmentations of honor is highly representative of Portuguese heraldry, but unlike in any other Iberian traditions, the use of heraldic crests is highly popular.
Characteristics
Portuguese heraldry was born within the Iberian heraldry tradition, itself a constituent part of the Latin heraldry family, and has kept many of its features to the present day. In the late 14th century it came under significant influence from English heraldry, also absorbing part of its features. Portuguese heraldry then evolved autonomously, and by the 16th century had many features of its own. These reached their peak with the ordinances of King Manuel I of 1521, which defined strict heraldic rules and established the statutes for the officers of arms.
Heraldry declined in Portugal from the 17th to the 19th century. However, in the late 19th century, and especially in the 20th, it had a strong revival, mainly driven by the high development of the civic, corporate and military heraldries.
Some features retained from the Iberian tradition include the frequent use of bordures, the appearance of mottos and legends inside the shield and the frequent use of some specific charges like the cauldron to represent the power of a nobleman to maintain and feed a military contingent and the castle to represent a place where a memorable action occurred. However, Portuguese heraldry departs from that tradition in that almost all armorial bearings are granted with a crest, which is rare in the rest of Latin heraldry. Additionally, it is characterized by the rarity of the granting of armorial bearings that include supporters, although informal ones are commonly represented in their artistic displays.
With the beginning of the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, many coats of arms came to include charges related to Portuguese overseas expansion. These included padrões, ships, flags and weapons, Moorish and African heads, exotic animals and other motifs.
Another feature of Portuguese heraldry is that when an achievement of arms includes a coronet, it is represented over the helm - when it is represented - and not below it (as is common in English heraldry, for example).
Shape
Since very early, the round bottom shield has been the preferred shape to display the coat of arms in Portugal, causing this shape to often be referred as the "Portuguese shield". In 1911, it was adopted as the standard shield shape for the national coat of arms, and in 1930 became mandatory for the coats of arms of local governments. In the past, however, other formats were frequently used, such as the modern French style in the late 19th century, the cartouche (oval) in the early 19th century, the Italian style (horse head shape) in the 18th century, the heater shield in the 14th century and the Norman shield (almond shape) in the 12th century. Women's coats of arms are always represented in a lozenge (lisonja), with the single exception of those of the Portuguese queens (regnants or consorts), which are represented in a shield.
Cadency
The Portuguese system of heraldic cadency originates in the regulations of King Manuel I. These regulations state that the head of a lineage, whether royal or common, is the only person to have the right to bear the full arms of the lineage without defacement. No other person can bear such full and undifferentiated arms, not even the heir apparent of the lineage. The system of cadency for the royal family has the same features as similar systems of other European countries, using labels to identify the order of the children of the monarch. However, the system of cadency of non-royal lineages is unlike any other. This system aims not to identify the place of the owner in the line of succession of each lineage, but instead aims to identify from which of his/her grandparents the coat of arms was inherited, this origin being signed by a specific mark of cadency, or brisure. Although it is true that the brisure personalizes the arms, in Portugal anyone is entitled to choose their surname and coat of arms from any of their ancestors, not necessarily the same ancestor for both.
Augmentations
It was common for Portuguese monarchs to grant augmentations of honour to the achievements of arms as a reward or recognition to their bearers. The most common of these augmentations was the inclusion of elements of the arms of Portugal: the escutcheon of Portugal ancient (arms of Portugal without the bordure), quinas (escutcheons Azure charged with five plates), or castles Or in Gules field. Occasionally, some augmentations were done with the inclusion of elements of the arms of other kingdoms in whose royal houses the Portuguese Monarchs had ancestors. In the late 19th century, some augmentations were done by the marshaling of the full and un-defaced arms of Portugal with the original arms of the bearers, which was a clear infraction of the heraldic rules that limit the use of those arms to the Monarch.
Tinctures
As tinctures, Portuguese heraldry uses the two metals ( Or [gold] and Argent [silver]), the five traditional colours (Gules [red], Azure [blue], Purpure [purple], Sable [black], and Vert [green]) and the furs (ermine, vair and their variations). Additional tinctures that are used in some other countries (like tenné, sanguine or orange) are not used. However, some new armorial achievements, granted in the 19th century, broke with the heraldry rules in including unconventional tinctures like azul celeste (sky blue) and carmesim (crimson). The carnation tincture is also occasionally used in the blazoning of human beings, and the description "proper" ("de sua cor") is also sometimes used to indicate the blazoning of animals or trees in their natural colors.
White (branco) is not considered a different tincture from Argent. However, probably by an heraldic error, it is so represented in some coats of arms, like those of the municipality of Santiago do Cacém (in which the white of the fallen Moor's clothing and the knight's horse is distinguished from the argent of the distant castle) and in those of the Logistical and Administrative Command of the Portuguese Air Force.
In Portuguese heraldry, the terms de ouro (Or [gold]) and de prata (Argent [silver]) are however replaced, respectively, by amarelo (yellow) and branco (white) in the description of flags. The rationale behind this is that metal materials do not enter in the composition of flags, which are made entirely of cloth.
Terminology
In English and some other countries' heraldry, achievements of arms are usually blazoned in a specialized jargon that uses derivatives of French terms. In Portuguese heraldry, however, achievements of arms are usually described in relatively plain language, using only Portuguese terms and tending to avoid specialized jargon. Examples include the use of Portuguese azul and verde for blue and green, as compared to the French-derived azure and vert used in English blazon. The hatchings in the right-hand half of the tincture illustrations are used to indicate the tincture in monochrome renderings.
Particular charges
Some particular charges are frequently used in Portuguese heraldry, with some of them being referred by specific terms. Most of these are related with the coat of arms of Portugal or other heraldic emblems, being occasionally used as augmentations of honor.
A quina is one of the five escutcheons Azure charged with five plates of the arms of Portugal. Quina is the Portuguese term for quincunx (the 5 face of a gaming die); it began to be used to designate the escutcheons of the Portuguese arms when the number of plates charging them was fixed at five in the late 14th century. Before that, each escutcheon was represented as Azure semée of plates. By synecdoche, the whole arms of Portugal are frequently refereed as the Cinco Quinas (Five Quinas) or simply as the Quinas. Similarly, the Portuguese flag is often referred as the Bandeira das Quinas (Flag of the Quinas).
The Portugal antigo (Portugal ancient) is the version of the shield of Portugal without the bordure Gules charged with castles Or. This designation is however misleading, as the Portugal ancient is not the real old version of the Portuguese coat of arms. The real old version of the Portuguese arms - before the introduction of the bordure with castles - was similar to the Portugal ancient, but with the dexter and sinister escutcheons lying horizontal and pointing to the center, with all the escutcheons being semée of plates and not just five plates. This real old version is occasionally also referred as "Portugal ancient". From the introduction of the bordure with castles in the arms of Portugal by King Afonso III until the introduction of the heraldic rules of King Manuel I, the Portugal ancient was often used as the coat of arms of the illegitimate children of the Monarchs. From then on, it was used as an augmentation of honor to a coat of arms granted by the Monarch.
The esfera armilar (armillary sphere) is also a charge that frequently appears in Portuguese heraldry, usually represented in Or. The armillary sphere was granted by King John II to Duke Manuel of Viseu as his personal badge when he was appointed heir of the Crown. When Manuel became King of Portugal in 1495, he continued to bear the armillary sphere. This reign coincided with the height of Portuguese overseas expansion and might, with the armillary sphere being widely displayed, alone or together with the Portuguese arms, in public buildings, documents, flags and other environments. The armillary sphere was so common in this period that it came to be considered not only as a royal personal badge but as a symbol of the country and of its overseas empire, with its use continuing even after the death of King Manuel I.
The cross of the Order of Christ, often referred to simply as the cruz de Cristo (cross of Christ), is a cross patty Gules charged with a small cross Argent. It is the symbol of the Portuguese Order of Christ, deriving from the old cross of the Knights Templar (ancestors of the Knights of Christ). As Prince Henry the Navigator was governor of the Order of Christ, the early Portuguese overseas maritime expeditions were sponsored by this Order, with the participating ships carrying the cross of Christ painted in their sails. The symbol was so heavily and prominently used in the Portuguese overseas expansion that it came to symbolize it and Portugal as a whole. As the government of the Order came into the hands of the King himself during the reign of Manuel I, the cross of Christ came to be also considered a royal badge (during that reign, being frequently represented together with the armillary sphere and the royal coat of arms) and later also as a national symbol.
The cross of the Portuguese Order of Aviz, referred simply as the cruz de Avis (cross of Aviz), is a cross fleury vert. As a heraldic badge, this cross had a high importance during the reigning of the House of Aviz. The founder of this House was King John I, who was the Master of the Order of Aviz before ascending to the throne. John I introduced this cross in the arms of Portugal, with its fleur-de-lis verts points appearing over the bordure of the shield. This inclusion was however considered as heraldically incorrect, and the points were removed from the shield during the reign of John II.
The castles or over a bordure gules were introduced by King Afonso III as a charge of the coat of arms of Portugal. Initially the bordure was charged with a semée of castles, but in the early 16th century the number of castles was reduced to eight and later was fixed at seven. There is a common myth that the bordure with castles represent the Portuguese reconquest of Algarve from the Moors, which was completed during the reign of Afonso III. However, today it is commonly accepted that the bordure of castles was taken by Afonso III from the arms of his mother (Urraca of Castile) and used by him as a differentiation of the arms of Portugal because its legitimate user would be his brother Sancho II. The castles were also later used as augmentations of honor.
Personal and family heraldry
Royal heraldry
Royal heraldry refers to the coats of arms of the members of the Portuguese Royal Family, including the Monarchs, the consorts, the princes and the infantes.
Until the 14th century, no clear rules existed for Portuguese royal heraldry. However, it was a practice of the children of the Monarchs to use a variation of the royal coat of arms (at that time field argent, five escutcheons azur with each semée of plates). This variation could be obtained by rearranging the elements of the Royal Coat of Arms and/or by adding to it additional elements as ordinaries or bordures. The main currently accepted theory is that the present coat of arms of Portugal was precisely originated in one of these variations, used by the future Afonso III while he was merely the brother of King Sancho II. This theory assumes that the future Afonso III assumed a coat of arms that consisted of the royal coat of arms differenced with a Gules border semée with castles Or, taken from the arms of his mother Urraca of Castile, this coat of arms being maintained after Afonso III deposed Sancho II and assumed the throne in 1248, becoming the Royal Arms of Portugal.
In the 14th century, the royal coat of arms began to be represented topped by a crown. Later, a crest was introduced, this being a wyvern Or.
In the reign of John I, a system of cadency for the coat of arms of his children was introduced. This consisted in differentiating the royal arms through the inclusion of a label, which field was different for each child of the King. Besides the use of coats of arms, the use of personal heraldic badges by the members of the Royal Family was also introduced in this reign. One of these badges - the armillary sphere of King Manuel I - obtained the status of a national insignia, being later included in the national achievement of arms.
The definitive system of royal heraldry was established by King Manuel I in its ordinances for the officers of arms of 1521. It follows strict rules that include a fixed system of cadency to distinguish the coat of arms of the different members of the royal Family.
According to the system, the Monarch of Portugal is the sole user of the undifferentiated full coat of arms of Portugal. No other person is authorized to use the full arms of Portugal, not even the Prince heir.
The consort of the Monarch uses a coat of arms with a field parti per pale, with the Portuguese arms in dexter and her/his family arms in sinister.
In the Portuguese heraldry system, Queens (either regnants or consorts) were the only women whose arms were represented in shields and not in lozenges.
The male children of the Monarch use the arms of Portugal differentiated by a label. The eldest son, as the Prince heir of Portugal, uses the label with all its points empty. The cadets (infantes) have the points of the label charged with arms of their ancestors (usually the arms of the lineage of their mother), other than the arms of Portugal. The first infante has only the dexter point of the label charged, the second one has the sinister and dexter points charged and the third and following infantes have all the three points charged.
The eldest son of the Prince heir uses the coat of arms of Portugal defaced by a label with each of its points charged with a heraldic rose.
The female children of the Monarch use a lozenge instead of a shield. This applies both to the Princesses and to the infantas. The field of the lozenge is parti per pale, with the arms of Portugal in sinister. The dexter of the shield remains empty (field argent) while the owner is single and is filled with the arms of her husband when she marries.
The members of the cadet branches had the right to include the differentiated arms of Portugal in their coat of arms until the fourth generation, when they ceased to have the status of members of the Royal Family. From the second generation on, their coat of arms would be the differentiated arms of Portugal quartered with the arms of the other non-royal ancestors of the person. The differentiated arms of Portugal always occupy the first quarter of the field of the shield.
The illegitimate children of the Monarchs also bear the arms of Portugal, but defaced with special marks of distinction. These marks varied accordingly with the old Portuguese usages of classifying illegitimate children either as natural children when both parents were not married, as bastards when just one of the parents was married, as adulterine when both parents were married but not to each other, as incestuous when the parents were close relatives or as sacrilegious when one or both parents had taken religious vows. The corresponding defacing marks would be a bend dexter for natural children, a baton sinister for bastards, a bend sinister azur for adulterine, a bend sinister vert for incestuous and a bend sinister gules for sacrilegious children.
In the late 17th century, the system of crowns and coronets to be used in the coat of arms of the members of the Royal Family was defined. From then on the royal crown (with four arches) was to be included in the coat of arms of the King and of the Queen. The princely crown (with two arches) was to be used in the coat of arms of the Prince heir (titled Prince of Brazil from 1645 to 1815 and Prince Royal from then on) and of the eldest son of the Prince heir (titled Prince of Beira since 1734). The ducal coronet was to be used in the coats of arms of the infantes.
From the 19th century on, it was common to represent the achievement of arms of the Monarchs with a pavilion issuing from the royal crown, which formed a backdrop for the shield. The Royal pavilion was purple with an ermine facing. Occasionally it was charged with elements of the coat of arms of Portugal, like quinas and castles.
Heraldry of the nobility
The system of heraldry of the Portuguese non-royal nobility applies to the noble persons and lineages that were not part of the Royal Family. These were referred as "popular lineages". The heraldic ordinances of the King Manuel I also established the rules for this type of heraldry.
These rules have taken in consideration some specific Portuguese usages that did not occur in some other European countries and that impact heraldry. One of these is that a Portuguese woman is able to hold titles and transmit them to her heirs. Another is that the surnames given to a person can optionally be taken either from the father's or from the mother's family, including surnames not used by the parents themselves, but used by their ancestors. This is reflected in heraldry, with a person being able to include quarters with arms both from the paternal and the maternal ancestors in his/her coat of arms.
The chief of a lineage is the sole person entitled to bear the undifferentiated coat arms of the lineage. If the person was chief of two lineages, his coat of arms would be divided per fess, with the arms of each lineage occupying half of the field. If the person was chief of three or more lineages, the field of the shield would be quarterly, with the arms of the lineages being distributed by the several quarters.
A noble person that is not chief of a lineage bears a quarterly coat of arms, containing in its quarters the arms taken from the lineage of the father and from the lineage of the mother. These can be combined in different ways. The simple way is to have a quarterly field with the arms of the father in quarters I and IV and arms of the mother in II and III. Another option is to have the four quarters occupied by the arms of the four grandparents. All the arms included in the field must be differentiated, as the owner is not the chief of any of the represented lineages.
The ordinances of King Manuel I also introduced a kind of marks of cadency to differentiate the coats of arms of the cadets of the lineages. These are not intended however to establish the order of succession of the cadet in the family, as are the marks of cadency of the Portuguese royal heraldry and of the heraldry of other countries, but to establish from which ancestor of the person the arms were inherited. These marks consist of brisures, checkers (quarters of a canton) and half checkers, usually placed in the dexter of the chief of the field. The different marks identified if those arms came from the paternal grandfather (brisure), the paternal grandmother (half checker charged with a brisure), the maternal grandfather (checker charged with a brisure) or the maternal grandmother (checker charged with a cushion and this with a brisure).
The rules for the coats of arms of the illegitimate children of popular lineages were similar to those of the Royal Family. So, their arms would be defaced by a baton sinister, a bend dexter, a bend sinister azur, a bend sinister vert or a band sinister gules depending on the type of illegitimacy. Regarding the natural children of popular lineages, there were more precise rules than those for the natural children of the Royal Family. The defacing of the arms of a simple natural child would also be a single baton sinister. However, if the father of the child was also a natural child the defacing would be two batons. If both the father and the grandfather would also be natural children, the batons would be three. On the other side, the legitimate descendants of natural children would have a diminutive baton sinister, that would finally disappear from the coat of arms after a number of legitimate generations.
Women from the popular lineages that were holder of titles, landladies of territories with jurisdiction or ladies lieutenants (alcaidessas) had also the right to bear coats of arms. All the above rules applied to women's coats of arms, but these would be represented in lozenges and not in shields.
In the late 16th, a system of coronets similar to those used in other European countries was introduced, with the particularity that, in Portugal, those who had only the titles of baron and viscount but had the status of Grandee had the right to bear the coronet of count.
In the 19th century, during the period of Constitutional Monarchy, the peers of the Kingdom and the counselors of State had the right to bear a coat of arms including a black mantle with ermine facing issuing from the coronet.
Burgher arms
Until the reign of King John I there were apparently no restrictions on the use of burgher arms in Portugal. The first restriction appeared in this reign, with the ban of the use of the or tincture in these type of arms.
During the reign of King Afonso V, burgher arms were restricted to the use of colours only, with both metals being banned.
This restriction would become irrelevant when King Manuel I forbade the use of arms to those who were not of the Portuguese nobility. This restriction against burgher arms in Portugal lasted until the end of the Monarchy in 1910, although, by that time, it was very common to a burgher who stood out in politics, commerce, industry, agriculture, military or other matters, to be ennobled and so to become entitled to bear a coat of arms.
Civic heraldry
National heraldry
Portuguese national heraldry evolved from the royal heraldry, with the royal coat of arms gradually coming to be considered a national coat of arms.
The present national achievement of arms of Portugal was established in 1910, after the replacement of the Monarchy by the republic. As its central element, the traditional Portuguese shield was kept. This was placed over an armillary sphere. The achievement of arms has three main versions. The simpler includes only the shield over the armillary sphere, and is so displayed in the National Flag.
In the second version, used in the national colors of military units, the armillary sphere is surrounded by two branches of laurel, tied in the base with a white scroll with Camões' verse "Esta é a ditosa Pátria minha amada" (This is my beloved famous Motherland). The final version, intended to be used in seals, coins and other badges, is similar to the second version, but the scroll does not include the verse and is usually represented in red and green.
The Portuguese shield itself is the result of about 300 years of evolution, from the 12th to the 15th centuries. The putative initial shield used by Afonso Henriques, who became the first King of Portugal, was field argent with a cross azur. This evolved to a field argent with five escutcheons azur forming a cross, the dexter and sinister ones pointing to the center, with each escutcheon semée of plates. When Afonso III became King in 1247, he maintained the shield he used as brother of King Sancho II: the then Portuguese shield added with a bordure gules semée of castles or. When the master of the Order of Aviz became King in 1385, as John I, the cross of the order (cross vert with fleur-de-lis in its points) was inserted in the shield, with its points appearing in the bordure gules, between the castles or. Later, the semée of plates of each of the five escutcheons gradually evolved to fixed five plates disposed in saltire and, because of this, each of these escutcheons started to be known as quina (the face "five" of a dice). By synecdoche, the Portuguese shield started to be referred as the five quinas or simply as the quinas. Finally, in 1481, King John II ordered the correction of the Portuguese shield, eliminating its features identified as heraldic errors. So, the cross of the Order of Aviz was taken off and the dexter and sinister escutcheons were set upright. Later the semée of castles or of the bordure evolved to seven fixed castles, this being the version in use today.
Municipal heraldry
Portuguese municipal heraldry includes the heraldic symbols — including coats of arms, flags and seals — of the local governments of Portugal, that is, the municipalities and freguesias (civil parishes).
Municipal heraldry has a long tradition in Portugal, with city, town and municipal heraldic insignia appearing as early as the 12th century. The oldest example known is the coat of arms of the former municipality of Castelo Mendo, dated from 1202. These insignia were mainly used in seals, in ceremonial flags, in the municipal halls and in the public infrastructures built by the municipalities (such as fortifications, fountains, aqueducts and bridges). Until the 19th century, the assumption of coats of arms by the municipalities was the rule, with the right to bear heraldic insignia and the right to choose their design being understood by the municipalities as one of the prerogatives of their old autonomy. Thus, the creation of municipal coats of arms did not usually pass through the officers of arms of the Crown. In the 19th century, however, some municipal coats of arms started to be granted centrally by the Crown.
The revival of heraldry in Portugal in the 20th century was much driven by a large revival in the field of municipal heraldry. Despite the restrictions on heraldry imposed by the Republican regime 1910, many municipalities expressed the desire to continue to bear arms and, in the case of some municipalities that had not had them before, even to obtain new arms. Marinha Grande was one of these municipalities, and its intention to bear a coat of arms would trigger the high development of the municipal heraldry in Portugal. In the 1920s, the recently created Municipal Council of Marinha Grande expressed the desire to bear arms, but did not find any authority capable of creating it. It then appealed to the general public through the press. The appeal was answered by Afonso Dornellas, an heraldic specialist and member of the Portuguese Association of Archaeologists, who presented a proposal for coat of arms, flag and seal designs for the Marinha Grande municipality. This proposal was approved and adopted by the respective Municipal Council. At the same time, Dornellas created a draft of regulation for the municipal heraldry.
On 14 April 1930, the Ministry of the Interior, through its Directorate General of Political and Civil Administration, issued a circular letter defining the heraldic standards to be used in the coat of arms, flags and seals of all municipalities. These were based on the regulation draft created by Dornellas. The municipal heraldic rules were reformed in 1991, but the basic standard rules established in 1930 were kept and are still in force. Most of the municipal arms were then gradually reformed in order to comply with the standard rules. In most cases, the reform kept the basic design of the original coat of arms, occasionally with a mere adjustment of the tinctures and charges in order to fully comply with the heraldic rules. However, in many cases the standardization led to a radical change, with completely new designs being introduced in some cases. While the blazon of the old municipal coat of arms tended to have an erudite meaning, with frequent references to the history of the municipality or puns regarding their names, the blazon of the municipal coat of arms introduced after 1930 tended to have more mundane meanings, frequently referring to their economical activities or landmarks. This resulted in the frequent repetition of some charges (like bunches of grapes representing the local production of wine or castles representing the existence of castles in the area), which made many of the coats of arms very similar to each other. Some municipalities refused to abandon their traditional and distinctive heraldic emblems and maintained them, even if they were non-conforming to the new standards. Caldas da Rainha, for example, kept the coat of arms that was bestowed upon the settlement by Queen Leonor and Horta kept the coat of arms granted to the city, together with the title "most loyal" bestowed by King Louis I in 1865. Angra do Heroísmo, despite having its traditional coat of arms replaced in 1939 by a completely new design intended to be standards-compliant, decided in 2013 to readopt its old coat of arms granted to the city by Queen Mary II in 1837, even though it defied the standards in the inclusion of a crest, in the divisions of the field and in not using the round bottom shape shield.
Accordingly, with Law no. 53/1991 of 7 August 1991, the Portuguese municipalities, freguesias, cities and towns had the right to bear three types of standardized heraldic symbols: the coat of arms, the flag and the seal.
Coats of arms follow a standard design that consists of a shield topped by an mural crown and under it a scroll. The shield is required to be of the round-bottom shape (Portuguese shield). The mural crown defines the rank of the seat of the local government, being five apparent towers or for Lisbon as the capital city, five towers argent for the other cities, four towers argent for towns and three towers argent for villages and urban freguesias. The scroll contains the name of the seat of the municipality or freguesia, including possible honorific titles associated with it. Alternatively, the scroll may include a motto, although this is very rare. The coat of arms may also include the insignias of the decorations awarded to the municipality or freguesia.
The blazon of the shield must obey the general Portuguese heraldry rules, which follow general European tradition. Some of the specific Portuguese heraldic norms followed include the interdiction of the inclusion of the Portuguese shield (unless it is defaced), the use of only the seven traditional tinctures (excluding others like the orange allowed in the heraldry of some other countries), and the permission to use mottos and legends inside the field of the shield. In municipal heraldry there is also the interdiction of the use of divisions of the field that cause a split in their meaningful whole.
The flags of the municipalities and freguesias may follow one of the following three standard designs, regarding their field: gyronny of eight pieces, quarterly or single tincture. Tinctures used are those corresponding to the dominant metal and/or color of the coat of arms. Following the Portuguese usage for blazoning flags, or and argent are not used, being respectively replaced by yellow and white. Flags with a gyronny field are reserved for cities. Regarding the other two designs, although not a mandatory rule, recent practice has been to give quarterly flags to towns and flags with a single tincture to the rest of the freguesias. There are two shapes of flags, according to the intended use. The first type is the standard, to be used as parade flag. This is square with a side of 1 meter, made of silk, with the coat of arms represented in the center of its field. Standards are bordered by a cord in the dominant metal and color, ending in tassels and tied to a golden staff and spear. The other type are the flags to be flown from fixed staffs, flagpoles or halyards. These are rectangular, with a proportion of 2:5 and with no fixed dimensions. The flags of this type may include the coat of arms or not (with exception of flags with a single tincture, which always include it).
The seals are always round and consist of a central circle surrounded by a bordure. The central circle contains the charges of the coat of arms, but without the tinctures. The bordure contains the name of the body of government of the municipality or freguesia.
Regional heraldry
The regional heraldry refers to the coat of arms used by the regional level (above municipal level) self-governing entities of Portugal. Although provinces, autonomous districts and other self-governing entities existed in the past, at present the only such entities these type are the autonomous regions of Azores and Madeira. In contrast with the municipal heraldry, there is no regional heraldry tradition in Portugal.
The local government heraldry law of 1991 also defines the standards for the coats of arms and flags of the administrative regions. These are envisioned in the Portuguese Constitution as regional local government entities of mainland Portugal, but were never created, so their heraldry was also never implemented. The administrative regions would also have the right to bear arms, seal and flag, with similar features to those of the municipalities. The arms would be topped by a special mural crown similar to that of the city of Lisbon, but with a quina alternating with each tower. The flags would be a gyronny of sixteen pieces.
In contrast, the Portuguese autonomous regions were implemented. They established their own heraldry, case by case by the regions' own governing bodies within the scope of their developed powers, not following any specific standards besides the general rules of heraldry. Both the regional achievement of arms of the Azores and that of Madeira follow a model inspired by the old Portuguese royal heraldry. The shield of Madeira, together with its seal and flag, was established in 1978, but its complete achievement of arms (with the addition of supporters, motto, helmet and crest) was only established in 1991. The arms of the Azores were established in 1979, as well as their seal and flag. Before that, however, a heraldic charge identifying Azores (a flying goshawk (açor) or with a quina in its claws) was already in use, inserted in the chief of the coats of arms of many municipalities of the Region.
Besides the two autonomous regions, the region of the Algarve, although not existing as a legal personality, is also occasionally collectively identified by a coat of arms: the putative coat of arms of the ancient honorary Kingdom of the Algarve, consisting of a quarterly shield, with the head of a Christian king in the I and IV, and the head of a Moor in the II and III. The fields of the I and IV are usually represented in Or and those of the II and III in Gules, although variations occur. Elements of this coat of arms were included in the arms of most of the Algarve municipalities (usually the Christian king and Moor heads in the chief). Some regional and local organizations also use the Algarve coat of arms or include elements of it in their own emblems.
Military heraldry
Military heraldry is the youngest branch of Portuguese heraldry. Each branch of the Armed Forces and the Republican National Guard (GNR) has its own system of heraldry, that also includes their heraldic vexillology.
Before the 20th century, the Portuguese military made only rare use of heraldry, besides use of the royal and national coats of arms. In contrast with the usage of other militaries, even the use of particular badges, insignia or mottos was rare in the Portuguese military units. In the late 1920s, the Portuguese Army started a policy of reviving its units' historical traditions. As part of its policy, mottos were introduced for some units in the late 1920s, and units' semi-heraldic guidons were introduced in the early 1930s. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the first unit's coat of arms were introduced, although in most cases these consisted of non-heraldic designs. In 1953, the Portuguese Institute of Heraldry proposed a system of rules to construct heraldically compliant coats of arms for the Army. Some units adopted coats of arms following these rules.
In 1964 the Army finally started to experiment with the implementation of a regulation of heraldry and symbology, establishing strict heraldic compliance rules for the creation of coats of arms and heraldic flags for the units. A particular characteristic of these rules was the use of the heater shield in the coat of arms, instead of the traditional Portuguese shield with a round point proposed in the 1950s. Although an Army heraldic coronet was established, this was rarely used, with the coat of arms usually represented in a similar way to personal heraldry, with the shield topped by a helm and this by a crest. These regulations became official in 1969.
The other branches of the Armed Forces followed the Army in implementing processes of heraldic regulation. In 1960, the Portuguese Air Force established a regulation of vexillology that also defined the unit's coat of arms to be inserted in their guidons. Most of these coats of arms consisted of non-heraldic designs. The Portuguese Navy established several regulations for the guidons of their units in the 1960s, but not rules for coats of arms. The Navy adopted its own heraldic regulation in 1972, similar to the Army regulation but preferring the use of round-bottom shields, and with the units' coats of arms being always represented topped by a naval coronet. The Air Force implemented its own heraldic regulation in 1985, based on the Army standards but with the unit's coat of arms always represented topped with an aeronautical coronet.
Meanwhile, the Army changed its heraldry regulation in 1987, with deep changes in heraldic vexillology and also some changes in the heraldry itself. These changes were not adopted by the other branches, which makes the Army's heraldry, especially the vexillology, markedly different from those of the Navy and the Air Force.
Army heraldry
The present regulation of Army heraldry was established in 1987, replacing the regulation of 1969. The new regulation marked a deep change in the Army heraldic vexillology, that incidentally became substantially different from the vexillology of the other branches of the Armed Forces that continued to be based on the Army's 1969 standards. However, it did not cause substantial changes in the standards of the coat of arms.
The coat of arms of the Army is gules, a lion rampant or holding an ancient sword argent with a handle or, the crest of the achievement being the figure of the shield. The badge of the Army is this coat of arms, but represented in a round shield surrounded by a laurel wreath in dexter and oak wreath in sinister, topped by the Army's coronet, with or without the crest. The Army's coronet is a mural crown with eight towers, five of them apparent, interspersed by cannonballs.
Each independent body of the Army has the right to bear a coat of arms and a flag to be flown. The coat of arms is represented in a heater shield (referred to as "classical shield"). The field is blazoned accordingly with the general rules of Portuguese heraldry, but mottoes, legends and monograms are not allowed inside the shield, and partitions of the field are only allowed without any charges on them.
The complete achievement of arms of an body is represented by the shield, helmet, torse, mantling and crest, scroll with motto and, optionally orders, supporters, compartment and a war cry. Alternatively, the achievement can be represented by the shield topped by the Army's coronet and optionally the crest on its top, without any other elements including the helmet.
The previous 1969 Army heraldic regulations also envisioned the existence of personal coats of arms for certain general officers. These included rank or office insignia to be put under or on the sides of the shield. Examples of those insignia were two crossed batons under the shield for marshals, two crossed cannon under the shield for the director of the artillery branch, two towers in the dexter and sinister of the shield for the director of the engineering branch, a Greek cross under the shield for the director of the military health service and a collar with flaming grenades and cog-wheels around the shield for the director of the ordnance service. However, the present regulations include only achievements of arms for bodies.
The heraldic flags used by the bodies of the Army are the flags to be flown, the standards (estandartes) and the pennants (flâmulas). The standards of the independent bodies are square (75 cm × 75 cm), being a quadrature of the respective coat of arms. The flags to be flown are similar, but their dimensions can vary. The standards of the sub-units of battalion size have the center of the field occupied by the quadrature of its mother unit coat of arms, with a bordure of the main metal of the arms, with the angles occupied by a color or fur which identifies the order of the sub-unit inside the unit. It is notable that while the battalion flags were traditionally referred as "guidons" (guiões), this new designation implemented in 1987 broke with that tradition. The company size sub-units bear a pennant (75 cm × 25 cm forked flag) with a quadrature of its mother battalion near the host and the tips with a specific color that identifies the company inside the battalion. Independent companies bear battalion type standards and not pennants.
The Portuguese Army has its own heraldic authority, the Directorate of Military History and Culture, through its Section of Heraldry.
Navy heraldry
Portuguese Naval heraldry is regulated by the Office of Naval Heraldry, under the 2010 Regulation of the Heraldry of the Navy, that replaced the previous Regulation of 1972.
The coat of arms of the Navy is a field azur with a dolphin argent, a naval crown or, a scroll with the war cry São Jorge (Saint George) on the top and a scroll with the motto Talant de bien faire (Talent to make good) on the bottom. This coat of arms, including its external elements, but represented in a round shield flanked by a laurel wreath in dexter and an oak laurel in sinister, constitutes the badge of the Navy.
Besides the Navy itself, the following bodies have the right to bear coats of arms: the Naval Command and the maritime zone commands, the bodies that are part of the Naval Command that are headed by commanders or officers of higher rank, the bodies of the National Maritime Authority, the Hydrographic Institute, the frigates, corvettes, submarines, training ships and other naval units commanded by commanders or officers of higher rank, permanent naval forces and groups, other bodies headed by captains or officers of higher rank, the Naval Staff and the Naval Band. When authorized by the Chief of Staff of the Navy, a coat of arms can be granted to non-permanent naval or marine force commanded by a commander or officer of higher rank. Flag officers with the role of commanders, directors or chiefs of the aforementioned bodies also have the right to bear achievements of arms. The small naval units not included in the aforementioned ones usually bear an heraldic device that serves as badge and as main charge of their heraldic pennants.
The achievements of arms used in the Navy usually consist of a shield topped by a naval crown. They can also include crosses and collars of orders, decorations with their ribbons, trophies, mottos and war cries. The achievements may also include supporters and their compartments. The achievements of arms of the flag officers consist of the shield of the body under his/her command, with the rank insignia of the bearer under the shield and with the naval crown replaced by helm, torse and crest. The shields are of the round-bottom shape, but round shields flanked by laurels can also be used to constitute badges. The Navy's heraldry allows the augmentation of honors to the achievements of arms. The possible marks of augmentation are based in the ancient Portuguese usage of royal augmentation with elements of the coat of arms of Portugal and are a canton charged with a castle or, a canton charged with a quina or an escutcheon argent with the five quinas.
Naval flag officers have specific heraldic rank insignia to be inserted under the shields of their achievements of arms. These are two anchors argent in saltire each charged with two quinas for admirals, the same anchors but without the quinas for vice-admirals, a single anchor argent per pale for rear-admirals and the same anchor but with a reduced canton in the shield charged with an anchor argent for commodores.
The Portuguese Navy has the custom of granting coats of arms to ships with the blazoning of the family or personal coat of arms of their patrons. Example are the shields of the three Vasco da Gama-class frigates (Vasco da Gama, Álvares Cabral and Corte Real), which fields have the identical blazoning of the coats of arms borne, respectively, by Vasco da Gama, by Pedro Álvares Cabral and by the brothers Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real.
The Navy also uses heraldic flags that are based in the Army's 1969 standards and so are considerably different from those used today by that branch of service. These flags are the heraldic standards (estandartes heráldicos), the guidons (guiões) and the heraldic pennants (flâmulas heráldicas). The heraldic standards are square flags (1 m × 1 m), whose fields may be blazoned with a combination of ordinaries, crosses, stars or stripes, with an optional cross or saltire overall, the fields having in the center the shield of the bearers surrounded by a scroll with their designation. The guidons are also square flags (0.8 m × 0.8 m), the field charged with the heraldic badges of the bearers, with a bordure that can be simple, gyronny, quartered or cantoned. The heraldic pennants - not to be confused with the commissioning pennants - are triangular flags (0.75 m × 0.25 m), divided in four parts by a scroll in bend with the name of the bearers and charged with their heraldic badges. Heraldic standards are borne by the Navy itself, the Naval Command and the maritime zone commands, the Marine Corps and the naval and marine forces and units entitled to bear coats of arms, the marine battalions, the Naval School, the Naval Technologies, Maritime Authority and Marines schools and the Naval and Marine bases. Guidons are borne by independent Marine companies and divers units. Heraldic pennants are borne by small naval units not entitled to bear heraldic standards and by Marine companies that are part of battalions.
Air Force's heraldry
The heraldry of the Portuguese Air Force was officially regulated in 1985, being largely based on the Army's 1969 heraldic standards. The 1985 Regulation of Heraldry is an update of the transitional standards approved in 1978 and replaced the previous Air Force's flag regulation of 1960, which also defined the mainly non-heraldic shields used by each unit.
The coat of arms of the Air Force itself is field azur with a spread eagle or beaked and membered gules, an aeronautical coronet and under the shield a scroll with the motto Ex mero motu (from the mere motion). The aeronautical or Air Force's coronet is a variation on an astral crown, in which the pairs of wings alternate with crosses of Christ (traditional emblem of Portuguese military aviation). The achievement of arms of the Air Force can also be represented in the form of greater arms, with the addition of the following external elements: crest (a wing Or charged with a cross of Christ), torse (Azure and Or), supporters (a lion Gules holding the banner of arms of the Armed Forces General Staff in dexter and a dolphin Sable holding the banner of arms the Air Force in sinister) and compartment (mountains Vert in dexter and water waves Vert in sinister).
Besides the Air Force itself, the following existing bodies have the right to bear coats of arms: base units, technical departments, commands, the Air Force Academy, the Inspection General of the Air Force and the Air Force Staff. The commanding officers of the base units and technical departments with a rank of colonel or above have also the right to bear a coat of arms. Exceptionally and if authorized by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, coats of arms can also be granted to other bodies not listed above whose commanding officers have the rank of major or above.
The coats of arms of the bodies are usually represented in a heater shield with an aeronautical coronet, with or without the crest. Additional external elements can also be represented. The coats of arms can form a badge, for this use being represented in a round shield surrounded by a laurel wreath in dexter and an oak wreath in sinister, topped by the aeronautical coronet and the crest.
The personal achievements of arms of commanding officers of the bodies are the coats of arms of the respective bodies, but with the aeronautical coronet replaced by a helmet with torse and mantling. These coats of arms can also include the crest and other external elements.
The heraldic flags used by the Air Force are the distinctive flags (galhardetes), the standards (estandartes), the merit guidons (guiões de mérito), the guidons (guiões) and the pennants (flâmulas). The distinctive flags are borne by the general officers and usually are a quadrature of the coat of arms of the body they command. The standards are square banners (1 m × 1 m) with a field resulting from a geometric combination of quarterlies and gyronnies, over which a cross or a saltire may lap up, with the shield of the body in the center, surrounded by a scroll bearing either its designation or motto. The standard of the Air Force itself is its banner of arms. The guidon of merit is a square flag (0.75 m × 0.75 m) with the field Azure with an eagle displayed Or, a bordure Or with a palm Vert in each flank. The guidon is a square flag (0.75 m × 0.75 m) with a quadrature of the coat of arms of the bearer, with a bordure that can be simple, with cantons, quarterly or gyronny. The pennant is a triangular flag (0.25 m × 0.5 m) containing the symbology of the unit. The standards are intended to be borne by the base units, commands, the Air Force Academy and the Air Force; the guidons are by groups; and the pennants by squadrons and independent flights. The merit guidons are to be borne by flights, squadrons and groups distinguished, with the golden medal of distinguished services or above decorations, for exceptional merit in a combat action, including the name of the unit and the date when that action occurred.
The Air Force heraldic authority is the Historical Archive of the Air Force, which includes a deputy chief for heraldry.
Unified bodies' heraldry
The heraldry of the General Staff of the Armed Forces (EMGFA) was established in 1977, based on the 1969 heraldic rules of the Army and the 1972 rules of the Navy. The achievement of arms of the EMGFA was established as Azure, a winged sea lion Or handling an ancient sword Argent, a coronet with five apparent cannonballs or, the winged sea lion of the shield issuing as crest and a scroll with the motto Que quem quis sempre pôde (That anyone who wanted always could). The coat of arms was represented in a round bottom shield. The coat of arms of the Chief of the General Staff consisted of the shield of the EMGFA with the coronet replaced by a helm and the crest of the EMGFA. A coat of arms of Vice-Chief of the General Staff was also established, being the field of the shield of the EMGFA with a bordure Argent, topped by a helm and the crest of the EMGFA, this defaced by a roundel Gules. The distinctive flags (galhardetes) of the Chief and Vice-Chief of Staff were their respective banners of arms. The standard (estandarte) of the EMGFA followed the 1969 model of the Army units' heraldic standards with a quarterly field of Azure and Argent and a countercharged bordure of Gules and Or, a reduced cross Or overall and the shield of the EMGFA on the center surrounded by a scroll with the designation of the body.
The heraldry of some of the unified bodies of the Armed Forces that were under the direct authority of the EMGFA followed the same model, including the use of the special coronet of the EMGFA. These are the operational commands of the Azores, Madeira, and the Hospital of the Armed Forces.
In 1979, a coat of arms was also established for the Minister of National Defense. The shield was the reproduction of a quina (Azure, five plates in saltire), an helm, torse and mantling Azure and Argent, with an issuing wyvern Argent as crest, a scroll with the motto Os Portugueses somos do Ocidente (We Portuguese are of the West).
Heraldry for several other bodies of the Ministry of National Defense has been created, but not following a specific standard besides the general standards of the Portuguese heraldry.
GNR's heraldry
The Republican National Guard (GNR) is a gendarmerie type security force, whose members have military status. The GNR started to implement a system of heraldry in the 1970s, following closely the model of the Army's heraldry. The standards used until 1987 were based in the Army's heraldic regulations of 1969. When the Army changed its regulations in 1987, the GNR kept the heraldry of the already existing bodies, but the heraldry of the newly created bodies started to follow the Army's new regulations. Finally, in 2009, the GNR implemented a new heraldic regulation for general application, which is based in the Army's 1987 regulation.
The coat of arms of the GNR is field Vert, an ancient sword Or sustained by two wyverns combatant Or, military helmet Argent, torse and mantling Vert and Or, a wyvern of the shield wielding an ancient sword Or as crest, the collar of the Order of the Tower and Sword and a scroll with the motto Pela Lei e pela Grei (For the Law and for the People). This coat of arms was granted in 1973 and replaced a non-heraldic design used since the 1950s.
Besides the GNR itself, the following bodies have the right to bear a coat of arms: the Command General, the Guard Inspection, the Operational Command, the Human Resources Administration Command, the Training and Doctrine Command, the School of the Guard and the units. Units and sub-units deployed outside of the national territory of Portugal have also the right to bear a coat of arms.
The coats of arms of the above bodies follow exactly the model of the coat of arms of the GNR, being always represented with a heater style shield.
The heraldic flag types used in the GNR are the flag to be flown (bandeira de arvorar), the standard (estandarte), the guidon (guião), the pennant (flâmula) for sub-units, the pennant for vessels and the distinctive flag (galhardete). The flags, the standards, the guidons and the pennants for sub-units follow the model of the Army's respective flags, standards for independent bodies, standards for battalions and pennants. The GNR's own standard is larger, 1 m × 1 m. The pennants for vessels are triangular flags and include near the staff the heraldic symbol of the Coastal Control Unit, and near the fly the symbol of the vessel. The distinctive flags to be borne by general officers are the quadrature of the field of the coat of arms of the bodies they command, with a chief Vert charged with a number of stars Or corresponding to the rank of the general. The flags are to be borne by the bodies entitled to bear a coat of arms, the guidons by battalion-size units, and the pennants by company-size units and by vessels under the command of officers.
The former Fiscal Guard (GF) also made use of heraldry before its integration into the GNR in 1993. The coat of arms of the GF was established in 1980 as Azure with a star of 16 points or (this star was the traditional badge of this body since the 19th century), a helm Argent, torse and mantling Azure and Or, the crest being an issuing griffon or holding a bugle Or, a scroll with the motto Pela Pátria e pela Lei (For the Motherland and for the Law). In 1989, particular coats of arms were also granted to the several units and commands of this body, following the same general standard. With the integration of the GF in the GNR as its Fiscal Brigade, the coat of arms of the previous body became the coat of arms of its successor.
Other security forces and services
Besides the National Republican Guard and the former Fiscal Guard, other Portuguese security forces and services make use of military type heraldry, despite most of these having a civil nature.
The coat of arms of the Public Security Police (PSP) was approved in 1982. It was Azure with a star of six points Argent, a helm Argent, torse and mantling Azure and Argent, a flying falcon Argent for a crest, the collar of the Order of the Tower and Sword and a scroll with the motto Pela Ordem e pela Pátria (For the Order and for the Motherland). In the same year, the PSP Command initiated a process of creation of coat of arms for the several units and commands of the body, with the support of Colonel Jorge Guerreiro, head of the Army's Heraldic Office. Col. Guerreiro designed a specific PSP coronet, consisting of a ring topped by four stars of six points (three visible) with displayed falcons in their intervals, all in Or. The achievements of arms of most of the units (including of all territorial commands) were then represented as a heater shield topped by the PSP coronet and a scroll with a motto under the shield. However, the heraldic standardization was not universal as, besides the PSP's own coat of arms, the coats of arms created for a number of units did not follow the PSP heraldic standards.
The Portuguese intelligence system (SIRP) and its constituent services also make use of coats of arms. That of the Secretary General of the SIRP was established in 2007 as being a shield Sable with a wall with three doors Argent, accompanied by two lamps in the chief and an armillary sphere in the base all Or, a helm Argent, the crest being a phoenix Argent crowned Or issuing from flames Gules, a scroll with the motto E com força e saber, que mais importa (And with strength and knowing, what matters most). The coat of arms of the Internal Security Intelligence Service (SIS) is Sable, an eagle head Argent beaked Or, a bordure Or with eight castles Sable, an ancient crown Or, a scroll with the motto Principiis Obstare (To hold the front line). The coat of arms of the external intelligence service (SIED) is Gules, an armillary sphere Or, a helm Argent, the crest an owl Or and a scroll with the motto Adivinhar Perigos, e Evitallos (To foresee dangers and avoid them). The achievements of arms of the three bodies are represented with round bottom shields.
A heraldic emblem was granted to the Border and Immigration Police (SEF) in 1989. This is a shield Azure with an armillary sphere Or, helm Argent, torse and mantling Azure and Or, the crest a flying swallow proper, a scroll with the motto Sub Lege, Libertas (Under the law, freedom).
The Economic and Food Security Authority (ASAE) also wished to have a heraldic insignia. The entity adopted a coat of arms in 2012, although the adopted design does not comply with the rules of heraldry. It includes a round bottom shield with a dancetty field with the logo of the ASAE, two crossed halberds over the shield, two griffons on top the shield, a scroll with the motto Pro Lege (For the Law) and the coat of arms of Portugal under the achievement, all involved by laurel wreaths.
Portuguese Empire
Heraldry accompanied the Portuguese overseas expansion since the early 15th century, reaching Africa, Asia and America. The heyday of Portuguese heraldry coincided with the height of the Portuguese Empire in the 16th century.
The Portuguese monarchs granted probably the first achievements of arms to be borne by sub-Saharan Africans: namely, coats of arms were granted to Prince Bemoym (Buumi Jelen) of Jolof, to King Afonso I of Congo and to Emperor Mwenemutapa of Mutapa.
In the main cities and towns of the Portuguese Overseas, local municipal councils were established according to the model that already existed in European Portugal. As their European counterparts did, many of these municipal councils also adopted their own heraldic insignia.
The Portuguese practice was the universal use of the royal coat of arms through all the Portuguese Empire and not to create particular coats of arms for the dominions, even to those to which the status of state was granted (Portuguese India, and later Brazil). Besides the coat of arms of Portugal, other national heraldic insignia were used, these being especially the cross of the Order of Christ and the armillary sphere. From the reign of Manuel I onward, this last device was so much used in the Overseas that it came to be considered as a kind of semi-official symbol of the Portuguese Empire.
The first official grant of coat of arms to a Portuguese overseas territory was made to Brazil in 1815, when it was elevated to the status of a constituent kingdom of the then created United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Brazil became field azure with an armillary sphere or. The armillary sphere (often displayed over a cross of the Order of Christ) had been already used as a badge of the Portuguese State of Brazil since the 17th century and, from 1822, continued to be present in the coat of arms of the Empire of Brazil. After the establishment of the republic in 1889, the armillary sphere was altered and transformed in the celestial sphere of the present Brazilian national flag and coat of arms.
After the independence of Brazil in 1822, a Brazilian heraldry appeared, which continued the Portuguese tradition in most of its aspects. Regarding family heraldry, as most of the noble families of Brazil descended from Portuguese lineages, in many cases they continued to bear their coats of arms. The Portuguese tradition of civic heraldry was also partially followed in Brazil. In the 20th century, the Portuguese municipal heraldry official standards established in 1930 served as the model for the municipal heraldry of Brazil. Many Brazilian municipalities created new coats of arms or adapted their old ones to such standards.
In the remaining parts of the Portuguese Empire, the official grant of civic coats of arms only started in the late 19th century, when a number of municipal achievements of arms were granted to several cities of the Overseas by the Portuguese Crown. These granted coats of arms joined municipal coats of arms that had been assumed earlier by other Overseas municipalities.
In 1932, the Portuguese Institute of Heraldry proposed a model of coats of arms to be borne by the Portuguese colonies. Each coat of arms would have a field with the particular heraldic achievement of each colony and a common bordure or charged with four quinas alternating with four crosses of the Order of Christ. The shield was to be topped by a specific model of mural crown with five visible towers or, each tower charged with an armillary sphere gules and between each tower a shield argent charged with the cross of the Order of Christ. Particular heraldic achievements for each colony were also designed to be inserted in the fields of the respective coats of arms. Although this model was never officially adopted, it was apparently in limited use by some colonies.
Finally in 1935, the Ministry of Colonies granted official coats of arms to all of the then Portuguese colonies. All these coats of arms followed the same model: a shield tierced in mantle, the I field argent with the five quinas of Portugal (Portugal ancient), the II with the particular heraldic achievement of the colony and the III field wavy in vert and argent. The shield was placed over an armillary sphere or, topped by a colonial mural crown of the same design as was proposed in 1932 and under it a scroll argent with the name of the colony. As a kind of lesser arms, the achievement was occasionally represented with only the shield topped with the crown. Some of the designs for the particular heraldic achievements proposed for the colonies in 1932 were also used in this model of coats of arms, being placed in the II division of the field of the shields. The coats of arms had a small adjustment in 1951, when the status of the overseas territories reverted from that of "colonies" to "overseas provinces", this being reflected in the inscriptions of the scrolls with the name of those territories.
In the late 1950s, the Portuguese Government started a policy of general granting of coats of arms to the municipalities of the Overseas, most of which - especially the newly created ones - did not yet have them. These new coats of arms followed the 1930 standards established for the heraldry of the municipalities of European Portugal. However, as the municipalities of the Overseas were not under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior and its rules, instead being under the Ministry of the Overseas, some different approaches were made. Instead of resorting to the Heraldry Section of the Association of Portuguese Archeologists, the Ministry of the Overseas asked the Office of Corporative Heraldry, headed by F.P. Almeida Langhams, to design the new municipal coats of arms. Besides introducing its own style, Almeida Langhams ignored some of the restrictions imposed by the 1930 standards of municipal heraldry. So some coats of arms were made with divisions of the field and, in others, a motto replaced the designation of the municipality in the scroll under the shield. Most of the rest of the standards were followed, including the use of the round bottom shield and the mural crowns with a number of towers identifying the rank of the municipal seat. The coats of arms granted to the capital cities of the several Overseas provinces included mural crowns of five visible towers or like the model until then only used by Lisbon as capital of the Nation.
Ecclesiastical heraldry
The members of the Portuguese Catholic Church have made use of heraldry since it was first introduced in Portugal. One of the first known ecclesiastical heraldic insignia appears in the seal of Soeiro Mendes, the first bishop of Évora after its reconquest from the Moors in 1165.
Portuguese ecclesiastical heraldry follows the general standards established for the heraldry of the Roman Catholic Church. However, some national features stand out.
One such feature is that the Patriarchate of Lisbon is the only Catholic see - besides the Holy See itself - that has the right to bear the Papal tiara in its achievement of arms. The coat of arms of the Patriarchate of Lisbon differs from that of the Holy See only in combining the tiara with a processional cross crossed with a pastoral staff, while the Holy See combines the crossed keys of Saint Peter. The Patriarchs themselves have the right to bear the Papal tiara in their personal coat of arms; however this has fallen into disuse, with the latter holders of the office (who, by tradition, are always made cardinals) preferring the use of the red ecclesiastical hat (galero) of cardinal.
Another feature is that the Portuguese bishops and archbishops often don't use the standard entirely green ecclesiastical hat, but use instead a Portuguese specific model that is black with the facing and tassels in green. With fifteen tassels, the black and green galero may also be used in the coats of arms of the Primates of Braga and of the Patriarchs of Lisbon if they are not cardinals.
Ecclesiastical coats of arms are often represented in oval shields. However, the use of round-bottom ("Portuguese shield"), heater and other shapes of shield is also common.
In the past, most ecclesiastical coats of arms consisted of family coats of arms, often representing the lineages from which the holder descended. This reflected the noble origin of most of the high-ranking officials of the Portuguese Church. As there were few legal restrictions regarding the ecclesiastical coat of arms, many officials of the Church bore arms that they were not supposed to be entitled to bear, e.g., the undefaced family arms, in theory reserved to the heads of lineages. There were also many cases of officials of the Church that adopted the family coat of arms corresponding to their surnames, although not even belonging to that lineage. Other officials of the Church bore instead Arms of Faith (Armas de Fé), with elements that represented their religious devotions and philosophies. These have become more common, as a growing number of non-noble persons ascended to the high ranks of the Church. There were also coats of arms created through the marshaling of Arms of Faith with family arms.
The bishop of Coimbra João Galvão was made count of Arganil, by King Afonso V in 1472. Since then the title has remained associated with the ecclesiastical office, with its holders being known as "bishops-counts". Because of their singular status as holders of both an ecclesiastical and a secular title, the bishops-counts of Coimbra used a coat of arms in which the shield was topped by a count's coronet, and that was topped by a bishop's ecclesiastical hat. Following the ban on the use of noble titles by the members of the Catholic Church, the bishops of Coimbra dropped the use of the title and the use of the respective coronet in their coat of arms.
Another peculiar mixed ecclesiastical and secular coat of arms was that of by the Cardinal-King Henry of Portugal. Being the youngest son of King Manuel I, Henry followed the ecclesiastical life, later becoming a cardinal. When his great nephew King Sebastian died in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578, Henry was the next in the line of succession and became King of Portugal, although maintaining his ecclesiastical standing. As a cardinal and King, Henry bore the Royal Arms of Portugal, with a cardinal hat over the royal crown.
Santa Casa da Misericórdia
Other Portuguese corporations that also make significant use of heraldry are the misericórdias (holy houses of mercy). The traditional achievement of arms used by the misericórdias consisted of two shields represented in courtesy. The sinister shield is usually the coat of arms of Portugal, while the dexter shield is usually the particular coat of arms of the misericórdia itself. This contains heraldic charges representing the attributes of the institution, the most common being: cross (representing God and the support to the sick during their life), skull and crossed bones (representing spiritual comfort given in death), the legend "MIZA" (old abbreviation for misericórdia "mercy"), the allegoric figure of the Mercy, the image of Our Lady and images of Saints. The two shields are usually oval and represented in a cartouche, surrounded by a laurel wreath and frequently topped by the Portuguese royal crown (representing the royal tutelage of the misericórdias since their foundation).
After the implantation of the republic, some misericórdias opted by less "monarchic" achievement, eliminating the royal crown and instead placing the two shields in courtesy over the armillary sphere of the present Portuguese coat of arms. Besides this, many variations occur, like the representation of the arms of the misericórdia and of Portugal in the same shield parti per pale, or the replacement of the arms of Portugal by those of the local municipality. In the early 1930s, the heraldist Afonso Dornelas of the Section of Heraldry of the Association of Portuguese Archeologists proposed a model for the heraldry to be bore by the misericórdias, but this not implemented by most of them. In the 1990s, the heraldist J. Bernard Guedes proposed a new heraldic model that has been accepted and implemented by a number of misericórdias. Accordingly, with this model, the achievement of arms is composed of a round-bottom shield, a Marian crown and a scroll with the designation of the institution. The charges included in this model of coat of arms are more heterogeneous than in the old one, although some of them, such as the shrimping net (heraldic badge of Queen Eleanor, founder of the misericórdias), are frequently repeated. Bernard Guedes also established the model for the heraldic flags, which have a white field with a saltire azur (taken from the crest of the family coat of arms of Friar Miguel Contreiras, the mythical creator of the misericórdias), a bordure in the main color of the coat of arms, with the cantons in the main metal charged with the abbreviation "MIZA" in the I and IV and with diverse charges in the II and III.
Corporate heraldry
Corporate heraldry refers to the coats of arms of the several types of Portuguese corporations, including charitable organizations, labor organizations, educational institutions and others. Corporate heraldry achieved a high development in the scope of the corporative regime of the Estado Novo, in force from 1933 to 1974.
Under the Estado Novo, the labor and economic activities of the Nation were to be framed by corporative bodies or corporations (in a broad sense), including the trade unions, the guilds, the orders of independent professionals, the houses of the fishermen and the houses of people. Under the leadership of the heraldist F. P. Almeida Langhans, the Office of Corporate Heraldry was established as the official heraldic authority for those bodies. Almeida Langhans created a specific model for the coats of arms of corporative bodies that consisted of an oval shield entirely encircled by a cartouche (designed as a scroll) bearing the designation of the body. The charges used in these coats of arms were often the tools used in the crafts that the body represented and the images of the patron Saints of those crafts. An unconventional type of charges, also often included in the field of the shields, were complete achievements of arms (including its external elements), especially those of the municipalities where the corporative bodies were located. The model created for the coats of arms of the corporations (in the narrow sense) that represented the large branches of industry was different and consisted in a heater shield topped by an helmet, torse, mantling and crest.
Within the scope of corporate heraldry, Almeida Langhans was also responsible for the creation of a model of coat of arms for the corps of volunteer firefighters. This consisted in the Phoenix issuing from the flames and holding two crossed axes, charged with the municipal coat of arms of the city or town where the corps was located. This model of coat of arms is still today used by almost all the corps of volunteer firefighters of the country.
The use of heraldic insignia was not traditional among Portuguese universities and other educational institutions. As insignia, these usually preferred the use of variants of their seals, usually with allegoric and non-heraldic designs. However, since the 1970s, a number of universities and polytechnic institutes have adopted coats of arms as their insignia.
The 1991 law regulating the Portuguese municipal heraldry also defined a model for the corporate coat of arms to be borne by the legal persons of administrative public interest. These would be represented in a round-bottom shield, with a civic crown and a scroll with the name of the institution; however, this model of coat of arms was apparently never granted to any institution.
Heraldic authorities
King of Arms
During the period of the Monarchy (until 1910), the heraldic authorities of the Kingdom were the officers of arms and the Nobility Register Office.
The Portuguese Monarchs had officers of arms at their service since the 14th century or earlier. The first known holder of the office of Portugal King of Arms was probably an Englishman named Harriet, during the reign of John I.
At that time, the granting of arms was not reserved to the Monarch. Several nobles not only assumed their own arms, but also granted arms to their vassals. So besides the Monarchs, several princes and other members of the high nobility also had private officers of arms in their service. This ended in 1476, when King Afonso V decreed that all grants of arms were to be made through the Portugal King of Arms.
The heraldic ordinances of King Manuel I of 1521, not only regulated the heraldry itself, but also strictly regulated the organization of the corporation of officers of arms of the Crown. The corporation was to be headed by a principal king of arms - whose role was to be fulfilled by the already existing Portugal King of Arms - and was to further include additional kings of arms, heralds and pursuivants.
The corporation of the officers of arms came so to include three kings of arms, three heralds and three pursuivants. The kings of arms were named after the three constituent states of the Portuguese Crown (the Kingdom of Portugal, the Kingdom of Algarve and the State of India), the heralds after their respective capital cities and the pursuivants after a notable town of each of the states. So, there were the Portugal King of Arms (Rei de armas Portugal), the Algarve King of Arms (Rei de armas Algarve), the India King of Arms (Rei de armas Índia), the Lisbon Herald (Arauto Lisboa), the Silves Herald (Arauto Silves), the Goa Herald (Arauto Goa), the Santarém Pursuivant (Passavante Santarém), the Lagos Pursuivant (Passavante Lagos) and the Cochin Pursuivant (Passavante Cochim). The Silves Herald was later retitled Tavira Herald (Arauto Tavira), when the capital of Algarve was moved to this city. Also, in the course of the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil, the India King of Arms was retitled America, Africa and Asia King of Arms (Rei de armas América, África e Ásia) in 1808, returning to the original title in 1825.
Besides the officers of arms proper, the heraldic authority of the Crown also included the Scrivener of the Nobility (Escrivão da Nobreza) and the High Armorer (Armeiro-mor). The former headed the Nobility Register Office (Cartório da Nobreza), being responsible for keeping the registers of all the coats of arms of the Kingdom and for the signing of new grants. The High Armorer, besides his main role of maintaining the personal armor and weapons of the King, had the heraldic responsibility of keeping a roll of arms for the King's immediate consultation.
From the late 17th century, associated with the beginning of a period of decadence of heraldry in Portugal, the role of the officers of arms became increasingly merely ceremonial. The offices were often filled by persons with little heraldic knowledge, instead of the highly literate officers of arms in the past. From then until the end of the Monarchy, the responsibility for the heraldic authority function fell mainly on the Scrivener of the Nobility and his Nobility Register Office.
Contemporary authorities
With the introduction of the republican regime on the 5 October 1910, the body of officers of arms and the Nobility Register were disbanded. Since then no central heraldic authority has existed in Portugal. However, some sectorial heraldic authorities were later established.
In 1930, the Heraldic Section of the Association of Portuguese Archeologists (AAP) was appointed by the Ministry of Interior as the authority for municipal heraldry. The municipal heraldry law of 1991 anticipated the establishment of a State Office of Municipal Heraldry that would become the authority in these matters. However, as this office was never created, the Heraldic Section of the AAP continued to fulfill that role until today. This section also serves as heraldic adviser for other entities, but with no formal authority.
In the 1940s the Office of Corporate Heraldry was established within the FNAT (the workers' leisure organization during the Corporatist Estado Novo). This office became the authority for corporate heraldry, including the heraldry used by labor groups such as trade unions, guilds, and professional orders. Besides the corporate heraldry, this office was also required by the Ministry of the Overseas to serve as the authority for the Overseas municipalities heraldry.
The Office of Corporate Heraldry was disbanded in 1974, following the overthrow of the Estado Novo and the end of Portuguese corporatism.
The Institute of the Portuguese Nobility is the heraldic authority for the personal and family coats of arms of the descendants of the old Portuguese nobility. It was established in 2004 by members of Portugal's titled nobility, with Duarte Pio, Heir to the Portuguese Crown as its honorary president, as a replacement for the previous Council of Nobility. As a private institution with no formal powers granted by the State, it is not an official authority, although its technical know-how and its decisions in these matters have been accepted by the Portuguese courts of Justice and by other official authorities.
There are other private institutions that are frequently required to act as heraldic advisers for public and non-public entities, like the Portuguese Institute of Heraldry and the Portuguese Academy of Heraldry. However, these institutions have no formal heraldic powers.
Rolls of arms
The Portuguese officers of arms and the Nobility Register Office had to maintain official rolls of arms. These rolls took usually the form of illuminated manuscripts that constitute beautiful works of art. Unfortunately, part of these disappeared when the Nobility Register Office was destroyed by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Others however survived and still exist.
The most notable still existent Portuguese rolls of arms are:
Livro do Armeiro-Mor (Book of the King of Arms) - dated from 1509 and created by João do Cró, Portugal King of Arms. It includes the real and imaginary coats of arms of the Nine Worthies, of the states of Europe, Africa and Asia, of the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor, of the peerage of France, of members of the Royal Family of Portugal and of the other noble families of Portugal. It was supposed to be the book kept by the King of Arms near the Monarch to be consulted by him when needed.
(Book of the Nobility and Perfection of the Arms) - dated from 1521 to 1541 and created by António Godinho, secretary of King John III of Portugal. It follows the model of the Livro do Armeiro-Mor, being its update, but omitting the chapters on the Nine Worthies, the electors of the Emperor and the peers of France.
(Treasure of the Nobility) - dated from 1675 and created by Francisco Coelho, India King of Arms. It includes the real and imaginary arms of the 12 tribes of Israel, the Nine Worthies, the Romans, the peers of France, the electors of the Empire, the cavalry and regular orders of Portugal, some cities of the overseas dominions of Portugal, the cities and principal towns of Portugal, the Kings and Queens of Portugal, the dukes and marquises of Portugal, and the counts of Portugal and their families.
See also
Coat of arms of Portugal
Portuguese vexillology
References
External links |
4253551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion%20in%20Vietnam | Religion in Vietnam | The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organized religion, instead participating in one or more practices of folk religions, such as venerating ancestors, or praying to deities, especially during Tết and other festivals. Folk religions were founded on endemic cultural beliefs that were historically affected by Confucianism and Taoism from ancient China, as well as by various strands of Buddhism (Phật giáo). These three teachings or tam giáo were later joined by Christianity (Catholicism, Công giáo) which has become a significant presence. Vietnam is also home of two indigenous religions: syncretic Caodaism (Đạo Cao Đài) and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism (Phật giáo Hòa Hảo).
According to estimates by the Pew Research Center in 2010, most of the Vietnamese people practiced (exclusively) folk religions (45.3%). 16.4% of the population were Buddhists (Mahayana), 8.2% were Christian, and about 30% were unaffiliated to any religion. Officially, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is an atheist state, as declared by its communist government.
According to statistics from the Government Committee for Religious Affairs, as of 2018, Buddhists account for 14.9% of the total population, Christians 8.5% (Catholics 7.4% & Protestants 1.1%), Hoahao Buddhists 1.5%, and Caodaism followers 1.2%. Other religions include Hinduism, Islam, and Baháʼí Faith, representing less than 0.2% of the population. Folk religions (worship of ancestors, gods and goddesses), not included in government statistics, have experienced revival since the 1980s.
Overview
Although according to a 1999 census most Vietnamese list themselves as having no religious affiliation, religion, as defined by shared beliefs and practices, remains an integral part of Vietnamese life, dictating the social behaviours and spiritual practices of Vietnamese individuals in Vietnam and abroad. The triple religion (), referring to the syncretic combination of Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, and Vietnamese folk religion (often assimilated), remain a strong influence on the beliefs and practices of the Vietnamese, even if the levels of formal membership in these religious communities may not reflect that influence. One of the most notable and universal spiritual practices common to Vietnamese is ancestor veneration. It is considered an expression of hiếu thảo (filial piety), a key virtue to maintain a harmonious society. Regardless of formal religious affiliation, it is very common to have an altar in the home and business where prayers are offered to their ancestors. These offerings and practices are done frequently during important traditional or religious celebrations (e.g., death anniversaries), the starting of a new business, or even when a family member needs guidance or counsel. Belief in ghosts and spirits is very common; many believe that the traditions are important links to culture and history and are enjoyable, while others believe that failing to perform the proper rituals for one's ancestors will literally cause them to become hungry ghosts ().
A 2002 Pew Research Center report claimed that 24% of the population of Vietnam view religion as "very important".
Statistics
Varied sources indicate very different statistics of religious groups in Vietnam
Statistics controversy
Government statistics of the religion in Vietnam, are counts of members of religious organization recognized by the government. Hence, this does not include people practicing folk religion, which is not recognized by government. Also, many people practice religion such as Buddhism without taking any membership of specific government organization. Official statistics from the 2019 census, also not categorizing folk religion, indicates that Catholicism is the largest (organized) religion in Vietnam, surpassing Buddhism. While some other surveys reported 45-50 millions Buddhist living in Vietnam, the government statistics counts for 6.8 millions. It is the Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, however, does not reports official statistics on its adherents. The great gaps in statistics on the number of Buddhist adherents is due to disagreement on the very criteria of what constitute a Buddhist.
History
The earliest forms of Vietnamese religious practice were animistic and totemic in nature. The decorations on Đông Sơn bronze drums, generally agreed to have ceremonial and possibly religious value, depict the figures of birds, leading historians to believe birds were objects of worship for the early Vietnamese. Dragons were another frequently recurring figure in Vietnamese art, arising from the veneration of Lạc Long Quân, a mythical dragon-king who is said to be the father of the Vietnamese people. The Golden Turtle God Kim Quy was said to appear to Emperors in times of crisis, notably to Lê Lợi, from whom he took the legendary sword Thuận Thiên after it had been dropped into Hoàn Kiếm Lake. Contact with Chinese civilization, and the introduction of the triple religion of Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism, added a further ethical and moral dimension to the indigenous Vietnamese religion. A recent research using folkloristic computations has provided evidence on the existence of "cultural additivity" by examining the interaction of Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism throughout the history of Vietnam.
Folk religions
Scholars such as Toan Ánh (Tín ngưỡng Việt Nam 1991) have listed a resurgence in traditional belief in many local, village-level, spirits.
Đạo Mẫu
Đạo Mẫu is a branch of shamanism of Vietnamese folk religion, it is the worship of mother goddesses in Vietnam. There are distinct beliefs and practices in this religion including the worship of goddesses such as Thiên Y A Na, Bà Chúa Xứ, Bà Chúa Kho and Liễu Hạnh, legendary figures like Âu Cơ, the Trưng Sisters (Hai Bà Trưng), Lady Triệu (Bà Triệu), and the cult of the Four Palaces. Đạo Mẫu is commonly associated with spirit mediumship rituals—known in Vietnam as lên đồng. It is a ritual in which followers become spirit mediums for various deities. The Communist government used to suspend the practice of lên đồng due to its superstition, but in 1987, the government legalized this practice.
Đạo Dừa
Ông Đạo Dừa (1909-1990) created the Coconut Religion (Vietnamese: Đạo Dừa or Hòa đồng Tôn giáo), a syncretic Buddhist, Christian and local Vietnamese religion which at its peak had 4,000 followers, before it was banned. Its adherents ate coconut and drank coconut milk. In 1975 the Reunited Vietnam authorities forced this religion to go underground.
Buddhism
Vietnam was conventionally considered to be a Buddhist country. Buddhism came to Vietnam as early as the second century AD through the North from China and via Southern routes from India. Mahayana Buddhism first spread from India via sea to Vietnam around 100 AD. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda became established as the state religion in Cambodia and also spread to Cambodians living in the Mekong Delta, replaced Mahayana. Buddhism as practiced by the ethnic Vietnamese is mainly of the Mahayana school, although some ethnic minorities (such as the Khmer Krom in the southern Delta region of Vietnam) adhere to the Theravada school.
Today, more than half of the Vietnamese population, consider themselves as adherents of Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada and Hòa Hảo Buddhism are also present in significant numbers. Buddhist practice in Vietnam differs from that of other Asian countries, and does not contain the same institutional structures, hierarchy, or sanghas that exist in other traditional Buddhist settings. It has instead grown from a symbiotic relationship with Taoism, Chinese spirituality, and the indigenous Vietnamese religion, with the majority of Buddhist practitioners focusing on devotional rituals rather than meditation.
Thiền tông
Chan Buddhism arrived in Vietnam as early as the 6th century CE, with the works of Vinītaruci. It flourished under the Lý and Trần dynasties. Trúc Lâm Zen is the only native school of Buddhism in Vietnam.
Pure Land
Pure Land Buddhism is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism and is said to be one of the most popular schools of Buddhism in Vietnam, in which practitioners commonly recite sutras, chants and dharani looking to gain protection from bodhisattvas or Dharma-Protectors. While Pure Land traditions, practices and concepts are found within Mahayana cosmology, and form an important component of Buddhist traditions in Vietnam, Pure Land Buddhism was not independently recognized as a sect of Buddhism (as Pure Land schools have been recognized, for example, in Japan) until 2007, with the official recognition of the Vietnamese Pure Land Buddhism Association as an independent and legal religious organization.
Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương
Hòa Hảo
Hòa Hảo is a religious tradition, based on Buddhism, founded in 1939 by Huỳnh Phú Sổ, a native of the Mekong Delta region of southern Vietnam. Adherents consider Sổ to be a prophet, and Hòa Hảo a continuation of a 19th-century Buddhist ministry known as Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương ("Strange Perfume from Precious Mountains", referring to the Thất Sơn range on the Vietnam-Cambodia border). The founders of these traditions are regarded by Hòa Hảo followers as living Buddhas—destined to save mankind from suffering and to protect the Vietnamese nation. An important characteristic of Hòa Hảo is its emphasis on peasant farmers, exemplified by the old slogan "Practicing Buddhism While Farming Your Land." Hòa Hảo also stresses the practice of Buddhism by lay people in the home, rather than focusing primarily on temple worship and ordination. Aid to the poor is favored over pagoda building or expensive rituals.
Today, as an officially recognized religion, it claims approximately two million followers throughout Vietnam; in certain parts of the Mekong Delta, as many as 90 percent of the population of this region practice this tradition. Since many of the teachings of Huỳnh Phú Sổ related in some way to Vietnamese nationalism, adherence to Hòa Hảo outside of Vietnam has been minimal, with a largely quiescent group of followers presumed to exist among the Vietnamese diaspora in the United States.
Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa
Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa ("Four Debts of Gratitude"), a Buddhist sect based in An Giang Province, is one of the most recently registered religions in Vietnam. It is based on the teachings of Ngô Lợi (1831–1890). Official government statistics report that Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa claimed over 70,000 registered followers and 476 religious leaders as of 2005, centred in 76 places of worship spread across 14 provinces, mainly in Southern Vietnam. is a sect that is related to Cao Đài.
Christianity
Catholicism
By far the most widespread Christian denomination in Vietnam, Catholicism first entered the country through Portuguese and Spanish missionaries in the 16th century, although these earliest missions did not bring very impressive results. Only after the arrival of Jesuits, who were mainly Italians, Portuguese, and Japanese, in the first decades of the 17th century did Christianity begin to establish its positions within the local populations in both domains of Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) and Đàng Trong (Cochinchina). Two priests Francesco Buzomi and Diogo Carvalho established the first Catholic community in Hội An in 1615. Between 1627 and 1630, Avignonese Alexandre de Rhodes and Portuguese Pero Marques converted more than 6,000 people in Tonkin.
17th-century Jesuit missionaries including Francisco de Pina, Gaspar do Amaral, Antonio Barbosa, and de Rhodes developed an alphabet for the Vietnamese language, using the Latin script with added diacritic marks. This writing system continues to be used today, and is called chữ Quốc ngữ (literally "national language script"). Meanwhile, the traditional chữ Nôm, in which Girolamo Maiorica was an expert, was the main script conveying Catholic faith to Vietnamese until the late 19th century.
Since the late 17th century, French missionaries of the Foreign Missions Society and Spanish missionaries of the Dominican Order were gradually taking the role of evangelisation in Vietnam. Other missionaries active in pre-modern Vietnam were Franciscans (in Cochinchina), Italian Dominicans & Discalced Augustinians (in Eastern Tonkin), and those sent by the Propaganda Fide. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Catholicism successfully integrated into Vietnamese society and culture.
The French missionary priest Pigneau de Behaine played a role in Vietnamese history towards the end of the 18th century by befriending Nguyễn Ánh, the most senior of the ruling Nguyễn lords to have escaped the rebellion of the Tây Sơn brothers in 1777. Becoming Nguyễn Ánh's loyal confidant, benefactor and military advisor during his time of need, he was able to gain a great deal of favor for the Church. During Nguyễn Ánh's subsequent rule as Emperor Gia Long, the Catholic faith was permitted unimpeded missionary activities out of his respect to his benefactors. By the time of the Emperor's accession in 1802, Vietnam had 3 Catholic dioceses with 320,000 members and over 120 Vietnamese priests.
The Catholic Church in Vietnam today consists of 27 dioceses organized in 3 ecclesiastical provinces of Hanoi, Hue and Saigon. The government census of 2019 shows that Catholicism, for the first time, is the largest religious denomination in Vietnam, surpassing Buddhism. Ecclesiastical sources report there are about 7 million Catholics, representing 7.0% of the total population.
Protestantism
Protestantism was introduced to Da Nang in 1911 by a Canadian missionary named Robert A. Jaffray; over the years, he was followed by more than 100 missionaries, members of the Christian and Missionary Alliance, an Evangelical Protestant denomination. The two officially recognized Protestant organizations recognized by the government are the Southern Evangelical Church of Vietnam (SECV), recognized in 2001, and the smaller Evangelical Church of Vietnam North (ECVN), recognized since 1963.
Present estimates of the number of Protestants range from the official government figure of 500,000 to claims by churches of 1 million. Growth has been most pronounced among members of minority peoples (Montagnards) such as the Hmong, Ede, Jarai, and Bahnar, with internal estimates claiming two-thirds of all Protestants in Vietnam are members of ethnic minorities. By some estimates, the growth of Protestant believers in Vietnam has been as much as 600 percent over the past ten years. Some of the new converts belong to unregistered evangelical house churches, whose followers are said to total about 200,000.
Baptist and Mennonite movements were officially recognized by Hanoi in October, 2007, which was seen as a notable improvement in the level of religious freedom enjoyed by Vietnamese Protestants. Similarly, in October 2009, the Assemblies of God movement received official government permission to operate, which is the first step to becoming a legal organization.
The Assemblies of God were said to consist of around 40,000 followers in 2009, the Baptist Church around 18,400 followers with 500 ministers in 2007, and The Mennonite Church around 10,000 followers.
Eastern Orthodoxy
For Orthodox Christianity, the Russian Orthodox Church is represented in Vũng Tàu, Vietnam, mainly among the Russian-speaking employees of the Russian-Vietnamese joint venture "Vietsovpetro". The parish is named after Our Lady of Kazan icon was opened in 2002 with the blessing of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, which had been given in Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra. The representatives of the foreign relations department of the Russian Orthodox Church come to Vũng Tàu from time to time to conduct the Orthodox divine service. There are also two recently organized parishes in Hanoi and Hochiminh City.
Vietnam is also mentioned as territory under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople), though there is no information on its organized activities there.
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses established their permanent presence in Saigon in 1957. As of 2019, Jehovah's Witnesses are a target of government oppression in Vietnam.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
On May 31, 2016, leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) met with Vietnamese officials. The Government Committee for Religious Affairs officially recognized the church's representative committee. Congregations currently meet in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
Caodaism
Caodaism is a relatively new, syncretist, monotheistic religion, officially established in the city of Tây Ninh, southern Vietnam, in 1926. The term Cao Đài literally means "highest tower", or figuratively, the highest place where God reigns. Cao Đài's first disciples, Ngô Văn Chiêu, Cao Quỳnh Cư, Phạm Công Tắc and Cao Hoài Sang, claimed to have received direct communications from God, who gave them explicit instructions for establishing a new religion that would commence the Third Era of Religious Amnesty. Adherents engage in ethical practices such as prayer, veneration of ancestors, nonviolence, and vegetarianism with the minimum goal of rejoining God the Father in Heaven and the ultimate goal of freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
The monotheistic syncretic religion but still retains many Vietnamese folk beliefs such as ancestral worship.
Official government records counted 2.2 million registered members of Tây Ninh Cao Đài in 2005, but also estimated in 2007 that there were 3.2 million Caodaists including roughly a dozen other denominations. According to the official statistics, in 2014, the estimated number of Caodaists is 4.4 million, it was a dramatic increase of 1.2 million followers or an increase of 37.5%. Country Information and Guidance — Vietnam: Religious minority groups. December 2014. Quoting United Nations' "Press Statement on the visit to the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief". It is more likely that "unofficial" Caodaists have decided that it is now acceptable to identify themselves as followers of the religion in the last seven years. Many outside sources give 4 to 6 million. Some estimates are as high as 8 million adherents in Vietnam. An additional 30,000 (numbers may vary) (primarily ethnic Vietnamese) live in the United States, Europe, and Australia.
Hinduism
Adherence to Hinduism in Vietnam is associated with the Cham ethnic minority; the first religion of the Champa kingdom was a form of Shaivite Hinduism, brought by sea from India. The Cham people erected Hindu temples (Bimong) throughout Central Vietnam, many of which are still in use today; the now-abandoned Mỹ Sơn, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is perhaps the most well-known of Cham temple complexes.
Approximately 50,000 ethnic Cham in the south-central coastal area practice a devotional form of Hinduism. Most of the Cham Hindus belong to the Nagavamshi Kshatriya caste, but a considerable minority are Brahmins who are recognised by the government. Another 4,000 Hindus (mostly Tamil, and otherwise of Cham or mixed Indian-Vietnamese descent) live in Ho Chi Minh City, where the Mariamman Temple acts as a focal point for the community. In Ninh Thuận Province, where most of the Cham in Vietnam reside, Cham Balamon (Hindu Cham) numbers 32,000; out of the 22 villages in Ninh Thuận, 15 are Hindu.
As per the census of 2009, there are a total of 56,427 Cham Hindus in Vietnam. In 2022, there were an estimated 70,000 ethnic Cham living along the south-central coast.
Islam
Much like Hinduism, adherence to Islam in Vietnam is primarily associated with the Cham ethnic minority, although there is also a Muslim population of mixed ethnic origins, also known as Cham, or Cham Muslims, in the southwest (Mekong Delta) of the country. Islam is assumed to have come to Vietnam much after its arrival in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907), through contact with Arab traders. The number of followers began to increase as contacts with Sultanate of Malacca broadened in the wake of the 1471 collapse of the Champa Kingdom, but Islam would not become widespread among the Cham until the mid-17th century. In the mid-19th century, many Muslim Chams emigrated from Cambodia, settling in the Mekong Delta and further bolstering the presence of Islam in Vietnam.
Vietnamese Muslims remained relatively isolated from the mainstream of world Islam, and their isolation, combined with the lack of religious schools, caused the practice of Islam in Vietnam to become syncretic. Although the Chams follow a localised adaptation of Islamic theology, they consider themselves Muslims. However, they pray only on Fridays and celebrate Ramadan for only three days. Circumcision is performed not physically but symbolically, with a religious leader making the gestures of circumcision with a wooden toy knife.
Vietnam's largest mosque was opened in January 2006 in Xuân Lộc, Đồng Nai Province. Its construction was partially funded by donations from Saudi Arabia.
A 2005 census counted over 66,000 Muslims in Vietnam, up from 63,000 in 1999. Over 77% lived in the Southeast, with 34% in Ninh Thuận Province, 24% in Bình Thuận Province, and 9% in Ho Chi Minh City. Another 22% lived in the Mekong Delta region, primarily in An Giang Province. In Ninh Thuận Province, where most of the Cham in Vietnam reside, Cham Bani (Muslim Cham) number close to 22,000. Out of the 22 villages in Ninh Thuận, 7 are Muslim.
The Cham in Vietnam are only recognized as a minority, and not as an indigenous people by the Vietnamese government despite being indigenous to the region. Both Hindu and Muslim Chams have experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs. Hindu temples were turned into tourist sites against the wishes of the Cham Hindus. In 2010 and 2013, several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and Phươc Nhơn villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Châu Giang village stormed into a Cham mosque, stole the electric generator and raped Cham girls. Cham Muslims in the Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalized and pushed into poverty by Vietnamese policies, with ethnic Vietnamese Kinh settling on majority Cham land with state support, and religious practices of minorities have been targeted for elimination by the Vietnamese government.
The evidence of Champa's influence over the disputed area in the South China Sea had brought attention to human rights violations and killings of ethnic minorities in Vietnam such as in the 2001 and 2004 uprisings, and lead to the issue of Cham autonomy being brought into the dispute, since the Vietnamese conquered the Hindu and Muslim Chams in an 1832 war and continuing to destroy evidence of Cham culture and artifacts left behind, plundering or building on top of Cham temples, building farms over them, banning Cham religious practices, and omitting references to the destroyed Cham capital of Song Luy in the 1832 invasion in history books and tourist guides. The situation of Chams compared to ethnic Vietnamese is substandard, lacking water and electricity and living in houses made out of mud.
Judaism
The first Jews to visit Vietnam likely arrived following the French colonization of the country, in the latter half of the 19th century. There are a handful of references to Jewish settlement in Saigon sprinkled through the pages of the Jewish Chronicle in the 1860s and 1870s.
As late as 1939, the estimated combined population of the Jewish communities of Haiphong, Hanoi, Saigon and Tourane in French Indo-China numbered approximately 1,000 individuals. In 1940 the anti-Semitic Vichy-France Law on the status of Jews was implemented in French Indo-China (Vietnam), leading to increased restrictions and widespread discrimination against Jews. The anti-Jewish laws were repealed in January 1945.
Prior to the French evacuation of Indochina in 1954, the Jewish population in Indochina (which encompassed Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) was reportedly 1,500; most of these Jews were said to have left with the French, leaving behind no organized Jewish communal structure. In 1971, about 12 French Jews still remained in South Vietnam, all in Saigon. In 2005, the U.S. State Department's "International Religious Freedom Report" noted "There were no reported anti-Semitic incidents during the period covered by this report. The country's small Jewish population is comprised almost entirely of expatriates and is based in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
Baháʼí Faith
Established in the 1950s, the Vietnamese Baháʼí community once claimed upwards of 200,000 followers, mainly concentrated in the South. The number of followers dwindled as a result of the banning of the practice of the Baháʼí Faith after the Vietnam War. After years of negotiation, the Baháʼí Faith was registered nationally in 2007, once again receiving full recognition as a religious community. In 2009 it was reported that the Baháʼí community has about 7,000 followers and 73 assemblies; by 2022, there were an estimated 3,000 followers in the country.
Religious freedom
The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam formally allows religious freedom, however, government restrictions remain on organized activities of many religious groups. The government maintains a prominent role overseeing officially recognized religions. Religious groups encounter the greatest restrictions when they are perceived by the government as a challenge to its rule or to the authority of the Communist party. In 2007, Viet Nam News reported that Viet Nam has six religions recognised by the State (Buddhism, Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, Cao Đài, and Hòa Hảo), but that the Baháʼí Community of Viet Nam had been awarded a "certificate of operation" from the Government's Committee for Religious Affairs. In 2007, the Committee for Religious Affairs was reported to have granted operation registration certificates to three new religions and a religious sect in addition to six existing religions. Every citizen is declared free to follow no, one, or more religions, practice religion without violating the law, be treated equally regardless of religious belief, and to be protected from being violated in their religious freedom, but is prohibited from using religion to violate the law.
In fact, there are some limitations in religious practice in Vietnam. Foreign missionaries are not legally allowed to proselytize or perform religious activities. No other religions than the aforementioned eight are allowed. Preachers and religious associations are prohibited to use religion to propagate ideologies that are opposed to the government. Many Vietnamese preachers who fled for America and other countries say that they were suppressed by the Communist government for no, unreasonable or ethnic reasons; however, preachers and religious associations who abide by the law working in Vietnam today are aided and honored by the government.
The Vietnamese government has been criticized for its religious violations by the United States, the Vatican, and expatriate Vietnamese who oppose the Communist government. However, due to recent improvements in religious liberty, the United States no longer considers Vietnam a Country of Particular Concern. The Vatican has also considered negotiations with Vietnam about freedom for Vietnamese Catholics, and was able to reach a permanent agreement which would allow a permanent representative in the future to the country.
Despite some substantial attempts by the Vietnamese government to improve its international image and ease restrictions on religious freedom, the cases of dissident religious leaders' persecution has not stopped in the recent years. The general secretary of the Mennonite Church in Vietnam and religious freedom advocate Nguyen Hong Quang was arrested in 2004, and his house razed to the ground. Christian Montagnards and their house churches continue to suffer from state control and restrictions. In March, 2007, a member of the main Hanoi congregation of the legally recognized Evangelical Church of Vietnam (North) Nguyen Van Dai was arrested for accusations relating to his defense of religious freedom, including disseminating alleged "infractions" of religious liberty. However, during this period of time, it is unknown whether the causes of their protests were more due to personal circumstances, like poverty, or if the government was really suppressing religious freedom, which is unlikely due to the diversity and number of religious institutes allowed to operate in Vietnam.
In 2023, the country was scored 1 out of 4 for religious freedom. In the same year it was ranked as the 25th most difficult place in the world to be a Christian.
See also
Freedom of religion in Vietnam
Vietnamese philosophy
Taoism in Vietnam
Vietnamese folk religion
Baháʼí Faith in Vietnam
Buddhism in Vietnam
Hinduism in Vietnam
Islam in Vietnam
Judaism in Vietnam
Caodaism
Hòa Hảo
Christianity in Vietnam
Catholic Church in Vietnam
Orthodoxy in Vietnam
Protestantism in Vietnam
:Category:Vietnamese Confucianists
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Modernity and Re-Enchantment: Religion in Post-Revolutionary Vietnam, edited by Philip Taylor, ISEAS, Singapore, 2007. ; Lexington Books, Maryland, 2008, .
Hoskins, Janet Alison. "What Are Vietnam's Indigenous Religions?". Center for Southeast Asian Studies Kyoto University.
Journal articles
"A Really Great Article on (Premodern) Vietnamese Religion". Review by Liam Kelley.
External links |
4253563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotech%20%28TV%20series%29 | Robotech (TV series) | {{Infobox television
| image = RobotechTitle1985.jpg
| caption = Title screen from the 1985 broadcast
| genre = Epic, Mecha, Space opera
| runtime = 25 minutes
| producer = Carl MacekAhmed Agrama
| director = Robert V. BarronNoboru Ishiguro (Macross)
| creator = Carl Macek
| based_on = Part 1:Super Dimension Fortress Macross(by Studio Nue)Part 2:Super Dimension Cavalry Southern CrossPart 3:Genesis Climber MOSPEADA
| story = Carl Macek
| screenplay = Ardwight ChamberlainGreg FinleySteve FloodJason KlassiSteve KramerMike ReynoldsGregory SnegoffJim WagerTao WillWinston RichardTom Wyner
| starring = (see below)
| narrated = J. Jay Smith
| theme_music_composer = Ulpio Minucci
| composer = Ulpio Minucci
| country = United StatesJapan ()
| animator = Tatsunoko Production
| company = Harmony Gold USAStudio NueArtlandArtmic
| network = First-run syndicationSci-Fi ChannelCartoon NetworkKTEH
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| num_series = 3
| num_episodes = 85
| list_episodes = List of Robotech episodes
| related = {{Plainlist|
Codename: Robotech
Robotech: The Movie
Robotech II: The Sentinels
Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles
Robotech: Love Live Alive
}}
}}Robotech is an American 85-episode adaptation of three unrelated Japanese anime television series (from three different fictional universes) made between 1982 and 1984 in Japan; the adaptation was aired in 1985. Within the combined and edited story, Robotechnology refers to the scientific advances discovered in an alien starship that crashed on a South Pacific island. With this technology, Earth developed giant robotic machines or mecha (many of which were capable of transforming into vehicles) to fight three successive extraterrestrial invasions.
BackgroundRobotech was one of the first anime televised in the United States that attempted to include most of the complexity and drama of its original Japanese source material. Produced by Harmony Gold USA, Inc. in association with Tatsunoko Productions Co. Ltd., Robotech is a story adapted with edited content and revised dialogue from the animation of three different mecha anime series: The Super Dimension Fortress Macross from 1982, Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross from 1984, and Genesis Climber Mospeada from 1983. Harmony Gold's cited reasoning for combining these unrelated series was its decision to market Macross for US-American weekday syndication television, which required a minimum of 65 episodes at the time (thirteen weeks at five episodes per week). Macross and the two other series each had fewer episodes than required since they originally aired in Japan as a weekly series.
Production history
Harmony Gold hired American writers to adapt the scripts of the three Japanese series. This complicated process was supervised by producer Carl Macek, a pioneer of the anime industry in the United States.
This combination resulted in a storyline that spans three generations as mankind must fight three destructive Robotech Wars in succession over a powerful energy source called "Protoculture":
The First Robotech War (The Macross Saga) concerns humanity's discovery of a crashed alien ship and subsequent battle against a race of giant warriors called the Zentraedi, who have been sent to retrieve the ship for reasons unknown. In the course of this chapter, Earth is nearly annihilated, the Zentraedi are defeated, and humans gain knowledge of the energy source called protoculture. Humanity also learns of the Robotech Masters whose galactic empire the Zentraedi protected and patrolled.
The Second Robotech War (The Masters) focuses on the arrival in Earth orbit of the Robotech Masters, who have come seeking what turns out to be the sole means in the universe of producing protoculture. Through a combination of mistrust and arrogance, their attempts at retrieving this meet with opposition from the humans and unleash a war that leaves the Masters defeated and Earth awash in the spores of a plant called the Flower of Life—the source of protoculture and a beacon to the mysterious Invid who scour the galaxy for its presence.
The Third Robotech War (The New Generation) begins with the arrival on Earth of the Invid, who are lured by the Flower of Life and rapidly conquer the planet. References in the previous two chapters explain to viewers that many of the heroes of the First Robotech War had left Earth to seek out the Robotech Masters on a preemptive mission, and it is this Robotech Expeditionary Force that sends missions back from across the galaxy to attempt a liberation of their homeworld. The storyline follows one group of freedom fighters as they work their way towards the final battle with the Invid.
Codename: RobotechCodename: Robotech is a 73-minute animated pilot that preceded the series. It is set within the events of the First Robotech War. It was a greatly extended version of Gloval's Report, the fourteenth television episode that summarizes the beginning of the series. It was aired on some television stations before the broadcast of the series in 1985. It was included on DVD as an extra with the first volume of the Robotech Legacy Collection and the complete Protoculture Collection, from ADV Films. The disc includes the option of audio commentary by producer Carl Macek and was also released in Australia by Madman Entertainment.
Television broadcast
North American television debutRobotech originally aired in 1985 in first-run syndication, meaning it was sold directly to local television stations without having been run on a network first—this was part of a trend in animation in the 1980s. Previously, local stations would rerun theatrical cartoons like Looney Tunes or shows that had previously aired on network TV on Saturday mornings. This changed after He-Man and the Masters of the Universe introduced a new economic model: shows sold directly for first-run to stations, driving and funded by sales of related toys. Though the original Robotech series did well in ratings, the attempt to cash in on toys may have doomed Robotech II: The Sentinels as the original series attracted older viewers, not necessarily the children targeted by the toy line. The failure of the Matchbox toy line is cited as a primary reason for the cancellation of the Sentinels series.
International broadcast
In Australia, Robotech was aired from 12 April 1986 to and throughout 1988 and 1995 by both the Ten and Seven Networks and various regional stations in different states (including RTQ7, AMV4 and GRV6). Ten cut the series at episode 52 (Love Song), while Seven broadcast all 85 episodes. In 2018, also in Australia, Network Ten multichannel Eleven started airing the Macross Saga.
In France, Robotech was originally broadcast by La Cinq during the summer of 1987; the show moved to TF1 in 1991.
The Philippine network GMA-7 aired the Masters and New Generation episodes in the late 1980s (as RPN-9 aired Macross in the early 1980s), as part of the late-afternoon weekday animation block (together with Captain Harlock).
The Hong Kong cable television channel Star Plus (now Star World) aired all 85 episodes, from May 1994 to January 1995, with changes in time-slots (May-early October 1994, 11:00 a.m. Sundays; October 1994-January 1995, 5:30 p.m. Weekdays). The series was broadcast in a number of European countries by the then Super Channel during the 1980s.
In the UK, Robotech aired on The Children's Channel in the mid to late 1980s, and it was transmitted on Prem1ere, the satellite movie channel, in the same period.
In Spain, all Robotech episodes were aired using the Latin American Dubbing, from August 1990 to April 1991, with changes in time slots, in Telecinco channel. The series was aired again in the same channel from October 1993 to May 1994. At that time only The Macross Saga and The Robotech Masters Saga were aired, leaving the third part of the show unaired.
In Russia on the TV channel 2x2 a dubbed version in Russian was shown in 1992. In the spring of 2012, there was a rerun on the TV channel 2x2 with a new dubbed version.
The Dubai-based channel MBC 3 began broadcasting an Arabic-language dubbed version in early 2010.
Subsequent airingsRobotech appeared on the Sci-Fi Channel in 1993, and on Cartoon Network's Toonami in 1998. Toonami aired only episodes 1 through 60, finishing the run at the end of the Robotech Masters story-line. Toonami reran 3 selected episodes of Robotech as part of the Giant Robot Week in 2003. Superstation KTEH, a PBS public television station in San Jose, California, as part of its Sunday Late-Prime (9pm-after 12) Sci-Fi programming line-up aired the "Macross" and "New Generation" storylines, as well as the Robotech II: The Sentinels feature. Robotech formerly aired daily on The Anime Network. As of January 7, 2007, the show also airs in Canada on Space and Retro. As of 2017, all three storyline sagas of Robotech are currently available for streaming on Netflix. Internet based Pluto TV, a Paramount Global subsidiary, began showing all three Robotech stories Summer of 2019 on the Anime All Day channel. They appeared in their original Japanese format as Macross, Southern Cross and Genesis Climber Mospeada.
Critical reception
The series has attained a significant cult-following over the years along with critical appraisal; in 2009, IGN ranked Robotech as the 34th greatest animated show of all time in their Top 100 list.
In 1996, Hyper magazine reviewed The Macross Saga, rating it 10 out of 10.
Home media
Family Home Entertainment (FHE) first attempted to release one episode per VHS tape, but only got through a handful of early episodes before abandoning this approach. In 1987, the company then heavily edited the 36-episode Macross Saga portion into six feature-length tapes, cutting out episode introductions and nudity in shower scenes, and ignoring the Southern Cross and New Generation series entirely. A third VHS run finally succeeded at releasing the entire series with two uncut episodes per tape, over a total of 42 volumes. The Macross Saga and The Masters were also released on Laserdisc in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Each Laserdisc contained four uncut episodes.
Palladium Books, past and current publishers of the Robotech role-playing game, was the first company to release Southern Cross, New Generation, and Robotech II: The Sentinels on VHS home video. These VHS videos were available via mail-order, as well as some direct-market game and hobby shops.
Streamline Pictures, founded by Macek after the end of Robotech, released Robotech II: The Sentinels on VHS and Laserdisc after the Palladium Books releases went out of print. In 1994, Streamline Pictures also released an incomplete series of "Perfect Collection" VHS videos. Each volume included two episodes of Robotech after their corresponding episodes of Macross, Southern Cross, or Mospeada, completely uncut but inaccurately subtitled. This series allowed English-speaking viewers to see many of the changes made.
GameTek Cinema released the first episode of Robotech on CD-ROM in 1994. This uncut episode was encoded in QuickTime 2.0 format at a video resolution of 320x226. The episode contained a marginally different arrangement of background music.
AnimEigo, a specialty anime company, released the original Japanese Super Dimension Fortress Macross TV series on DVD in 2001 with subtitles and unedited in its pre-Robotech form. The footage was extensively restored from the original film stock by Shin Kurokawa, making this the most pristine release of Super Dimension Fortress Macross outside Japan. The final DVD of the series also contains commentary by chief director Noburo Ishiguro.
ADV Films, an American distributor of anime, began releasing the entire series on DVD in 2001, typically with six episodes per disc. The first box sets of the series (dubbed the Robotech Legacy Collection) included extra discs with special features ranging from Robotech II: The Sentinels to pre-Robotech dubs of the first Macross and Mospeada episodes. Complete collection box-sets were also released, containing all the episodes of each of the three Robotech sagas, minus the extras discs.
The restoration of the original Super Dimension Fortress Macross TV series led to speculation among fans that the remastered footage could also be used to create a similarly remastered version of Robotech. However, Carl Macek stated that a remaster would be impossible at the time because they lacked the necessary source materials, including edit-decision lists, unmixed audio elements, and restored video elements for Southern Cross and Mospeada, as well as for Macross. Some of this (the audio elements and edit-lists) had been destroyed in a flood in the early 1990s; some of it (remastered footage for the other two series) had never been available to begin with. But in 2002, a set of off-site audio backup tapes was discovered to include the missing audio elements, and in 2003 ADV delayed its release of the subtitled Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross and Genesis Climber Mospeada series by several months in order to remaster them, as well. With the remastered footage and audio elements available, ADV were able to forego needing the edit-decision lists by commissioning the same video production company that had originally edited Robotech to create a new edit of the show. Robotech: Remastered included the restoration of some scenes previously cut from the original Robotech release to conform to broadcast standards and broadcast length requirements, new opening/ending sequences, 5.1 Dolby surround sound with rerecorded sound effects, and new eyecatch sequences.
Robotech: Remastered is not without its share of controversy. Some fans were upset by the reversal of ADV's position on a remastered Robotech, feeling betrayed because they purchased the expensive Legacy Collection during the time ADV was insisting that there would be no remaster, and that this would be the best way Robotech would ever be seen on DVD. Other fans feel that the new 5.1 mix is overly loud and lacks subtlety; they prefer the unremastered version of the series, because it represents the Robotech that they love and remember as it first aired on television without the distraction of new sound effects. Also, the extent of the new footage is limited to sequences that did not require newly recorded dialogue (though other cut scenes are included, in the original Japanese, on one of the Legacy Collection extras discs). The video quality suffers slightly by comparison to AnimEigo's Macross DVDs: ADV includes six episodes per Robotech disc to AnimEigo's four per disc of Macross, meaning that more compression is necessary, and therefore more compression artifacts appear. However, there is little question that the audio and video quality are substantially improved over the prior Robotech DVD release, and Robotech fans would likely prefer having had two different DVD versions released than none at all.
In 2003, the original Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross and Genesis Climber Mospeada series were released subtitled on DVD in their original Japanese language by ADV Films.
Finally, in 2005, ADV released yet another box set, Robotech: The Protoculture Collection, containing all the Robotech: Remastered DVDs plus the seven extras discs from the Legacy Collection in one thin-pack box. Detractors criticize these DVD re-releases as part of an industry trend to entice buyers to "double-dip", or buy more than one edition of the same DVD.
Nevertheless, ADV Films announced at Anime Expo 2005 that they would be creating an uncut dub for Macross, with the original Japanese voice actress Mari Iijima reprising her role as Minmei. This six-volume release has been completed, with the first volume being released on January 10, 2006, and the final volume being released on December 19, 2006. However, this dub did not utilize the same voice actors used in Robotech.
Manga Entertainment started to release Robotech on DVD as two-disc sets in the UK in late 2005. These sets are essentially the same as the Robotech: Remastered release from the US, but in different packaging.
Madman Entertainment released an Australian Region 4 version of the Robotech Legacy Collection boxed sets starting in November 2002 with Volume One, and ending with Volume Seven in May 2003; the Australian version almost identical to the original US release, except for not repeating the "gold box" mistake.
Claiming for a long time there wasn't enough demand for subtitled-only DVD releases, Madman eventually chose to test the waters with the release of the Japanese Macross series in March 2004. It was successful enough to secure the release of Southern Cross in July and Genesis Climber Mospeada in October of the same year. All three series are released in their own Madman-designed box, and bear little resemblance to the US releases; many fans preferring the Madman Macross box design over the various US versions.
When initially asked about the possibility of an Australian release of Robotech: Remastered, Madman claimed that it would not be cost-effective or profitable with the Legacy Collection already in the market, only to change their tune and release the Robotech 20th Anniversary Remastered Extended Edition, a single box with all 14 discs, in June 2005. The recommended retail price for this box was only a little more than that of two of Madman Legacy Collection boxes.
Continuing to follow the ADV Films trend, Madman announced the release of an Australian version of Robotech: The Protoculture Collection in November 2007, again with an RRP only a little more than the preceding 20th Anniversary set.
A&E Networks Home Entertainment picked up the video distribution rights to Robotech following ADV's closure in 2009 and re-released the series on DVD in 2011, based on ADV's remastered version of the series. Their release includes many of the special features of ADV's Legacy and Protoculture collections as well as new features, including a documentary, Carl Macek's Robotech Universe, an edited version of Robotech II: The Sentinels (which omits the Macross flashback scenes) and a 29-minute version of Robotech: The Movie (which does not include the Megazone 23 footage, as Harmony Gold USA no longer has the rights to that series). This release was duplicated by Go Entertainment for a Region 2 release in the UK and Beyond Home Entertainment for a Region 4 release in Australia, after Manga Entertainment and Madman Entertainment respectively lost the distribution rights. An advantage that the Beyond Home version presents over A&E and Go Entertainment's versions is that it also includes Love Live Alive. The 2013 A&E re-release of the boxset also contains it.
Funimation announced in October 2019 that they have licensed the Robotech series, Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles and Robotech II: The Sentinels. Funimation began streaming them on August 24, 2021. They released the TV series on Blu-ray and digitally in a collector's edition box set in September 2021, and in three parts from September to December 2021.
Original series cast and crew
Since Robotech was a non-union project, many of the voice actors involved worked under pseudonyms to avoid trouble with their union. The voice-actor list printed in Robotech Art One lists the pseudonyms rather than the real names of most of the actors.
Continuing after the original series
Harmony Gold attempted to produce several follow ups to the original series, most notably Robotech II: The Sentinels. The project fell through due to problems with toy licensing and changes in the Japanese yen-US Dollar exchange rate, among other reasons. The Sentinels saga continued to be chronicled in the novelizations by Jack McKinney and comic book adaptations by the Waltrip brothers.
A poor screen-test at the Robotech: The Movie screening in Texas led to Cannon Films pulling the feature from release in 1986, getting a very limited home video release in Europe.
A disastrous reception by the fans to the Robotech 3000 trailer in 2000 prompted Harmony Gold to cancel the project before any more footage was completed. In addition, Netter Digital, the animation producers of the trailer, went bankrupt shortly afterward.
Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles was first announced at Anime Expo 2004 as the latest incarnation of the Robotech saga. Unlike previous attempts, the movie was a direct continuation of the original series' last episode. The first teaser trailer debuted one year later at Anime Expo 2005 for the 20th anniversary of Robotech. The 88-minute movie premiered at various film festivals in 2006 and a limited theatrical run in January 2007, but the DVD release was delayed until February 6, 2007, the film's reception was very mixed.
Robotech: Shadow Rising was a proposed sequel to the Shadow Chronicles that was originally intended to be released in 2009. Pre-production ceased after Harmony Gold could not reach an agreement with FUNimation Entertainment. The Shadow Rising trademark has been abandoned since 2007.
Warner Bros. and Material Pictures licensed the film rights to Robotech and were reportedly considering the production of a live-action adaptation. Tobey Maguire (Spider-Man and Seabiscuit) "is eyeing the lead role" and were to serve as the film's producer.
Robotech: Love Live Alive is a co-production between Harmony Gold and Tatsunoko Production, released in July 2013. It is based on the OVA Genesis Climber MOSPEADA: Love Live Alive, but also includes new material.
Robotech: Academy'' was a planned crowd-funded TV pilot based on an idea by the late series' creator Carl Macek. The Kickstarter project ran from July to August 2014, but was prematurely cancelled after funding fell significantly short of its goal.
Notes
References
External links
1985 American television series debuts
1985 American television series endings
1980s American animated television series
American television series based on Japanese television series
American children's animated space adventure television series
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Japanese science fiction television series
Robotech
Animated television series about robots
Tatsunoko Production
Toonami
English-language television shows
American children's animated science fiction television series
Madman Entertainment anime |
4253714 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane%20Butcher | Diane Butcher | Diane Butcher is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Sophie Lawrence. Diane appeared as a regular character between 1988 and 1991, when Lawrence decided to leave. The character made several brief returns in 1993, 1994, and 1997. In 2008, she returned for her father Frank Butcher's (Mike Reid) funeral, and on 20 June 2012 she returned for her sister Janine Butcher's (Charlie Brooks) wedding, departing on 29 June 2012.
Over the years, Diane develops from a rebellious teenager who runs away from home, to a free-spirited single mother having difficulty looking after her young son. More recently, a more-mature Diane settled in France and, in a departure from a character previously depicted as heterosexual, she is stated to be in a long-term relationship with another woman.
Storylines
1988–1991
Diane arrives in Albert Square in 1988 as the daughter of second-hand car salesman Frank Butcher (Mike Reid) and sister to Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen). Her mother June died in 1987, and when her father marries Pat Wicks (Pam St. Clement) and takes over as landlord of the Queen Victoria public house, she lives with them there. Later the family move out of the pub to run a bed and breakfast elsewhere on the Square.
Problematic and strong-willed, she falls for the Butchers' lodger Paul Priestly (Mark Thrippleton) in 1989, much to Frank's annoyance. Diane takes the relationship more seriously than Paul, and she is devastated when he finishes with her to begin a fling with hairdresser Julie Cooper (Louise Plowright). Paul and Julie do not last, and he immediately returns to Diane. Scorned, Diane cannot forgive Julie for taking Paul, and she plays various vengeful tricks on her as payback, such as sabotaging her salon's opening day and sending her a male escort to make her look desperate. Julie responds by flirting with Paul to infuriate Diane further, and their feud culminates in a showdown in The Queen Vic one night, at which Julie humiliates Diane. Paul quickly loses interest in Diane. Ignoring his reticence, Diane convinces herself that Paul is contemplating proposing marriage to her, so she is broken-hearted when he returns to his hometown in Leeds in December 1989; he leaves without saying goodbye.
Feeling misunderstood and unloved after believing that her family have forgotten her 16th birthday, Diane runs away from home in January 1990 and joins the down-and-outs on the streets of London. She is sinking fast when street-wise teenager Disa O'Brien (Jan Graveson) takes her under her wing, showing her how to survive. Disa turns to prostitution for extra money, and Diane poses nude for photographs for a man named Matthew Taylor (Neil Phillips) who makes a sculpture of her. She eventually returns to Albert Square in March 1990, after her father has been searching for months, but she struggles to adjust to life back in Walford. As a result of her time away, Diane develops an interest in art. When Taylor turns up trying to woo Diane, he deposits a life-size sculpute of her in Albert Square. Livid, Frank smashes up the statue and confronts Taylor, further alienating Diane.
Diane develops a friendship with Mark Fowler (Todd Carty) when he returns to his family home in 1990, and enlists his help to find Disa, who is heavily pregnant and living in "Cardboard City". Disa refuses their help initially; after she gives birth, she abandons the child on Diane's doorstep on Christmas Day. Diane and Mark care for the baby in secret until they find Disa and persuade her to come home with them. Diane takes care of them and attempts to help Disa bond with her child.
Diane is keen for her relationship with Mark to progress, so his hesitance upsets her. Eventually he confesses that he is HIV-positive. She pledges to stick with him although the task is daunting. She acts as a confidante, helping him to face up to his illness and seek counselling and professional help. Diane is unsettled when Mark begins spending time with his HIV+ ex-girlfriend Gill (Susanna Dawson), and when Mark proposes to Diane in June 1991, she gently turns him down. The following month she leaves Walford to go on a fruit-picking holiday in France. She telephones Frank in September to say she will not be returning.
1993–1997
Frank visits Diane in France in 1993. He is horrified to discover she is pregnant and unsure who the father is. After a heated argument Frank storms off, refusing to speak to Diane, but they manage to make peace by the time Frank leaves—Diane drives to the ferry and tearfully waves Frank goodbye. Diane returns for a short stint in 1994 to inform Pat that Frank is alive and well and has merely run away from Walford following a mental breakdown—Frank had visited Diane off-screen in France.
Ricky visits Diane in France in 1997, spending time with her young son Jacques. Diane is in a tempestuous relationship with a Cameroonian musician named Thomas (Robbie Gee), and when this abruptly ends, she and son Jacques turn up in Walford, looking for a place to stay. However a short time later, Thomas visits Diane and asks her to go travelling with him on tour in Africa. Diane goes without informing anyone, leaving Jacques with Ricky and his wife Bianca (Patsy Palmer). Pregnant Bianca struggles to care for troublesome Jacques, and even considers having an abortion as a result. Jacques is sent to live in Manchester with Diane's sister Clare (Lucy Foxell), until Diane retrieves him to live with her in Paris.
2008, 2012
In 2008, Frank dies of cancer at Diane's home in Paris, requesting that his funeral be held in Walford. Diane returns on 31 March 2008 with Ricky, where they convey the news of Frank's death to his former wives Pat and Peggy Mitchell (Barbara Windsor). The following day, Diane is glad to see her sister Janine (Charlie Brooks) back for Frank's funeral. During a conversation with Janine, Diane reveals she has been in a relationship with a woman called Suzanne for three years. At Frank's wake in the Queen Vic, Diane is approached by Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) to speak about her experience of running away as a teenager, believing her insight might help him find his own missing daughter, Lucy Beale (Melissa Suffield). Frank leaves individual gifts to each of his children. Diane receives some of her old school paintings and drawings. Diane helps Ricky, Janine, and Pat scatter Frank's ashes in the flowerbeds of the Square before departing.
Four years later, Diane returns to Walford to attend Janine's wedding to Michael Moon (Steve John Shepherd). She comforts Janine when Michael is questioned over allegations of fraud before arranging a hen party for her that evening. It is mentioned that Diane is still with Suzanne. She later acts as Janine's maid of honour at her wedding and escorts her to hospital after she goes into premature labour. The day after the birth of her niece Scarlett, she helps the initially-reluctant Janine produce her first breast milk. Diane stays for a week after Scarlett's birth until Janine tells her and Ricky that they should return to their own lives. Diane agrees and tells Ricky that she cannot leave Jacques on his own. Diane stays for Scarlett's christening at the hospital then returns to France. Following Michael's murder and Janine's arrest, Diane becomes Scarlett's guardian. In 2021, Janine reveals that her and Diane are not on speaking terms.
Character creation and development
Background and casting
EastEnders had been on air for three years before the character of Diane made her first screen appearance in May 1988. At the time, big changes were occurring "behind-the-scenes". Co-creator Julia Smith took "a more back-seat role" as Series Producer, which allowed producer Mike Gibbon to take control of the making of the programme.
The arrival of the Butcher family in May 1988 signified an end of an era for the soap, as Den and Angie Watts (Leslie Grantham and Anita Dobson) vacated their positions as landlord and landlady of The Queen Victoria public house, leaving Frank (Mike Reid), and his girlfriend Pat Wicks (Pam St. Clement) to take over tenancy. Ricky (Sid Owen) and Diane, played by Sophie Lawrence, Frank's teenage children came with Frank. Lawrence was 15 at the time, and she got the part in EastEnders straight after leaving stage school. Lawrence has commented, "I always just thought that I would be a dancer and go into a West End musical and that I would be very, very happy. Then I got EastEnders when I was 15 and it kind of changed my life."
Personality
Diane has been described as "dreamy" and someone who "was always destined for more romantic things than the reality of Walford." "Sensitive and artistic", for a time Diane was portrayed as the least troublesome of the Butcher family, the one who conformed the most, though she began to rebel against her father's heavy-handed paternalism.
EastEnders writer Sarah Phelps has described the character as sharp, smart with elements of her mother in her. Phelps adds "she had a sharp tongue and a quick mind...you could see her looking at her family and looking at Walford...and thinking 'this ain't for me'." Sophie Lawrence has said, "Diane was a bit of a wild child...she was a bit naughty, she was always in trouble. I think it was something to do with losing her mother at an early age...She ran away [from home] to make a statement. I think it was a 'notice me' kind of thing. It worked."
In the 2008 television documentary EastEnders: Ricky and Bianca, Diane was described as "rather normal" for a member of the Butcher family. Upon her return in 2008, the character had altered and matured. Lawrence has commented, "coming back, she seems quite nice actually, she seem more relaxed. She's so much older I suppose, so she's sort of grown up really. She seems nice and kind and settled with her life."
Teenage runaway
The most notable storyline featuring Diane during her initial stint on the soap concerned the character running away from home in 1990. In the on-screen events, Diane was shown to be increasingly unhappy towards the latter part of 1989, exacerbated by the sudden departure of her boyfriend Paul Priestly (Mark Thrippleton). Diane decided to run away from home in January 1990 when it seemed her family had forgotten her 16th birthday—they were actually planning a surprise party for her that she never got to see. Diane's disappearance dominated the programme in the beginning of 1990. Focus was placed upon the effect her departure had on the Butcher family, in particular her father Frank who searched unsuccessfully for his missing daughter.
When the storyline had originally been scripted in 1989, it was left open-ended, meaning that none of the writers or producers of EastEnders had decided whether Diane would ever be found. However, towards the end of 1989, EastEnders acquired a new executive producer, Michael Ferguson, and according to scriptwriter Colin Brake, one of his first decisions was that "Diane must be found". The subsequent story of her returning home and adjusting to life back in Walford was developed.
The episodes where Diane returned home aired towards the end of March 1990. They were written by Tony McHale and directed by Mike Barnes. The episodes have been described as "extraordinary" and a "radical departure from the normal EastEnders form", because they used flashbacks to tell the story of Diane's three months living on the streets of London as a homeless girl. Simultaneously, they also told the present story of Frank finding Diane, and bringing her back to Walford. Colin Brake has described them as powerful episodes, which "returned EastEnders to the tradition of gritty realism that had been integral to the early episodes." In the flashbacks, it was revealed that Diane had lived rough on the streets and joined a gang of runaways, befriending a young girl named Disa O'Brien (Jan Graveson). Diane also became involved with an artist named Matthew Taylor, who took nude photos of her and then constructed a life-size sculpture of her, which later turned up in Albert Square, enraging Frank. This ignited Diane's own interest in art, which was demonstrated later in the year when she painted a mural on the side of the Butcher household. Actress Sophie Lawrence did research for the storyline among real homeless people.
Departure
Subsequent storylines featuring Diane included involvement in the plight of pregnant runaway Disa, whom Diane brought back to Walford to bond with her baby—Disa had initially abandoned the baby on Diane's doorstep on Christmas Day 1990. The bulk of the character's narrative concerned a blossoming romance with one of EastEnders''' original characters, Mark Fowler (Todd Carty), who returned to the serial as a regular character in 1990 after a three-year absence. The relationship was never consummated however, because in January 1991 Mark revealed to Diane that he was HIV positive—he was the first mainstream soap opera character to be diagnosed. The episode, written by Tony McHale, has been described as the "important" beginning to Mark's HIV storyline, as Mark's secret HIV status was finally revealed to the audience as well as Diane. In the on-screen events, Diane tried to be supportive to Mark and persuaded him to have counselling at the Terrence Higgins Trust, though their relationship was never quite the same again; when Mark, prompted by his mother Pauline (Wendy Richard), asked Diane to marry him, she turned him down and left the serial to move to France shortly after.
Off-screen Sophie Lawrence had decided to quit the soap to take on new projects, which included an attempt at a music career. She has commented, "I left because I wanted to play something different. In doing that, you have to grow out of the public's perception of you as an EastEnders character. But I wanted variety of roles. I felt I couldn't just carry on being Diane indefinitely. I wanted to be an actor, not just a personality."
Brief returns
The character has made numerous brief returns to the serial as a guest character. In 1993, she was featured in a special week of episodes, filmed on-location in Paris, France, where Frank discovered, to his horror, that Diane was pregnant with an unknown foreign man's baby. In June 1994, Diane returned to Walford as part of a storyline involving her father's disappearance. In 1997, another week's worth of episodes set in Paris reunited Ricky and Diane. Shortly after, the character returned to the soap's setting of Walford, but Lawrence reportedly quit weeks after making her comeback. She had since commented on her reasons for quitting so soon: "Going back to EastEnders was like going back to school and none of your friends are there. I was [originally] there with people like Nick Berry (Simon Wicks) and Letitia Dean (Sharon Watts) and they'd all gone. One of the young actors, who will remain nameless, made me a coffee and started telling me all about what it was like. He had no idea I'd been in the soap before." In addition, Lawrence was suffering physically as she was still getting over injuries she sustained from a car accident and was forced to remove a neck brace for filming purposes. On-screen, the character departed to travel with her musician boyfriend, abandoning her young son in her brother's care. Bosses at EastEnders had reportedly been keen for Lawrence to remain on the show, as they were hoping for an on-screen reunion of the Butcher family; Mike Reid had agreed to reprise his role as Frank, though Diane departed before his reintroduction.
Despite claiming that she would never return to EastEnders in 1997, Lawrence was upset when she discovered that both Sid Owen and Mike Reid (Ricky and Frank) were leaving EastEnders in 2000 as, in her opinion, it ruled out any chance of her character returning to the show. She commented, "It would be great fun to get all the Butcher clan back for a few months. I hear Diane's name mentioned quite a lot on the show — it makes me feel like I've never really left. But all the people I'm connected with are leaving, which makes going back harder and I'm really sorry about that. It would be great to have the Butcher clan come back for Mike's sendoff. But, sadly, I don't think there is the space for me to go back full-time." In 2002, she was asked if she would ever return to the soap and she responded, "If they asked me, I’d love to go back. Not on a long term contract or anything because I love doing other things but I’d definitely like to go back."
The character reappeared in March 2008. Sophie Lawrence was asked to reprise the role by executive producer Diederick Santer as part of a storyline that has been dubbed "Frank Week". Mike Reid died in 2007 and due to the popularity of the character he played, Santer decided that Frank would also be killed off in the serial. A funeral was held for the character as a tribute to both the actor and the "iconic" character he played. Lawrence was one of several actors brought back to the show especially for the storyline. She was joined by Charlie Brooks, who played her younger sister Janine and Sid Owen as her brother Ricky.
Commenting to Digital Spy about her return, Lawrence said: "I've not been in the show for 11 years and it's not like I've ever thought "I'll never go back", you just think that your chance to go back has gone. It never crossed my mind that the occasion would ever arise, so when I got the phone call, it was really odd. There was never any doubt that I'd do it for Mike [Reid] and it's not something that's really been done — I don't think someone's ever died off-screen and then they've done the funeral on-screen. I think everyone was quite wary because it's quite an odd thing to do to have attended his real funeral and then go back to film it all over again. There was some trepidation about how it was going to work. But as soon as we arrived, it was like 11 years of your life had been wiped out and you'd been there the day before [...] I had this really lovely scene with Sid [Owen] where I said: "Isn't it strange, you imagine you’d come back and everything would be here waiting for us just like it was." Diane's saying everything's moved on, but for me it was the opposite, I'd got back there and everything was the same."
The character was brought back for a period of four episodes. Lawrence has revealed that she thought she would have minimal involvement in the storyline and was surprised at how much dialogue she was given. Each of the returning characters were given their own storyline; in Diane's case, she was in a relationship with a female doctor named Suzanne. Lawrence commented, "I think [Diane]'s quite alright now—she's come back and she's sorted. She knows the score." When asked if she would ever make a full-time return, Lawrence said, "Once you're re-established, you're a character that other characters can go and visit. For example, after Diane's left Walford again, Pat goes to stay with her for a couple of weeks. So there's no reason why I couldn't return for a two-week 'holiday' to see the kids!" On 6 May 2012, a Daily Star reporter announced Lawrence would be returning to EastEnders alongside Sid Owen (Ricky Butcher) for the wedding of their on screen sister, Janine, played by Charlie Brooks. She made her on-screen return on 20 June 2012 and departed on 29 June.
Reception
In reference to Diane's return to the soap in 2008 for Frank's funeral, Paul English from the Daily Record accused EastEnders'' of using actor Mike Reid's real death as "an opportunity to reintroduce some popular old faces. Boiled down, it's cashing in on the dead - but it's how Frank might have done it himself."
See also
List of LGBT characters in television and radio
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Fictional artists
Fictional nurses
Fictional bisexual women
Television characters introduced in 1988
British female characters in television
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Butcher family (EastEnders) |
4253724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20the%20Welsh%20Assembly%2C%202001 | List of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly, 2001 | This is an incomplete list of Statutory Instruments of the Welsh Assembly made in 2001. Statutory Instruments made by the Assembly are numbered in the main United Kingdom series with their own sub-series. The Welsh language has official equal status with the English language in Wales so every Statutory Instrument made by the Assembly is officially published in both English and Welsh. Only the titles of the English-language version are reproduced here. The Statutory Instruments are secondary legislation, deriving their power from the Acts of Parliament establishing and transferring functions and powers to the Welsh Assembly.
1-100
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.2 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 139 (W. 5 ) (C. 7 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 2 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 139 (Cy. 5 ) (C. 7 ))
The Children’s Homes Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 140 (W. 6 ))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Cartrefi Plant (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 140 (Cy. 6 ))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 203 (W. 9 ) (C. 10 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 203 (Cy. 9 ) (C. 10 ))
The School Milk (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 275 (W. 11))
Rheoliadau Llaeth Ysgol (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 275 (Cy.11))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 276 (W. 12))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 276 (Cy. 12))
The Feeding Stuffs (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 343 (W. 15 ))
Rheoliadau Porthiant (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 343 (Cy.15))
The Tir Gofal (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 423 (W.17))
Rheoliadau Tir Gofal (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 423 (Cy.17))
The Organic Farming Scheme (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 424 (W.18))
Rheoliadau'r Cynllun Ffermio Organig (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 424 (Cy.18))
The National Park Authorities Levies (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 429 (W.19))
Rheoliadau Ardollau Awdurdodau'r Parciau Cenedlaethol (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 429 (Cy. 19))
The Financing of Maintained Schools (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 495 (W. 22 ))
Rheoliadau Ariannu Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 495 (Cy. 22 ))
The Tir Mynydd (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 496 (W. 23))
Rheoliadau Tir Mynydd (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 496 (Cy. 23))
Local Authorities (Alteration of Requisite Calculations) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 559 (W.24))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Addasu Cyfrifiadau Angenrheidiol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 559 (Cy.24))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 572 (W.26))
The Highways Noise Payments (Movable Homes) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 604 (W.27))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Sŵn Priffyrdd (Cartrefi Symudol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 604 (Cy.27))
The Local Government and Housing Act 1989 (Electronic Communications) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 605 (W. 28))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol a Thai 1989 (Cyfathrebu Electronig) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 605 (Cy. 28))
The Local Education Authority (Behaviour Support Plans) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 606 (W. 29))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Addysg Lleol (Cynlluniau Cymorth Ymddygiad) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 606 (Cy. 29))
The Homeless Persons (Priority Need) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 607 (W.30))
Gorchymyn Personau Digartref (Angen Blaenoriaethol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 607 (Cy.30))
The Pig Industry Restructuring Grant (Wales) Scheme 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 643 (W. 32))
Cynllun Grantiau Ailstrwythuro'r Diwydiant Moch (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 643 (Cy. 32))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 659 (W.34))
The Education (Pupil Records) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 832 (W.37))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cofnodion Disgyblion) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 832 (Cy. 37))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 833 (W.38))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 833 (Cy.38))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 879 (W. 39))
The Education (National Curriculum) (Key Stage 3 Assessment Arrangements) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 889 (W 40))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Y Cwricwlwm Cenedlaethol) (Trefniadau Asesu Cyfnod Allweddol 3) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 889 (Cy. 40))
The Education (Individual Pupils' Achievements) (Information) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 890 (W. 41))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyraeddiadau Disgyblion Unigol) (Gwybodaeth) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 890 (Cy. 41))
The Education (Education Standards Grants) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 891 (W.42))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Grantiau Safonau Addysg) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 891 (Cy.42))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 968 (W.46))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1033 (W.47))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (No. 3) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1034 (W. 48 ))
The National Health Service (Professions Supplementary to Medicine) Amendment (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1075 (W.51))
Rheoliadau Diwygio'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Proffesiynau sy'n Atodol i Feddygaeth) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1075 (Cy.51))
The Community Charges, Council Tax and Non-Domestic Rating (Enforcement) (Magistrates' Courts) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1076 (W. 52))
Rheoliadau Taliadau Cymunedol, Y Dreth Gyngor ac Ardrethu Annomestig (Gorfodi) (Llysoedd Ynadon) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1076 (Cy. 52))
The Education (Pupil Registration) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1109 (W.53))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cofrestru Disgyblion) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1109 (Cy.53))
The School Governors' Annual Reports (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1110 (W.54))
Rheoliadau Adroddiadau Blynyddol Llywodraethwyr Ysgol (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1110 (Cy.54))
The Education (School Information) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1111 (W. 55))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Gwybodaeth Ysgolion) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1111 (Cy. 55))
The Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1127 (W. 56))
The Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Wales) (No.2) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1142 (W.57))
The National Health Service Trusts (Cardiff and Vale National Health Service Trust) (Originating Capital) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1153 (W.60))
Gorchymyn Ymddiriedolaethau Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ymddiriedolaeth Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol Caerdydd a'r Fro) (Cyfalaf Cychwynnol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1153 (Cy.60))
The Tir Mynydd (Cross-border Holdings) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1154 (W.61))
Rheoliadau Tir Mynydd (Daliadau Trawsffiniol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1154 (Cy.61))
The Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Wales) (No. 3) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1176 (W.62))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (No. 3) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1202 (W. 63 ))
The Non-Domestic Rating (Alteration of Lists and Appeals) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1203 (W. 64))
Rheoliadau Ardrethu Annomestig(Newid Rhestri ac Apelau)(Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1203 (Cy. 64 ))
The Smoke Control Areas (Exempted Fireplaces) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1231 (W. 65))
Gorchymyn Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Lleoedd Tân Esempt) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1231 (Cy. 65 ))
The Food Irradiation Provisions (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1232 (W.66))
Rheoliadau Darpariaethau Arbelydru Bwyd (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1232 (Cy.66))
The Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No.4) (Amendment) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1234 (W. 67 ))
The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1263 (W.70))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau Plastig mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1263 (Cy.70))
The Adoption of Children from Overseas (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1272 (W.71))
Rheoliadau Mabwysiadu Plant o Wledydd Tramor (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1272 (Cy.71))
The Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Wales) (No. 4) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1273 (W72))
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1274 (W. 73 ) (C. 46 ))
Gorchymyn Deddf Dysgu a Medrau 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 3 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1274 (Cy. 73 ) (C. 46 ))
The Disabled Facilities Grants and Home Repair Assistance (Maximum Amounts) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1275 (W. 74))
Gorchymyn Grantiau Cyfleusterau i'r Anabl a Chymorth Trwsio Cartrefi (Uchafsymiau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1275 (Cy. 74))
The Local Authorities (Capital Finance) (Rate of Discount for 2001/2002) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1287 (W.75))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cyllid Cyfalaf) (Cyfradd y Disgownt ar gyfer 2001/2002) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1287 (Cy.75))
The National Health Service (Penalty Charge) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1300 (W. 77))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Tâl Cosb) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1300 (Cy. 77))
The Housing (Preservation of Right to Buy) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1301 (W. 78))
Rheoliadau Tai (Cadw'r Hawl i Brynu) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1301 (Cy. 78))
The Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1302 (W. 79))
Rheoliadau Cig (Hylendid ac Archwilio) (Ffioedd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1302 (Cy. 79))
The Restriction on Pithing (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1303 (W. 80))
Rheoliadau Cyfyngu Pithio (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1303 (Cy. 80))
The Slaughter Premium (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1332 (W.82))
Rheoliadau'r Premiwm Cigydda (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1332 (Cy.82))
The Local Government (Best Value Performance Indicators) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1337 (W.83))
Gorchymyn Llywodraeth Leol (Dangosyddion Perfformiad Gwerth Gorau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1337 (Cy.83))
The South Wales Sea Fisheries District (Variation) 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1338 (W. 84 ))
Gorchymyn Ardal Pysgodfeydd Môr De Cymru (Amrywio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1338 (Cy. 84 ))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No.4) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1357 (W. 85))
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1358 (W. 86 ))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1358 (Cy. 86))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) and (Dental Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1359 (W.87))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) a (Ffioedd Deintyddol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1359 (Cy.87))
The Beef Labelling (Enforcement) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1360 (W. 88))
Rheoliadau Labelu Cig Eidion (Gorfodi) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1360 (Cy. 88))
The Spreadable Fats (Marketing Standards) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1361 (W. 89))
Rheoliadau Brasterau Taenadwy (Safonau Marchnata) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1361 (Cy. 89))
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1362 (W.90))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1362 (Cy.90))
The National Health Service (Pharmaceutical Services) (Amendment) (Wales) 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1396 (W.91))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Fferyllol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1396 (Cy.91))
National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1397 (W.92))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1397 (Cy.92))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment)(Wales)(No.5) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1406 (W.93))
The National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1408 (W. 94))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Symiau at Anghenion Personol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1408 (Cy. 94))
The National Assistance (Assessment of Resources) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1409 (W. 95))
Rheoliadau Cymorth Gwladol (Asesu Adnoddau) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1409 (Cy. 95))
The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1410 (W. 96) (C. 50))
Gorchymyn Deddf Cefn Gwlad a Hawliau Tramwy 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1410 (Cy. 96) (C. 50))
The Local Government Act 2000 (Commencement) (No. 2) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1411 (W.97)(C.51))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol 2000 (Cychwyn) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1411 (Cy.97)(C.51))
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1423 (W.98))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1423 (Cy.98))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Disciplinary Functions) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1424 (W.99))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Disgyblu) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1424 (Cy.99))
The Ancient Monuments (Applications for Scheduled Monument Consent) (Welsh Forms and Particulars) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1438 (W.100))
Rheoliadau Henebion (Ceisiadau am Gydsyniad Heneb Gofrestredig) (Ffurflenni a Manylion Cymraeg) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 1438 (Cy.100)])
101-200
The Valuation Tribunals (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1439 (W. 101))
Rheoliadau Tribiwnlysoedd Prisio (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1439 (Cy. 101))
The Coffee Extracts and Chicory Extracts (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1440 (W.102))
Rheoliadau Echdynion Coffi ac Echdynion Sicori (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1440 (Cy.102))
The Local Government Act 2000 (Commencement) (No. 2) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1471 (W.97) (C.51))
Gorchymyn Deddf Llywodraeth Leol 2000 (Cychwyn) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1471 (Cy.97) (C.51))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No.5) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1500 (W. 103 ))
The Prescribed Waste (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1506 (W. 104 ))
Rheoliadau Gwastraff Rhagnodedig (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1506 (Cy. 104 ))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat and Meat Products) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1508 (W. 105))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment)(Wales)(No.6) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1509 (W. 106))
The Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Emergency Licences) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No.1539 (W.107)])
The National Health Service (Payments by Local Authorities to Health Authorities) (Prescribed Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1543 (W.108))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Taliadau gan Awdurdodau Lleol i Awdurdodau Iechyd (Swyddogaethau Rhagnodedig) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1543 (Cy.108))
The Products of Animal Origin (Import and Export) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1660 (W.119))
Rheoliadau Cynhyrchion sy'n Tarddu o Anifeiliaid (Mewnforio ac Allforio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1660 (Cy. 119))
The Infant Formula and Follow-on Formula (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1690 (W.120))
Rheoliadau Fformwla Fabanod a Fformwla Ddilynol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1690 (Cy.120))
The Processed Cereal-based Foods and Baby Foods for Infants and Young Children (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1691 (W.121))
Rheoliadau Bwydydd Proses sydd wedi'u Seilio ar Rawn a Bwydydd ar gyfer Babanod a Phlant Ifanc (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1691 (Cy.121))
The Animal By-Products (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1735 (W. 122))
Gorchymyn Sgil-gynhyrchion Anifeiliaid (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1735 (Cy.122))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat, Minced Meat and Meat Preparations) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No.1740 (W.123)])
The Government of Wales Act 1998 (Commencement No.6)Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1756 (C.64))
The Education (Nutritional Standards for School Lunches) (Wales)Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1784 (W. 126))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Safonau Maeth Cinio Ysgol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1784 (Cy. 126))
The Housing (Right to Buy) (Priority of Charges) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1786 (W.127))
Gorchymyn Tai (Hawl i Brynu) (Blaenoriaeth Arwystlon) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1786 (Cy.127))
The Miscellaneous Food Additives (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1787 (W. 128))
Rheoliadau Ychwanegion Bwyd Amrywiol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1787 (Cy. 128))
The National Health Service (General Medical Services) Amendment (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1788 (W. 129))
Rheoliadau Diwygio'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Meddygol Cyffredinol) (Rhif 2) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1788 (Cy. 129 ))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 6) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1801 (W. 130))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat, Meat Products, Minced Meat and Meat Preparations) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1802 (W. 131))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No.7) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1874 (W. 134))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (No. 6) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1884 (W. 135))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 7) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1986 (W. 137))
The Education (Extension of Careers Education) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 1987 (W. 138))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Estyn Addysg Gyrfaoedd) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 1987 (Cy. 138))
The Crab Claws (Prohibition of Landing) (Revocation) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2018 (W.139))
Gorchymyn Crafangau Crancod (Gwahardd eu Glanio) (Diddymu) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2018 (Cy.139))
The Undersized Whiting (Revocation) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2019 (W. 140))
Gorchymyn Gwyniaid Rhy Fach (Diddymu) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2019 (Cy. 140))
The Education (Publication of Draft Proposals and Orders) (Further Education Corporations) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2069 (W.141))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyhoeddi Cynigion a Gorchmynion Drafft) (Corfforaethau Addysg Bellach) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2069 (Cy.141))
The Housing Grants (Additional Purposes) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No 2070 (W. 142)])
Gorchymyn Grantiau Tai (Dibenion Ychwanegol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2070 (Cy. 142))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Forms and Particulars) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2071 (W.143))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflenni a Manylion a Ragnodir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2071 (Cy.143))
The Relocation Grants (Forms of Application) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2072 (W.144))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adleoli (Ffurflenni Cais) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2072 (Cy.144))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2073 (W.145))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 2073 (Cy.145)])
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2133 (W. 148))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2133 (Cy. 148 ))
The Care Council for Wales (Appointment, Membership and Procedure) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2136 (W.149))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Gofal Cymru (Penodi, Aelodaeth a Gweithdrefn) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2136 (Cy.149))
The Carers (Services) and Direct Payments (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2186 (W. 150 ))
Rheoliadau Gofalwyr (Gwasanaethau) a Thaliadau Uniongyrchol (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2186 (Cy. 150 ))
The Children (Leaving Care) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2189 (W.151))
Rheoliadau Plant (Ymadael â Gofal) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2189 (Cy.151))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.3) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2190 (W.152) (C.70))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2190 (Cy.152) (C.70))
The Children (Leaving Care) Act 2000 (Commencement) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2191 (W.153) (C.71))
Gorchymyn Deddf Plant (Ymadael â Gofal) 2000 (Cychwyn) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2191 (Cy.153) (C.71))
The Disabled Children (Direct Payments) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2192 (W. 154))
Rheoliadau Plant Anabl (Taliadau Uniongyrchol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2192 (Cy. 154))
The Common Agricultural Policy (Wine) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2193 (W.155))
Rheoliadau'r Polisi Amaethyddol Cyffredin (Gwin) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2193 (Cy.155))
The Carers and Disabled Children Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2196 (W. 156) (C. 72))
Gorchymyn Deddf Gofalwyr a Phlant Anabl 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2196 (Cy. 156) (C. 72))
The Contaminated Land (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2197 (W.157))
Rheoliadau Tir Halogedig(Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2197 (Cy.157))
The Meat (Enhanced Enforcement Powers) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2198 (W.158))
Rheoliadau Cig (Pwerau Gorfodi Ehangach) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2198 (Cy.158))
The Gelatine (Intra-Community Trade) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2219 (W.159))
Rheoliadau Gelatin (Masnach o fewn y Gymuned) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2219 (Cy.159))
The Central Rating List (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2222 (W. 160))
Rheoliadau Rhestr Ardrethu Canolog (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2222 (Cy. 160))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 8) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2235 (W.161))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 8) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2236 (W. 162 ))
Gorchymyn Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 8) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2236 (Cy. 162 ))
The Feeding Stuffs (Sampling and Analysis) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2253 (W.163))
Rheoliadau Deunyddiau Porthi (Samplu a Dadansoddi) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2253 (Cy.163))
The Education (School Government) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2263 (W.164))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Llywodraethu Ysgolion) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2263 (Cy.164))
The Commission for Local Administration in Wales and Local Commissioner in Wales (Functions and Expenses) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2275 (W. 165 ))
Rheoliadau'r Comisiwn dros Weinyddu Lleol yng Nghymru a Chomisiynydd Lleol yng Nghymru (Swyddogaethau a Threuliau) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2275 (Cy. 165 ))
The Conduct of Members (Principles) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2276 (W.166))
Gorchymyn Ymddygiad Aelodau (Egwyddorion) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2276 (Cy.166))
The Local Authorities (Proposals for Executive Arrangements) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2277 (W. 167 ))
Gorchymyn Awdurdodau Lleol (Cynigion ar gyfer Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2277 (Cy. 167 ))
The Code of Conduct (Non-Qualifying Local Government Employees) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2278 (W.168))
Rheoliadau Cod Ymddygiad (Cyflogeion Anghymwys Llywodraeth Leol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2278 (Cy.168))
The Standards Committees (Grant of Dispensations) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2279 (W. 169 ))
Rheoliadau Pwyllgorau Safonau (Caniatáu Gollyngiadau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2279 (Cy. 169 ))
The Code of Conduct (Qualifying Local Government Employees) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2280 (W.170))
Gorchymyn Cod Ymddygiad (Cyflogeion Cymwys Llywodraeth Leol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2280 (Cy.170))
Local Government Investigations (Functions of Monitoring Officers and Standards Committees)(Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2281 (W. 171 ))
Rheoliadau Ymchwiliadau Llywodraeth Leol (Swyddogaethau Swyddogion Monitro a Phwyllgorau Safonau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2281 (Cy. 171 ))
The Standards Committees (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2283 (W.172))
Rheoliadau Pwyllgorau Safonau (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2283 (Cy.172))
The Local Authorities (Alternative Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2284 (W.173))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Amgen) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2284 (Cy.173))
The Local Commissioner in Wales (Standards Investigations) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2286 (W. 174 ))
Gorchymyn Comisiynydd Lleol yng Nghymru (Ymchwiliadau Safonau) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2286 (Cy. 174 ))
The Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Discharge of Functions) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2287 (W. 175 ))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Cyflawni Swyddogaethau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2287 (Cy. 175 ))
The Adjudications by Case Tribunals and Interim Case Tribunals (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2288 (W. 176))
Rheoliadau Dyfarniadau gan Dribiwnlysoedd Achos a Thribiwnlysoedd Achos Interim (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2288 (Cy. 176))
The Conduct of Members (Model Code of Conduct) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2289 (W.177))
Gorchymyn Ymddygiad Aelodau (Cod Ymddygiad Enghreifftiol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2289 (Cy.177))
Local Authorities (Executive Arrangements) (Decisions, Documents and Meetings) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2290 (W. 178))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth) (Penderfyniadau, Dogfennau a Chyfarfodydd) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2290 (Cy. 178))
The Local Authorities Executive Arrangements (Functions and Responsibilities) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2291 (W.179))
Rheoliadau Trefniadau Gweithrediaeth Awdurdodau Lleol (Swyddogaethau a Chyfrifoldebau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2291 (Cy.179))
The Local Authorities (Referendums) (Petitions and Directions) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2292 (W.180))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Refferenda) (Deisebau a Chyfarwyddiadau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2292 (Cy.180))
Local Authorities (Proposals for Alternative Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2293 (W. 181))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Cynigion ar gyfer Trefniadau Amgen) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2293 (Cy. 181))
The Prescribed Waste (Wales) (Revocation) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2302 (W. 190))
Rheoliadau Gwastraff Rhagnodedig (Cymru) (Diddymu) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 2302 (Cy. 190)])
The Environment Act 1995 (Commencement and Saving Provision) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2351 (W. 191) (C. 79))
Gorchymyn Deddf yr Amgylchedd 1995 (Cychwyn a Darpariaeth Arbed Tir Halogedig) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2351 (Cy. 191) (C. 79))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 4) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2354 (W.192) (C.80))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 4) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2354 (Cy.192) (C.80))
The Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2356 (W.194))
Rheoliadau Tatws sy'n Deillio o'r Aifft (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2356 (Cy.194))
Valuation for Rating (Plant and Machinery) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2357 (W. 195))
Rheoliadau Prisio ar gyfer Ardrethu (Peiriannau a Pheirianwaith) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2357 (Cy. 195))
The National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2359 (W. 196))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd am Gyffuriau a Chyfarpar) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2359 (Cy. 196))
The BSE Monitoring (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2360 (W.197))
Rheoliadau Monitro BSE (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2360 (Cy.197))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Prohibition of Vaccination) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2374 (W. 198))
The Agricultural Processing and Marketing Grant (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2446 (W.199))
Rheoliadau Grant Prosesu a Marchnata Amaethyddol (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2446 (Cy.199))
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Functions) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2496 (W. 200))
Rheoliadau Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2496 (Cy. 200))
201-300
The General Teaching Council for Wales (Additional Functions) (Amendment) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2497 (W. 201))
Gorchymyn Cyngor Addysgu Cyffredinol Cymru (Swyddogaethau Ychwanegol) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2497 (Cy. 201))
The Education (School Day and School Year) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2499 (W.202))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Y Diwrnod Ysgol a'r Flwyddyn Ysgol) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2499 (Cy.202))
The Plant Health (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2500 (W.203))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2500 (Cy.203))
The Inspection of Education and Training (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2501 (W.204))
Rheoliadau Arolygu Addysg a Hyfforddiant (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2501 (Cy.204))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.5 and Transitional Provisions) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2504 (W.205) (C.82))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 5 a Darpariaethau Trosiannol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2504 (Cy.205) (C.82))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 9) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2529 (W. 207))
The Seeds (Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2533 (W.210))
Rheoliadau Hadau (Ffïoedd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2533 (Cy.210))
The Teacher Training Incentive (Further Education) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2536 (W.211))
Rheoliadau Cymhellion Hyfforddi Athrawon (Addysg Bellach) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2536 (Cy.211))
The Agricultural Subsidies (Appeals) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2537 (W.212))
Rheoliadau Cymorthdaliadau Amaethyddol (Apelau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2537 (Cy.212))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No.6) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2538 (W.213) (C.83))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 6) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2538 (Cy.213) (C.83))
The Welsh Language Schemes (Public Bodies) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2550 (W.215))
Gorchymyn Cynlluniau Iaith Gymraeg (Cyrff Cyhoeddus) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2550 (Cy.215))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Marking of Meat, Meat Products, Minced Meat and Meat Preparations) (Wales) (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2627 (W. 216 ))
Rheoliadau Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau (Marcio Cig, Cynhyrchion Cig, Briwgig a Pharatoadau Cig) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2627 (Cy. 216 ))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No.9) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2628 (W. 217 ))
Rheoliadau Cyfyngiadau Mewnforio ac Allforio (Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau) (Cymru) (Rhif 9) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2628 (Cy. 217 ))
The Transport of Animals (Cleansing and Disinfection) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2662 (W.218))
Gorchymyn Cludo Anifeiliaid (Glanhau a Diheintio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2662 (Cy.218))
The Change of Category of Maintained Schools (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2678 (W.219))
Rheoliadau Newid Categori Ysgolion a Gynhelir (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2678 (Cy.219))
The Sweeteners in Food (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2679 (W. 220))
Rheoliadau Melysyddion mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2679 (Cy. 220))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2680 (W.221))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2680 (Cy.221))
The Street Works (Inspection Fees) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2681 (W.222))
Rheoliadau Gweithfeydd Stryd (Ffioedd Archwilio) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2681 (Cy.222))
The Welfare of Farmed Animals (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2682 (W.223))
Rheoliadau Lles Anifeiliaid a Ffermir (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2682 (Cy.223))
The Air Quality Limit Values (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2683 (W.224))
Rheoliadau Gwerthoedd Terfyn Ansawdd Aer (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 2683 (Cy.224 )])
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 (Commencement No. 4) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2705 (W.225) (C.90))
Gorchymyn Deddf Dysgu a Medrau 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 4) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2705 (Cy.225) (C.90))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2706 (W.226))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2706 (Cy.226))
The Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2708 (W.227))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Lleoedd a Gynorthwyir) (Mân Dreuliau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2708 (Cy.227))
The Education (Foundation Body) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2709 (W.228))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cyrff Sefydledig) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2709 (Cy.228))
The Specified Risk Material (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2732 (W.231))
Rheoliadau Deunydd Risg Penodedig (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2732 (Cy.231))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Ascertainment of Value) (Wales) (No. 5) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2771 (W. 232))
The Processed Animal Protein (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2780 (W.233))
Rheoliadau Protein Anifeiliaid wedi'i Brosesu (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2780 (Cy.233))
The Local Authorities (Members' Allowances) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2781 (W.234))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Lwfansau Aelodau) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2781 (Cy.234))
The Care Standards Act 2000 (Commencement No. 7) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2782 (W.235)(C.92))
Gorchymyn Deddf Safonau Gofal 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 7) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2782 (Cy.235) (C.92))
The Children’s Commissioner for Wales Act 2001 (Commencement) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2783 (W.236)(C.93))
Gorchymyn Deddf Comisiynydd Plant Cymru 2001(Cychwyn) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2783 (Cy.236) (C.93))
The Children’s Commissioner for Wales Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2787 (W.237))
Rheoliadau Comisiynydd Plant Cymru 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2787 (Cy.237))
The Transport Act 2000 (Commencement No.1) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2788 (W.238) (C.94))
Gorchymyn Deddf Trafnidiaeth 2000 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2788 (Cy.238) (C.94))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 9) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2813 (W.242))
The National Assembly for Wales (Elections: Nomination Papers) (Welsh Form) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2914 (W.244))
Gorchymyn Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru (Etholiadau: Papurau Enwebu) (Ffurflen Gymraeg) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2914 (Cy. 244))
The Limited Liability Partnerships (Welsh Language Forms) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2917)
Rheoliadau (Ffurflenni Cymraeg) Partneriaethau Atebolrwydd Cyfyngedig 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2917)
The Local Elections (Declaration of Acceptance of Office) (Amendment) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2963 (W.245))
Gorchymyn Etholiadau Lleol (Datganiad Derbyn Swydd) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 2963 (Cy.245)])
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 10) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2981 (W.248))
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2982 (W.249))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2982 (Cy.249))
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales) (No.2) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 2983 (W. 250 ))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 2983 (Cy. 250 ))
The Agricultural Holdings (Units of Production) (Wales)(No.3) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3064 (W. 253 ))
Gorchymyn Daliadau Amaethyddol (Unedau Cynhyrchu) (Cymru) (Rhif 3) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3064 (Cy. 253 ))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 11) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3145 (W.260))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 9) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3283 (W.272))
The National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3322 (W.275))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Treuliau Teithio a Pheidio â Chodi Tâl) (Diwygio) (Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3322 (Cy.275))
The National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) and (General Ophthalmic Services) (Amendment) (No.3) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3323 (W.276))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Ffioedd a Thaliadau Optegol) a (Gwasanaethau Offthalmig Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3323 (Cy.276))
The Children (Protection from Offenders) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3443 (W.278))
Rheoliadau Plant (Eu Hamddiffyn rhag Tramgwyddwyr) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3443 (Cy.278))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 10) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3459 (W.279))
The Feeding Stuffs and the Feeding Stuffs (Enforcement) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3461 (W.280))
Rheoliadau Diwygio Rheoliadau Porthiant (Cymru) a Rheoliadau Porthiant (Gorfodi) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3461 (Cy.280))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 10) (Fees) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3511 (W.282))
Rheoliadau Cyfyngiadau Mewnforio ac Allforio (Clwy'r Traed a'r Genau) (Cymru) (Rhif 10) (Ffioedd) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3511 (Cy.282))
The Local Government Elections (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3540 (W.287))
Gorchymyn Etholiadau Lleol (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3540 (Cy.287))
The Potatoes Originating in Germany, Notification (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3541 (W.288))
Gorchymyn Hysbysu ynghylch Tatws sy'n Deillio o'r Almaen (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3541 (Cy.288))
The Special Waste (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3545 (W.289))
Rheoliadau Gwastraff Arbennig (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif. 3545 (Cy.289)])
The Specified Risk Material (Amendment) (Wales) (No.2) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3546 (W.290))
Rheoliadau Deunydd Risg Penodedig (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3546 (Cy.290))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 11) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3589 (W.293))
The Beet Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3658 (W. 295 ))
Rheoliadau Hadau Betys (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3658 (Cy. 295 ))
The Cereal Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3664 (W. 296 ))
Rheoliadau Hadau Grawnfwydydd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3664 (Cy. 296 ))
The Fodder Plant Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3665 (W.297))
Rheoliadau Hadau Planhigion Porthiant (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3665 (Cy.297))
The Seed Potatoes (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3666 (W. 298 ))
Rheoliadau Tatws Hadyd (Diwylgio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3666 (Cy. 298 ))
The Vegetable Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3667 (W.299))
Rheoliadau Hadau Llysiau (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3667 (Cy.299))
The Oil and Fibre Plant Seeds (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3669 (W.300))
Rheoliadau Hadau Planhigion Olew a Ffibr (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3669 (Cy.300))
301-400
The Abolition of the Intervention Board for Agricultural Produce (Consequential Provisions)(Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3680 (W.301))
Rheoliadau Dileu'r Bwrdd Ymyrraeth ar gyfer Cynnyrch Amaethyddol (Darpariaethau Canlyniadol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3680 (Cy.301))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-And-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 12) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3705 (W.302))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 12) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3706 (W.303))
The Education (Schools and Further and Higher Education) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3708 (W.304))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Ysgolion ac Addysg Bellach ac Uwch) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3708 (Cy.304))
The Farm Waste Grant (Nitrate Vulnerable Zones) (Wales) Scheme 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3709 (W.305))
Cynllun Grantiau Gwastraff Fferm (Parthau Perygl Nitradau) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3709 (Cy.305))
The Learning and Skills Act 2000 (Consequential Amendments) (Schools) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3710 (W.306))
Rheoliadau Deddf Dysgu a Medrau 2000 (Diwygiadau Canlyniadol) (Ysgolion) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3710 (Cy.306))
The Parent Governor Representatives and Church Representatives (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3711 (W.307))
Rheoliadau Cynrychiolwyr Rhiant -lywodraethwyr a Chynrychiolwyr Eglwysig (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3711 (Cy.307))
The Local Authorities (Approved Investments) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3731 (W.308))
Rheoliadau Awdurdodau Lleol (Buddsoddiadau wedi'u Cymeradwyo) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3731 (Cy.308))
The Accounts and Audit (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3760 (W.309))
Rheoliadau Cyfrifon ac Archwilio (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3760 (Cy.309))
The Plant Health (Amendment) (Wales) (No.2) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3761 (W.310))
Gorchymyn Iechyd Planhigion (Diwygio) (Cymru) (Rhif 2) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3761 (Cy.310))
The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels)(Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3762 (W.311))
Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Tanwyddau Awdurdodedig) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3762 (Cy.311))
The Mandatory Travel Concessions (Reimbursement Arrangements) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3764 (W.312))
Rheoliadau Consesiynau Teithio Gorfodol (Trefniadau Ad-dalu) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3764 (Cy.312))
The Travel Concessions (Extension of Entitlement) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3765 (W313))
Gorchymyn Consesiynau Teithio (Estyn yr Hawl i'w Cael) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3765 (Cy.313))
The Farm Enterprise Grant and Farm Improvement Grant (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3806 (W.314))
Rheoliadau Grant Menter Ffermydd a Grant Gwella Ffermydd (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3806 (Cy.314))
The Health and Social Care Act 2001 (Commencement No. 1) (Wales) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3807 (W.315)(C.124))
Gorchymyn Deddf Iechyd a Gofal Cymdeithasol 2001 (Cychwyn Rhif 1) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3807 (Cy.315) (C.124))
The South Wales Sea Fisheries Committee (Levies) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3811 (W.316))
Rheoliadau Pwyllgor Pysgodfeydd Môr De Cymru (Ardollau) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3811 (Cy.316))
The Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Charges) (Amendment) (No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3831 (W.317))
Rheoliadau Cig (Hylendid ac Archwilio) (Taliadau) (Rhif 2) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3831 (Cy.317))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 13) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3865 (W.318))
The Education (External Qualifications) (Description of Tests) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3901 (W.319))
Rheoliadau Addysg (Cymwysterau Allanol) (Disgrifiad o Brofion) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3901 (Cy.319))
The Education (Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales) (Conferment of Function) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3907 (W.320))
Gorchymyn Addysg (Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru) (Rhoi Swyddogaeth) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3907 (Cy.320))
The Colours in Food (Amendment)(Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3909 (W.321))
Rheoliadau Lliwiau mewn Bwyd (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3909 (Cy.321))
The Non-Domestic Rating Contributions (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3910 (W.322))
Rheoliadau Cyfraniadau Ardrethu Annomestig (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3910 (Cy.322))
The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3911 (W.323))
The Preserved Rights (Transfer of Responsibilities to Local Authorities) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3985 (W.326))
Rheoliadau Hawliau Cadw (Trosglwyddo Cyfrifoldebau i'r Awdurdodau Lleol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3985 (Cy.326))
The Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Amendment) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 3996 (W.327))
Rheoliadau Ardaloedd Rheoli Mwg (Tanwyddau Awdurdodedig) (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 3996 (Cy.327))
The National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Amendment) (No.3) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4000 (W.328))
Rheoliadau'r Gwasanaeth Iechyd Gwladol (Gwasanaethau Deintyddol Cyffredinol) (Diwygio) (Rhif 3) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4000 (Cy.328))
The Countryside Access (Draft Maps) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4001 (W.329))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Mapiau Drafft) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4001 (Cy.329))
The Countryside Access (Local Access Forums) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4002 (W.330))
Rheoliadau Mynediad i Gefn Gwlad (Fforymau Mynediad Lleol) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4002 (Cy.330))
The Environmental Protection (Restriction on Use of Lead Shot) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4003 (W.331))
Rheoliadau Diogelu'r Amgylchedd (Cyfyngu'r Defnydd ar Beledi Plwm) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4003 (Cy.331))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Prescribed Forms and Particulars) (Amendment No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4006 (W.332))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Ffurflenni a Manylion a Ragnodir) (Diwygiad Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4006 (Cy.332))
The Housing Renewal Grants (Amendment No.2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4007 (W.333))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adnewyddu Tai (Diwygiad Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4007 (Cy.333))
The Relocation Grants (Forms of Application) (Amendment No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4008 (W.334))
Rheoliadau Grantiau Adleoli (Ffurflenni Cais) (Diwygio Rhif 2) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4008 (Cy.334))
The Foot-and-Mouth Disease (Amendment) (Wales) (No. 13) Order 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4009 (W.335))
The Import and Export Restrictions (Foot-and-Mouth Disease) (Wales) (No. 14) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4047 (W.338))
The BSE Monitoring (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2001 (S.I. 2001 No. 4048 (W.339))
Rheoliadau Monitro BSE (Diwygio) (Cymru) 2001 (S.I. 2001 Rhif 4048 (Cy.339))
External links
Welsh SI List
2001
Welsh Assembly Statutory Instruments
2001 in Wales |
4253823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial%20empire | Colonial empire | A colonial empire is a collective of territories (often called colonies), either contiguous with the imperial center or located overseas, settled by the population of a certain state and governed by that state.
Before the expansion of early modern European powers, other empires had conquered and colonized territories, such as the Roman Empire in Iberia, or the Chinese in what is now South China. Modern colonial empires first emerged with a race of exploration between the then most advanced European maritime powers, Portugal and Spain, during the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the European Renaissance. Agreements were also made to divide the world up between them in 1479, 1493, and 1494. European imperialism was born out of competition between European Christians and Ottoman Muslims, the latter of which rose up quickly in the 14th century and forced the Spanish and Portuguese to seek new trade routes to India, and to a lesser extent, China.
Although colonies existed in classical antiquity, especially amongst the Phoenicians and the ancient Greeks who settled many islands and coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, these colonies were politically independent from the city-states they originated from, and thus did not constitute a colonial empire. This paradigm shifted by the time of the Ptolemaic Empire, the Seleucid Empire, and the Roman Empire.
History
European colonial empires
Portugal began establishing the first global trade network and one of the first colonial empires under the leadership of Henry the Navigator. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories distributed across the globe (especially at one time in the 16th century) that are now parts of 60 different sovereign states. Portugal would eventually control Brazil, territories such as what is now Uruguay and some fishing ports in north, in the Americas; Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea, and São Tomé and Príncipe (among other territories and bases) in the North and the Subsaharan Africa; cities, forts or territories in all the Asian subcontinents, as Muscat, Ormus and Bahrain (amongst other bases) in the Persian Gulf; Goa, Bombay and Daman and Diu (amongst other coastal cities) in India; Portuguese Ceylon; Malacca, bases in Southeast Asia and Oceania, as Makassar, Solor, Banda, Ambon and others in the Moluccas, Portuguese Timor; and the granted entrepôt-base of Macau and the entrepôt-enclave of Dejima (Nagasaki) in East Asia, amongst other smaller or short-lived possessions.
During its Siglo de Oro, the Spanish Empire had possession of Mexico, South America, the Philippines, all of southern Italy, a stretch of territories from the Duchy of Milan to the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium, parts of Burgundy, and many colonial settlements in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Possessions in Europe, Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, the Americas, the Pacific Ocean, and East Asia qualified the Spanish Empire as attaining a global presence. From 1580 to 1640 the Portuguese Empire and the Spanish Empire were conjoined in a personal union of its Habsburg monarchs during the period of the Iberian Union, but beneath the highest level of government, their separate administrations were maintained.
Subsequent colonial empires included the French, English, Dutch and Japanese empires. By the mid-17th century, the Tsardom of Russia, continued later as the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and modern Russia, became the largest contiguous state in the world and remains so to this day.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th century, by virtue of its technological and maritime supremacy, the British Empire steadily expanded to become by far the largest empire in history; at its height ruling over a quarter of the Earth's land area and 24% of the population. Britain's role as a global hegemon during this time ushered in a century of "British Peace", lasting from the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars to the start of World War I. During the New Imperialism, Italy and Germany also built their colonial empires in Africa.
Timeline
The chart below shows the span of some European colonial empires.
Black lines mark the year of the empires largest territorial extent of land area.
Red represents that the empire is at that time a monarchy.
Blue represents that the empire is at that time a republic.
List of colonial empires
:
Belgian Empire (1908–1962)
(1908–1960)
Ruanda-Urundi (1922–1962)
Belgian concession of Tianjin (1902–1931)
British Empire (1707–1997/present)
Evolution of the British Empire; Angevin Empire; English colonial empire (1585–1707)
Possessions in Europe
British Cyprus
British Malta
British Ireland
United States of the Ionian Islands
British Gibraltar
British Minorca
British Heligoland
Possessions in Africa
British Somaliland (1884–1960)
British Egypt (1914–1936)
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)
Kenya Colony (1920–1963)
Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962)
Tanganyika (territory) (1922–1961)
Protectorate of Nyasaland (1893–1964)
Protectorate of Northern Rhodesia (1924–1964)
Colony of Southern Rhodesia (1923–1965), (1979–1980)
Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)
British Nigeria (1914–1954)
British Gold Coast (1867–1957)
British Sierra Leone (1808–1961)
British Gambia (1821–1965)
Possessions in the Americas
British West Indies
Bahamas
Barbados
(1671–1816),(1833–1958)
(1833–1960)
Colony of Jamaica (1655–1962)
Trinidad and Tobago
(1862–1981)
(1814–1966)
Kingdom of Mosquitia (1638–1860)
Possessions in South Asia
(1757–1858)
(1858–1947)
(1815–1948)
(protectorate) (1907–1947)
Sikkim (protectorate) (1861–1947)
Nepal (protectorate) (1816–1923)
Possessions in East Asia
(1841–1997)
Possessions in the Middle East
(1820–1971)
British Bahrain
British Qatar (1916–1971)
British Iraq (1920–1932)
(1921–1946)
(1920–1948)
Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961)
Aden Protectorate (1872–1963)
Muscat and Oman (1892–1970)
(protectorate) (1879–1919)
Possessions in Southeast Asia
British Bencoolen
British Malaya
British Borneo
Dominions of the United Kingdom
States and territories of Australia (1901–present)
Australia itself a colony that gradually increased its independence in 1901, 1942 and 1986, was tasked with the government of multiple other British colonies and territories and the mandates of New Guinea and Nauru
Realm of New Zealand (1907–present)
New Zealand itself a colony that gradually increased its independence in 1907, 1947 and 1986, was tasked with the government of multiple other British colonies and territories and the mandate of Samoa. It was also nominal co-trustee of the mandate of Nauru. The remaining non-self-governing New Zealand territory is Tokelau.
Mandates under South African administration (1915–1990)
The South-West Africa mandate was governed by the Union of South Africa, that itself a colony that gradually increased its independence in 1910, 1931 and 1961.
Danish Empire (1620–1979/present)
Danish India (1620–1869)
Danish Gold Coast (1658–1850)
Danish colonization of the Americas:
Danish West Indies (1754–1917)
Greenland (1814–1979)
Dutch Empire (1602–1975/present)
Dutch colonization of the Americas by :
Dutch Guyana/Surinam
Dutch Brazil
Dutch Caribbean
Dutch Gold Coast (1612-1872)
Dutch India
Dutch Cape Colony (1652–1806)
Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)
Dutch Ceylon (1640-1796)
Dejima (1641–1854)
Dutch Mauritius (1638–1710)
French Empire (1534–1980/present)
French colonization of the Americas:
France Antarctique (1555–1567)
(1534–1763) and Quebec
French Louisiana
French West Indies (1635–today)
Îles des Saintes (1648–present)
Marie-Galante (1635–present)
la Désirade (1635–present)
Guadeloupe (1635–present)
Martinique (1635–present)
French Guiana
Asia:
French India (1664–1962)
French Indochina and French Indochinese Union (1887–1954)
Laos (protectorate) (1893–1953)
Cambodia (protectorate) (1863–1953)
Vietnam
Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam) (1858–1949)
Annam (protectorate) (Central Vietnam) (1883–1949)
Tonkin (protectorate) (Northern Vietnam) (1884–1949
China
The foreign concessions : French Concession of Shanghai (1849–1946), Tianjin (1860–1946) and Hankou (1898–1946)
The spheres of French influence officially recognized by China on the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, and Guangdong
Shamian Island (1859–1949) (a fifth of the island)
French Guangzhouwan (1898–1945)
Possessions in the Middle East
Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1920–1946)
French Africa:
French North Africa (1830–1934) and French Algeria
French Morocco (1912–1956)
French Tunisia (1886–1956)
French Somaliland (1883–1967)
French West Africa (1895–1958)
French Madagascar (1897–1958)
French Comoros (1866–1968)
French Equatorial Africa (1910–1958)
Isle de France (1715–1810)
Seychelles (1756–1810)
The Scattered Islands
Reunion island (1710–present)
Mayotte (1841–present)
Oceania:
(1906–1980)
Clipperton island
German Empire (1884–1920)
Kamerun (1884–1918)
Togoland (1884–1916)
German South West Africa (1884–1919)
German New Guinea (1884–1919)
German East Africa (1885–1919)
German Samoa (1900–1920)
German Concession in Tientsin
German concession of Hankou
German Tsingtao
German Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory
Italian Empire (1882–1960)
Eritrea (1882–1947)
Somaliland (1889–1947, 1950–1960 as Italian Trust Territory of Somaliland)
Ethiopia (1936–1941)
Italian East Africa (formed by merging Eritrea, Somaliland and Ethiopia: 1936–1947)
Cyrenaica (1912–1947)
Tripolitania (1912–1947)
Libya (Formed by merging Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in 1934. It dissolved in 1947. It also included the Southern Military Territory of Fezzan)
Italian Islands of the Aegean (1912–1947)
Italian Albania (1939–1943)
Italian France (1940–1943)
Italian Montenegro (1941–1943)
Italian concession of Tientsin (1901–1947)
Portuguese Empire (1415–1999)
Evolution of the Portuguese Empire
Portuguese colonization of the Americas
Colonial Brazil (1500–1815)
Portuguese India (1505–1961)
Portuguese Ceylon (1598–1658)
Portuguese Timor (1702–1975)
Portuguese Macau (1557–1999)
Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)
Portuguese Nagasaki (1580–1587)
Portuguese Oman (1507–1656)
Tamão (1514–1521)
Portuguese Africa
Portuguese East Africa (1498–1975)
Portuguese West Africa (1575–1975)
Portuguese Guinea (1474–1974)
Portuguese Cape Verde (1462–1975)
Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe (1470–1975)
Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (1721–1961)
Portuguese Gold Coast (1482–1642)
Russian Empire (1721–1917)
Siberia
Caucasus
Central Asia
Russian colonization of North America:
Russian America (1733–1867)
Sagallo (1889)
Russian Port Arthur
Russian concession in Tientsin
Spanish Empire (1492–1825/1898-1975)
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Viceroyalty of New Spain
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of New Granada
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
Spanish East Indies (1565–1898)
Captaincy General of the Philippines
Spanish Africa
Spanish Guinea (1778–1968)
Spanish Sahara (1884–1975)
Spanish protectorate in Morocco (1912–1956)
Ifni (1476–1524/1859–1969).
Habsburg Spain possessions in Europe:
Spanish Italy (1535–1713)
Spanish Netherlands (1535–1713)
Swedish Empire (1638–1663, 1733, 1784–1878)
Swedish colonies in the Americas
New Sweden (1638–1655)
Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878)
Guadeloupe (1813–1814)
Swedish Gold Coast (1650–1658, 1660–1663)
Swedish Africa Company
Swedish East India Company
Parangipettai (1733)
Swedish Factory, Canton Factories (1757–1860)
:
Japanese Empire (1868–1945)
Ezo as Hokkaido (1869–present)
Ryukyu as Okinawa Prefecture (1879–1945 & 1972–present)
Taiwan (1895–1945)
Karafuto Prefecture (1905–1949)
Korea (1910–1945)
South Seas Mandate (1919–1947)
(1932–1945)
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (1932–1945)
Ottoman Empire (1354–1908)
Asia:
Protectorate of Aceh (1496–1903)
Ottoman Arabia (1517–1919)
Ottoman Cyprus (1571–1878)
Ottoman Iraq (1538–1918)
Ottoman Syria (1517–1918)
Africa:
(1867–1914)
Turco-Egyptian Sudan
Ottoman Egypt (1517–1914)
Ottoman Absinia (1554–1872)
(1516–1830)
(1551–1912)
Ottoman Tunisia (1574–1881)
Europe:
(1898–1913)
(1475–1774)
Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463–1908)
Ottoman Bulgaria (1396–1878)
Ottoman Crete (1667–1898)
Ottoman Greece (1453–1830)
Ottoman Hungary (1541–1699)
Ottoman Serbia (1371–1817)
Rumelia Eyalet (1365–1867)
Sanjak of Rhodes (1522–1912)
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1862)
:
United States (1816–present)
United States overseas territorial acquisitions
(1899–Present)
(1898–Present)
(1986–Present)
(1898–Present)
(1917–Present)
Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935–1946)
Insular Government of the Philippine Islands (1902–1935)
Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979)
Republic of Hawaii (1898–1900)
Minor Outlying Islands (1857–Present)
Guano Islands Act Claims (1856–Present)
Canton and Enderbury Islands (1939–1979)
Ryukyu Islands (1950–1972)
(1947–1994)
American Colonization Society (1816–1847)
Colony of Liberia (1821–1847)
Kentucky in Africa (1828–1847)
Maryland-in-Africa (1834–1857)
Mississippi-in-Africa (1835–1842)
American Concessions
American Concession in Shanghai (1848–1863)
American concession in Tianjin (1869–1902)
American Trading Company of Borneo (1865–1881)
Corn Islands (1914–1971)
Guantanamo Bay (1903–present)
Pituffik Space Base (1943–present)
Habsburg monarchy Colonies and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1719–1750, 1778–1783, 1901–1917)
Austrian colonial policy
Ostend Company
Bankipur (Bengal)
Covelong
Austrian East India Company
Austrian colonisation of Nicobar Islands (1778–1785)
Austrian Delagoa Bay (1773–1781)
Móric Benyovszky's Madagascar (1774–1779)
Austrian North Borneo
Franz Josef Land
Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin (1901–1917)
Hungarian colonial attempts
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1637–1795) and colonial initiatives
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (a Latvian vassal of Poland–Lithuania in 1637–1690):
Couronian colonization in Africa
Couronian colonization of the Americas
Jaxa (1665–1685)
Toco (1688–1689)
Colonization attempts by Poland
Polish occupation zone in Germany
German colonial initiatives (1683–1721)
Colonies of Brandenburg-Prussia (1683–1721)
Colonies of County of Hanau
Neu-Askania (1828–1856)
German colonization of the Americas
Klein-Venedig (1528–1546)
Italy and the colonization of the Americas
Grand Duchy of Tuscany: Thornton expedition (1608–1609)
Kingdom of Sicily: Kingdom of Africa (1135–1160)
Knights Hospitaller (Malta, a vassal of the Kingdom of Sicily): Hospitaller colonization of the Americas
Norway
List of possessions of Norway (1920–present)
Erik the Red's Land
Norway Antarctic and sub-Antarctic possessions (1927–1957)
Sweden-Norway (1814–1905)
Cooper Island (1844–1905)
Kingdom of Scotland (1621–1707)
Scottish colonization of the Americas
Kingdom of Morocco (1086–1228; 1975–present)
Al-Andalus
Southern Provinces
Omani Empire (1652–1892)
Yaruba dynasty (1624–1742)
Sultanate of Muscat (1652–1820)
(taken by Oman in 1698, became capital of the Omani Sultanate or Empire from 1632 or 1640; until 1890)
Mombasa (1698–1728, 1729–1744, 1837–1890)
Gwadar (1783–1958)
Chinese Empire (from Qin dynasty to Qing dynasty), (221 BC – 1911)
Imperial Chinese Tributary System
Guangxi
Hainan (since the Han dynasty)
Nansha Islands
Xisha Islands
Manchuria (during the Tang, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties)
Manchuria (Northeast China)
Outer Manchuria
Kuye Island
Korea
Canghai Commandery(A commandery that self subjugated to Han dynasty from Dongye)
Four Commanderies of Han (Established after the fall of Gojoseon)
Daifang Commandery (Offshoot of the former four commanderies of Han that existed in the 3rd to 4th century)
Colonization attempts of the Tang dynasty after Unification of the three kingdoms of Korea (Gyerim Territory Area Command, Protectorate General to Pacify the East and Ungjin Commandery)
Dongnyeong Prefectures, Ssangseong Prefectures and Tamna prefectures (Yuan dynasty)
Inner Mongolia
Outer Mongolia (during for example the Tang and Qing dynasties)
Tannu Uriankhai
Taiwan (during the Qing dynasty)
Tibet (during the Yuan and Qing dynasties)
Yunnan
Vietnam (from the Han to Tang dynasties, and during the early Ming dynasty)
Xinjiang
Central Asia (during the Tang and Qing dynasties)
Protectorate General to Pacify the West
Ethiopian colonies as the Aksum Empire
Viceroyalty of Yemen (520–578)
Persian Empires
Oman (5th century BC–628; 1743–1747)
Bahrain (5th century BC–629; 1077–1253, 1330–1507)
Sasanian Yemen (570–628)
Aghlabids colonies as Arab vassals of Abbasid Caliphate in Ifriqiya
Southern Italy
Emirate of Sicily
Emirate of Bari
Malta
Chola empire
Srivijaya
Sri Lanka
(1799–1849)
(1819–1846)
(1834–1849)
Chilean Antarctic Territory
Chiloé
Patagonia
Arica and Antofagasta
Maps
European:
Asian:
Other countries with colonial possessions:
See also
Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization
Colonial troops
Empire
Great Divergence
Hegemony
History of Western civilization
Imperialism
List of ancient great powers
List of largest empires
List of medieval great powers
List of modern great powers
Middle Eastern empires
Nomadic empire
The empire on which the sun never sets
Notes and references
External links
Visualizing western empires decline
Empire
Empires |
4254144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt | Rembrandt | Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (, ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669), usually simply known as Rembrandt, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, printmaker, and draughtsman. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art. It is estimated Rembrandt produced a total of about three hundred paintings, three hundred etchings, and two thousand drawings.
Unlike most Dutch masters of the 17th century, Rembrandt's works depict a wide range of styles and subject matter, from portraits and self-portraits to landscapes, genre scenes, allegorical and historical scenes, biblical and mythological themes and animal studies. His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural and scientific achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age, when Dutch art (especially Dutch painting) was prolific and innovative.
Rembrandt never went abroad but was considerably influenced by the work of the Italian Old Masters and Dutch and Flemish artists who had studied in Italy. After he achieved youthful success as a portrait painter, Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist remained high, and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters.
Rembrandt's portraits of his contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible are regarded as his greatest creative triumphs. His 40 self-portraits form an intimate autobiography. Rembrandt's foremost contribution in the history of printmaking was his transformation of the etching process from a relatively new reproductive technique into an art form. His reputation as the greatest etcher in the history of the medium was established in his lifetime.
Early life and education
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden, in the Dutch Republic, now the Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck. His family was quite well-to-do; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. His mother was Catholic, and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt's works and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest.
As a boy, he attended a Latin school. At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon apprenticed to Jacob van Swanenburg, with whom he spent three years. After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the history painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden.
Career
In 1624 or 1625, Rembrandt opened a studio in Leiden, which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627, Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit Dou and Isaac de Jouderville. Joan Huydecoper is mentioned as the first buyer of a Rembrandt painting in 1628. In 1629, Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt.
At the end of 1631, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, a city rapidly expanding as the business and trade capital. He began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time, with great success. He initially stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh. Saskia came from a respected family: her father Rombertus was a lawyer and had been burgomaster (mayor) of Leeuwarden. The couple married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives. In the same year, Rembrandt became a citizen of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students, among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck.
In 1635, Rembrandt and Saskia rented a fashionable lodging with a view of the river Amstel. In 1639 they moved to a large and recently modernized house in the upscale 'Breestraat' with artists and art dealers; Nicolaes Pickenoy, a portrait painter was his neighbor. The mortgage to finance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a cause for later financial difficulties. The neighborhood sheltered many immigrants and was becoming the Jewish quarter. It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes.
One of his great patrons at early age was Amsterdam statesman Andries de Graeff.
Although they were by now affluent, the couple suffered several personal setbacks; three children died within weeks of their births. Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works. After Saskia's illness, the widow Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus' caretaker and dry nurse; at some time, she also became Rembrandt's lover. In May 1649 she left and charged Rembrandt with breach of promise and be awarded alimony. Rembrandt tried to settle the matter amicably, but to pay her lawyer she pawned the diamond ring he had given her, that once belonged to Saskia. On 14 October they came to an agreement; the court particularly stated that Rembrandt had to pay a yearly maintenance allowance, provided that Titus remained her only heir and she sold none of Rembrandt's possessions. As Dircx broke her promise she was committed to a women's house of correction at Gouda in August 1650. Rembrandt paid for the costs.
In early 1649, Rembrandt began a relationship with the 23-years-old Hendrickje Stoffels, who had initially been his maid. She may have been the cause of Geertje's leaving. In 1654 Rembrandt produced a controversial nude Bathsheba at Her Bath. In June Hendrickje received three summonses from the Reformed Church to answer the charge "that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter". In July she admitted her guilt and was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council. In October they had a daughter, Cornelia. Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's will.
Insolvency
Rembrandt, despite his artistic success, found himself in financial turmoil. His penchant for acquiring art, prints, and rare items led him to live beyond his means. In January 1653 the sale of the property formally was finalized but Rembrandt still had to cover half of the remaining mortgage. Creditors began pressing for installments but Rembrandt, facing financial strain, sought a postponement. The house required repairs prompting Rembrandt to borrow money from friends, including Jan Six.
In November 1655, Rembrandt's son Titus, then just 14 years old, made a will that named his father as the sole heir, effectively excluding his mother's family. In December of that year, Rembrandt organized a sale of his paintings, but the proceeds fell short of expectations. This was a challenging period marked by a plague outbreak that also affected the art business. As a result, Rembrandt applied for a high court arrangement (known as cessio bonorum).
Despite the financial difficulties, Rembrandt's bankruptcy wasn't forced; rather, he seemed to have orchestrated it, possibly to create room for marriage to his beloved Hendrickje. Anyhow, in July 1656, he declared his insolvency, taking stock and willingly surrendered his assets. Notably, he had already transferred the house to his son. Both the authorities and his creditors showed leniency, granting him ample time to settle his debts. Jacob J. Hinlopen obviously played a role.
In November 1657 another auction was held to sell his paintings, as well as a substantial number of etching plates and drawings, some by renowned artists such as Raphael, Mantegna and Giorgione. Remarkably, Rembrandt was permitted to retain his tools as a means of generating income. Rembrandt lost the guardianship of his son and thus control over his actions. A new guardian, Louis Crayers, claimed the house in settlement of Titus’s debt.
The sale list comprising 363 items offers insight into Rembrandt's diverse collections, which, encompassed Old Master paintings, drawings, Roman emperors busts, Greek philosophers statues, books (a bible), two globes, bonnets, armor, and various objects from Asia (chinaware), as well as a collections of natural history specimens (two lion skins, a bird-of-paradise, corals and minerals). Unfortunately, the prices realized in the sale were disappointing.
By February 1658, Rembrandt' house was sold at a foreclosure auction, and the family moved to more modest lodgings at Rozengracht. In 1660, he finished Ahasuerus and Haman at the feast of Esther which he sold to Jan J. Hinlopen. Early December 1660, the sale of the house was finalized but the proceeds went directly to Titus' guardian.
Two weeks later, Hendrickje and Titus established a dummy corporation as art dealers, allowing Rembrandt, who had board and lodging, to continue his artistic pursuits. In 1661, they secured a contract for a major project at the newly completed town hall. The resulting work, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis, was rejected by the mayors and returned to the painter within a few weeks; the surviving fragment (in Stockholm) is only a quarter of the original.
Despite these setbacks, Rembrandt continued to receive significant portrait commissions and completed notable works, such as the Sampling Officials in 1662. It remains a challenge to gauge Rembrandt's wealth accurately as he may may overestimated the value of his art collection. Nonetheless, half of his assets were earmarked for Titus' inheritance.
In March 1663, with Hendrickje's illness, Titus assumed a more prominent role. Isaac van Hertsbeeck, Rembrandt's primary creditor, went to the High Court and contestested Titus' priority for payment, leading to legal battles that Titus ultimately won in 1665 when he came of age. During this time, Rembrandt worked on notable pieces like the Jewish Bride and his final self-portraits but struggled with rent arrears. Notably, Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, visited Rembrandt twice, and returned to Florence with one of the self-portraits.
Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje and Titus; he passed away on Friday 4 October 1669; he was buried four days later in a rented grave in the Westerkerk. His heirs paid a substantial amount of money, suggesting his relative wealth at the time. His illegitimate child, Cornelia (1654–1684), eventually moved to Batavia in 1670 accompanied by an obscure painter and her mother's inheritance. Titus' considerable inheritance passed to his only grandchild, Titia (1669-1715) who never married and lived at Blauwburgwal. In summary, Rembrandt's life was marked by more than just artistic achievements; he navigated numerous legal and financial challenges, leaving a complex legacy. Rembrandt did have a tendency to push the legal limits.”
Works
In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art, writing that, "the greatest and most natural movement", translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid. The word "beweegelijkheid" translates to "emotion" or "motive". Whether this refers to objectives, material, or something else, is not known but critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual.
Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced well over 600 paintings, nearly 400 etchings and 2,000 drawings. More recent scholarship, from the 1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings. His prints, traditionally all called etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300. It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000 but those extant are more rare than presumed. Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively "certain" is no higher than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010.
At one time, approximately 90 paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty-one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable images of the group. Some show him posing in quasi-historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man, through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up, as revealed by his richly weathered face.
In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a flood of light—an overwhelming clarity—and a brooding duskiness.
In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of the Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams, and The Stoning of Saint Stephen, Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt "a kind of diary, an account of moments in his own life".
Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio, or, more likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti but adapted for very personal means. Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and age. His immediate family—his wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje—often figured prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical, biblical or historical themes.
Periods, themes and styles
Throughout his career, Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail. Stylistically, his paintings progressed from the early "smooth" manner, characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late "rough" treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself. Rembrandt must have realized that if he kept the paint deliberately loose and "paint-like" on some parts of the canvas, the perception of space became much greater.
A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particularly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones.
Lastman's influence on Rembrandt was most prominent during his period in Leiden from 1625 to 1631. Paintings were rather small but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies. In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame. In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant, Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio, works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application, and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter.
During his early years in Amsterdam (1632–1636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format (The Blinding of Samson, 1636, Belshazzar's Feast, c. 1635 Danaë, 1636 but reworked later), seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens. With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small (Jacob de Gheyn III) and large (Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife, 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632).
By the late 1630s, Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies (Cottages before a Stormy Sky, c. 1641; The Three Trees, 1643). From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reflecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament, as had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night Watch, the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works.
In the decade following the Night Watch, Rembrandt's paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color. Simultaneously, figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and, considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (Susanna and the Elders, 1637–47).
At the same time, there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes. In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes.
In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward fine, detailed works. His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent. His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of 'finish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings. The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting's surface. The result is a richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner.
In later years, biblical themes were often depicted but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait-like figures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self-portraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen), and several moving images of both men and women (The Jewish Bride, c. 1666)—in love, in life, and before God.
Graphic works
Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from 1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press and practically abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work. He took easily to etching and, though he learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself. At first he used a style based on drawing but soon moved to one based on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line. Towards the end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style, with fewer bitings. He worked on the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s, and it was the "critical work in the middle of his career", from which his final etching style began to emerge.
Although the print only survives in two states, the first very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it.
In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically changed. He now used hatching to create his dark areas, which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently, and on vellum. He began to use "surface tone," leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression. He made more use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions.
His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although the 27 self-portraits are relatively more common, and portraits of other people less so. The landscapes, mostly small, largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century. Of the many hundreds of drawings Rembrandt made, only about two hundred have a landscape motif as their subject, and of the approximately three hundred etchings, about thirty show a landscape. As for his painted landscapes, one does not even get beyond eight works. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects, many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene, compositions have no equivalent in his paintings. He owned, until forced to sell it, a magnificent collection of prints by other artists, and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna, Raphael, Hercules Seghers, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.
Drawings by Rembrandt and his pupils/followers have been extensively studied by many artists and scholars through the centuries. His original draughtsmanship has been described as an individualistic art style that was very similar to East Asian old masters, most notably Chinese masters: a "combination of formal clarity and calligraphic vitality in the movement of pen or brush that is closer to Chinese painting in technique and feeling than to anything in European art before the twentieth century".
Asian inspiration
Rembrandt was interested in Mughal miniatures, especially around the 1650s. He drew versions of some 23 Mughal paintings and may have owned an album of them. These miniatures include paintings of Shah Jahan, Akbar, Jahangir and Dara Shikoh and may have influenced the costumes and other aspects of his works.
The Night Watch
Rembrandt painted The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642, which became his most famous work. This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by 1781 the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent broad day—a party of 18 musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight. For Théophile Thoré it was the prettiest painting in the world.
The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen, the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up than an action scene. Instead, he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission, though the exact nature of the mission or event is a matter of ongoing debate.
Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a success from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut off (approximately 20% from the left-hand side was removed) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to the town hall in 1715. In 1817 this large painting was moved to the Trippenhuis. Since 1885 the painting is on display at the Rijksmuseum. In 1940 the painting was moved to Kasteel Radboud; in 1941 to a bunker near Heemskerk; in 1942 to St Pietersberg; in June 1945 it was shipped back to Amsterdam.
Expert assessments
In 1968, the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings. As a result of their findings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list, although others have been added back. Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.
One example of activity is The Polish Rider, now housed in the Frick Collection in New York City. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the beginning of the twentieth century but for many decades later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held, agreed that it was indeed by the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion, the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still reading "Rembrandt" and not "attributed to" or "school of". More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick; In his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes, Simon Schama and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both argued for attribution to the master. Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven and favour different attributions for different parts of the work.
A similar issue was raised by Schama concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum, has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw. Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle.
Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it as "a somewhat abnormal work" by Rembrandt. Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and modeling.
The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself: Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping Woman, owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet, painted in 1640. The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example: in 2014, Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair "was a vast mistake...it is a most important painting. The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt's experimentation". This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who studied Rembrandt throughout his career.
Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution, since, like many masters before him, he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals, and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments. As well, there were later imitations of his work, and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable. It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.
Painting materials
Technical investigation of Rembrandt's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Kassel) was conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977. The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt's palette consisted of the following pigments: lead white, various ochres, Vandyke brown, bone black, charcoal black, lamp black, vermilion, madder lake, azurite, ultramarine, yellow lake and lead-tin-yellow. Synthetic orpiment was shown in the shadows of the sleeve of the jewish groom. This toxic arsenic yellow was rarely used in oil painting. One painting (Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora) reportedly contains gamboge. Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors, the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar's Feast in the National Gallery in London. The book by Bomford describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London. The entire array of pigments employed by Rembrandt can be found at ColourLex. The best source for technical information on Rembrandt's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports, infrared and radiography images and other scientific details.
Name and signature
"Rembrandt" is a modification of the spelling of the artist's first name that he introduced in 1633. "Harmenszoon" indicates that his father's name is Harmen. "van Rijn" indicates that his family lived near the Rhine.
Rembrandt's earliest signatures (c. 1625) consisted of an initial "R", or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon), and starting in 1629, "RHL" (the "L" stood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632, he used this monogram early in the year, then added his family name to it, "RHL-van Rijn" but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added a "d", and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name, most of the documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original "Rembrant" spelling. (Note: the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there is only one etching signed "RHL-v. Rijn," the large-format "Raising of Lazarus," B 73). His practice of signing his work with his first name, later followed by Vincent van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to by their first names alone.
Workshop
Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils. The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include Ferdinand Bol,
Adriaen Brouwer, Gerrit Dou, Willem Drost, Heiman Dullaart, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Carel Fabritius,
Govert Flinck, Hendrick Fromantiou, Aert de Gelder, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Abraham Janssens, Godfrey Kneller, Philip de Koninck, Jacob Levecq, Nicolaes Maes, Jürgen Ovens, Christopher Paudiß, Willem de Poorter, Jan Victors, and Willem van der Vliet.
Museum collections
The largest collections of Rembrandt's work are in the United States in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (mostly portraits) and the Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, and J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, in total 86 paintings. Other large groups are in Germany, with 69 paintings, at the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel, and elsewhere. The UK has a total of 51, especially in the National Gallery and Royal Collection. There are 49 in the Netherlands, many in the Rijksmuseum, which has The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride, and the Mauritshuis in The Hague. Others can be found in The Louvre, the Hermitage Museum, and Nationalmuseum, Stockholm. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt.
The largest collections of drawings are in the older large museums such as the Rijksmuseum, Louvre and British Museum. All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints, although as some exist in only a single impression, no collection is complete. The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public or can easily be viewed by them in the print room, varies greatly.
The Rembrandt House Museum has fittings and furniture that are mostly not original but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had, and those in the many drawings and etchings set in the house, and contemporary paintings reflecting Rembrandt's use of the house for art dealing. His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press, where replica prints are printed. The museum has a few early Rembrandt paintings, many loaned but an important collection of his prints, a good selection of which are on rotating display.
Influence and recognition
Rembrandt is one of the most famous and the best expertly researched visual artists in history. His life and art have long attracted the attention of interdisciplinary scholarship such as art history, socio-political history,<ref>*Negri, Antonio: The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).
Ahmad, Iftikhar (2008), 'Art in Social Studies: Exploring the World and Ourselves with Rembrandt,'. The Journal of Aesthetic Education 42(2): 19–37
Rembrandt regarded the Bible as the greatest Book in the world and held it in reverent affection all his life, in affluence and poverty, in success and failure. He never wearied in his devotion to biblical themes as subjects for his paintings and other graphic presentations, and in these portrayals he was the first to have the courage to use the Jews of his environment as models for the heroes of the sacred narratives.|Franz Landsberger, a German Jewish émigré to America, the author of Rembrandt, the Jews, and the Bible (1946)}}
Criticism of Rembrandt
Rembrandt has also been one of the most controversial (visual) artists in history. Several of Rembrandt's notable critics include Constantijn Huygens, Joachim von Sandrart, Andries Pels (who called Rembrandt "the first heretic in the art of painting"), Samuel van Hoogstraten, Arnold Houbraken, Filippo Baldinucci, Gerard de Lairesse, Roger de Piles, John Ruskin, and Eugène Fromentin:
In popular culture
While shooting The Warrens of Virginia (1915), Cecil B. DeMille had experimented with lighting instruments borrowed from a Los Angeles opera house. When business partner Sam Goldwyn saw a scene in which only half an actor's face was illuminated, he feared the exhibitors would pay only half the price for the picture. DeMille remonstrated that it was Rembrandt lighting. "Sam's reply was jubilant with relief," recalled DeMille. "For Rembrandt lighting the exhibitors would pay double!"
Works about Rembrandt
Literary works (e.g. poetry and fiction)
To the Picture of Rembrandt, a Russian-language poem by Mikhail Lermontov, 1830
Gaspard de la nuit: Fantaisies à la manière de Rembrandt et de Callot, a series of French-language poems by Aloysius Bertrand, 1842
Picture This, a novel by Joseph Heller, 1988
Moi, la Putain de Rembrandt, a French-language novel by Sylvie Matton, 1998
Van Rijn, a novel by Sarah Emily Miano, 2006
I Am Rembrandt's Daughter, a novel by Lynn Cullen, 2007
The Rembrandt Affair, a novel by Daniel Silva, 2011
The Anatomy Lesson, a novel by Nina Siegal, 2014
Rembrandt's Mirror, a novel by Kim Devereux, 2015
Music
The Donna Summer song Dinner with Gershwin contain the lyrics "I want to watch Rembrandt sketch."
Films
The Stolen Rembrandt, a 1914 film directed by Leo D. Maloney and J. P. McGowan
The Tragedy of a Great / Die Tragödie eines Großen, a 1920 film directed by Arthur Günsburg
The Missing Rembrandt, a 1932 film directed by Leslie S. Hiscott
Rembrandt, a 1936 film directed by Alexander Korda
Rembrandt, a 1940 film
Rembrandt in de schuilkelder / Rembrandt in the Bunker, a 1941 film directed by Gerard Rutten
Rembrandt, a 1942 film directed by Hans Steinhoff
Rembrandt: A Self-Portrait, a 1954 documentary film by Morrie Roizman
Rembrandt, schilder van de mens / Rembrandt, Painter of Man, a 1957 film directed by Bert Haanstra
Rembrandt fecit 1669, a 1977 film directed by Jos Stelling
The Warriors, a 1979 film featuring a graffiti artist called Rembrandt.
Rembrandt: The Public Eye and the Private Gaze, a 1992 documentary film by Simon Schama
Rembrandt, a 1999 film directed by Charles Matton
, a 1999 film directed by David Devine
Stealing Rembrandt, a 2003 film directed by Jannik Johansen and Anders Thomas Jensen
Simon Schama's Power of Art: Rembrandt, a 2006 BBC documentary film series by Simon Schama
Nightwatching, a 2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway
Rembrandt's J'Accuse, a 2008 documentary film by Peter Greenaway
, a 2011 film directed by Marleen Gorris
Schama on Rembrandt: Masterpieces of the Late Years, a 2014 documentary film by Simon Schama
Rembrandt: From the National Gallery, London and Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, a 2014 documentary film by Exhibition on Screen
Selected works
The Entombment of Christ () – Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, Glasgow
The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) – Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyon
Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1630) – Mauritshuis, The Hague
Old Man with a Gold Chain () – Art Institute of Chicago
Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) – Dulwich Picture Gallery, London
Philosopher in Meditation (1632) – The Louvre, Paris
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) – Mauritshuis, The Hague
Judith at the Banquet of Holofernes (1634) – Museo del Prado, Madrid
Descent from the Cross (1634) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Looted from the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel in 1806.
Belshazzar's Feast () – National Gallery, London
The Prodigal Son in the Tavern () – Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden
Danaë (, reworked before 1643) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
The Scholar at the Lectern (1641) – Royal Castle, Warsaw
The Girl in a Picture Frame (1641) – Royal Castle, Warsaw
The Night Watch, formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Boaz and Ruth (1643) – Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire & Gemaldegalerie, Berlin
The Mill (1645/48) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Susanna and the Elders (1647) – Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
Christ Healing the Sick, also known as the Hundred Guilder Print () – Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin, Ohio. Name derives from a print seller who claimed to have sold an impression of the print back to Rembrandt for 100 Guilders.
Head of Christ (1648) – Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer (1653) – Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
The Three Crosses (1653) – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) – The Louvre, Paris
Christ Presented to the People () – Various versions at different museums. One of the two largest prints made by Rembrandt.
Pallas Athena () – Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon
Portrait of Dirck van Os () – Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska
Self-Portrait with Beret and Turned-Up Collar (1659) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660) – Pushkin Museum, Moscow
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis () – Nationalmuseum, Stockholm. The majority of the original painting is now lost as Rembrandt cut it up in order for it to be sold. It is also his last secular history painting.
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662) – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
The Jewish Bride () – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Haman before Esther (1665) – National Museum of Art of Romania, Bucharest
Self-Portrait at the Age of 63 (1669) – National Gallery, London. One of Rembrandt's last self-portraits.
The Return of the Prodigal Son (1669) – Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. One of Rembrandt's last paintings.
Exhibitions
Sept–Oct 1898: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Jan–Feb 1899: Rembrandt Tentoonstelling (Rembrandt Exhibition), Royal Academy, London.
21 April 2011 – 18 July 2011: Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus, Musée du Louvre.
16 September 2013 – 14 November 2013: Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher, Syracuse University Art Galleries.
19 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection, National Arts Club.
19 October 2014 – 4 January 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art.
15 October 2014 – 18 January 2015: Rembrandt: The Late Works, The National Gallery, London.
12 February 2015 – 17 May 2015: Late Rembrandt, The Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
16 September 2018 – 6 January 2019: Rembrandt – Painter as Printmaker, Denver Art Museum, Denver.
24 August 2019 – 1 December 2019: Leiden circa 1630: Rembrandt Emerges, Agnes Etherington Art Centre, Kingston, Ontario.
4 October 2019 – 2 February 2020: Rembrandt's Light, Dulwich Picture Gallery, London.
18 February 2020 – 30 August 2020: Rembrandt and Amsterdam portraiture, 1590–1670 , Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid.
10 August 2020 – 1 November 2020: Young Rembrandt, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
Paintings
Self-portraits
Other major paintings
Drawings and etchings
Rembrandt drawings at the Albertina
Notes
References
Works cited
Ackley, Clifford, et al., Rembrandt's Journey, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004.
Bomford, D. et al., Art in the making: Rembrandt, New edition, Yale University Press, 2006
Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio, Rijksmuseum, 2006.
Buvelot, Quentin, White, Christopher (eds), Rembrandt by himself, 1999, National Gallery
Clark, Kenneth, An Introduction to Rembrandt, 1978, London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978
Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen, Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012.
Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 1995.
The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in Original Size, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York: Dover, 1988.
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995,
van de Wetering, Ernst in Rembrandt by himself, 1999 National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague,
van de Wetering, Ernst, Rembrandt: The Painter at Work, Amsterdam University Press, 2000.
White, Christopher, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt, 1999, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London
Further reading
Catalogue raisonné: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt Research Project:
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume I, which deals with works from Rembrandt's early years in Leiden (1629–1631), 1982
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume II: 1631–1634. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2, 1986,
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume III, 1635–1642. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie, S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed. Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990,
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings – Volume IV. Ernst van de Wetering, Karin Groen et al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. . p. 692. (Self-Portraits)
Rembrandt. Images and metaphors, Christian and Astrid Tümpel (editors), Haus Books London 2006
External links
A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn from the National Gallery, London
Works and literature on Rembrandt from Pubhist.com
The Drawings of Rembrandt: a revision of Otto Benesch's catalogue raisonné by Martin Royalton-Kisch (in progress)
Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site of the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam, with images of many of his etchings
Rembrandt van Rijn, General Resources
The transparent connoisseur 3: the 30 million pound question by Gary Schwartz
Rembrandt
The Rembrandt Database research data on the paintings, including the full contents of the first volumes of A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings by the Rembrandt Research Project
Die Urkunden über Rembrandt by C. Hofstede de Groot (1906).
1606 births
1669 deaths
Art collectors from Amsterdam
Artists from Leiden
Dutch art dealers
Dutch Christians
Dutch draughtsmen
Dutch etchers
Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch Golden Age printmakers
Dutch male painters
Dutch portrait painters
Dutch printmakers
Engravers from Amsterdam
Leiden University alumni
Painters from Amsterdam
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
17th-century Dutch painters |
4254360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior%20cingulate%20cortex | Posterior cingulate cortex | The posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) is the caudal part of the cingulate cortex, located posterior to the anterior cingulate cortex. This is the upper part of the "limbic lobe". The cingulate cortex is made up of an area around the midline of the brain. Surrounding areas include the retrosplenial cortex and the precuneus.
Cytoarchitectonically the posterior cingulate cortex is associated with Brodmann areas 23 and 31.
The PCC forms a central node in the default mode network of the brain. It has been shown to communicate with various brain networks simultaneously and is involved in diverse functions. Along with the precuneus, the PCC has been implicated as a neural substrate for human awareness in numerous studies of both the anesthetized and vegetative (coma) states. Imaging studies indicate a prominent role for the PCC in pain and episodic memory retrieval. Increased size of the ventral PCC is related to a decline in working memory performance. The PCC has also been strongly implicated as a key part of several intrinsic control networks.
Anatomy
Location and boundaries
The posterior cingulate cortex lies behind the anterior cingulate cortex, forming a part of the posteromedial cortex, along with the retrosplenial cortex (Brodmann areas 29 and 30) and precuneus (located posterior and superior to the PCC). The PCC, together with the retrosplenial cortex, forms the retrosplenial gyrus. The posterior cingulate cortex is bordered by the following brain regions: the marginal ramus of the cingulate sulcus (superiorly), the corpus callosum (inferiorly), the parieto-occipital sulcus (posteriorly), and Brodmann area 24 (anteriorly).
Cytoarchitectural organization
The posterior cingulate cortex is considered a paralimbic cortical structure, consisting of Brodmann areas 23 and 31. As part of the paralimbic cortex, it has fewer than six layers, placing its cell architecture in between the six-layered neocortex and the more primitive allocortex of core limbic structures. It has also been associated with the hippocampocentric subdivision of the paralimbic zone. The cytoarchitecture of the PCC is not entirely uniform, instead it contains distinct anterior and dorsal subregions, which are increasingly understood as distinct in function, as well as cytoarchitectural structure.
Structural connections
Nonhuman structure
In non-human primates the following structural connections of the posterior cingulate cortex are well documented:
Reciprocal connection with other regions of the posteromedial cortex.
High connectivity to other paralimbic and limbic structures.
Reciprocal connections to the medial temporal lobe.
Dense connections to the hippocampal formation, the parahippocampal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and subgenual parts of the anterior cingulate cortex.
Prominent connections to the areas of heteromodal association in the front, temporal and parietal lobes.
Strong reciprocal connections to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (roughly Brodmann area 46) and the frontal poles (Brodmann areas 10 and 11).
Less prominent connections to Brodmann areas 9/46, 8 and 9.
Connections to the dorsal parts of the anterior cingulate cortex.
Dense connections to the thalamus in the form of a continuous strip that crosses numerous pulvinar nuclei and the striatum.
As is true in other areas of the posteromedial cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex has no apparent connections to primary sensory or motor areas. Thus, it is unlikely to be involved in low-level sensory or motor processing.
Human structure
While many of the connections in non-human primates may be present in humans, they are less well documented. Studies have shown strong reciprocal connections to medial temporal lobe memory structures, such as the entorhinal cortex and the parahippocampal gyrus, the latter being involved in associative learning and episodic memory. In humans, the PCC is also connected to areas involved in emotion and social behavior, attention (the lateral intraparietal cortex and precuneus), learning and motivation (the anterior and lateral thalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex).
Function
The posterior cingulate cortex is highly connected and one of the most metabolically active regions in the brain, but there is no consensus as to its cognitive role. Cerebral blood flow and metabolic rate in the PCC are approximately 40% higher than average across the brain. The high functional connectivity of the PCC, signifies extensive intrinsic connectivity networks (networks of brain regions involved in a range of tasks that share common spatio-temporal patterns of activity).
Emotion and memory
The posterior cingulate cortex has been linked by lesion studies to spatial memory, configural learning, and maintenance of discriminative avoidance learning. More recently the PCC was shown to display intense activity when autobiographical memories (such as those concerning friends and family) are recalled successfully. In a study involving autobiographical recollection, the caudal part of the left PCC was the only brain structure highly active in all subjects. Furthermore, the PCC does not show this same activation during attempted but unsuccessful retrieval, implying an important role in successful memory retrieval (see below: Alzheimer's disease).
The posterior cingulate cortex has also been firmly linked to emotional salience. Thus, it has been hypothesized that the emotional importance of autobiographical memories may contribute to the strength and consistency of activity in the PCC upon successful recollection of these memories. The posterior cingulate cortex is significantly bilaterally activated by emotional stimuli, independent of valence (positive or negative). This is in contrast to other structures in the limbic system, such as the amygdala, which are thought to respond disproportionately to negative stimuli, or the left frontal pole, which activated only in response to positive stimuli. These results support the hypothesis that the posterior cingulate cortex mediates interactions between emotion and memory.
Intrinsic control networks
The posterior cingulate cortex exhibits connectivity with a wide range of intrinsic control networks. Its most widely known role is as a central node in the default mode network (DMN). The default mode network (and the PCC) is highly reactive and quickly deactivates during tasks with externally directed, or presently centered, attention (such as working memory or meditation). Conversely, the DMN is active when attention is internally directed (during episodic memory retrieval, planning, and daydreaming). A failure of the DMN to deactivate at proper times is associated with poor cognitive function, thereby indicating its importance in attention.
In addition to the default mode network, the posterior cingulate cortex is also involved in the dorsal attention network (a top-down control of visual attention and eye movement) and the frontoparietal control network (involved in executive motor control). Furthermore, fMRI studies have shown that the posterior cingulate cortex activates during visual tasks when some form of monetary incentive is involved, essentially functioning as a neural interface between motivation-related areas and top-down control of visual attention.
The relationship between these networks within the PCC is not clearly understood. When activity increases in the dorsal attention network and the frontoparietal control network, it must simultaneously decrease in the DMN in a closely correlated way. This anti-correlated pattern is indicative of the various differences and importance of subregions in the posterior cingulate cortex.
Considering the relation of the PCC with the DMN, with suppressed posterior cingulate activity favoring low cognitive introspection and higher external attention and increased activity indicating memory retrieval and planning, it has been hypothesized that this brain region is heavily involved in noticing internal and external changes and in facilitating novel behavior or thought in response. High activity, then, would indicate continued operation with the current cognitive set, while lower activity would indicate exploration, flexibility and renewed learning.
An alternative hypothesis is focused more on the difference between the dorsal and ventral subregions and takes into consideration their functional separation. In this model, the PCC is hypothesized to take a chief regulatory role in focusing internal and external attention. Mounting evidence that the PCC is involved in both integrating memories of experiences and initiating a signal to change behavioral strategies supports this hypothesis. Under this model, the PCC plays a crucial role in controlling state of arousal, the breadth of focus and the internal or external focus of attention. This hypothesis emphasizes the PCC as a dynamic network, rather than a fixed and unchanging structure.
While both of the hypotheses are the result of scientific studies, the role of the PCC is still not well understood and there remains much work to be done to investigate the extent of their veracity.
Meditation
From neuroimaging studies and subjective descriptions, the PCC has been found to be activated during self-related thinking and deactivated during meditation. Using generative topographic mapping, it was further found that undistracted, effortless mind wandering corresponds with PCC deactivation, whereas distracted and controlled awareness corresponds with PCC activation. These results track closely with findings about the role of the PCC in the DMN.
Disorders
Structural and functional abnormalities in the PCC result in a range of neurological and psychiatric disorders. The PCC likely integrates and mediates information in the brain. Therefore, functional abnormalities of the PCC might be an accumulation of remote and widespread damage in the brain.
Alzheimer's disease
The PCC is commonly affected by neurodegenerative disease. In fact, reduced metabolism in the PCC has been identified as an early sign of Alzheimer's disease, and is frequently present before a clinical diagnosis. The reduced metabolism in the PCC is typically one part in a diffuse pattern of metabolic dysfunction in the brain that includes medial temporal lobe structures and the anterior thalamus, abnormalities that may be the result of damage in isolated but connected regions. For instance, Meguro et al. (1999) show that experimental damage of the rhinal cortex results in hypometabolism of the PCC. In Alzheimer's disease, metabolic abnormality is linked to amyloid deposition and brain atrophy with a spatial distribution that resembles the nodes of the default mode network. In early Alzheimer's, functional connectivity within the DMN is reduced, affecting the connection between the PCC and the hippocampus, and these altered patterns can reflect ApoE genetic status (a risk factor associated with the disease). It has been found that neurodegenerative diseases spread 'prion-like' through the brain. For example, when the proteins amyloid-b and TDP-43 are in their abnormal form, they spread across synapses and are associated with neurodegeneration. This transmission of abnormal protein would be constrained by the organization of white matter connections and could potentially explain the spatial distribution of pathology within the DMN, in Alzheimer's . In Alzheimer's disease, the topology of white matter connectivity helps in predicting atrophic patterns, possibly explaining why the PCC is affected in the early stages of the disease.
Autism spectrum disorder
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are associated with metabolic and functional abnormalities of the PCC. Individuals with ASDs show reduction in metabolism, exhibit abnormal functional responses and demonstrate reductions in functional connectivity. One study showed these reductions are prominent in the PCC. Studies have shown that the abnormalities in cingulate responses during interpersonal interaction correlate with the severity of symptoms in ASD, and the failure to show task dependent deactivation in the PCC correlates with overall social function. Finally, post-mortem studies show that the PCC in patients with ASD have cytoarchitectonic abnormalities, including reduced levels of GABA A receptors and benzodiazepine binding sites.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
It has been suggested that ADHD is a disorder of the DMN, where neural systems are disrupted by uncontrolled activity that leads to attentional lapses. In a meta-analysis of structural MRI studies, Nakao et al. (2011) found that patients with ADHD exhibit an increased left PCC, suggesting that developmental abnormalities affect the PCC. In fact, PCC function is abnormal in ADHD. Within the DMN, functional connectivity is reduced and resting state activity is used to diagnose ADHD in children. Treatment for ADHD, includes psychostimulant medication that directly affects PCC activity. Other studies addressing medication for PCC abnormalities, report that the PCC may only respond to stimulant treatments and the effectiveness of medication can be dependent on motivation levels. Furthermore, ADHD has been associated with the gene SNAP25. In healthy children, SNAP25 polymorphism is linked to working memory capacity, altered PCC structure, and task-dependent PCC deactivation patterns on working memory task.
Depression
Abnormal PCC functional connectivity has been linked to major depression, with variable results. One study reports increased PCC functional connectivity, while another shows that untreated patients had decreased functional connectivity from the PCC to the caudate. Other studies have looked at interactions between the PCC and the sub-genual cingulate region (Brodmann area 25), a region of the brain that potentially causes depression. The anterior node of the DMN is formed, in part, by the highly connected PCC and Brodmann area 25. These two regions are metabolically overactive in treatment resistant major depression. The link between the activity in the PCC and Brodmann area 25 correlates with rumination, a feature of depression. This link between the two regions could influence medication responses in patients. Already, it has been found that both regions show alterations in metabolism after antidepressant treatment. Furthermore, patients who undergo deep brain stimulation, have increased glucose metabolism and cerebral flow in the PCC, while also showing an altered Brodmann area 25.
Schizophrenia
Abnormal activity in the PCC has been linked to schizophrenia, a mental disorder with common symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and a lack of emotional intelligence. What is common between symptoms is that they have to do with an inability to distinguish between internal and external events. Two PET studies on patients with schizophrenia showed abnormal metabolism in the PCC. One study reports that glucose metabolism was decreased in people with schizophrenia, while another shows abnormal glucose metabolism that was highly correlated in the pulvinar and the PCC. In the latter study, thalamic interactions with the frontal lobes were reduced, which could mean that schizophrenia affects thalamocortical connections. Further abnormalities in the PCC, abnormal NMDA, cannabinoid, and GABAergic receptor binding have been found with post-mortem autoradiography of people with schizophrenia. Abnormalities in the structure and white matter connections of the PCC have also been recorded in patients with schizophrenia. Those with a poor outcome often have reduced PCC volume. Furthermore, white matter abnormalities in the cingulum bundle, a structure that connects the PCC to other limbic structures, are found in some patients with schizophrenia. In functional MRI studies, abnormal PCC function., has been linked to increases and decreases in functional connectivity. There are also abnormal PCC responses during task performance. These abnormalities may contribute to psychotic symptoms of some persons with schizophrenia. Research on the effect of the psychedelic drug psilocybin shows that the altered state of consciousness induced by this drug can be correlated with abnormal metabolism and functional connectivity of the PCC, as well as a reduction in the strength of anti-correlations between the DMN and the frontoparietal control network (FPCN). Because these networks contribute to internal and external cognition, abnormalities in the PCC might contribute to psychosis in some types of schizophrenia.
Traumatic brain injury
After traumatic brain injury (TBI), abnormalities have been shown in the PCC. Often, head injuries produce widespread axonal injury that disconnect brain regions and lead to cognitive impairment. This is also related to reduced metabolism within the PCC. Studies of performance on simple choice reaction time tasks after TBI show, in particular, that the pattern of functional connectivity from the PCC to the rest of the DMN can predict TBI impairments. They also found that greater damage to the cingulum bundle, that connects the PCC to the anterior DMN, was correlated with sustained attention impairment. In a subsequent study, it was found that TBIs are related to a difficulty in switching from automatic to controlled responses. Within selected tasks, patients with TBI showed impaired motor inhibition that was associated with failure to rapidly reactive the PCC. Collectively, this suggests that the failure to control the PCC/DMN activity can lead to attentional lapses in TBI patients.
Anxiety disorders
There is accumulating evidence for PCC dysfunction underlying many childhood/adolescent-onset mental disorders. Further, anxiety disorder patients show an association between increased extinction–related PCC activity and greater symptom severity. PCC dysfunction may also play a role in anxiety disorders during adolescence.
See also
Cingulate cortex
Cingulum
References
External links
For details regarding MRI definitions of the cingulate cortex based on the Desikan-Killiany Brain atlas, see:
Medial surface of cerebral hemisphere
Gyri |
4254785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20Nationale%20%28Quebec%29 | Union Nationale (Quebec) | The Union nationale () was a conservative and nationalist provincial political party in Quebec, Canada, that identified with Québécois autonomism. It was created during the Great Depression and held power in Quebec from 1936 to 1939, and from 1944 to 1960 and from 1966 to 1970. The party was founded by Maurice Duplessis, who led it until his death in 1959.
The party was often referred to in English as the National Union, especially when it was still an electoral force, by both the media and, at times, the party.
History
Origin
The party started when the Action libérale nationale, a group of dissidents from the Quebec Liberal Party, formed a loose coalition with the Conservative Party of Quebec. In the 1935 Quebec election the two parties agreed to run only one candidate of either party in each riding. The Action libérale nationale (ALN) elected 26 out of 57 candidates and the Conservatives won 16 seats out of 33 districts.
Conservative leader Maurice Duplessis became Leader of the Opposition. He soon rose to prominence as he used the Standing Committee on Public Accounts to expose the corrupt practices of the Liberal government of Alexandre Taschereau and force it to call an early election.
Capitalizing on his success, Duplessis called a caucus meeting at Sherbrooke's Magog Hotel and received the support of 15 Conservatives and 22 ALN members in favour of a merger of the two parties under his leadership under the name Union nationale.
The new party had no formal ties to the federal Conservatives. It ran candidates in every district and won a majority of the seats in the 1936 election.
First term of office
Even though Duplessis had run on ideas inspired from the ALN platform, he soon alienated the more progressive members of his caucus. René Chaloult, Oscar Drouin, Joseph-Ernest Grégoire, Philippe Hamel, François Leduc and Adolphe Marcoux quit the party, while Rouville Beaudry and Grégoire Bélanger left politics.
The government adopted a farm credit policy in 1936, which was popular in rural areas where the party's most loyal base of supporters lived, but for the most part the administration of Maurice Duplessis protected the status quo. For instance, it gave the Catholic clergy government money to provide public education, health care and other social services.
Also, the legislature passed the Act to protect the Province Against Communistic Propaganda, better known as the Padlock Law, in 1937, which provided evidence of Duplessis's interest in appearing tough on communism.
World War II
Duplessis called an election shortly after Canada declared war against Germany. Federal Cabinet Member Ernest Lapointe, the Quebec lieutenant of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, promised that no one would face conscription if voters supported the Liberals. The pledge was devastating to the Union Nationale, which lost the 1939 election.
While serving in His Majesty's Loyal Opposition, the party opposed Women's suffrage which was enacted by the government of Adélard Godbout in 1940.
Second term in office
The Union Nationale enjoyed a surge after a majority of Canadian voters allowed the federal government to pass conscription. Duplessis, who would later create a provincial income tax equal to 15 per cent of the federal income tax, claimed that the Godbout government failed to impose the strict respect for the principles established in the British North America Act of 1867. The Liberals won a plurality of the vote in the 1944 election, finishing one point ahead of the Union Nationale. However, since rural areas were significantly overrepresented, the Union Nationale won 48 seats to the Liberals' 37, allowing Duplessis to return as premier.
World War II prosperity kept unemployment low. Machine politics, fiscal conservatism and a program of rural electrification consolidated the dominance of the Union Nationale over the province. The Duplessis government adopted the current flag of Quebec to replace the Union Jack. It won a landslide victory in the 1948 election. The Liberals were decimated; nearly all of their 14 MNAs were from Montreal's West Island. Godbout himself lost his own seat, leaving the Liberals without a full-time leader in the legislature.
On the debit side, Duplessis' relations with labour in general and trade unions in particular were difficult and led to a number of strikes. The government was also accused of being too strongly aligned with the Catholic clergy. Indeed, many priests openly supported the Duplessis government and attacked the Liberals by using the slogan Le ciel est bleu, l'enfer est rouge (Heaven is blue, hell is red)--a reference to the primary colours of both parties (blue for the UN, red for the Liberals). The government was also accused of discrimination against Jehovah's Witnesses, receiving insufficient royalties for the extraction the province's natural resources and allowing election fraud for its own benefit.
Nonetheless, the Union Nationale was re-elected in the 1952 election with a reduced majority, and in the 1956 election. Moreover, its influence was made obvious when its organization helped defeat Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau in 1957 and helped John Diefenbaker's Progressive Conservative's win a majority of the province's seats in the 1958 federal election—something that the Tories hadn't done in over 60 years.
Modernization and last term of office
Duplessis died in 1959 and was succeeded by his Minister of Social Welfare, Paul Sauvé. Well aware that he faced, at most, two years before the next election, Sauvé saw the need to modernize one of the most conservative governments in Canada, and initiated a program of reform called "100 Days of Change." However, he also died after only three months in office.
Labour Minister Antonio Barrette took over a government that was increasingly seen as tired and unfocused, despite Sauvé's efforts at reform. He called an election in 1960, almost a year before it was due. The Union Nationale went into the contest under its third leader in less than a year, and narrowly lost to Jean Lesage's Liberals. The new government implemented a vast program of social changes, which is now known as the Quiet Revolution.
Daniel Johnson, Sr. became the leader of the Union Nationale in 1961. He was chosen by party delegates rather than by his colleagues only. The party was heavily defeated in the 1962 election, but it held a convention to discuss its platform in 1965 and opened its structures to card-carrying supporters. Johnson published a book called Égalité ou indépendance (Equality or independence), which appealed to a number of nationalist voters. Even though the Liberals won a plurality of the vote in the 1966 election, the Union Nationale eked out a narrow majority in part because rural areas were significantly overrepresented. Among the newly elected MLAs, there were three former federal politicians: Rémi Paul, Jean-Noël Tremblay and Clément Vincent.
Johnson set a slower pace, but sustained many reforms initiated by the Liberals. His administration established CEGEPs (Collèges d'enseignement général et professionnel, or "College of General and Vocational Education") in 1967, abolished the Legislative Council of Quebec and completed the dam and the generating station of Manic-5 in 1968 and laid the groundwork for the public health insurance plan that would later be implemented by the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa.
Electoral decline
The official visit of French President Charles de Gaulle in Canada in 1967 and Daniel Johnson, Sr.'s sudden death in 1968 left the party divided between its nationalist wing and members who clearly positioned themselves as federalists. The latter prevailed when Jean-Jacques Bertrand won the party leadership over Jean-Guy Cardinal, but the controversy over a language legislation known as Bill 63 prompted a number of nationalist supporters, and legislators such as Antonio Flamand and Jérôme Proulx to join the Parti Québécois.
In addition, the Union Nationale lost a portion of its conservative base, including MNA Gaston Tremblay, to the Ralliement créditiste. Bertrand was unable to inspire voters and the party seemed to have lost touch with Quebec society. In the 1970 election, the Union Nationale was resoundingly defeated, winning only 17 seats. While it finished third in the popular vote behind the PQ, it still managed to become the Official Opposition.
Gabriel Loubier took over as leader and the party became known as Unité Québec from October 25, 1971 to January 14, 1973. The name change was not enough to halt the party's decline, and at the 1973 election, it was shut out of the legislature for the first time.
In 1974, former UN Cabinet Member and interim leader Maurice Bellemare won a by-election, and the party again was represented in the National Assembly. On May 31, 1975, the party merged with the tiny Parti présidentiel, a group of Créditiste dissidents led by Yvon Brochu, and kept the Union Nationale name.
In May 1976, business owner Rodrigue Biron, a former card-carrying Liberal supporter who had no experience in provincial politics, was chosen as party leader. Bellemare tried to flush out potential candidates for the leadership of the UN (such as former Liberal cabinet minister Jérôme Choquette) by calling a leadership convention for May 1976, but was unsuccessful. His impulsive policy statements and poor relations with the old guard of the party led to resignations of party officials, including Jacques Tétreault, who had been his most serious opponent for the party leadership. In September 1976, Biron abandoned a plan to unite his party with Choquette's Parti National Populaire, despite prior efforts made by the two groups.
The Union Nationale made a modest recovery in the 1976 election, winning 11 seats and 18.2% of the popular vote. While it came up just short of official party status in the legislature, the party appeared to be back from the brink. However, this did not last. From 1978 to 1980, five MNAs either crossed the floor, moved to federal politics or retired. The party bottomed out in 1980, when Biron resigned as leader and left the party to sit as an independent, and then joined the Parti Québécois a few months later. Michel Le Moignan, the MNA for the district of Gaspé, took over as interim leader. This left the once-mighty party with only five seats.
Collapse and deregistration
On January 9, 1981, federal Progressive Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) Roch LaSalle was acclaimed leader of the Union Nationale. In the April 1981 provincial election, the party lost all of its seats, and would never elect another MNA. La Salle resigned as leader and returned to federal politics—winning the by-election created by his resignation from parliament a few months earlier.
In 1982, lawyer Jean-Marc Beliveau, who had been appointed interim leader by the party executive following Lasalle's resignation, was elected Union Nationale leader by acclamation at what would be the party's final leadership convention. The party was $150,000 in debt, but appeared poised to return to the National Assembly when one public opinion poll in October 1984 showed it with 18% public support, its best showing since 1976, in the wake of the 1984 federal election in which the Progressive Conservatives won Quebec and the country in a landslide. However, Béliveau contested a June 3, 1985 by-election in Trois-Rivières and was defeated, finishing third with 16% of the vote. He tried to merge the UN with the fledgling Progressive Conservative Party of Quebec, but negotiations came to nothing. In September, after a group of veteran party members demanded his immediate resignation, Beliveau stepped down as leader.
The party appointed André Léveillé, a minister in the Johnson government, as interim party leader on October 28, 1985. Earlier, Léveillé had announced the formation of his own Parti du progrès, which he subsequently abandoned. Léveillé led the party into the December 2, 1985, general election. However, the party ran only 19 candidates, none of whom came close to being elected. It only won 0.23% of the popular vote, its worst showing ever. This would prove to be the final general election in which the Union Nationale fielded candidates.
By the 1980s, the Union Nationale no longer could rely on a significant get-out-the-vote organization or attract any media attention. The electorate was increasingly polarized over the constitutional issue, with conservative-leaning voters split between either the federalist Liberals or the sovereigntist Parti Québécois in provincial elections.
Furthermore, a number of small conservative and créditiste parties were created and were in competition with the Union Nationale for the few thousands of votes that were still up for grabs. Those parties included André Asselin's Progressive Conservative Party of Quebec, Jacques E. Tardif's Unité Québec and Jean-Paul Poulin's Parti crédit social uni. The situation accelerated the demise of the Union Nationale.
On June 19, 1989, Quebec chief electoral officer Pierre F. Côté withdrew the party's registration after the party was found to be nearly $350,000 in debt. As a result of this decision, it was no longer able to receive contributions or make expenditures. The next day, the interim leader of the party, Michel Le Brun, told a reporter that he would contest the decision before the Quebec Superior Court, arguing that the decision was unfair, and a violation of both the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Quebec Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It was the first time in Quebec that a party had lost its official status as a result of its debts.
Le Brun resurrected the Union Nationale under the name Parti Renaissance on June 26, 1992. It ran candidates in two by-elections in 1993, but the party did not field any eligible candidates in the 1994 election and lost its registration on August 27, 1994.
Although another attempt was made to revive the Union Nationale in 1998, it failed when the party failed to nominate enough candidates to be registered. The Action démocratique du Québec (ADQ) was established about at the same time and made a significant breakthrough in the districts that were once considered the base of the Union Nationale's support. This has continued with Coalition Avenir Québec, which has sometimes drawn comparisons with Union Nationale.
In 2009, former Union Nationale MNAs Serge Fontaine and Bertrand Goulet (both of whom had been among the last Union Nationale members elected to the legislature) announced the formation of a new Conservative Party of Quebec. Fontaine had asked Éric Caire of the ADQ to join the party and become its leader, with a view to attract disaffected ADQ supporters, but this did not materialize and Caire now sits as a member of the Coalition Avenir Québec.
The Parti démocratie chrétienne du Québec, a minor political party which garners less than 1% of the popular vote, was founded in 2000 and emulates the Union Nationale by combining moderate Quebec nationalism with Christian social conservatism. It changed its name in 2012 to the Parti unité nationale.
Vocabulary
The media claimed that the Parti Québécois was going through a phase of Union-Nationalization () when, in the mid-1980s, it chose Pierre-Marc Johnson as its leader and put the issue of Quebec sovereignty on the back burner.
Party leaders
Source:
General election results
1 Compared to the 1935 election in which the Action libérale nationale, led by Paul Gouin, and the Quebec Conservative Party, led by Maurice Duplessis elected, which elected 42 MLAs (27 ALN and 15 Conservatives) running as an electoral alliance under the banner of the Union nationale. The two parties formally merged prior to the 1936 election.
See also
Coalition Avenir Québec
Clerico-nationalism
Parti nationaliste chrétien
Action démocratique du Québec
Political parties in Quebec
List of Quebec general elections
National Assembly of Quebec
Parti conservateur du Québec
Parti National Populaire
Politics of Quebec
Timeline of Quebec history
Union Nationale leadership elections
Notes
External links
National Assembly historical information
La Politique québécoise sur le Web
Provincial political parties in Quebec
Political parties established in 1935
Defunct political parties in Canada
Conservative parties in Canada
1935 establishments in Quebec
1989 disestablishments in Quebec
Political parties disestablished in 1989
Maurice Duplessis
Right-wing populism in Canada
Far-right politics in Canada |
4255025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atma%20Jaya%20Catholic%20University%20of%20Indonesia | Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia | Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia (also known as "Atma Jaya University" or "Atma Jaya"; or abbreviated as Unika Atma Jaya) is an institute of higher learning in Jakarta, Indonesia, which was founded by Atma Jaya Foundation on 1 June 1960. Atma Jaya has three campuses in Jakarta Metropolitan Area, in which the main campus is located in Semanggi, South Jakarta. The second campus, the center for health development, is located in Pluit, North Jakarta, next to its teaching hospital, Atma Jaya Hospital. The new campus is located in Tangerang, Banten (also called BSD Campus), and is planned to be the main campus for undergraduate students.
According to a survey by GlobeAsia Magazine in 2008 Atma Jaya was ranked third among all private universities in Indonesia. The survey of Tempo magazine from 2005 to 2007 put Atma Jaya in the top ten best universities in Indonesia. The General Directorate of Higher Education categorizes Atma Jaya in 50 Promising Indonesian Universities out of 2864 higher education institutions in Indonesia.
Since 2008 Atma Jaya has been increasing the number of undergraduate and graduate programs, and is constructing a new campus in Bumi Serpong Damai, Tangerang.
The university has been visited once by a reigning pope. Pope John Paul II visited on 12 October 1989. One of its main buildings was named after Pope John Paul II's original name: Karol Wojtyła.
History
In June 1952, the bishops at an all-Java Bishops Meeting first dreamed of founding a Catholic institution of higher learning. The inspiration took form on 1 June 1960 with the establishment of the Atma Jaya Foundation. This institution later founded Atma Jaya Catholic University. Among the first founders were Ir. J.P. Cho, Ir. Lo Siang Hien-Ginting, Drs. Goei Tjong Tik, I.J. Kasimo, J.B. Legiman S.H, Drs. F.X. Frans Seda, Pang Lay Kim, Tan Bian Seng, Anton M. Moeliono, St. Munadjat Danusaputro, J.E. Tan, Ben Mang Reng Say, Dr. Tjiook Tiauw Hie.
During its early years, the Ursuline Sisters helped Atma Jaya by providing classrooms at their school complexes in Lapangan Banteng Utara and at Santa Theresia, Menteng. Since 1967, Atma Jaya gradually moved to the campus at Jalan Jendral Sudirman, now known as the Semanggi Campus, and then to the Pluit Campus in North Jakarta which houses the Faculty of Medicine, Atma Jaya Hospital and the Atma Jaya Mortuary.
The faculties of Economics and Business Administration were founded in 1960, the faculties of Education and Engineering in 1961, the Faculty of Law in 1965, the Faculty of Medicine in 1967, the Faculty of Psychology in 1992, Master’s degree program for Professional Psychologists in 2005, and the Faculty of Biotechnology in 2002.
Today, Atma Jaya Catholic University has eight faculties with 17 programs for the undergraduate/bachelor's degree. The postgraduate programs consist of three programs for master's degrees: Master of Management, Master of Applied English Linguistics in 1992, Master's degree Program for Professional Psychologists in 2005. There is one program for a Doctoral degree in Applied English Linguistics that started in 2002.
Name
Atma Jaya means the reign of the Spirit. The reign of the Spirit motivates the school to always increase education quality.
Faculties
Economics & Business
The Faculty of Economics was founded on July 11, 1960, is the oldest faculty at Unika Atma Jaya. Initially, this faculty had one department, the Management Department, with Corporate Economics as the study program; in 1974, the Accounting Department was opened; and in 1992, the Economics and Development Study (IESP) opened.
The Faculty of Economics changed its name to the Faculty of Economics & Business in 2013.
Administration Studies
The Faculty of Administration Science (FIA) was a division of the Social and Political Sciences Faculty established on July 11, 1960. This faculty opened the General and Personnel Management Department.
The Bachelor of Arts level of this department obtained the “acknowledged” status based on a Decree of the Minister of University and Science of the Republic of Indonesia in 1964. The status was elevated to “equalized” in 1966. The full graduate level of the General and Personnel Management of the Social and Political Sciences Faculty in 1965.{?}
In 1970, the name of the Social and Political Sciences Faculty became the Faculty of Social Sciences Faculty whose full graduate level obtained “equalized” status based on the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia in 1980.
The Faculty of Administration Science with the Commercial Administration Study Program is the new name used since 1985 based on the Decree dated 1985. Along with the legalization of the name, the curriculum of the faculty was developed based on the core curriculum set forth by the Department of Education and Culture. The Administration Science Faculty – FIA Study Program – Commercial Administration Study Program are accredited as “A” based on the Decree of BAN-PT of the Department of Education and Culture in 1998. The accreditation rank has been retained with the obtainment of an “A” rank certificate (very good) based on the Decree of BAN-PT of the Department of Education and Culture in 2003.
In 2009, The Faculty of Administration Science opens a new study program. Programs of Study Communication Science, according to SK DITJEN DIKTI DEPDIKNAS No.887/D/T/2009 dated on June 11, 2009, has been legally administering its students admission. A year after the programs of Study Communication Science opened, The Faculty of Administration Science opened a programs of Hospitality. According to SK DITJEN DIKTI DEPDIKNAS No.78/D/O/2010 dated on June 9, 2010, programs of Hospitality is able to start admission process of admission for the next term.
The Faculty of Administration Science changed its name to the Faculty of Business Administration and Communication. FIABIKOM has three programs of study: Commercial Administration, Communication Science, and Hospitality. According to DIKTI's new regulations on academic degrees, programs of study Commercial Administration when completed will be granted Bachelor of Commercial Administration (Sarjana Administrasi Bisnis, S.AB.), Communication Science will be granted Bachelor of Communications (Sarjana Ilmu Komunikasi, S.I.Kom.), Hospitality will be granted Bachelor of Hospitality (Sarjana Pariwisata, S.Par.).
In late 2014, though not yet published and confirmed publicly, the Faculty of Business Administration and Communication would be merged with the Faculty of Economy. Merging these faculties would give birth to The Faculty of Economics and Business. The planned Faculty of Economics and Business was intended to have finished integrating for the new study term of 2015.
Education and Teaching
The Faculty of Teacher Training and Pedagogical Sciences (FKIP) was founded in 1961 as the continuation of the B1 Bonaventura course with three departments: the Pedagogical Science Department, English Language Department, and History Department. Four years later, on August 12, 1965, the name of this faculty changed to the Faculty of Pedagogical Science Faculty with two departments: the English Language Department and General Science Department. Since 1980, this faculty has been known as the Faculty of Teacher Training and Pedagogical Sciences.
The General Science Department changed into the Pedagogical Science Department with Pedagogical and Counseling Psychology study program while the English Language Department changed into the Language and Art Education Department of the English Language study program in 1985. For academic year 1985/1986, a new study program opened, Catechetic Education, which on November 18, 1996, changed to the Theological Pedagogical Science Study Program. This study program continued from the Catechetic Academy “Karya Wacana”. At the time of establishment, FKIP had 280 registered students. In 1999, 1,350 students were registered in this program.
Engineering Faculty
History
When first founded the university had only the social faculty. The government regulated that a university must have both social and science faculties. Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia opened a Faculty of Technology with the Mechanical Engineering department.
The founders were Ir. J. P. Cho and Ir. Bian Tamin (Tan Bian Seng). Cho got his title from the Technische Hogeschool Delft in Netherlands in 1955. He was a mechanical engineer.
A year after the establishment of Unika Atma Jaya, he and Ir. Bian Tamin founded the Faculty of Technology. At the opening of the Faculty of Technology, besides being a member of the foundation, he sat as the secretary of the faculty and a lecturer. Over 1968-1969, he was posted as the dean. During his office as the dean, with very limited financial resource and facility, he continued to raise the Faculty of Technology. Cho left the faculty membership with the foundation. (Since 1977 he has been a full-time Executive Secretary to the Atma Jaya Foundation. For his contributions to the world of education and Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia in particular, on November 23, 1989, Pope John Paul II granted the Sancto Silvester medal to him.)
Ir. Bian Tamin. He moved to Bandung to attend to the Technische Hogeschool – Scheikundige Afdeling (Chemistry Department). He then left for the Netherlands and entered the Technische Hogeschool Delft Afdeling: Scheikundige Technologie. In the Netherlands, he co-founded IMKI. For his active contributions, he was promoted the president of IMKI. He was also a top member of PPI Management.
The Faculty of Technology was officially founded on July 1, 1961. In the early days, the Faculty of Technology only had the Mechanical Engineering Department. Lectures were given from one place to another.
In the beginning, there were no full-time staff. The staff were all part-timers and mostly members of the Marine Corps. They were there thanks to the close personal relationship with Ir. J. P. Cho. Among those giving lectures at the Faculty of Technology were Officer Dr. A.J. Suryadi, Dr. Parapat, Ir. Legiyono, Ir. Sugiyono Kadarisma, Ir. Ghandawinata, Ir. H.J. Kusumadiantho, Drs. Koeswono, and Dra. Saodhah.
There were 72 students. In 1989, there were 394 registered students in the Mechanical Engineering Department, mostly male.
The name of the Faculty of Technology changed in 1967 into the Faculty of Engineering (henceforth FT) based on the decree of the Ministry of Education and Culture. Since 1980, FT had been holding lectures in the campus complex in Jenderal Sudirman Street. Students participated in the construction of the semi-permanent buildings. As more and more students were admitted the need for classrooms increased. In 1985, some of the old semi-permanent buildings were demolished and replaced by a new three-story building known as Building K1.
The Engineering Faculty had a permanent lecturing facility in Jenderal Sudirman Street. There was no laboratory and students relied on Budi Utomo Technical Vocational High School, Manggarai Railway, and ITB’S shops. Later, given the importance of the laboratory to improve students’ skills, those academic facilities were built. In 1985, the Engineering Faculty had had a Physical Laboratory, Mechanical Technology, Mechanical Drawing Studio, Mechanical Testing Laboratory, and Electronics and Telecommunication Laboratory.
The Graduate and Bachelor of Arts of the Mechanical Department were given a “registered” status in 1962. An approach was made to the Engineering Faculty of Indonesia University to found a Test and Supervision Team. It was only on July 27, 1985, that the Engineering Faculty was granted an “acknowledged” status. In 1971 that the Engineering Faculty graduated its students for the first time. There were four graduates.
On June 1, 1979, the Electronics Engineering Department opened. The opening of the department was in accordance with the Five Year Development Master Plan of Atma Jaya 1976-1981 which, among others contained a plan to open a new department at the Engineering Faculty. This department supports the Mechanical Engineering Department and in the future the establishment of the Industrial Engineering Department.
To manage the Electronics Engineering Department, a team which would work over two academic years was formed. This team consisted of five members: Dipl. Ing. Nakoela Soenarta, Ir. Legijono, Ir. Bambang Wirawan, Ir. Masgunarto Budiman, and Ir. M.J. Djoko Setyardjo. The head of the Electronics Engineering Department was Dipl. Ing. Nakoela Soenarto.
The Electronics Engineering Department got a ”registered” status soon after the establishment. In 1988, the Electronics Engineering Department was granted an “acknowledged” status. Unlike the Mechanical Engineering Department, the Electronics Engineering Department born in the midst of the strong demand from society, did not encounter hurdles like the Mechanical Engineering did. The main issue was to recruit full-time lecturers. This was dealt by hiring part-time lecturers. At the same time, the attempt to hire full-time lecturers continued.
The population of students to the Electronics Engineering Department increased over years. There were 69 students in the first class. In the odd semester of 2004/2005, there were 744 registered students. In 1985, 3 of 289 students graduated; in 1987, 22 students graduated of 341; in 1988, 81 of 380; and in 1989, 35 of 433 students. This is a promising improvement.
The Industrial Engineering Department opened in academic year 1999/2000 based on the Decree of the Directorate General of University Education Number 49/DIKTI/Kep/1999 dated March 3, 1999, under ”registered” status.
Laboratories specific to the Industrial Engineering Department were built one at a time. First, the Statistics and Decision Support Laboratory has been built and the next will be the Working System Designing and Ergonomics and Production System laboratories. The Industrial Engineering Department was founded under Dean Ir. Joseph Sedyono, M.EngSc and the first head of the Department was Ir. Djoko Setyanto, MSc.
In 1999, the first academic year for this department, there were 110 students, an indication that the society confides and places great hopes on this Industrial Engineering Department.
The Mechanical Engineering Department has eight laboratories:
Laboratory for Computer Aided Design & Engineering
Laboratory for Materials Science & Engineering
Laboratory for Automation, Robotics & Mechatronics
Laboratory for Computer Numerical Control (CNC) & Industrial Metrology
Laboratory for Manufacturing Processes
Laboratory for Aerodynamics & Fluid Mechanics
Laboratory for Mechanical Experiments
Laboratory for Energy Conversion & Renewable Energy
Law
The Faculty of Law was founded on July 3, 1965, admitting 141 students. The class started early in September 1965 using the St. Theresa Junior High School building in Central Jakarta. One month later, the G-30-S incident broke out, followed by mass demonstrations by students. It was not until February 1, 1967, that the class resumed.
The class at Semanggi Campus began earlier in March 1971. For the first 10 years, there was no change to the number of the students, with only one study program. Until 1986, by average, each year, no more than 100 students were admitted. However, as of 1987, every year more and more students applied. Over 2003–2004, 325 to 350 prospective students of an average 1,000 applicants have been admitted.
Now the Faculty of Law has four concentration programs: Civil Law, Criminal Law, State Administration/International Law, and Economic and Business Law. When it first opened there were only 141 students but by the second semester of 2004/2005 there were 1,525 registered students.
A survey by Tempo magazine in October 2003 and 2004 ranked the Faculty of Law number three among the favorite places to study Law. The survey was conducted in seven major cities (Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Semarang, Yogyakarta, Malang, and Medan) to 1,100 respondents: parents of senior high school students and the students themselves
Medicine
In 1964, Dr. K.S. Gani, DPH, Dr. J. Soegondho Roewidodarmo, and Dr. A.H. Tjahjadi moved to realize the idea of founding a medicine faculty in a Catholic educational institution.
On December 27, 1967, the Decree of Atma Jaya Foundation regarding the establishment of a Medical Faculty was issued. The class began in March 1968 at St. Carolus Hospital’s Complex and laboratory practice was held at the laboratory of the Medical Faculty of Universitas Indonesia. On September 12, 1969, the faculty was granted a “registered” status from the Department of Education and Culture. The year 1969 witnessed the construction of the first decently permanent building at Semanggi Campus with the help from DITH (Directoraat International Technische Hulp), an agency of the Dutch government.
Atma Jaya Hospital, the place where doctors experience their clinical education, was used for the first time in 1976. Before Atma Jaya Hospital was completed, most clinical educations were done at St. Carolus Hospital, Gatot Subroto Hospital, Community Health Center Melani, and many others.
Since 1991 all the learning process has been held at Pluit Campus, about 12 km away from the main campus of Atma Jaya, in the same location with Atma Jaya Hospital. Since its establishment until 1996, the Medical Faculty of Atma Jaya Indonesia Catholic University had used the Indonesia Doctor Education Core Curriculum I (KIPDI I) and KIPDI II until 2005. As of 2006, FKUAJ uses KIPDI III, a Competence Based National Curriculum for Doctors’ Education for primary health service doctors with family doctor approaches.
Psychology
The learning and teaching process began in 1992 based on the Decree of the Director General of University, regarding the ”registered” status of the psychology study program/department for S1 program at the Psychology Faculty.
On March 1, 1995, the status was improved into "acknowledged" based on the Decree of the Director General of University Education.
On December 22, 1998, based on the Decree of the University National Accreditation Board of the Department of Education and Culture, regarding the Result and Accreditation Rank of the Study Program for the Degree Program, the Psychology Faculty was accredited B with 553.7 points.
On July 22, 2004, based on the Decree of the University National Accreditation Board of the Department of Education and Culture, regarding the Result and Accreditation Rank of the Study Program for the Degree Program, the Psychology Faculty was accredited A with 364 points
Biotechnology
To develop biotechnology in Indonesia, the Biotechnology Faculty at the university was established in 2002.
The faculty includes programmes of study in Environmental and Industrial Biology, Medical Biotechnology, Bioinformatics and Bio-ethics. With the opening of this faculty, Atma Jaya became the first university in Indonesia to have a faculty of Biotechnology.
Postgraduate studies
On 16 October 1992, Atma Jaya University began offering a master's degree in Linguistics, with a focus on the English language. On 4 October 1993, this was followed by the introduction of a master's degree in Management.
Cooperation with foreign universities, institutes, and associations
Atma Jaya cooperates with foreign universities for student exchange programs, lecturer exchanges, scholarships, joint research, and other activities:
University of Illinois (USA)
Loyola University Chicago (USA)
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (Malaysia)
Kanda University of International Studies (Japan)
Southern Taiwan University of Technology (Taiwan)
Chung Yuan Christian University (Taiwan)
Woosong University Solbridge International (South Korea)
Kyungsung University (South Korea)
Catholic University of Korea (South Korea)
Sogang University (South Korea)
Daegu Mirae College (South Korea)
University of Santo Tomas (the Philippines)
The University of New South Wales (Australia)
Flinders University (Australia)
University of Queensland (Australia)
Maastricht University (the Netherlands)
Radboud University (the Netherlands)
Universitat Regensburg (Germany)
Gelsenkirchen University of Applied Sciences-Bolcholt Campus (Germany)
University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt (Germany)
The Webropol University (Germany)
With institutes and associations abroad, among others:
National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC)|National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (Thailand)
National Science and Technology Development Agency (Thailand)
BIOTECH (Thailand)
The Australian Consortium for In Country Indonesian Studies (Australia)
Coca-Cola Foundation (USA)
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Germany)
German Caritas Association (Germany)
The Katholiescher Akademischer Auslander Dienst (KAAD)
See also
Atma Jaya University, Yogyakarta
List of universities in Indonesia
Christianity in Indonesia
References
External links
Catholic universities and colleges in Indonesia
Universities and colleges established in 1960
1960 establishments in Indonesia
Universities in Jakarta
Association of Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia
Private universities and colleges in Indonesia
South Jakarta
North Jakarta
Tangerang |
4255129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20world%20oil%20market%20chronology | 2000 world oil market chronology | January 7: Energy companies and countries around the world report that they have passed into the year 2000 without significant problems from the "Y2K Bug". There was concern that the inability of some computers and embedded control systems to recognize the year 2000 could create serious problems. (DJ, WP)
January 26: The United Nations Security Council reaches agreement on the appointment of Hans Blix of Sweden, the former head of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), to lead the new United Nations weapons inspection organization for Iraq. Iraq has indicated that it does not intend to accept the new Security Council resolution. (DJ)
February 2: The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) acts to block the proposed merger between BP Amoco and Atlantic Richfield, saying the merger would unduly restrict competition along the West coast of the United States. (WSJ, WP)
February 9: The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) issues a group of policy changes which extend the deregulation of the interstate natural gas pipeline system begun under Order 636 in 1992. Among the changes is a lifting, for a trial period of 30 months, of the price ceiling on secondary market exchanges of short-term gas pipeline capacity. FERC's lifting of the ceiling is meant in part to encourage gas shippers to use longer-term contracts which would promote market stability. (DJ)
March 6: The United States Supreme Court overturns the State of Washington's law establishing state regulation of oil tankers, ruling unanimously that federal laws take precedence. The attempt to impose tougher regulatory standards came in the wake of the 1989 Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska. (WP, NYT)
March 7: New York Mercantile Exchange front-month West Texas Intermediate crude oil futures contract closes at $34.13 per barrel, the highest level in nine years. (WSJ)
March 15: Phillips Petroleum announces that it has agreed to purchase Atlantic Richfield's assets in Alaska for $6.5 billion. The sale is being made in an effort to secure approval from the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) for the merger of Atlantic Richfield with BP Amoco. Earlier the same day, the FTC announced that it had suspended its antitrust lawsuit seeking to block the merger, citing progress in talks with the companies involved. (DJ, NYT, WSJ)
March 20: EPA Administrator Carol Browner announces that the Clinton Administration intends to push for a phase out of the use of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) as a gasoline additive. The administration wants the United States Congress to pass legislation which would end the requirement for the use of MTBE in gasoline sold in some smog-prone urban areas, and instead require nationwide use of ethanol. (DJ)
March 26: Vladimir Putin is elected president of Russia on the first ballot, winning 53 percent of the popular vote. Putin took office as acting president in December 1999 after the resignation of Boris Yeltsin. (DJ)
March 28: After two days of meetings, OPEC oil ministers agree on an increase in oil production of by its members, excluding Iran and Iraq. Iraq has not been subject to OPEC production agreements while under U.N. Security Council sanctions. Iran, though not formally signing on to the agreement, stated its intention to raise its production in order to avoid loss of its market share. This would represent about a increase in OPEC production targets, if Iran was included. Several major non-OPEC producers, including Mexico and Norway, also have indicated an intention to raise production. (DJ)
April 12: Several Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of major United States oil companies meet with senior Saudi Arabian officials to discuss possible investments in natural gas and petrochemical projects. The firms represented at the meetings include Chevron, Conoco, ExxonMobil, Marathon Oil, Phillips Petroleum, and Texaco. The Saudi government announces, in conjunction with the meetings, a package of legal changes that will make Saudi Arabia more open to foreign investors. Complete foreign ownership will be allowed for some types of projects, and the maximum corporate tax rate for foreign enterprises will be reduced to 15 percent. (WP)
April 14: BP Amoco receives approval from the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) for its $28 billion takeover of Atlantic Richfield Corporation (ARCO). As part of the approval, ARCO has agreed to sell its crude oil production operations in Alaska to Phillips Petroleum in a deal valued at $6.5 billion. (WP, WSJ) *May 16: Several sources, including the Washington Post, report a major oil find at the Kashagan field offshore from Kazakhstan, with reserves reportedly greater than . If these early reserve estimates prove correct, the additional production volumes could boost chances for construction of the proposed Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline. (WP, DJ)
May 17: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) formally proposes a rule which, if finalized, would reduce allowable sulfur levels in diesel fuel by 97 percent over the next five years. The move is opposed by major refiners. (DJ)
May 17: The Energy Information Administration releases a study of oil reserves in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), which currently is off-limits to oil exploration. The study estimates that there are between 5.7 and of recoverable oil in the ANWR. (WSJ) *June 6: The World Bank executive board votes to approve a loan of $193 million to support a project to build a crude oil pipeline from Chad to the coast of Cameroon. The countries will collect an estimated $2 billion in revenues from the project over a period of 25 years. (DJ)
June 8: The Brazilian government conducts an auction of oil exploration and production concessions covering a total of 21 blocks, both onshore and offshore. The auction represents an important step in the opening of Brazil's oil industry to international competition and investment. (NYT)
June 9: The United States and Mexico sign a treaty resolving the issue of economic rights over the deepwater "doughnut hole" area in the Gulf of Mexico between the two countries. The agreement is based on measuring distances from each country's coast, and gives the United States rights to 38 percent of the area. (DJ)
June 15: The German government announces an agreement with utilities for the complete phaseout of nuclear power. Nuclear power plants will be closed after a lifespan of 32 years. Nuclear power supplies about one-third of Germany's electricity, and the phaseout plan may complicate Germany's plans to reduce fossil fuel consumption to curb greenhouse gas emissions. (DJ)
June 19: The Energy Information Administration reports a one-week rise of five cents in the average price of regular gasoline, to $1.681. This is the seventh straight week of increasing prices. Gasoline prices in the Midwest are the nation's highest, at $1.874. (DJ)
June 21: OPEC oil ministers, meeting in Vienna, agree to raise crude oil production quotas by a total of . OPEC's total production quota (excluding Iraq) will rise to as of July 1, 2000. The next day, crude oil futures rise, with the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) August West Texas Intermediate contract closing June 22 at $32.19. (DJ)
July 12: The Kuwaiti parliament ratifies a treaty with Saudi Arabia resolving competing claims to offshore mineral rights. The two countries will share revenues from the Khafji, Dorra, and Hout oil and gas fields. The treaty will allow the two governments to begin negotiations with Iran to settle conflicting claims, which have again surfaced as Iran has begun drilling in the Dorra offshore gas field. (DJ)
July 27: Italy's ENI signs a deal with Iran worth $3.8 billion for the development of the country's South Pars gas field in the Persian Gulf. The project will take five years to become operational, and will eventually produce of gas per day. (DJ)
July 30: Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez wins reelection with 60% of the popular vote. His Patriotic Pole party also wins a controlling majority in the country's new unicameral legislature. (DJ)
August 10: Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez meets with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein in Baghdad as part of a tour of OPEC member states. Chavez is the first head of state to visit Saddam Hussein since the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. (NYT, WP)
August 23: The Energy Information Administration reports that crude oil stock levels in the United States have fallen to their lowest level since 1976. Crude oil for October delivery closes at $32.02 on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), up 80 cents. (DJ)
August 30: The Department of Energy awards contracts to create a two-million-barrel reserve of heating oil. The oil will be stored in privately owned facilities in Woodbridge, New Jersey, and New Haven, Connecticut. (DJ)
September 8: Truck drivers in Britain begin a blockade of oil refineries to protest high fuel prices. The blockade follows a similar protest in France. (DJ)
September 10: At a meeting in Vienna, OPEC agrees to raise production quotas by (to , not counting Iraq) in an attempt to push crude oil prices back under $28 per barrel. The quota increases become effective October 1. (DJ)
September 20: Oil prices close at $37.20 on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), after trading as high as $37.80 during the day's trading session. The price spike comes amid an increase in tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. This level sets a new ten-year high for NYMEX crude oil. (DJ)
September 22: U.S. President Bill Clinton authorizes the release of of oil from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) over 30 days to bolster oil supplies, particularly heating oil in the Northeast. The release will take the form of a "swap," in which crude oil volumes drawn from the SPR will be replaced by the recipients at a later date. Crude oil for November delivery falls four percent, to $32.68, on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). (DJ)
September 26: A summit of OPEC heads of government opens in Caracas, Venezuela. The summit is only the second OPEC meeting held at that level. The summit ends on a conciliatory note, with the communique calling for increased dialogue between OPEC and consuming nations. (DJ)
September 28: The United Nations Compensation Commission, which handles claims for reparations arising from Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait, approves by consensus a $15.9 billion claim by Kuwait for compensation for lost oil production and damage to oil reserves and equipment. The proportion of revenues from Iraqi oil sales under the "oil for food" program which are used for payment of claims is reduced from 30 percent to 25 percent. Iraq condemns the decision, but states that it will not call a halt to oil exports, as had earlier been feared. (DJ)
October 12: Oil prices rise sharply on news of a terrorist attack on an American warship, the USS Cole, in the Yemeni port of Aden, as well as escalating violence between Palestinians and Israeli security forces. November crude oil on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) rises $2.81 to close at $36.06 per barrel. Prices for Henry Hub natural gas hit a record high of $5.78 per million British thermal units (BTU) before falling back slightly to close at $5.63 per million BTU. (WSJ)
October 15: Chevron agrees to purchase Texaco for $35.1 billion in stock. The deal would create the fourth largest oil and gas company in the world, and follows a general trend toward consolidation among the major oil companies over the last two years. Analysts expect the merger, like other recent mergers, to face intensive antitrust scrutiny, especially as a combined ChevronTexaco would have a heavy share of both refining capacity and retail outlets on the west coast of the United States. (WSJ)
October 30: The president OPEC, Venezuelan oil minister Ali Rodriguez, announces that the cartel will raise production quotas by , beginning November 1. OPEC's action comes as a result of its "price band" mechanism, which triggers an increase in production quotas when the price of the OPEC Basket of crude oils closes over $28 per barrel for twenty consecutive trading days. Many analysts voice doubt as to whether the OPEC quota increase will lead to an actual increase in production of that magnitude, given the lack of spare production capacity of most OPEC members. (DJ, WP, WSJ)
October 31: The United Nations Sanctions Committee approves an Iraqi request to be paid in Euros, rather than United States dollars, for oil exported under the "oil for food" program, which is part of the sanctions regime stemming from Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait. (DJ)
November 3: Russia's Lukoil announces that it will purchase Getty Petroleum Marketing of the United States for $71 million. Lukoil eventually intends to switch Getty's 1,300 retail outlets in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic states to the Lukoil brand name. The purchase represents the first takeover of a publicly traded American company by a Russian firm. (DJ)
November 12: OPEC oil ministers, meeting in Vienna, announce a decision to put any further production increases on hold until their next meeting scheduled for January 17, 2001. The move effectively ends OPEC's "price band" mechanism, which called for automatic increases in production quotas of when the price of the OPEC Basket of crude oils remained over $28 per barrel for 20 consecutive trading days. OPEC also selects the Venezuelan oil minister, Ali Rodriguez, as its new Secretary General. He will formally take over from Nigeria's Rilwanu Lukman on January 1, 2001. (NYT, WSJ)
November 16: Iraq's State Oil Marketing Organization (SOMO) demands that companies lifting cargoes of Iraqi crude oil begin paying a fifty cent per barrel surcharge starting on December 1, 2000. The surcharge would be paid directly to the Iraqi government rather than being channeled into the account administered by the United Nations under the "oil for food" program, and would constitute clear violation of sanctions. The Iraqi move leads to concerns over a possible Iraqi cutoff of oil supplies beginning December 1. (DJ)
November 26: The sixth Conference of Parties (COP-6) of the Kyoto Protocol in The Hague ends without an agreement between member states on implementing cuts in emissions of greenhouse gases. One of the main issues under negotiation at the conference was the possibility that member states could claim credit for "carbon sinks," forests, and farmland which absorb carbon dioxide, as part of their overall commitment to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Another main issue was "emissions trading," which would allow member states to purchase "emissions credits" from other member states whose carbon dioxide emissions were below their targets. (WP, WSJ, NYT)
December 1: Vicente Fox is inaugurated as Mexico's president. Ernesto Martens takes office as the new Minister of Petroleum. (DJ)
December 4: California utilities are forced to cut off electricity supplies to some "interruptible" customers due to a supply shortage. California has suffered shortages and high wholesale electricity prices since May 2000. The immediate shortage stems, in part, from a reduction in electricity imports from the Pacific Northwest as a result of cold weather in the area. Other problems include: gas supply problems, low availability of hydroelectric and nuclear generating capacity, and high power demand. (DJ)
December 5: The United Nations Security Council approves a six-month extension to the Iraq "oil for food" program. (DJ)
December 16: Ukraine permanently shuts down the last reactor at its Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which gained notoriety for a major accident and radioactivity release in 1986. The facility will still be the location of a major cleanup effort, as Ukraine tries to contain continuing leakage from the containment structures around the reactors damaged in the accident. (DJ)
December 21: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announces new regulations which will drastically reduce the allowable sulfur content in diesel fuel in the United States. The new diesel sulfur standard will be 15 parts per million (PPM). Oil industry trade groups have opposed the new standard. (DJ)
December 27: Natural gas prices in the United States surge above $10 per million British Thermal Units (BTUs) for the first time ever in response to cold weather and stock draws reported by the American Gas Association (AGA). Henry Hub natural gas closes at $9.978, after falling slightly from its intraday peak price. (DJ)
December 27: Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez appoints Alvaro Silva Calderon to replace Ali Rodriguez as Minister of Petroleum. Calderon had previously served as a deputy minister. Rodriguez had recently been chosen as the new OPEC Secretary General. Both will assume their new posts effective January 5, 2001. (DJ)
December 31: Saudi oil minister Ali Naimi says that OPEC will cut production when ministers meet in Vienna on January 17, 2001. Oil prices have fallen sharply in recent weeks, with the OPEC basket reaching $21.50 per barrel on December 25, down one-third from highs reached in October 2000. Despite the recent decline, average oil prices for 2000 were the highest (not adjusted for inflation) in seventeen years. (DJ)
Sources
Energy Information Administration: Chronology of World Oil Market Events
Commodity Research Bureau. The CRB Commodity Yearbook 2000, 2000.
Other sources include: Dow Jones (DJ), New York Times (NYT), Wall Street Journal (WSJ), and the Washington Post (WP).
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="width:30%; "| Previous year:1999 world oil market chronology
| style="width:40%; "| This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events (1970-2005)
| style="width:30%; "| Following year:2001 world oil market chronology
|-
Oil market timelines
World oil market chronology
World Oil Market Chronology, 2000 |
4255163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20world%20oil%20market%20chronology | 2002 world oil market chronology | January 1: The OPEC crude oil production quota cuts of per day, announced on December 28, officially go into effect for six months. Crude oil production or export cuts of by five non-OPEC oil exporters also go into effect. (Reuters)
January 9: U.S. Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham announces that the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles program, started in 1993 in an effort to develop mass-produced vehicles that would get 80 miles per US gallon of gasoline by 2004, will be replaced by a new program called Freedom Car. The Freedom Car program will emphasize developing fuel-cell vehicles, powered by oxygen and hydrogen, by an unspecified later date.(WP, NYT)
January 22: The U.S. Department of Energy opens the bidding process for oil companies to deliver of crude oil to the Strategic Petroleum Reserve instead of making cash royalty payments. The royalty-in-kind oil is the first phase of the Bush administration's plan, announced last November, to fill the Strategic Petroleum Reserve to its capacity of . (Reuters)
January 29: U.S. President George W. Bush delivers his State of the Union address. In his speech he identifies Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as part of an “axis of evil” that supports terrorism. President Bush also states, “The United States of America will not permit the world’s most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world’s most destructive weapons.” (NYT)
February 13: Iraq says that it will not allow United Nations (U.N.) arms inspectors to return to Iraq. Iraqi Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan states, "There is no need for the spies of the [U.N.] inspection teams to return to Iraq since Iraq is free of weapons of mass destruction." The United States has hinted that actions may be taken against the Iraqi government if U.N. arms inspectors are not allowed to return. (Reuters)
March 6: At a joint news conference, oil ministers of major non-OPEC oil exporters Mexico and Norway announce that they plan to maintain their respective export and production cuts through the end of the second quarter of 2002. This same day, non-OPEC Persian Gulf exporter Oman announces that it is willing to maintain its relatively small production cut through the end of the year. (Reuters)
March 7: Light, sweet crude oil for April delivery on the NYMEX closes at $23.71, the highest price since September 21, 2001, when oil prices had temporarily spiked because of the September 11 terrorist attacks. Oil prices have been on the rise because of OPEC and non-OPEC production cuts, an improving U.S. economy, and concern over U.S. intentions toward Iraq. (OD)
March 12: Shareholders of Conoco and Phillips Petroleum approve a proposed $15.6-billion merger of the two major oil companies. The new company would be the third-largest oil company in the United States and the sixth-largest investor-owned oil company in the world. The company would also be the largest oil refiner in the United States. Joint reserves of the two companies are about of oil equivalent. (AP)
March 15: OPEC oil ministers meeting in Vienna decide to maintain their quota restrictions, established January 1, 2002, through the end of the second quarter of the year. On January 1, 2002, OPEC cut its crude oil production quotas by an aggregate . (NYT)
March 20: Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov announces that Russia will extend its voluntary crude oil export cuts of through the end of the second quarter of 2002. Russia, the biggest non-OPEC oil exporter, had agreed to implement the cuts beginning on January 1, 2002 as a cooperative move with OPEC. Many analysts question whether Russia has complied at all with its pledged cuts, and some data actually points to Russian exports rising since the beginning of January. (NYT)
April 1: India liberalizes its oil and natural gas sector by putting in place a series of market reforms, including: the end of government-fixed prices for gasoline and diesel; the end of subsidized cooking gas and kerosene prices; market competition for state-run downstream companies; and assigning the Oil Ministry the role of energy watchdog. (Reuters)
April 2: Royal Dutch Shell agrees to buy Enterprise Oil for $5 billion in cash. This will increase Royal Dutch/Shell's production in the North Sea by 30% and overall production by 6%, according to the company. The acquisition will also add of oil to Royal Dutch/Shell's reserves. The company is also assuming $1.15 billion in Enterprise's debt. (NYT)
April 3: Venezuela sends out its first commercial shipment of of synthetic crude to a U.S. Gulf Coast refinery. Venezuela's Sincor heavy crude upgrade plant, which was inaugurated last month, refines ultra-heavy crude oil into 32 degree API syncrude. (Reuters)
April 4: The Angolan army signs a ceasefire accord with rebels of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (Unita). The agreement includes amnesty for former Unita soldiers and their demobilization and reintegration into society. The civil war, which began in 1975, has killed thousands of Angolans and taken much of the government's revenues from Angola's substantial oil production and exports. (NYT)
April 5: Thousands of workers at Venezuelan state oil company PdVSA stay home, close gates of facilities, and engage in protests. This is the largest disruption of PdVSA's operations in 2002, though it is not a full-blown strike by all PdVSA workers. Oil production and refining slows, and two of Venezuela's five main oil export terminals are unable to operate. The government of President Hugo Chávez threatens to militarize PdVSA's operations. (AP)
April 8: Iraq announces that it will halt its "oil-for-food" exports for 30 days as a "gesture of support" for the Palestinians' struggle with Israel. Iraq also requests that other OPEC countries do not raise production to make up for lost Iraqi exports. Iraqi "oil-for-food" exports had averaged about to date in 2002. Major Arab OPEC exporters Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Qatar have expressed unwillingness to join in any embargo. (WSJ)
April 9: A general strike begins in Venezuela, shutting down many stores and factories and nearly halting oil production, refining, and export terminals. On April 12, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez is ousted by the country's military after three consecutive days of general strikes during which oil production, refining, and exports — the mainstays of the Venezuelan economy — were seriously affected. Pedro Carmona is named interim President of Venezuela by the military high command. PdVSA operations that had been halted start up again, but rioting begins again the following day. On April 14, Interim President Carmona announces that he has resigned following large, and sometimes violent, pro-Chávez protests and a lack of support among many military officers. Several hours later, Hugo Chávez returns to power in Caracas and states that he never resigned the presidency. (WP, WSJ, Reuters, AP)
April 24: A summit of the leaders of the five littoral states of the Caspian Sea ends without an agreement on how to divide the Caspian's resources among the five countries. (Reuters)
May 8: Iraq starts pumping crude oil to its export terminals, following the country's announcement on May 5 that it would end its oil export embargo after one month, i.e., May 8. Iraq also submits price proposals for May crude oil loadings to the United Nations for approval. (Reuters)
May 14: The United Nations Security Council approves an overhaul of the “oil-for-food” program for Iraq that makes use of an extensive list of “dual-use” goods (goods that could have a military as well as civilian use). Iraq will be able to use its oil revenues, which go into a U.N. escrow account out of which suppliers exporting products to Baghdad are paid, in order to purchase items not on the list. The resolution renews the U.N. program until November 25, 2002. On May 16, official Iraqi news agency INA announces that it will comply with the new six-month tranche of the “oil-for-food” program voted by the U.N. Security Council on May 14, despite condemning the Security Council resolution in the same statement. Iraq officially accepts the U.N. proposal on May 29. (Reuters)
May 17: Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov announces that Russia will not extend its crude oil export cut, agreed to with OPEC, into the third quarter of 2002 and furthermore, that Russia will gradually phase out the export cut in the remainder of the second quarter of 2002. Russia is the world's second-largest oil exporter. (WMRC)
May 24: U.S. President George Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin agree to a major new energy partnership that will entail more investment from the United States in Russia's oil and natural gas sector. The leaders also agree to joint efforts to improve ports, pipelines, and refineries in order to expedite export flow. This could mean more Russian hydrocarbon exports to North America. (NYT)
May 28: The U.S. government decides to buy back leases for oil and natural gas drilling on the Florida coast and in the Everglades for $235 million because of environmental concerns. Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton has asserted that there are only of oil equivalent in the area to be protected, about two days' worth of U.S. consumption. (OD)
June 20: Norway's Oil and Energy Ministry states that, "The Norwegian government has decided not to extend the restriction on oil production into the second half of 2002." Norway had agreed with OPEC to reduce its crude oil production by for the first two quarters of 2002. (Reuters)
June 25: Russia formally announces that it will raise its crude oil exports by in the third quarter of 2002 and thereby, end its agreement with OPEC to limit crude oil exports by for the first and second quarter of 2002. Many analysts believe that Russia has already been exporting near capacity for some months. (Reuters)
June 26: OPEC ministers meeting in Vienna decide to leave their combined output quota, excluding Iraq, unchanged at for the third quarter of 2002. It is estimated that OPEC-10 countries (i.e. excluding Iraq) are producing between 1 million and above the quota agreement. OPEC members also agree to appoint Venezuelan Oil Minister Alvaro Silva as the cartel's new secretary general, replacing Ali Rodriguez, who will now head Venezuelan state oil company PdVSA. At the meeting, Algeria requests a larger share of OPEC's total quota, but the issue will not be taken up until the OPEC Board of Governors meeting in August. (NYT, DJ)
June 27: Mexico announces that it will continue its agreement with OPEC to limit crude oil exports to into the third quarter of 2002. A statement from the Energy Ministry said that the decision was "based on national interests and conditioned upon the future conduct of the world oil market." Mexico is among the five largest oil exporters to the United States. (Reuters)
June 29: An official at Oman's Oil and Gas Ministry announces that the non-OPEC country will continue its production cut into the third quarter of 2002. Oman had agreed with OPEC to cut production in the first and second quarters of 2002. (Reuters)
July 1: The California State Legislature passes a bill that limits vehicle emissions of carbon dioxide, the first such bill to pass a state legislature. The specific regulations, to be developed by 2005, would take effect on 2009 model-year vehicles. The limits, enacted because of carbon dioxide's putative effect on global climate change, are likely to have significant repercussions beyond California because the State represents some 10% of the U.S. automobile market. Governor Gray Davis signs the bill into law on July 22. (LAT)
July 3: The supertanker Astro Lupus arrives offshore of the Port of Houston, carrying the first direct shipment of Russian crude oil to the United States. The oil, about of Urals Blend, was exported by Yukos, Russia's second-largest producer and destined for two ExxonMobil refineries in Texas. Yukos hopes to make six such shipments this year. (NYT, WMRC, OD)
July 26: The U.S. Department of Energy announces that it intends to increase the rate at which the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) is filled by increasing the “royalty-in-kind” exchange program by . Under the “royalty-in-kind” program, oil companies deposit oil that is produced on federal leases in the SPR as a form of payment for those leases. (OD)
July 31: ChevronTexaco announces the resumption of crude oil exports from Nigeria after protests and a fire caused the company to declare force majeure on its exports for a ten-day period. Between 300,000 and were temporarily halted. ChevronTexaco has not fully resolved the issues between the company and protestors who disrupt operations. Before the fire, about were interrupted at times by protestors. Nigeria's army moved in to prevent protestors from damaging equipment, but declined to remove the protestors from the facilities. (DJ)
August 2: The U.S. Office of Management and Budget approves U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations that authorize new penalties for manufacturers of diesel engines that exceed various pollutant levels, to take effect October 1, 2002. The new rules are part of long-term plan, begun in the previous administration, to require diesel trucks and buses to reduce emissions by 90% by 2007. (NYT)
August 7: Mexican Energy Minister Ernesto Martens announces that Mexico will continue to limit its crude oil exports to , in coordination with OPEC, although Mexico is not a member of the cartel. Mexico is the only major non-OPEC exporter cooperating with the cartel, after Norway and Russia ended their cooperation earlier in the year. (Reuters)
August 20: The NYMEX near-month crude oil futures price closes above $30 per barrel for the first time since February 2001. Concern over possible conflict in Iraq, OPEC quotas, and declining crude oil and product stocks are among the factors leading to a nine-straight-session rise in NYMEX prices. (Reuters)
August 29: U.S. Vice President Cheney states that a new round of U.N. weapons inspections in Iraq is likely to be insufficient to guarantee that Iraq has ended its biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons programs. That same day, Iraqi Vice President Ramadan declares that future inspections by the United Nations are a "waste of time," as the U.S. administration has already decided upon "changing the regime by force." (WP)
September 11: The International Energy Agency's (IEA) monthly oil market report notes that global oil stock levels have fallen to "uncomfortably low" levels that could lead to higher prices and more price volatility in the coming months. According to the IEA, OECD crude oil inventories fell by in August compared with July. (DJ)
September 11: The European Union (EU) releases a plan for coordination of member countries' crude oil reserves, including raising the minimum level of national oil stocks to 120 days of consumption from 90 days and putting one third of reserves into a stockpile which could be drawn on in times of crisis. The European Commission would have the power to release oil from the stockpile onto the market if prices rose to a level that, if sustained for a year, would raise the EU's external oil bill by an amount equal to 0.5% of its gross domestic product. Energy Commissioner Loyola de Palacio predicts that the new system will be in place in 2007. (Reuters)
September 12: U.S. President Bush addresses the United Nations. President Bush declares in regard to Iraq that "The Security Council resolutions will be enforced — the just demands of peace and security will be met — or action will be unavoidable…and a regime that has lost its legitimacy will also lose its power." (Reuters)
September 13: The World Bank approves lending for a controversial oil pipeline between Chad and Cameroon. The bank is funding $140 million of the $4 billion project to develop the oil fields of Doba in southern Chad and construct a pipeline to an offshore oil-loading facility on Cameroon's Atlantic coast. (Reuters)
September 18: Work begins on the $2.9 billion Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, which will transport oil from the landlocked Caspian Sea to Turkey's Mediterranean coast. The BP-led pipeline will be long when completed in 2005. Work begins on the Turkish section on September 26. (Reuters)
September 18: According to United Nations officials and representatives of the oil industry, Iraq has stopped attempting to impose illegal surcharges on oil it sells through the United Nations’ “Oil-for-Food” program. Though the surcharges have provided funds to the regime, Iraq may be attempting to cooperate more closely with U.N. resolutions in the face of increased scrutiny by the United States and Britain. (DJ)
September 19: OPEC, meeting in Osaka, Japan, decides that its ten members subject to quotas (i.e. excluding Iraq) will not raise their current production ceiling. However, OPEC's communiqué states that OPEC is committed "to taking any further measures, including convening extraordinary meetings when deemed necessary…to maintain prices [OPEC basket price] within the range of $22–$28 [per barrel]." Also at the meeting, Qatari Oil Minister Abdullah bin Hamad al-Attiyah is appointed as the new OPEC President, replacing Rilwanu Lukman of Nigeria. (DJ)
October 3: Hurricane Lili makes landfall on the U.S. Gulf coast after passing through offshore hydrocarbon production areas and the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP). Nearly all offshore production (about of oil production), as well as some onshore refineries, the LOOP and the Capline crude oil pipeline are shut down. Refineries and offshore operations begin to come back on line on October 4, with most operations fully online by the second half of the month. There is little permanent damage. Hurricane Lili struck the U.S. Gulf coast only one week after Tropical Storm Isidore temporarily shut down the LOOP on September 24. (Reuters)
October 6: A French oil tanker chartered by Malaysian state oil company Petronas is attacked off the coast of Yemen, seriously damaging the ship and killing one crew member. The VLCC, with about of oil aboard, catches fire. The tanker does not sink, and is towed to port. Later, investigators determine that a terrorist suicide attack by a small boat is the cause of the explosion. The tanker was on its way to load additional oil in Yemen when attacked. (Reuters, DJ)
October 9: The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) releases data showing that crude oil stocks in the previous week fell to their lowest levels () since the agency began keeping weekly records over 20 years ago. Crude oil stocks have fallen by over since February of this year and are now below the year ago level and only 0.5 million above the EIA's "Lower Operational Inventory." While not implying shortages, operational problems, or price increases, the Lower Operational Inventory means that supply flexibility could be constrained. (Reuters)
October 11: The U.S. Senate votes to give President George Bush the authority to use force, if necessary, to persuade Iraqi President Saddam Hussein to abandon programs for the development of biological, chemical or nuclear weapons. The U.S. House of Representatives passed a similar measure the previous day. This moves the focus of debate to the U.N. Security Council. (Reuters)
November 1: Greece, Bulgaria, and Russia agree to equal stakes in the $699 million Burgas-Alexandroupoli pipeline. The pipeline will bypass the Bosphorus Strait in order to bring Russian oil from the Bulgarian Black Sea port of Burgas to the Greek Mediterranean port of Alexandroupolis. The pipeline will be able to carry about . (Reuters)
November 8: The United Nations (UN) Security Council unanimously adopts Resolution 1441, that Iraq must accept or reject within seven days, giving United Nations inspectors the unconditional right to search anywhere in Iraq for banned weapons. Furthermore, Iraq will have to make an "accurate full and complete" declaration of its nuclear, chemical, biological and ballistic weapons and related materials used in civilian industries within 30 days. The resolution requires violations to be reported back to the Security Council by inspectors before any actions could be taken against Iraq for violating weapons bans. (Reuters)
November 13: In a letter to United Nations (UN) Secretary General Kofi Annan, Iraq accepts UN Security Council resolution 1441 of November 8, granting UN inspectors the right to conduct unfettered inspections in Iraq, "despite its bad contents." In the letter, Iraq also denies that it possesses any weapons of mass destruction. (AP)
November 14: The TengizChevroil consortium, a consortium of companies led by operator ChevronTexaco that is developing the estimated Tengiz oil field in Kazakhstan, announces that the consortium has decided to indefinitely suspend investment in the second phase of the project. Production from the first phase was about 12.5 million metric tons in 2001 (about ). The second phase would require about $3 billion of investment in order to boost the project's output by about 3 million metric tons per year (about ). (WMRC)
November 15: The U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve, an emergency crude oil stockpile administered by the U.S. Department of Energy, reaches , the largest amount in the reserve since it was initiated in 1977. (Reuters)
November 18: The tanker Prestige, loaded with of Russian fuel oil, splits in two and sinks off the coast of northwest Spain. The tanker, flying a Bahamian flag and owned by a Liberian company based in Athens, Greece, spills about of the fuel oil from a crack before sinking, polluting beaches in the region and harming marine life. Fuel oil may continue leaking from the sunken ship. (WSJ, WP)
November 26: Murphy Oil of the United States announces the discovery of to of oil in the Kikeh field off the coast of Malaysia's Sabah region on the island of Borneo. This is one of the largest discoveries in Southeast Asia in recent years. (WMRC)
November 27: Officials of four of Russia's largest oil companies, Lukoil, Yukos, Sibneft, and Tyumen, announce a preliminary agreement for a joint project to build a $1.5 billion Arctic oil port near the town of Murmansk. This would enable Russia to expand ocean-going tanker exports. (WSJ)
December 2: Business and labor groups in Venezuela, including employees of state oil company PdVSA, begin a strike in order to obtain an early referendum on the rule of Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. The strike has little effect on its first day, but as the strike continues through the end of the month, oil production, refinery runs, and crude oil and refined petroleum product exports fall dramatically. Several refineries in the Caribbean dependent on Venezuelan crude are also adversely affected. This has a serious impact on the Venezuelan economy, but no agreement between President Chávez and the opposition forces leading the strike is reached by the end of the month. (Reuters)
December 4: The United Nations (U.N.) Oil-for-Food program is unanimously renewed by the Security Council for another six months, and shortly thereafter accepted by the Iraqi government. The Oil-for-Food program allows Iraq to sell unlimited quantities of oil, with revenues going into a U.N. account that pays vendors for approved goods that Iraq orders. (Reuters)
December 12: The government of Iraq cancels a $3.8 billion contract with three Russian companies — Lukoil, Zarubezhnest, and Machinoimport — to develop the very large West Qurna oilfield. Although the reasoning for the decision is not made clear by Iraq, it is thought that it is in response to Russian political decisions regarding United Nations inspections and the Oil-for-Food program. (NYT)
December 12: OPEC oil ministers, meeting in Vienna, decide to raise OPEC-10's (i.e. excluding Iraq) total production quota from to . OPEC ministers also urge strict compliance with the new quotas in an effort to cut back production, as OPEC-10 production is widely regarded to be exceeding even the new production quota of . (LAT)
December 16: The near-month crude oil futures price on the NYMEX tops $30 per barrel for the first time since October 2, as the general strike in Venezuela impacts the world oil market. Later in the month, on December 27, the near-month crude oil futures price rises to $32.72 per barrel, the highest price since November 2000. (WSJ, AP)
December 17: The U.S. Department of Energy allows several oil companies to postpone delivery of an additional of crude oil to the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in an attempt to keep more oil in the market during the strike in Venezuela. The oil companies will have to deliver the oil at a later date. (Reuters)
December 19: U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell declares that Iraq is in "material breach" of United Nations resolutions after reviewing Iraq's weapons of mass destruction declaration released December 7 to the United Nations. States Powell: "Our [U.S.] experts have found it to be anything but currently accurate, full or complete. The Iraqi declaration ... totally fails to meet the resolution's requirements." (Reuters)
December 28: A tanker with of gasoline arrives in Venezuela from Brazil, providing crucial supplies to the country, as the strike by employees of state oil company PdVSA has meant severe reductions in refinery runs in that country. Crude oil production, that was in excess of before the strike, is less than for many days in December. (WSJ)
Sources
Energy Information Administration: Chronology of World Oil Market Events
Commodity Research Bureau. The CRB Commodity Yearbook 2002, 2002.
Other sources include: Associated Press (AP), Dow Jones (DJ), Los Angeles Times (LAT), The New York Times (NYT), Oil Daily (OD), USA Today (USAT), The Wall Street Journal (WSJ), The Washington Post (WP), World Markets Research Center (WMRC).
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Previous year:2001 world oil market chronology
| width="40%" align="center" | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events (1970-2005)
| width="30%" align="center" | Following year:2003 world oil market chronology
|-
Oil market timelines
World oil market chronology
World Oil Market Chronology, 2002 |
4255209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Statutory%20Instruments%20of%20Scotland%2C%202000 | List of Statutory Instruments of Scotland, 2000 | This is a complete list of Scottish Statutory Instruments in 2000.
1-100
Seeds (Fees) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/1)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Control Measures) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/7)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/8)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/10)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Transitional, Transitory and Saving Provisions) (No. 1) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/11)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/13)
Food (Animal Products from Belgium) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/15)
Animal Feedingstuffs from Belgium (Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/16)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/17)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) Revocation (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/18)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (No. 3) Revocation (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/19)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Satellite Monitoring Measures) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/20)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/21)
Pesticides (Maximum Residue Levels in Crops, Food and Feeding Stuffs) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/22)
National Health Service (Vocational Training for General Medical Practice) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/23)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/24)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Measures for the Recovery of the Stock of Irish Sea Cod) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/26)
National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/28)
Act of Sederunt (Messengers-at-Arms and Sheriff Officers Rules) (Amendment) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/30)
Scrabster (Inner Harbour Development) Harbour Revision Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/32)
Housing Revenue Account General Fund Contribution Limits (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/33)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Quota and Third Country Fishing Measures) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/34)
Food (Peanuts from Egypt) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/35)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (No. 5) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/36)
Health Act 1999 (Commencement No. 7) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/38)
Non-Domestic Rate (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/39)
Local Government Finance (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/40)
National Health Service (Dental Charges) (Scotland) AmendmentRegulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/44)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland)Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/45)
Public Finance and Accountability (Scotland) Act 2000 (Transitional, Transitory and Saving Provisions) (No. 2) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/46)
Health Technology Board for Scotland Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/47)
Commissioner for Local Administration in Scotland (Expenses) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/48)
Charities (Exemption from Accounting Requirements) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/49)
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/50)
Commissioner for Local Administration in Scotland (Designation) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/51)
Dairy Produce Quotas Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/52)
Sea Fishing (Enforcement of Community Conservation Measures) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/53)
National Health Service (Clinical Negligence and Other Risks Indemnity Scheme) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/54)
Non-Domestic Rating (Unoccupied Property) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/55)
Valuation for Rating (Decapitalisation Rate) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/56)
Non-Domestic Rating (Rural Areas and Rateable Value Limits) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/57)
Valuation for Rating (Plant and Machinery) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/58)
Disabled Persons (Badges for Motor Vehicles) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/59)
Local Authorities' Traffic Orders (Exemptions for Disabled Persons) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/60)
Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) (Charges) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/61)
Food Standards Act 1999 (Transitional and Consequential Provisions and Savings) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/62)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment) (Miscellaneous) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/65)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment) (Miscellaneous) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/66)
Registered Establishments (Fees) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/67)
Census (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/68)
Scotland Act 1998 (Transitory and Transitional Provisions) (Appropriations) Amendment (Scotland) Order 2000 69)
Police Grant (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/73)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Management and Investment of Funds) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/74)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) Partial Revocation (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/75)
Valuation Timetable (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/76)
Local Government (Discretionary Payments and Injury Benefits) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/77)
National Lottery etc. Act 1993 (Amendment of Section 23) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/78)
National Health Service (Travelling Expenses and Remission of Charges) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/79)
National Assistance (Sums for Personal Requirements) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/80)
Crab Claws (Prohibition of Landing) Revocation (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/81)
Undersized Whiting (Revocation) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/82)
Genetically Modified and Novel Foods (Labelling) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/83)
BG Transco plc (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/85)
Electricity Generators (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/86)
Electricity Generators (Aluminium) (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/87)
Electricity Lands (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/88)
Train Operating Companies (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/89)
Water Undertakings (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/90)
Railtrack plc (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/91)
Non-Domestic Rates (Levying) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/92)
Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) (Butchers' Shops) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/93)
Environmental Protection (Disposal of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and other Dangerous Substances) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/95)
Designation of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/96)
Air Quality (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/97)
Housing Support Grant (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/98)
Radioactive Substances (Basic Safety Standards) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/100)
101-200
Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997 (Commencement) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/101)
Census (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/102)
Civil Legal Aid (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/107)
Advice and Assistance (Financial Conditions) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/108)
Advice and Assistance (Assistance by Way of Representation) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/109)
Repayment of Student Loans (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/110)
Welfare Reform and Pensions Act 1999 (Scotland) (Commencement No.6) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/111)
Divorce etc. (Pensions) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/112)
National Health Service Trusts (Originating Capital) (Scotland)Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/113)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/118)
Right to Purchase (Application Form) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/120)
European Communities (Lawyer's Practice) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/121)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 7) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/125)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 8) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/127)
Smoke Control Areas (Authorised Fuels) (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/129)
Foods for Special Medical Purposes (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/130)
Colours in Food (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/131)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Oil and Chemical Pollution of Fish) (No. 2) Order 1993 Revocation (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/132)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 9) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/137)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 2) (Fees of Shorthand Writers) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/143)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 3) (Appeals from the Competition Commission) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/144)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Shorthand Writers in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/145)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 10) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/146)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/148)
Children (Protection at Work) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/149)
Town and Country Planning (Fees for Applications and Deemed Applications) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/150)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (North Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/156)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/157)
Animal Feedingstuffs from Belgium (Control) (Scotland) Revocation Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/158)
Food (Animal Products from Belgium) (Emergency Control) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/159)
Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/166)
Transport of Animals (Cleansing and Disinfection) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/167)
National Health Service (Clinical Negligence and Other Risks Indemnity Scheme) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/168)
Sulphur Content of Liquid Fuels (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/169)
Disabled Persons (Badges for Motor Vehicles) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/170)
Meat (Enhanced Enforcement Powers) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/171)
Census (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/172)
Loch Moidart, North Channel, Scallop Several Fishery (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/173)
Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 (Licensing of Houses in Multiple Occupation) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/177)
Contaminated Land (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/178)
Planning (Control of Major-Accident Hazards) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/179)
Environment Act 1995 (Commencement No. 17 and Savings Provision) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/180)
Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/181)
Civil Legal Aid (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/182)
Community Care (Direct Payments) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/183)
Bovines and Bovine Products (Trade) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/184)
Environmental Protection (Waste Recycling Payments) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/185)
Discontinuance of Prisons (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/186)
Prisons and Young Offenders Institutions (Scotland) Amendment Rules 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/187)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/188)
Debtors (Scotland) Act 1987 (Amendment) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/189)
National Health Service (General Medical Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/190)
National Health Service (Choice of Medical Practitioner) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/191)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/192)
Police Pensions (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/193)
Census (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/194)
Education (Assisted Places) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/195)
St Mary's Music School (Aided Places) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/196)
Undersized Lobsters (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/197)
Undersized Spider Crabs (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/198)
Local Government Pension Scheme (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/199)
Education (Student Loans) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/200)
201-300
Seed Potatoes (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/201)
National Health Service (Professions Supplementary to Medicine) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/202)
Local Government (Exemption from Competition) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/206)
Local Authorities (Goods and Services) (Public Bodies) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/207)
Local Government Act 1988 (Competition) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/208)
Processed Cereal-based Foods and Baby Foods for Infants and Young Children Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/214)
Suckler Cow Premium Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/215)
Animals and Animal Products (Import and Export) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/216)
Infant Formula and Follow-on Formula Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/217)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/222)
Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/223)
National Health Service (Functions of the Common Services Agency) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/224)
Prohibition of Fishing with Multiple Trawls (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/226)
Sea Fish (Specified Sea Areas) (Regulation of Nets and Other Fishing Gear) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/227)
Undersized Edible Crabs (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/228)
Tetrachloroethylene in Olive Oil (Scotland) Revocation Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/229)
Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Ardveenish) Harbour Revision Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/233)
West of Scotland Water Authority (Dalmally, River Strae) Water Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/236)
West of Scotland Water Authority (Eredine, Allt Garbh) Water Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/237)
Welfare Reform and Pensions Act 1999 (Scotland) (Commencement No. 8) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/238)
Act of Sederunt (Sheriff Court Ordinary Cause Rules Amendment) (Miscellaneous) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/239)
Education (Student Loans) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/240)
Beet Seeds (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/246)
Fodder Plant Seeds (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/247)
Cereal Seeds (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/248)
Oil and Fibre Plant Seeds (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/249)
Vegetable Seeds (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/250)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 1) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/258)
Council Tax (Administration and Enforcement) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/261)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/266)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/267)
Electricity Lands and Water Undertakings (Rateable Values)(Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/284)
Docks and Harbours (Rateable Values) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/285)
Protection of Wrecks (Designation) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/287)
Meat (Disease Control) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/288)
Associated British Ports (Troon) Harbour Revision Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/289)
Farm Woodland Premium Scheme Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/290)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic ShellfishPoisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/291)
Education and Training (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/292)
Education (Listed Bodies) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/293)
West of Scotland Water Authority (Craighouse, Abhainn a'Mhinisteir) Water Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/294)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/295)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/298)
Export of Pigs, Porcine Material and Bovine Animals (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/300)
301-400
Human Rights Act 1998 (Jurisdiction) (Scotland) Rules 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/301)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/303)
Budget (Scotland) Act 2000 (Amendment) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/307)
General Medical Council (Legal Assessors) Amendment (Scotland) Rules 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/308)
Food Irradiation Provisions (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/309)
West of Scotland Water Authority (Lochnaw) Ordinary Drought Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/310)
National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/312)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/313)
Act of Sederunt (Evidence of Judgments etc.) (Human Rights Act 1998) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/314)
Act of Adjournal (Criminal Procedure Rules Amendment No. 2) (Human Rights Act 1998) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/315)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 6) (Human Rights Act 1998) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/316)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 5) (Public Interest Intervention in Judicial Review) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/317)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/318)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 4) (Applications under s. 1 of the Administration of Justice (Scotland) Act 1972) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/319)
Electricity Works (Environmental Impact Assessment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/320)
Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/322)
Pollution Prevention and Control (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/323)
Diseases of Fish (Control) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/330)
National Health Service Trusts (Originating Capital) (Scotland) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/337)
Land Registration (Scotland) Act 1979 (Commencement No. 14) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/338)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Notification of Authorisations etc.) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/340)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Scotland) Act 2000 (Commencement) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/341)
Education and Training (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/342)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers (Prescription of Offices, Ranks and Positions) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/343)
Specified Risk Material Order Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/344)
Specified Risk Material Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/345)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/346)
Agricultural Subsidies (Appeals) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/347)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/352)
Borders General Hospital National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/353)
Dumfries and Galloway Acute and Maternity Hospitals National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/354)
Yorkhill National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/355)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/359)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/360)
Standards in Scotland's Schools etc. Act 2000 (Commencement No. 3 and Transitional Provisions) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/361)
Brucellosis (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/364)
Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/365)
Teachers' Superannuation (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/366)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/369)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/370)
Gaming Clubs (Hours) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/371)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 3) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/372)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 3) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/378)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/381)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 3) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/382)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 4) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/383)
Act of Sederunt (Summary Applications, Statutory Applications and Appeals etc. Rules) Amendment (No. 2) (Administration of Justice (Scotland) Act 1972) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/387)
Act of Sederunt (Child Care and Maintenance Rules) Amendment 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/388)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 4) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/389)
Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 (Commencement No. 4) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/390)
Dairy Produce Quotas Amendment (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/391)
Divorce etc. (Pensions) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/392)
Potatoes Originating in Egypt (Amendment) (No. 2) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/393)
National Health Service (General Dental Services) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 3) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/394)
National Health Service (Optical Charges and Payments) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/395)
National Health Service (Charges for Drugs and Appliances) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/396)
Advice and Assistance (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/399)
401-453
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/402)
Local Authorities (Goods and Services) (Public Bodies) (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/403)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 4) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/404)
Prohibition of Fishing with Multiple Trawls (No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/405)
Education (Provision of Information as to Schools) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/406)
Education (School and Placing Information) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/407)
Act of Sederunt (Ordinary Cause Rules) Amendment (No. 2) (Pension Sharing on Divorce etc.) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/408)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/409)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 7) (Pension Sharing on Divorce etc.) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/412)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/413)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (Orkney) (No. 4) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/414)
Sheep and Goats Identification (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/418)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Sheriff Officers) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/419)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Solicitors in the Sheriff Court) (Amendment) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/420)
Act of Sederunt (Fees of Messengers-At-Arms) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/421)
Train Operating Companies (Rateable Values) (Scotland) (No. 2) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/424)
Local Statutory Provisions (Postponement from Repeal) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/425)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/428)
Common Agricultural Policy Support Schemes (Modulation) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/429)
Financial Assistance for Environmental Purposes (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/430)
Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/431)
Control of Pollution (Registers) and (Consent for Discharges) (Secretary of State Functions) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/432)
Environment Act 1995 (Commencement No. 19) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/433)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic ShellfishPoisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/434)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic ShellfishPoisoning) (West Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 5) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/435)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic ShellfishPoisoning) (East Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Partial Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/436)
Divorce etc. (Pensions) (Scotland) Amendment (No. 2) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/438)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (East Coast) (No. 2) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/440)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (Scotland) Partial Revocation (No. 2) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/441)
Welfare of Farmed Animals (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/442)
Education (National Priorities) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/443)
Teachers' Superannuation (Additional Voluntary Contributions) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/444)
Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 (Commencement No. 6) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/445)
Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning) (West Coast) (No. 5) (Scotland) Revocation Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/446)
Births, Deaths, Marriages and Divorces (Fees) (Scotland) Amendment Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/447)
Agricultural Business Development Scheme (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/448)
Fresh Meat (Beef Controls) (No. 2) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/449)
Act of Sederunt (Rules of the Court of Session Amendment No. 8) (Fees of Solicitors) 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/450)
Producer Responsibility Obligations (packaging waste) Amendment (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/451)
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 (Commencement No. 2) (Scotland) Order 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/452)
Feeding Stuffs (Scotland) Regulations 2000 (S.S.I. 2000/453)
External links
Scottish Statutory Instrument List
Scottish Draft Statutory Instrument List
2000
Statutory Instruments
Scotland Statutory Instruments |
4255224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series | 1994 NASCAR Winston Cup Series | The 1994 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 46th season of NASCAR professional stock car racing in the United States and the 23rd modern-era Cup series. The season began on Sunday, February 20, and ended on Sunday, November 13. Dale Earnhardt of Richard Childress Racing was crowned champion at season's end, winning consecutive Winston Cups for the third time in his career and tying Richard Petty for the record of most top-level NASCAR championships with seven. It was also the 7th and final NASCAR Winston Cup Series Championship for Dale Earnhardt before his death 7 years later in 2001; this was also the final season for 18-time Winston Cup winner Harry Gant.
One of the highlights of the season occurred on August 6, when the NASCAR Winston Cup Series made a highly publicized first visit to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for the inaugural Brickyard 400. This season also marked the end of the second of two tire wars, as Hoosier left NASCAR after the season-ending Atlanta race, leaving Goodyear as the series' exclusive tire distributor.
The season was marred with tragedy, as Neil Bonnett and Rodney Orr were killed in separate practice crashes prior to the Daytona 500 and in August at Michigan International Speedway when Ernie Irvan suffered near fatal injuries due to a practice crash.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Races
Busch Clash
The Busch Clash was held February 13 at Daytona International Speedway. Ken Schrader drew for the pole.
24-Jeff Gordon
26-Brett Bodine
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
42-Kyle Petty
11-Bill Elliott
25-Ken Schrader
2-Rusty Wallace
33-Harry Gant
Two days earlier, during practice, Neil Bonnett died of massive head injuries after his car had a tire failure in turn 3 and hit the wall head-on.
The day after this race, Rodney Orr died of massive head and chest injuries after his car lifted at over 175 mph and slammed into the outside retaining wall and catch fence, with the caution light piercing through the roof.
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade 125s, the qualifying races for the Daytona 500, were held February 19 at Daytona International Speedway.
Race one: top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
75-Todd Bodine
25-Ken Schrader
14-John Andretti
97-Chad Little
54-Robert Pressley
27-Jimmy Spencer
Race two: top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
4-Sterling Marlin
24-Jeff Gordon
11-Bill Elliott
26-Brett Bodine
21-Morgan Shepherd
30-Michael Waltrip
98-Derrike Cope
43-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
10-Ricky Rudd
Daytona 500
The Daytona 500 was held in Daytona International Speedway. Loy Allen Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
4-Sterling Marlin
28-Ernie Irvan
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
21-Morgan Shepherd
77-Greg Sacks
3-Dale Earnhardt
10-Ricky Rudd
11-Bill Elliott
25-Ken Schrader
Sterling Marlin becomes the 5th driver to score his first career win in the Daytona 500.
First career win in 279 starts for Sterling Marlin after finishing 2nd 8 times, tying Bill Elliott for most 2nd-place finishes before 1st career win.
This was the first points Cup race when cars were mandated to have roof flaps after Rusty Wallace had violently flipped at both Daytona & Talladega in 1993.
Goodwrench 500
The Goodwrench 500 was held February 27 at North Carolina Speedway. The No. 7 of Geoff Bodine was on the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
4-Sterling Marlin
1-Rick Mast
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
28-Ernie Irvan, 1 lap down
26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down
3-Dale Earnhardt, 1 lap down
42-Kyle Petty, 2 laps down
25-Ken Schrader, 3 laps down
30-Michael Waltrip, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 31-Ward Burton, 48-James Hylton, 99-Danny Sullivan, 61-Rick Carelli, 95-Jeremy Mayfield, 48-Jerry Hill, 02-T. W. Taylor
Jerry Hill may have made a second attempt for James Hylton's entry.
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held March 6 at Richmond International Raceway. The No. 16 of Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
2-Rusty Wallace
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
42-Kyle Petty
6-Mark Martin
1-Rick Mast
26-Brett Bodine
5-Terry Labonte*
18-Dale Jarrett, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 19-Loy Allen Jr., 45-Rich Bickle, 71-Dave Marcis, 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 23-Hut Stricklin, 47-Billy Standridge, 61-Rick Carelli, 02-T. W. Taylor, ??-Mike Wallace
Dave Marcis served as a broadcaster for TBS Sports after failing to qualify.
Terry Labonte started 37th (last) as he withdrew his time & took a champions provisional to allow Ricky Rudd to qualify on his time as Rudd's time would not have been fast enough and his new team had no owners points from the previous season and he would not have been eligible for a provisional. Rudd would finish 2 laps down in 18th.
For the first time since 1989 when the team failed to qualify for four races, Petty Enterprises would fail to qualify for a race. This would be the first of six times with driver Wally Dallenbach Jr. the team would fail to qualify in 1994.
Purolator 500
The Purolator 500 was held March 13 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The No. 19 of Loy Allen Jr. won the pole after failing to qualify at the previous race.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
21-Morgan Shepherd
17-Darrell Waltrip
8-Jeff Burton
6-Mark Martin, 1 lap down
15-Lake Speed, 1 lap down
77-Greg Sacks, 1 lap down
24-Jeff Gordon, 2 laps down
10-Ricky Rudd, 2 laps down
27-Jimmy Spencer, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 20-Buddy Baker, 61-Rick Carelli, 47-Billy Standridge, 89-Jim Sauter, 80-Jimmy Horton, 99-Danny Sullivan, 95-Jeremy Mayfield
First career top 5 for Jeff Burton.
Final time in his career that Ernie Irvan would win back-to-back races.
For the second consecutive race, Petty Enterprises would fail to qualify.
TranSouth Financial 400
The TranSouth Financial 400 was held March 27 at Darlington Raceway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
11-Bill Elliott
18-Dale Jarrett
15-Lake Speed
28-Ernie Irvan
25-Ken Schrader
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 19-Loy Allen Jr., 61-Rick Carelli, 47-Billy Standridge, 02-Curtis Markham, 57-Bob Schacht, 84-Norm Benning, 36-H. B. Bailey, 59-Andy Belmont
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was held April 10 at Bristol International Raceway. The No. 12 of Chuck Bown won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
15-Lake Speed
7-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
30-Michael Waltrip, 3 laps down
22-Bobby Labonte, 4 laps down
2-Rusty Wallace, 6 laps down
4-Sterling Marlin, 9 laps down
40-Bobby Hamilton, 12 laps down
71-Dave Marcis*, 14 laps down
Failed to qualify (or "Watching on TV" as said on ESPN): 14-John Andretti, 55-Jimmy Hensley, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 95-Jeremy Mayfield, 52-Brad Teague
Several accidents (including one during green flag pit stops) caused the big gaps among the top ten cars.
Dave Marcis' final Top 10 finish.
Final time in his career that Dale Earnhardt would win back-to-back races.
First Union 400
The First Union 400 was held April 17 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Ernie Irvan
42-Kyle Petty
3-Dale Earnhardt
10-Ricky Rudd
7-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 2 laps down
1-Rick Mast, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify (or "Seeing Granny" as said on ESPN): 29-Steve Grissom, 31-Ward Burton, 9-Rich Bickle, 41-Joe Nemechek, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 55-Jimmy Hensley, 90-Mike Wallace, 02-Curtis Markham, 52-Mike Skinner, 62-Freddie Query
This was Terry Labonte's first win since the 1989 Talladega DieHard 500 and his 1st victory for Hendrick Motorsports.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was held April 24 at Martinsville Speedway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
17-Darrell Waltrip
21-Morgan Shepherd
75-Todd Bodine
12-Chuck Bown
1-Rick Mast, 1 lap down
11-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify (or "Gone hunting" on ESPN): 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 90-Mike Wallace, 71-Dave Marcis, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 02-Curtis Markham, 89-Jim Bown, 52-Mike Skinner, 33-Harry Gant
This would be the last race Harry Gant would ever fail to qualify for.
For the third time of 1994, Petty Enterprises would fail to qualify.
Winston Select 500
The Winston Select 500 was held May 1 at Talladega Superspeedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
28-Ernie Irvan
30-Michael Waltrip
27-Jimmy Spencer
25-Ken Schrader
77-Greg Sacks
15-Lake Speed
4-Sterling Marlin
21-Morgan Shepherd
29-Steve Grissom
Failed to qualify (or "Flipping burgers" on ESPN): 31-Ward Burton, 9-Rich Bickle, 80-Jimmy Horton, 89-Jim Sauter, 0-Delma Cowart, 53-Ritchie Petty, 02-Ronnie Sanders
During the race, a scary crash occurred just after halfway when Mark Martin's #6 car, without brakes, hit the inside retaining wall and crashed through two guardrails, through a catchfence and into a third guardrail. He was only slightly injured.
After the race, Earnhardt dedicated his win to fallen Formula One driver Ayrton Senna, who died earlier in the day at the San Marino Grand Prix.
Save Mart Supermarkets 300
The Save Mart Supermarkets 300 was held May 15 at Sears Point Raceway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan
7-Geoff Bodine
3-Dale Earnhardt
43-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
2-Rusty Wallace
16-Ted Musgrave
21-Morgan Shepherd
6-Mark Martin
25-Ken Schrader
33-Harry Gant
Failed to qualify (or "Crushin' grapes", as referred to on ESPN): 52-Scott Gaylord, 55-Jimmy Hensley, 32-Dick Trickle, 48w-Jack Sellers, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 86w-Rich Woodland Jr.
The race was marred by a violent crash between Derrike Cope and John Krebs in which Krebs' #9 car went up and over an embankment and flipped over several times.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 29 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
7-Geoff Bodine
18-Dale Jarrett
28-Ernie Irvan
10-Ricky Rudd
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
75-Todd Bodine, 2 laps down
3-Dale Earnhardt, 3 laps down
30-Michael Waltrip, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 55-Jimmy Hensley, 71-Dave Marcis, 44-Bobby Hillin Jr., 89-Jim Sauter
This was Jeff Gordon's first Winston Cup victory. The 22-year-old driver benefited from all the wrecks that day along with only taking 2 tires on his final pit stop to score his first win. The rising young star cried in Victory Lane.
John Andretti, who finished 10th in the Indianapolis 500 earlier that day, finished the 600 in 36th. He became the first driver to run both races in the same day.
Budweiser 500
The Budweiser 500 was held June 5 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
28-Ernie Irvan
25-Ken Schrader
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down
30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down
4-Sterling Marlin, 2 laps down
23-Hut Stricklin, 2 laps down
43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 84-Norm Benning, 59-Andy Belmont
UAW-GM Teamwork 500
The UAW-GM Teamwork 500 was held June 12 at Pocono Raceway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
21-Morgan Shepherd
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
28-Ernie Irvan
26-Brett Bodine
1-Rick Mast
11-Bill Elliott
Failed to qualify: 47-Billy Standridge, 59-Andy Belmont
On lap 58 Chuck Bown was injured in a crash with Sterling Marlin and was out for the season.
This race would be the only Cup Series start for Bob Keselowski, driving the #52 Ford Thunderbird. Keselowski, father of 2012 champion Brad, would finish 41st after blowing an engine just 17 laps in.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held June 19 at Michigan International Speedway. The No. 19 of Loy Allen Jr. was on the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
10-Ricky Rudd
21-Morgan Shepherd
25-Ken Schrader
41-Joe Nemechek
30-Michael Waltrip
16-Ted Musgrave
17-Darrell Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 90-Mike Wallace, 80-Jimmy Horton, 52-Brad Teague,
34-Bob Brevak, 47-Billy Standridge, 32-Dick Trickle, 36-H. B. Bailey, 61-Rick Carelli, 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
3rd consecutive victory for Rusty Wallace.
As of 2021, Rusty Wallace is the last driver to score 3 consecutive victories in back-to-back seasons. His 3 straight wins in 1993 were at Bristol, North Wilkesboro, and Martinsville. His 3 straight wins in 1994 were at Dover, Pocono, Michigan. Rusty Wallace is also the only driver to score 3 consecutive victories in back-to-back seasons driving for different manufacturers. Wallace drove a Pontiac to his 3 straight wins in 1993, and he drove a Ford Thunderbird to his 3 straight wins in 1994.
Tim Steele replaced the injured Chuck Bown in the No. 12 for Bobby Allison Motorsports. However he would fall out of the race after completing 61 of 200 laps due to a crash and finished 39th.
For the fourth time in 1994, Petty Enterprises would fail to qualify with driver Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held July 2 at Daytona International Speedway. Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
27-Jimmy Spencer
28-Ernie Irvan
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
25-Ken Schrader
7-Geoff Bodine
75-Todd Bodine
24-Jeff Gordon
21-Morgan Shepherd
15-Lake Speed
Failed to qualify ("Flippin' burgers" as on ESPN): 52-Brad Teague, 20-Bobby Hillin Jr., 80-Joe Ruttman, 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 47-Billy Standridge, 0-Delma Cowart
Jimmy Spencer passed Ernie Irvan on the last lap (the only lap he led) to score his first Winston Cup win.
For the second race in a row, Petty Enterprises with driver Wally Dallenbach Jr. failed to qualify. It was the fifth race overall the team failed to qualify for in 1994. By now the rumors that were circulating wondered when Wally would be replaced, not if.
Slick 50 300
The Slick 50 300 was held July 10 at New Hampshire International Speedway. The No. 28 of Ernie Irvan was on the pole.
Top ten results
10-Ricky Rudd
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
75-Todd Bodine
21-Morgan Shepherd
16-Ted Musgrave
42-Kyle Petty
1-Rick Mast
4-Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: 19-Loy Allen Jr., 43-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 54-Robert Pressley, 62-Joe Bessey, 38-Jamie Aube
Ricky Rudd scored the first win for his own team, Rudd Performance Motorsports.
For the sixth and final time in 1994, Petty Enterprises with driver Wally Dallenbach Jr. failed to qualify. It was the third consecutive race the team failed to qualify for.
Miller Genuine Draft 500
The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held July 17 at Pocono Raceway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
7-Geoff Bodine
31-Ward Burton
41-Joe Nemechek
8-Jeff Burton
21-Morgan Shepherd
10-Ricky Rudd
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon, 1 lap down
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
18-Dale Jarrett, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 55-Jimmy Hensley, 32-Dick Trickle, 99-Phil Parsons, 65-Jerry O'Neil
This was Geoff Bodine's 1st points race victory as an owner/driver. He had won The Winston Select non-points race back in May.
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was held July 24 at Talladega Superspeedway. The No. 3 of Dale Earnhardt won the pole.
Top ten results
27-Jimmy Spencer
11-Bill Elliott
28-Ernie Irvan
25-Ken Schrader
4-Sterling Marlin
6-Mark Martin
10-Ricky Rudd
43-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
44-Kenny Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
Failed to qualify: 45-Rich Bickle, 32-Dick Trickle, 53-Ritchie Petty, 02-Derrike Cope, 31-Ward Burton, 95-Ben Hess, 47-Billy Standridge, 80-Joe Ruttman, 0-Delma Cowart, 89-Ronnie Sanders
Buzz Aldrin, one of the first humans to walk on the Moon, served as the grand marshal for this race; held four days after the 25th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. Instead of the traditional command to start engines, he said "Drivers, energize your groundcraft."
Final Career Win for Jimmy Spencer.
Spencer's victory would also be the last for a car with primary sponsorship from McDonald's until the 2021 YellaWood 500 race, also at Talladega, when Bubba Wallace drove the McDonald's-sponsored #23 Toyota Camry to his first career victory.
Brickyard 400
The Inaugural Brickyard 400 was held August 6 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Rick Mast won the pole.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
26-Brett Bodine*
11-Bill Elliott
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
17-Darrell Waltrip
25-Ken Schrader
30-Michael Waltrip
75-Todd Bodine
21-Morgan Shepherd
Failed to qualify (in order of speed): 39-Joe Ruttman, 32-Dick Trickle, 20-Randy LaJoie, 59-Jim Sauter, 29-Steve Grissom, 88-Davy Jones, 61w-Rick Carelli, 92w-John Krebs, 34-Bob Brevak, 60-Gary Bettenhausen, 52-Brad Teague, 90-Mike Wallace, 54-Robert Pressley, 81w-Jeff Davis, 57-Bob Schacht, 76w-Ron Hornaday Jr., 65-Jerry O'Neil, 00w-Scott Gaylord, 67-Ken Bouchard, 47-Billy Standridge, 12-Tim Steele, 36w-Rich Woodland Jr., 04w-Hershel McGriff, 56-Jerry Hill, 59-Andy Belmont, 36-H. B. Bailey, 84-Norm Benning, 58w-Wayne Jacks, 79-Doug French, 41w-Steve Sellers, 48 -James Hylton, 91w-Robert Sprague (crash), 95w-Lance Wade (spin), 09-Stan Fox (crash), 19-Loy Allen Jr. (crash), 48w-Jack Sellers (no speed)
Did not attempt: 0-Delma Cowart, 13-Kerry Teague, 38-P. J. Jones, 82-Charlie Glotzbach, 86w-Butch Gilliland, 95-Ben Hess, 90w-Joe Heath
Ernie Irvan was holding off Jeff Gordon up until 5 to go when his right front tire cut down and Gordon took the lead; Irvan would finish 1 lap down in 17th as a result.
Brett Bodine caused controversy on lap 101 when he spun out his older brother Geoff, who seemingly made the winning pass on Brett. After being released from the infield hospital, Geoff responded to the accident by publicly announcing that he and Brett were feuding behind-the-scenes. This was a feud that lasted for several years, ending with both brothers reconciling in the late-1990's (with Geoff joining Brett's team).
"Years from today, when 79 stock car races have been run here, we'll remember the name Jeff Gordon, winner of the inaugural Brickyard 400!" - Bob Jenkins as Jeff Gordon crossed the start/finish line to win the race
Jimmy Spencer was injured in a crash that relegated him to last place (forty third) and was forced to miss the next race.
The Bud at The Glen
The Bud at The Glen was held August 14 at Watkins Glen International. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
28-Ernie Irvan
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
10-Ricky Rudd
5-Terry Labonte
17-Darrell Waltrip
41-Joe Nemechek
24-Jeff Gordon
33-Harry Gant
Failed to qualify: 00-Scott Gaylord, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 98-Jeremy Mayfield, 90-Mike Wallace, 50-Brian Bonner
Derrike Cope made his debut in the No. 12 Ford after Tim Steele was fired after failing to qualify (by quite a lot of time) for the previous Saturday's Brickyard 400.
Unbeknownst to all, this would be Ernie Irvan's last race until late 1995.
This was Harry Gant's final top ten on a road course.
Tommy Kendall substituted for an injured Jimmy Spencer for this race. He finished in 22nd, 2 laps down to the winner
GM Goodwrench Dealer 400
The GM Goodwrench Dealer 400 was held August 21 at Michigan International Speedway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
7-Geoff Bodine
6-Mark Martin
1-Rick Mast
2-Rusty Wallace
22-Bobby Labonte
42-Kyle Petty
11-Bill Elliott, 1 lap down
5-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 40-Bobby Hamilton, 23-Hut Stricklin, 55-Jimmy Hensley, 54-Robert Pressley, 59-Andy Belmont, 82-Laura Lane, 52-Brad Teague, 34-Bob Brevak
During the weekend for this race, Ernie Irvan wrecked his No. 28 in Turn 2 for a practice run, and suffered near-fatal head, chest, and lung injuries. The team withdrew from the race.
Jimmy Spencer returned from injury and finished in 20th, 3 laps down to the winner .
Other changes included John Andretti replacing Wally Dallenbach Jr. in the No. 43 Pontiac at Petty Enterprises and starting on the front row for the first time since Richard Petty did in 1992 at Daytona. John would finish seventeenth, two laps down to the winner.
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held August 27 at Bristol International Raceway. Harry Gant won the final pole of his career.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
17-Darrell Waltrip
11-Bill Elliott
4-Sterling Marlin
30-Michael Waltrip
75-Todd Bodine
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
1-Rick Mast, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 95-Jeff Green, 27-Jimmy Spencer, 71-Dave Marcis, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 55-Jimmy Hensley, 14-Phil Parsons
Kenny Wallace began his duties driving in substitution for the injured Ernie Irvan, a role that lasted the rest of the season. He would finish the race in 13th, 1 lap down to the winner.
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held on September 4 at Darlington Raceway. The No. 7 of Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
11-Bill Elliott
3-Dale Earnhardt
21-Morgan Shepherd
10-Ricky Rudd
4-Sterling Marlin
24-Jeff Gordon, 1 lap down
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
8-Jeff Burton, 1 lap down
18-Dale Jarrett, 2 laps down
5-Terry Labonte, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 61-Rick Carelli, 57-Bob Schacht
Final win for Junior Johnson's legendary race team.
40th career Winston Cup Series win for Bill Elliott. This would be Bill's first win since the season finale at Atlanta in November 1992, breaking a 53 race winless streak. This would also be Bill's last win until November 2001 at Homestead, 7 years, and 226 races later. As of 2020, the 226 race winless streak is the longest drought in NASCAR history.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held September 10 at Richmond International Raceway. The No. 16 of Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
24-Jeff Gordon
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
10-Ricky Rudd
6-Mark Martin
29-Steve Grissom
26-Brett Bodine, 1 lap down
25-Ken Schrader, 1 lap down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 47-Billy Standridge, 51-Dirk Stephens, 80-Joe Ruttman, 9-Phil Parsons, 52-Brad Teague, 01-Billy Ogle, Jr., 8-Jeff Burton
Jeff Burton's time was disallowed after his car failed post-qualifying inspection.
SplitFire Spark Plug 500
The SplitFire Spark Plug 500 was held September 18 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
17-Darrell Waltrip
25-Ken Schrader
7-Geoff Bodine
42-Kyle Petty
5-Terry Labonte
29-Steve Grissom, 1 lap down
15-Lake Speed, 1 lap down
21-Morgan Shepherd, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 84-Norm Benning, 79-Doug French, 47-Billy Standridge
Mark Martin was leading with 6 laps to go when he tangled with the lapped car of Ricky Rudd. Rusty Wallace assumed the lead and soon had a blown tire (possibly by running over debris). The race finished under caution and Wallace kept the lead.
This was the final race at Dover on pavement. Beginning with the spring race in 1995 the surface would be concrete.
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held September 25 at Martinsville Speedway. Ted Musgrave won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
11-Bill Elliott
28-Kenny Wallace
18-Dale Jarrett
25-Ken Schrader
4-Sterling Marlin, 1 lap down
33-Harry Gant, 1 lap down
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 20-Bobby Hillin Jr., 19-Loy Allen Jr., 55-Tim Fedewa, 98-Jeremy Mayfield
8th and final win of 1994 for Rusty Wallace. This marked back-to-back seasons for Rusty Wallace winning the most races in a season (winning 10 races in 1993), but unfortunately, even though he scored most wins in back-to-back seasons, a major lack of consistency in both years kept him from winning back-to-back Winston Cup Championships.
This would be the 2nd time in his career that Rusty Wallace scored the most victories in back-to-back seasons. He scored 10 wins in 1993, and 8 wins in 1994. The 1st time he did this, he won the most races in 1988 and 1989, scoring 6 wins each. However, Rusty shared that feat in 1988 with that season's champion Bill Elliott, and he also shared that feat in 1989 with Darrell Waltrip, and as a bonus for 1989, Rusty won the championship that year.
This would be the final time that Rusty Wallace scored the most victories in a single season.
Last career Top 10 for Harry Gant.
Tyson Holly Farms 400
The Tyson Holly Farms 400 was held October 2 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. The No. 27 of Jimmy Spencer won his first career Winston Cup pole.
Top ten results
7-Geoff Bodine
5-Terry Labonte, 1 lap down
1-Rick Mast, 1 lap down
2-Rusty Wallace, 1 lap down
6-Mark Martin, 2 laps down
11-Bill Elliott, 2 laps down
3-Dale Earnhardt, 2 laps down
24-Jeff Gordon, 2 laps down
16-Ted Musgrave, 3 laps down
28-Kenny Wallace, 3 laps down
Failed to qualify: 90-Mike Wallace, 19-Loy Allen Jr., 55-Tim Fedewa, 52-Brad Teague, 18-Dale Jarrett, 75-Todd Bodine
This is the last time that a driver won a Winston Cup race by a lap or more.
Mello Yello 500
The Mello Yello 500 was held October 9 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The No. 31 of Ward Burton won the pole.
Top ten results
18-Dale Jarrett
21-Morgan Shepherd
3-Dale Earnhardt
25-Ken Schrader
15-Lake Speed
26-Brett Bodine
5-Terry Labonte
12-Derrike Cope
17-Darrell Waltrip
30-Michael Waltrip, 1 lap down, accident*
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 9-Phil Parsons, 67-Ken Bouchard, 55-Butch Miller, 02-Brad Noffsinger, 52-Brad Teague, 78-Pancho Carter, 53-Kirk Shelmerdine, 84-Norm Benning, 95-Ben Hess, 45-Rich Bickle, 0-Delma Cowart
Dale Jarrett won after failing to qualify for the previous race at North Wilkesboro. This would be the first time that a driver failed to qualify for a race and then go on to win the next race.
Former NASCAR Winston Cup champion Cale Yarborough served as a commentator for TBS.
On the final lap of the race, Michael Waltrip, Darrell Waltrip, and Bobby Hillin Jr. crashed, Darrell was the only driver of the 3 to finish the last lap. Hillin finished 15th, 3 laps down to the winner
AC Delco 500
The AC Delco 500 was held October 23 at North Carolina Speedway. Ricky Rudd won the pole.
Top ten results
3-Dale Earnhardt
1-Rick Mast
21-Morgan Shepherd
10-Ricky Rudd
5-Terry Labonte
11-Bill Elliott
6-Mark Martin
32-Dick Trickle
31-Ward Burton, 1 lap down
15-Lake Speed, 1 lap down
Failed to qualify: 02-Brad Noffsinger, 52-Brad Teague, 84-Norm Benning
Dale Earnhardt clinched his 7th and final NASCAR Winston Cup Championship with 2 races to go, tying him with Richard Petty for most championships of all time. In the Bob Latford Winston Cup points system, a driver can clinch the championship with 2 races to go if he has a 370+ point lead over 2nd, and Dale Earnhardt did just that by having a 448-point lead over Rusty Wallace at the end of the race. This would become the 4th and final time in Bob Latford's Winston Cup points system that a driver would clinch the Winston Cup Championship with 2 or more races to go. Earnhardt had already joined Richard Petty and Cale Yarborough when he won the title with 2 races to go in 1987, but as of 2018, the 1994 and 7th championship would make Dale Earnhardt the only driver in NASCAR history to clinch the title twice with 2 races to go. In 1987, his 1st accomplishment, Dale clinched his 3rd championship with 2 races to go by 515 points over Bill Elliott. In 1978, Cale Yarborough clinched his 3rd consecutive Winston Cup Championship with 2 races to go by 396 points over Bobby Allison, but in 1975 however, Richard Petty clinched his 6th championship with 4 races to go because his point lead was 740+ over 2nd. His margin was 827 points over James Hylton. Petty's championship win with 4 races to go is the earliest for a driver to clinch a championship in NASCAR history. Also as of 2021, this feat can never happen again due to several changes in the points system after 2003.
With this 7th championship, Dale Earnhardt ties Richard Petty for most Championships in NASCAR Cup Series history. In 2016, future driver Jimmie Johnson would become the 3rd driver to win 7 championships.
As of 2021, Dale Earnhardt is the only driver in NASCAR history to win 7 championships under one points system (Richard Petty won 7 titles under 5 points systems, and future 7-time champion Jimmie Johnson won 7 titles under 4 points systems).
The race itself came down to a photo finish with Earnhardt prevailing over Rick Mast.
Slick 50 500
The Slick 50 500 was held October 30 at Phoenix International Raceway. Sterling Marlin won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Terry Labonte
6-Mark Martin
4-Sterling Marlin
24-Jeff Gordon, 1 lap down
16-Ted Musgrave, 1 lap down
42-Kyle Petty, 1 lap down
10-Ricky Rudd, 1 lap down
7-Geoff Bodine, 1 lap down
18-Dale Jarrett, 2 laps down
17-Darrell Waltrip, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 51-Jeff Purvis, 02-Brad Noffsinger, 00-Scott Gaylord, 07-Doug George, 81-Jeff Davis, 90-Joe Heath, 86-Rich Woodland Jr., 92-John Krebs, 22-St. James Davis, 95-Lance Wade, 58-Wayne Jacks
The final 189 laps of the race were all under green flag conditions, causing the unusual gaps among the lead cars.
First time in his career that Terry Labonte won 3 races in a season.
Even though he clinched the championship the week before at Rockingham, Dale Earnhardt would blow an engine at lap 91, causing him to finish 40th.
Hooters 500
The Hooters 500 was held November 13 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. The No. 77 of Greg Sacks won the pole.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
75-Todd Bodine
15-Lake Speed
90-Mike Wallace
21-Morgan Shepherd
12-Derrike Cope, 1 lap down
5-Terry Labonte, 2 laps down
18-Dale Jarrett, 2 laps down
30-Michael Waltrip, 2 laps down
Failed to qualify: 55-Tim Fedewa, 98-Jeremy Mayfield, 64-Gary Wright, 47-Billy Standridge,
32-Dick Trickle, 45-Rich Bickle, 71-Dave Marcis, 80-Joe Ruttman, 35-Bill Venturini, 53-Brad Teague, 61-Rick Carelli, 34-Bob Brevak, 50-Brian Bonner
Dale Earnhardt would officially win his 7th and final NASCAR Winston Cup championship by 444 points over Mark Martin, the 4th largest point margin in Bob Latford's Winston Cup points system history. The largest point margin in the Winston Cup points system was back in 1975, when Richard Petty won his 6th championship by 722 points over Dave Marcis, the 2nd largest point margin was in 1987, when Earnhardt himself won his 3rd title by 489 points over Bill Elliott, and the 3rd largest point margin was in 1978, when Cale Yarborough won his 3rd consecutive Winston Cup Championship by 474 points over Bobby Allison.
Todd Bodine's best career Winston Cup finish.
Mike Wallace's first top 5 finish in the Cup Series.
Jimmy Means' last start in the Cup Series as an owner, with Gary Bradberry driving. Bradberry would finish 52 laps down in 30th.
Harry Gant's last race in the Cup Series. He would sadly complete only 257 out of 328 laps finishing 33rd due to an oil pan failure.
Final points standings
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. *- Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
A record eight drivers declared intentions to run for Maxx Racing Card Rookie of the Year before the 1994 season: brothers, Ward and Jeff Burton, John Andretti, T. W. Taylor, Joe Nemechek, Steve Grissom, Rick Carelli, and Loy Allen Jr. Taylor and Carelli dropped out early after a series of DNQs, while Billy Standridge joined the rookie of the year race with Johnson-Standridge Racing in March. Mike Wallace and Jeremy Mayfield took part once they secured full-time rides in March as well.
Jeff Burton, driving the No. 8 Ford for Stavola Brothers Racing, was named Rookie of the Year for 1994, posting two top-five finishes. He was followed by fellow Busch Series graduates Grissom and Nemechek, each of whom had three top-ten finishes. Allen, despite three poles, struggled to find consistency and finished far back in the standings, while Mayfield and Andretti showed promise with different rides throughout the season. Mike Wallace (who started the year at Atlanta in March) and Ward Burton were plagued by qualifying troubles all season long. Standridge ran a partial schedule and was not a factor. Rich Bickle declared to run for the award in 1993, but failed to make enough races so he was technically still eligible for the award in 1994. Although, he did not officially declare to run as a rookie for the 1994 season and was deemed ineligible for the award despite making the required number of races.
See also
1994 NASCAR Busch Series
1994–95 NASCAR SuperTruck Series exhibition races
References
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 1994
NASCAR Cup Series seasons
1994 in American sports
NASCAR Winston Cup Series |
4255271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20world%20oil%20market%20chronology | 2003 world oil market chronology | January 6: Venezuelan Minister of Energy and Mines Rafael Ramírez announces that the Venezuelan government plans to split state oil company Petroleos de Venezuela S.A. (PdVSA) into two separate entities as part of a large-scale restructuring of the company, most of whose 40,000 workers are currently on strike. Such a decentralization could limit the power of Caracas-based executives who have joined in the strike, which began on December 2, 2002. (NYT)
January 12: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), meeting in Vienna, agrees to raise the aggregate production quota of its members (excluding Iraq) to , up from the current , effective February 1. Each member will receive a proportionately higher share of the quota, about a 6.5% increase. (NYT)
January 16: Fourteen U.S. corporations or subsidiaries launch the Chicago Climate Exchange, a trading program wherein companies would be able to earn redeemable credits for exceeding emissions reductions goals of 4% of 1998-2001 average emissions over the next four years. Companies unable to meet the goals would buy the credits. The Exchange intends to create means to verify that actual reductions in emissions have taken place. (WP)
January 21: The near-month crude oil futures price on the NYMEX settles at $34.61 per barrel, the highest price since November 29, 2000. The market is experiencing a variety of higher price pressures, including the strike in Venezuela, fears of a conflict in Iraq, a cold winter in the United States, and low commercial oil stock levels in the United States. (USAT)
January 28: The U.S. Department of Energy approves oil company requests to delay delivery of March shipments to the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR). The announcement will allow of crude oil designated for storage in the SPR, to be marketed to domestic refineries instead. (Reuters)
January 29: Striking managers at Venezuelan state oil company PdVSA confirm that oil production has surpassed once again, after falling to as low as during the strike that began on December 2. On January 31, PdVSA President Ali Rodriguez announces that production is at and that 5,300 striking workers have been fired. Opposition estimates of production are much lower at around . (NYT, Reuters)
January 29: During his State of the Union Address, President Bush proposes $1.2 billion in funding to support the research and development of hydrogen-powered vehicles. (Reuters)
February 3: Indian Petroleum Minister Ram Naik announces that the government of India plans to boost the country's strategic crude oil reserves to 45 days from 15 days at an estimated cost of 43.50 billion rupees ($910 million). (Reuters)
February 6: Iranian Oil Minister Bijan Zanganeh announces that phases two and three of the South Pars natural gas field are now on-line. These phases represent additional production of about 55 million cubic meters (1.9 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas per year, of condensate, and 1 million metric tons (11.6 million barrels) of liquefied petroleum gas per year. The two phases are officially inaugurated on February 15. (DJ)
February 11: BP invests $6.75 billion in Russia by creating a new joint venture company with TNK-BP (Russia's fourth largest oil company) and Sidanco, of which BP already held a 25% stake. BP will have a 50% stake in the new company. TNK's shareholders, investment groups Alfa Group and Access-Renova, will hold the other 50% stake of the new firm, and board control will be balanced equally. The investment by BP is equivalent to almost 10% of Russian foreign exchange reserves and around 1.5% of Russian gross domestic product (GDP). (Reuters)
February 12: Data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) show that U.S. commercial crude oil stocks have fallen to for the week ending February 7, 2003. This is the lowest commercial crude oil stock level since 1975, and just slightly below the lower operational inventory level of . The lower operational inventory level, while not implying shortages, operational problems, or price increases, is indicative of a situation where inventory-related supply flexibility could be constrained or nonexistent. (Reuters)
February 18: Exxon Mobil begins construction of the $3 billion Kizomba B offshore development project in Angolan waters. The project, when completed, is expected to produce of crude oil per day, beginning in 2006, with total production over the life of the field estimated to be about . Besides Exxon Mobil, which has a 40% stake, the other stakeholders are BP (26.67%), Eni (20%), and Statoil (13.33%). The concessionaire is Angolan state oil company Sonangol. (Reuters)
February 28: The NYMEX near-month heating oil futures price settles at an all-time high of 125.59 cents per gallon, as many of the same market forces affecting the crude oil market also have driven up the price of heating oil, especially increased demand from the cold winter. High sulfur distillate fuel inventories (also referred to as heating oil) plunged more than 15% over the most recent four-week period to end the week of February 28, at , 32% below the level for the same period last year. (Reuters)
March 5: Some of Venezuelan production in the eastern region begins to come back on-line. It was shut off at the wellhead for a week because of bottlenecks at export terminals as Venezuelan state oil company PdVSA encountered problems in returning loading at terminals to pre-strike levels. The Venezuelan government claims that oil production is over , while fired PdVSA workers claim production is at . (Reuters)
March 6: Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez announces that force majeure is henceforth lifted on Venezuelan oil exports. Venezuela had declared force majeure on its oil exports shortly after the national strike began on December 2, 2002. It is later revealed that this lifting does not apply to certain petroleum products. President Chavez also refuses to consider rehiring any of the over 15,000 fired PdVSA workers. (Reuters)
March 7: The New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) puts into effect expanded price limits on its energy contracts and reduces to five minutes the time trading is halted when those limits are reached. Under the revised rules, the initial price limits for light, sweet crude oil futures will be expanded to $10 per barrel in all months from the current $7.50 in the first two months and $3.00 in all other months. The initial Henry Hub natural gas futures limits will expand to $3.00 per million British thermal units in all months from $1 in all months. The initial limits on heating oil, gasoline and propane futures will increase to 25 cents per gallon in all months from 20 cents in the first two months and 6 cents in all other months. (Reuters)
March 7: Officials in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announce that new clean water regulations for smaller sites, to take effect March 10, will not apply to the petroleum and natural gas industries. Rather, these two industries will have a two-year exemption, because, according to the EPA, further study of the effects of these regulations upon these two industries is needed. (NYT)
March 11: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) meets in Vienna and decides to maintain crude oil production quotas for its member countries (excluding Iraq) at . Saudi Arabia's Oil Minister, Ali al-Naimi says, "There will be no shortage of oil. The test is, when the need is there, whether we will use the capacity or not and I can assure you we will. Most analysts, including EIA, believe that OPEC-10's (excluding Iraq) actual production is higher than the quota amount. (NYT, Reuters)
March 12: The near-month (April) crude oil futures price at the NYMEX settles at $37.83 per barrel, the highest near-month settlement price (in nominal terms) since October 1990. This comes as EIA reports today that commercial crude oil inventories for the previous week declined by to . This is below the lower operational inventory level, which, while not implying shortages, operational problems, or price increases, is indicative of a situation where inventory-related supply flexibility could be constrained or nonexistent. This heightens supply concerns before an impending war in Iraq. (WSJ)
March 19: Military action in Iraq commences with a bombing raid and missile attack on targets in the Iraqi capital of Baghdad (March 20 Baghdad time) by Coalition forces, given Saddam Hussein and his regime's rejection of U.S. President George Bush's March 17 ultimatum. Iraq launches several conventional missiles at Kuwait, but this has no effect on Kuwaiti oil production. However, the Kuwait Petroleum Company does implement an emergency plan to protect its workers and facilities. (Reuters)
March 23: Outbreaks of violence between soldiers and militants of various ethnic groups in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria prompt three major oil companies operating in the region - ChevronTexaco, Royal Dutch/Shell, and TotalFinaElf - to shut in operations in the area, totaling about . This represents about 40% of Nigeria's total production, including about in the West Niger Delta (all operations there for the three companies) and of Shell production in the East Niger Delta. Employees of ChevronTexaco, which had declared force majeure on its Escravos crude oil terminal three days earlier, return to Nigeria on April 4 to begin a gradual resumption of production. Force majeure is lifted on April 24, 2003. (NYT, Reuters)
March 24: After Coalition forces have pushed further into Iraq securing most of the southern oilfields over the weekend, Kuwaiti fire fighters are able to enter Iraq and are able to extinguish one of the wellhead fires. Iraq's southern fields represent about 40% of the country's output. Damage is assessed to be relatively minimal. Some pockets or Iraqi resistance in the southern oilfields remain, however. Furthermore, heavy Iraqi resistance in some parts of Iraq gives rise to market speculation that the war could last longer than initially thought. The NYMEX near-month crude oil price rises 6.5%, to settle at $28.66 per barrel, as the war in Iraq as well as the situation in Nigeria have traders concerned. (Reuters, DJ)
April 4: Coalition forces continue to make progress against the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq, with the U.S. military capturing Baghdad's main international airport. Also, according to the U.S. military, 80–90% of Iraq's southern oilfield production is under coalition control, as well as all related export facilities, as of this date. (Reuters)
April 4: Royal Dutch/Shell restarts production and development work at the Soroosh and Nowrooz fields offshore southwestern Iran, after shutting down work at the two fields on March 19 because of fears that staff could be vulnerable to intentional or accidental attack, given the fields' proximity to the border with Iraq. Soroosh produces about , and the shut down has delayed the coming on line of the Nowrooz field, scheduled for later this year. (DJ, Reuters) )
April 8: Syrian state oil company Sytrol informs customers that it will cut crude oil term export volumes by around 40% (about ) as a result of the halt in Iraqi imports through the Iraq-Syria-Lebanon pipeline that is reported to have been shut down. Sytrol suggests that the reduction will continue for the rest of the year. (WMRC)
April 14: Pumping on the oil pipeline from Iraq's Kirkuk oilfields to the Turkish port of Ceyhan is halted as the storage facilities have reached their maximum capacity of about . There has not been a loading of Iraqi crude oil at the port since March 20. (Reuters)
April 14: Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) shuts down for inspection the last of its 17 nuclear reactors still in operation. The shut downs result from the discovery last year that TEPCO had falsified data regarding reactor inspections, leading to the decision to shut down by Japan's nuclear authorities. Japan's largest power firm said that unless its reactors were started back up, there would be an electricity shortage of up to 9.55 million kilowatts during the summer, when electricity demand hits its peak. (Japan Times)
April 15: U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announces that the U.S. military has shut off an oil pipeline from Iraq to Syria that is alleged to have been carrying 100,000- per day. "We have been told that they have shut off a pipeline," Secretary Rumsfeld told a Pentagon briefing. "Whether it's the only one and whether that has completely stopped the flow of oil between Iraq and Syria, I cannot tell you. ... I cannot assure you that all illegal oil flowing from Iraq into Syria is shut off. I just hope it is." (Reuters)
April 22: Yukos Oil Company and Sibneft, Russia's first and fifth largest oil companies, respectively, in terms of production, announce that they will merge in a deal in which Yukos will pay $13 billion in cash and stock for Sibneft. The new company will be the world's fifth-largest publicly traded oil and gas company, with a production of . The new company plans to become a major player outside of Russia as well. (NYT, WSJ)
April 23: According to the American military officer in charge of restarting Iraq's oil production infrastructure, Iraq's southern fields have begun to produce again. Four southern wells have begun producing a modest amount of crude oil, but according to Brig. Gen. Robert Crear of the Army Corps of Engineers, southern wells should soon be producing about . Initial production would go toward meeting domestic demand, especially as more refineries come back on line. The country's northern oilfields are still offline. (WSJ)
April 24: OPEC oil ministers, meeting for emergency talks in Vienna, decide to simultaneously reduce crude oil production by , as of June 1, and increase their overall production quota by to a total quota of . This is a tacit admission that OPEC production is well in excess of the previous quota of . Iraq does not participate in the meetings and is not subject to the quota regime. (LAT)
April 29: Brazilian state oil company Petrobras announces the largest-ever natural gas discovery in Brazil. The discovery, located about off the coast of the state of São Paulo, is a field containing an estimated of natural gas. This field raises Brazil's natural gas reserves by about 30%, according to some estimates. (Reuters)
May 22: The United Nations Security Council approves the immediate end of 13 years of economic sanctions on Iraq, dating from the time of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Resolution 1483 effectively grants the United States-led coalition forces control of Iraq until a new Iraqi government can be put in place. The end of the sanctions also makes it easier for Iraqi oil exports to resume without the auspices of the United Nations. Later, on May 27, the U.S. Department of the Treasury lifts most remaining sanctions on Iraq, thereby implementing U.N. Security Council Resolution 1483. Secretary of the Treasury John W. Snow states, "It is no longer a crime for U.S. companies and individuals to do business with Iraq." (WP)
May 28: Yukos of Russia signs a $150 billion agreement with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), wherein CNPC agrees to purchase of oil between 2005 and 2030 via a $2.5 billion pipeline from Russia's Western Siberia fields to China's Daqing field. (Reuters)
June 2: Royal Dutch/Shell signs a $2 billion contract with an alliance of Japanese and Russian companies for the construction of Russia's first natural gas liquefaction plant in Sakhalin. This comes after Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) and Tokyo Gas agreed two weeks earlier to purchase about one-quarter of the liquefaction plant's planned capacity of 9.6 million metric tons per year. Shell owns 55% of the production rights for the natural gas supplying the planned plant. (NYT)
June 10: Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan notes that rising natural gas prices in the United States could have a negative impact on the economy in the months ahead if prices remain at high levels. States Greenspan, "I have no doubt that...if we stay at these very elevated prices we're going to see some erosion in a number of macroeconomic variables which are not evident at this stage. A very significant amount of natural gas using infrastructure in the American economy was based on $2 gas. That means a lot of noncompetitive structures are sitting out there." (Reuters)
June 11: Oil Ministers of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) meeting in Qatar decide to keep OPEC crude oil production quotas unchanged for the ten members (i.e. not including Iraq) participating in the quota regime. The combined output quota for the ten members is of crude oil per day. OPEC President Abdullah bin Hamad Al Attiyah, also Qatar's Minister of Energy and Industry, says, "We don't want to cut for the sake of it. We should justify it." (Reuters, DJ)
June 12: Two explosions damage the Kirkuk-Ceyhan oil pipeline, in what is later determined to be an act of sabotage. Several other Iraqi pipelines are damaged in acts of sabotage throughout the month, including a natural gas pipeline in the western desert on June 21, an oil pipeline west of Baghdad on June 22, and the now-stalled Iraq-Syria pipeline on June 23. (Reuters, AP)
June 14: ConocoPhillips announces that the company will proceed with its $1.5 billion liquefied natural gas (LNG) development project at the Bayu-Undan fields after government officials of Australia and East Timor approved the project in the Timor Sea Joint Petroleum Development Area. Natural gas from the field will be piped to an LNG liquefaction plant in Australia's Northern Territory. (WSJ, NYT)
June 17: The head of Iraq's North Oil Company, Adil al-Qazzaz, states that Iraq's main north-south crude oil pipeline, the so-called Strategic Pipeline, will not be operable for some time, especially because the K-3 pumping station was badly damaged during the recent war. Al-Qazzaz goes on to state that because the pipeline is not working, "[W]e don't have export flexibility, and that will have an impact." (WSJ)
June 22: Iraq exports oil for the first time since March 20, the first day of the war that eventually toppled the regime of Saddam Hussein. The crude oil, , was part of the June 12 tender and will be sold to Turkish refiners from oil in storage at the Turkish port of Ceyhan. Loading of the oil onto a tanker begins today. (WP)
July 2: The European Parliament votes to cap European industry's carbon dioxide output and let firms trade the right to pollute. As of January 2005, many plants in the oil refining, smelting, steel, cement, ceramics, glass and paper sectors will need special permits to emit carbon dioxide (CO2). "It means that the largest emissions trading scheme in the world to date will be a reality from 2005, and that the architecture foreseen under the Kyoto Protocol is coming to life," according to European Union Environment Commissioner Margot Wallstrom. (Reuters)
July 9: The government of Chad announces that it has begun its first-ever crude oil production, as wells began pumping on July 1. It will still take weeks before crude is shipped from the $3.5 billion project through a pipeline to the Atlantic coast in neighboring Cameroon. The government does not announce the initial flow rate, but eventual production is expected to reach . Oil begins flowing through the pipeline on July 15. (Reuters)
July 12: Sakhalin Oil Development Corporation, the Japanese partner in an international consortium in the Sakhalin-1 project, announces that oil drilling offshore has begun. The project, which may eventually see $12 billion invested in oil and natural gas development, is potentially the largest direct foreign investment in Russia. Total recoverable reserves at the Sakhalin-1 area are estimated to be of oil and of natural gas. (DJ)
July 15: The operator of Israel's Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline, a bi-directional pipeline linking the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, announces that the pipeline is operational. The pipeline, with a current capacity of , but a design capacity of , provides an alternative to the Suez Canal, as both Israeli ports can handle VLCCs, whereas Suez cannot. Perhaps even more importantly, with the new southerly flow, Russian crude on small tankers from the Bosporus will be able to eventually load onto VLCCs bound for East Asia. (Reuters)
July 15: Hurricane Claudette hits the Texas coast about southwest of Houston. According to the U.S. Minerals Management Service, an estimated per day of natural gas had been shut in by Claudette, or about 18% of the Gulf's total gas output. Also, about of oil, or some 21% of the Gulf of Mexico's daily oil production, has been shut down. Production is quickly restored in the next few days. (Reuters)
July 16: Italian oil and gas major Eni announces that it has begun exporting oil production from the giant Karachaganak field in Kazakhstan to the Novorossiysk terminal on the Black Sea. In addition, Eni said that it and its partners had completed pipelines and treatment facilities so that output from the oil field could grow by the end of the year to of oil equivalent per day from the current of oil equivalent per day. (DJ)
July 16: Royal Dutch/Shell and Total successfully conclude the first deal with Saudi Arabia giving Western companies access to the Kingdom's hydrocarbon reserves since the nationalization of its petroleum industry. The agreement entails natural gas exploration and development across in Saudi Arabia's Empty Quarter. Previous efforts to open up Saudi Arabia's upstream natural gas sector, known as "Saudi Arabia's natural gas initiative" and the three "Core Ventures" were larger, with each estimated to be worth $10–$15 billion. The Core Ventures fell apart in June due to conflicts with foreign investors over financial terms. (Reuters)
July 25: The first delivery of liquefied natural gas (LNG) since 1980 is made to the reactivated Cove Point LNG regasification plant in Maryland, as a tanker from Trinidad arrives carrying of LNG. According to Dominion, owner of the facility, the plant will be able to supply of natural gas per day, and will be the largest LNG regasification facility in the United States. (WP)
July 31: Oil Ministers of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), meeting in Vienna, decide to keep their crude oil production quotas unchanged until their next meeting, on September 24. The combined quota for the ten members participating in the quota regime (i.e. excluding Iraq) is . (WSJ)
August 7: The United States estimates that restoring Iraq's oil sector to its pre-war status will cost at least $1.1 billion and take nine months to complete. Prior to the war, Iraq was producing around per day and exporting around per day. Current production is closer to , with exports of about per day. (LAT))
August 14: Libya reportedly agrees to compensate families of the 1988 Lockerbie airplane bombing with $2.7 billion total. The money is to be released in three tranches, the first following a lifting of United Nations sanctions, the second after possible lifting of U.S. sanctions, and the third after Libya is removed from the U.S. State Department's state sponsors of terrorism list. (WMRC)
August 14: A huge electric power blackout hits large parts of the northeastern United States, the Midwest, and southern Canada late in the afternoon. Power is out for at least several hours in major cities like New York, Detroit, Cleveland, and Toronto. Three months later, on November 19, the U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force, led by U.S. Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham and Canadian Natural Resource Minister Herbert Dhaliwal, releases a 124-page investigative report which concludes that the blackout was "largely preventable" and cites several failures by regional utility companies and regulators. Analyses are also published by The Michigan Public Service Commission and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). (NYT, WSJ, AP)
August 14: Russia approves a $13 billion merger between Yukos and Sibneft, creating "YukosSibneft," Russia's first "supermajor" and one of the world's largest publicly traded oil companies. (WMRC)
August 15: Iraq's crucial northern oil pipeline from Kirkuk to the Turkish port of Ceyhan is attacked, stopping flows on the line just two days after it reopened for the first time since the war. The pipeline had a pre-war capacity of , but sustained significant damage during hostilities and had started pumping at only around . Repairs to the line from the latest attack may take weeks, while full restoration of the pipeline's pre-war capacity could take months. (WMRC)
September 1: Ibrahim Bahr al-Uloum, a former Iraqi exile, is appointed Iraq's first post-war oil minister by the country's Governing Council. Uloum replaces Thamir Ghadhban, who had been the acting oil minister since early May. (Reuters)
September 10: The Inter-American Development Bank approves financing for Peru's Camisea natural gas project. The Camisea fields were discovered by Shell in 1986 and are estimated to hold of natural gas and of condensate, possibly transforming Peru into a net energy exporter. (DJ, WP, WMRC, EIA)
September 11: The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approves a plan for the new Cameron liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminal in Hackberry, Louisiana. Cameron represents the first such project in the United States in over 20 years. (NYT)
September 12: The United Nations (U.N.) Security Council lifts 11-year-old sanctions against Libya. Development of Libya's sizeable oil resources has been hindered by the sanctions, which were imposed in 1992 in an effort to extradite two Libyans indicted for the 1998 bombing of an American plane over Scotland.
September 19: Iranian Oil Minister Bijan Zanganeh announces that the deal which granted a Japanese consortium preferential rights to develop Iran's Azadegan oil field has expired. The consortium was granted the rights in late 2000, but had yet to negotiate and sign a contract. The Azadegan field is estimated to hold some of oil. (Platts)
September 24: OPEC members agree to cut the output ceiling for the ten member countries, excluding Iraq, by to , effective November 1. Iraq attends the OPEC meeting for the first time since 1990. OPEC cited concerns that the world oil market will be oversupplied in 2004 leading to lower prices. (Reuters)
September 30: The Chicago Climate Exchange announces its first auction of emission allowances. Although emissions cuts are still voluntary, the exchange is considered an important prototype. (WMRC)
October 3: Chad's President Idriss Deby announced that the new Chad-Cameroon oil pipeline is officially "onstream." Chad began pumping oil into the pipeline in July 2003 from the Doba field. The $3.7 billion Chad-Cameroon oil pipeline represents the World Bank's single largest investment ever in sub-Saharan Africa. (NYT)
October 4: The Russian oil companies Yukos and Sibneft complete their merger, creating YukosSibneft, the world's fourth-largest private oil producer. The news is accompanied by rumors that major American firms are interested in making a deal with YukosSibneft to gain access to the Russian energy market. (WP)
October 14: Bowing to protests, Bolivian President Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada announces he will not pursue a plan to export more than one billion cubic feet per day of liquefied natural gas (LNG) to the United States through Chile. The proposal had led to massive popular protests in Bolivia, resulting in the deaths of at least 16 people. (WSJ, WP, NYT)
November 4: The International Finance Corporation, the private lending division of the World Bank, approves a $250 million loan for the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline. Later, on November 11, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development approves its $250 million loan for the project. The pipeline will enable crude oil exports from the land-locked Caspian Sea region to reach world markets through the Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan. (WSJ, EIA, WMRC)
November 18: ChevronTexaco reports that it has received final approval form the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) to build the world's first-ever deepwater liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminal at Port Pelican in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. The plant will have a capacity of per day, with construction to begin in 2004 and to be completed in 2007. (WMRC)
November 21: The United Nations hands over the "oil-for-food" program in Iraq to the U.S.-led administration in Baghdad. The "oil-for-food" program was established by the United Nations in 1995, and used proceeds from the sale of Iraqi oil to buy food and medicine for Iraqis as well as to finance infrastructure and humanitarian projects. Iraqi oil exports reportedly have reached around . (USAT, WMRC)
November 24: The U.S. Congress abandons plans to pass an energy bill before the end of the legislative session. The bill was approved in the United States House of Representatives on November 18, but then blocked in the Senate as its proponents were unable to close debate on the issue and call for a vote. The legislation has been under construction for three years and represents Congress's first attempt at a comprehensive energy bill since 1992. The bill's proponents intend to revisit the issue in 2004. (NYT, WP, WSJ)
November 28: Russian oil company Sibneft makes a surprise announcement suspending its merger with Russian oil major Yukos citing technical difficulties. The $13 billion merger was announced in April 2003, and would create the world's fifth-largest publicly traded oil company. (WP, WSJ)
December 2: President George W. Bush signs a $27.3 billion energy and water bill that includes funding for a nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. The repository remains a source of controversy between state and federal officials. (AP)
December 4: OPEC holds its 128th meeting to review oil markets in Vienna, Austria, leaving OPEC 10 output quotas unchanged. (DJ)
December 15: Oil prices fall 4% on the news that U.S. military forces capture Saddam Hussein near his hometown of Tikrit, Iraq. (CBS, WMRC)
December 18: BP signs a 20-year deal to sell per day of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from its Tangguh facility in Indonesia to the U.S. energy company Sempra Energy. The LNG will be shipped to Sempra's proposed import and regasification terminal in Baja California, Mexico before being distributed to buyers in the United States. (DJ)
December 22: Libya announces that it will abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and comply with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The United States welcomes the move, but says that it will maintain economic sanctions until it sees evidence of compliance. (WMRC, NYT)
Sources
Energy Information Administration: Chronology of World Oil Market Events
Commodity Research Bureau. The CRB Commodity Yearbook 2003, 2003.
OtherSources include: Associated Press (AP), Dow Jones (DJ), Japan Times, Los Angeles Times (LAT), New York Times (NYT), Oil Daily (OD), Reuters, USA Today (USAT), Wall Street Journal (WSJ), Washington Post (WP), World Markets Research Center (WMRC).
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | previous year:2002 world oil market chronology
| width="40%" align="center" | This article is part of theChronology of world oil market events (1970-2005)
| width="30%" align="center" | following year:2004 world oil market chronology
|-
Oil market timelines
World oil market chronology
2000s energy crisis
World Oil Market Chronology, 2003
Oil market |
4255626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940%20in%20baseball | 1940 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: Cincinnati Reds over Detroit Tigers (4-3)
All-Star Game, July 9 at Sportsman's Park: National League, 4-0
Other champions
Amateur World Series: Cuba
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: East, 11-0
Awards and honors
Most Valuable Player
Hank Greenberg (AL) – OF, Detroit Tigers
Frank McCormick (NL) – 1B, Cincinnati Reds
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Bob Feller – P, Cleveland Indians
The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award
Hank Greenberg (AL) – OF, Detroit Tigers
Frank McCormick (NL) – 1B, Cincinnati Reds
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Bill McKechnie – Cincinnati Reds
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
Negro National League final standings
Events
January
January 1 - Kenesaw Mountain Landis voids a trade that would have sent pitcher George Coffman and second baseman Benny McCoy to the Philadelphia A's in exchange for outfielder Wally Moses. Landis claims the Tigers hid McCoy as his reason for voiding the trade, setting in motion a decision he would make later that month.
January 10- The Brooklyn Dodgers signed pitcher Wes Ferrell as a free agent.
January 14 – Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis declares 87 players from the Detroit Tigers' farm system free agents because they had been "hidden" from other teams. The move allows Benny McCoy to sign with the Philadelphia A's as a free agent.
January 31 - Catcher and future spy for the U.S. Government, catcher Moe Berg, is released by the Boston Red Sox.
February
February 2 - The election of a Negro National League president ends in a deadlock, with three owners voting for incumbent Tom Wilson and three voting for New York City businessman C. B. Powell.
February 23 - A compromise by Alex Pompez ended a three-week stalemate between the Negro National League clubs over the election of a league president and the role of promoter Eddie Gottlieb. League president Tom Wilson, vice president Ed Bolden, and secretary Cumberland Posey were all reelected for the 1940 season. Newark Eagles owner Abe Manley, who opposed Wilson's reelection, became league treasurer. Gottlieb was allowed to continue promoting the majority of games at Yankee Stadium, but the New York Black Yankees were allowed to promote a double-header at their own home field.
February 24 - The Brooklyn Dodgers work out a trade with the Boston Red Sox. The deal sees the Dodgers Send Red Evans and Art Parker, along with $3,500 cash to acquire Pee Wee Reese.
March
March 7 - The National League defeats the AL in a charity exhibition All-Star game. The contest is broadcast on the Mutual Broadcasting System raises more than $20,000. The funds are used to help citizens of Finland whose homes and businesses were destroyed in an attack by the USSR.
April
April 16 – The Cleveland Indians' Bob Feller pitches a 1-0 opening day no-hitter against the Chicago White Sox.
April 23 – Hall of famer Pee Wee Reese makes his major league debut at shortstop for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
April 30 – Tex Carleton pitches a no-hitter as the Brooklyn Dodgers defeat the Cincinnati Reds, 3–0.
May
May 7 -The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the Brooklyn Dodgers, 18–2. The Cards have 49 bases on twenty hits, including thirteen extra-base hits and seven home runs.
May 8 - The Cincinnati Reds trade outfielder Vince DiMaggio to the Pittsburgh Pirates for outfielder Johnny Rizzo.
May 13 - Pitcher Willis Hudlin is released by the Cleveland Indians. Three days later he signs with the Washington Senators and continues a journey that will see him pitch for four different teams in the 1940 season.
May 20 - Pinky Higgins belts three home runs, hitting them in the fourth, fifth, and seventh innings in the Tigers 10–7 win over Boston.
May 22 - The Brooklyn Dodgers sign Al Campanis as a free agent.
May 24 - The St. Louis Browns play their first home game under artificial lights, but the hometown fans go home unhappy as the team falls to Bob Feller and the Cleveland Indians 3–2. In the National League on the same night, the New York Giants defeat the Boston Braves 8–1 in the first night game played at the polo grounds.
June
June 4 - In the first game under the lights for the St. Louis Cardinals, Joe Medwick goes five for five, hitting three doubles, yet the Cardinals fall to the Brooklyn Dodgers 10–1.
June 5 - After purchasing his contract earlier in the year, the New York Giants return Johnny Broaca, who was playing in the minor leagues, to the Cleveland Indians. The Indians then turn around and place Broaca on waivers, and he never pitches in the major leagues again.
June 6 – The Boston Bees sign 19-year-old left-handed pitcher Warren Spahn.
June 8 - Harry Craft hits a three run home run in the fifth inning of a contest against the Brooklyn Dodgers. The hit completes the cycle for Craft, who finished the game five for five as Cincinnati defeats Brooklyn 23–2.
June 12 - In one of the seasons biggest trades, the Brooklyn Dodgers acquire Joe Medwick and pitcher Curt Davis, along with cash, from the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for outfielder Ernie Koy and pitcher Carl Doyle, along with Bert Haas and Sam Nahem. The deal is one of the first made by GM Larry MacPhail to turn the Dodgers into a contending team.
June 15 – In a 12–1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates, the New York Giants' Harry Danning hits for a cycle against that includes an inside-the-park home run. The ball became lodged behind an Eddie Grant memorial in front of the Giants' clubhouse.
June 18 - Joe Medwick, recently acquired by Brooklyn from the St. Louis Cardinals, is beaned by former teammate Bob Bowman. As Medwick is carried from the field on a stretcher, an enraged Larry MacPhail demands criminal charges be brought against Bowman, as MacPhail insisted the beaning was in response to a beef between the two ball players.
July
July 9 – Boston Bees outfielder Max West hits a three-run home run in the first inning, as the National League defeats the American League, 4–0, in the All-Star Game at Sportsman's Park, home of the St. Louis Cardinals.
July 15 - Willis Hudlin is released by the Washington Senators. One week later, he signs with the New York Giants, making the Giants the third team Hudlin would pitch for that season.
August
August 3 - Upset by what he viewed as a poor performance against the Boston Bees, Cincinnati Reds catcher Willard Hershberger takes his own life hours before a double header against Boston.
Less than a week after being released by the Giants, Willis Hulin signs with the St. Louis Browns, thus making the Browns the fourth team Hudlin pitched for in during the 1940 season.
September
September 24 – Jimmie Foxx hit his career 500th home run.
September 30 – The Cleveland Indians finish one-game behind the Detroit Tigers in the American League pennant race, thus disappointing Ohio baseball fans who had been rooting all season long for what would have been the only All-Ohio World Series in baseball history, between the National League champions Cincinnati Reds and the Cleveland Indians.
October
October 8 – The Cincinnati Reds defeat the Detroit Tigers, 2–1, in Game 7 of the World Series to win their second World Championship, four games to three. This was Cincinnati's first World Series victory since the infamous Black Sox scandal in 1919. Reds' Bill McKechnie became the first manager to win World Series with two different teams. In 1925 he had won the Classic as manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates.
November
November 11 – Brooklyn Dodgers general manager Larry MacPhail acquires starting pitcher Kirby Higbe, from the Philadelphia Phillies, in exchange for catcher Mickey Livingston, pitchers Bill Crouch and Vito Tamulis, and $100,000. Higbe, who won 14 games this past season, will win 22 games in to lead National League pitchers.
December
December 5 - The New York Yankees sell the contract of outfielder Jake Powell to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League.
December 12 – The Boston Red Sox send Doc Cramer to the Washington Senators for Gee Walker, then package him with Jim Bagby & Gene Desautels, and send them to the Cleveland Indians for Joe Dobson, Odell Hale & Frankie Pytlak. They also purchase Pete Fox's contract from the Detroit Tigers.
Births
January
January 4 – Bart Shirley
January 6 – Elvio Jiménez
January 7 – Jim Hannan
January 8 – Dick Kelley
January 10 – Dave Skaugstad
January 11 – Hank Fischer
January 12 – George Kernek
January 13 – Ron Brand
January 16 – Bob Baird
January 16 – Rod Miller
January 21 – Rich Beck
January 23 – Dick Burwell
February
February 14 – Len Gabrielson
February 19 – Bill Kelso
February 21 – Doug Gallagher
February 25 – Danny Cater
February 25 – Ron Santo
March
March 1 – Larry Brown
March 6 – Willie Stargell
March 10 – Mitsuhiro Adachi
March 13 – Gary Kolb
March 18 – Tony Martínez
March 19 – Pete Smith
March 22 – Dick Ellsworth
April
April 3 – José Vidal
April 5 – Ron Campbell
April 11 – Dick Wantz
April 12 – Woodie Fryman
April 15 – Willie Davis
April 16 – Garry Roggenburk
April 21 – Bill Faul
April 24 – Terry Tata
May
May 6 – Bill Hands
May 10 – John R. Keennan
May 11 – Harry Fanok
May 12 – Tom Timmermann
May 18 – Jim Hicks
May 20 – Sadaharu Oh
June
June 2 – Horace Clarke
June 2 – Jim Maloney
June 12 – Del Bates
June 19 – Isao Harimoto
June 28 – Gary Wagner
July
July 3 – Coco Laboy
July 3 – César Tovar
July 8 – Bucky Brandon
July 10 – Gene Alley
July 10 – Pete Craig
July 12 – Mike Page
July 12 – Jack Warner
July 13 – Jack Aker
July 13 – Frank Bork
July 16 – Tom Metcalf
July 18 – Joe Torre
July 21 – John Bateman
July 21 – Denis Menke
July 23 – Hank Allen
July 24 – Ethan Blackaby
August
August 3 – Roger Repoz
August 5 – Ossie Chavarría
August 13 – Tony Cloninger
August 15 – Arlo Brunsberg
August 15 – José Santiago
August 18 – Paul Popovich
August 25 – Don Wallace
August 28 – Tom Satriano
August 31 – Ramón Hernández
August 31 – Cleo James
September
September 1 – Pat House
September 10 – Bob Chance
September 11 – Jackie Hernández
September 12 – Rich Barry
September 12 – Mickey Lolich
September 15 – Frank Linzy
September 17 – Cisco Carlos
September 21 – Jerry Fosnow
September 24 – Curt Motton
October
October 1 – John Schuerholz
October 7 – Morrie Steevens
October 9 – Joe Pepitone
October 10 – Larry Maxie
October 10 – Grover Powell
October 12 – Glenn Beckert
October 14 – Tommy Harper
October 14 – Billy Sorrell
October 16 – Dave DeBusschere
October 27 – Héctor Valle
November
November 8 – Joe Nossek
November 9 – Don Loun
November 16 – Buster Narum
November 18 – Cal Koonce
November 20 – Jeffrey Loria
November 21 – Tommy McCraw
November 23 – Billy Ott
November 23 – Luis Tiant
November 25 – Dennis Aust
December
December 1 – Cecil Perkins
December 3 – Chico Salmon
December 5 – John Papa
December 8 – Brant Alyea
December 10 – Weldon Bowlin
December 12 – Tom Brown
December 13 – Nate Oliver
December 20 – Thad Tillotson
December 22 – Elrod Hendricks
December 26 – Ray Sadecki
Deaths
January
January 3 – Mike Mahoney, 88, first baseman who played from 1897 to 1898 for the Boston Beaneaters and St. Louis Browns.
January 3 – Parke Swartzel, 74, pitcher for the 1889 Kansas City Cowboys.
January 12 – Ed Keas, 77, pitcher for the 1888 Cleveland Blues of the American Association.
January 20 – Wally Andrews, 60, infield utility man who played with the Louisville Eclipse in 1884 and for the Louisville Colonels in 1888.
January 31 – Red Fisher, 52, left fielder who played in 1910 with the St. Louis Browns of the American League.
February
February 5 – Frank Decker, 83, catcher/infielder who played with the Syracuse Stars in 1879 and for the St. Louis Brown Stockings in 1882.
February 5 – Byrd Lynn, 50, Chicago White Sox catcher who served as a backup for Hall of Famer Ray Schalk and also was a member of the White Sox club that won the World Series in 1917.
February 13 – Walter Barnes, 79, sports editor for several Boston newspapers from 1891 to 1933 who was that city's first regular sports columnist.
February 15 – Chick Fulmer, 89, shortstop who played for eight teams in three different leagues during 11 seasons from 1871 to 1884.
February 15 – Ray Morgan, 50, second baseman who was part of a stellar double play combo along with shortstop George McBride for the Washington Senators from 1911 through 1918.
February 16 – Charlie Berry, 79, second baseman for the Altoona Mountain City, Kansas City Cowboys, and Chicago Browns/Pittsburgh Stogies during the 1884 Union Association season.
February 21 – John Taber, 71, pitcher for the 1890 Boston Beaneaters of the National League.
February 26 – Matt Broderick, 62, second baseman for the Brooklyn Superbas of the National League in 1903.
March
March 2 – Matt Kilroy, 73, pitcher for six teams in 10 seasons spanning 1896–1898, who won 46 games in 1887, hurled a no-hitter in 1886 and struck out 513 batters that season, the most ever in a single season and far ahead of second-place Charles Radbourn, who struck out 441 in 1884.
March 6 – Marshall Locke, 82, outfielder for the 1884 Indianapolis Hoosiers.
March 7 – Johnny Johnston, 49, left fielder who played with the St. Louis Browns in 1913.
March 13 – Ira Flagstead, 46, outfielder with a strong arm and a reliable glove who played for the Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators and Pittsburgh Pirates in a span of 14 seasons from 1917 to 1930, hitting .290 with 40 home runs and 450 RBI in 1,218 career games, while leading all American League outfielders for the most assists in 1923 (31) and 1925 (24), and for the best fielding average in 1927 (.986).
March 22 – Libe Washburn, 29, outfielder and pitcher who played from 1902 to 1903 with the New York Giants and Philadelphia Phillies.
March 30 – Roy Crabb, 49, pitcher for the Chicago White Sox and Philadelphia Athletics during the 1912 season.
March 30 – George McQuillan, 55, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates and Cleveland Indians during ten seasons from 1907 to 1918, who in 1907 set one of the longest-lived records in Major League history when he pitched 25 innings before giving up the first earned run of his career, a feat broken by Brad Ziegler in 2008.
April
April 8 – Bill Abstein, 57, first baseman who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates and St. Louis Browns in part of three seasons spanning 1906–1910.
April 8 – Dave Murphy, 63, shortstop for the 1905 Boston Beaneaters.
April 10 – Tom Seaton, 52, pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies, Brooklyn Tip-Tops, Newark Pepper and Chicago Cubs in six seasons from 1912 to 1917, who posted a record of 93-63 and a 3.14 ERA in 231 career games, while leading the National League in wins and strikeouts during the 1913 season.
April 12 – Fred Klobedanz, 68, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters in a span of five seasons from 1896 to 1902, who was a member of the Boston team that clinched the National League pennant in 1897 and 1898 and led the league in winning percentage in 1897.
April 22 – Alex Hardy, 62, Canadian-born pitcher who played for the Chicago Cubs/Orphans of the National League in 1902 and 1903.
April 28 – Henry Cote, 76, pitcher for the Louisville Colonels of the National League in the 1894 and 1895 seasons.
April 30 – Patsy Dougherty, 63, outfielder for the Boston Americans and Chicago White Sox clubs that won the World Series in 1903 and 1906 respectively, who became the first player to hit two home runs in a single World Series game with a pair in 1903, while leading the American League with 47 stolen bases in 1908.
May
May 5 – Bill Wise, 79, pitcher/outfielder who played for the Baltimore Orioles of the American Association in 1882, the Washington Nationals of the Union Association in 1884, and the Washington Nationals of the National League in 1886.
May 8 – Chick Fraser, 66, pitcher for seven teams in 14 seasons from 1896 through 1909, most prominently for the 1907 and 1908 Chicago Cubs clubs that won the World Series, who hurled a no-hitter in 1903 and ranks second on the all-time list of most hit batsmen by a Major League Baseball pitcher.
May 14 – Harry Gaspar, 57, pitcher who played from 1909 through 1912 for the Cincinnati Reds.
May 16 – Spike Shannon, 62, outfielder over parts of five seasons from 1904 to 1908 with the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Giants and Pittsburgh Pirates, who led the National League for the most scored runs in the 1907 season.
June
June 1 – Logan Drake, 40, pitcher who made ten total appearances for 1922–1924 Cleveland Indians.
June 3 – Billy Kelly, 54, catcher.
June 4 – Phil Baker, 86, first baseman/catcher.
June 16 – Bill Hawes, 83, outfielder/first baseman.
June 19 – Ed Pabst, 72, outfielder.
June 24 – Bert Adams, 49, catcher.
June 24 – Axel Lindstrom, 44, pitcher.
June 26 – Jimmie Savage, 56, outfielder.
June 26 – Billy Reid, 83, second baseman.
June 27 – Frank Thompson, 44, third baseman.
July
July 3 – John Stafford, 70, pitcher.
July 5 – George Yeager, 66, catcher.
July 13 – Ollie Tucker, 38, outfielder.
July 16 – Bill Leith, 67, pitcher.
July 19 – John Heileman, 67, third baseman.
July 22 – Charlie Swindells, 61, pitcher.
July 27 – Tom Williams, 69, pitcher/outfielder.
July 28 – Red Ehret, 71, pitcher.
July 28 – Stan Yerkes, 65, pitcher.
August
August 3 – Willard Hershberger, 30, Cincinnati Reds' catcher who committed suicide in his hotel room as the Reds were visiting the Boston Bees during a weekend series; he was hitting .309 in 48 games when he died; the Reds dedicated the 1940 season to his memory, then won NL pennant by 12 games and the seven-game 1940 World Series.
August 5 – Ed Bruyette, 65, outfielder.
August 13 – Buck Stanley, 50, pitcher.
August 14 – Charlie Hollocher, 44, shortstop for the 1918–1924 Chicago Cubs, appearing in 760 career games.
August 17 – Bock Baker, 62, pitcher.
August 21 – Ernest Thayer, 77, newspaper editor whose 1888 poem "Casey at the Bat" became a staple of baseball culture.
August 24 – Ed Hallinan, 52, shortstop.
August 28 – Charlie Johnson, 55, outfielder.
September
September 1 – Gus Dundon, 66, second baseman.
September 3 – Johnny Welch, 33, pitcher.
September 10 – Bill Shipke, 57, third baseman.
September 14 – Andy Knox, 76, first baseman.
September 15 – Ed Yewell, 78, outfielder/infielder.
September 21 – Billy Otterson, 78, shortstop.
September 25 – Mike Jordan, 77, outfielder.
October
October 5 – Crazy Schmit, 74, pitcher.
October 9 – Bill Massey, 69, first baseman.
October 17 – George Davis, 70, Hall of Fame shortstop for the Cleveland Spiders, New York Giants and Chicago White Sox in 20 seasons spanning 1890–1909, who hit over .300 in nine consecutive seasons from 1893 to 1901, fashioned a then-record 33-game hitting streak in 1893, and set Major League records for the most career hits (2600+) and RBI (1437) by a switch-hitter, while leading the Hitless Wonder White Sox in their victory over the Chicago Cubs in the 1906 World Series.
October 23 – Harry Krause, 52, pitcher.
November
November 3 – Joe Burke, 72, third baseman.
November 4 – George Bird, 90, outfielder.
November 5 – Bill Mellor, 66, first baseman.
November 12 – Joe Quinn, 75, second baseman.
November 14 – George Clark, 49, pitcher for the 1913 New York Yankees.
November 18 – John Harkins, 81, pitcher.
December
December 7 – Harry Eells, 60, pitcher.
December 16 – Billy Hamilton, 74, Hall of Fame center fielder and a prolific hitter who hit better than .300 in 12 successive seasons en route to a career mark of .344, including two batting crowns, while collecting eleven 100-run seasons with a record 192 in 1894; 914 career stolen bases, a single-season total of 111 steals in 1891 and a single-game of seven in 1894, ending his career as one of only three big leaguers whose runs scored (1,691) exceeded his games played (1,578).
December 18 – John Kiley, 81, left fielder/pitcher.
December 22 – Patsy McGaffigan, 52, infielder.
December 22 – Bill Schwartz, 76, catcher.
References
External links |
4255996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Sahara%20conflict | Western Sahara conflict | The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic/Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict originated from an insurgency by the Polisario Front against Spanish colonial forces from 1973 to 1975 and the subsequent Western Sahara War against Morocco between 1975 and 1991. Today the conflict is dominated by unarmed civil campaigns of the Polisario Front and their self-proclaimed SADR state to gain fully recognized independence for Western Sahara.
The conflict escalated after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords. Beginning in 1975, the Polisario Front, backed and supported by Algeria, waged a 16-year-long war for independence against Mauritania and Morocco. In February 1976, the Polisario Front declared the establishment of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which was not admitted into the United Nations, but won limited recognition by a number of other states. Following the annexation of Western Sahara by Morocco and Mauritania in 1976, and the Polisario Front's declaration of independence, the UN addressed the conflict via a resolution reaffirming the right to self-determination of the Sahrawi people. In 1977, France intervened as the conflict reached its peak intensity. In 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict and territories, leading to a stalemate through most of the 1980s. After several more engagements between 1989 and 1991, a cease-fire agreement was reached between the Polisario Front and the Moroccan government. At the time, most of the Western Sahara territory remained under Moroccan control, while the Polisario controlled some 20% of the territory in its capacity as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, with additional pockets of control in the Sahrawi refugee camps along the Algerian border. At present, these borders are largely unchanged.
Despite multiple peace initiatives through the 1990s and early 2000s, the conflict reemerged as the "Independence Intifada" in 2005; a series of disturbances, demonstrations and riots, which broke out in May 2005 in the Moroccan-held portions of Western Sahara, and lasted until November of that same year. In late 2010, the protests re-erupted in the Gdeim Izik refugee camp in Western Sahara. While the protests were initially peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces, resulting in dozens of casualties on both sides. Another series of protests began on 26 February 2011, as a reaction to the failure of police to prevent anti-Sahrawi looting in the city of Dakhla, Western Sahara; protests soon spread throughout the territory. Though sporadic demonstrations continue, the movement had largely subsided by May 2011.
To date, large parts of Western Sahara are controlled by the Moroccan Government and known as the Southern Provinces, whereas some 20% of the Western Sahara territory remains controlled by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), the Polisario state with limited international recognition. The questions of mutual recognition, establishment of a possible Sahrawi state and the large numbers of Sahrawi refugees displaced by the conflict are among the key issues of the ongoing Western Sahara peace process.
Background
Spanish Sahara
In 1884, Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc. Later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958, Spain merged the previously separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra (in the north) and Río de Oro (in the south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara.
Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Sahrawi population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the Spanish-claimed territory for a long time. Ma al-Aynayn the Saharan pro-Moroccan caïd of Tindouf and Smara named by the Moroccan sultan started an uprising against the French in 1910 in response to French attempts to expand their influence and control in North-West Africa. Ma al-Aynayn died in October 1910, and his son El Hiba succeeded him. El Hiba's forces were defeated during a failed campaign to conquer Marrakesh, and in retaliation French colonial forces destroyed the holy city of Smara in 1913. The city was promptly rebuilt, and Sahrawi resistance continued for the following twenty years. The rebellious territory was finally subdued in 1934, after joint Spanish and French forces destroyed Smara for a second time. In 1956, the Ifni War, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, marked renewed conflict in the region; after two years of war, the Spanish forces regained control, again with French aid. However, unrest lingered among the region's population, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. After the events of the Zemla Intifada in 1970, when Spanish police forcibly disbanded the organization and "disappeared" its founder, Muhammad Bassiri, Sahrawi nationalism again swung towards militarism.
Polisario Front
In 1971, a group of young Sahrawi students in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro. After attempting in vain to gain backing from several Arab governments, including both Algeria and Morocco itself, the movement only succeeded in obtaining support from Libya and Mauritania. As a result of this ambivalence, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. Women in Western Sahara are prominent members of the Polisario Front as soldiers and activists.
Conflict
Beginnings of armed struggle
The Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate, with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed. On 20 May he led the Khanga raid, the Polisario's first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas (Sahrawi-staffed auxiliary forces) was overrun and a cache of rifles seized. The Polisario gradually gained control over large swaths of the Western Saharan desert, and its power grew steadily after early 1975 when the Tropas Nomadas began deserting en masse to the Polisario Front, bringing their weapons and training with them. At this point, the maximum extent of the Polisario Front's manpower included perhaps 800 men, but they were backed by a larger network of supporters. The 1975 United Nations visiting mission to Spanish Sahara, headed by Simeon Aké, concluded that Sahrawi support for independence (as opposed to Spanish rule or integration with a neighboring country) amounted to an "overwhelming consensus" and that the Polisario Front was by far the most powerful political force in the country.
Western Sahara War
The Western Sahara War was an armed conflict, lasting from 1975 to 1991, fought primarily between the Polisario Front and Morocco. The conflict erupted after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords, by which it agreed to give administrative control of the territory to Morocco and Mauritania. The Polisario Front, backed by Algeria and Libya, desiring instead the establishment an independent Sahrawi state in the territory, fought both Mauritania and Morocco in quick succession, in an attempt to drive their forces out of the region. In 1979, Mauritania withdrew its forces from the disputed territory, and the Polisario Front and Morocco reached a ceasefire agreement in 1991. The war resulted in somewhere between 14,000 and 21,000 casualties between both sides.. Some 40,000–80,000 Sahrawi refugees were displaced as a result of the conflict; at present, most still reside in various Sahrawi refugee camps throughout the Tindouf province of Algeria.
First Sahrawi Intifada
The First Sahrawi Intifada began in 1999 and lasted until 2004, transforming into the Independence Intifada in 2005. The First Sahrawi Intifada formed a part of the wider and still ongoing Western Sahara conflict.
Independence Intifada
The Independence Intifada or the Second Sahrawi Intifada (intifada is Arabic for "uprising") and also May Intifada is a Sahrawi activist term for a series of disturbances, demonstrations and riots which broke out in May 2005 in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. During the events one civilian was killed and hundreds wounded.
Gdeim Izik and Arab Spring protests
The Gdeim Izik protest camp was established in Western Sahara on 9 October 2010 and lasted into November, with related incidents occurring in the aftermath of its dismantlement on 8 November 2010. According to Human Rights Watch, the Moroccan security forces moved to dismantle the Gdeim Izik tent camp. Approximately 6,500 tents Sahrawis had erected in early October to protest their social and economic conditions in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara. While protests were initially peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces. Eleven security officers and at least two civilians were killed, by official count. Many public and private buildings and vehicles were burned in the city.
In 2011, new protests erupted again on 26 February, as a reaction to the failure of police to prevent anti-Sahrawi looting and rioting in the city of Dakhla, Western Sahara, and blossomed into protests across the territory. These protests are considered the Western Saharan branch of the Arab Spring series of popular demonstrations and uprisings. Despite an initial outburst of support, the 2011 protests largely subsided on their own by May 2011.
End of ceasefire
On 14 November 2020, SADR president Brahim Ghali announced that he had signed a decree bringing the 29 year old ceasefire to an end, citing an incident two days prior in which the Moroccan army forcibly entered a crossing within the buffer zone that was being blocked by protesters—acts which the SADR considered a declaration of war. The SADR claims the Moroccan-built road is illegal, as it was built after the 1991 United Nations-brokered truce. Morocco, however, claims that it will still abide by the ceasefire and alleges that the army was simply trying to re-open the road to traffic. The Sahara Press Service later said that Polisario fighters had attacked Moroccan positions along different parts of the frontline, which stretches hundreds of miles across the desert. The Moroccan government has not yet commented on these claims.
Foreign actors
Algeria
Algeria sees itself as an "important actor" in the conflict, and officially supports the right of the Sahrawi people to self-determination. The efforts invested by Algeria in the Western Sahara conflict, especially at the level of its international relations, are comparable to the ones of an involved party such as Morocco.
Morocco's position is that Algeria is part of the conflict and uses the Sahara issue for geopolitical interests that date from the Cold War, claiming that this country in its official communication to the United Nations "presents itself sometimes as 'a concerned party,' other times as an 'important actor,' or as a 'party' in the settlement of the dispute". The United Nations has only ever officially considered Morocco and the Polisario Front parties to the conflict, however acknowledges that other interests may also be involved.
Although the United Nations officially considers Morocco and the Polisario Front as the main parties to the conflict, former UN Secretary-General Mr. Kofi Annan viewed Algeria as a stakeholder in the Western Sahara conflict and has invited Algeria, "to engage as a party in these discussions and to negotiate, under the auspices of my Kofi Annan's Personal Envoy". In an interview with the Public Broadcasting Service, in August 2004, James Baker, former personal envoy of the United Nations Secretary to Western Sahara, identified Morocco and Algeria as being both the "two chief protagonists" of the conflict. Some third parties have called for both Morocco and Algeria to negotiate directly to find a solution for the conflict. Since the end of 2016, the UN has gathered stakeholders around roundtables organized in Geneva. The main novelty is that Algeria has been invited to these round tables. Algeria has refused to qualify itself as a "stakeholder" and has defined itself as an "observer". The first roundtable was held on 5 and 6 December, while a new roundtable was scheduled for 21 and 22 March.
The refugee camps are located in Algeria and the country has armed, trained, and financed the Polisario for more than thirty years. More than two thousand Moroccan prisoners of war were previously detained on Algerian soil in Polisario camps, but all POWs have since been released.
In response to the Green March and the ongoing disputed status of Western Sahara, Algeria has expropriated the property of and forcibly expelled tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians since 1975. This remains a source of much tension between the two countries.
Even though Algeria has no official claim to Western Sahara, some experts see that the Sahara conflict represents a domestic political issue for the country. Stressing the role played by Algerian officers in allegedly interrogating and torturing the Moroccan POWs, France Libertés states in its report on The Conditions of Detentions of the Moroccan POWs Detained in Tindouf (Algeria) that "the involvement of Algeria in the conflict is well known". In March 2003 Khaled Nezzar, an Algerian retired general, referred to the conflict as being an issue only between Morocco and Algeria.
In January and February 1976, there were direct battles in Amgala between the armies of these two countries.
Morocco claims to have captured "dozens of Algerian officers and non-commissioned officers and soldiers" during these confrontations, but has released them to Algerian authorities.
Spain
In 2011, Spanish Foreign Minister Trinidad Jiménez called for a U.N. committee to evaluate the security situation in the Polisario-controlled refugee camps in Tindouf (Algeria) and probe possible corruption in the distribution of international aid there. The statement by Jiménez came two days after two Spanish aid workers and one Italian were kidnapped by suspected al-Qaeda members in Tindouf, which is under the control of Polisario Front, which seeks the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco.
Arab League
Efforts to gain support in the Arab World for the idea of a Greater Morocco did not receive much support despite efforts in the early 1960s to enlist the Arab League for its cause. Morocco's expansionist ambitions caused strains, including a temporary rupture of relations with Tunisia. The Moroccans have been more successful regarding the Western Sahara. Unlike the Organization of African Unity which has strongly backed Western Sahara's right to self-determination, the Arab League has shown little interest in the area.
Moroccan claims
Morocco has argued that the Polisario Front receives support from Hezbollah, Iran, and al-Qaida. There is no third-party substantiation of these claims.
State of Palestine
In 1979, PFLP Secretary-General George Habash visited Sahrawi refugee camps and also met with Brahim Ghali assuring PFLP's support to Western Sahara's cause.
Other Palestinian Factions though have taken different stance; for example Hamas has maintained close ties with Moroccan Justice and Development Party(JDP) and has also banned activities of Palestinian Committee of solidarity with Sahrawi people in Gaza, since year 2016.
African consulates
In March 2020 Liberia opened a consulate for Morocco in the city of Dakhla, becoming the 10th African country to establish a diplomatic mission to Morocco in Western Sahara effectively recognizing the Moroccan mission in the region. The opening of the consulate was condemned by international representatives of both the Polisario Front and Algeria.
European Union
Members of European Parliament passed the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreement (SFPA) in February 2019 which established an agreement for European Fishing vessels to fish in Moroccan territory and laid out plans for a transition towards a sustainable fishing model. Although the Polisario Front was not involved in the negotiations, the SFPA explicitly allows for European Vessels to fish in the disputed coast of the Western Sahara territory. The NGO Human Rights Watch penned a letter to European Members of Parliament seeking a vote against the proposition, arguing that Morocco has no legal basis to make agreements regarding a disputed territory and is thus illegal under international law. While the text of the agreement claimed that the fisheries will have no impact on the ongoing conflict, the agreement was denounced by various Saharawi groups. After the passing of the agreement a petition signed by leading Saharawi activist organizations in the region was penned to the EU condemning the decision, and the Polisario Front announced it will challenge the vote in the European Court of Justice stating it was in clear violation of international law. This move galvanized Morocco who then passed a law in January 2020 extending its recognized borders across Western Saharan waters.
United States
The Obama administration disassociated itself from the Moroccan autonomy plan in 2009, however, reversing the Bush-backed support of the Moroccan plan, and returning to a pre-Bush position, wherein the option of an independent Western Sahara is on the table again.
In April 2013, the United States proposed that MINURSO monitored human rights (as all the other UN mission since 1991) in Western Sahara, a move that Morocco strongly opposed, cancelling the annual African Lion military exercises with U.S. Army troops. Also in mid-April, United States Ambassador to Morocco Samuel L. Kaplan declared during a conference in Casablanca that the Moroccan autonomy plan "can't be the only basis in these negotiations", referring to the UN sponsored talks between the Polisario Front and Morocco.
On 10 December 2020, President Donald Trump announced that the United States would officially recognize Morocco's claims over Western Sahara, in exchange for Morocco agreeing to normalize relations with Israel.
On 4 December 2020, the United States has recognized Moroccan sovereignty over the entire Western Sahara territory and has reaffirmed its support for Morocco's serious, credible, and realistic autonomy proposal as the only basis for a just and lasting solution to the dispute over the Western Sahara territory. The United States has stated that it believes that an independent Sahrawi State is not a realistic option for resolving the conflict and that genuine autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty is the only feasible solution.
Peace process
Cease fire
The cease fire ending hostilities was officially signed in 1991. Further attempts have since been made to resolve the conflict, but no lasting resolution has been achieved to date. The ceasefire was upheld until 13 November 2020 when the Moroccan army entered into the demilitarized town of Guerguerat, and the Saharawi authorities responded by declaring that the ceasefire was broken and the SPLA armed forces attacked Moroccan army positions along the Moroccan Western Sahara Wall.
Referendum and Houston agreement
The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, was intended to give the local population of Western Sahara the option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum, but likewise has not met with had success. , negotiations over the terms of any potential referendum have not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies as a potential voter; the Polisario has insisted on only allowing those found on the 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote, while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawed by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes which escape from Spanish invasion to the north of Morocco by the 19th century. Consequently, both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum, and little progress is likely to be made in the near future.
Efforts by the UN special envoys to find common ground between both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps, Mauritania and other locations throughout the world. The Polisario Front accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused. As rejected voter candidates began a mass-appeals procedure, the Moroccan government insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. Continuing disputes between the two factions once more brought the process to a halt.
According to a NATO delegation MINURSO election observers stated in 1999 that "if the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the SADR side". By 2001, the process had reached a stalemate, and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other solutions. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they believed they were destined to lose.
Baker plan
The Baker Plan (formally, Peace Plan for Self-Determination of the People of Western Sahara) was a United Nations initiative led by James Baker to grant self-determination to Western Sahara, and was formulated in the year 2000. It was intended to replace the Settlement Plan of 1991 and the Houston Agreement of 1997, which had effectively failed to make any lasting improvement. Since early 2005, the UN Secretary-General has not referred to the plan in his reports, and by now it seems largely dead. No replacement plan exists, however, and worries persist that the political vacuum will result in renewed fighting. Morocco continues to propose autonomy for the territory as the solution to the conflict, while the Polisario Front insists on nothing other than complete independence.
Moroccan initiative and Manhasset negotiations
In 2006 the Moroccan Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS) proposed a plan for the autonomy of Western Sahara and made visits to a number of countries to explain and gather support for their proposal. Citing the Spanish approach to regional autonomy, the Moroccan government plans to model any future agreement after the cases of the Canary Islands, Basque Country, Andalusia or Catalonia. The plan was presented to the UN Security Council in April 2007, and has received the backing of both the United States of America and France.
On 30 April 2007, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1754, which both urged the involved parties to "enter into direct negotiations without preconditions and in good faith." and extended the MINURSO mission until 31 October 2007. As a result of the passage of this resolution, the parties involved met in Manhasset, New York to once again try and settle the dispute. The talks between the Moroccan government and the Polisario Front were considered the first direct negotiations in seven years between the two parties, and hailed as a landmark in the peace process. Also present at the negotiations were the neighboring countries of Algeria and Mauritania, a nod to the role they play in the ongoing conflict. The first round of talks took place on 18–19 June 2007, during which both parties agreed to resume talks on 10–11 August. After another inconclusive round of talks, the parties finally, on 8–9 January 2008, agreed on "the need to move into a more intensive and substantive phase of negotiations". An additional round of talks was held from 18 to 19 March 2008, but once again no major agreement was reached. The negotiations were supervised by Peter van Walsum, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon's personal envoy for Western Sahara. To date, all negotiations have failed to resolve the dispute.
Peace talks resume
In 2018 the United Nations Security Counsel announced that peace talks regarding the Western Sahara territory would resume and delegates of the Polisario Front, Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania would all be present.
In April 2020, the Polisario Front publicly condemned the state of the on-going peace talks stating that its inaction legitimized the encroachment of Morocco into the territory. The statement reiterated the Polisario Front's request that the UN organize a free referendum within Western Sahara on their self-governing status. Currently the position of United Nations envoy to Western Sahara is empty and the Security Counsel is actively seeking a replacement.
On 6 October 2021, United Nations Secretary‑General, António Guterres, announced the appointment of Staffan de Mistura as his Personal Envoy for Western Sahara. On 13 January 2022, De Mistura commenced a round of discussions starting with Morocco's Foreign Minister, Nasser Bourita. On 15 January 2022, de Mistura, met with Polisario's head of political organization, Khatri Addouh, in Shahid Al Hafed.
Current situation
Polisario-controlled areas
The Polisario controls about 20–25% of the Western Sahara territory, as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), and claim sovereignty over the entire territory of Western Sahara. SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on 27 February 1976, in Bir Lehlu, Western Sahara. Polisario calls the territories under its control the Liberated Territories or the Free Zone, while Morocco controls and administers the rest of the disputed territory and calls these lands its Southern Provinces. The SADR government considers the Moroccan-held territory occupied territory, while Morocco considers the much smaller SADR held territory to be a buffer zone.
In addition, the Polisario Front has a full autonomous control of the Sahrawi refugee camps. The refugee camps were set up in the Tindouf Province, Algeria in 1975–76 for the benefit of Sahrawi refugees fleeing from Moroccan forces during the Western Sahara War. With most refugees still living in the camps, the refugee situation is among the most protracted worldwide. Most affairs and camp life organization is run by the refugees themselves, with little outside interference. Women have been "responsible for much of the administration of the camps."
Moroccan Wall
The Western Sahara Berm, also known as the Moroccan Wall, is an approximately 2,700 km-long defensive structure consisting primarily of sand running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco. It acts as a separation barrier between the Moroccan-controlled areas and the Polisario-controlled section of the territory (the SADR). According to maps from MINURSO or the UNHCR, part of the wall extends several kilometers into internationally recognized Mauritanian territory. According to Pascal Bongard, program director at Geneva Call, between five and ten million land mines have been laid in the areas around the wall.
As early as 1979, the idea of a defensive wall has been an obvious one for the Moroccan authorities. Constructed in six stages, from 1980 to 1987, five 'breaches' along the wall allow Moroccan troops the right of pursuit. The Polisario call the Berm the "wall of shame" while Morocco calls it a "defensive wall", "wall of sand" or "security wall".
Human rights
The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human rights abuses, most notably the aerial bombardments with napalm and white phosphorus of the Sahrawi refugee camps, the exodus of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country, and the forced expropriation and expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan expatriate civilians by the Algerian government in reaction to the Green March. The conflict has witnessed numerous violations of human rights and serious breaches of the Geneva convention on the part of all involved parties; the Polisario Front, the Moroccan government and the Algerian government among them.
Media censorship
Several international human rights organizations have accused the Moroccan government of imposing a media blackout in the region by targeting protestors and journalists. A report by French non-profit Reporters Without Borders (RSF) which tracks the suppression of journalism around the world reported on a systematic targeting of journalists within Western Sahara and argued that the blocking of foreign media access to the region has made it difficult to receive accurate and consistent reporting from inside the disputed territory.
In 2019 Amnesty International called for an investigation into a violent crackdown on protestors that took place on 19 July, in the city of Laayoune. The protests began as celebrations for Algeria's win in the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations, and eventually escalated into demonstrations for Sahrawi self-determination and clashes with Moroccan security forces. Footage from the clashes shows security forces using rocks, tear gas and live ammunition to disperse protestors. The clashes led to the arrest of dozens of protestors and one death.
Human Rights Watch has also been critical of the treatment of journalists during this conflict. In 2019 they accused the government of using Article 381 of Morocco's penal code to restrict freedom of the press. Article 381 restricts citizens from claiming a profession without meeting the necessary qualifications. Human Rights Watch called on the Moroccan government to amend the article to ensure it did not apply to journalists. On 4 December 2018 Moroccan forces arrested Nezha El Khalidi under Article 381 for live-streaming a Sahrawi protest and subsequently failing to meet the qualifications of a journalist. Spanish news agency Europa Press later criticized Moroccan authorities for expelling international observers from the public trail.
in June 2019, a video of Moroccan authorities violently dragging and beating prominent Sahrawi journalist Walid Al-Batal circulated across the internet. The video inspired condemnation from international rights groups who called for an investigation to be made and for Al-Batal to be released. Moroccan authorities rebutted the condemnation saying Al-Batal had crashed into a police car and resisted arrest, however these claims were disputed in an investigation on the incident published by The Washington Post. Al-Batal was sentenced to six years in prison.
The Polisario Front has also been accused of suppressing media freedoms within its territories. In July 2019 the Polisario Front arrested three Saharawi activists within the refugee camps for criticizing the Polisario Front's governance in Facebook Posts. Human Rights Watch called for the release of the political prisoners reporting that they had been held in harsh conditions and tortured to sign confessions, a direct violation of international law.
In the 2020 World Press Freedom Rankings reported on the treatment of journalists and independent media outlets in Morocco and Western Sahara rating it 133rd out of 180 countries. The country received a low score of 42.88 out of 100 citing the continued "judicial harassment" of the media.
See also
List of modern conflicts in North Africa
Mohammed VI of Morocco
References
Works cited
Further reading
The mission's final report is archived in the General Assembly Official Records.
United Nations Visiting Mission to Spanish Sahara, 1975, General Assembly, 30th Session, Supplement 23, UN DocumentA/10023/Rev.
Tony Hodges (1983), Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War, Lawrence Hill Books ()
Anthony G. Pazzanita and Tony Hodges (1994), Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, Scarecrow Press ()
External links
In Western Sahara, a forgotten struggle The Washington Post video, 12 July 2013
Chronology of the Saharawi struggle (BBC)
20th-century conflicts
21st-century conflicts
Wars involving Morocco |
4256122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20North%20Borneo | Battle of North Borneo | The Battle of North Borneo took place during the Second World War between Allied and Japanese forces. Part of the wider Borneo campaign of the Pacific War, it was fought between 10 June and 15 August 1945 in North Borneo (later known as Sabah). The battle involved a series of amphibious landings by Australian forces on various points on the mainland around Brunei Bay and upon islands situated around the bay. Japanese opposition to the landings was sporadic initially, although as the campaign progressed a number of considerable clashes occurred and both sides suffered significant casualties, although major combat was largely restricted to Labuan and around Beaufort. On the mainland, while Allied conventional operations focused largely on the coastal areas around Brunei Bay, guerrilla forces consisting of Dayak tribesmen and small numbers of Allied personnel from the Services Reconnaissance Department fought an unconventional campaign in the interior. The Allies were successful in seizing control of the region. Nevertheless, many of the strategic gains that possession of North Borneo provided were ultimately negated by the sudden conclusion of the war in August 1945.
Background
Strategic situation and planning
Codenamed Operation Oboe Six, the battle was part of the second phase of the Allied operations to capture the island of Borneo. North Borneo had been occupied by troops from the Imperial Japanese Army since early 1942 following the Japanese invasion of Borneo; prior to this the area had been a British territorial possession. Following its occupation, the area's oil resources had been exploited for the Japanese war effort. The island's population had also been subjected to harsh occupation policies. This had led to a revolt at Jesselton in late 1943, which was suppressed by the Japanese with heavy civilian casualties.
The first stage of the Allied campaign in Borneo had begun in May 1945 when a brigade-sized force had been put ashore on Tarakan, on the north-eastern side of Borneo. The operation in North Borneo was planned by General Douglas MacArthur's South West Pacific Area command. Designed with three phases—preparatory bombardment, forced landings, and an advance—the objective of the Allied operation was to establish "an advanced fleet base" for the British Pacific Fleet in Brunei Bay, which offered the Allies a deep-water port, to enable subsequent naval operations. Further objectives included capturing the vast oil and rubber supplies available in the area and re-establishing British civil administration. It was also intended that Labuan would be secured to control the entrance to Brunei Bay, and would be developed as an airbase. In the planning phase of the operation, the Allied high commands differed in their opinions about the necessity of securing Brunei, with the British Chiefs of Staff Committee believing it would take too long to develop the area for it to be developed for it to be used in operations. They were also concerned that it would divert the British Pacific Fleet from the main theatre of operations off Japan and instead favoured establishing a fleet base in the Philippines. The United States Joint Chiefs of Staff, however, approved the operation believing that it could support future operations in south-east Asia.
In preparation for the landings, commencing in March, the Allied Services Reconnaissance Department (also known as Special Operations Australia) began Operation Agas in North Borneo, and Operation Semut in Sarawak; these were clandestine operations to gather information and organise local Dayak tribesmen to carry out guerrilla operations following the main landings. Ultimately, five Allied parties would be inserted into Borneo as part of Operation Agas, while four were deployed under Semut. Preliminary aerial bombardment of northern Borneo by Australian and US aircraft began on 3 May, before being concentrated on the main landing areas on 5 June. Meanwhile, minesweepers began to clear sea lines of communication for the large Allied naval task force that was assigned to support the operation. This force was designated as Task Force 78.1 and consisted of Australian and US warships, under the command of Rear Admiral Forrest B. Royal. Initially, the Allies planned to launch operations in North Borneo in late May, but shipping shortages delayed moving the assault troops to their staging base on Morotai Island and resulted in the operation being delayed until early June.
Opposing forces
A total of 29,000–30,000 men were committed by the Allies to secure North Borneo, with the majority of the ground forces being provided by the Australian 9th Division, under the command of Major General George Wootten. The 9th Division consisted of three brigades—the 20th, 24th and 26th Brigades—however, at the time of the North Borneo operations, the 26th was engaged at Tarakan having been detached from the division in May 1945, so only two brigades were allocated to operations in North Borneo. Part of the all-volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force, the 9th Division was a veteran formation, having previously served in North Africa, the Middle East and New Guinea. Prior to the Borneo campaign, the division had been resting and reorganising on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland. The division had experienced a high turn over in personnel following its service in the Huon Peninsula campaign as soldiers were medically discharged or transferred to other units. In addition to the Australian ground troops, naval support was provided by the United States Navy and Royal Australian Navy and aerial support from the United States Army Air Force's Thirteenth Air Force, the United States Marine Corps, and elements of the Royal Australian Air Force's 1st Tactical Air Force. Two United States Army units, the 727th Amphibian Tractor Battalion who manned the LVTs and the 593rd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment's Boat Battalion, were also attached to the Australians.
Meanwhile, Allied intelligence estimated that there were approximately 31,000 Japanese troops on Borneo, with about 8,800 of these in North Borneo. The Japanese Thirty-Seventh Army, led by Lieutenant-General Masao Baba, was tasked with defending the area, and was headquartered in Jesselton. The main Japanese units in the vicinity included elements of the 56th Independent Mixed Brigade, consisting of six battalions (the 366th to the 371st), along with another independent battalion. This brigade was commanded by Major General Taijiro Akashi. It had been raised in Japan during the second half of 1944 and arrived in Borneo late that year as the area's garrison troops were reorganised for defence against future Allied landings. By mid-1945, the brigade had been heavily depleted by its overland movement from the north-eastern part of Borneo prior to the Allied landings and was at around half strength; its troops were largely inexperienced, lightly equipped and were suffering from poor morale. Japanese air power in the region had been heavily depleted and, except in Java and Sumatra, was ineffective, although there were small numbers of aircraft at Keningau and Kuching.
Battle
Labuan
Two main landings were undertaken by the Australians in North Borneo on 10 June. After concentrating at Morotai Island in May, where complex landing rehearsals were undertaken, the assault force, consisting of 85 ships—mainly from the US Navy—departed in early June, preceded by minesweepers and survey vessels, as well as the naval attack group. The first landing was made when troops from two battalions of Brigadier Selwyn Porter's 24th Brigade—the 2/28th and 2/43rd Battalions—landed on Labuan Island with a squadron of Matilda tanks from the 2/9th Armoured Regiment. The 24th Brigade's third battalion, 2/32nd Battalion, was placed in divisional reserve for the initial landing. The attack was preceded by a heavy naval bombardment from cruisers, mortar and rocket ships, and attacks by eight Liberator heavy bomber squadrons which used anti-personnel bombs to target Japanese troops around the intended beachheads. With this support, the main Allied landings were largely unopposed as the Japanese defenders had withdrawn from the beaches on the peninsula and Muara Island had been abandoned completely. At Labuan, the Australian troops came ashore near Victoria and, supported by a heavy artillery and naval gunfire support, the two battalions drove towards the airfield. Light opposition was overcome and the town and airfield were secured late on the first day, after minor clashes with Japanese outposts and troops fighting amongst the aircraft dispersal bays. Meanwhile, the 2/11th Commando Squadron provided flank support to the west.
Despite the initial progress the fighting on Labuan intensified during this time as the Japanese defenders retreated inland to a heavily fortified position known as "the Pocket" and attempted to hold the Australians along the dense jungle ridges and thick swamps. The 2/12th Commando Squadron was brought ashore from divisional reserve on 12 June and was given the task of clearing the outlying areas of resistance that had been bypassed during the initial advance on the island, By 14 June, the Australians had secured the island, apart from those Japanese contained within the Pocket. Despite considerable artillery and armoured support, a company-level attack by the 2/28th Battalion was turned back on 14 June, and as a result further preparatory fires were called upon to soften up the Japanese defences.
At this stage of the war, Australian commanders were under strict orders to limit their casualties, and "avoid unnecessary risks", utilising fire support where possible to reduce Japanese defences prior to attacking. Commencing on 17 June, an intense three day naval and aerial bombardment was laid down in an effort to reduce the Japanese defences. Meanwhile, 100 Japanese attacked the Australian brigade's maintenance area and the airfield before the Australians launch a renewed attack on 21 June. At this time, two companies of infantry from the 2/28th Battalion assaulted the Japanese position. Supported by indirect fire support from sea and air, and direct fire support from tanks and flamethrowers, the Australians overwhelmed the Japanese defenders and cleared the remaining resistance from Labuan. After the battle 180 Japanese dead were counted, bringing the total killed during the fighting on Labuan to 389. Against this the Australians suffered 34 killed and 93 wounded.
Brunei and Muara Island
The second Allied landing that took place on 10 June, consisted of two battalions of Brigadier Victor Windeyer's 20th Brigade—2/15th and 2/17th Battalions—landing at Muara Island and on the mainland peninsula north of Brooketon, supported by a second squadron of Matildas from the 2/9th Armoured Regiment. The 20th Brigade's third battalion, the 2/13th, was held back in brigade reserve. Meanwhile, in the interior, Dayak tribesmen supported by Allied operatives commenced their guerrilla campaign on 9 June. Lightly armed, and with only limited training, these guerrillas sought to harass the withdrawing Japanese, while avoiding decisive engagement. In this role, they met with some success, but were in some cases forced to withdraw in the face of heavy opposition. The troops that had landed near Brooketon on the mainland advanced on Brunei, which was captured on 13 June by the 2/17th Battalion after several minor section and platoon level actions over several days. The 2/15th, which had earlier secured Muara Island, secured Limbang on 18 June, advancing by landing craft up the river in the south-west of Brunei Bay. The two 20th Brigade battalions were now joined by the 2/13th Battalion, which had conducted an unopposed landing at Lutong on 20 June, supported by Spitfire and Kittyhawk fighters operating from Labuan, before continuing their advance down the south-western coast and then overland, passing through Miri and Seria on their way towards Kuching.
At Seria the Australians found the 37 oil wells ablaze, having been deliberately lit by the Japanese defenders as they withdrew, and engineers from the 2/3rd Field Company were called up to put out the fires, a task which took over three months to complete. Kuala Belait was reached on 24 June. Having secured its objectives, the 20th Brigade then began patrolling operations, using landing craft to move quickly along the various rivers and streams that punctuated the coastline. The initial priority of Japanese troops on the mainland was to withdraw inland. As a result, only minor clashes occurred, against Japanese rearguards, which were generally poorly equipped and inexperienced. Resistance and aggressiveness amongst these rearguard elements stiffened as the Australians moved beyond Miri. Generally, the guerrilla forces in the interior carried out their operations separately from the conventional forces that focused mainly upon the coastal areas. However, some co-ordinated action was achieved during the campaign. During July, guerrillas assigned to Operation Semut captured Marudi, on the Barem River, as part of efforts to disrupt the Japanese withdrawal from Miri. A strong Japanese counter-attack retook the village from the lightly armed Semut operatives, after which the guerrillas linked up with conventional Australian infantry from the 2/17th Battalion to capture it once again on 15 July. During the course of their involvement in the campaign, the 20th Brigade's casualties were relatively light, suffering only 40 casualties. Throughout late June and into August, RAAF aircraft including Mosquitos and Beafighters attacked Japanese targets throughout North Borneo, including barges, shipping, barracks and airfields, sinking an 800-ton vessel near the Tabuan River and destroying several Japanese aircraft on the ground. Wirraways were also used to provide tactical reconnaissance, and other fighters flew close air support sorties.
Weston
Another landing was made by Allied forces on 16 June on the mainland at Weston, in the north-eastern part of Brunei Bay. The 2/32nd Battalion, which had previously been held back as the divisional reserve, forced its way ashore near Padas Bay. After taking Weston, patrols were sent out to Beaufort, which was inland. Due to the lack of roads and the indefensible nature of the railway track that led to the town, it was decided to advance along the Klias River, while a secondary force moved along the Padas River. As a part of this phase of the operation, minor landings were made at Mempakul on 19 June and at Sabang on 23 June by elements of the 2/43rd Battalion and the 2/11th Commando Squadron. Kibidang was captured the same day by the 2/43rd, while the 2/32nd advanced further along the Padas River and the two battalions married up. Following this, reinforcements in the form of two companies from the 2/28th Battalion were transferred from Labuan to take over rear area security while plans were made for the main attack on Beaufort.
The Allies assessed that Beaufort, which lay on the main Japanese avenue of withdrawal, was held by between 800 and 1,000 Japanese troops seeking to keep key egress routes open. On 27 June, the Australians attacked the town. The 2/43rd Battalion was assigned the task of the main assault, while the 2/32nd Battalion was tasked with flank protection. Despite being hamstrung by torrential downpours and unforgiving terrain, the 2/32nd Battalion secured the south bank of the Padas River, while one company from the 2/43rd was sent to take the town and another marched to the flanks, to take up ambush positions along the route that the Japanese were expected to withdraw along. The 2/28th Battalion secured the lines of communication north of the river. The resistance from the Japanese defenders was not co-ordinated and as a result the Australians had secured their objectives by nightfall. Throughout the night, however, the Japanese launched six counterattacks which eventually broke down into hand-to-hand combat. During the course of these actions, one company became isolated and the next morning, 28 June, another was sent to aid it by attacking the Japanese force from the rear. Fighting its way through numerous Japanese positions throughout the afternoon, the company reached its objective in the early evening and launched its assault, killing at least 100 Japanese defenders. It was during the course of this action that Private Tom Starcevich, of the 2/43rd Battalion, performed the deeds for which he was later awarded the Victoria Cross.
By 29 June, the Japanese began to withdraw from Beaufort in small groups. Elsewhere, on 1 July, the Australian 7th Division carried out the final stage of the Allied operation to secure Borneo, landing at Balikpapan, on the south-east coast. In North Borneo, Allied forces observed a brief pause while reinforcements arrived. The 2/3rd Anti-tank Regiment, being used as infantry rather than the anti-tank role for which it was intended, arrived at Weston on 3 July, where it relieved the 2/28th Battalion, which then moved on to Beaufort. On 6 July the Australian advance was resumed. Due to the strategic situation, it was decided to undertake a slow and cautious advance using indirect fire to limit casualties. By 12 July the 2/32nd Battalion occupied Papar, and from there patrols were dispatched to the north and along the banks of the river as offensive operations came to an end.
Aftermath
Following the capture of Papar, the Australians ceased offensive actions on Borneo and the situation remained largely static until a ceasefire came into effect in mid-August. In early August 1945, two atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and on 15 August the Japanese Emperor, Hirohito, effectively announced an end to hostilities, with the formal surrender being signed on 2 September 1945. As a result of the ceasefire, the planned Allied invasion of Japan was no longer required and the strategic gains provided by the capture of North Borneo were arguably negated; this included development of Brunei Bay into a naval base, which ultimately never occurred. To some extent, this has led to claims in Australia that the Oboe operations—as well as the campaigns in the Aitape–Wewak region of New Guinea and on Bougainville and New Britain—had been "unnecessary" and had therefore resulted in needless casualties. Throughout the course of the fighting on North Borneo, the Australians lost 114 men killed or died of wounds while another 221 men were wounded. Against this, the Japanese lost at least 1,234 men, while 130 had been captured. On top of this, a further 1,800 Japanese were estimated to have been killed by the guerrilla forces operating in the interior; many of these were Japanese troops who were withdrawing inland following the conventional landings on the coast who were ambushed by guerrillas or attacked by Allied airstrikes directed by these forces. These forces also occupied large areas in Sarawak and the southern parts of North Borneo by the end of hostilities.
After the fighting was over, the Australians began the task for establishing British civil administration, rebuilding the infrastructure that had been damaged and providing for the civilians that had been displaced in the fighting. This proved to be a significant undertaking, with the 9th Division working to establish hospitals, dispensaries, and schools. Sanitation and drainage had not been provided by the Japanese, and the local population was suffering from disease and was malnourished. Infrastructure was re-built by Australian engineers, while 9th Division medical personnel provided medical aid directly to locals. The North Borneo railway was also re-established. Houses that were destroyed in pre-invasion bombardment and later fighting were also rebuilt. Following the ceasefire, there were still a large number of Japanese troops in North Borneo—by October 1945 it was estimated that there were over 21,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians still in North Borneo—and the 9th Division was made responsible for organising the surrender, provisioning and protection of these personnel. They were also tasked with liberating the Allied civilian internees and prisoners of war that were being held at Batu Lintang camp in Kuching, Sarawak, and with disarming the guerrillas that had been assigned to Operations Agas and Semut.
As civil administration was slowly restored, in October 1945, the Australian demobilisation process began. Initially this process was slow as there were few troops able to relieve the Australian forces in Borneo and as such only long service personnel were released for return to Australia. The 9th Division remained in North Borneo performing garrison duties until January 1946, when it was relieved by the 32nd Indian Brigade, and subsequently disbanded. For the majority of the 9th Division's personnel a return to civilian life followed, however, as part of Australia's contribution to the occupation of Japan, a number of men from the 9th Division were transferred to the 67th Battalion which was being formed as part of the 34th Brigade. According to the Australian War Memorial, such was the relationship formed between the 9th Division and the civilian population of North Borneo, that the division's Unit Colour Patch was incorporated into the coat of arms of the Colony of British Borneo following the war, remaining as such until 1963, when the region was subsumed by the Malaysian state of Sabah.
See also
Japanese occupation of Malaya
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Borneo campaign
Battle of North Borneo
Conflicts in 1945
Military history of Malaya during World War II
South West Pacific theatre of World War II
Battle of North Borneo
Battles of World War II involving Australia
Battles of World War II involving Japan
Battles of World War II involving the United States
History of Sabah
Military history of Brunei
June 1945 events in Asia
July 1945 events in Asia
August 1945 events in Asia |
4256382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Got%20%27til%20It%27s%20Gone | Got 'til It's Gone | "Got 'til It's Gone" is a song by American singer Janet Jackson, featuring American rapper Q-Tip and Canadian singer Joni Mitchell, from her sixth studio album, The Velvet Rope (1997). It was written by Jackson, Jam and Lewis, with additional writing by René Elizondo Jr., Mitchell, and Kamaal Ibn Fareed. The song was produced by Jackson, Jam and Lewis. It was released as the lead single from The Velvet Rope in 1997, by Virgin Records. The song was recorded at Flyte Tyme Studios in Edina, Minnesota. For "Got 'til It's Gone", Jackson opted for a less polished sound which resulted in an authentic blend of R&B, pop, and hip hop with traces of reggae influences.
"Got 'til It's Gone" was met with mostly positive reviews from music critics, with most praising its fusion of Jackson's pop style with hip hop, and for its revealing theme. "Got 'til It's Gone" was not released as a commercial single, making it ineligible to appear on the Billboard Hot 100. However, the song peaked at number 36 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and reached number three on the R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay chart. Internationally, "Got 'til It's Gone" reached the top 20 in several European markets, including France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
The accompanying music video for "Got 'til It's Gone" was directed by Mark Romanek and filmed at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles, and was premiered right before the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards. Jackson portrays a lounge singer in the video, which takes place during the time of apartheid in South Africa. It was called a masterpiece by critics, winning a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. Jackson has performed "Got 'til It's Gone" on all of her concert tours since its release. The song was also covered by singer Marsha Ambrosius, and was also a source for several book titles.
Background and release
In 1996, Janet Jackson renewed her contract with company Virgin Records for $80 million—the largest recording contract in history at that time and a breakthrough she achieved for the second time in her career. She then began developing her sixth studio album, The Velvet Rope, which chronicled Jackson's struggle with depression and intimacy. In an interview for MTV, she discussed how the depression had made her frequently sad and caused her to take breaks from her music career. She felt this was heightened by her estrangement from the rest of the Jackson family. Jimmy Jam was aware of Jackson's depression during the writing of the album, noticing how she would spontaneously cancel recording sessions and appear constantly troubled. Jackson discussed "Got 'til It's Gone" and The Velvet Rope album during an interview with Rolling Stone, saying:
Singing these songs has meant digging up pain that I buried a long time ago. It's been hard and sometimes confusing. But I've had to do it. I've been burying pain my whole life. It's like kicking dirt under the carpet. At some point there's so much dirt that you start to choke. Well, I've been choking. My therapy came in writing these songs. Then I had to find the courage to sing them or else suffer the consequences – a permanent case of the blues.
The song's music video and promotional photos were the first glimpse of the new image Jackson developed for The Velvet Rope campaign, which combined elements from Gothic and African cultures and consisted of red hair, nasal and body piercings, and several tattoos. In an interview with Dotmusic, she commented how she was a fan of Joni Mitchell's work, and that she knew she wanted a rapper on this album, but didn't know who and on what song she could do that, until she found Q-Tip was the "perfect person" for "Got 'til It's Gone". She also described his voice as "mellow and laid-back like the vocal". "Got 'til It's Gone" was serviced to multiple airplay formats, including pop, urban, rhythmic, and adult contemporary/jazz, on September 2, 1997, as the lead single from The Velvet Rope. In the United Kingdom, Virgin released the song on September 22, 1997, as a CD single, a 12-inch vinyl single, and a cassette single. Later that year, on November 10, a two-disc 12-inch single was released. In Japan, a CD single was issued on October 29, 1997.
Composition and lyrical interpretation
"Got 'til It's Gone" was written by Jackson, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, René Elizondo Jr., Q-Tip and Joni Mitchell, and features guest vocals from the latter artists. It contains a sample from Mitchell's 1970 song "Big Yellow Taxi". According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, the song is set in common time with a key of F major. Jackson's vocals range between G3 to C5. The song has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. For "Got 'til It's Gone", Jackson opted for a less polished sound, the song itself is a blend of various genres such as R&B, pop, and hip hop; it also has influences of reggae. It was inspired by J Dilla's remix of the Brand New Heavies' song "Sometimes", released a few months prior in 1997. Jam spoke of the song's crossover potential, commenting, "Janet has always been one of those artists that bridges R&B and hip-hop and pop and rock". We really thought 'Got 'Til It's Gone' would be accepted [by all audiences] across the board". Jackson revealed that lyrically, "Got 'Til It's Gone" is about a great life lesson she learned—appreciate what you have while you have it. When discussing the song with Jet magazine, Jackson stated, "In my life, I try to take nothing for granted, even if I don't always succeed".
Jackson told why she felt compelled to combine the folk elements from Mitchell with Q-Tip's rap verse, saying "Him and Joni Mitchell have something in common: what they write is poetry". "I think of folk and rap among similar strands. Especially lyrically because you can put so much content into one song. Hip hop is great and I think it's good that it talks of the harsh realities of life in the ghettos". Speaking about Q-Tip's appearance, Jackson said, "Q-Tip represents all that's creative and strong about rap. He's real and right to the point, and I loved working with him". Jackson has frequently mentioned Mitchell as an influence and artist she's admired throughout her career, which led to Jackson asking Mitchell to contribute vocals to "Got 'til It's Gone". Jackson stated, "As a kid I was drawn to Joni Mitchell records. Joni's songs spoke to me in an intimate, personal way." Jackson contacted Mitchell personally to ask for permission to use the sample, stating "everyone said it couldn't be done, but if [Mitchell] was going to say no to me, I had to hear it from her myself [...] I called her and told her I wanted her to hear it before she made a decision. Everybody was surprised when a couple of days later, she said yes". Describing the situation, Jackson recalled, "I told her I'd like to send her a tape before she made a decision. She listened to it, and called back a few days later and said she absolutely loved it and would be honored if we did, so I was very excited".
Des'ree controversy
After the release of "Got 'til It's Gone", British singer Des'ree thought the song was very similar to her own song "Feel So High" from her 1992 album Mind Adventures, and sued Jackson and the producers of the song. In July 1998, she was awarded an out-of-court settlement granting her 25 per cent of the publishing royalties from the song; around £2 million. Des'ree later said that her "aim wasn't to get money out of her", but it was purely for justice, as she wanted Jackson to recognize that she had "borrowed" from her work and not given her credit.
Critical reception
"Got 'til It's Gone" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. Larry Flick from Billboard magazine said that the song displays "finesse" and "marked maturity", saying, "Apparently, 'tis the season for pop divas to explore edgy hip-hop territory" and "this jam is a deftly structured study in subtle vocal styling and raw keep rhythms". During his review he also noted the departure from Jackson's upbeat pop and dance style might confuse listeners at first, though was ultimately a wise decision. In its twentieth anniversary, the magazine ranked it as the 29th greatest pop song of 1997. Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph approved the song as "a deliciously light confection". Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly said that the "relaxed groove" of the song is "certainly an enigmatic teaser". Rob Fitzpatrick of The Guardian described it as an "absolutely sublime pop production", saying Jackson sounded "fresher than ever". Fitzpatrick also praised the song's simple production, adding the "revolutionary use of space and dynamics worked wonders on the radio and in clubs". Jet magazine commented, "Janet has her fans up on the dance floor with the album's first hit Got Til It's Gone", calling Q-Tip's guest verse "street smart". Elysa Gardner from Los Angeles Times also gave the track a positive review, saying the "cool, breezy hip-hop" of the single "cannily intertwines a Joni Mitchell sample and a seductive guest rap by Q-Tip."
Gil Kaufman from MTV observed the song "sets the tone for the new, more experimental material", complete with "a spooky vocal loop", "old-school DJ scratching" and "layering it all with Jackson's fragile, whispered vocals, the song is then, now and later all at the same time". British magazine Music Week rated it four out of five, picking it as Single of the Week. They added, "Jackson's most untypical single to date, this loosely woven groove steals a sample from Joni Mitchell's Big Yellow Taxi and throws in a Q-Tip rap for good measure to subtly work its magic." Editor Alan Jones wrote, "Her voice is sweet and pretty, and the Mitchell sample sounds surprisingiy appropriate." Jon Pareles from The New York Times considered it "hip-hop-tinged R&B", also noticing "a depressive sobriety" in Jackson's vocals. A reviewer from People magazine praised the track as "an understated, hip-hop pastiche that features the unlikely but inspired pairing of rapper Q-Tip and a sampled Joni Mitchell". Martin Johnson from San Francisco Weekly classified it as "a clever pastiche" which blended well with Jackson's vocals and Q-Tip's "low-key rapping". John Christopher Farley from Time magazine considered it an "R&B reworking" which "draws smartly" from the sample.
Chart performance
"Got 'til It's Gone" was not released as a commercial single in the United States, making it ineligible to appear on the Billboard Hot 100 and several other charts under the chart rules that existed at that time. The song peaked at number 36 on Hot 100 Airplay, and number three on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay charts. In Canada, the song debuted at number 41 on the RPM Singles Chart on the issue dated September 15, 1997, and peaked at number 19 on November 17, 1997. In Australia, "Got 'til It's Gone" debuted at number 13 on the issue dated October 5, 1997, peaking at number 10 and staying on the ARIA Charts for 15 weeks and was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for 30,000 copies shipped. In New Zealand, it debuted at its peak of number four, staying on the chart for 12 weeks. It was also certified Gold by Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ) for shipping 15,000 copies across the country.
"Got 'til It's Gone" debuted and peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart on the week of October 4, 1997, spending eleven weeks on the chart. It was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) eventually selling nearly 200,000 units in the region. In Austria, it entered the singles chart at number 32. During its fourth week, it rose to its peak of number 11, spending a total of 17 weeks on the chart. In France, the song also peaked at number 11, and was certified Gold by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). In the Netherlands, "Got 'til It's Gone" entered the singles' chart at number 50 during the week of September 27, 1997. It eventually reached number nine, staying a total of 13 weeks on the chart. On the Swiss Singles Chart dated October 12, 1997, "Got 'til It's Gone" debuted at number 32. After four weeks, it peaked at number 11.
Music video
Background and synopsis
The accompanying music video for "Got 'til It's Gone" was directed by Mark Romanek and filmed at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles. It made its worldwide premiere on September 4, 1997, immediately preceding the 1997 MTV Video Music Awards, with the video airing later the same evening on other music channels such as VH1 and BET.
Jackson wanted to work with Romanek because she believed him to be "amazing", commenting, "I gravitate toward the directors that I really fall in love with [...]". After hearing the song, Romanek decided to use African photography as a motif, creating what he called a "pre-Apartheid celebration based on that African photography". Joni Mitchell commented: "From the time [music] video began well into the late eighties there was a monstrous image of females being perpetrated without much exception. In the face of that I found this video to be full of humanity. Janet herself was lovely. It had dignity, and it was full of life". Jackson stated that she was "very proud" of the video, adding it was "fun to make".
In the music video, Jackson portrays a lounge singer during the time of apartheid in South Africa. Inspired by a blend of '60s and '70s African culture, the video depicts freedom and prosperity, opposing racial segregation and supremacy. Jackson wears "vintage wide-lapeled brown leather jacket, men's tailored trousers, a printed halter top and individually-sectioned pigtails that bring to mind "the higher the hair, the closer to God", according to Soulbounce website. The video portrays a massive house party and includes scenes inspired by the work of photographer Malick Sidibé. Images shown throughout the video include a cigarette lighter flicking by a man's groin, a young child peeking behind a man as if he had been magically birthed, a one-eyed boxer posing, a couple presses up as if simulating rear-entry sex, children jump on mattresses, a lone figure walking outside, and Jackson's shadow crawling up a wall like a stalking animal. Joni Mitchell appears on a TV screen throughout the video, and Sudanese model Alek Wek also makes a cameo. The video ends with bottles thrown at Afrikaan segregation signs, which represents a rebellion against discrimination and racism and a celebration of freedom and embracing unity.
Reception and analysis
Slant Magazine called the "Got Til' Its Gone" video a "masterpiece" and elaborated that it had "as much substance as it does style. Set in South Africa during the time of apartheid, the video is a celebration of the music and rhythms that helped sustain black culture under the weight of segregation. As for style, Janet, who dons little-to-no make-up and a bead of sweat on her brow, has never looked so sexy". MusicOMH observed that the video "stands out" in comparison to Jackson's other clips and "has a powerful impact, a nice shot of Joni Mitchell at the opening and a very dark canvas for Jackson and Q-Tip to work on". Blues & Soul magazine described the clip as "a genuine tour de force. Subtly (and not so subtly) conveying images from a party in the South African townships, together with flash-photography shots of Janet and herself and one Q-Tip of [A] Tribe Called Quest. The whole thing emphasizes the elusive, not to say, precious value of happiness as something to savor. As with the rest of the set, it is perhaps Janet's most mature vehicle yet". Complex commented on the video, saying "This is about as cool as videos get. So many incredible style references in this one it's like a moving Tumblr". In the book Unruly Media: Youtube, Music Video, and the New Digital Cinema, author Carol Vernallis analyzed that despite the video's "bevy of loaded images tied to race and myth", its mood and tone are "overwhelmingly warm", drawing attention to Jackson's and Mitchell's vocal similarities.
At the 40th Annual Grammy Awards, the music video for "Got 'til It's Gone" won a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. It also received the most nominations at the seventh annual MVPA Awards, winning "Pop Video of the Year" and "Best Art Direction". Billboard magazine noted that "the biggest surprise was that Janet Jackson's "Got 'Til It's Gone" clip was completely shut out" of winning Video of the Year, despite receiving the most nominations. However. the publication noted that the video had "stiff competition" in all of its nominated categories. It was also the winner of VH1's "Most Stylish Video" award in 1997, and was additionally ranked number ten on a list of the "100 Greatest Music Videos of All Time" by Slant Magazine. Complex also placed the video at number 15 on their list of the 25 Most Stylish Hip-Hop Videos.
Live performances
To promote "Got 'til It's Gone" and The Velvet Rope, Jackson performed the song on Top of the Pops and Graines de Star during her European promotional tour, Australian and Japanese TV shows Hey Hey It's Saturday and Hey! Hey! Hey! Music Champ. After returning to the United States, she performed it on The Oprah Winfrey Show along with "Together Again". Upon returning to her promotional tour in Europe, she performed "Got 'til It's Gone" on French TV programs Les Années Tubes, Hit Machine along with "Together Again", and Spanish television on TV show Música Sí.
The singer has also performed "Got 'til It's Gone" on all of her tours since its release. She included the song on the 1998 The Velvet Rope Tour. With the stage decorated with chandeliers while dressed up in "sensible clothing", Jackson performed it as part of the encore of the concert. MTV praised the performance as "high energy", and was also described as a "hypnotic rendition" by The Washington Post. The performance of the song at the October 11, 1998 show in New York City, at the Madison Square Garden, was broadcast during a special titled The Velvet Rope: Live in Madison Square Garden by HBO. It was also added to the setlist at its DVD release, The Velvet Rope Tour – Live in Concert in 1999.
It was again performed on the All for You Tour in support of her follow-up album All for You in 2001 and 2002. MTV noted the absence of Joni Mitchell on the video screens, when compared to the previous performance of "Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You)", when singer Carly Simon, sampled on the song, "showed up for a special video guest star appearance". The February 16, 2002 final date of the tour at the Aloha Stadium in Hawaii, was broadcast by HBO, and included a performance of "Got 'til it's Gone". This rendition was also added to the setlist at its DVD release, Janet: Live in Hawaii, in 2002.
After a period of six years without going on tour, Jackson embarked on the 2008 Rock Witchu Tour, and included "Got 'til It's Gone" on its setlist. The performance featured a pre-recorded video of Q-Tip performing his verses while Jackson sang on stage. The song was performed as a dedication to the city of Gold Coast, Australia on November 2, 2011 during the Number Ones: Up Close and Personal tour. Jackson also included the song on her 2015-16 Unbreakable World Tour, and on her 2017-2019 State of the World Tour. It is also included the song on her 2019 Las Vegas Residency Janet Jackson: Metamorphosis.
Usage in media and cover version
The song inspired the title of the novel Got til It's Gone, published in 2008, and is mentioned throughout the book. Larry Duplechan's 2008 novel was also titled after the song and references Jackson in the book. Producer DJRum credits "Got 'til It's Gone" as one of the songs which inspired him to pursue a career as a DJ. The song was used on the CBS science fiction series Now and Again, with the show's executive producer saying "the song's melancholy was appropriate" to be used during a scene where actor John Goodman's character passes away. The song is mentioned in Jay-Z's 2010 memoir Decoded, in which he compares the song's meaning to the theme of "December 4th", which appeared on his eighth studio album The Black Album (2003). The song is also mentioned in the novels Getting to the Good Part and In Due Time.
In 2012, British singer Marsha Ambrosius covered the song with rapper TWyse. TWyse's rap verse was different from Q-Tip's and Ambrosius re-sang the Joni Mitchell sample. It was featured on the album Bone Appétit Vol. 1 – Main Course by Jeff Bradshaw, released by Hidden Beach Recordings. The video for their cover was dedicated to the seven-year anniversary of Hurricane Katrina and was shot in New Orleans, Louisiana.
Track listings
UK, Australian, and Japanese CD single
"Got 'til It's Gone" (radio edit) – 3:39
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix) – 5:11
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Nellee Hooper master mix) – 4:18
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix edit) – 3:51
"Got 'til It's Gone" (album version) – 4:00
UK 12-inch single
A1. "Got 'til It's Gone" (album version) – 4:00
A2. "Got 'til It's Gone" (instrumental) – 4:49
B1. "Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix) – 5:11
B2. "Got 'til It's Gone" (Nellee Hooper master mix) – 4:18
UK cassette single
"Got 'til It's Gone" (radio edit) – 3:39
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix) – 5:11
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Nellee Hooper master mix) – 4:18
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix edit) – 3:51
European CD single
"Got 'til It's Gone" (radio edit) – 3:39
"Got 'til It's Gone" (Mellow mix) – 5:11
Credits and personnel
Credits for "Got 'til It's Gone" are adapted from The Velvet Rope liner notes.
Recording
Recorded and mixed at Flyte Tyme Studios in Edina, Minnesota.
Personnel
Janet Jackson – lead vocals, songwriting, producing, vocal arrangements
James Harris III – songwriting, producing, vocal and rhythm arrangements, all instruments
Terry Lewis – songwriting, producing, vocal and rhythm arrangements, all instruments
René Elizondo Jr. – songwriting
Joni Mitchell – vocals, songwriting
Kamaal Ibn Fareed – vocals, songwriting
Alex Richbourg – drum programming
Steve Hodge – rap recording, engineering, mixing
Michael McCoy – assistant recording
Brad Yost – assistant engineer
Xavier Smith – assistant engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
1997 songs
1997 singles
Alternative hip hop songs
Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video
Janet Jackson songs
Joni Mitchell songs
Music videos directed by Mark Romanek
Q-Tip (musician) songs
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Songs involved in plagiarism controversies
Songs written by Janet Jackson
Songs written by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis
Songs written by Joni Mitchell
Songs written by Q-Tip (musician)
Virgin Records singles |
4256538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puss%20in%20Boots%20%28Shrek%29 | Puss in Boots (Shrek) | Puss in Boots, or simply Puss, is a recurring fictional character in the Shrek franchise. He made his first appearance in the film Shrek 2 (2004), soon becoming Shrek's partner and helper (alongside Donkey). In the film Shrek the Third (2007), Puss helps Shrek find the heir to the throne of the Far Far Away Kingdom. The film Shrek Forever After (2010) is primarily set in an alternate universe, where Puss is Princess Fiona's pet and has gained weight after his retirement. He is portrayed as the title character and protagonist in the 2011 spin-off film Puss in Boots (in which his origins are described) and its 2022 sequel Puss in Boots: The Last Wish (set sometime after Shrek Forever After). Puss also appears in the Netflix television series centered on him, The Adventures of Puss in Boots (2015–2018).
Puss was loosely based on the title character of the fairy tale "Puss in Boots". His design, created by Tom Hester, was based on real cats. Several characters were used as inspirations for Puss's characterization, such as Zorro, Jack Sparrow and Indiana Jones. The idea of Puss as the protagonist of a film was explored after his debut appearance. Antonio Banderas voices Puss in the English, Spanish, and Italian dubs of the Shrek franchise. While he initially tried a high-pitched voice for the character, he and the Shrek 2 filmmakers decided on a tone that was deeper than his normal voice. Banderas said that voicing Puss was an important part of his career. Eric Bauza provides Puss's voice in The Adventures of Puss in Boots.
The character has received generally positive reviews, with critics praising his depiction and considering him a source of comic relief. Reviewers have regarded Puss as a popular Shrek character. Banderas' voice acting has also been praised. Merchandise inspired by the character has been produced.
Development
Concept and creation
Puss in Boots is loosely based on the titular character of the fairy tale with the same name. Character designer Tom Hester provided Puss's design, which was based on cats owned by Shrek director Andrew Adamson and effects supervisor Ken Bielenberg. After Antonio Banderas had been cast as Puss's voice, the Shrek animators analyzed his performance as the title character in The Mask of Zorro (1998) for insight into Puss's depiction. Inspired by Banderas's Zorro, the filmmakers decided to make Puss's origins Spanish (instead of the fairy tale's Italian and French). When computer-animating Puss, new animation tools were required for his fur, belt, and the plume on his hat.
Chris Miller, head of story of the film Shrek 2 (2004), said that he enjoyed the character of Puss as much as viewers seemed to; he and everyone else involved in Shrek 2 wanted to add more scenes related to Puss to the film. Miller described Puss as "a really cool, dynamic sidekick character at that time", saying that the filmmakers had decided to link the character to a "weird history" in which he had been "everywhere" and done "everything". He and the other filmmakers wondered what the story of Puss would look like and why he had his accent. According to Miller, writing and developing Puss had been "so much fun", and the character had a "huge impact" in Shrek 2 by stealing so many scenes. Miller said that he had "always loved" the character and had been "fascinated by where Puss had been before". Puss repeatedly mentions "some great adventure" (without details) in the Shrek films, and Miller wanted to know more about his origins (such as where his boots came from). Miller called Puss his favorite Shrek character, who had "always stood out", and could not imagine anyone other than Banderas voicing him; soon after the character had been created, Banderas was offered the role. Miller commented that the actor's performance was "pretty brilliant".
After realizing at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival how much viewers enjoyed Puss's character, Jeffrey Katzenberg, co-founder of DreamWorks Animation, began considering "the idea of possibly continuing with the character in the Shrek series" and creating a film with Puss as the protagonist. Katzenberg called Puss a "scene stealer" and said he "seemed to beg for his own film" after his first appearance in the Shrek franchise. Miller, who also directed the film Puss in Boots (2011), knew that Puss was suitable for a standalone film, and he was pleased when Banderas quickly accepted the role. Miller was happy with DreamWorks's decision to create a film about Puss and excited to contribute to its production. He said the idea of Puss having his own film had been considered since the character had joined the Shrek franchise, attributing this to "the size and scope of that character" and "the personality that Antonio infused that character with". Although the filmmakers initially wanted to bring cats to the DreamWorks studios to study them for the development of Puss, the DreamWorks staff suggested watching YouTube cat videos instead. According to Miller, YouTube was the filmmakers' "great resource" of inspiration to which they added their "personal experience". He said that cats, "as seriously as they take themselves", "can never resist their true nature", and he cited Puss's "hissing" as an example.
The Puss in Boots filmmakers knew from the beginning that something about the character "demanded [the story] just be larger than life". While the story had initially been conceptualized as "loosely based" on the classic fairy tale, involving "Puss and three sons of the miller", the filmmakers decided to create "a new story told on a grander scale", "something that would be more worthy of" Puss. "Spaghetti Western style and structure" also inspired Puss's character, and the filmmakers decided to use "big screen legends" as inspiration. Miller cited Clint Eastwood as one of the "classic cinematic figures" inspiring Puss's portrayal and regarded him as "a strong force" since there was "something about Clint that was in the cat". He also cited Indiana Jones's "adventurous spirit", James Bond and Errol Flynn. Miller also cited Zorro as an inspiration for Puss since Banderas (who played Zorro) voiced him, and he said that "Antonio's persona [had] really dictated so many of the choices that [had been] made" about Puss's character in Puss in Boots. According to Miller, it is "very difficult to tell the difference" between Puss and Banderas.
The filmmakers decided to give Puss "a heavy story" in Puss in Boots; they felt that breaking his heart would be "really important", and they wanted to offer him "something to redeem himself from and clear his name". They debated whether Puss would be portrayed as a misunderstood fugitive. Miller said that although Puss could have been depicted as deceptive, the filmmakers had decided to portray him as blameworthy; robbing the bank was not Puss's plan and he ran away "out of fear", but he had to take responsibility for his actions. Miller stated that Puss's "desire to believe the best in someone else" and to "hang on to a friendship" represent "the kind of things that get him in trouble". Puss's backstory was meant to indicate the "heaviness on his mind and in his heart", and why he was on the run despite his "cool life". Miller said that Puss was a "pretty wide open" character when it came to his portrayal in the film; Puss adds a dramatic note to everything, which the filmmakers used "to attach a very tragic story to his life". Miller stated that "the heavy dramatic themes" fit Puss's character well, making the character's journey a "story of redemption" in which "he sort of walks a dark path with a hole punched in his heart" and wishes "to clear away the sins of his past" and "reclaim what was his". Miller said that Puss in his cape affirmed "an urban legend"; although he wore it in marketing material, he rarely did so in the films. According to Miller, Puss's cape was "so expensive to keep strapped to that cat" and "so cumbersome" that the Puss in Boots filmmakers decided to have the character wear it for a short time, as in Shrek 2. Miller felt that Puss's "giant big eyes" would appeal to viewers.
Doug Langdale, executive producer of the television series The Adventures of Puss in Boots (2015–2018), said that in the series Puss fights "a lot more" compared to the films; he is depicted "more as a master swordsman with lots of extra punching, kicking and action". Langdale stated that he "wanted to set the show earlier in Puss's life, back when he was the only one who thought he was a legend ... had more to prove, and maybe [was not] quite so awesome at everything yet", which determined that the series would be set before the film Puss in Boots. He said that since Puss is a "hero", the series focuses on his saving people and defeating "bad guys". Langdale added that in the series, "unexpected depth and nuance" are brought to the character with comedy; Puss was a "nomad" and a "loner" before the events of the series, which "is an essential segment in Puss's life" that taught him "how to get along with other people" and made him "understand the value of friendships and relationships". According to Langdale, "the audience [would] willingly follow" Puss's "charm, charisma and appeal".
Voice
Antonio Banderas voiced Puss in the Shrek franchise. Banderas said that his initial motivation to voice Puss was that he enjoyed the film Shrek (2001). According to the actor, he was chosen for the role of Puss because of his Spanish accent. According to Banderas, he was on Broadway for the musical Nine when Jeffrey Katzenberg approached him about taking the role. The Shrek 2 filmmakers showed him "a lot of paintings of the character", and he realized how "little" Puss was. Banderas said that he had developed a strategy for playing Puss after accepting the role, which had determined Puss's personality. Although he could have used a high-pitched voice for Puss, which was the filmmakers' original idea, he and the others working on the film opted for a tone that was "deeper" and "more breathy" than his normal voice. Banderas called the choice "very interesting", adding that it "helped to establish the limits and the parameters of the character in terms of personality". He regarded the effect as "almost like a lion trapped in the body of a little cat", which makes Puss "different". According to the actor, Puss's voice contrasts with his body; he stated that "the cat is not supposed to talk like that", adding that the difference between Puss's voice and appearance is comic relief. He also commented that the contrast between Puss's appearance and voice makes it seem like he is not even aware of his size. Banderas said that after the decision about Puss's voice had been made, the filmmakers had begun depicting the character "in a totally different way". He added that Puss had initially been conceptualized as "quite a little character" but had started gaining more importance after the filmmakers had realized his potential. Banderas said that he and the filmmakers had "a lot of fun" with Puss's character, and felt that viewers did too.
Banderas said that the first scene he had recorded was coughing up a hairball, adding that he had spent "45 minutes doing strange sounds"; although it left him voiceless, he saw the moment as "fun". When asked about the most difficult part of voicing Puss, Banderas said "the biggest challenge was to understand the animation process". The actor said that in addition to providing Puss's English voice, he voiced the character in Mexican Spanish, Castilian Spanish, and Italian, calling the Italian dub "the most challenging" since he had to follow "the character's face movement"; Puss speaks with a lisp in the Spanish dub. When he was at the Cannes Film Festival for Shrek 2, Banderas noticed that Puss's character received much public attention. About Puss's changed appearance in Shrek Forever After (2010), Banderas joked that the character's weight gain did not bother him but the pink ribbon (which Puss wears in the film) did. For Puss in Boots, Banderas advised the filmmakers to depict the relation between Puss and Kitty Softpaws (voiced by Salma Hayek) as a "love-hate" relationship to generate "a great lot of comedy"; Hayek stated that Banderas is completely believable as Puss since both are "very self-confident", characterizing him as perfect for this role. Banderas said that he wanted Puss to keep "his mischievousness and edginess" in this film since viewers enjoyed "the edgy side" of the character.
Asked about similarities between him and Puss, Banderas said that Puss had values which he lacked; the character was "too courageous". He said that the filmmakers had wanted to incorporate some of his "personal features" into Puss's character, with characters he had played in other films, such as Zorro and the characters he had portrayed in Desperado (1995) and The 13th Warrior (1999), serving as inspirations. Banderas said that he saw "a little bit more" of himself as the films in which Puss appears were released, describing Puss as his "alter ego". He is proud that his character is Latino since it is "good for diversity and cultural interaction", saying children would see that "heroes actually have a strong accent" in Puss in Boots.
Banderas said that he loved Puss's character. Asked about which one of Puss's characteristics he preferred, the actor cited his mischievousness; according to Banderas, Puss does amazing things in the three Shrek films in which he appears. Playing Puss meant "a lot" for his career; although he had not been able to speak English when he had come to America, the filmmakers wanted his voice for the films. Banderas said he had not initially known how difficult voicing a character was, stating that "you have to get into the character" to do it well. The Shrek franchise was important to him, representing "the magnificent part of Hollywood and the search for perfection"; Banderas viewed being a part of the Shrek production as "very beautiful". He was recognized in public for his role as Puss.
Eric Bauza voiced Puss in the Netflix series The Adventures of Puss in Boots. Bauza said that he had auditioned "fair and square" for Puss's role (despite having worked with executive producer Doug Langdale on another show) and had enjoyed working with the production team. He said he had been asked to do a motion capture as Puss before the start of the series, adding that "to embody that character, physically, was so tough". Bauza called the sounds he needed to provide for Puss "iconic" since he is "such a well-known character". According to Bauza, voicing Puss was a "challenge because Puss speaks in such a whisper". Bauza said that he had "watched a lot of Antonio's films", had imagined how he would have performed on certain occasions, and had tried to be as "unpredictable"; he stated that his voice is similar to Banderas's. Since he voiced the central character in the series, Bauza had "the luck and luxury to be able to record with a majority of the people that are in the show". He felt that "having the responsibility of taking over a role such as Puss in Boots is quite the honor". Bauza thought that a series centered on Puss was clever, maintaining the audience interested until the release of Puss in Boots 2, and said it would present "some sides to Puss that you [cannot] really get out of the feature films or even shorts". André Sogliuzzo voiced Puss in several Shrek video games. The meowing sounds Puss makes in the films were provided by Frank Welker.
Banderas voiced Puss in Boots again in the 2022 movie Puss in Boots: The Last Wish.
Characterization
Miller characterized Puss as "a fiercely loyal and honorable cat". He further referred to Puss as "a pint-sized, pocket-sized, fun character". Miller also described Puss as "really appealing" and also as "a normally proportioned cat dressed up, but bold, animated, and romantic". He viewed Puss as "colorful" as well. Miller stated that "Antonio's persona and this explosive, dynamic, huge figure that was really cute" completely fit Puss's portrayal in Puss in Boots. He also said Puss is an "amplified version of Antonio coming out of this tiny little furry package" and that this makes him an "instantly funny", "intriguing", and "complex character". He added that Puss "is very melodramatic", seeing this as "funny" because of how Puss's character is depicted and believing Banderas was "really good" at portraying this side of the character. He further said Puss "is at his funniest when he takes himself too seriously", which always happens since he "sees himself as a very important figure". Miller stated that while Puss has a "really big heart", he still is somewhat mischievous. Miller characterized Puss as someone who had seen "the light really early in life" and who is "affecting change on everyone around him". He further described him as "half lover, half fighter" and as "a bit roguish and a bit of a troublemaker". Miller also characterized Puss as "unpredictable".
Langdale said that Puss is a "character anyone can relate to", which makes him "great". He said that "on the surface, Puss is the coolest guy in the world", "great at everything", "saves and protects people", and "seems like he can defeat anyone", despite "this wonderful vulnerability" due to him being "tiny". According to Langdale, Puss is "just a regular-sized cat in a people-sized world" with an "elephant-sized" personality.
Banderas described Puss as "a little bit mysterious", with "a sweetness"; he added that the character "knows how to make people jealous" and "can be manipulative with just his eyes". According to Banderas, viewers could identify with Puss's attempts to obtain something. Banderas said that Puss is a "womanizer" who courts "the lady cats", and enjoys having a female "in front of him that can fight as hard as him". He stated that Puss is "so little", and the actor enjoyed his "contrast in size" with Shrek.
Appearances
Shrek 2
Puss makes his first appearance as a supporting character in the film Shrek 2, where he is initially hired by the father of Princess Fiona (Shrek's wife) to kill Shrek. He meets Shrek and his companion, Donkey, and unsuccessfully attacks Shrek. Puss tells Shrek the reason for his attack and begs for mercy. Because Shrek spares his life, Puss offers to join him and becomes his partner. During the course of the film, Puss helps Shrek to obtain a potion that turns Shrek and Fiona into humans, attacks a group of guards to buy Shrek time to save Fiona, and befriends Shrek and Donkey (although he starts a rivalry with the latter). At the end of the film, Puss sings a duet with Donkey, performing "Livin' la Vida Loca".
Shrek the Third
In the film Shrek the Third (2007), Puss travels with Shrek and Donkey to bring Fiona's cousin, Arthur Pendragon, to the Far Far Away Kingdom so he can become the new king (instead of Shrek). During their journey, Puss gives Shrek advice. In a later teleportation spell, Puss has his body switched with Donkey's. After initial difficulty getting used to their new bodies, Puss and Donkey join forces in the battle against Prince Charming to save Shrek, and they convince Arthur that he is meant to be king. Puss and Donkey regain their own bodies and, in an end-of-film ellipsis, Puss and other characters care for Shrek and Fiona's children.
Shrek Forever After
Puss is present in the film Shrek Forever After, at the beginning of which he attends the first birthday party of Shrek and Fiona's children. In the alternate universe created by the film's antagonist, Rumpelstiltskin, and entered by Shrek, Puss has gained weight and is Fiona's pet after his retirement. Realizing that Shrek and Fiona have feelings for each other, Puss becomes Shrek's friend. When Shrek, Fiona, and the other ogres in this universe are captured at Rumpelstiltskin's behest, Puss and Donkey save Shrek and Fiona; Puss is a key participant in the later battle against Rumpelstiltskin and his allies. Shrek returns to the real universe, where Puss (as his usual self) enjoys the birthday party with the other characters.
Puss in Boots
The film Puss in Boots is a spin-off from, and prequel to, the Shrek films. After he was abandoned when he was little, Puss finds shelter at an orphanage in the Spanish town of San Ricardo and is adopted by Imelda, the caretaker of the orphanage. He becomes friends with Humpty Alexander Dumpty, another resident of the orphanage who gives him the name "Puss" and with whom he decides to find the magic beans that would bring them to the Golden Goose (which lays golden eggs). Puss performs a heroic act, for which he receives acclaim and his boots. His bond with Humpty begins to fray, and Humpty compels Puss to (unknowingly) rob a bank with him. Puss leaves San Ricardo; years later, he learns who owns the magic beans and plans to steal them. He meets a cat who also wants to steal them: Kitty Softpaws, Humpty's partner. Humpty asks Puss to join them in their search for the beans, and Puss eventually accepts. They find the beans, plant them, and a beanstalk brings them to a castle in the sky. They find the Golden Goose and return with it to the ground. Puss returns to San Ricardo, where he realizes that Humpty has been plotting against him. Puss is arrested, and he learns that the Golden Goose's mother will come and try to retrieve it. With Kitty's help, Puss escapes, goes to Humpty, and they reconcile. Humpty sacrifices himself to allow Puss to save the Golden Goose and return it to its mother (preventing the town's destruction), and Puss and Kitty escape the town guards.
Puss in Boots: The Last Wish
Having burned through eight of his nine lives, Puss must set out on a journey to find the mythical Wishing Star to use the wish to restore his lost lives.
Other appearances
Puss is present in the short film Far Far Away Idol (2004), singing a part of the song "These Boots Are Made for Walking"; he also appears in his own music video of this song. Puss is present in the television special Shrek the Halls (2007), going with other characters to Shrek's home to celebrate Christmas and telling a Christmas story. He also appears in the television special Scared Shrekless (2010), participating in a storytelling contest to frighten Shrek on Halloween; Puss tells a story with Donkey, but they cannot agree on a version. Puss appears in the short film Donkey's Caroling Christmas-tacular (2010), singing his version of the song "Feliz Navidad". Puss is also present in the short film Thriller Night (2011), in which a zombie version of him is shown. He also appears in the short film Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos (2012), training three kittens and leading them to the right path. Puss is the protagonist of the Netflix series The Adventures of Puss in Boots, protecting the Spanish town of San Lorenzo from intruders after accidentally breaking the spell that was meant to defend it; he is also present in Puss in Book: Trapped in an Epic Tale (2017), a television special included in the series. Puss is present in DreamWorksTVs vlog-style short webisodes. He has appeared on Jeopardy!, being the first computer-animated character to provide an entire category in the show. Puss can be seen in a commercial parodying an Old Spice advertisement.
Puss is a playable character in several Shrek video games, such as Shrek 2, Shrek the Third, Shrek Forever After, Puss in Boots, Shrek SuperSlam, Shrek Smash n' Crash Racing, Shrek n' Roll, Shrek 2: Beg for Mercy, Shrek's Carnival Craze Party Games, and Shrek Kart. He also appears in the video games Shrek: Dragon's Tale, Shrek the Third: Arthur's School Day Adventure, and Shrek the Third: The Search for Arthur. A tie-in videogame for the character's 2011 movie, Fruit Ninja: Puss in Boots, was also released.
Puss makes a brief cameo appearance in Shrek The Musical, during the "Travel Song" scene. Puss has two theme park rides based on his franchise, the Puss in Boots' Giant Journey rollercoaster at Universal Studios Singapore, and Puss in Boots Sword Swing at Australia's Dreamworld theme park. Puss and Kitty Softpaws have appeared in several stage shows, parades, and meet-and-greet locations across several Universal theme parks around the world.
Reception
Critical response
Critical reception of Puss has been generally positive, with reviewers praising his portrayal in the films and describing him as "cute", "suave", "lovable", "charismatic", "feisty", "engaging", " and "an instant charmer." "a natural-born star", "a notorious adventurer", the "suavest of swashbuckling cats", and "the world's greatest feline swordfighter". He was also regarded as "smooth-talking", "heroic", "honorable", self-confident, "passionate", loyal, with "humble" origins. Colliders Christina Radish said that Puss getting his own film was no surprise, commenting that the character is "charming and unforgettable." Fantasy Magazines Andrew Penn Romine called Puss "equal parts rogue and hero", but Stephen Holden of The New York Times described the character as "this vain, spoiled, swashbuckler". According to Holden, Puss is not "as clear-cut a personality [in Puss in Boots] as he was" in the Shrek films. IndieLondons Rob Carnevale called him a "cheeky feline swashbuckler" and Puss in Bootss "enigmatic central character". Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described Puss as a "dashing little kitty centerstage", "ever-bold", and "a self-deprecating, sometimes bumbling but ultimately dashing swordsman". McCarthy enjoyed Puss's "vigorous physicality" in Puss in Boots. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times called Puss "endearing", "dashing and fearless but also a tad reckless". Chrissy Iley of The Telegraph described him as "the world's most seductive animated cat". IGNs Andy Patrizio enjoyed Puss in Shrek 2, and Scott Collura of the same website said that Puss "remains dignified and cool" in Shrek Forever After despite his weight gain. The character has been regarded as a source of comic relief.
Critics have stated that Puss is similar to Zorro, and he was called "a glorious reimagining of the swashbuckling charm of Zorro". Reviewers have also said that Puss resembles Captain Jack Sparrow from the film series Pirates of the Caribbean, because of him being a "swashbuckling", "charismatic scene-stealer". Puss has also been commented to share similarities with the characters Don Juan, Pepé Le Pew, and Tarzan.
The character's design has been discussed and praised, with Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters calling Puss a "spry, well-dressed" cat. Comic Book Resources writer Rob Levin described him as "a legend in his own right", with an "upright strut and leather boots". Christy Lemire of Boston.com said that Puss "looks so soft and fluffy and tactile in his little, leather boots, his ... feathered hat and his shiny sword"; she described him as "a tabby cat decked out in tiny Zorro duds". Todd McCarthy called Puss "a short orange critter with green eyes, feathered hat and large boots", and A. O. Scott of The New York Times praised his "convincingly animated fur". Puss's hat has been described as "jaunty", and as a "d'Artagnan hat". Graham Young of the Birmingham Post stated that Puss in Boots was "one of the most entertaining animations" he had ever seen, citing Puss's "wondrous", "little teeth" as a contributing factor to this. The character has been regarded as "tiny", with a Spin South West writer calling him "small in stature, but huge in personality".
Puss's ability to trick his opponents with his eyes has also been praised, with NJ.com writer Mark Voger describing it as Puss's "sympathy-winning big-eyes technique". Katharine M. Rogers wrote in her book titled Cat that while Puss is "an ostentatiously fierce swashbuckler", he is also able to "instantly melt any opponent by gazing at him", using his "steady, confiding gaze"; she thought that Puss's eyes "seem to consist entirely of warmly dark, liquid pupils". James Mottram of The National viewed the way Puss was "widening his eyes and mewing" as his "main weapon", referring to it as "a comic gem that, wisely, the filmmakers only resort to once" (in Puss in Boots) and feeling this is a detail that makes the film a delight. Ben Sherlock of Screen Rant regarded Puss as "popular" and said that "his technique of looking adorable with gigantic eyes to get his opponents to drop their guard before launching an attack on them" never fails. Jesse Hassenger described Puss as a "swashbuckling cat with the trappings of an actual feline, like purring and looking adorable to disarm enemies". Hassenger called Puss's eyes "big", "cute", and "not always easy to resist" (despite their purpose being "visible"). Graham Young described Puss's eyes as "emerald mince pies". Empires Dan Jolin called the character's "dilated-pupils" a "cute act", and another Empire writer also praised Puss's ability to widen his eyes. Nev Pierce of the BBC described his eyes as "cutesy" and "saucer-like". IGN writer Jeff Otto wrote that Puss "can give the most adorable wide-eyed look" to "lure" his enemies into "his vicious swashbuckling attacks". Christy Lemire praised that Puss is "working those big, green eyes for maximum manipulative effect". Puss's "big eyes" were also described as a running gag.
Reviewers have provided comments regarding the character's popularity. Steven Lebowitz of AXS said that Puss was "just as popular as Shrek", and Joseph Airdo of the same website called him "arguably the most popular" character in the Shrek franchise. Ashley Rodriguez of Quartz also described Puss as a "popular Shrek character". Tech Times writer Robin Parrish called Puss "everyone's favorite Shrek sidekick". Christina Radish characterized Puss as an "adorable little creature" who had become "a fan favorite in the Shrek films", and Quickflixs Simon Miraudo called him one of the franchise's "signature characters". Rob Carnevale stated that Puss was "the real star of the franchise" to many Shrek fans. Andrew Penn Romine said that he is "one of the most popular characters in recent animation history". Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle felt that Puss was "the freshest and sharpest ... surprise" of Shrek 2; he was described as this "film's most delightful new character", "the most hilarious new character", the "most memorable character", "the most fantastic addition of all", "the franchise's greatest character", and "the best character of all". Stephen Holden wrote that although Puss "has his charms", "he is not as memorable a character as Shrek or Shrek's mouthy sidekick, Donkey", and Matt Fowler of IGN described him as "perhaps better suited as a side character". Puss was ranked 11th on Empires top 50 animated film characters list.
Critics have praised Banderas's voicing. Rob Levin said that Puss has "a decidedly Latin flavor" in the Shrek films because of Banderas, who "plays the part with gusto, giving the tiny hero all the bravado and charm of his real-life persona". According to Andrew Penn Romine, Banderas voiced Puss "with feline gravitas". Rob Carnevale called Banderas's performance "inimitable". IAmRogues Dana Gardner wrote that Banderas "brought plenty of comedy to the role of Puss by playing the character so melodramatically". Matt Fowler found Banderas "perfectly suitable as Puss", and Todd McCarthy called his performance "spirited and knowing". James Mottram praised "Banderas's charm" as well. Graham Young felt that Banderas's performance improved Shrek 2, resembling his acting in The Mask of Zorro, and Chrissy Iley described Puss as "a feline spoof of [Banderas's] Zorro character". Donna Bowater of The Telegraph called Banderas's performance "famous". Jeff Otto said that Banderas "lends a fantastic energy to the character", making viewers "wish for more of him". Alan Jones of Radio Times also enjoyed Banderas's voice acting. According to an Empire reviewer, Puss was "voiced to perfection by Banderas". In the book titled Stars in World Cinema: Screen Icons and Star Systems Across Cultures, the authors wrote that the "European roots" of the fairy tale "Puss in Boots" were "revived through the presence of Banderas". They stated that while Banderas's "on-screen persona" had been based on "his sensuality and body image", he then exchanged this representation for the image of "an animated ginger cat". The writers also commented that Puss's voice "was intended to speak to the audience's [internalized] views regarding accent and regional profile"; they said it was "vital" for Puss "not to belong to the dominant cultural group" despite being "adopted into that group". In his book titled The Animated Movie Guide, author Jerry Beck wrote that Banderas voiced Puss with "a Castilian accent" in the Latin American version and with "an Andalusian accent" in the Spanish version; he mentioned that both accents sounded "funny" to their respective target audiences. Entertainment Weeklys Maureen Lee Lenker said that Puss had become a "fan favorite" after his first appearance in the Shrek franchise, mostly because of Banderas's "smooth Spanish accent"; the "tie-in" with Banderas was stated to "largely" contribute to Puss's popularity.
Merchandise
Merchandise based on the character has been released, including plush toys. The company Funko has launched vinyl figures depicting Puss. McDonald's toys inspired by Puss have also been produced. Pez candy dispensers based on Puss have been created as well. Backpacks that portray Puss on their print have been released, and articles of clothing inspired by him have also been produced. A Monopoly game based on Puss and other Shrek characters has been invented.
References
Shrek (franchise) characters
Male characters in animated films
Film characters introduced in 2004
Film sidekicks
Animated characters introduced in 2004
Anthropomorphic cats
Fictional acrobats
Fictional bodyguards
Fictional bounty hunters
Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder
Fictional detectives
Fictional explorers
Fictional fencers
Fictional heroes
Fictional knights
Fictional orphans
Fictional Spanish people
Fictional swordfighters in films
Fictional thieves
Fictional vigilantes
Puss in Boots
Fictional outlaws |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.