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4217268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Battle%20of%20Middlewich | First Battle of Middlewich | The First Battle of Middlewich took place on 13 March 1643, during the First English Civil War, and was fought between the Parliamentarians, under Sir William Brereton, and the Royalist supporters of King Charles I of England, under Sir Thomas Aston.
Background
In the summer of 1642 came the final split between the King and Parliament and both sides made preparations for raising an army. Throughout the summer Commissioners of Array for the King and Deputy Lieutenants for Parliament attempted to raise the Trained Bands and to seize the magazine in every county. During the confusion caused by the troops waiting to be shipped from Chester to Ireland to suppress the rebellion there, Sir William Brereton, the Parliamentary representative in Cheshire, turned to what was virtually recruiting. He found himself opposed by Sir Thomas Aston and all the resident Cheshire nobility and he failed in his attempt to secure Chester for Parliament.
At this time Aston was probably the recognized representative of the King in the county and was able to present the latter with a list of men willing to serve in the King's army. The King decided to base this army at Shrewsbury and when he arrived there on 20 September 1642 he wrote to Lord Kilmorey, Lord Cholmondeley and "the other of the subscribers for Horse in Cheshire" telling them to deliver their horses into the charge of Aston who was to bring the forces raised to Shrewsbury to join with the main body of the army. Charles made it unnecessary for Aston to leave for Shrewsbury as he instead came to Chester and it was from here that he issued, on 26 September, an order for the seizure of arms and horses from those people who had carried out Parliament's Militia Ordinance in Cheshire. These were to be delivered to Aston who was able to leave with the King at the head of three troops of horse.
Aston obviously conducted himself satisfactorily in the campaign culminating in the Battle of Edgehill because an order from Prince Rupert in January 1643 refers to him as a colonel of a regiment of cuirassiers, and two days later on 19 January the King announced that he was sending Aston as a major-general to Cheshire and Lancashire. Aston's orders were simply stated by Prince Rupert; he was to take his regiment to Shropshire, raise forces of horse and foot there, and then defend Cheshire against the Parliamentary force that was heading to the county from London under the leadership of Brereton. He was also to seize arms and ammunition for the King's use and "put into execution the laws and customs martial upon all offenders.....for the better preventing of disorders, plunderings and outrages which are often committed by soldiers." He was told to achieve this and return to the main army by 15 March unless he received orders to the contrary.
The preparations for Aston's march and arrival in Cheshire reveal the King's interest in keeping Cheshire Royalist. The authorities of the areas that Aston was to pass through on his way from Oxford to Cheshire were ordered to provide food and lodgings for his men. The Cheshire Commissioners of Array were also given explicit orders as to what they should do to help Aston. The King explained to them that, as the Parliamentarians had rejected the Bunbury Agreement and were sending a force to Cheshire, he was sending Aston and his regiment of horse to protect the county. The commissioners were to assemble the trained bands and summon Quarter Sessions to decide on a method of raising money to pay the soldiers. They were also to help Aston raise a regiment of dragoons and seize arms from "malignants" to arm them. In addition the parishes were to supply them horses.
Parliament also realised how important Cheshire was and sent Brereton to raise support for its cause. Geographically Cheshire lies between the Pennines and the Welsh hills and so whoever controlled Cheshire controlled the north – south corridor. For Parliament the control of Cheshire would mean separating the King's northern supporters from the King and his army at Oxford. It could also stop the King from bringing in reinforcements from his Irish army through the port of Chester.
When Aston arrived in Shropshire he found that there were only 60 dragoons instead of the 600 promised. The authorities promised him another 200 and so he decided to wait for two days before moving on to Cheshire. During this time he was ordered to Stafford to help the sheriff there (perhaps against the Moorlanders who had risen for Parliament). However Aston did not neglect his prime objective and ordered the Cheshire Commissioners of Array to defend Nantwich with 150 musketeers and to inform him of Brereton's progress. Neither order was carried out and Aston was not informed until it was too late to arrive at Nantwich before Brereton.
Skirmish at Nantwich
Brereton, meanwhile, had ridden into Congleton on the evening of 27 January with his own troop of horse and three companies of dragoons. Although he was joined in Congleton by the former mayor, William Edwards, with another troop of horse, his whole force could not have amounted to more than about 500 men. His mission, however, was not to conquer Cheshire but to rouse and organize the Parliamentary sympathizers in it. He had with him the cadre of a foot regiment, a case of drakes (small cannon about 7½ feet long) and 700 muskets in his baggage train as well as an experienced Scottish professional, Major James Lothian, to train recruits. He had wide powers to construct fortifications and raise more men and was to finance the whole enterprise by voluntary payment and distraint upon the rent and goods of local Royalists.
He approached Nantwich on 28 January. not just "to releave the town, beinge in greate danger to be plundered and destroyed by the Kings Armye and Commissioners of Array", but also because it offered the only alternative to Chester as a county headquarters. It had sufficient wealth and housing to accommodate a large garrison and staff and was the centre of a network of roads leading to the Midlands and London, to North Wales, Lancashire, Yorkshire and Scotland.
Brereton sent ahead 50 dragoons under Lothian to occupy the town and they got there before Aston who had finally been informed of Brereton's progress by Orlando Bridgeman, the son of the Bishop of Chester. Aston had with him his own troop of horse and some companies of Shropshire dragoons under the command of Colonel Sir Vincent Corbet totalling about 500 men. Despite his superiority of numbers Aston failed to take the town and at dusk he retreated eastwards down Hospital Street. In a narrow lane his force met the remainder of Brereton's force and confusion was the result. A company of Brereton's dragoons dismounted but failed to leave anyone to control the horses which bolted into the fields and were taken by the Royalists for charging cavalry. The confusion was added to when some Parliamentarians loaded and fired one of the drakes. This does not seem to have caused any injury but the flash and the roar amid the general confusion frightened the Royalists so much "that they weire all scattered and quyte Rowted".
Aston turned up eventually at Whitchurch and, although he claimed the skirmish as a draw, his distance from Nantwich and his appeals for reinforcements indicates that the skirmish was a defeat for the Royalists, likely due to his men being exhausted after the long march from Oxford and that he did not receive the support from the Cheshire Commissioners of Array that he had expected. This lack of proper support continued over the next four or five weeks. An agreement was made to raise a contribution in the county to pay the soldiers but most was paid to the upkeep of the Chester garrison, not to Aston's regiment or to the trained bands. The Royalist leaders were never able to agree to a unified command which meant that they were never able to field an army that would outnumber Brereton's force. There was a force of 2,000 men at Warrington under the Earl of Derby, a Welsh force of 1,000 men at Chester and the Shropshire force at Whitchurch. These never combined and it was not until March that the Royalists decided to choose a place in the county "to summon in the King's friends"
Prelude
Aston set out for Middlewich on Friday 10 March. His progress was delayed that night when his men, who had yet to be paid, mutinied. Apparently the money and provisions were issued on Saturday but it was so late that Aston had to leave two troops of horse in the forest to guard it - "though they lay in danger that night." It is not known why Middlewich was chosen as opposed to the much safer Knutsford where it would have been possible to retreat to Warrington if necessary. In his account of the battle of Middlewich, Aston did not say why he came to Middlewich on 11 March but explained that he had no wish to linger there. He realized the dangers of staying in an open town with enemy forces at both Northwich and Nantwich. Brereton, who was recruiting in Northwich, commented on the boldness of the Royalists for camping at Middlewich. He believed it resulted from overconfidence in their ability to win over the county and rid it of the Parliamentarians.
Saturday 11 March
Aston arrived at Middlewich with about 500 mounted troops and over 1000 of the trained bands of the Broxton and Wirral Hundreds plus three cannons. William Brereton sent a strong party of horse from Northwich "who gave them an alarm." Aston had meanwhile received a letter from the Governor of Chester, Sir Nicolas Byron, telling him that if he provided an escort for the family and goods of Lord Brereton to Chester then the latter, who was a relative of Sir William Brereton, would provide men for Aston. Although reluctant to linger in Middlewich, Thomas, after consulting with the sheriff, Sir Edward Fitton and Colonel Ellice, decided it was worth waiting for another day. He therefore sent a letter to Lord Brereton urging him to act immediately even though it meant travelling on a Sunday.
Sunday 12 March
Brereton, wanting to "annoy" the enemy, set out with two or three companies of dragoons to give alarm at Middlewich. He had no intention of attacking but wanted to harass the Royalists. In the meantime Lord Brereton had not done as Aston requested but instead came to Middlewich to confer further. Thomas believed that Lord Brereton's presence in Middlewich led to the attack by the Parliamentarians because they wanted to prevent the Royalists from joining forces. Sir William Brereton however, in his account of the battle, made it clear that he attacked because he believed a Royalist presence in Middlewich posed too much of a threat to be ignored.
In order to confer with Lord Brereton and also the sheriff's desire to "sumon the countrey with theire contribucon and assistance, necessitated a ioynt consent to stay there on Monday." Realising the danger posed by this decision Aston asked that the governor use the Whitchurch forces to threaten the Parliamentarians at Nantwich. According to the Commissioners of Array the Whitchurch force was not ordered to threaten Nantwich. In any case the forces there had been disbanded. Aston's fears were well founded as Brereton arranged to meet the Nantwich forces at six o'clock the next morning and to make a joint attack on Middlewich.
Battle
On the morning of Monday 13 March the Nantwich forces had not arrived at the appointed time so Brereton decided to attack with his cavalry and about 200 musketeers ("our greatest force of foot being at Nantwich"). He "with the best forces hee had theire came early in the mornynge backe to Midlewiche, & vpon Sheathe Heathe att the west end of the said Towne, Sr Thomas Aston havinge taken the advantage of the said ground & wynde, & planted his ordnance, sett upon him" Thomas sent a party of dragoons and horse under Captain Spotswood to give an alarm at Northwich, presumably to draw off some of Brereton's force. The captain, however, disobeyed orders and engaged the enemy and as a result Brereton's forces were able to establish themselves in one street leading into the town. In another street Captain Prestwich and his men were caught unawares by the enemy but were able to rally and drive back the enemy horse and rescue some prisoners. He stopped at a bridge and managed to hold off the enemy until the foot soldiers arrived. Waring Bridge was also approached by the enemy so Aston sent Prestwich and his troop to aid Captain Massie's company of foot. In this way Aston was able to hold off the enemy until about 09:00 or 10:00 a.m. when the Nantwich force arrived "so resolutely and with such undauntedness of spirit." About 800 foot and 300 horse came down Booth Lane and entered into Newton at the south end of the town, where Aston had placed "a good Brasse peece of ordnance" and two trained bands of 200 men who were "well advantaged by ditches and bankes on both sides." Aston withdrew a troop of horse under the command of Captain Bridgeman from the Northwich approach to check the advance of the Nantwich force. The rest of his horse he held back behind the foot, "there being noe other ground for horse", apart from a force of about 60 to attack the enemy. His plan was to line the hedge with about 100 musketeers so that the enemy could not take advantage of the ditches on both sides of the lane to attack the charging horse.
The Parliamentary force, on finding the lane so well defended, took to the fields on either side of the lane. The Royalist horse could not charge because of the hedges and the musketeers deserted as soon as the first shots were fired at them. The horse was therefore outflanked and cut off by the enemy musketeers on both sides of the lane. On the west side of the town the troop of horse, under Mayor Thomas Holme, were managing to hold off the Parliamentarians despite the fact that Bridgeman's troop had been withdrawn to defend the southern entrance. However, when Sergeant Major Gilmore ordered his foot to retreat the horse were outflanked by enemy musketeers on either side of the lane behind the hedges where the horse could not charge. They were therefore forced back into the town. The street was defended by musketeers behind a breastwork but they ran away after blindly firing once. Similarly the foot soldiers guarding Waring Bridge were ordered to retreat and the Parliamentarians were able to enter the town from there. Meanwhile, the horse on the Nantwich approach were pulled back to allow the use of the cannon that Ellice had drawn up.
The Parliamentarians were advancing towards St Michael and All Angels church from three directions so Aston ordered a party of Captain Spotswood's dragoons to secure and defend the churchyard. He also placed a guard at the breastworks on the west side of town and put a cannon in the churchyard to cover the street. A company of musketeers and two trained bands were brought up to hold off the advancing Nantwich force. These musketeers lay down in the ditches as soon as they came to Ellice's cannon and it was all Aston could do to get them up to the hedges with the other musketeers by riding among them "and with my sword I beat them up." This served no purpose because the soldiers would not lift their heads to see where to fire but instead shot their muskets into the air.
The Parliamentarians meanwhile had become encouraged by the inaccurate fire of the cannon and they charged the Royalist foot who promptly ran away, leaving Aston's cavalry exposed and unable to charge because of a large ditch. They therefore drew off to a safer position. Seeing this, a body of pikemen behind a breastwork further back ran away and "all the musqueteers placed for the defence of the street ende quit their trenches, having never seen the enemy or cause of feare, but their fellows flying." Aston, however, held his cavalry firm until Ellice could draw off his cannon and then ordered a retreat to the high street. Aston himself went to the churchyard expecting it to be defended as he had ordered. Instead he found all the foot soldiers in the church and he could not "draw out ten musqueteers out of the church would it have saved the world." Relying on his two cannon to cover two streets, Aston ordered his cavalry, being exposed to the advancing enemy on three sides, to regroup in a field at one end of the town. However, their way was blocked by a barricade erected by Spotswood and they became separated and were unable to regroup until they were well past Kinderton House.
Returning to the cannon Aston found that one had been deserted and the other being drawn off by a solitary cannoneer. With all the other men, including Ellice, in the church and refusing to come out, Aston was now alone:
"The enimy falling directly in three streets upon me, and discharging upon me in the church-yard, the horse marched out of sight. I alone, all I could possibly hope to doe was to rally the horse again if possible, to wheel about, and to fall in the rear of them"
In the maze of streets Aston lost contact with his cavalry, apart from a few stragglers, and had little hope of turning the disaster into success especially as the Parliamentarians had now taken the church. With it they captured Ellice, Gilmore, Moseley, ten captains and other officers, 400 common soldiers, weapons for 500 men, two barrels of matches, four barrels of powder and two cannons. Brereton, therefore, believed that "since the beginning of this unnatural war, God hath not given many more complete victories."
Aftermath
Sir Thomas Aston
Aston sent a messenger to rally his cavalry at Rudheath intending to go on to Lord Brereton and collect his force. The cavalry were, however, beyond recall and so Aston went on his own to give an account of the battle and to see if Lord Brereton was still willing to support him. Finding that he was, Aston returned to Whitchurch to raise the Shropshire forces. However, the trained bands there had been disbanded leaving him no alternative but to return to Cheshire, rally his men and await his fate. He summed up his feelings about the battle thus:
"It is the plain truth, the enemy having no diversion, but att liberty with their full power to fall on us from all parts, were much too hard for us in a place not defensible. And without some more experienced foot officers, I must freely say no number will be found sufficient to withstand ready men."
He was withdrawn to Oxford and continued to command a cavalry regiment in the King's field army. In 1644 he fought as a brigadier of cavalry in Prince Maurice's army in the West of England and fought at the second Battle of Newbury but probably never returned to Cheshire (although at least two sources mention him being there in 1644).
In 1645 Aston served in the West Country under George Goring until September or October when he decided to return home. He passed through Kidderminster and Stourbridge on his way to Cheshire. At the beginning of November he was captured by a Parliamentary force under the command of a certain Captain Stones "att or neere Banke" (possibly near Walsall) along with about 60 Royalists - presumably Cheshire men who had fought in Aston's regiment and who were also returning home. From there he was taken to prison at Stafford and placed under arrest. On 24 March 1646 Aston died of a fever brought on by his various wounds, including a blow to the head received during an unsuccessful attempt to escape.
Sir William Brereton
Brereton declared God responsible for him winning the battle:
"I desire the whole praise and glory may be attributed to Almighty God, who infused courage into them that stood for His cause, and struck the enemy with terror and amazement."
By the end of the spring Parliamentary forces, with Brereton as commander-in-chief, controlled five of the seven Hundreds of Cheshire. From this time on through to February 1646, when the last remaining Royalist base at Chester surrendered to him, the county was dominated by Brereton and he proved to be a dynamic war-time leader not just militarily but also politically and administratively. According to professor Ives, because of the importance of Cheshire, Brereton "had more influence on the outcome of the First English Civil War than Oliver Cromwell had." He suffered his only major defeat in December 1643 at the Second Battle of Middlewich. In 1646, when peace returned and his control over Cheshire came to an end, Brereton moved south to become an active London-based MP and politician. As a reward for his services he received the chief forestership of the Forest of Macclesfield and the seneschalship of the Hundred of Macclesfield. In 1651 he received the tenancy of the former archbishop's palace at Croydon in Surrey and he spent the last nine years of his life commuting between there and his ancestral home at Handforth, in Cheshire. He died on 7 April 1661 in Croydon and is presumed to have been buried in the family vault in the church at Cheadle in Cheshire, although he is recorded to have been buried in the churchyard of St John the Baptist, Croyon.
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
Dore, R.N. The Civil Wars in Cheshire, (Chester, 1966)
Dore, R.N. The Letter Books of Sir William Brereton (1990)
Fletcher, Anthony. The Outbreak of the English Civil War (London, 1981)
Hall, J. (ed.). The Civil War in Cheshire, Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, Vol 19 (1889)
Hulton, Ronald. The Royalist War Effort 1642-1646 (1929)
Morrill, J.S. Cheshire 1630-1660 (London, 1974)
Morrill, J.S. Revolt of the Provinces (London, 1976, 1980)
Morrill, John. 'Sir William Brereton and England's Wars of Religion', Journal of British Studies 24 (July 1985); 311 - 332
External links
Forster, Harold. Lecture on Sir William Brereton of Handforth, To the Worldwide Brereton Family Reunion St. Mary's Church, Nantwich, Cheshire, 31 July 2001
Gaunt, Peter. Conflict and Consensus: The Central Regimes and Cheshire, c.1630 - c.1660, Cheshire Local History Association, Retrieved 2009-03-24
Staff, Aston of Aston family tree, Researchers Network, Retrieved 2009-03-24
Staff, Northwich, Cheshire, UK. Local Genealogy and History, Appendix for the following:
Burghall, Edward. Memorials of the Civil War in Cheshire and the Adjacent Counties, Retrieved 2009-03-24
Malbon, Thomas. Malbon’s Memorials of the Civil War, Retrieved 2009-03-24
Middlewich
Middlewich, First, 1643
Middlewich
Middlewich
17th century in Cheshire |
4217424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouts%20BSA | Scouts BSA | Scouts BSA (previously known as Boy Scouts, the official name until 2019) is the flagship program and membership level of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) for boys and girls between the ages of typically 11 and 17. It provides youth training in character, citizenship, and mental and personal fitness. Scouts are expected to develop personal religious values, learn the principles of American heritage and government, and acquire skills to become successful adults.
To achieve these, Scouting applies eight methods of Scouting: scouting ideals (as exemplified by the Scout Oath, the Scout Law, the Scout Motto, and the Scout Slogan), the patrol method, participation in outdoor programs, advancement, adult association, personal growth, leadership development, and the uniform.
The participants, known as Scouts, are organized in Scout troops, led by leaders known as Scouters. In February 2019, the program began admitting girls as well as boys, and the name of the program was changed from "Boy Scouts" to "Scouts BSA".
Aims and Methods
Scouts BSA has four aims: Character, Citizenship, Personal Fitness, and Leadership. To achieve this, the program applies eight methods of Scouting: scouting ideals (as exemplified by the Scout Oath, the Scout Law, the Scout Motto, and the Scout Slogan); the patrol method; advancement; adult association; participation in outdoor programs; personal growth; leadership development, and the uniform.
Program and activities
The troop program and activities are determined by the senior patrol leader and the patrol leaders council under the oversight of the Scoutmaster. Troops generally hold meetings weekly, although they can be irregular during the summer. Troop meeting activities may vary from training in Scout skills to planning camping trips or playing games.
Troops may plan outings and activities outside the troop meeting. These may involve camping, backpacking, hiking, canoeing, rafting, climbing, caving, rappelling, and other activities. These outings are an important place for Scouts to work on skills and rank advancement, have fun, and engage in productive outdoor activities.
Most councils own and operate one or more permanent camps. These camps may host a variety of activities throughout the year. The summer camp program provides a week-long session for troops that includes merit badge advancement and adventure activities. Facilities may include ranges for shooting sports – archery, rifle, and shotgun – and for climbing and rappelling.
It is common for several troops within a district or council to gather at least once a year at a special weekend campout called a camporee. A camporee is a district- or council-wide event where several units camp and engage in activities, Scoutcraft competitions and learn specialized skills.
The national Scout jamboree usually occurs every four years and draws more than 30,000 Scouts from across the country and the world. The last jamboree took place in 2017 at The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in West Virginia. The Summit is to be a permanent place for the Jamboree and an opportunity to construct a new high-adventure base.
Ideals
The Scout Law, Scout Oath, Scout Motto, Scout Slogan, and Outdoor Code are the cornerstones of Scouts BSA. Each Scout learns to make these ideals a part of their way of life and personal growth. Scouts must memorize and understand these ideals. They also represent these ideals symbolically in official emblems.
The Scout Sign is used when giving the Scout Law or the Scout Oath and as a signal for silence. The Scout Salute is used when saluting the flag of the United States. The left-handed handshake is used as a token of friendship and as an identity with Scouts worldwide.
Emblems
Scouting uses a series of medals and patches as emblems. The badge for the Scout rank consists of a simple fleur-de-lis, which symbolizes a compass needle. The needle points the Scout in the right direction, which is onward and upward. The Tenderfoot badge takes the fleur-de-lis of the Scout badge and adds two stars and an eagle with an American shield. The stars symbolize truth and knowledge; the eagle and shield symbolize freedom and readiness to defend it. The Second Class badge features a scroll inscribed with the Scout Motto, with the ends turned up and a knotted rope hanging from the bottom. The knot reminds each Scout to remember the Scout slogan and the upturned ends of the scroll symbolize cheerfulness in service. The First Class badge combines the elements of the Tenderfoot and Second Class badges. For years, the First Class badge was used as the emblem of the BSA. Star has a First Class symbol on a five-pointed yellow star, and initially indicated the five merit badges required to earn the rank. Life has a First Class emblem on a red heart, and initially symbolized the first-aid and health-related merit badges that the rank required. Now it signifies that the ideals of Scouting have become a part of the Scout's life and character.
Equipment
In the United States, the Boy Scouts of America functions as a licensor and distributor of official Scout uniforms, camping gear, and other items since the 1920s. These include backpacks, pocket knives, belt knives, tents, sleeping bags, canteens, and mess gear.
Uniform and insignia
The uniform and insignia of the Scouts BSA gives a Scout visibility and creates a level of identity within both the unit and the community. The uniform is used to promote equality while showing individual achievement. While uniforms are similar in basic design, they do vary in color and detail to identify the different divisions of Cub Scouts, Scouts BSA, Venturers, and Sea Scouts.
Scouts and adult leaders wear the Scout uniform. It generally consists of a khaki button-up shirt, olive green pants or shorts, belt, socks, and optional neckerchief. The Scouter dress uniform is appropriate for professional Scouters and Scouting leaders on formal occasions.
Organization
Troop and patrols
The troop is the fundamental unit of Scouts BSA. The troop size can vary from a minimum of five Scouts to over one hundred. Each troop is sponsored by a community organization such as a business, service organization, private school, labor group, or religious institution. The chartered organization is responsible for providing a meeting place and promoting a good program. A chartered organization representative manages the relationship between the troop, the chartered organization, and the BSA.
While boys and girls are members of Scouts BSA, individual troops are single gender. A boys' troop and girls' troop may however share a common Troop Committee made up of adult leaders, parents of Scouts, and other interested parties that manage membership, finances, camping arrangements, and chartered organization relations among other responsibilities.
Each troop is divided into patrols of eight or so Scouts led by a patrol leader elected from within the patrol. Patrol meetings are generally held during the weekly troop meeting. The patrol's independence from the troop varies among troops and between activities. Patrols' autonomy becomes more visible at campouts, where each patrol may set up its own camping and cooking area. Divisions between patrols may disappear during an event which only a small part of the troop attends. Patrols may hold meetings and even excursions separately from the rest of the troop.
When a Webelos den crosses over from Cub Scouting to Scouts BSA, the "new Scout patrol" method may be used. The new Scouts are kept together as a group, elect their own patrol leader, and are assigned a troop guide—an older Scout who acts as a mentor. Some troops may have an older Scout patrol that experiences more autonomy from the troop and provides older Scouts with expanded social contact and physical challenges.
Other sections
The Lone Scout program serves youth who cannot take part in a nearby troop on a regular basis because of distance, weather, time, disability, or other difficulties. While the Lone Scout does not participate in troop or patrol activities, they still learn the fun, values, and achievements of Scouting.
The Order of the Arrow (OA) is a program of the Scouts BSA, Venturing, and Sea Scouts divisions of the BSA. It is the BSA's national honor society for experienced campers, based on Native American traditions, and dedicated to the ideal of cheerful service. Scouts and Scouters must belong to a troop, crew, or ship to become OA members. The OA is run by youth under the age of 21 with adult Scouters serving as advisers.
From 1984 to 2017, Varsity Scouting was a part of the Scouts BSA division of the BSA. It was an alternative available to boys ages fourteen through seventeen that took basic Boy Scouting and adds high adventure, sporting, and other elements that are more appealing to older youth to accomplish the aims of character development, citizenship training, and personal fitness. Varsity Scouts were organized into teams, which were separate chartered units from a Boy Scout troop. Varsity Scouts participated in the standard Boy Scouting advancement program along with programs unique to Varsity Scouting.
Advancement and recognition
Youth advancement
Scouts BSA has seven ranks that can be earned, grouped into two phases. The first phase of
Scout, Tenderfoot, Second Class, and First Class is designed to teach Scoutcraft skills, teamwork, and self-reliance. Scout is the first rank, and requires demonstration of knowledge of Scouting's ideals, the process of rank advancement, troop and patrol structure, and some basic skills (e.g., knot-tying and knife safety). As with all other ranks, a Scoutmaster conference is also required. Further ranks have progressive requirements in the areas of Scoutcraft, physical fitness, citizenship, personal growth, and Scout Spirit. These ranks also require participation in a Board of Review. Scouts with a permanent mental or physical disability may use alternate requirements, based on their abilities and approved by the council.
The second phase of Star, Life, and Eagle is designed to develop leadership skills and encourage the Scout to explore potential vocations and avocations through the merit badge program. These ranks require that the Scout serve in a position of responsibility and perform community service.
The Eagle Scout rank requires, in addition to merit badges and a position of responsibility, a community service project planned and led entirely by the Eagle Scout candidate. After attaining the rank of Eagle, a Scout may earn Eagle Palms for additional tenure and merit badges.
Although Eagle is the highest rank, for which Scouts should strive, the number of Scouts achieving First Class within one year of joining is still one of the key measures of unit effectiveness. Studies have shown that if a Scout achieves First Class within a year of joining, they typically stay in Scouting for at least three years. Scouts who do so are more likely to retain Scout values as an adult and achieve the BSA primary mission of "producing useful citizens".
Ranks and other recognition are presented in a troop awards ceremony called the court of honor. The Eagle Scout rank is usually presented in a separate and special court of honor.
Adult recognition
Scouts BSA leaders who complete training, tenure, and performance requirements are recognized by a system of awards, often represented by "knots" on the uniform, for various accomplishments. One of the more intensive Scout leader training programs is Wood Badge, for which successful participants receive a special neckerchief, woggle and wooden beads on a thong.
Adults may also earn Order of the Arrow ranks and awards in the same manner as scouts.
Awards
Several religious emblems programs are administered by various religious institutions and are recognized by the BSA. These are generally recognized by a medal and an embroidered square knot. Other advancements and recognitions—such as the Nova (and Supernova) Awards, 50-miler award, BSA Aquatic Awards, Emergency Preparedness Award, Outdoor Ethics Award and World Conservation Award — are available to Scouts who show proficiency in special areas. BSA's National Court of Honor is responsible for lifesaving and meritorious awards. All Courts of Honor for Eagle Scout rank are convened as National Courts of Honor also.
Leadership in the troop
Every troop has two separate leadership structures: one consisting of Scouts and another consisting of adults. The adult leadership manages the logistics of troop activities, administers rank advancement and awards, maintains troop records and finance, and recruits new Scouts and adult leaders. The youth leadership keeps order and coordinates labor at activities. Scouts and adults cooperate to plan agendas for troop meetings, as well as the troop's schedule of outings.
Adult leadership
The troop committee is made up of responsible adults who are approved by the local council and the chartered organization. The committee chair leads the committee and appoints its members to specific tasks such as treasurer, secretary, advancement, activities, equipment, and membership. The committee and the chartered organization representative are responsible for the selection of the Scoutmaster and assistant Scoutmasters. The Scoutmaster must be at least twenty-one and is directly responsible for training and guiding the youth leaders, working with other adults to bring Scouting to youth, and for using the methods of Scouting to achieve the aims of Scouting. A troop may have a chaplain who helps to provide a spiritual element in the unit program, provides spiritual counseling as needed, and encourage Scouts to participate in the religious emblems program.
Youth leadership
The youth leader of the troop is the senior patrol leader (SPL), elected by the Scouts in the troop. The SPL is responsible for the overall performance of the troop, runs troop meetings and ensures that the program for troop meetings and other activities is carried out and is advised by the Scoutmaster. There may also be one or more assistant senior patrol leaders. Each patrol elects a patrol leader who then appoints an assistant patrol leader and other positions within the patrol. Together, the senior patrol leader, assistant senior patrol leader, and patrol leaders make up the patrol leaders council (PLC), the group of Scouts that is responsible for developing the troop's program with the advice of the Scoutmaster.
There are other youth positions of responsibility in a troop; the use of these positions is dependent on the size of the troop and the program. The junior assistant Scoutmaster (JASM) is a 16- or 17-year-old Scout who performs the same duties as an assistant Scoutmaster; the scribe takes minutes at patrol leaders council meetings and troop meetings and is often responsible for taking attendance and collecting money or dues; the quartermaster maintains the troop's equipment; the librarian maintains the troop library; the chaplain aide works with the troop chaplain and promotes the religious program in the troop; the troop historian maintains photos and records of troop functions, meetings and outings; a den chief works with a den of Cub Scouts, assisting the den leaders and helps retain Cub Scouts when they cross over into Scouts BSA; the troop guide is a senior Scout who provides guidance to new Scout patrols; the Leave No Trace Coordinator ensures the Scouts are trained in and follow Leave No Trace Guidelines; the Order of the Arrow representative provides a line of communication between the Order of the Arrow and the troop; the bugler provides music as needed; the instructor teaches Scout skills. These troop positions are appointed by the senior patrol leader with the advice and counsel of the Scoutmaster, except for the Junior Assistant Scoutmaster, who is appointed by the Scoutmaster. Some positions may also be determined by election.
Development
The Scouts BSA has a defined Youth Leadership Training Continuum to provide a growth path for youth leaders. The Scoutmaster provides Introduction to Leadership Skills for Troops (ILST) at the troop level. Youth leaders are encouraged to attend National Youth Leadership Training (NYLT) at the council level and a select few may progress to National Advanced Youth Leadership Experience (NAYLE) at the national level. Those interested in staffing these courses may complete the Youth Staff Development Course (YSDC) at the regional level.
New adult leaders are required to attend training for their position. This training provides the essential information they need to provide a safe and successful quality program. In addition to position-specific training, all adults are required to complete Youth Protection Training (YPT). This program covers the BSA policies on preventing child abuse, including types and signs of abuse, how to respond to disclosed abuse and how to report suspected abuse. YPT recertification is required every two years and may be completed online. Introduction to Outdoor Leader Skills (IOLS) is another course that is required for Scoutmasters and Assistants Scoutmasters and furthers instruction in Scouting and outdoor skills. Once completed, the "Trained" emblem may be worn on the sleeve. The troop committee chairman and members should attend the Troop Committee Challenge for instruction in administering the program. This completes Basic Leader Training for these positions and the Trained emblem may be worn on the left sleeve.
Supplemental training modules are designed to provide instruction beyond Basic Leader Training. These shorter training sessions are often provided at the District/Council Roundtable, a monthly meeting of leaders from the district, at a University of Scouting event offered by the local councils, or at National Training Conferences held at the Philmont Training Center and the Florida National High Adventure Sea Base. Additional training events may be held at summer camps, Council events, and various BSA-sponsored events.
At least one leader with current Safe Swim Defense training is required for swimming activities. Boating activities require Safety Afloat and CPR training. Climb on Safely training and CPR certification are required for climbing and rappelling events.
Wood Badge is advanced training for leadership skills for adults in the BSA. Wood Badge consists of five days of training (usually presented as two, nonconsecutive weekends) and an application phase of several months. When training is complete, leaders are recognized with the Wood Badge beads, neckerchief, and woggle. Powder Horn is a high adventure resource course designed to help Scout leaders to safely conduct outdoor activities of a fun and challenging nature, provide an introduction to the resources necessary to successfully lead their youth through a program of high adventure and to understand what is involved in different high adventure disciplines.
History
Scouts BSA descended from what was initially the sole and entire program of the Boy Scouts of America.
References
Further reading
External links
2 |
4217801 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan%20eruption | Minoan eruption | The Minoan eruption was a catastrophic volcanic eruption that devastated the Aegean island of Thera (also called Santorini) circa 1600 BCE. It destroyed the Minoan settlement at Akrotiri, as well as communities and agricultural areas on nearby islands and the coast of Crete with subsequent earthquakes and paleotsunamis. With a VEI magnitude of a 6, resulting in an ejection of approximately of dense-rock equivalent (DRE), the eruption was one of the largest volcanic events in human history. Since tephra from the Minoan eruption serves as a marker horizon in nearly all archaeological sites in the Eastern Mediterranean, its precise date is of high importance and has been fiercely debated among archaeologists and volcanologists for decades, without coming to a definite conclusion.
Although there are no clear ancient records of the eruption, its plume and volcanic lightning may have been described in the Egyptian Tempest Stele. The Chinese Bamboo Annals reported unusual yellow skies and summer frost at the beginning of the Shang dynasty, which may have been a consequence of volcanic winter (similar to 1816, the Year Without a Summer, after the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora).
Eruption
Background
Geological evidence shows the Thera volcano erupted numerous times over several hundred thousand years before the Minoan eruption. In a repeating process, the volcano would violently erupt, then eventually collapse into a roughly circular seawater-filled caldera, with numerous small islands forming the circle. The caldera would slowly refill with magma, building a new volcano, which erupted and then collapsed in an ongoing cyclical process.
Immediately before the Minoan eruption, the walls of the caldera formed a nearly continuous ring of islands, with the only entrance between Thera and the tiny island of Aspronisi. This cataclysmic eruption was centered on a small island just north of the existing island of Nea Kameni in the centre of the then-existing caldera. The northern part of the caldera was refilled by the volcanic ash and lava, then collapsed again.
Magnitude
The magnitude of the eruption, particularly the submarine pyroclastic flows, has been difficult to estimate because the majority of the erupted products were deposited in the sea. Together, these challenges result in considerable uncertainty regarding the volume of the Minoan eruption, with estimates ranging between DRE.
According to the latest analysis of marine sediments and seismic data gathered during ocean research expeditions from 2015 to 2019, the estimated volume of the material expelled during the volcanic eruption ranges from DRE.
The study revealed that the initial Plinian eruption was the most voluminous phase, ejecting magma and accounting for half of total erupted materials. This was followed by DRE co-ignimbrite fall, DRE pyroclastic flows and DRE intra-caldera deposits.
This eruption is comparable with the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815, Mount Samalas eruption of 1257, Lake Taupo's Hatepe eruption around 230 CE, and the Paektu Mountain eruption of 946 CE, which are among the largest eruptions during the Common Era.
Sequence
On Santorini, there is a thick layer of white tephra that overlies the soil clearly delineating the ground level before the eruption. This layer has three distinct bands that indicate the different phases of the eruption. Studies have identified four major eruption phases, and one minor precursory tephra fall. The thinness of the first ash layer, along with the lack of noticeable erosion of that layer by winter rains before the next layer was deposited, indicate that the volcano gave the local population a few months' warning. Since no human remains have been found at the Akrotiri site, this preliminary volcanic activity probably caused the island's population to flee. It is also suggested that several months before the eruption, Santorini experienced one or more earthquakes, which damaged the local settlements.
Intense magmatic activity of the first major phase (BO1/Minoan A) of the eruption deposited up to of pumice and ash, with a minor lithic component, southeast and east. Archaeological evidence indicated burial of man-made structures with limited damage. The second (BO2/Minoan B) and third (BO3/Minoan C) eruption phases involved pyroclastic surges and lava fountaining, as well as the possible generation of tsunamis. Man-made structures not buried during Minoan A were completely destroyed. The third phase was also characterized by the initiation of caldera collapse. The fourth, and last, major phase (BO4/Minoan D) was marked by varied activity: lithic-rich base surge deposits, lava flows, lahar floods, and co-ignimbrite ash-fall deposits. This phase was characterized by the completion of caldera collapse, which produced megatsunamis.
Geomorphology
Although the fracturing process is not yet known, the altitudinal statistical analysis indicates that the caldera had formed just before the eruption. The area of the island was smaller, and the southern and eastern coastlines appeared regressed. During the eruption, the landscape was covered by the pumice sediments. In some places, the coastline vanished under thick tuff depositions. In others, recent coastlines were extended towards the sea. After the eruption, the geomorphology of the island was characterized by an intense erosional phase during which the pumice was progressively removed from the higher altitudes to the lower ones.
Volcanology
The eruption was of the Ultra Plinian type, and it resulted in an estimated high eruption column which reached the stratosphere. In addition, the magma underlying the volcano came into contact with the shallow marine embayment, resulting in violent phreatomagmatic blasts.
The eruption also generated high tsunamis that devastated the northern coastline of Crete, away. The tsunami affected coastal towns such as Amnisos, where building walls were knocked out of alignment. On the island of Anafi, to the east, ash layers deep have been found, as well as pumice layers on slopes above sea level.
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean are pumice deposits that could have been sent by the Thera eruption. Ash layers in cores drilled from the seabed and from lakes in Turkey show that the heaviest ashfall was towards the east and northeast of Santorini. The ash found on Crete is now known to have been from a precursory phase of the eruption, some weeks or months before the main eruptive phases, and it would have had little impact on the island. Santorini ash deposits were at one time claimed to have been found in the Nile delta, but this is now known to be a misidentification.
Eruption dating
The Minoan eruption is an important marker horizon for the Bronze Age chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean realm. It provides a fixed point for aligning the entire chronology of the second millennium BCE in the Aegean, as evidence of the eruption is found throughout the region. Yet, archaeological dating based on typological sequencing and the Egyptian chronology is significantly younger than the radiocarbon age of Minoan eruption, by roughly a century. This age discrepancy has resulted in a fierce debate about whether there is an upheaval in the archaeological synchronization between the Aegean and Egypt.
Archaeology
Archaeologists developed the Late Bronze Age chronologies of eastern Mediterranean cultures by analyzing design styles of artifacts found in each archaeological layer. If the type of artifacts can be accurately assigned, then the layer's position in a chronological order can be determined. This is known as sequence dating or seriation. In Aegean chronology, however, frequent exchange of objects and styles enables relative chronology be compared with absolute chronology of Egypt, so absolute dates could be determined in Aegean.
Since Minoan eruption has been conclusively placed in late/end Late Minoan IA (LM-IA) in the Crete chronology, late/end Late Helladic I (LH-I) in the mainland chronology, the contention is what Egyptian period was contemporaneous with LM-IA and LM-IB. Decades of intensive archaeological work and seriation on Crete in the last century had confidently correlated the late LM-IA with Dynasty XVIII in Egypt and the end of LM-IA at the start of Thutmose III. Stone vessels discovered in the Shaft Graves in LH-I are also of New Kingdom type. Multiple archaeological sites of Theran pumice workshop used by the local inhabitants are only found in the New Kingdom strata. A milk bowl on Santorini used before volcanic eruption has pottery style of only that of New Kingdom. Egyptian inscription on the Ahmose Tempest Stele recorded an extraordinary cataclysm resembling the Minoan eruption. Taken together, the archaeological evidence points to an eruption date after the accession of Ahmose I. The year of accession based on the conventional Egyptian chronology and radiocarbon-based chronology are 1550 BCE and 1570–1544 BCE (IntCal04) or 1569–1548 BCE (IntCal20). The massive archaeological evidence argues for a Theran eruption date between circa 1550–1480 BCE.
Proponents of earlier date dispute that Aegean-Egypt pottery correlation allows considerable flexibility. Several other archaeological interpretations of LM-IA and LM-IB pottery differ from the "traditional" and could be consistent with a much earlier beginning time for LM-IA and LM-IB. Pottery synchronisms was also assessed to be less secure before the LM-IIIAI/Amenhotep III period. Pumice in workshop and inscription on Tempest Stele have been argued to only reflect lower bound of eruption age. The date of production of pottery with Santorini milk bowl style in other regions has not been determined and could pre-date Minoan eruption. The chronology of stone vessel styles during this critical period is lacking.
Radiocarbon age
Raw radiocarbon dates are not accurate calendar years of the event and this has to do with the fact that the level of atmospheric radiocarbon fluctuates. Raw radiocarbon ages can be converted to calendar dates by means of calibration curves which are periodically updated by international researchers. Derived calibrated calendar date ranges are highly dependent on how accurately calibration curve represents radiocarbon levels for the time period. As of 2022, the most updated calibration curve is IntCal20. Early radiocarbon dates in the 1970s with calibration were already showing massive age disagreement and were initially discarded as unreliable by the archaeological community. In the following decades, the range of possible eruption date narrowed significantly with improved calibration, analytical precision, statistical method and sample treatment. Radiocarbon dating has built a strong case for an eruption date in the late 17th century BCE. The table below summarizes the history and results of radiocarbon dating of volcanic destruction layer with pre-2018 calibration curves:
In 2018, a team led by tree ring scientist reported a possible offset of a few decades in the previous IntCal calibration curves during the period 1660–1540 BCE. The resulted new calibration curve allowed previous raw radiocarbon dates be calibrated to encompass a substantial part of 16th century BCE, making it possible for radiocarbon dates to be compatible with archaeological evidence. The measured offset was then confirmed by other laboratories across the world and incorporated into the most updated calibration curve IntCal20. In the same year, study of bomb peak further questioned the validity of wiggle-matching of olive branch because the radiocarbon dates of outermost branch layer could differ by up to a few decades caused by growth cessation, then the olive branch could also pre-date Thera by decades.
In 2020, speculation of regional offset specific to Mediterranean context in all calibration curves was reported based on measurements made on juniper wood at Gordion. If the regional offset is genuine, then calibration based on the regional dataset, Hd GOR, would place eruption date back to 17th century BCE. Others have argued that these site-specific offsets are already incorporated into the IntCal20 prediction interval since it is constructed from a much wider range of locations and any locational variation is of similar magnitude to the inter-laboratory variation.
While the refined calibration curve IntCal20 does not rule out a 17th century BCE eruption date, it does shift the probable range of eruption date to include the majority of 16th century BCE, offering a way to at least mitigate the long-standing age disagreement. However, the exact year of eruption has not been settled. The table below summarizes the dating results:
Ice cores, tree rings and speleothems
An eruption of Theran magnitude is expected to leave detectable signal in various environmental records like ice core and tree ring. Petrologic constraints on Minoan magma yields a range of 0.3–35.9 trillion grams of sulfur release. The higher end of the estimate could cause severe climatic change and leave detectable signals in ice cores and tree rings. Notably, tree ring dating allows extremely precise dating to the exact calendar year of each ring with virtually no age uncertainty, and from properties of the annual tree rings local climate record could be reconstructed down to sub-annual precision.
In 1987, a major Greenland sulfate spike in 1644 ± 20 BCE in ice core chronology was hypothesized to be caused by Minoan eruption based on the early radiocarbon results of Hammer et. al. In 1988, a major environmental disruption and extreme global-cooling/forst-ring in 1627 ± 0 BCE were also revealed through precisely dated frost ring and too were hypothesized to be related to Minoan eruption.
Archaeologists who preferred late 16th century BCE eruption date were neither convinced by the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate spike nor by the 1627 BCE frost ring because evidence of causality between the two events and Minoan eruption was absent.
Since 2003, multiple independent studies of major elements and trace elements of volcanic ash retrieved from the 1644 ± 20 BCE sulfate layer failed to match the ash to that of Santorini but all attributed the ash to another large eruption during this period, Mount Aniakchak, thus ruling out Minoan eruption as the cause of the sulfate spike. In 2019, revision of Greenland ice core chronology was proposed based on synchronization of frost-ring data and major sulfate spike, and the revised date for Aniakchak eruption was shifted to 1628 BCE. The Greenland ice core chronology offset was independently confirmed by other teams and adopted into Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2021 (GICC21). The 1627 BCE extreme global cooling was then conveniently explained by the major Aniakchak eruption without invoking Thera. An eruption date of 1627 BCE is also no longer supported by radiocarbon evidence with the most recent calibration curve IntCal20.
In the light of much younger radiocarbon dates and revised ice core chronology, several possible ice core and tree ring signals in the 17th and 16th century BCE have been proposed. The list below summarizes the tree ring and ice core signals that may have been caused by Minoan eruption:
The date of Minoan eruption does not necessarily have to be in one of the years listed in the table, because the eruption may not have been environmentally impactful enough to leave any detectable signal.
In addition, a stalagmite from Turkey shows bromine peaks at 1621 ± 25 BCE, molybdenum at 1617 ± 25 BCE and sulfur at 1589 ± 25 BCE. The authors interpreted that all three peaks were caused by a single volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean region and the time difference was related to differences in their retention rates. Others have suggested that the sulfur peak may have been related to the 1561 BCE chemical anomaly recorded in Mediterranean tree rings.
Historical impact
Minoan sites
The eruption devastated the nearby Minoan settlement at Akrotiri on Santorini, which was entombed in a layer of pumice. It is believed that the eruption also severely affected the Minoan population on Crete, but the extent of the impact is debated. Early hypotheses proposed that ashfall from Thera on the eastern half of Crete choked off plant life, causing starvation of the local population. After more thorough field examinations, the hypothesis has lost credibility, as it has been determined that no more than of ash fell anywhere on Crete. Other hypotheses have been proposed based on archaeological evidence found on Crete indicating that a tsunami, likely associated with the eruption, impacted the coastal areas of Crete and may have devastated the Minoan coastal settlements. Another hypothesis is that much of the damage done to Minoan sites resulted from a large earthquake and the fires it caused, which preceded the Thera eruption.
Significant Minoan remains have been found above the Thera ash layer and tsunami level dating from the Late Minoan I era, and it is unclear whether the effects of the ash and tsunami were enough to trigger the downfall of the Minoan civilization. Some sites were abandoned or settlement systems significantly interrupted in the immediate aftermath of the eruption. Some archaeologists speculate that the eruption caused a crisis in Minoan Crete, opening it to Mycenaean influence or even conquest.
Chinese records
A volcanic winter from an eruption in the late 17th century BCE has been claimed by some researchers to correlate with entries in later Chinese records documenting the collapse of the semi-legendary Xia dynasty in China. According to the Bamboo Annals, the collapse of the dynasty and the rise of the Shang dynasty, approximately dated to 1618 BCE, were accompanied by "yellow fog, a dim sun, then three suns, frost in July, famine, and the withering of all five cereals".
Effect on Egyptian history
Apocalyptic rainstorms, which devastated much of Egypt, and were described on the Tempest Stele of Ahmose I, have been attributed to short-term climatic changes caused by the Theran eruption. The dates and regnal dates of Ahmose I are in some dispute with Egyptologists (leaving aside alternate chronologies). Proposed reigns range from 1570–1546 BCE to 1539–1514 BCE. A radiocarbon dating of his mummy produced a mean value of 1557 BCE. In any case this would only provide an overlap with the later estimates of eruption date.
Alternatively, if the eruption occurred in the Second Intermediate Period, the absence of Egyptian records of the eruption could be caused by the general disorder in Egypt around that time.
While it has been argued that the damage attributed to these storms may have been caused by an earthquake following the Thera eruption, it has also been suggested that it was caused during a war with the Hyksos, and the storm reference is merely a metaphor for chaos upon which the Pharaoh was attempting to impose order. Documents such as Hatshepsut's Speos Artemidos depict storms, but are clearly figurative, not literal. Research indicates that the Speos Artemidos stele is a reference to her overcoming the powers of chaos and darkness.
Greek traditions
The Titanomachy
The eruption of Thera and volcanic fallout may have inspired the myths of the Titanomachy in Hesiod's Theogony. The Titanomachy could have picked up elements of western Anatolian folk memory, as the tale spread westward. Hesiod's lines have been compared with volcanic activity, citing Zeus's thunderbolts as volcanic lightning, the boiling earth and sea as a breach of the magma chamber, immense flame and heat as evidence of phreatic explosions, among many other descriptions.
Atlantis
Spyridon Marinatos, the discoverer of the Akrotiri archaeological site, suggested that the Minoan eruption is reflected in Plato's story of Atlantis. However, this view is not supported by current scholarship.
Book of Exodus
Geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen seeks to establish a link between the eruption of Santorini (c. 1600 BCE) and the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt in the Bible.
Bicameral mentality
In the controversial bicameral mentality hypothesis, Julian Jaynes has argued that the Minoan eruption was a crucial event in the development of human consciousness since the displacements that it caused led to new and important interactions among communities.
See also
Timeline of volcanism on Earth
Chronology of the ancient Near East
References
Further reading
Lespez, Laurent, et al., "Discovery of a tsunami deposit from the Bronze Age Santorini eruption at Malia (Crete): impact, chronology, extension", Scientific reports 11.1, 2021
Notti, Erika, "The Theran Epigraphic Corpus of Linear A : Geographical and Chronological Implications", Pasiphae, vol. 000, no. 004, pp. 93-96, 2010
Notti, Erika, "Writing in Late Bronze Age Thera. Further Observations on the Theran Corpus of Linear A", Pasiphae, vol. 000, no. 015, 2021 ISSN: 2037-738X
External links
Statistical analysis aims to solve Greek volcano mystery - David Nutt - Phys.org - September 20, 2022
Researchers home in on Thera volcano eruption date - Mikayla MacE Kelley - Phys.org May 2, 2022
Santorini Decade Volcano – Santorini's geology and volcanic history, the Minoan eruption and the legend of Atlantis.
The Thera (Santorini) Volcanic Eruption and the Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Bronze Age – A WWW companion site to: Sturt W. Manning, A Test of Time: the volcano of Thera and the chronology and history of the Aegean and east Mediterranean in the mid second millennium BC.
VolcanoWorld Information about the eruption with photographs
Thera 2006 Expedition – exploration of the submarine deposits and morphology of Santorini volcano
The eruption of Santorini in the Late Bronze Age – Online doctoral thesis on the eruption, scientific analyses and its environmental effects (by David A. Sewell, 2001)
16th century BC
17th century BC
2nd-millennium BC natural events
Ancient Aegean Sea
Ancient natural disasters
Ancient Thera
Ancient volcanic events
Events that forced the climate
Landforms of the South Aegean
Landforms of Thira (regional unit)
Megatsunamis
Minoan geography
Plinian eruptions
Tsunamis in Greece
VEI-7 eruptions
Volcanic eruptions in Europe
Volcanism of Greece
Volcanic tsunamis |
4217861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20ancient%20Rome | Music of ancient Rome | The music of ancient Rome was a part of Roman culture from the earliest of times. Songs (carmen) were an integral part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, for instance, was commissioned by Augustus and performed by a mixed children's choir at the Secular Games in 17 BC. Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwind instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences. Under the influence of ancient Greek theory, music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge.
Etruscan music had an early influence on that of the Romans. During the Imperial period, Romans carried their music to the provinces, while traditions of Asia Minor, North Africa, and Gaul became a part of Roman culture.
Music accompanied public spectacles, events in the arena, and was part of the performing art form called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that combined expressive dancing, instrumental music, and a sung libretto.
History
Ancient Roman music and singing originated from Etruscan music, and then Ancient Greek music. During its early history, it was mostly used for military purposes. According to Cicero, Roman musical tradition was adapted during the reign of Numa Pompilius. Music was initially discovered by Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras. Pythagoras was able to find the first 7 pitches in a scale and this knowledge carried over into the Roman Empire.
Music in society
Music was an important aspect of Roman religious rituals. It was used to set the rhythm of the ritual and invoke certain emotions. Various instruments had different roles in Roman religion. Ancient Roman art displays tibicines, or players of the tibia, playing behind altars. They are depicted wearing a toga with a head covering while perform an animal sacrifice. Some depictions show assistants holding the acerra or tankards and cups to assist the tibicen. The tibia was likely the most important instrument in the Roman Imperial cult. Tibicen were also used to drown out any distracting noise. To the ancient Romans, it must have been unimaginable for a sacrifice to lack music. Music, usually pipe music, would accompany public prayers. Cymbals and drums were used in rituals of the cult of Cybele and rattles were important to the cult of Isis. Female musicians, dancers, and singers would perform at a festival for the goddess Isis who had a temple in Rome. They would also perform at a festival dedicated to the Bona Dea. Several ancient Roman monuments were consecrated by musicians. The Salian priests would dance and sing while moving through the city in honor of Mars. Musicians would also play the flute to worship Mars. The Arval Brethren would also sing and dance to honor the goddess Ceres. Titus Livius, a Roman historian, described an incident where players of the flute were barred from eating and drinking in the temples. Afterward, they retreated to Tivoli, and were allowed to continue eating and drinking in the temples when the Senate realized there were no musicians for religious services. Processions of trumpeters and dancers were also important to the Pompa circensis. Which was a parade that preceded the games before religious festivals.
Music was a popular form of entertainment in ancient Rome. It was important to ancient Roman games. Gladiatorial fights began with a blast of horns and were accompanied by music. Musicians, usually players of the tuba or large aerophones would play during triumphs. The tibia was used to draw in the viewer's attention during the ceremony and a trumpet was used to announce the presence of the triumphator. Music was also used to silence the crowd. Music, primarily pipe music, held an important place in ancient Roman theatre. During plays, the actors, pantomimes, and tragedians would be accompanied by a chorus of singers and an orchestra of wind or percussion instruments. They would dance to the tune of the instruments. Musicians could be driven off of the stage for even small musical errors. The tune of the instruments would signify the emotions and traits of the characters and the pace of the story. Music was also used to ensure the story remained in the memory of audiences.
Romans would sometimes hold private musical concerts known as symphoniaci. These parties were associated with debauchery in ancient Rome. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, the consul in 58 BCE, was known to hold such parties. His house was described as filled with "singing and cymbals." Private musicians could be hired to provide entertainment during dinners or parties. Sometimes these private musicians were specially trained slaves. Ancient Roman women are depicted as having sung and danced in the privacy of their homes. Women in ancient Rome had different instruments from men. They played the harp, the aulos, and smaller lyres. Domitian established contests that included music, gymnastics, and riding competitions. Nero created the Quinquennial Neronia, which was a festival involving musical competitions. The Actian games, which was an ancient Roman festival of Apollo, also held musical competitions. The Greeks and Romans might have held musical performances in between the meal and the drinking party during dinner.
The cornu and other instruments such as the tuba were used to give signals in the ancient Roman military. There were collegia dedicated to musicians. One collegium made up of flute and lyre players was attested for the first time in the second century CE. The collegium syphoniacorum would play at religious or official ceremonies. Another collegium, the Collegium tibicinum romanorum was dedicated to perform at public funerals. Musicians' Collegia were highly respected in ancient Rome. They were used to preserve and perfect ancient Roman musical practices.
Education and training
Musical training and skills were common amongst the Roman upper-class, and it may have been especially common amongst female Romans of the upper-class. Singers were expected to spend large amounts of time and energy practicing their craft. In ancient Rome, the term for music or speech teachers was phonascus. They focused on developing the flexibility of their student's voice. It also believed that a singer's neck should be soft and smooth to ensure that the voice did not sound harsh or broken. Marcus Tullius Cicero stated that musicians "sit for many years practicing delivery, and every day, before they begin to speak, gradually arouse their voices while lying in bed; and when they have done that they sit up and make their voices run down from the highest to the lowest level, in some way joining the highest and the lowest together." According to The Twelve Caesars, Nero would train his voice by avoiding harmful fruits and drinks, purging himself with vomiting and enemas, and lying on his back with a lead sheet on his chest. Quintilian believed that maintaining good physical health through diet and exercise was important for maintain a proper voice. According to Quintilian, abstaining from sex was also important for a singer. Other ancient texts describe singers perform warm-up exercises consisting of vocalized successive sounds before singing. There may have been "music schools" for musicians of low class.
Cultural views
In ancient Rome music was confined to domestic settings. Plutarch praises a man named Numerius Furius, who is said to have sung when it was "appropriate." Music had some negative connotations in Roman society. Cornelius Nepos, a Roman historian and biographer, in his biography of Epaminondas describes his famed skill at music and dancing as a negative characteristic. He described his musical talents as: "trivial, or rather, contemptible" Plutarch wrote that the prominence of the flute in Theban society was designed by their legislators to "relax and mollify their strong and impetuous natures in earliest boyhood." The ancient Romans considered music to be a powerful tool and believed that it was capable of inciting strong emotions in people. Cicero and Aristides Quintilianus believed that music was capable of ennobling the populace. Quintilian believed that music was "the most beautiful art" and that it was necessary for properly reading the work of ancient poets. It was a common belief throughout the Roman world that traditional styles of music should be maintained. Pliny wrote that musicians would change their art based on popular demand. Cicero discussed the superior quality of traditional Roman music. He describes archaic Roman music as civilizing the "barbaric." Cicero believed that musical education could help aspiring politicians learn to better listen to other's arguments and detect imperfections. Numerous ancient Roman writers such as Plato, Seneca, or Cicero believed that music could effeminize men. Female musicians were highly respected compared to male musicians. It was seen as a potential way of enhancing their attractiveness. However, being too skilled at music, when combined with other activities which were seen as less respectable, such as prostitution made one seem less respectable. Music was also considered inappropriate for married women or older women. Cicero once wrote:
Instruments
Roman art depicts various woodwinds, "brass", percussion and stringed instruments. Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces.
Wind instruments
The Roman tuba was a long, straight bronze trumpet with a detachable, conical mouthpiece like that of the modern French horn. Extant examples are about 1.3 meters long, and have a cylindrical bore from the mouthpiece to the point where the bell flares abruptly, similar to the modern straight trumpet seen in presentations of 'period music'. Since there were no valves, the tuba was capable only of a single overtone series that would probably sound familiar to the modern ear, given the limitations of musical acoustics for instruments of this construction. In the military, it was used for "bugle calls". The tuba is also depicted in art such as mosaics accompanying games (ludi) and spectacle events.
The cornu (Latin "horn") was a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician's body, shaped rather like an uppercase G. It had a conical bore (again like a French horn) and a conical mouthpiece. It may be hard to distinguish from the buccina. The cornu was used for military signals and parades. The cornicen was a military signal officer who translated orders into calls. Like the tuba, the cornu also appears as accompaniment for public events and spectacle entertainments.
The tibia (Greek aulos – αὐλός), usually double, had two double-reed (as in a modern oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band capistrum (Greek phorbeiá - φορβεία) to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern changes indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate each pipe having a single reed (like a modern clarinet) instead of a double reed.
The askaules – a bagpipe.
Versions of the modern flute and panpipes.
String instruments
The lyre, borrowed from the Greeks, was not a harp, but instead had a sounding body of wood or a tortoise shell covered with skin, and arms of animal horn or wood, with strings stretched from a cross bar to the sounding body. The strings were tuned "by adjusting sticks seen in the engraving."
The cithara was a seven-stringed instrument used by the ancient Romans similar to the modern guitar.
The lute (pandura or monochord) was known by several names among the Greeks and Romans. In construction, the lute differs from the lyre in having fewer strings stretched over a solid neck or fretboard, on which the strings can be stopped to produce graduated notes. Each lute string is thereby capable of producing a greater range of notes than a lyre string. Although long-necked lutes are depicted in art from Mesopotamia as early as 2340–2198 BC, and also occur in Egyptian iconography, the lute in the Greco-Roman world was far less common than the lyre and cithara. The lute of the medieval West is thought to owe more to the Arab oud, from which its name derives (al ʿūd).
Organs
Mosaics depict instruments that look like a cross between the bagpipe and the organ. The pipes were sized to produce many of the modes (scales) learned from the Greeks. It is unclear whether they were blown by the lungs or by some mechanical bellows.The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis), which worked by water pressure, was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity". Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a mechanism of a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome submerged in a tank of water. Air is pumped into the top of the dome, compressing the air and forcing the water out the bottom; the displaced water rises in the tank. This increased hydraulic head and the compression of the air in the dome provides a steady supply of air to the pipes The hydraulis accompanied gladiator contests and events in the arena, as well as stage performances. It might also be found in homes, and was among the instruments that the emperor Nero played.
Percussion
Variations of a hinged wooden or metal device called a scabellum—a "clapper"—used to beat time. Also, there were various rattles, bells, and tambourines.
The sistrum was a rattle consisting of rings strung across the cross-bars of a metal frame, which was often used for ritual purposes.
Cymbala (Lat. plural of cymbalum, from the Greek kymbalon) were small cymbals: metal discs with concave centers and turned rims, used in pairs which were clashed together.
Dance
The Salii and the Arval Brethren were ancient Roman organizations of priests who danced at religious festivals. Dance was used to thank the gods and it held an important place in the Dionysia. Before battles Roman soldiers could hold dances to honor the god Mars. Music and dancing was also used to ensure the efficacy of sacrifices. Varro, a Roman author, wrote that dance was used in religious festivals as "no part of the body should be debarred from religious experiences." Dance was a popular form of entertainment in ancient Rome. Ovid describes drunk people dancing and singing in the streets during festivals such as the Anna Perenna. The Romans would hire dancers from conquered nations or train slaves to dance. Female dancers known as crotalisterias danced using bells and clappers. Another popular kind of dance was tripudia, which were three-foot dances. Pantomimists were popular in ancient Roman theatre. They wore cloaks, masks with closed mouths, and costumes. Plutarch described ancient Roman pantomimes twisting, leaping, and standing like a statue. He also wrote that criminals may be condemned to dancing in festivals. Dancing was used as way to accentuate beauty and could be erotic. Private dance schools trained ancient Roman aristocrats. Improper dance in ancient Rome, was defined as being un-Roman. Foreign dancing styles were disliked. Elagabalus was heavily scrutinized for his usage of foreign dances. Cornelius Nepos associated dance and music with ancient Greek culture, and treated it with disdain. Cicero stated that no sober person would dance unless they were a "lunatic." He likely did not object to the usage of dance as entertainment, but instead considered it to be beneath the upper-class Romans. Cicero may have believed that it should be relegated to only lower-class professional dancers. It is also possible he was exclusively referring to erotic or foreign dancing. Scipio Aemilianus criticized dancers for "improper display of their bodies."
Discography
Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. I – Wind Instruments - Amiata Records ARNR 1396, Florence, 1996.
Synaulia, Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. II – String Instruments - Amiata Records, ARNR 0302, Rome, 2002.
Thaleia, Carmina Canere Music of Ancient Rome, Vol. I –Tarragona - Spain 2012.
Ludi Scaenici, E Tempore Emergo - Rome, Italy - 2001
Ludi Scaenici, Festina Lente - Rome, Italy - 2011
Ensemble Kérylos, dir. Annie Bélis, De la pierre au son : musique de l'antiquité, K617, 1996.
Ensemble Kérylos, dir. Annie Bélis, D'Euripide aux premiers chrétiens : musique de l'antiquité, 2016.
See also
Fibula (penile), a device used by Roman singers in the belief that it would help preserve their voice
References
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus. De institutione musica. (English edition as Fundamentals of Music, translated, with introduction and notes by Calvin M. Bower; edited by Claude V. Palisca. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.)
Secondary sources
{{Cite book |first=Filippo |last=Bonanni |year=1964 |title=Antique Musical Instruments and their Players: 152 Plates from Bonanni's 18th-Century "Gabinetto armonico" , with a new introduction and captions by Frank Ll. Harrison and Joan Rimmer. |publisher=Dover publications}}
Further reading
Benzing, G. M. 2009. "'Se vuoi far soldi, studia la cetra': musica e luxus nell'antica Roma". In Luxus: Il piacere della vita nella Roma imperiale: [Torino, Museo di antichita, 26 settembre 2009 – 31 gennaio 2010], edited by Elena Fontanella, Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato. .
Comotti, Giovanni. 1989. Music in Greek and Roman Culture, translated by Rosaria V. Munson. Ancient Society and History. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. (cloth); (pbk).
Hagel, Stefan, and Christine Harrauer (eds.) (2005). Ancient Greek Music in Performance: Symposion Wien 29. Sept.–1. Okt. 2003. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. .
West, M[artin] L[itchfield]. 1992. Ancient Greek Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. (cloth) (pbk).
Wille, Günther. 1967. Musica Romana: Die Bedeutung der Musik im Leben der Römer''. Amsterdam: P. Schippers
External links
Ensemble Kérylos, a music group led by scholar Annie Bélis and dedicated to the recreation of ancient Greek and Roman music.
Musica Romana, musicarchaeology, scientific review of ancient Roman music as well as performances, bibliography and descriptions for instruments and notations online (English and German).
Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML), an evolving database of the entire corpus of Latin music theory written during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Synaulia, dedicated to the reconstruction of historical musical instruments, sound theatre, dance on the basis of ethnology.
Greek origins of Roman music
Juvenal: Satire XI
Ludi Scaenici Performance and research on the music and dance in the ancient Rome
Rome, Music of Ancient |
4218129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milorad%20Dodik | Milorad Dodik | Milorad Dodik (, ; born 12 March 1959) is a Bosnian Serb politician serving as the 8th president of Republika Srpska since 2022. Previously, he served as the 7th Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 2018 to 2022.
Dodik has also been serving as the president of the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats (SNSD) since its creation in 1996, and has occupied a number of political positions in Republika Srpska, the Serb-majority entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Dodik was the prime minister of Republika Srpska from 1998 to 2001 and from 2006 to 2010, and the president of Republika Srpska from 2010 to 2018.
Much like the SNSD, Dodik was initially considered as a moderate and reformist alternative to the ultranationalist Serb Democratic Party in the 1990s and early 2000s. Since then, Dodik and the SNSD have pursued an increasingly-Serbian nationalist and separatist line, invoking the right of the Bosnian Serbs to self-determination. His time in power has been characterised by perceived authoritarianism, repudiation of federal Bosnian institutions, and closer connections to both Russia and Serbia.
Early life and education
Dodik was born in Banja Luka to Bogoljub and Mira Dodik. He lived in Laktaši, where he attended elementary school. There, he played on the town's basketball team in Yugoslavia's amateur league. In 1978 he graduated from an agricultural high school in Banja Luka, after which he entered the Faculty of Political Sciences at the University of Belgrade, where he graduated in 1983.
Early political career (1986–1998)
From 1986 through 1990, Dodik was the Chairman of the executive board of the Municipal Assembly of Laktaši. In 1990, at the first multi-party elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina, he was elected to the Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a candidate of the Union of Reform Forces of Yugoslavia and was a political disciple of liberal reformer Ante Marković. During the Bosnian War, Dodik served as a representative in the National Assembly of Republika Srpska.
During that time, he formed the Independent Members of Parliament Caucus (Клуб независних посланика у Народној Скупштини Републике Српске, Klub nezavisnih poslanika u Narodnoj Skupštini Republike Srpske), which was the only political opposition to the Serb Democratic Party (Српска демократска странка, Srpska demokratska stranka) and its allies, which held the absolute majority in the war-time parliament of the Republika Srpska. The caucus he chaired was to form the core of the Party of Independent Social Democrats (Stranka nezavisnih socijaldemokrata, or SNSD) in 1996, after the peace was signed as a result of the Dayton Agreement. He was elected as the first President of SNSD. The party later united with another social-democratic party to form the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats, of which Dodik is president.
Prime Minister of Republika Srpska
First term (1998–2001)
After conflicts between Biljana Plavšić with the rest of Radovan Karadžić's Serb Democratic Party (SDS), she founded a new political party, the Serb National Alliance (SNS). Early elections in Republika Srpska were held in 1997, after which Plavšić and her SNS closely cooperated with the smaller Serbian socialist parties (Socialist Party and Dodik's SNSD). Dodik was nominated Prime Minister of Republika Srpska, even though his party had only two seats in the National Assembly.
Second term (2006–2010)
During the campaign for the 2006 general election, following Montenegrin independence, Dodik said that Republika Srpska didn't rule out its right for an independence referendum. At the election, Dodik's SNSD won 46.9% percent of votes, while the SDS won 19.5%. The international community saw him as a moderate democratic leader of Republika Srpska. Dodik had support from Western countries that were seeking to marginalise the Serbian nationalists. They believed that they had found an alternative in Dodik. After he became a prime minister, the West continued to support him at the expense of Serb nationalist parties. The Western countries promised that, if Dodik remains the prime minister, Republika Srpska would receive Western economic assistance. The OHR and the Western powers also wanted to ensure that he realised his promise to return 70,000 Croat and Bosniak refugees to Republika Srpska.
As promised, after Dodik won the election, Republika Srpska received financial aid from the European Union, that money was used to pay salaries for civil servants and the police. In mid-February 2007, Dodik traveled to the United States, where he was received by Madeleine Albright. She described him as "a breath of fresh air" and pledged €3.6 million of immediate aid. Republika Srpska also received aid from the British government in the same month. British Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, said in front of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska that Dodik's government "did more in its first two weeks to improve the lives of the people than its predecessor did in two years."
Later, Dodik became the most powerful Serb politician in Bosnia and Herzegovina and later the West viewed him as "an unabashed nationalist and the greatest threat to Bosnia and Herzegovina's fragile, multiethnic peace." After he became a prime minister, Dodik became even more nationalist than the SDS. During a police reform in Republika Srpska, Dodik managed to create a nationalist profile for himself. Haris Silajdžić, meanwhile, won election for Bosniak member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As he was a minister during the Bosnian War and close associate of Alija Izetbegović, Silajdžić criticised Republika Srpska as genocidal entity and called for its abolition. Moreover, Silajdžić advocated further centralisation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
On 5 May 2008, Dodik and Serbian President Boris Tadić inaugurated the Park Republika Srpska in Belgrade.
On 1 June 2008, during a visit to Zagreb, Dodik stated that Operation Storm was an act of ethnic cleansing carried out against Serbs and regarded it the "greatest ethnic cleansing committed after World War II". Croatian president Stjepan Mesić criticised Dodik for encouraging dissatisfied Serbs in Croatia to live in Republika Srpska while neglecting to invite Bosniak and Croat refugees to return. Ivo Banac, president of the Croatian Helsinki Committee, stated that Croatia had been defending itself at the time, and criticized Dodik's comments as provocations.
On 12 December 2008, Dodik stated that Muslim judges should not be allowed to preside over cases in Republika Srpska. He elaborated that "it is unacceptable for RS that Muslim judges try us and throw out complaints that are legally founded. And we think that it is only because they are Muslims, Bosniaks and that they have a negative orientation towards the RS, and we see the conspiracy that has been created." Dodik's comments were condemned as "extremely chauvinistic" by international institutions, the United States Embassy in Sarajevo and other officials.
On 9 September 2009, he and Boris Tadić, President of Serbia, opened a school in Pale with the name "Serbia". Bosniak and Croat members of the tripartite Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina were not consulted about Tadić's trip.
On 27 October 2009, Dodik provided an RS government jet to pick up Biljana Plavšić, former President of Republika Srpska convicted of war crimes, and welcomed her to Belgrade after her early release from a Swedish prison. He cited "purely moral reasons" for doing so. Željko Komšić, Croat member of the Bosnian Presidency, cancelled a planned visit to Sweden in protest.
In November 2009, Dodik refused to hand over requested documents detailing the financing of a government building complex in Banja Luka worth 110 million euro and the construction of a highway to international prosecutors at the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He stated that the court had no jurisdiction over Republika Srpska and filed a lawsuit against Deputy High Representative Raffi Gregorian and international prosecutors. Dodik accused Gregorian of leading a plot against Republika Srpska and said a bias against Serbs existed among central-level prosecutors and judges.
On 10 November 2009, Dodik revealed that he seriously considered giving Biljana Plavšić an office in the Senate. He stated "we are working on revising the law on the President of the Republic, which would award Plavšić, and other former presidents, the opportunity to enjoy some privileges like the office, monetary compensation, counselor, secretary, official car with a driver and so forth." Mladen Bosić, leader of the Serb Democratic Party, criticized Dodik.
On 19 January 2010, Croatian president Stjepan Mesić stated that if Dodik were to call a referendum for independence for Republika Srpska he would send the Croatian military to intervene.
Presidency (2018–2022)
2018 general election
Dodik announced his candidacy in the Bosnian general election on 26 December 2017, running for Bosnia's three-person Presidency member, representing the Serbs.
At the general election, held on 7 October 2018, Dodik was elected to the Presidency, having obtained 53.88% of the vote. The incumbent Bosnian Serb presidency member Mladen Ivanić, was second with 42.74%.
Domestic policy
In the first month of his presidency, Dodik had a confrontation with the newly elected Bosniak Presidency member Šefik Džaferović, with Dodik stating he would not attend the first Presidency session under the new leadership until the flag of Republika Srpska, the entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina, was put in his office. He eventually relented, agreeing to hold the session with only the flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In March 2019, Dodik appointed acclaimed filmmaker Emir Kusturica as his advisor.
On 28 January 2021, the Central Election Commission of Bosnia and Herzegovina reported Dodik to the Prosecutor's Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina for spreading national hatred. He was reported for verbally insulting Central Election Commission member Vanja Bjelica-Prutina for deciding to repeat the 2020 Bosnian municipal elections in the cities of Doboj and Srebrenica, where Dodik's party had won, because of electoral irregularities.
On 22 May 2021, Džaferović and Croat Presidency member Željko Komšić attended a military exercise between the United States Army and the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina on mount Manjača, south of the city Banja Luka in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while Dodik refused to attend it.
On 5 January 2022, the United States Office of Foreign Assets Control imposed sanctions on Dodik under Executive Order 14033 ('Blocking Property and Suspending Entry Into the United States of Certain Persons Contributing to the Destabilizing Situation in the Western Balkans'). In making the announcement, Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence Brian E. Nelson said that "Milorad Dodik’s destabilizing corrupt activities and attempts to dismantle the Dayton Peace Accords, motivated by his own self-interest, threaten the stability of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the entire region". On 11 April 2022, Dodik and Željka Cvijanović, the president of Republika Srpska, were sanctioned by the United Kingdom for attempting to undermine the legitimacy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with British Foreign Secretary Liz Truss stating that Dodik and Cvijanović "are deliberately undermining the hard-won peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Encouraged by Putin [Vladimir Putin], their reckless behavior threatens stability and security across the Western Balkans."
On 16 November 2022, Dodik was succeeded by Željka Cvijanović as the Serb member of the Presidency.
COVID-19 pandemic
As the COVID-19 pandemic in Bosnia and Herzegovina started in March 2020, the Presidency announced Armed Forces' placement of quarantine tents at the country's borders intended for Bosnian citizens returning home. Every Bosnian citizen arriving to the country was obligated to self-quarantine for 14 days starting from the day of arrival. Tents were set up on the northern border with Croatia.
On 21 December 2020, Dodik was admitted to hospital due to bilateral pneumonia, but did not contract COVID-19. One day later though, on 22 December, it was confirmed that he tested positive for COVID-19; by 28 December, Dodik recovered.
On 2 March 2021, Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić came to Sarajevo and met with Dodik and other presidency members, Džaferović and Komšić, and donated 10,000 dozes of AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccines for the COVID-19 pandemic. Three days later, on 5 March, Slovenian president Borut Pahor also came to Sarajevo and met with Dodik, Džaferović and Komšić, and stated that Slovenia will also donate 4,800 AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccines for the pandemic.
On 21 April 2021, he received his first dose of the Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine.
Renunciation of the High Representative
On 27 May 2021, Valentin Inzko resigned from his office of the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, with German politician Christian Schmidt set to become the new High Representative on 1 August 2021, after getting nominated by the German government. This was met with disapproval by Dodik, with him stating that "we [Republika Srpska] do not accept Schmidt, everything is a simple bluff of the international community." A few days later, Dodik said that "Schmidt will have no legitimacy for Republika Srpska unless he gets confirmed by the United Nations Security Council", adding that Republika Srpska will "receive Schmidt only as a tourist if he does not get confirmed by the Security Council."
On 29 June, Bosnian Foreign Minister Bisera Turković had a heated diplomatic exchange with Russian Ambassador to the United Nations Vasily Nebenzya at a United Nations Security Council meeting in New York City. The topic of the meeting was the political situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with focus being on the Office of the High Representative, regarding if it's time for its closure after being created in 1995 following the Bosnian War. Her address at the Security Council was heavily criticized by Dodik. Some days before, Dodik unsuccessfully tried to prevent Turković's Security Council address, even writing a letter to Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov asking him for help.
In the last ten days of his term as High Representative, on 23 July 2021, Valentin Inzko unexpectedly imposed changes to the law banning the denial of genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was met with outrage by Bosnian Serb politicians, especially by Dodik, stating "We [Republika Srpska] are forced to go into dissolution" and repeating many times that the "genocide did not happen." As a response to Inzko's imposed law, most Serb representatives in the national institutions, led by Dodik, decided to reject Inzko's law, as well as deciding not to participate in the work of Bosnian national institutions until further notice, sparking a new political crisis in the country.
Following a United Nations Security Council meeting on 4 November 2021, Dodik vowed to sue the new High Representative Christian Schmidt, and described the meeting as a "Victory for Republika Srpska" and proving that "Christian Schmidt is the High Representative only in his mind", even though all the UN Security Council members, except Russia, expressed their support for Schmidt and his powers as High Representative.
On 26 January 2022, following a meeting on constitutional reform in Sarajevo, Dodik said that he and his party would be "willing to participate in the work of the national institutions if a law, banning calling the country's entities genocidal, was passed in Parliament."
Military helicopters controversy
In August 2021, Komšić and Džaferović, without including Dodik, instructed the Ministry of Security to be available for putting out the wildfires in Herzegovina which had formed a few days before. This came after Dodik, as the third member of the Presidency, refused to give consent on the Bosnian Armed Forces to use its military helicopters to help in putting out the fires, because the consent of all three members of the Presidency is required for the military force's helicopters to be used. His actions were met with outrage by Bosnian politicians and media, with Damir Šabanović, the municipal mayor of Jablanica, a town in risk of the wildfires, filing criminal charges against Dodik for "failing or refusing to react and committing a criminal offense by exploiting his official position and failing to perform his official duty."
On 19 August, Dodik justified himself saying that the "Helicopters are 40–50 years old. The people flying them have courage. Of course, that is not the only reason why I did not participate in the Presidency sessions. That reason is well known and it will remain so." However, on 23 August, the Bosnian Defence Minister, Sifet Podžić, reacted to Dodik's statement, saying "The helicopters are perfectly fine, the only reason they didn't help in putting out the fires is Dodik."
Withdrawal of jurisdiction
Following a forestry law passed by the Republika Srpska government, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, on 23 September 2021, ruled that the law's provision that the forests are the property of Republika Srpska was unconstitutional. Dodik criticized this decision, stating "In RS [Republika Srpska], everything outside the Constitution and Dayton [Dayton Agreement] should be annulled."
On 27 September, he announced that Republika Srpska will be withdrawing the approvals which it gave to the agreements on the formation of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He later on said that no matter what, nothing will be done "outside the Constitution." Although supporting Dodik's opinion regarding the law banning the denial of genocide, Mirko Šarović, the president of the Serb Democratic Party (SDS), the major opposition party in Republika Srpska, does not support the withdrawal of jurisdiction of the Armed Forces and other national institutions, stating "From Dodik's frivolous initiatives, Republika Srpska will become a target, we have no use of these decisions."
On 20 October 2021, the National Assembly of Republika Srpska just narrowly voted to form an entity Medicines Agency, thus withdrawing their support for the national Bosnian Medicines Agency. The opposition, including the SDS and the Party of Democratic Progress, did not attend the vote in protest against Dodik and his actions.
On 8 November 2021, Dodik announced further withdrawal from the Armed Forces, stating "We will not allow the Armed Forces to become a Muslim army" and saying that "It is good for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be demilitarized, that was our earlier proposal." Following Dodik's actions, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom organized a debate on the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, during which great accusations were made against the work of Dodik, but also Serbia and Russia as countries that support his doings.
On 10 December 2021, the Republika Srpska National Assembly adopted a set of conclusions, including those regarding the Armed Forces, paving the way for the withdrawal of jurisdiction from national to entity levels. Once again, in protest, the opposition did not attend the vote and refused to support the conclusions, stating "This is a farce and a simple election campaign."
Foreign policy
In May 2021, during a flareup in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Dodik was thanked by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for expressing his support for Israel, unlike his presidency counterparts who expressed their support for Palestine.
In June 2021, Dodik signed the SEECP Declaration in Antalya, Turkey, which among other things, incorporates talks about NATO integration.
On 6 November 2021, he met with Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán in Banja Luka, in process thanking him "for the understanding that Hungary has for Republika Srpska." Orbán said that "Republika Srpska is key to peace in the Balkans" and that Hungary will "expand its economic program with Republika Srpska."
On 2 December 2021, Dodik had a meeting with Russian president Vladimir Putin in Moscow, with Dodik stating "He [Putin] is familiar with the details of the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina." Following Russia recognizing the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic as independent states on 21 February 2022, which are disputed territories in the Ukrainian region of Donbas, Dodik said that Republika Srpska will seek neutrality at the national level regarding the issue of Ukraine. On 24 February, Putin ordered a large-scale invasion of Ukraine, marking a dramatic escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that began in 2014. Regarding the invasion, Dodik said that Bosnia and Herzegovina was neutral, having stated the previous day that the "events showed it was a good decision for Bosnia and Herzegovina to not enter NATO, and that the country would not support sanctions."
European Union
Originally a big advocate and supporter of the European Union, Dodik has gradually become much more Eurosceptic and critical about the EU.
In September 2020, Dodik and his fellow Presidency members said that an EU candidate status for Bosnia and Herzegovina was possible in the year 2021 if the country "implements successful reforms."
In September 2021, Dodik went to Budapest, Hungary to attend its Demographic Summit. There he met with Slovenian prime minister Janez Janša on 22 September. On 23 September, Dodik made a speech at the summit, where he criticized the European Union, LGBT community and the handling of the previous European migrant crisis. Apart from Dodik and Janša, the summit was also attended by Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán, Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić, Czech prime minister Andrej Babiš, Polish prime minister Mateusz Morawiecki and former U.S. vice president Mike Pence, as well as 2022 French presidential election candidate Éric Zemmour.
On 30 September, Dodik, Džaferović and Komšić met with European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen at the Presidency Building in Sarajevo. This was part of von der Leyen's visit to Bosnia and Herzegovina, since she some hours before opened the Svilaj border checkpoint and a bridge over the nearby Sava river, which bears the internationally important freeway Pan-European Corridor Vc.
In an interview for the largest German news website Der Spiegel, given in October 2021, Dodik, among other things, said that "the Western Balkans have never been further from European Union membership than they are today", thus continuing expressing his Eurosceptic views. In December 2021, German Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock proposed a "values-driven" foreign policy in conjunction with other European democracies and NATO partners, and called on the EU to implement sanctions against Dodik. On 20 May 2022, Dodik met with European Council President Charles Michel, during his visit to Sarajevo, with whom he discussed about Bosnia and Herzegovina's accession to the EU.
Relations with Turkey
On 16 March 2021, Dodik, Džaferović and Komšić went on a state visit to Turkey to meet with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. While there, Erdoğan promised to donate Bosnia and Herzegovina 30,000 COVID-19 vaccines for the COVID-19 pandemic. Also on the meeting, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Turkey agreed on mutual recognition and exchange of driving licenses, as well as signing an agreement on cooperation in infrastructure and construction projects, which also refers to the construction of a highway from Bosnia's capital Sarajevo to Serbia's capital Belgrade; the agreement being signed by Minister of Communication and Traffic Vojin Mitrović.
On 27 August 2021, Erdoğan came to Sarajevo on a state visit in Bosnia and Herzegovina and met with all three Presidency members, having talks about more economic and infrastructural cooperation, as well as looking into the construction of the highway from Sarajevo to Belgrade. Also, a trilateral meeting between Turkey, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina was agreed on and should happen in the near future.
In November 2021, Dodik went to Ankara and again met with Erdoğan. His meeting with Erdoğan was focused on the political crisis in Bosnia and Herzegovina, following Valentin Inzko's imposed changes to the law banning genocide denial in the country. At the meeting, as reported by Dodik, it was said that "the threat of force cannot solve any problem" and that "speculators imposed the story of a possible conflict."
President of Republika Srpska
First and second term (2010–2018)
In October 2010, Dodik narrowly won the RS presidential election already in the first round, thus becoming the 8th president of the republic.
On 30 November 2010, leaked United States diplomatic cables revealed that Dodik supported the Ahtisaari plan for the independence of Kosovo. The cable was sent by Daniel Fried, a U.S. State Department official, in May 2007 and quoted Dodik as stating that "Kosovo's recognition would follow after such a decision (to adopt the plan) by the UN Security Council". Dodik denied the accusations and stated that Daniel Fried was a liar and a troublemaker.
In May 2011, Dodik planned to have a referendum held in June that he viewed would reflect on the rejection of Bosnian state institutions, including the war crimes court. The High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Valentin Inzko, warned that the referendum could potentially jeopardize the Dayton Agreement. However, shortly after tensions increased in regards to the proposed referendum, Republika Srpska decided to cancel the referendum, after Dame Catherine Ashton, the EU's High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy reassured Dodik in Banja Luka that the EU will examine the complaints of RS on abuses in justice system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and recommend the changes.
On 25 October 2011, Dodik spoke on "An American Foreign Policy Success Story: The Dayton Accords, Republika Srpska and Bosnia's European Integration" at Columbia University. The event was protested by numerous organizations including the Congress of North American Bosniaks, the Advisory Council for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Canadian Institute for the Research of Genocide, the Bosnian American Genocide Institute and Education Center, and the International Center for Transitional Justice. Protests also took place while the speech was in progress.
In October 2012, Dodik proposed that Bosnia and Herzegovina's unified armed forces be abolished. On 3 November 2012, Dodik announced that the government of Republika Srpska would donate an undisclosed amount to help pay for the renovation of Serbian Orthodox Patriarch Irinej's old residence in Belgrade. Irinej commented that "this is a great opportunity to show practically the unity of the Serbian people and Serbian church outside our borders." Serb bloggers expressed "disagreement with both at a time of severe economic crisis and hardship" followed.
On 13 November 2012, High Representative Valentin Inzko, cited Dodik as "the most frequent, although certainly not the sole, proponent of [Bosnian] state dissolution" in a report to the UN Security Council. He added that "the most recent and troubling of these is an initiative sent by the president to the Republika Srpska National Assembly attempting to create conditions that would unilaterally force the dissolution of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina." Vitaly Churkin, Russian Representative to the United Nations, defended Dodik and blamed the Bosniaks for the tension.
In November 2012, German state prosecution implicated Dodik and his son in a corruption case involving the Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank International. The investigation concerned "several criminal offenses, including falsifying of documents, faking financial and business reports and fraud." The judicial system of Bosnia and Herzegovina initially investigated the case following a complaint filing, but "political pressures soon stopped the judicial bodies and the police in the RS." According to Domagoj Margetić, a Croatian journalist, Dodik had bribed and threatened him in order to not link him to the Hypo Group Alpe Adria affair story. On 26 November 2012, High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Valentin Inzko, confirmed that there was no investigation against President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik and his family in Germany or Austria.
On 1 January 2017, the U.S. Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) imposed sanctions on Dodik pursuant to Executive Order 13304 and due to his role in defying the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina. "By obstructing the Dayton Accords, Milorad Dodik poses a significant threat to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Bosnia and Herzegovina," said John E. Smith, Acting OFAC Director. "Today's action underscores the U.S. commitment to the Dayton Accords and supports international efforts for the country's continued European integration. Any property of Milorad Dodik within the U.S. jurisdiction is to be blocked and U.S. persons, individuals or companies, are prohibited in to engage in business transactions with him."
Third term (2022–present)
2022 general election
On 1 July 2022, Dodik announced his candidacy in the Republika Srpska general election, running for a third time as president of Republika Srpska.
Following the release of the preliminary results in the Republika Srpska election, opposition parties filed accusations of electoral fraud directly against Dodik, who they claimed had coordinated stuffing ballot boxes with thousands of illegal votes to put the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats ahead in the polls and that Jelena Trivić of the Party of Democratic Progress was the true winner of the Republika Srpska presidential election. As a result of the allegations, the Central Election Commission began a recount the ballots. When the Election Commission verified the preliminary results, they did not verify the Republika Srpska elections. However on 27 October, officials confirmed Dodik's victory. The commission noted that while there were irregularities, none were on a level that would have changed the outcome of the election.
Tenure
Dodik was sworn in as president on 15 November 2022 in the National Assembly of Republika Srpska, succeeding Željka Cvijanović.
On 23 November, Dodik asked the incumbent prime minister, Radovan Višković, to form a new Republika Srpska government. On 21 December 2022, the National Assembly of Republika Srpska confirmed the appointment of Višković's cabinet.
On 8 January 2023, Dodik awarded Russian President Vladimir Putin in absentia with the entity's highest decoration, the Order of the Republika Srpska.
In March 2023, violence occurred in Banja Luka over a planned LGBT event and several human rights activists were assaulted by a few dozen men. Also in March, The United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken said that "Dodik’s attacks on basic rights and freedoms in Republika Srpska show he is on President Putin’s authoritarian path" and that the "State Department continues to advocate for the democratic and prosperous future that all citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina deserve."
On 27 June 2023, the National Assembly of Republika Srpska voted to suspend rulings by the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina and stopping publishing the High Representative's decrees and laws in the official gazette. Following this decision, High Representative Christian Schmidt annulled the two laws which the Assembly had adopted, citing that the decisions "directly violate the constitutional order of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Dayton peace agreement."
Dodik condemned Hamas' actions during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and expressed his support to Israel. The Palace of the Republic in Banja Luka was decorated with the Israeli flag on 8 October 2023.
Indictement
In August 2023, the Prosecutor's Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina charged Dodik with defying decisions by the High Representative, facing a possible maximum sentence of five years in prison. High-ranking Bosnian Serb officials dismissed the indictement against Dodik as politically motivated, saying they would not recognise decisions by an "unconstitutional court and prosecution." On 16 October 2023, Dodik refused to enter a plea on the indictment at the first hearing, later telling reporters he could not understand the indictment.
Views
Opinions on Tuzla and Markale
In 2009, Dodik stated that the Tuzla massacre was staged and questioned the Markale massacres in Sarajevo. The city of Tuzla filed charges against Dodik over these statements. The city of Sarajevo filed criminal charges against Dodik for abuse of power, and inciting ethnic, racial and religious hatred.
The Office of the High Representative said Dodik denied the war crimes committed and stated that "When such skewed facts come from an official in a position of high responsibility, an official who is obliged to uphold the Dayton Peace Accords and cooperate with the Hague Tribunal, then they are particularly irresponsible and undermine not only the institutions responsible for upholding the rule of law, but the credibility of the individual himself".
Genocide and Srebrenica massacre denial
Dodik described the Srebrenica massacre as a "fabricated myth".
He stated in an interview with the Belgrade newspaper Večernje novosti in April 2010 that "we cannot and will never accept qualifying that event as a genocide", and disowned the 2004 Republika Srpska report which had acknowledged the scale of the killing and had apologised to the relatives of the victims, claiming that the report had been adopted because of pressure from the international community. Without substantiating the figure, he claimed that the number of victims was 3,500 rather than the 7,000 accepted by the report, alleging that 500 listed victims were alive and that over 250 people buried in the Srebrenica Genocide Memorial in Potočari had died elsewhere. During the same month, on 10 April 2010, Dodik initiated a revision of the 2004 report saying that the numbers of killed were exaggerated and the report was manipulated by a former peace envoy. The Office of the High Representative responded and stated that: "The Republika Srpska government should reconsider its conclusions and align itself with the facts and legal requirements and act accordingly, rather than inflicting emotional distress on the survivors, torture history and denigrate the public image of the country".
On 12 July 2010, at the 15th anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre, Dodik declared that he acknowledges the killings that happened on the site, but does not regard what happened at Srebrenica as genocide, differing from the conclusions of the ICTY and of the International Court of Justice, stating that, "(i)f a genocide happened then it was committed against Serb people of this region where women, children and the elderly were killed en masse," referring to eastern Bosnia. In December 2010, Dodik condemned the Peace Implementation Council (PIC), an international community of 55 countries, for referring to the Srebrenica massacre as genocide.
He used variety of claims, espoused by other deniers and conspiracy theorists, such as that Srebrenica was, in fact, revenge for the 1993 Kravica attack and other Bosnian Muslim crimes against Serbs, confirmed or alleged.
In 2017, Dodik introduced legislation, effectively banning the teaching of the Srebrenica genocide and Sarajevo siege in Republika Srpska's schools, stating that it was "impossible to use here the textbooks … which say the Serbs have committed genocide and kept Sarajevo under siege. This is not correct and this will not be taught here".
On 14 August 2018, again initiated by Dodik after his previous attempt in 2010, the National Assembly of Republika Srpska dismissed the 2004 report and decided for a new commission to be assembled to revise report surrounding events in Srebrenica and area around the town in July 1995. This move was immediately criticized by the international community.
The Humanitarian Law Center, in their report signed by 31 high-profile signatories, described this new development as "the culmination of more than a decade of genocide denial and historical revisionism by the SNSD government in Republika Srpska". The United States State Department issued a communique in which they criticized the move, describing it as "(a)ttempts to reject or amend the report on Srebrenica are part of wider efforts to revise the facts of the past war, to deny history, and to politicize tragedy".
Radovan Karadžić
In March 2016, a student dormitory in Pale was named in honor of the wartime Serb leader Radovan Karadžić, an act which was supported by Dodik. The event took place only a few days before Karadžić was convicted for war crimes by the ICTY.
In December 2020, the plaque honoring Karadžić had to be removed after High Representative Inzko, with the help of Karadžić's daughter Sonja Karadžić-Jovičević, publicly called for its removal.
Personal life
Milorad is married to Snježana Dodik, with whom he has two children. His nephew is Bosnian businessman and football administrator Vico Zeljković.
Honours
Order of the Republic of Serbia
Order of the Republika Srpska
Order of Friendship
Award of the International Foundation for the Unity of Orthodox Christian Nations
Order of Peter the Great with Sash – awarded by the National Committee for Social Awards of the Russian Federation for extraordinary contribution to enhancement of the Russian – Serbian cooperation
Order of the Nemanjić dynasty
Order of St. Sava
Order of Saint Simeon the Myrrh-streaming
Order of the Saint bishop Nikolaj
Holy Cross of the Holy Sepulchre Guardians, awarded by Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem
Order of Alexander Nevsky
Honorary awards
Honorary president of KK Partizan
Honorary citizen of Drvar
Honorary citizen of Gradiška
Honorary citizen of Trebinje
References
Bibliography
External links
Official biography
SNSD Official Website
President of the Republic Milorad Dodik
1959 births
Living people
People from Banja Luka
Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
University of Belgrade Faculty of Political Science alumni
Bosnia and Herzegovina politicians
Alliance of Independent Social Democrats politicians
Prime ministers of Republika Srpska
Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Chairmen of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Serbian nationalists
Deniers of the Bosnian genocide
Yugoslav men's basketball players
KK Igokea
Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
Recipients of the Order of Alexander Nevsky |
4218214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%20Brook | Mother Brook | Mother Brook is a stream that flows from the Charles River in Dedham, Massachusetts, to the Neponset River in the Hyde Park section of Boston, Massachusetts. Mother Brook was also known variously as East Brook and Mill Creek in earlier times. Digging the brook made Boston and some surrounding communities an island, accessible only by crossing over water, making Mother Brook "Massachusetts' Panama Canal."
Dug by English settlers in 1639 to power a grist mill, it is the oldest such canal in North America. Mother Brook was important to Dedham as its only source of water power for mills, from 1639 into the early 20th century.
Today, Mother Brook is part of a flood-control system that diverts water from the Charles River to the Neponset River. The brook's flow is under the control of the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation and is used for flood control on the Charles. There are three remaining dams on the stream, plus a movable floodgate that controls flow from the Charles into Mother Brook.
The brook has given its name to the modern day Mother Brook Community Group, the Mother Brook Arts and Community Center, Riverside Theatre Works, and the erstwhile Mother Brook Club and Mother Brook Coalition.
Early history
Origins
Dedham, Massachusetts was first settled in 1635 and incorporated in 1636. The settlers needed a mill for grinding corn as hand mills took too much effort. Wind mills had been tried, but the wind was too unreliable and the North End, where a windmill was moved to in 1632, was too far away. In 1633, the first water powered grist mill was established in Dorchester along the Neponset River at a dam he erected just about the tidal basin. By the late 1630s, the closest watermill was in Watertown, some distance away.
Abraham Shaw who, like many other Dedhamites, came from Watertown, arrived in Dedham in 1637. He was granted of land as long as he erected a watermill, which he intended to build on the Charles River near the present day Needham Street bridge. Every man in the town was required to bring the millstone to Dedham from Watertown. Shaw died in 1638 before he could complete his mill, however, and his heirs were not interested in building the mill.
Although the initial settlement was adjacent to the Charles, in this vicinity it is slow-moving, with little elevation change that could provide power for a water wheel. A small stream, then called East Brook, ran close by the Charles River, about from present day Washington Street behind Brookdale Cemetery, and emptied into the Neponset River. In the spring, the Charles would occasionally flood into a swamp at Purchase Meadow between its banks and East Brook. Additionally, East Brook had an elevation change of more than 40 feet on its 3.5 mile run from near the early Dedham settlement to the Neponset River, which was sufficient to drive a water mill. However, East Brook had a low water flow insufficient to power a mill. The drop in the first mile alone is .
A year after Shaw's death the town was still without a mill. A committee was formed and "an audacious plan" was devised to "divert some of the plentiful water from the placid Charles into the steep but scarce East Brook. The 4,000 foot ditch was ordered to be dug at public expense by the town on March 25, 1639, and a tax was levied on settlers to pay for it. The settlers may have been influenced by the draining of the Fens in The Wash, an area in England near many of their hometowns.
The town was so confident in this course of action that the work began before they found a new miller to replace Shaw. There is no record of who dug it or how long it took, although Whiting family history claims it was done by Nathaniel Whiting. The labor pool would be confined to the 30 men who headed households in the town at the time, plus various servants and other male relatives. While it is unknown when exactly it was completed, there was water running through it by July 14, 1641, and has been known as Mother Brook since at least 1678. There is no record of any celebration that may have taken place upon its completion.
The work was completed amidst all the other work being done to establish a town out of the wilderness: felling trees, building homes, planting crops, clearing fields, and more.
Early mills
The town also offered an incentive of 60 acres of land to whoever would construct and maintain a corn mill, as long as the mill was ready to grind corn by "the first of the 10th month"[i.e. December]. The first corn mill was erected in 1641 by John Elderkin, a recent arrival from Lynn, at a dam on East Brook next to the present day Condon Park and near the intersection of Bussey St and Colburn St. He was given a tract of land in return. Elderkin had previously built a mill in Lynn and, in 1642, only months after opening the mill, moved out of town. This was the first public utility in the nation. Early settlers could grind their corn at the mill, and in return paid a tithe to help maintain the mill. The town relinquished rights to the brook in 1682 and placed an historical marker on the site in 1886.
In 1642, Elderkin sold half of his rights to Whiting and the other half to John Allin, Nathan Aldis, and John Dwight. They operated the mill "in a rather stormy partnership" until 1649 when Nathaniel Whiting became the sole owner. The town was displeased with the "insufficient performance" of the mill under Whiting's management. In 1652, Whiting sold his mill and all his town rights to John Dwight, Francis Chickering, Joshua Fisher, and John Morse for 250 pounds, but purchased it back the following year. Whiting and five generations of his descendants ran their mill from 1641 until 1823, when it was sold.
In January 1653 the town offered land to Robert Crossman if he would build a mill on the Charles where Shaw had originally intended. Crossman refused, but Whiting was so displeased by the prospect of a second mill that he offered to sell his mill back to the town for 250 pounds. Whiting's performance did not improve, however, and the town wanted an alternative. Daniel Pond and Ezra Morse were then given permission by the town to erect a new corn mill on the brook above Whiting's, so long as it was completed by June 24, 1665.
Whiting was upset by the competition for both water and customers and, "never one to forgive and forget, Whiting made something of a crusade of opposition" to the new mill. Records show that the town spent "considerable time" trying to resolve the issue. After meeting with the Selectmen, both agreed to live in peace and not interfere with the business of the other. Two years later Morse was instructed to not hinder the water flow to such an extent that it would make milling difficult for Whiting.
The town resolved that "in time of drought or want of water, the water shall in no such time be raised so high by the occasion of the new mill, that the water be thereby hindered of its free course or passage out of the Charles River to the mill. The proprietors of the old mill are at the same time restricted from raising the water in their pond so high as to prejudice the new mill by flowage of backwater." At the same time, Whiting was also told to repair leaks in his own dam before complaining about a lack of water.
Trouble and disputes, including a lawsuit, continued between the two until 1678 when the Town Meeting voted not to hear any more complaints from Whiting. In 1699, the Morse dam at present day Maverick Street was removed, and Morse was given 40 acres of land near the Neponset River at Tiot in compensation. This seems to have been Morse's idea. He would go on to open a new mill there, in what is today Norwood, Massachusetts, next to a sawmill that opened in 1644.
The next mill was constructed in 1682 at Saw Mill Lane. Originally requested by Jonathan Fairbanks and James Draper, the privilege was granted to Whiting and Draper instead, likely to avoid any more problems with Whiting. He died the day the selectmen granted him the privileged, however. This mill was for fulling wool, and was the first textile mill in Dedham. A condition was attached to this permission, however, that if the town wanted to erect a corn mill on the brook that they may do so, unless Draper and Whiting did so at their own expense. This mill, like the one above it, was held by the descendants of Nathaniel Whiting for 180 years. One of Whiting's mills burned in 1700, and so the town loaned him 20 pounds to rebuild.
At some point in the early 1700s a new leather mill was constructed by Joseph Lewis at the site of the old Morse dam. A fourth mill was established, at present day Stone Mill Drive, just down stream from the third in 1787 by two of Whiting's descendants. For a short period of time it produced copper cents, and then was used to manufacture paper. A third of Whiting's descendants opened a wire factory on the same site.
Industrialization of Mother Brook
Eventually, dams and mills were constructed at five locations called "privileges" in Dedham and in what is now the Readville section of Hyde Park, which was originally part of Dedham. Mother Brook provided water power at various times for industrial mills of several types, for the manufacture of cotton, wool, paper, wire, and carpets. They also produced corn, fulled cloth, stamped coins, sawed lumber, cut and headed nails, manufactured paper, wove cloth, and leather. There were mills operating on Mother Brook until some time in the 20th century. At least one mill located on Mother Brook was equipped with a steam engine as an energy source, probably to supplement the water power when the water supply was insufficient but possibly to supplant the water power entirely. The brook may also have served for cooling the steam machinery.
The development of industry spurred the production of housing in the area for the mill workers, and churches, shops, and other businesses followed. The East Dedham Firehouse was also built to protect the area. Dating to 1855, it is still in operation as of today.
19th century
In the 1800s, as the region and country became more prosperous, mills began to be used for the first time to produce goods not used solely by Dedhamites and those in the immediate area. They were so profitable that by the 1820s, landowning farmers were worried about losing control of Town politics. The growth of the industrial part of the town was so great that it was said that the factories, dye houses, dwellings, and other buildings associated with the operation of just one privilege "of themselves constitute a little village."
The mills began to attract immigrants from Europe and Canada who came to America seeking employment and a better life. The Irish came beginning with the Great Famine in the 1840s, and the Germans followed in the 1850s. Italians and other immigrants began arriving in large numbers at the end of the century. Working in harsh conditions, many only stayed for a short period of time and then moved on.
In 1870 the Merchant's Woolen Company was the largest taxpayer in town and owned two houses on High Street, five on Maverick, ten on Curve, and two "long houses" on Bussey St. These houses were rented to employees. Several of the homes built during this time to house workers still exist as of 2020. Benjamin Bussey build a number of boarding houses, including what is today 305 and 315 High Street and 59 Maverick Street. The two buildings on High Street were originally connected by an ell. In 1829, the ten men who lived in them paid $1.50 per week and the 15 "girls" each paid $1.25.
From Mother Brook and the Neponset River out to the Boston Harbor, it was estimated that there was between $2,000,000 and $5,000,000 worth of manufacturing property along the banks in 1886.
Second privilege
The leather mill was replaced in 1807 by the Norfolk Cotton Manufactory. The local men who invested the funds for the large, wooden, spinning mill, Samuel Lowder, Jonathan Avery, Rueben Guild, Calvin Guild, Pliny Bingham, William Howe, and others, have been described as a "daring group of investors." The mill spun imported bales of cotton, which was then put out to be woven. The fabric was then returned to the mill, finished, and shipped out. As cotton was still new in New England, "the inhabitants felt a degree of pride in having a cotton factory in their town, and whenever their friends from the interior visited them, the first thing thought of was to mention that there was a new cotton factory in the town, and that they must go and see its curious and wonderful machinery."
It was a prosperous company, esteemed by the community, and the annual meetings of the company were marked by festivities. From 1808 through the next decade, the company advertised for labor in the local papers as the work required more manpower than the part-time grist and saw mills that were on the brook before. The company would lend out machines to workers so they could work from home to clean and blend the raw cotton fiber.
During this time period the owners of mills downstream also complained that the Norfolk Cotton Manufactory did not provide enough water downstream for them to use. The complaints continued, despite the creation of a committee in 1811 to look into the matter.
The War of 1812 brought ruin to the company, however, when cheap imports flooded the market. The mill was purchased by Benjamin Bussey, "a man of excellent business capacity," in 1819 for a sum far below cost. Bussey also purchased a mill on the street that now bears his name from the Dedham Worsted Company only three years after they opened. Agreement was made then on the level of the water, and was marked by drill holes in rocks along the banks still visible in 1900.
Fourth privilege
The fourth privilege was used for a variety of purposes in the 19th century, including copper cents, paper, cotton, wool, carpets, and handkerchiefs. In the 1780s another mill, connected by the same wheel, was constructed on the site to produce wire for the new nation's nascent textile industry. The first mill on this site burned in 1809, but was rebuilt with a new raceway and foundation.
The second mill began producing nails in 1814, and five years later its owner, Ruggles Whiting of Boston, sold it to the owner of the first mill, George Bird, who began using the whole site to manufacture paper. In 1823 it switched to cotton, using the machinery of the former Norfolk Cotton Company. In 1835 a new stone mill was erected. It stands today, and was converted into a condominium complex in 1986–87. Unlike the other mills, which were constructed in a strictly utilitarian style, this factory boasted a date stone reading "1835" and a dome-roofed cupola over the mill bell. Together they stood as a testament to the primacy of the mills in the neighborhood.
The mill at the fourth privilege, under the ownership of Bussey and with his agent, George H. Kuhn, was among the first to install water-powered broad looms. The looms enabled raw wool to enter the mills, be spun into thread, and then weaved into finished fabric, all under a single roof.
Fifth privilege
In 1814 a fifth privilege was granted in what was then Dedham, but is today the Readville neighborhood in Hyde Park. Readville, known as early as 1655 known as the Low Plain and then Dedham Low Plain, was settled the same year the privilege was granted when the Dedham Manufacturing Company built a mill there. James Read, one of the original proprietors, was the namesake of the neighborhood when it officially became Readville on October 8, 1847.
Conflict with Charles River mills
As Dedham became industrialized and its economic activity increasingly depended on its water power, so did other communities in the Charles River valley. This led to conflict between the mills on Mother Brook and those using the Charles River downstream from the diversion to Mother Brook. As early as 1767, mill owners in Newton and Watertown petitioned officials for relief from the Mother Brook diversion. A sill was installed to determine the percentage of water diverted into Mother Brook and the percentage to remain in the Charles.
In 1895 it was said that Mother Brook was the most audacious attempt of robbery ever recorded in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It was the effort made by Dedham ... to actually steal the river Charles. ... The bold pirates built a canal from the headwaters of the Charles across to the Neponset river, and by widening and deepening this 'mother brook' they were gradually robbing their neighboring town of its beautiful waterway.
Because water diverted from the Charles River through Mother Brook increased the flow in lower sections of the Neponset River, mill owners on the Neponset joined with the Mother Brook mill owners in their defense of the diversion. After a special act of the Great and General Court the mill owners incorporated as the Mother Brook Mill-owners Association on September 1, 1809. Mill owners on the Charles had formed a similar corporation to advocate for themselves a few months earlier. They argued that deviating the flow of the Charles "from its natural course" into Mother Brook violated their rights, and that as a public resource that it deserved state protection.
The Mother Brook Mill-owners Association and their counterpart on the Charles went to the Supreme Judicial Court in March 1809, and petitioned for Commissioners of Sewers to determine the proper amount of water to be diverted into Mother Brook. The 1767 sill could not be located, and a new method was established. The Court ruled that one quarter of the Charles could flow into Mother Brook. The Mother Brook mill owners were not happy with this solution, and successfully petitioned the Court to stay their order limiting the amount of water flowing into the Brook.
The Sewer Commission did not present its findings to the Court for 12 years, however, at which time the Mother Brook owners objected and the report of the Commissioners was set aside. In 1825, after another court battle, it was determined that the previous agreement was no longer viable due to the length of time taken to file the report and evidence not considered at the time. Work on the issue resumed from 1829 to 1831, and the dispute was finally settled by an agreement among the mill owners on December 3, 1831. This agreement established that one-third of the Charles River flow would be diverted to Mother Brook, and two-thirds would remain in the Charles for use by downstream owners. This agreement, which was reaffirmed in 1955, "brought peace to the valley" after decades of conflict. This agreement is still in effect as of 2017.
In 1915 it was estimated that one-third of the water of the Charles River ran through the brook, while in 1938 it was said to be one-half. In 1993, an average of 51 million gallons per day flowed from the Charles into Mother Brook, although that flow can be altered depending on water levels further downstream.
20th century and the decline of industry
In 1900, and even 1915, after "275 years of constant usefulness," the brook made up "the source of the principal business of the town [of Dedham]." Though the mills remained open into the 20th century, they were not immune from the larger economic forces at play. In the late 1800s they began "losing ground in the national economic picture, inexorably sliding into an increasingly marginal sort of operation, and finally succumbing entirely to the slump which followed the First World War." Beginning in the 1910s and 1920s they began to close as the textile industry was in decline, and by 1986 the cotton mills and brick factories that once lined the brook were "long-gone."
In the 1960s, the pond at the fifth privilege had been drained, and the land owner wanted to build a strip mall on the site. The Department of Conservation and Recreation purchased the land instead. They cleaned up a junkyard, dredged out silt and fill, rebuilt the dam, and published a plan to promote boating, hiking, and other outdoor activities on the site. It also spoke about building a bathhouse, assuming the water quality improved. When the Dedham Mall was built in the 1960s, part of the Brook was piped underground.
The sill placed at the mouth has since been replaced with a mechanical floodgate that can be raised or lowered depending on water levels in the Charles. There is a small brick building on the site with the floodgate controls. It was proposed in 1978 to use the three remaining dams on the bridge to generate hydroelectric power. In 2009, the Dedham Selectmen proposed designating the brook as an historic waterway to better qualify for grants.
Pollution
During the early 1900s, the state Board of Health began enforcing pollution regulations that prevented additional manufacturing enterprises from setting up along the brook, having "resolutely set its decision against the pollution of this stream." One plant was required to install an expensive filtration system to clean its liquid waste before dumping it in the waterway.
In 1910 the water being pumped by the Town of Hyde Park at Mother Brook was deemed unsafe for use without first boiling, and in 1911 that Town applied to be hooked up to the metropolitan water system. By 1944 the Neponset was said to be "loaded with putrefacation."
When marshlands were reclaimed in the 1960s it was for partially for the purposes of flood control. One of those reclaimed areas was where the Dedham Mall now stands, very near the headwaters of the brook. The runoff from that development, however, flowed into the brook and then the Neponset, which could not handle the extra water during heavy rains.
By the mid-20th century, "after over 300 years of industrial use, the Mother Brook was intensely polluted." Gasoline, PCPs, and even raw sewerage had been dumped into the Brook over the years. An oil spill of 1,300 gallons was discovered near Milton Street in 1975, and gasoline was discovered bubbling into the brook in 1990. L. E. Mason Co. was fined $250,000 by the Environmental Protection Agency for dumping trichloroethylene into the brook from 1986 to 1994. The company was also known to dump zinc, fats, oils and greases into the waterway.
During the 1990s a science teacher at Dedham High School and her chemistry students ran water quality tests on the brook. She found that water quality is good, though fecal coliform counts allow only partial body contact. While great progress has been made, in 2017 Mother Brook remained one of the most polluted tributaries to the Neponset River. Unlike most waterways in the Neponset watershed, Mother Brook is less polluted during heavy rains than during drier times, due to the abundance of clean Charles River water flowing into it.
Cleanups and maintenance
After centuries of industrialization and dumping, Mother Brook became quite polluted. Cleanups have been organized by a number of groups in recent decades.
In 2007, the brook was redirected under Hyde Park Avenue by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to clean up the PCBs that had previously been dumped into the water. That cleanup led to a federal lawsuit over who would pay for the cost of the remediation. Ten years later, in 2017, the Department of Conservation and Recreation unveiled plans to remove several trees and overgrown vegetation close to the diversion point at the Charles River in order to stabilize and protect the dam controlling the flow of water from the river into the brook.
National Register of Historic Places
In the 2010s, the Mother Brook Community Group, the East Dedham neighborhood association, began a campaign to get Mother Brook listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The results of the first phase of the effort, an architectural study of the Brook and adjourning areas, was completed by Heritage Consultants and presented in January 2020. The consultants discovered over 70 buildings, areas, and structures still standing that relate in some way to the history of the mills. They include
202 Bussey St. which was originally built circa 1855 as the Merchant Woolen Company's Factory Mill Number 2. It originally housed a carpenter's shop with spinning machines on the upper floors.
Two private homes on Maverick and High Streets that were built as boarding houses for workers of the Maverick Woolen companies circa 1825. Room and board at these establishments cost $1.50 a week for men and $1.25 in 1829 when there were ten men and 15 women living there.
Brookdale Cemetery, which was built to accommodate a swelling population that moved to town to work in the mills.
The consultant's research was submitted to the Massachusetts Historical Commission who will determine whether Mother Book qualifies for the National Register listing.
Accidents and floods
Floods
In 1886, waters flooded their banks and put the dams, and the one at Merchant's Mill especially, in danger of breaching. There were fears that a dam in Dover would give way, and the resulting rush of water would destroy the Dedham dam. Prior to this Merchant's Mill was considered impregnable. It was one of the greatest floods Dedham Center had ever seen.
Streets in the Manor section of Dedham had water two to three feet deep when the brook flooded in March 1936. Rain and melting snow caused the Charles and Mother Brook to flood their banks in 1948, putting some parts of Dedham under water.
Ice chunks at two of the dams caused flooding in 1955. Firefighters sprayed high pressure water at the ice jam off Milton Street, and a crane scooped out debris from the dam and broke the ice at Maverick Street. The water level dropped two feet that day as a result.
Later that year, during the worst floods in New England's history, 150 people in Hyde Park had to evacuate their homes after flood waters from Mother Brook and the Neponset River collapsed preventative embankments. Mayor John Hynes led an inspection party to survey the damage. Roads, including the V.F.W. Parkway, were flooded in Dedham. That fall the state approved $2 million for flood control in Mother Brook and the Neponset. Another $2 million was approved by the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1960.
A team of 120 men descended on Hyde Park at the junction of the Neponset and Mother Brook with 1,200 sandbags to prevent flooding in March 1958. The water was already threatening homes and roads in January of that year. At least "a couple hundred" residents along the Charles, Neponset, and Mother Brook had to be evacuated when those rivers flooded in 1968. The worst area in town was along Bussey St, along the brook.
1938 flood
In 1938, while much of the Charles and Neponset Rivers were flooding their banks and causing $3,000,000 in damage, the area around Mother Brook was unharmed in the early days of the surge. Dams along the brook controlled the heavy flow of water which were said to be 15,000 cubic feet per second. It was close to the level of the 1936 flood, but six inches below the flood of 1920.
Scores of homes in low-lying areas eventually had their basements flooded, and the wooden bridge at Maverick Street was threatened. Sandbags, an oil truck, and granite slabs were placed on the bridge to keep it from washing away. The Boston Envelope Company, located next to the bridge, had their first floor flooded.
Three young men who tried to canoe down the Charles during the 1938 flood were overturned in a whirlpool and were swept down the swollen Mother Brook. They were saved after an East Street rescuer ran 500 yards and tossed them a garden hose.
Drownings and rescues
Over the years there have been a number of accidents on the brook, including some resulting who drowned. In December 1905, a 12-year-old boy named James Harnett drowned while skating across ice only half an inch thick on Mill Pond. His brother William, 17, rushed to save him, but both ended up in the water. The older brother was saved by a human chain of other skaters, while the younger boy's body was recovered by police an hour later.
An 8-year-old boy fell through the ice and was under water for 20 minutes in 1980. A passing motorist and three others dove in the brook, but were not able to locate him. A WHDH radio traffic helicopter broke the ice with its pontoons, allowing Boston firefighters to spot and recover David Tundidor's body. He was in a medically induced coma, but died four days later.
Others have been more fortunate, and were able to be rescued. After sneaking out of the house in July 1899, 13-year-old William Dennen dove off a bridge near his house on Emmett Ave to save the life of 7-year-old Mary Bouchard, who had fallen in. John F. McGraw, a 33-year-old Scottish immigrant, attempted suicide by drowning in the brook in 1916. After going over a dam and landing in shallow water, the father of three climbed onto shore and was taken to the psychiatric hospital for evaluation. Paul Flanagan, 23, survived for 3.5 hours in the water after his car plunged into the brook in February 1983. He was brought to Norwood Hospital with hypothermia and was later released.
Two boys claimed to have found a human leg in the brook in 1937, but police could not find either the leg or the body.
Other events
In April 1878, a "balky horse" sent six people into the brook, but none were injured. A similar incident occurred in 1837 when a thirsty horse brought himself, the teamster driving him, and the load of paper he was carrying from the mills in Dedham to Braintree into the brook.
Moments after leaving Dedham Square for Forest Hills in 1911, a streetcar jumped the track on Washington Street and dangled 35 passengers over the brook. Only two minor injuries were reported. A cat was saved from a flooded culvert in 1938 by a team of neighborhood boys after the Dedham Fire Department was unable to do so. A 13-year-old boy, William Sullivan, was kneeling on a raft in 1956 behind Brookdale Cemetery when his friend accidentally shot him in the leg with a .32 caliber gun.
Mills
First privilege
The first privilege was located next to present day Condon Park, corner of Bussey St and Colburn St.
Second privilege
The second privilege was located at present day Maverick Street.
Third privilege
The third privilege was located at present day Saw Mill Lane.
Fourth privilege
The fourth privilege's first mill was located at present day Stone Mill Drive.
The fourth privilege's second mill was located at present day Stone Mill Drive.
Fifth privilege
The fifth privilege was located at the corner of Knight St. and River St. in Readville.
Bridges
Today, after diverting from the Charles, Mother Brook immediately runs under a bridge on Providence Highway. When it was constructed, a tablet was erected on the bridge commemorating the brook. Shortly thereafter it runs under a culvert at the Dedham Mall before appearing again at the transfer station and running to the Washington Street Bridge. It then crosses under Maverick Street, Bussey Street, and Saw Mill Lane, sites of three old mills. Within the Mother Brook Condominium complex, just downstream from Centennial Dam, the brook runs under a small bridge that connects North Stone Mill Drive and South Stone Mill Drive. After entering Hyde Park, it runs under bridges at River Street and Reservation Road, before merging with the Neponset.
Various improvements to the bridges have been proposed and carried out over the years by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the Town of Dedham, the City of Boston, and private interests.
Recreation
A canoeist in 1893 wrote of his trip down the brook that upon entering from the Charles he
bid adieu to the flat marshlands and broad views of the farther river, for the little brook caries us thought varied scenery now by a barnyard with it lowing cattle, ducks splashing and dibbing in the water and a dilapidated old carryall backed into the stream, left to wash itself, and then into the cool woodlands, where we can almost touch the banks on either hand. And the green alder bushes arch over our heads, forming a cool and shady tunnel.
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The water is so shallow that we see plainly the brilliantly colored pebbles on the bottom and daintly hued little fish darting hither and thither. it is a busy, brawling stream and hurries on to join the Neponset, industrioulsy turning the numerous mills on the way.
The Brook was long a popular place to swim and ice skate. A public bath house was constructed in 1898 at a cost of $700. In 1907, afternoons on Tuesdays and Fridays were set aside for women's use. Girls 16 and under were allowed in free, while those older were charged 5 cents. The youngest member of the Parks Commission, J. Vincent Reilly, taught crowds of more than 200 how to swim. It burned down in 1923, and a proposal in 1924 to rebuild it was expected to receive an unfavorable recommendation from the Warrant Committee. The swimming area at present day Mill Pond Park was considered a perk of working at the Boston Envelope Company in 1936. According to one contemporary, in the winters of the 1870s and 1880s the "youth then gathered on the ice [to ice skate] must have numbered in the hundreds."
Future Supreme Court justice Louis D. Brandeis wrote to William Beltran De Las Casas, the Chairman of the Metropolitan Park Commission, in 1905, asking him to consider including the brook in the Metropolitan Park System of Greater Boston. He said "unique in the metropolitan district. It is quite like the Main woods." He added that if it was added, though it is separated from the rest of the parks, "the future interests of our metropolitan park system would in my opinion be greatly subserved." De Las Cas agreed with Brandeis, but the mill owners in the area threatened to sue to prevent the action, and the costs of taking it by eminent domain were high.
In 1915 it was said that well-kept gardens could be seen along both sides of the length of the brook. It was also a popular boating and bathing destination. In at least the 1930s and 1940s, the state Division of Fish and Game stocked the brook with trout for fishing. The banks were lined with fishermen during parts of 1941.
While Dedham had a Commissioner of Mother Brook during this time period, the Planning Board was responsible for the recreation aspects of the brook, appointing a special police officer and life-saver, and running swimming and diving competitions. The swimming competitions drew crowds of 800.
In 1968 the Metropolitan Park Commission applied for an "Open Spaces Grant" from the federal government, during which time part of the area near the headwaters were being drained to build the Dedham Mall. The Boston Natural Areas Fund conserved a lot along the brook in 1980 as "green relief from massed buildings and pavement." The City of Boston built a new park on Reservation Road in 1999, shoring up the banks of the brook while they worked. The project on the six acre site included a skateboard park, a landscaped nature area along the brook, and a cleanup of contaminants.
Today along the banks of the brook are walking trails, a picnic area, a canoe launch, Condon Park, a handicapped accessible playground, and more. The Mother Brook Community Group won a grant from Dedham Savings to turn the old Town Beach at the intersection of Bussey and Colburn Street into a passive park with an observation deck, benches, landscaping and a stone path. Mill Pond Park opened on July 12, 2014. The Community Group has also opened more areas of the brook back up to fishing, and the catches are safe to eat in moderate amounts. At the 2015 Fall Annual Town Meeting, the town established the Mother Brook 375th Anniversary Committee. Serving on it were Dan Hart, Nicole Keane, Brian Keaney, Vicky L. Krukeberg, Charlie Krueger, Gerri Roberts, and Jean Ford Webb.
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
"Men of Useful Trades, Craftsmen and Mills of the Dedham Grant, 1636-1840," by Electa Kane Tritsch, Dedham Grant Survey Project, 1981
Parks in Dedham, Massachusetts
Charles River
Neponset River
Watersheds of Boston Harbor
Rivers of Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Rivers of Massachusetts
Canals in Massachusetts
Canals opened in 1639
1639 establishments in the Massachusetts Bay Colony
Articles containing video clips
Transportation buildings and structures in Norfolk County, Massachusetts |
4218324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four%20Branches%20of%20the%20Mabinogi | Four Branches of the Mabinogi | The Four Branches of the Mabinogi or are the earliest prose stories in the literature of Britain. Originally written in Wales in Middle Welsh, but widely available in translations, the is generally agreed to be a single work in four parts, or "branches." The interrelated tales can be read as mythology, political themes, romances, or magical fantasies. They appeal to a wide range of readers, from young children to the most sophisticated adult. The tales are popular today in book format, as storytelling or theatre performances; they appear in recordings and on film, and continue to inspire many reinterpretations in artwork and modern fiction.
Overview
The are known as the Four Branches of the , or in Welsh. The tales were compiled from oral tradition in the 11th century. They survived in private family libraries via medieval manuscripts, of which two main versions and some fragments continue to survive today. Early modern scholarship of the saw the tales as a garbled Welsh mythology which prompted attempts to salvage or reconstruct them. Since the 1970s the tales have become recognised as a complex secular literature, though rooted in and containing elements of Welsh Mythology, with powerfully explored characters, political, ethical and gendered themes, as well as imaginative fantasies. The style of writing is admired for its deceptive simplicity and controlled wordpower, as well as intricate doublets where mirrorings have been compared to Celtic knotwork. The world displayed within the extends across Wales, to Ireland, and into England. It presents a legendary Britain as a united land under a king, yet with powerful separate princedoms, where native Welsh law, (magic), and romance, combine in a unique synergy. Possible authors who have been proposed for the Four Branches include and .
Each Branch contains several tale episodes in a sequence, and each Branch is titled with the name of a leading protagonist. These titles are and , but this is a modern custom; the Branches are not titled in the mediaeval manuscripts. Only one character appears in all four Branches, , though he is never dominant or central to any of the Branches.
Prince of tells of the heroic and magical sojourn of in , his shapeshifting, chastity and a duel, which all establish a mighty alliance. The formidable courts him, and he helps her win her freedom to marry him. The strange abduction at birth of their baby son follows, with his rescue, fostering and restoration by the good lord of the Kingdom of Gwent. The child is named .
Daughter of follows 's marriage to the King of Ireland, who abuses her due to insult by her half brother, . A tragically genocidal war develops fomented by , in which a Cauldron which resurrects the dead figures, and the giant king Bran's head survives his death in an enchanted idyll. is merely named as a war survivor, and dies, heartbroken.
Son of brother of , heir to the throne of Britain, becomes 's good friend during the war. arranges his friend's marriage to . The land of is devastated. Journeys in England setting up craft businesses follow. An enchanted trap removes and becomes a farmer. He cannily negotiates their release, as well as the restoration of the land, by confronting the villain behind it all.
Son of is a dark sequence of deception and treachery: war with , the death of , the double rape of a virgin girl, and the rejection of an unwanted hero son by proud her magician brother is the architect of all these destinies. He adds an artificially incubated pregnancy, and a synthetic woman. She, , creates a treacherous love triangle, murder in a peculiar manner. makes a shamanic journey of redemption.
The Branches
First branch: , Prince of
, " Prince of ", hunting on his own land, meets the shining or "Hounds of ", and takes another man's kill, a stag, for himself. , the king of , is greatly offended. As recompense, switches bodies with and dwells in to vanquish 's adversary. chastely shares the queen's bed for a year. defeats 's enemy , and is then rewarded with an alliance between his land of , and then returns home to where he finds it has been well ruled by in the past year.
Next, encounters , a beautiful and powerful maiden on a shining magical horse. They are strangely unreachable by anyone, for as they attempt to approach, and her horse get further away. Finally, they ask her to stop in which she complies and it is revealed that has chosen as her husband, which he welcomes. On and 's wedding day in the court of appears in disguise and tricks into giving him the entire wedding feast and then guides through a cunning strategy using her magic bag which can never be filled, to extricate her from her betrothal to the princely is trapped in the bag and beaten by 's men until he agrees to 's terms, including foregoing vengeance.
eventually bears a son and heir, but the child disappears the night he is born. 's maids, in fear of their lives, accuse her of killing and eating her own baby. negotiates a penalty where she must sit at the castle gate every day for seven years telling her terrible tale to strangers and offer them a ride on her back. Meanwhile, the child is rescued from its monstrous abductor by . He and his wife adopt the boy who grows heroically apace, and adores horses. They called him ( 'Golden Hair', ). sees the boy's resemblance to , so he restores the boy to for a happy ending. is vindicated as is 's loyalty to her. Their son is renamed "Loss", as is custom from his mother's first words to him: puns on anxiety and labour. In due course, inherits the rule of .
Second Branch: , Daughter of
In the second branch, , sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is requested by and given in marriage to , king of Ireland. 's half-brother , angered that no one consulted him, insults by mutilating all his valuable horses so horribly they become useless. the Blessed gives compensation in the form of new horses and treasure, then added a magical cauldron () which can restore the dead to life, although the revived persons will always remain unable to speak. The legend of this cauldron, when the two kings compare its lore, is that it came from Ireland.
In Ireland, and have a son, . The Irish nobles continue to be hostile because of what did. allows them to sway him, and casts away to serf in the kitchens, struck on the face every day by a low-caste butcher. trains a starling to take a message to across the Irish Sea. He musters his host and crosses the sea to war on is so huge he wades across with his ships beside him. persuades the Irish to sue for peace by building a colossal building to house , which he has never had before.
The Irish hide two hundred warriors in the house, hanging in bags on its pillars. shrewdly suspects treachery and disbelieves the Irish story these are bags of flour. He crushes the skull of each hidden warrior, singing after he does it. Later, at the feast, deliberately seeks to create discord. He throws his infant nephew on the fire and kills him. Fighting breaks out and the Irish use the Cauldron to revive their dead. hides among the corpses to get in the Cauldron, stretches and cracks it, dying as he does so.
The war had become a genocide. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. Only Seven Survivors remained of the British host, besides . One is 's other brother, and his good friend , mortally wounded by a poisoned spear, bids the survivors to cut off his head, and take it to bury at the White Tower in London. He prophesies his head will be their good companion and advise them, while they will sojourn for many years of idyllic feasting, first at in , then on the isle of in . But on arriving back in Britain, dies of grief for the many who have died.
means 'raven'; means 'white raven'; and means 'trouble, strife'.
Third Branch: , son of
of returns from the Irish War as one of its few survivors, to reunite with his mother , and his wife . He brings with him his beloved war comrade, , the heir to the kingship of all Britain. But 's rights as heir to Britain have been usurped by , and he does not want more war. establishes him as the lord of , including marriage to , a union which both partners welcome. The four of them, and her new husband , become very good friends indeed, and travel the land of admiring how bountiful it is.
Together they sit the , as once did. A clap of thunder, a bright light, and magical mist descend. Afterwards the land is devastated of all other life except wild animals. The four live by hunting, but after two years they want more, so they travel to England. In three towns in turn they craft saddles, shields and shoes of such quality that the local craftsmen cannot compete, so their envy becomes dangerous. dislikes the lower class way of life, and stops him from fighting their enemies. Instead insists on moving away. After three attempts like this, they return to .
Once more living as hunters and follow a shining white boar to a strange castle. , against 's advice, follows his hounds inside to become trapped there by a golden bowl. waits, then reports to who rebukes his failure to rescue his friend. But when she follows her son she too becomes trapped. Alone with reassures her he will respect her virtue. After another attempt in England as shoemakers, the pair return to , and farms three fields of wheat next to . But his first field's harvest is cut down by thieves, and his second. He sits vigil at night, and sees a horde of mice eating the ripe corn. He catches a slow, fat one. Against 's protest he sets up a miniature gibbet to hang it as a thief.
A scholar, a priest and a bishop in turn offer him money if he will spare the mouse which he refuses. When asked what he wants for the mouse's life he first demands an explanation. The bishop tells him he is , friend of the wronged , the mouse is 's shapeshiften wife, and the devastation of is to avenge bargains to release of and , and the lifting of the curse on .
Fourth Branch: , son of
in North Wales is ruled by the magician king , whose feet must be held by a virgin at all times except while he is at war. 's nephew is infatuated with , the royal maiden foot-holder, so 's brother plots to aid him. He deceives of with magical sham gifts of horses and dogs, in exchange for 's valuable swine, a gift from makes war in revenge, so leaves without his protection. and rape her, and kills in single combat. marries in compensation for her rape. He punishes the two brothers by shapeshifting them into animal pairs who must mate and bear young; first deer, then boars, then wolves. The sons they bear become 's foster sons, and after three years the brothers are reconciled with .
suggests his sister as the new footholder. magically tests her virginity requiring her to step over his wand. She immediately gives birth to a son, , who takes to the sea. She also drops a scrap of life which scoops up and incubates in a chest by his bed. is deeply shamed and angered so she utterly rejects the boy. She swears a doom upon him that he cannot have a name, nor warrior arms, unless she gives them to him. tricks her into naming the boy (Bright Skillful Hand) by speaking to him, not knowing who he is as he is shapeshifted. More shapeshifting fakes a military attack so gives them arms - dressing and arming herself.
's third curse is may not marry a human woman. and construct a beautiful wife for him from oak blossom, broom flowers, and meadowsweet, naming her (Flower Face). But and fall deeply in love. tells her to find out the secret of 's protected life, which she does in the trust of her marriage bed. She begs to explain so she can know how to protect him. The method is complicated, taking a year of almost impossible effort but completes it and falls to his spear, transforms into an eagle and departs. and then live together.
pursues a quest to find , who far away in eagle form perches up a tree, dying. tracks a sow which he finds eating maggots falling from 's rotting body. sings a magical (poem) gradually bringing back to humanity. offers to compensate ; but insists on returning the blow as it was struck against him. is cowardly and attempts to evade it using a stone shield. kills with his spear, which pierces him through the stone. punishes by transforming her into an owl, a pariah among birds.
See also
Mabinogion, a larger collection of British/Welsh medieval literary tales
Resources
Introductory
ONLINE - FREE translation in English, a page for each Branch, by Will Parker. Includes footnotes.
BOOK John Bollard's edition in English, 'Legend and Landscape of Wales: The Mabinogi' 2007. Illustrated with photographs of the sites in the tales. (See Translations)
BOOK Sioned Davies translation 'The Mabinogion' 2008. (See Translations)
VIDEO Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on YouTube, fuller version of the retelling on DVD, by Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream.
RECORDING Jones, Colin. 2008. “Mabinogion, the Four Branches.” Recordings of the Guest text, with background music. The first episode is free on the site.
Ifor Williams, 'Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi, Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhydderch' 1930, 1951. In Welsh. Scanned at online.
Tales from the Mabinogion, trans. Gwyn Thomas. Illustrated by Margaret Jones. 2006.
Key Resources for Study
Morgain, Shan. (2013) The Mabinogi Bibliography. Comprehensive annotated bibliography, searchable on tags; can derive citations. Includes much material on the wider Mabinogion, and some background context e.g. history, language.
Parker, Will. (2002) “Bibliographic Essay. The Four Branches of the Mabinogi, A Medieval Celtic Text; English Language Scholarship 1795-1997.” Mabinogi.net. A survey of Mabinogi scholarship from the 19thC to the end of the 20thC.
Parker, Will. (2003) Annotated translation of the Four Branches. Mabinogi.net. Translations made for his book (Parker, Will. (2005) The Four Branches of the Mabinogi. Dublin: Bardic Press. See www.mabinogi.net for Parker's articles.
Welsh sources
For the Welsh text in Middle Welsh spelling see Williams, Ifor. (1930, 1951). Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi. Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhydderch. CUP. Classic text for modern students, and Welsh speakers, based on all the surviving MSS. This was the first modern use of the title Pedair Keinc y Mabinogi.
For the Welsh text in modernised spelling see J. M. Edwards, Mabinogion (o Lyfr Coch Hergest): Pwyll, Pendefig Dyfed, Branwen Ferch Llyr, Manawyddan fab Llyr, Math fab Mathonwy (Wrecsam: Hughes A'i Fab, 1921)
The Four Branches are edited individually in Middle Welsh with English glossary and notes as follows:
First Branch: R. L. Thomson, Pwyll Pendeuic Dyuet. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1957.
Second Branch: D. S. Thomson, Branwen Uerch Lyr. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1976.
Third Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Manawydan uab Llyr. Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 2000.
Fourth Branch: Patrick K. Ford, Math uab Mathonwy. Belmont, Mass.: Ford and Bailie, 1999.
For the Middle Welsh text closely copied from the mediaeval manuscripts (diplomatic editions) see: Rhys, John; and Evans, John Gwenogvryn. 1907,1973, 2010. The White Book of the Mabinogion: Welsh Tales and Romances Reproduced from the Peniarth Manuscripts. Series of Welsh Texts 7. Pwllheli. Also Evans transcript of the Llyfr Coch 1887.
The three mediaeval manuscripts which have survived into modern times, were scribed in the 13th and 14th centuries, later than the compilation period of the work in the 11th century. The text in all three does not greatly differ, but it is thought that they are not copies of each other, but of lost earlier originals. The oldest is only a fragment; Peniarth 6, c. 1225; containing parts of the Second and Third Branches. The other two are named by the colour of their covers: LLyfr Gwyn ("White Book") and Llyfr Coch ("Red Book").
The oldest complete version is the "White Book of Rhydderch" (Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch), one of the Peniarth Manuscripts. It was scribed c. 1350 by five different writers, probably commissioned by Ieuan ab Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd near Ceredigion. It was then copied and studied by various Welsh scholars. About 1658, it was acquired by the antiquary Robert Vaughan and preserved in his famous library of Hengwrt near Dolgellau, Gwynedd. In 1859 it was passed to the Peniarth library by William Watkin Edward Wynne. Finally, John Williams presented it to the National Library of Wales in 1904, where it can be viewed today in two volumes.
The second complete version which has survived is the "Red Book of Hergest" (Llyfr Coch Hergest). The scribing was c. 1382–1410, in a time of unrest culminating in Owain Glyndŵr's uprising. The scribe has been identified as Hywel Fychan fab Hywel Goch of Buellt, who worked for Hopcyn ap Tomas ab Einion (fl. 1337–1408) near Swansea. The Hopcyn library changed hands due to war and politics several times, with owners including the Vaughans of Hergest. The MS. wandered on, sometimes slightly dubiously via 'borrowing'. Edward Lhuyd is one of many who copied it to study. In 1701 it was donated to Jesus College Oxford where it remains today. Here it was copied by the young Ioan Tegid when a student at University of Oxford c. 1815-17 for Charles Bosanquet. Later Tegid, as a senior bard and scholar, assisted Lady Charlotte Guest in her bilingual publication series, The Mabinogion, which brought the tales to the modern world. Her volume containing the Mabinogi was published in 1845, and her work is still popular today.
Welsh Icons United a 2014 exhibition at the National Library of Wales, guested the Llyfr Coch, the Red Book, as part of its display; thus bringing the two main Mabinogi MSS. under one roof for the first time. (12 October – 15 March 2014)
Translations into English
Pughe, William Owen. 1795. “The Mabinogion, or Juvenile Amusements, Being Ancient Welsh Romances.” Cambrian Register, 177–87. First publication, and English trans. of the first story in the First Branch. Also: Pughe, William Owen. 1829. “The Mabinogi: Or, the Romance of Math Ab Mathonwy.” The Cambrian Quarterly Magazine and Celtic Repository 1: 170–79. English trans. of the First Branch.
Guest, Charlotte; aka Charlotte Schreiber, trans. and editor. The Mabinogion. (1845 part of a series, bilingual; 1849 part of 3 vols bilingual; 1877 one vol. English only.) Llandovery, Wales; and London; simultaneously. Guest's trans. continue to introduce many to the stories today in her characteristically flowing style.
Ellis, Thomas Peter., and Lloyd, John; trans. (1929) The Mabinogion: A New Translation by T.P. Ellis and John Lloyd. Oxford: Clarendon Press. An accurate and useful edition for students.
Jones, Gwyn and Thomas Jones; trans. (1949) The Mabinogion. Everyman's Library, 1949; revised 1974, 1989, 1993. The first major edition to supplant Guest.
2001 Edition, (Preface by John Updike), .
Gantz, Jeffrey; trans. (1976) The Mabinogion. London and New York: Penguin Books. . A popular edition for many years, still very readable pocket edition.
Ford, Patrick K. ; trans. (1977)The Mabinogi and Other Medieval Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University of California Press. . Focuses on the native tales of the Mabinogion, including the Mabinogi.
Parker, Will. 2003. “Mabinogi Translations." Very useful free online resource for instant access, and quick checks.
Bollard, John K. trans, and Griffiths, Anthony; photog. (2006) The Mabinogi: Legend and Landscape of Wales. Gomer Press, Llandysul. . An excellent introduction, clear, beautifully designed, with photographs of the Mabinogi sites today.
Davies, Sioned. (2007) The Mabinogion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . A modern edition in practical format, backed by solid scholarship.
J. R. R. Tolkien began work on a translation of Pwyll Prince of Dyfed. His translation is held at the Bodleian Library.
Modern Interpretations
Walton, Evangeline. "The Mabinogion Tetralogy." Prose retelling. "The Island of the Mighty" 1970, first publ. as "The Virgin and the Swine" 1936; "The Children of Llyr" 1971; "The Song of Rhiannon" 1972; "Prince of Annwn" 1974. As a tetralogy New York: Ballantine Books. .
Cybi. (1996) The Mabinogion. Partly free on YouTube and a fuller version of the retelling on DVD, by Cybi the laughing monk. Valley Stream. A lovely intro.
Hayes, Derek W. (2007). Otherworld. S4C / BBC Wales. Animation and video with leading musicians and actors, using cutting edge CGI tech. of the time, an impressive work. See artwork on the site.
Arberth Studios. (2008) Rhiannon: Curse Of The Four Branches (PC DVD). Not very closely based, more loosely inspired.
Eames, Manon. (2008) Magnificent Myths of the Mabinogi. Stage performance of the full Mabinogi, in Aberystwyth. Staged in a slightly abridged version by Jill Williams at the Pontardawe Arts Centre, 2009. Each was performed by youth theatre.
Jones, Colin. 2008. Mabinogion, the Four Branches. Recordings of the Guest text, with atmospheric background music. The first episode is free on the site.
In 2009 Seren Books began publishing a radical new interpretation of the tales, as a series, setting them in modern times and in different countries. The series completed 2014. See here.
Damh the Bard has released three albums retelling the first three branches in a combination of song and spoken word with accompaniment. "Y Mabinogi - The First Branch" (2017), "Y Mabinogi - The Second Branch" (2018), "Y Mabinogi - The Third Branch" (2020). As of 2023, the final album is forthcoming. See here.
References
Medieval Welsh literature
Mabinogion
Welsh-language literature
Welsh mythology
gl:Mabinogion |
4218578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20OHA%20Junior%20A%20standings | List of OHA Junior A standings | This is a list of OHA standings and season-by-season summaries of the Ontario Hockey Association's Junior A division from 1933 to 1972, and its Tier I division from 1972 to 1974.
Legend
GP = games played
W = wins
L = losses
T = ties
Pts = points
GF = goals for
GA = goals against
1933–34
The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Stratford Midgets 2 games to 0.
Playoffs
Group Semi-finals
London beat Woodstock 3 goals to 2.
(1-2, 2-0)
Kitchener Empires beat Galt Terrier Pups 5 goals to 4.
(1-3, 4-1)
Group Finals
Toronto Young Rangers beat Parkdale Canoe Club 13 goals to 3.
(4-2, 9-1)
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Oshawa Majors 2 wins to none, 1 tie.
(3-3, 8-2, 10-4)
Windsor Wanderers beat London 8 goals to 5.
(2-0, 6-5)
Stratford Midgets beat Kitchener Empires 11 goals to 9.
(5-4, 6-5)
Semi-final
Stratford Midgets beat Windsor Wanderers 25 goals to 3.
(6-2, 19-1)
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Toronto Young Rangers 13 goals to 3.
(6-0, 7-3)
Robertson Cup Finals
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Stratford Midgets 2 wins to none.
(7-0, 4-2)
OHA Grand Championship
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat St. Michael's Buzzers (Jr. B) by default.
(12-3, default)
1934–35
The Kitchener Greenshirts won the J. Ross Robertson Cup by default over the Oshawa Majors.
Playoffs
Group Semi-finals
Toronto Lions beat Toronto St. Michael's Majors 8 goals to 7.
(0-3, 5-2, 3-2)
Stratford Midgets beat Galt Terrier Pups 11 goals to 2.
(6-1, 5-1)
Group Finals
Oshawa Majors beat Toronto Lions 2 wins to none.
(10-2, 10-3)
Toronto Young Rangers beat Parkdale Canoe Club 13 goals to 4.
(4-3, 9-1)
Kitchener Greenshirts beat Stratford Midgets 2 wins to none, 1 tie.
(2-2, 6-1, 5-4)
Semi-final
Kitchener Greenshirts beat Windsor Wanderers 10 goals to 4.
(4-1, 6-3)
Oshawa Majors beat Toronto Young Rangers 10 goals to 8.
(3-4, 4-3, 3-1)
Robertson Cup Final
Results thrown out due to Oshawa using illegal player.
Oshawa won Game 1 4-1, Kitchener won Game 2 4-3, then it was discovered that Oshawa used an illegal player (Bill Bagnall). Due to time constraints a third game was then played to determine entry into the Memorial Cup playdowns, but not the winner of the winner of the Robertson Cup -- to be determined later.
Robertson Cup replay
Quarter-final
Toronto Lions 9 - Toronto Young Rangers 8 (OT)
Semi-final
Kitchener Greenshirts 7 - Toronto Lions 5
Final
Kitchener Greenshirts beat Oshawa Majors by default
Oshawa refused to play, claiming they had already won the championship. The Ontario Hockey Association disagreed and awarded the title to Kitchener.
1935–36
The West Toronto Nationals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Kitchener Greenshirts 2 games to 0.
Playoffs
Group Semi-finals
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Toronto Native Sons 9 goals to 6.
(3-4, 6-2)
West Toronto Nationals beat Toronto Young Rangers 6 goals to 3.
(5-0, 1-3)
Stratford Midgets beat Niagara Falls 12 goals to 9.
(6-5, 6-4)
Group Finals
West Toronto Nationals beat Toronto St. Michael's Majors 3 wins to none.
(1-0, 6-1, 6-5)
Kitchener Greenshirts beat Stratford Midgets 5 goals to 1.
(2-0, 3-1)
Semi-final
West Toronto Nationals beat Oshawa Majors 2 wins to none.
(5-2, 6-2)
Robertson Cup Final
West Toronto Nationals beat Kitchener Greenshirts 2 wins to none.
(3-2, 6-1)
1936–37
The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Stratford Midgets 3 games to 2.
Playoffs
Group Semi-finals
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Toronto Young Rangers 2 wins to 1.
(7-4, 3-4, 12-4)
Toronto British Consols beat Oshawa Generals 2 wins to none.
(4-1, 5-5, 7-4)
Group Finals
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Toronto British Consols 3 wins to none.
(4-3, 5-3, 3-1)
Stratford Midgets beat Kitchener Greenshirts 2 wins to none.
(5-3, 4-1)
Robertson Cup
Toronto St. Michael's Majors beat Stratford Midgets 3 wins to 2.
(6-2, 4-7, 4-5, 6-5, 8-3)
1937–38
The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Guelph Indians 3 games to 0.
1938–39
The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Toronto Native Sons 3 games to 0.
1939–40
The league drops its divisions. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors and the Toronto Lions drop out of the league. The University of Toronto Varsity Blues drop out of the league mid-season. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Toronto Marlboros 3 games to 2.
1940–41
Toronto Young Rangers are renamed Toronto Bowles Rangers. Guelph Indians become Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Toronto Marlboros 4 games to 3.
1941–42
The Toronto Bowles Rangers revert to being the Toronto Young Rangers. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors rejoin the league. The Brantford Lions join the league. The Toronto Native Sons drop out halfway through the season, and declare all their games forfeit. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters 3 games to 2.
1942–43
The Hamilton Whizzers and the Stratford Kroehlers join the league. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters drop out of the league. The Toronto Young Rangers drop out of the league. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Brantford Lions 4 games to 1.
1943–44
The OHA splits into two groups when four teams join the league; the Galt Canadians, St. Catharines Falcons, Port Colborne Recreationists, and Toronto Young Rangers. The Hamilton Whizzers, become Hamilton Majors. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Toronto St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 1.
1944–45
The OHA groups are dissolved when the Brantford Lions, Stratford Kroehlers and Hamilton Majors drop out of league. The Galt Canadians become the Galt Red Wings. The Port Colborne Recreationists drop out of the league mid-season. The inaugural Red Tilson Trophy is awarded to Doug McMurdy, as the most outstanding player in the OHA; Albert "Red" Tilson, a recent Oshawa Generals player and the OHA scoring champion of 1942–43, was killed in World War II action just as the 1944–45 OHA season was starting. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Galt Red Wings 4 games to 0.
(*) folded mid-season
1945–46
The Barrie Flyers and the Hamilton Lloyds join the league. The inaugural Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy is awarded for the top scorer in the league to Tod Sloan. He was also awarded the Red Tilson Trophy as the most outstanding player. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Oshawa Generals 4 games to 2.
1946–47
The Hamilton Lloyds become Hamilton Szabos. The Windsor Spitfires join the league, and the Stratford Kroehlers rejoin the league. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Galt Red Wings 4 games to 0.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Ed Sandford, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Fleming Mackell, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
1947–48
Hamilton drops out of the league. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters join the league. The Galt Red Wings become the Galt Rockets. The St. Catharines Falcons become the St. Catharines Teepees. The Barrie Flyers won the J. Ross Robertson Cup, defeating the Windsor Spitfires 4 games to 2.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = George Armstrong, Stratford Kroehlers
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = George Armstrong, Stratford Kroehlers
1948–49
Toronto Young Rangers drop out of the league. The Barrie Flyers won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Gil Mayer, Barrie Flyers
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Bert Giesebrecht, Windsor Spitfires
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Gil Mayer, Barrie Flyers
1949–50
The Galt Rockets become the Galt Black Hawks. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = George Armstrong, Toronto Marlboros
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Earl Reibel, Windsor Spitfires
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Don Lockhart, Toronto Marlboros
1950–51
The Waterloo Hurricanes join the league. The Barrie Flyers won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Glenn Hall, Windsor Spitfires
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Lou Jankowski, Oshawa Generals
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Don Lockhart, Toronto Marlboros & Lorne Howes, Barrie Flyers
All Stars
G: Glenn Hall, Windsor Spitfires
D: Jim Morrison, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Frank Martin, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Alex Delvecchio, Oshawa Generals, and Ken Laufman, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters (tied)
R: Lou Jankowski, Oshawa Generals
L: Real Chevrefils, Barrie Flyers
1951–52
The Kitchener Greenshirts join the league. The Stratford Kroehlers drop out of the league. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Bill Harrington, Kitchener Greenshirts
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Ken Laufman, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Don Head, Toronto Marlboros
1952–53
The Waterloo Hurricanes drop out of the league. The Barrie Flyers won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Bob Attersley, Oshawa Generals
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Jim McBurney, Galt Black Hawks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = John Henderson, Toronto Marlboros
1953–54
The Windsor Spitfires become the Hamilton Tiger Cubs. The Oshawa Generals drop out of the league, after a fire destroys the Hambly Arena. The St. Catharines Teepees won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Brian Cullen, St. Catharines Teepees
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Brian Cullen, St. Catharines Teepees
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Dennis Riggin, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
1954–55
The Kitchener Greenshirts become the Kitchener Canucks. The Toronto Marlboros won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Hank Ciesla, St. Catharines Teepees
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Hank Ciesla, St. Catharines Teepees
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = John Albani, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - First Team
G: Dennis Riggin, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: Ron Howell, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Elmer Vasko, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Hank Ciesla, St. Catharines Teepees
R: Barry Cullen, St. Catharines Teepees
L: Bill McCreary, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
All Stars - Second Team
G: John Albani, Toronto Marlboros
D: Larry Hillman, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: unknown
C: Billy Harris, Toronto Marlboros
R: Gary Aldcorn, Toronto Marlboros
L: Dick Duff, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
1955–56
The Galt Black Hawks drop out of the league. The Toronto Marlboros won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Ron Howell, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Stan Baluik, Kitchener Canucks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Jim Crocket, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - First Team
G: Dennis Riggin, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: Ron Howell, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Elmer Vasko, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Stan Baluik, Kitchener Canucks
R: Walt Bradley, Kitchener Canucks
L: Ab McDonald, St. Catharines Teepees
All Stars - Second Team
G: Roy Edwards, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Al MacNeil, Toronto Marlboros
D: Bob Baun, Toronto Marlboros
C: Max Szturm, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
R: Bob Forhan, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
L: Frank Mahovlich, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
1956–57
The Kitchener Canucks become the Peterborough TPT Petes. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Each team played each other team eight times, as well as playing four games against the Hull-Ottawa Canadiens.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Frank Mahovlich, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Bill Sweeney, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Len Broderick, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - First Team
G: Bruce Gamble, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Ron Casey, Toronto Marlboros
D: Harry Neale, Toronto Marlboros
C: Frank Mahovlich, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
R: Bob Nevin, Toronto Marlboros
L: Eddie Shack, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
All Stars - Second Team
G: Carl Wetzel, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: John Chasczewski, Barrie Flyers
D: unknown
C: Bill Sweeney, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters, and Bill Kennedy, Toronto Marlboros
R: unknown
L: unknown
1957–58
Each team played each other team eight times, as well as playing four games against the Hull-Ottawa Canadiens (although the final game between Barrie and Hull-Ottawa was cancelled).
The Hamilton Spectator donated a trophy awarded annually to the team that finished first overall in the regular season. The St. Catharines Teepees won the first Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Toronto Marlboros won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Murray Oliver, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = John McKenzie, St. Catharines Teepees
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Len Broderick, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - First Team
G: Bruce Gamble, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Carl Brewer, Toronto Marlboros
D: Wayne Hillman, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Ed Hoekstra, St. Catharines Teepees
R: John McKenzie, St. Catharines Teepees
L: Jack McMaster, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - Second Team
G: Carl Wetzel, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: Irv Spencer, Peterborough TPT Petes
D: Wally Chevrier, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
C: Murray Oliver, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
R: Bob Nevin, Toronto Marlboros
L: Stan Mikita, St. Catharines Teepees
1958–59
The St. Catharines Teepees repeated their first overall finish in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Peterborough TPT Petes won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Stan Mikita, St. Catharines Teepees
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Stan Mikita, St. Catharines Teepees
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Jacques Caron, Peterborough TPT Petes
All Stars - First Team
G: Denis DeJordy, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Lloyd Haddon, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
D: Pat Stapleton, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Stan Mikita, St. Catharines Teepees
R: Wayne Connelly, Peterborough TPT Petes
L: Fred Hilts, St. Catharines Teepees
All Stars - Second Team
G: Norm Jacques, Barrie Flyers
D: Wayne Hillman, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Darryl Sly, Toronto St. Michael's Majors, and Roger Cote, Toronto Marlboros (tied)
C: Larry Babcock, Peterborough TPT Petes, and Danny Patrick, Barrie Flyers (tied)
R: Chico Maki, St. Catharines Teepees
L: Bill Mahoney, Peterborough TPT Petes
1959–60
The Toronto Marlboros finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The St. Catharines Teepees won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Wayne Connelly, Peterborough TPT Petes
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Chico Maki, St. Catharines Teepees
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Gerry Cheevers, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
All Stars
G: Roger Crozier, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Dale Rolfe, Barrie Flyers
D: Pat Stapleton, St. Catharines Teepees
C: Dave Keon, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
R: Chico Maki, St. Catharines Teepees
L: Pierre Gagne, Barrie Flyers, and Vic Hadfield, St. Catharines Teepees
1960–61
The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters become the Guelph Royals. The Barrie Flyers become the Niagara Falls Flyers. The Hamilton Tiger Cubs become the Hamilton Red Wings. The OHA inaugurates the Max Kaminsky Trophy for the league's most gentlemanly player. The Guelph Royals finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Rod Gilbert, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Rod Gilbert, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Bud Blom, Hamilton Red Wings
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Bruce Draper, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
All Stars - First Team
G: Roger Crozier, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Ed Westfall, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Barclay Plager, Peterborough TPT Petes, and Al LeBrun, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters (tied)
C: Bruce Draper, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
R: Rod Gilbert, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
L: Gary Jarrett, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - Second Team
G: Gerry Cheevers, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
D: Mike McMahon, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
D: Terry O'Malley, Toronto St. Michael's Majors
C: Jean Ratelle, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
R: Murray Hall, St. Catharines Teepees
L: Bob Cunningham, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters
1961–62
The Montreal Jr. Canadiens join the OHA from the Quebec Junior Hockey League. The Metro Junior A League starts. Its teams will be the St. Michael's Majors, Toronto Marlboros, Brampton 7Ups, Unionville Seaforths and Whitby Mohawks. The Montreal Junior Canadiens finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Hamilton Red Wings won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Pit Martin, Hamilton Red Wings
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Andre Boudrias, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = George Holmes, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Lowell MacDonald, Hamilton Tiger Cubs
All Stars - First Team
G: Roger Crozier, St. Catharines Teepees
D: Jacques Laperriere, Montreal Junior Canadiens
D: Mike McMahon, Guelph Royals, and Ron Harris, Hamilton Red Wings
C: Pit Martin, Hamilton Red Wings
R: Lowell MacDonald, Hamilton Red Wings
L: Rejean Richer, Montreal Junior Canadiens
All Stars - Second Team
G: Buddy Blom, Hamilton Red Wings
D: Bob Wall, Hamilton Red Wings
D: John Gravel, Montreal Junior Canadiens
C: Phil Esposito, St. Catharines Teepees
R: Andre Boudrias, Montreal Junior Canadiens
L: Howie Dietrich, Niagara Falls Flyers
1962–63
The Oshawa Generals join the Metro Junior League. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors become the Toronto Neil McNeil Maroons. The Unionville Seaforths become Toronto Knob Hill Farms. The Whitby Mohawks become the Whitby Dunlops. The St. Catharines Teepees become the St. Catharines Black Hawks. The Niagara Falls Flyers finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Wayne Maxner, Niagara Falls Flyers
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Wayne Maxner, Niagara Falls Flyers
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Chuck Goddard, Peterborough Petes
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Paul Henderson, Hamilton Red Wings
All Stars - First Team
G: Chuck Goddard, Peterborough Petes
D: Bryan Watson, Peterborough Petes
D: Bob Wall, Hamilton Red Wings
C: Pit Martin, Hamilton Red Wings
R: Paul Henderson, Hamilton Red Wings
L: Wayne Maxner, Niagara Falls Flyers
All Stars - Second Team
G: George Gardner, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Poul Popiel, St. Catharines Black Hawks
D: Ron Hergott and Don Awrey, Niagara Falls Flyers
C: Billy Inglis, Montreal Junior Canadiens
R: Yvan Cournoyer, Montreal Junior Canadiens
L: Germain Gagnon, Montreal Junior Canadiens
1963–64
The Metro Junior League disbands. The Toronto Marlboros rejoin the OHA, as do the Oshawa Generals although they play their first season in Bowmanville. The other teams in the Metro Junior League cease operations. The Guelph Royals become the Kitchener Rangers. The Toronto Marlboros, now the only team representing Toronto in an OHA Junior A season in the league's history, finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Yvan Cournoyer, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Andre Boudrias, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Bernie Parent, Niagara Falls Flyers
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Fred Stanfield, St. Catharines Black Hawks
All Stars - First Team
G: Chuck Goddard, Peterborough Petes
D: Bobby Orr, Oshawa Generals
D: Doug Jarrett, St. Catharines Black Hawks
C: Andre Boudrias, Montreal Junior Canadiens
R: Yvan Cournoyer, Montreal Junior Canadiens
L: Dennis Hull, St. Catharines Black Hawks
All Stars - Second Team
G: Bernie Parent, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Rod Seiling, Toronto Marlboros
D: Bob Jamieson, Peterborough Petes
C: Ron Schock, Niagara Falls Flyers
R: Ron Ellis, Toronto Marlboros
L: Wayne Carleton, Toronto Marlboros
1964–65
The Niagara Falls Flyers finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Ken Hodge, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Bernie Parent, Niagara Falls Flyers
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Jimmy Peters Jr., Hamilton Red Wings
All Stars - First Team
G: Bernie Parent, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Bobby Orr, Oshawa Generals
D: Jim McKenny, Toronto Marlboros, and Gilles Marotte, Niagara Falls Flyers (tied)
C: Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
R: Ken Hodge, St. Catharines Black Hawks
L: Brit Selby, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - Second Team
G: Chuck Goddard, Peterborough Petes
D: Serge Savard, Montreal Junior Canadiens
D: John Vanderburg, Peterborough Petes
C: Ron Buchanan, Oshawa Generals
R: Danny Grant, Peterborough Petes
L: Jacques Lemaire, Montreal Junior Canadiens
1965–66
The London Nationals are granted a franchise, moving their Junior B team of the same name to Ingersoll. The Peterborough Petes finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Oshawa Generals won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Ted Ouimet, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
All Stars - First Team
G: Ian Young, Oshawa Generals
D: Bobby Orr, Oshawa Generals
D: Jim McKenny, Toronto Marlboros
C: Andre Lacroix, Peterborough Petes
R: Mickey Redmond, Peterborough Petes
L: Danny Grant, Peterborough Petes
All Stars - Second Team
G: Brian Caley, Peterborough Petes, Rocky Farr, London Knights, and Bobby Ring, Niagara Falls Flyers (tied)
D: Bart Crashley, Hamilton Red Wings
D: Serge Savard, Montreal Junior Canadiens
C: Derek Sanderson, Niagara Falls Flyers
R: Jean Pronovost, Niagara Falls Flyers
L: Don Marcotte, Niagara Falls Flyers
1966–67
The Kitchener Rangers finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Toronto Marlboros won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Mickey Redmond, Peterborough Petes
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Derek Sanderson, Niagara Falls Flyers
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Peter McDuffe, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Mickey Redmond, Peterborough Petes
All Stars - First Team
G: Peter McDuffe, St. Catharines Black Hawks
D: Brian Glennie, Toronto Marlboros
D: Tom Reid, St. Catharines Black Hawks
C: Derek Sanderson, Niagara Falls Flyers
R: Mickey Redmond, Peterborough Petes
L: Gerry Meehan, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - Second Team
G: Ian Young, Oshawa Generals
D: Mike Robitaille, Kitchener Rangers
D: Rick Smith, Hamilton Red Wings
C: Walt Tkaczuk, Kitchener Rangers
R: Tim Ecclestone, Kitchener Rangers
L: John Vanderburg, Peterborough Petes
1967–68
The Ottawa 67's are granted a franchise. The Kitchener Rangers finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Niagara Falls Flyers won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Walt Tkaczuk, Kitchener Rangers
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Tom Webster, Niagara Falls Flyers
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Jim Rutherford & Gerry Gray, Hamilton Red Wings
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Tom Webster, Niagara Falls Flyers
All Stars - First Team
G: Gerry Gray, Hamilton Red Wings
D: Mike Robitaille, Kitchener Rangers
D: Rick Ley, Niagara Falls Flyers
C: Walt Tkaczuk, Kitchener Rangers
R: Danny Lawson, Hamilton Red Wings
L: Jack Egers, Kitchener Rangers
All Stars - Second Team
G: Phil Myre, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Brad Park, Toronto Marlboros
D: Rick Smith, Hamilton Red Wings
C: Terry Caffery, Toronto Marlboros
R: Tom Webster, Niagara Falls Flyers
L: Richie Bayes, Toronto Marlboros
1968–69
The London Nationals become the London Knights. The Montreal Junior Canadiens finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Rejean Houle, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Rejean Houle, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Wayne Wood & Ted Tucker, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most gentlemanly player) = Rejean Houle, Montreal Junior Canadiens
All Stars - First Team
G: Jim Rutherford, Hamilton Red Wings
D: Dick Redmond, St. Catharines Black Hawks
D: Randy Manery, Hamilton Red Wings
C: Gilbert Perreault, Montreal Junior Canadiens
R: Rejean Houle, Montreal Junior Canadiens
L: Marc Tardif, Montreal Junior Canadiens
All Stars - Second Team
G: Paul Hoganson, Toronto Marlboros
D: Ron Stackhouse, Peterborough Petes
D: Serge Lajeunesse, Montreal Junior Canadiens
C: Darryl Sittler, London Knights
R: Phil Roberto, Niagara Falls Flyers
L: Don Tannahill, Niagara Falls Flyers
1969–70
The Max Kaminsky Trophy is rededicated, now awarded to the most outstanding defenceman in the league. The Montreal Junior Canadiens finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Gilbert Perreault, Montreal Junior Canadiens
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Marcel Dionne, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = John Garrett, Peterborough Petes
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most outstanding defenceman) = Ron Plumb, Peterborough Petes
All Stars - First Team
G: George Hulme, St. Catharines Black Hawks
D: Ron Plumb, Peterborough Petes
D: Bob Stewart, Oshawa Generals
C: Gilbert Perreault, Montreal Junior Canadiens
R: Al McDonough, St. Catharines Black Hawks
L: Rick MacLeish, Peterborough Petes
All Stars - Second Team
G: John Garrett, Peterborough Petes
D: Steve Cuddie, Toronto Marlboros
D: Jocelyn Guevremont and Serge Lajeunesse, Montreal Junior Canadiens (tied)
C: Marcel Dionne, St. Catharines Black Hawks
R: Buster Harvey, Hamilton Red Wings
L: Robert Guindon, Montreal Junior Canadiens
1970–71
OHA president Tubby Schmalz was concerned with the level of physical play during the season, and personally interviewed four players to dissuade them from further on-ice misconduct. He submitted recommendations to the 1971 Canadian Amateur Hockey Association general meeting on behalf of the OHA to reduce the curvature of the hockey stick to one half inch for player safety. He also suggest to revert to the rectangular goal crease from the recent change to a semi-circle, since some rinks in his league were used by professional teams who used the old rules for the goal crease. Schmalz wanted to see consistency the application of the rules, and raise the standards for the level of instruction given to players. He instituted referee and coach clinics in the OHA, prior to it being mandated at the national level. In 1971, he sought to hire a technical director to conduct coaching and refereeing clinics across the province.
Schmalz announced that teams from the OHA and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League would not play against any team from the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) for the 1971 Memorial Cup, due to disagreements over travel allowances given to team at the Memorial Cup and the higher number of over-age players allowed on WCHL rosters. He said that plans for an Eastern Canada series for the George Richardson Memorial Trophy would go ahead. As of the OHA playoffs, he reiterated that teams were still unanimous in their decision not to play for the Memorial Cup against WCHL teams. The Peterborough Petes finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The St. Catharines Black Hawks won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Dave Gardner, Toronto Marlboros
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Marcel Dionne, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = John Garrett, Peterborough Petes
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most outstanding defenceman) = Jocelyn Guevremont, Montreal Junior Canadiens
All Stars - First Team
G: John Garrett, Peterborough Petes
D: Denis Potvin, Ottawa 67's
D: Jocelyn Guevremont, Montreal Junior Canadiens
C: Marcel Dionne, St. Catharines Black Hawks
R: Steve Vickers, Toronto Marlboros
L: Rick Martin, Montreal Junior Canadiens
All Stars - Second Team
G: Michel Larocque, Ottawa 67's
D: Steve Durbano, Toronto Marlboros
D: Rick Cunningham, Peterborough Petes
C: Dave Gardner, Toronto Marlboros
R: Bill Harris, Toronto Marlboros
L: Steve Shutt, Toronto Marlboros
1971–72
Two new trophies are inaugurated for the 1971–72 season. The Matt Leyden Trophy is awarded for the Coach of the Year. The Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy is awarded for the top-scoring right winger. It was donated by the Peterborough Petes in memory of Jim Mahon, who died in the summer. The Toronto Marlboros finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The Peterborough Petes won the J. Ross Robertson Cup.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Don Lever, Niagara Falls Flyers
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Dave Gardner, Toronto Marlboros & Billy Harris, Toronto Marlboros
Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy (Top-scoring right winger) = Billy Harris, Toronto Marlboros
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Michel Larocque, Ottawa 67's
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most outstanding defenceman) = Denis Potvin, Ottawa 67's
Matt Leyden Trophy (Coach of the Year) = Gus Bodnar, Oshawa Generals
All Stars - First Team
G: Michel Larocque, Ottawa 67's
D: Denis Potvin, Ottawa 67's
D: Paul Shakes, St. Catharines Black Hawks
C: Don Lever, Niagara Falls Flyers
R: Bill Harris, Toronto Marlboros
L: Steve Shutt, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - Second Team
G: Gilles Gratton, Oshawa Generals
D: Jim Schoenfeld, Niagara Falls Flyers
D: Ian Turnbull, Montreal Junior Canadiens
C: Dave Gardner, Toronto Marlboros
R: Dennis Ververgaert, London Knights
L: Randy Osburn, London Knights
1972–73
Junior A hockey is divided into "Tier I" and "Tier II." The OHA Junior A teams from 1972 became the Tier I division, also known as Major Junior hockey. The Montreal Junior Canadiens move to the QMJHL; the Niagara Falls Flyers move to Sudbury, becoming the Sudbury Wolves. The Sault Ste. Greyhounds are granted an expansion franchise. The Emms Family Award is donated to the OHA by Hap Emms, to be awarded to the Rookie of the Year. The Toronto Marlboros finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy, and won the J. Ross Robertson Cup in the playoffs.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Rick Middleton, Oshawa Generals
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Blake Dunlop, Ottawa 67's
Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy (Top-scoring right winger) = Dennis Ververgaert, London Knights
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Mike Palmateer, Toronto Marlboros
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most outstanding defenceman) = Denis Potvin, Ottawa 67's
Emms Family Award (Rookie of the Year) = Dennis Maruk, London Knights
Matt Leyden Trophy (Coach of the Year) = George Armstrong, Toronto Marlboros
All Stars - First Team
G: Mike Palmateer, Toronto Marlboros
D: Denis Potvin, Ottawa 67's
D: Bob Dailey, Toronto Marlboros
C: Reg Thomas, London Knights
R: Dennis Ververgaert, London Knights
L: Morris Titanic, Sudbury Wolves
All Stars - Second Team
G: Peter Crosbie, London Knights, & Rick St. Croix, Oshawa Generals
D: Ian Turnbull, Ottawa 67's
D: Bob Neely, Peterborough Petes
C: Blake Dunlop, Ottawa 67's
R: Rick Middleton, Oshawa Generals
L: Bill Lochead, Oshawa Generals
1973–74
The Kingston Canadians are granted a franchise. The Kitchener Rangers finished first overall in the regular season, winning the Hamilton Spectator Trophy. The St. Catharines Black Hawks won the J. Ross Robertson Cup. The OHA became the OMJHL for the 1974–75 OMJHL season.
Awards
Red Tilson Trophy (Most outstanding player) = Jack Valiquette, Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds
Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (Top scorer) = Jack Valiquette, Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds & Rick Adduono, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy (Top-scoring right winger) = Dave Gorman, St. Catharines Black Hawks
Dave Pinkney Trophy (Goaltenders of team with lowest GAA) = Don Edwards, Kitchener Rangers
Max Kaminsky Trophy (Most outstanding defenceman) = Jim Turkiewicz, Peterborough Petes
Emms Family Award (Rookie of the Year) = Jack Valiquette, Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds
Matt Leyden Trophy (Coach of the Year) = Jack Bownass, Kingston Canadians
All Stars - First Team
G: Don Edwards, Kitchener Rangers
D: Jim Turkiewicz, Peterborough Petes
D: Rick Chartraw, Kitchener Rangers
C: Jack Valiquette, Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds
R: Wilf Paiement, St. Catharines Black Hawks
L: Bill Lochead, Oshawa Generals
All Stars - Second Team
G: Mike Kasmetis, Peterborough Petes
D: Dave Maloney, Kitchener Rangers
D: Paul McIntosh, Peterborough Petes
C: Bruce Boudreau, Toronto Marlboros
R: Dave Gorman, St. Catharines Black Hawks
L: Mike Marson, Sudbury Wolves
References
Bibliography
External links
www.hockeydb.com
www.sihrhockey.org
+OHA
Canadian ice hockey-related lists
Junior A standings
Ontario sport-related lists |
4218597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky%20Hill | Ricky Hill | Ricky Hill (born 5 March 1959) is an English former footballer, spending most of his playing career at Luton Town FC for 14 years, while representing England at Senior, U21 and U18 International levels. Hill was the fourth Black player to play for England’s Senior National team and the first British South Asian to represent England at the Senior level. Hill began his managerial career as a Player/Coach with the Tampa Bay Rowdies in 1992 and in that season saw the Rowdies appear in both the League Championship final and the Professional Cup final, in addition to Hill also being awarded ‘Coach of the Year’ amongst other notable player accolades such as Best Passer and All-Star First Team. Spanning 25 years managing various professional clubs across the US, UK, and the Caribbean, Hill made 4 US championship appearances at the professional level, reinforcing his standing as one of the most successful Black coaches in the history of US professional soccer. Most recently, Hill authored Love of the Game – Ricky Hill: The Man Who Brought the Rooney Rule to the UK which was nominated as a finalist for the 2022 Sports Books Awards in association with The Sunday Times (UK).
Early life
Ricky Hill was born on 5 March 1959 of mixed ancestry. While Hill's mother is Jamaican, his father’s family is originally from the city of Lucknow in India. His paternal great-grandparents moved to Jamaica from India shortly after the turn of the 20th century. Hill's father Joseph, one of 11 children, eventually moved to London where he married Hill's mother Doris, a Jamaican whom Joseph had previously attended school alongside in Jamaica.
Hill grew up in the London Borough of Brent, in Cricklewood - not far from Wembley Stadium. A talented footballer in his early years, Hill attended Anson Road Primary and John Kelly Boys School (now known as the Crest Boys Academy) in Neasden. Whilst at John Kelly, Hill was a teammate of former Arsenal and Brighton Hove Albion player Steve Gatting.
At 15, Hill signed schoolboy forms with Luton Town FC in 1974 after being scouted playing for John Kelly Boys at a game in Hitchin where Luton coaches Roy McCrohan, David Pleat, and Danny Bergara were in attendance.
Playing career
1975 to 1989 (Luton Town FC - UK)
Ricky Hill joined Luton Town FC in 1975, and made 506 League and Cup appearances, scoring 54 goals in the process from 1976 to 1989. At 17, one month after signing professional terms, Hill came on as a substitute in a Second Division game (now known as the Championship in the UK) where he scored a goal and made a goal assist in twenty-two minutes in a 3-1 victory over Bristol Rovers FC.
Hill spent 14 years at Luton and played a pivotal role in the club’s promotion to the First Division (now known as the Premier League in the UK) in 1981-1982 as Second Division champions, where he won back-to-back ‘Player of the Year’ awards (1980-1982). Hill was a part of the 1988 Littlewoods Cup final-winning team that won their first – and only to date – major trophy as they beat Arsenal 3-2 at Wembley Stadium in front of 98k fans. They returned to the final again in 1989, only this time to experience defeat to Brian Clough’s Nottingham Forest by 3-1.
1982 to 1986 (England National Team)
Ricky Hill represented England at U18, U21, and Senior International levels, making his debut under Sir Bobby Robson, coming on as a substitute in the 1982 European Championship qualifier against Denmark in Copenhagen which resulted in a 2-2 draw. The following month Hill made his full starting debut against West Germany at Wembley in a 1-2 defeat. Hill missed out on the 1983 Australia tour due to an injury that required surgery. While being selected to the provisional 26-man squad for the 1986 World Cup Finals in Mexico, Hill was placed on standby after the squad was reduced to a 22-man traveling party.
Hill was the fourth Black player to play for England’s senior National team and the first British South Asian to represent England at the senior level. He was capped three times in total for England, with his last appearance being against Egypt on 29 January 1986.
1989 to 1990 (Le Havre – France)
In 1989, Hill moved on a free transfer to Le Havre in the French Second Division, where he was recommended to the club by Gerard Houllier, former Manager of the French National team, Paris St. Germain, Liverpool, and Aston Villa. Whilst at Le Havre, Hill played under head coach Pierre Mankowski who went on to become assistant manager to Raymond Domenech with the French National team. Hill credits his time at Le Havre for providing him advanced insight into sports science and youth development of which the club is renowned. Young players who came through the Le Havre academy system include Paul Pogba, Riyad Mahrez, Lassana Diarra, Benjamin Mendy, and Dimitri Payet.
1990 to 1991 (Leicester City FC – UK)
In 1990, Hill transferred to Leicester City FC, rejoining David Pleat for a brief spell who had been his manager at Luton Town FC previously.
1991 to 1992 (Tampa Bay Rowdies – USA)
In 1991, Hill moved abroad to be Player/Coach with the Tampa Bay Rowdies in the US.
1993 to 1994 (Chertsey Town FC - UK)
In 1993, Hill played for Chertsey Town FC in the UK with former professionals including Kenny Sansom (Arsenal, Crystal Palace, England), Francis Joseph (Sheffield United, Wimbledon, Brentford) and Terry Rowe (Brentford, Tampa Bay Rowdies).
1994 to 1995 (Cocoa Expos – USA)
In 1994, Hill moved back to the US to be the Technical Director/Player Coach with the Cocoa Expos.
Coaching career
1992 to 1996 (USA)
In 1992 Ricky Hill was introduced to Rodney Marsh, then CEO of the Tampa Bay Rowdies, who were part of the American Professional Soccer League (APSL), the only professional soccer league in the US at the time. The Tampa Bay Rowdies afforded Hill’s first opportunity in coaching where Marsh appointed Hill as Player/Coach six weeks after Hill’s arrival in the US. That season saw the Rowdies appear in both the League Championship final and the Professional Cup final, in addition to Hill also being awarded ‘Coach of the Year’ amongst other notable player accolades such as Best Passer, All-Star First Team, Second Best Technical Player as voted by press correspondents.
Hill returned to the UK briefly before once again heading back to the US in 1994 as the Technical Director/Player Coach of the Cocoa Expos organization in the United States Interregional Soccer League (USISL) and as an Assistant Coach at the Florida Institute of Technology (FIT) from 1994-1996. During his time with the Cocoa Expos, the franchise won the Southern Regional title before losing to the Richmond Kickers in the USISL Championship finals. For the 1995 season, the Cocoa Expos held esteemed records of scoring the most goals and conceding the least goals across all USISL professional teams.
1996 to 2000 (England)
David Pleat was now managing Premiership club Sheffield Wednesday FC and headhunted Hill with an offer to join their organization. Despite having experienced another successful period in the USA, Hill took up the post in 1996 with the remit of coaching Sheffield Wednesdays’ young apprentices (16–19 years old), preparing them for their next steps towards becoming professional players. Hill and Charlie Williamson had great success in the elevation of 16 out of 18 players being granted professional contracts over a two-year period. Players from that cohort who went on to have lengthy professional careers include Steven Haslam (Sheffield Wednesday), Leigh Bromby (Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United, Leeds, Watford, Huddersfield Town), Alan Quinn (Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United, Ipswich Town), Derek Geary (Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United), Kevin Nicholson (Sheffield Wednesday, Notts County, Torquay United), Peter Holmes (Luton Town, Chesterfield, Rotherham United), and Junior Agogo (Sheffield Wednesday, Nottingham Forest, Bristol Rovers, San Jose Earthquakes, Colorado Rapids). In 1999 the U19 side finished runner-up in the Premiership Academy Cup, losing 1-0 after extra time to the West Ham FA Youth Cup winning side that included future England internationals Joe Cole, Michael Carrick, and a host of future premiership and league players.
Whilst at Sheffield Wednesday, Hill collaborated in 1998 with the American MLS Project-40 program (now known as Generation Adidas), an elite National soccer development program for young MLS players; Project-40 players such as Ubsusuko Abukusumo (Columbus Crew) and Judah Crooks (DC United) were then invited back to Sheffield Wednesday for an extensive training period under Hill. Project-40 raised Hill's visibility to DC United where he was downselected as one of two finalist candidates for the DC United Head Coaching position, a role to be vacated by Bruce Arena who was moving on to become the USA National Team Head Coach.
In 1999, Tottenham Hotspur FC of the English Premier League recruited Hill to join Tottenham as Head Coach while leading player development in the Academy U16-17 setup. While at Tottenham, Hill coached a talented cohort of young players such as Ledley King, Peter Crouch, Luke Young, Johnnie Jackson, Stephen Kelly, Dean Marney – all of whom went on to have notable professional careers, and in some cases represented their countries of birth at senior international levels.
In 2000 Luton Town FC, then of the English Football League One (EFL), approached Hill to be Manager, which he accepted having spent 14 years there as a player. Unfortunately, Hill’s post ended after four months due to circumstances beyond his control where the club had financial challenges over the prior four years, was recently out of administration, and held a first team roster of 15 youth players where ~80% of the first team was released at the end of the season.
2003 to 2004 (Trinidad & Tobago)
San Juan Jabloteh of the Trinidad and Tobago Professional League was Hill’s next coaching opportunity, after taking over from former England and club teammate Terry Fenwick. From 2003-2004 at San Juan Jabloteh as the Technical Director/Head Coach, Hill experienced unprecedented success with the club winning four out of the five competitions entered. This includes the CFU competition which recognizes the winning team as the best professional club across the Caribbean with qualification to the CONCACAF Champions League for the winners. After making it to the quarterfinals of the CONCACAF Champions League for the only time in the club’s history, San Juan Jabloteh became the first Caribbean club side to beat the Major League Soccer (MLS) Champions when defeating the Chicago Fire 5-2 in Port of Spain, Trinidad. San Juan’s CFU Championship is the first and only time the club has won this prestigious trophy, where Hill was again awarded the ‘Coach of the Year'. During this successful run, San Juan Jabloteh provided the Trinidad and Tobago National team with 13 players who played during their only ever qualification for the World Cup Finals in Germany in 2006.
2005 to 2010 (England)
Hill moved back to the UK where he was selected and interviewed by Sir Alex Ferguson at Manchester United FC in relation to a Reserve Team post and he made it through to the final two candidates for the position of Manchester United Reserve Team Manager (2nd Team). Hill then worked in the sports management industry, advising and mentoring several elite premiership and league players (e.g., Ashley Young, Matthew Taylor, Adrian Mariappa, Leigh Bromby, Harry Forrester, Richard Langley, Paul McLaren).
2011 to 2016 (USA)
Hill returned to the US in January 2011 to coach the Tampa Bay Rowdies for a second time, arguably the most recognized professional American club outside of the MLS. The Rowdies were now playing in the revamped North American Soccer League (NASL) after a league long term hiatus in the 80s. Hill initially joined the organization as Head Coach but also added the Technical Director role to his remit soon thereafter. In 2012 the Rowdies were crowned the NASL Champions defeating Minnesota Stars in the final. This championship was the first for the club in 27 years, where Hill received another ‘Coach of the Year’ award. The following season in Open Cup competition, the Rowdies defeated the Seattle Sounders (MLS) 1-0 in the third round where the Sounders were cup finalists for five consecutive years prior; the Rowdies beat the Sounders despite losing caliber players like Luke Mulholland, Fafa Picault, and Jeff Attinella to the MLS at the end of the 2012 Championship season. During Hill’s four-year tenure, the club was awarded three Fair Play awards out of a possible four, demonstrating the disciplined environment that Hill created throughout that period.
Hill’s contract with the Tampa Bay Rowdies ended in 2016, and he has since been involved in several sports industry and player development programs across the USA, England, and Jamaica. His coaching success with 4 championship appearances in the US at the professional level reinforces his standing as one of the most successful Black coaches in the history of US professional soccer.
Publications
In 2021, Hill penned the autobiography Love of the Game – Ricky Hill: The Man Who Brought the Rooney Rule to the UK, which was nominated as a finalist for the 2022 Sports Books Awards in association with The Sunday Times (UK).
Synopsis of “Love of the Game – Ricky Hill
"Ricky Hill grew up beneath the shadow of Wembley Stadium, where he sold programmes at England games as a boy. When he was seven, he was told by a teacher that only two in every hundred boys could possibly make it as a professional footballer. Ricky told her he would be one of the two. Ten years later, this gifted midfielder scored on his debut for Luton Town. Ricky stayed with Luton for 14 years, made 506 League and Cup appearances, and became a club legend. Emerging at a time when racism was rife, he was only the fourth Black player to represent England. Later, as a coach, he had to fight to smash down barriers holding back Black managers and devised an equivalent of the NFL's 'Rooney Rule' to help Black applicants secure senior coaching jobs in English football. While Ricky has won trophies and awards overseas, he has been overlooked in this country. In Love of the Game, he tells the shocking story behind his short spell in charge of Luton and reveals just how much the football decision-makers in England have ignored him and other Black coaches." -- Reproduced from “Love of the Game – Ricky Hill: The Man Who Brought the Rooney Rule to the UK”, 2021 with permission from Pitch Publishing Ltd (ISBN 9781785318269)
Media Reviews of Love of the Game – Ricky Hill
"Hill's story is a perfect example of how racism of a different kind, that which manifests itself in unconscious bias, still appears to exist... Hill, who won three England caps under Bobby Robson, has not given up on a return to coaching even at the age of 62. This book stands as powerful advocacy for his cause." -- Backpass Magazine
"An excellent book, an easy read but not a comfortable one." -- Verite Sport
Honors
Ricky Hill Honors as Player
International Recognition
1982 – 1983 & 1985 – 1986 – Three England Senior International appearances
1984 – England U21 International
1976 – England Youth International
Club Recognition
1992 – American Professional Soccer League player awards with the Tampa Bay Rowdies: Best Passer, All-Star First Team, Second Best Technical Player
1989 – Runner-up of the Littlewoods Cup Final with Luton Town FC losing 3-1 to Nottingham Forest FC
1988 – Winner of the Littlewoods Cup Final with Luton Town FC defeating Arsenal FC 3-2 in Wembley Stadium
1981 – 1982 – Promotion to Division One with Luton Town FC; awarded Player of the Year in back-to-back years
Ricky Hill Honors as Coach
2011 – 2014 – Tampa Bay Rowdies as Technical Director & Head Coach
2012 – North American Soccer League (NASL) Soccer Bowl Champions
2012 – North American Soccer League (NASL) Coach of the Year
Fair Play Award Winners in 2011, 2012, and 2014 (NASL)
2003 – 2004 – CL Financial San Juan Jabloteh as Technical Director & Head Coach
2003 – Trinidad and Tobago Pro League Coach of the Year
2003 – Trinidad and Tobago Pro League Champion; winners of the First Citizens Cup, the DIGICEL Pro Bowl and the Caribbean Football Union Cup (CFU) (which represents the best professional club across the Caribbean region)
2004 – Quarterfinalist in the CONCACAF Champions League
2004 – Victory of the CFU qualified Jabloteh as one of 8 teams to participate in the CONCACAF Club Championship Tournament
1996 – 1999 – Sheffield Wednesday FC as U19 Head Coach
1999 – Premier League Academy Cup U19 runner-up, losing to West Ham United
1994 – 1996 – Cocoa Expos as Technical Director & Player Coach
1995 – USISL Premier League Eastern Division Champions
1995 – USISL Championship runner-up, losing to Richmond Kickers
1995 – Team record of scoring the most # of goals and conceding the least # of goals in the USISL
1992 – Tampa Bay Rowdies as Head Coach & Player
1992 – American Professional Soccer League (APSL) Coach of the Year
1992 – American Professional Soccer League (APSL) runner-up
1992 – Professional Cup runner-up to Colorado Foxes
References
1959 births
Living people
England men's international footballers
English men's footballers
English expatriate men's footballers
Black British sportsmen
Luton Town F.C. managers
Luton Town F.C. players
Le Havre AC players
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate soccer coaches in the United States
Leicester City F.C. players
American Professional Soccer League players
Tampa Bay Rowdies (1975–1993) players
Cocoa Expos players
TT Pro League managers
Tampa Bay Rowdies coaches
North American Soccer League (2011–2017) coaches
Chertsey Town F.C. players
Men's association football midfielders
Player-coaches
San Juan Jabloteh F.C. managers
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
English football managers
Footballers from the London Borough of Brent |
4218602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy%20Prothro | Tommy Prothro | James Thompson Prothro Jr. (July 20, 1920 – May 14, 1995) was an American football coach and player. He was the head coach at Oregon State University from 1955 to 1964 and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1965 to 1970, compiling a career college football record of 104–55–5 ().
Prothro moved to the professional ranks of the National Football League (NFL) in as head coach of the Los Angeles Rams, a position he held for two seasons. He then coached the San Diego Chargers from 1974 to 1978, tallying a career NFL mark of 35–51–2 (). Prothro was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1991.
Early life and playing career
Prothro, a native of Memphis, Tennessee, was the son of Major League Baseball player and manager Doc Prothro, who played for three teams between 1920 and 1926, then managed the Philadelphia Phillies from 1939 to 1941 before buying the minor league Memphis Chicks. His uncle, Clifton B. Cates, was commandant of the United States Marine Corps from 1948 to 1952.
The younger Prothro found his niche in football, starting out as a quarterback for Wallace Wade's Duke Blue Devils. In 1941, Prothro's versatility on the field helped him win the Jacobs award as the best blocker in the Southern Conference as the Blue Devils reached the 1942 Rose Bowl. During his time at the school, Prothro also competed in baseball and lacrosse, and graduated from the school in 1942 with a degree in political science.
Prothro was selected in the fifth round of the 1942 NFL Draft by the New York Giants, but rejected the opportunity in favor of a budding coaching career and a brief attempt at professional baseball.
Assistant coaching career and military service
Prothro spent that fall as an assistant coach at Western Kentucky University. He then entered the U.S. Navy during World War II, serving for 39 months. Prothro was promoted to lieutenant and served as a gunnery officer aboard the (CVE-23), an escort aircraft carrier.
After the war, Prothro served from 1946 to 1948 as an assistant coach at Vanderbilt University, under head coach Red Sanders, coaching the freshmen during his first year. When Sanders became head coach at UCLA, he brought Prothro with him. Over the next six years, Prothro used the single-wing formation as UCLA's backfield coach, helping the Bruins to an undefeated season and national championship in 1954.
College head coaching career
Oregon State
That success translated into his hiring as head coach at Oregon State College on February 1, 1955. The Beavers had won just one of nine games the previous season, but improved to six wins in Prothro's first season, then reached the 1957 Rose Bowl. In 1962, the Beavers won a 6–0 decision over Villanova University in the Liberty Bowl; they were led by quarterback Terry Baker, who won the Heisman Trophy. Baker's 99-yard run from scrimmage was the only score in the game and remains an NCAA record. In 1964, Oregon State were admitted into the AAWU and tied for first place with USC. Due to their recent entry into that conference with schedules set years in advance, the Beavers and Trojans did not meet in 1964. Although Oregon State was assured of a better overall record (8–2) than USC (6–3), the AAWU announced it would delay its decision regarding the Rose Bowl berth until after USC's final game vs. undefeated and top-ranked Notre Dame. This made USC fans infer that, if the Trojans had a strong showing against heavily favored Notre Dame, they might somehow get the Rose Bowl berth despite Oregon State's better record. USC upset Notre Dame, 20–17, and USC fans were outraged when Oregon State was awarded the Rose Bowl anyway. This would be a factor two years later. In the 1965 Rose Bowl, the Beavers went ahead 7–0 in the second quarter, but went on lose big to Michigan 34–7. Ten days later, Prothro left Oregon State to replace Bill Barnes at UCLA. Prothro compiled a 63–37–2 mark in his decade at Oregon State, with only one losing season. He was replaced by Dee Andros, the head coach at Idaho, whose Vandals had played Oregon State tough in 1964 in Corvallis, defeated 10-7 by a late third quarter OSU punt return. The previous year, he led Idaho to its first winning season in a quarter century.
UCLA
1965
On January 11, 1965, he was hired as head coach at UCLA to replace William F. Barnes. In the 1965 football season, the Bruins lost their season opening game 13–3 at Michigan State, who then rose to become the top-ranked team in the country. The unheralded Bruins would go on a seven-game undefeated streak, surprising national powers like Syracuse and Penn State. Going into the 1965 UCLA–USC rivalry football game ranked #7, the conference championship and 1966 Rose Bowl were on the line. #6 USC, led by Heisman Trophy winner Mike Garrett led 16–6 until UCLA got a touchdown on a pass from Gary Beban to Dick Witcher with four minutes to play. After the two-point conversion made it 16–14, UCLA recovered an onside kick. Beban then hit Kurt Altenberg on a 50-yard bomb and UCLA won, 20–16. Integrated UCLA then faced all-white Tennessee in the newly built Liberty Bowl stadium in Memphis, Prothro's native city. On the last play of the game, Tennessee defensive back Bob Petrella intercepted a UCLA pass to save a Volunteer win by a score of 37–34. Tennessee's winning drive was aided by a controversial pass interference call, the clock had questionably stopped twice, and a dropped pass that appeared to be a lateral was recovered by UCLA but was later ruled an incomplete forward pass. After the game, Prothro stated, "For the first time in my life, I am ashamed to be a Southerner."
The Bruins went to the 1966 Rose Bowl as a 14½ point underdog in a rematch with undefeated and #1 ranked powerhouse Michigan State. UCLA, now dubbed "The Miracle Bruins" by Sports Illustrated, vanquished the heavily favored Spartans 14–12. That victory gave UCLA an 8–2–1 mark, prevented the Spartans from winning the AP title, and resulted in Prothro earning Coach of the Year accolades from his coaching colleagues. UCLA finished #4 that season, and due to their small size, earned the enduring moniker, "Gutty little Bruins."
1966
Heading into the final game of the 1966 season vs. USC, UCLA was 2–1 in conference games, 8–1 overall and ranked #5 in the country. The Bruins, featuring a "dream backfield" of All-Americans Gary Beban and Mel Farr, lost only one game, at rainy Washington, 16–3, where Huskies' head coach Jim Owens had devoted his entire season to beating Prothro. UCLA had beaten UW the season before, 28–24, with Prothro's trick play, the Z-streak in which a receiver trots towards the sideline like he's going out of the game and then runs a streak pattern unguarded by the inattentive defender. USC was 4–0 in conference and 7–1 overall, having lost to the unranked Miami Hurricanes. The Bruins and Trojans played a different number of conference games due to uneven scheduling caused by new AAWU members Oregon and Oregon State and schedules made years in advance. It was widely assumed that only losses would be considered and the winner of the 1966 UCLA-USC game would go to the 1967 Rose Bowl. UCLA star quarterback Gary Beban broke his ankle the week before in a win over Stanford, but backup Norman Dow, making his first and only start at quarterback, led UCLA to a 14–7 win. That left USC with a 4–1 conference record (7–2 overall) and #5 UCLA with a 3–1 conference record (9–1) overall. Due to their win over USC, it was widely assumed UCLA would get the Rose Bowl berth. However, a vote the next Monday among the AAWU conference athletic directors awarded USC the Rose Bowl berth. It was speculated that the directors believed Beban could not play for UCLA in the Rose Bowl due to the broken ankle, thereby giving the Big Ten Conference representative, Purdue, a better chance to win. As it turned out, Beban could have played. But a bigger reason was that this was to make up for 1964 when Oregon State was voted in ahead of USC. The coach of Oregon State in 1964 was Prothro. Another speculation was the vote was against UCLA out of pure jealousy by the rest of the conference, which voted 7–1 for the clearly inferior team. This vote deprived Prothro of being the first coach to earn three consecutive Rose Bowl berths and UCLA athletic director J. D. Morgan called it a "gross injustice" and the "a dark day in UCLA and AAWU Athletic history." Inflamed UCLA students who had gathered for the Rose Bowl celebration rally, took to the streets of Westwood in protest and actually blocked the 405 Freeway for a short time. Ironically, Morgan was the force behind establishing a tie-breaking method adopted by the conference one year later in which only loss column counted; the first tiebreaker was head-to-head results, followed by overall record. If there was still a tie, the Rose Bowl berth would go to the team that had not played in the Rose Bowl the longest. But it was too late for UCLA. In their final game, USC made the AAWU decision look bad by losing at home in the L.A. Coliseum to Notre Dame, 51–0. They went on to lose the Rose Bowl as well to Purdue, 14–13, finishing the season at 7–4.
1967
Two years later, Prothro helped a second quarterback capture the Heisman Trophy when Gary Beban was awarded the trophy after the regular season. He would bring his #1 ranked UCLA Bruin team to face #2 USC in one of the "Games of the Century". Despite playing with cracked ribs, Beban threw for 301 yards, but UCLA lost, 21–20, on a spectacular 64-yard run by O. J. Simpson in the 1967 USC vs. UCLA football game. Another big factor was UCLA's acclaimed sophomore kicker Zenon Andrusyshyn missing a chip shot field goal, and having two field goals and an extra point attempt blocked.
1968
In what was acknowledged to be a rebuilding year, the Bruins opened the 1968 season with a 63–7 defeat of Pittsburgh and a win over Washington State. The season ground to a halt at Syracuse and with the season-ending injury of quarterback Billy Bolden, and UCLA would win only one more game, over Stanford 20–17. The Bruins gave #1 USC and Heisman Trophy winner O. J. Simpson a scare in a 28–16 loss; UCLA trailed 21–16 late in the fourth quarter and had the ball inside USC's 10-yard line, but USC recovered a fumble and then used almost all of the remaining time in driving for their insurance touchdown.
1969
This was the year Prothro had geared his recruiting efforts towards as he believed this was his best team and was capable of contending for the national championship. The Bruins, quarterbacked by a sensational junior college transfer Dennis Dummit who was discovered by Prothro, were undefeated until they faced #10 Stanford on the road. Once again, Prothro was let down by now-senior kicker Zenon Andrusyshyn as he missed a short field goal late in the game with the score tied 20–20. Suddenly, two long Jim Plunkett passes had Stanford in field goal range in the final seconds, but UCLA blocked Steve Horowitz's field goal attempt, and preserved the tie.
Once again, the UCLA-USC game would decide the Pac-8 title and the 1970 Rose Bowl berth. UCLA was ranked 6th with a 5–0–1 record in conference and 8–0–1 overall USC was #5 and was 6–0 in conference and 8–0–1 overall (tied Notre Dame in South Bend, 14–14); UCLA and USC were both unbeaten coming into their rivalry game for the first time since 1952. UCLA scored midway through the fourth quarter to take a 12–7 lead (knowing he need a win and not a tie to advance to the Rose Bowl, Prothro had the Bruins go for two after each touchdown and each attempt failed). USC then drove to the winning touchdown with 1:38 to play to win 14–12. The Trojans were aided by two controversial calls; the first was a dubious pass interference call on UCLA's Danny Graham on a 4th-and-10 incompletion. Secondly, on the winning touchdown pass reception, USC receiver Sam Dickerson appeared to be either out of bounds, out of the back of the end zone, or both. This loss supposedly was harder for Prothro to take than the 1967 loss and the freak officiating calls resembled the debacle at Tennessee in 1965.
1970
In his final season at UCLA, Prothro's team suffered a rash of key injuries and finished 6–5, yet they were three close games from a 9–2 season and Rose Bowl berth. Before those injuries set in, UCLA took a 3–0 record into Austin to play defending national champ and top ranked Texas. Trailing 13–3 at the half, UCLA rallied and had a 17–13 lead in the final minute. But with 12 seconds left, Texas completed a long pass when their receiver caught the ball between two UCLA defenders, who then collided, allowing the receiver to score. UCLA also blew a 20-point fourth quarter lead against Oregon, when Ducks sophomore quarterback Dan Fouts rallied his team to three touchdowns and a 41–40 win. Finally, there came the showdown with Stanford; the game was expected to be a shootout between UCLA quarterback Dennis Dummit and Heisman winner Jim Plunkett. But the defenses ruled as UCLA took a 7–6 lead into the 4th quarter. Stanford took a 9–7 lead on a field goal, but UCLA was driving to a potential game-winning field goal or touchdown themselves when they completed a pass inside the Stanford 10-yard-line, only to have the receiver get sandwiched by two defenders on the tackle and fumble. This game ultimately decided the Pac-8 championship and 1971 Rose Bowl representative. The season ended on a high note however, when UCLA beat rival USC, 45–20, in a game that was not that close. This would end up being Prothro's final game at UCLA. Prothro was frustrated by bizarre officiating at critical moments, numerous last minute narrow losses, and losing out of the Rose Bowl by the conference vote in 1966. Prothro also decried the Pac-8 rule that only allowed the conference champion to go to a bowl game; he witnessed many lower ranked inferior teams (often ones he defeated during the season) go to bowl games while his Bruins stayed home. After George Allen was fired by the Los Angeles Rams, Prothro accepted that job.
The briefcase
One of Prothro's unusual characteristics was the fact he carried a briefcase to the sidelines in each game he coached at Oregon State and UCLA. Dressed in a suit and tie, fedora, and thick black framed glasses, he looked more like he was going to a business meeting than to coach a football game. The mystery was nobody knew what, if anything, was in the briefcase. Prothro was never seen opening it during games, and even his players weren't sure what was in it. Some speculated game plans, some thought scouting reports, and some thought it was empty. Los Angeles Times sports columnist Jim Murray once suggested in jest that all the briefcase contained was "a couple of peanut-butter sandwiches."
NFL head coaching career
Los Angeles Rams
On January 2, 1971, Prothro accepted a new challenge when he was hired as head coach of the Los Angeles Rams. In his first season, playing the league's toughest schedule, he guided an aging Rams team to an 8–5–1 record, missing the playoffs when the San Francisco 49ers came from behind to beat the Detroit Lions, 31–27, in the season's final game and win the NFC West by one half game. In his second year, the Rams showed their age when injuries hit the team in the second half of the season. After starting 5–2–1, the Rams lost five of their last six games to finish 6–7–1, good for third place in the NFC West. After two seasons in which he compiled a 14–12–2 record and failed to reach the playoffs, Prothro was dismissed on January 24, 1973, in favor of Chuck Knox. However, Prothro left his mark on the team by trading many aging veterans, often to George Allen's Washington Redskins, and stocking up young talent and draft picks; players such as Lawrence McCutcheon, Isiah Robertson, Dave Elmendorf, Larry Brooks, Jim Bertelsen, Jack "Hacksaw" Reynolds, and Hall of Famer Jack Youngblood were the core of the Rams teams of the 1970s that won seven straight NFC Western division titles.
Six weeks after his departure, Prothro filed a $1.9 million lawsuit against the Rams, alleging new Rams owner Carroll Rosenbloom breached his contract by dismissing him "without cause". However, on May 23, 1973, the two sides settled out of court, with Prothro being paid $225,000 to cover the final three years of his contract. For the next eight months, Prothro remained out of the game, actively pursuing investment strategies, as well as his main hobby, competitive bridge.
San Diego Chargers
The San Diego Chargers hired Prothro as their new head coach on January 8, 1974, placing him in charge of rebuilding the once-proud franchise that had become mired in mediocrity and a drug scandal. During his first two years, the team continued to struggle, going 5–9 in 1974, and bottoming out with a 2–12 mark in 1975. From 1974 to 1977, though, Prothro drafted a number of players who would have a major impact on the franchise in years to come. Some of these players included wide receiver John Jefferson, centers Bob Rush and Don Macek, linebackers Woodrow Lowe and Don Goode, defensive linemen Gary "Big Hands" Johnson, Louie Kelcher and Fred Dean. He was also instrumental in the development of Dan Fouts into a Hall of Fame quarterback.
These drafts paid immediate dividends as the Chargers improved to 6–8 in 1976, and 7–7 in 1977, including a 12–7 win over rival Oakland that cost the Raiders the division title. The team seemed ready to make their move during the 1978 NFL season. However, a 1–3 start, marked by a loss to the Raiders in what became known as the Holy Roller game of September 10, caused Prothro to abruptly resign as head coach, replaced by Don Coryell. The Chargers finished 1978 with a 9–7 record, their first winning season since 1969, as the team Prothro helped build won three straight AFC Western Division titles and made the playoffs every year from 1979 to 1982.
Cleveland Browns
After less than five months away from the game, Prothro once again returned on February 14, 1979, this time as Player Personnel Director of the Cleveland Browns. During his three years with the team, he was responsible for drafting future Pro Bowl players Cody Risien and Hanford Dixon, among others. The Browns improved from an 8–8 record in 1978 to 9–7 in 1979, and then supplanted the two time defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers as AFC Central Division champs in 1980 with an 11–5 record. Known as the "Kardiac Kids," the team, in both 1979 and 1980, won several games near the end of regulation
or in overtime. Only an ill-advised interception in the end zone (when the Browns were in easy field goal range) in a 14–12 playoff loss to the Oakland Raiders cost Cleveland a shot at Prothro's former team, the Chargers, in the AFC title game. He resigned his post with Cleveland after the 1981 season.
Retirement
Prothro would not return to football in any official capacity for the remainder of his life, but was honored for his career efforts by selection to the UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame in 1985, the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame in 1989, and the College Football Hall of Fame in 1991. An expert bridge player, for a number of years he partnered with Omar Sharif in international competition. A heavy smoker (up to 4 packs a day), he died in 1995 after a three-year battle with cancer.
Legacy
Prothro was known as a master tactician with an uncanny ability to get the most out his players and team. His teams were often not as physically gifted or they were much smaller than their opponents, but through great teamwork, superior game plans, and an assortment of trick plays, they often made up for physical disadvantages by outsmarting the other teams. Even in the pros, he had an aging Rams team in playoff contention until the final game of the season, often relying on outsmarting other teams that had better talent. As a disciple of the single wing formation under Red Sanders, Prothro preferred athletic quarterbacks who could run and pass (Terry Baker, Gary Beban), even bringing some of that philosophy to the pros and having Rams QB Roman Gabriel make some big plays on designed runs. He later made his mark as an excellent evaluator and developer of talent as he built the Chargers and Browns from being sub-.500 teams to division champions.
On August 22, 2016, The Tournament of Roses announced Bobby Bell, Ricky Ervins, Tommy Prothro, and Art Spander would be inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame in the Class of 2016. The Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony then took place on January 1, 2017, outside the Rose Bowl Stadium, one day before the kickoff of the 103rd Rose Bowl Game on Monday January 2, 2017.
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References
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4218645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Corvette%20%28C1%29 | Chevrolet Corvette (C1) | The Chevrolet Corvette (C1) is the first generation of the Corvette sports car produced by Chevrolet. It was introduced late in the 1953 model year and produced through 1962. This generation is commonly referred to as the "solid-axle" generation, as the independent rear suspension did not appear until the 1963 Sting Ray.
The Corvette was rushed into production for its debut model year to capitalize on the enthusiastic public reaction to the concept vehicle, but expectations for the new model were largely unfulfilled. Reviews were mixed and sales fell far short of expectations through the car's early years. The program was nearly canceled, but Chevrolet decided to make necessary improvements.
The most expensive Corvette (C1) to sell in history was sold by Barrett-Jackson in the United States in March 2021 for $825,000 (~$ in ) (£591,470).
History
Origins
Harley Earl, as head of GM's Styling Section, was an avid fan of sports cars. He recognized that GIs returning after serving overseas in the years following World War II were bringing home MGs, Jaguars, and Alfa Romeos. In 1951, Nash Motors began selling an expensive two-seat sports car, the Nash-Healey, that was made in partnership with the Italian designer Pininfarina and British auto engineer Donald Healey, but there were few moderate-priced models. Earl convinced GM that they needed to build an all-American two-seat sports car, and with his Special Projects crew began working on the new car in late 1951. The last time Chevrolet offered a 2-door, 2-passenger convertible/roadster body style was in 1938 with the Chevrolet Master.
Prototype EX-122
The secretive effort was code-named "Project Opel" (after GM's German division Opel). The result was the hand-built, EX-122 pre-production Corvette prototype, which was first shown to the public at the 1953 General Motors Motorama at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City on January 17, 1953. When production began six months later, at an MSRP of US$3,513 ($ in dollars ), it had evolved into a considerably costlier car than the basic $2,000 roadster Harley Earl originally had in mind. The EX-122 car is now located at the Kerbeck Corvette museum in Atlantic City and is believed to be the oldest Corvette in existence.
Design and engineering
To keep costs down, GM executive Robert F. McLean mandated off-the-shelf mechanical components. The new car used the chassis and suspension design from the 1949 through 1954 Chevrolet passenger vehicles. The drivetrain and passenger compartment were moved rearward to achieve a 53/47 front-to-rear weight distribution. It had a wheelbase. The engine was a inline six engine that was similar to the 235 engine that powered all other Chevrolet car models, but with a higher-compression ratio, three Carter side-draft carburetors, mechanical lifters, and a higher-lift camshaft. Output was . Because there was currently no manual transmission available to Chevrolet rated to handle 150 HP, a two-speed Powerglide automatic was used. The time was 11.5 seconds.
Three body variants were created. The roadster was built as the Corvette, the Corvair fastback variant never went into production, and the two-door Nomad station wagon was eventually built as the Chevrolet Nomad.
During the last half of 1953, 300 Corvettes were to a large degree, hand-built on a makeshift assembly line that was installed in an old truck plant in Flint, Michigan while a factory was being prepped for a full-scale 1954 production run. The outer body was made out of then-revolutionary glass fiber reinforced plastic material. Although steel shortages or quotas are sometimes mentioned as a factor in the decision to use fiberglass, no evidence exists to support this. In calendar years 1952 and 1953 Chevrolet produced nearly 2 million steel-bodied full-size passenger cars and the intended production volume of 10,000 Corvettes for 1954 was only a small fraction of that.
The body engineer for the Corvette was Ellis James Premo. He presented a paper to the Society of Automotive Engineers in 1954 regarding the development of the body. Several excerpts highlight some of the key points in the body material choice:
A 55-degree raked windshield was made of safety glass, while the license plate holder was set back in the trunk, covered with a plastic window. Underneath the new body material were standard components from Chevrolet's regular car line, including the "Blue Flame" inline six-cylinder engine, two-speed Powerglide automatic transmission, and drum brakes. The engine's output was increased to via a Carter triple-carburetor system exclusive to the Corvette, but performance of the car was decidedly "lackluster". Compared to the British and Italian sports cars of the day, the Corvette lacked a manual transmission and required more effort to bring to a stop, but like their British competition, such as Morgan, was not fitted with roll-up windows; this would have to wait until some time in the 1956 model year. A Paxton centrifugal supercharger became available in 1954 as a dealer-installed option, greatly improving the Corvette's straight-line performance, but sales continued to decline.
The Chevrolet division was GM's entry-level marque. Managers at GM were seriously considering shelving the project, leaving the Corvette to be little more than a footnote in automotive history, and would have done so if not for three important events. The first was the 1955 introduction of Chevrolet's first V8 engine since 1919. the new 265 small-block became available with a Powerglide automatic transmission, until the middle of the production year when a manual 3-speed became available, coupled to a 3.55:1 axle ratio, the only one offered. The engine was fitted with a single 2218S or 2351S WCFB four-barrel (four-choke) Carter carburetor. The combination turned the "rather anemic Corvette into a credible if not outstanding performer". The second was the influence of a Russian émigré in GM's engineering department, Zora Arkus-Duntov. The third factor in the Corvette's survival was Ford's introduction of the 1955 two-seat Thunderbird, which was billed as a "personal luxury car", not a sports car. Even so, the Ford-Chevrolet rivalry in those days demanded GM not appear to back down from the challenge. The original concept for the Corvette emblem incorporated an American flag into the design, but was changed well before production since associating the flag with a product was frowned upon.
1953–1955
1953
The 1953 model year was not only the Corvette's first production year, but at 300 produced it was also the lowest-volume Corvette. The cars were essentially hand-built and techniques evolved during the production cycle so that each 1953 Corvette is slightly different. All 1953 models had red interiors, Polo white exteriors, and painted blue engines (a reference to the three colors represented on the Flag of the United States, where the Corvette was assembled) as well as black canvas soft tops. Order guides showed heaters and AM radios as optional, but all 1953 models were equipped with both. Over two hundred 1953 Corvettes are known to exist today. They had independent front suspension, but featured a rigid axle supported by longitudinal leaf springs at the rear. The cost of the first production model Corvettes in 1953 was US$3,490 ($38,795 in 2023 dollars ).
The quality of the fiberglass body as well as its fit and finish were lacking. Other problems, such as water leaks and doors that could open while the car was driven, were reported with the most severe errors corrected in subsequent units produced, but some shortcomings continued beyond the Corvette's inaugural year. By December 1953, Chevrolet had a newly-equipped factory in St. Louis ready to build 10,000 Corvettes annually. However, negative customer reactions to 1953 and early 1954 models caused sales to fall short of expectations.
1954
In 1954, a total of 3,640 of this model were built and nearly a third were unsold at year's end. New colors were available, but the six-cylinder engine and Powerglide automatic, the only engine and transmission available, were not what sports car enthusiasts expected. It is known that 1954 models were painted Pennant Blue, Sportsman Red, and Black, in addition to Polo White. All had red interiors, except for those finished in Pennant Blue which had a beige interior and beige canvas soft top. Order guides listed several options, but all options were "mandatory" and all 1954 Corvettes were equipped the same.
In the October 1954 issue of Popular Mechanics, there was an extensive survey of Corvette owners in America. The surprising finding was their opinions in comparison to foreign sports cars. It was found that 36% of those taking the survey had owned a foreign sports car, and of that, half of them rated the Corvette as better than their previous foreign sports car. Nineteen percent rated the Corvette as equal to their foreign sports car and 22% rated the Corvette as inferior. While many were well pleased with the Corvette, they did not consider it a true sports car. The principal complaint of the surveyed owners was the tendency of the body to leak extensively during rainstorms.
1955
Chevrolet debuted its small-block, V8 in 1955 and the engine was available for the Corvette. Early production 1955 V8 Corvettes continued with the mandatory-option Powerglide automatic transmission (as did the few 6-cylinder models built). A new three-speed manual transmission became available later in the year for V8 models, but was not popular with about 75 equipped with it. Exterior color choices were expanded to at least five, combined with at least four interior colors. Soft-tops came in white, dark green, or beige and different materials. A total of 700 1955 Corvettes were built, making it second only to 1953 in scarcity. The "V" in the Corvette emblem was enlarged and gold colored, signifying the V8 engine and 12-volt electrical systems, while 6-cylinder models retained the 6-volt systems used in 1953-54.
Although not a part of the original Corvette project, Zora Arkus-Duntov was responsible for the addition of the V8 engine and three-speed manual transmission. Duntov improved the car's marketing and image and helped the car compete with the new V8—engined Ford Thunderbird, Studebaker Speedster and the larger Chrysler C-300, and turned the Corvette from its lackluster performance into a credible performer. In 1956 he became the director of high-performance vehicle design and development for Chevrolet helping him earn the nickname "Father of the Corvette."
Although the C1 Corvette chassis and suspension design were derived from Chevrolet's full-size cars, the same basic design was continued through the 1962 model even after the full-size cars were completely redesigned for the 1955 model year.
1956–1957
1956
The 1956 Corvette featured a new body, with real glass roll-up windows and a more substantial convertible top. The straight-6 engine was discontinued, leaving only the V8. Power ranged from . The standard transmission remained the 3-speed manual with an optional 2-speed Powerglide automatic. Other options included power assisted convertible top, a removable hardtop, power windows, and a "then-leading edge" signal-seeking partially transistorized Delco car radio. A high-performance camshaft was also available (as RPO 449) with the engine.
Sales volume was 3,467, a low number by any contemporary standard and less than 1954's 3,640, making it the third lowest in Corvette history.
1957
Visually the 1957 model was unchanged. The V8 was increased to , fuel-injection became a very expensive option, and a 4-speed manual transmission became available after April 9, 1957. GM's Rochester subsidiary used a constant flow system, producing a listed at 6200 rpm and of torque at 4400 rpm. Debate continues to swirl whether this was underrated by Chevrolet (to allow for lower insurance premiums, or give the car an advantage in certain forms of racing) rather than overrated, as was common practice at the time (to juice sales). Either way, it was advertised as producing "One HP per cubic inch", allowing it to claim it was one of the first mass-produced engines to do so.
Pushed toward high-performance and racing, principally by its designer, Zora Arkus-Duntov, who had raced in Europe, 1957 Corvettes could be ordered ready-to-race with special performance options, such as an engine fresh air/tach package, heavy-duty racing suspension, and wheels.
Also in 1957, Chevrolet developed a new racing variation of the Corvette with the aim to compete in the 24 Hours of Le Mans race. Originally known as Project XP-64, it would eventually become known as the Corvette SS. It featured a tuned version of the new 283 CID V8 and a specialized tubular space frame chassis. However, after a rear bushing failure retired the car during a 1957 Sebring race, the AMA announced a ban on motor racing in April of 1957 for member companies like GM, leading to the cancellation of further developments of the Corvette SS platform.
Sales volume was 6,339, a jump of almost 83 %. Fuel-injected models were in short supply and 1,040 were sold.
1958–1960
1958
In an era of chrome and four headlamps, the Corvette adapted to the look of the day. The 1958 model year and the four that followed all had the exposed four-headlamp treatment and prominent grilles, but a faux-louvered hood and chrome trunk spears were unique to this model year. The interior and instruments were updated, including placing a tachometer directly in front of the driver. For the 1958 model, an 8000 rpm tachometer was used with the engines, rather than the 6000 rpm units used in the lower horsepower engines. Optional engine choices included two with twin carburetors (including a version with Carter 2613S and 2614S WCFB four-barrels) and two with fuel injection. The power output for the highest-rated fuel-injected engine was . Displacement remained . For the first time, seat belts were factory-installed rather than dealer-installed as on previous models. Options that were not popular included RPO 684 heavy-duty brakes and suspension (144), RPO 579 engine (554), and RPO 276 15×5.5-inch steel road wheels (404).
1959
For the 1959 model, engines and horsepower ratings did not change. The interiors were revised slightly with different instrument graphics and the addition of a storage bin to the passenger side. A positive reverse lockout shifter with "T" handle was standard with 4-speed manual transmission. This was the only year a turquoise convertible top color could be ordered, and all 24-gallon fuel tank models through 1962 could not be ordered with convertible tops due to inadequate space for the folding top mechanism. Rare options: RPO 684 heavy-duty brakes and suspension (142), RPO 686 metallic brakes (333), RPO 276 15"×5.5" wheels (214), RPO 426 power windows (547), RPO 473 power convertible top (661).
1960
The last features to appear in 1960 models included taillamps molded into the rear fenders and heavy grill teeth. New features include aluminum radiators, but only with engines. Also for the first time, all fuel-injection engines required manual transmissions. The 1960s Cascade Green was metallic, unique to the year, and the most infrequent color at 140 made. Options that were not often ordered included RPO 579 engine (100), RPO 687 heavy-duty brakes and suspension (119), RPO 276 15×5.5-inch steel road wheels (246), RPO 473 power convertible top (512), and RPO 426 power windows (544).
1961–1962
1961
Twin taillights appeared on the 1961, a treatment that continues to this day. Engine displacement remained at 283 cubic inches, but power output increased for the two fuel-injected engines to . Output ratings for the dual-four barrel engines did not change (), but this was the last year of their availability. This was the last year for contrasting paint colors in cove areas, and the last two-tone Corvette of any type until 1978. Also debuting in 1961 was a new boat-tail that was carried through to the C2. Infrequently ordered options included RPO 353 engine (118), RPO 687 heavy-duty brakes and steering (233), RPO 276 15×5.5-inch steel road wheels (357), and RPO 473 power convertible top (442).
1962
With a new larger engine the 1962 model year Corvette was the quickest to date. Displacement of the small-block V8 increased from to , which was rated at in its base single 4-barrel carburetor version. Hydraulic valve lifters were used in the standard and optional engines, solid lifters in the optional carbureted and fuel-injected versions. Dual 4-barrel carburetor engines were no longer available.
1962 saw the last solid-rear-axle suspension, that had been used from the beginning. Rocker panel trim was seen for the first time, and exposed headlights for the last, until 2005. This was the last Corvette model to offer an optional power convertible top mechanism. Rare options: RPO 488 24-gallon fuel tank (65), RPO 687 heavy-duty brakes and steering (246), RPO 473 power convertible top (350), RPO 276 15"×5.5" wheels (561).
Scaglietti Corvette
In 1959, a Texan oil well drilling contractor named Gary Laughlin wondered if it would be possible to create a vehicle with Italian design characteristics using the chassis and engine components from an American car like the Corvette. To oversee this creation, he enlisted the help of car constructer Jim Hall and race car driver Carroll Shelby, whom he was good friends with, to assist with the engineering of the project and, after their efforts, each man was to receive their own Corvette custom made to their liking. Thus, the trio managed to get three rolling Corvette chassis off of the production line and arranged to have them shipped to Modena, Italy. There, with the help of Road & Track correspondent Pete Coltrin, they managed to get in touch with Italian coachbuilder Sergio Scaglietti, famous for his design work on Ferrari road cars at the time. Scaglietti agreed to create and fit a new lightweight aluminium body to each car in secret, as Enzo Ferrari reportedly threatened to cancel Scaglietti's partnership with him after learning of the project. The resulting Scaglietti Corvette ended up weighing roughly 400 lbs less than any other Corvette at the time.
Each of the three cars assembled were unique for each owner:
Car #1, originally for Laughlin, was finished in red. It used a slightly different body to accommodate for an existing Corvette front grille. It originally came with a 283 cu in V8 with 315 hp and a four-barrel carburetor, mated to a 2-speed automatic transmission.
Car #2, originally for Hall, was finished in blue. This version had a body more closely resembling the Ferrari 250 GT Berlinetta LWB. It came with the same carbureted V8 and automatic transmission as Car #1.
Car #3, originally for Shelby, was finished in red. This model was somewhat unique as though it used a similarly designed body to Car #2, it was the only model fitted with fuel-injection and a Borg-Warner 4-speed manual transmission. Unlike the other two members of the project, Shelby never took delivery of his car, citing that it was too expensive for his purposes for it.
However, the Scaglietti Corvette was not without its issues. Though conceived in 1959, the final projects wouldn't be completed and shipped back to the US until 1961, by which time it became clear that the aluminum bodies, though much lighter, had caused dramatic effects to the Corvette's chassis, resulting in dangerous front end lift at high speeds. Coupled with legal pressure from General Motors and Enzo Ferrari to put an end to production, and the Scaglietti Corvette project would be forever cemented as only a concept. However, many ideas from the car would prove inspirational, leading Jim Hall to found his Chevrolet-powered Chaparral racing team and Carroll Shelby to revisit the idea of a European-American sports car with the AC Cobra.
Production notes
Engines
See also
Mako Shark (concept car)
Chevrolet Engineering Research Vehicle
Zora Arkus-Duntov
GM Motorama
Corvette C2
Chevrolet Corvette SS
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
The Corvette Museum: Corvette Timeline
C1
24 Hours of Le Mans race cars
1960s cars
Cars introduced in 1953
Cars discontinued in 1962 |
4218884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Bay%20Power%20Station | White Bay Power Station | The White Bay Power Station is a heritage listed former coal-fired power station on a site in White Bay, in the suburb of Rozelle, from Sydney in New South Wales, Australia.
The remains of the plant can be clearly seen at the western end of the Anzac Bridge on the junction of Victoria Road and Roberts Street. The station has been inactive for a number of years and the site is now inaccessible to the general public. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.
The station is often wrongly referred to as the Balmain Power Station, a plant originally located in Iron Cove, which has since been demolished.
History
To satisfy the power requirements for the expansion of the Sydney tram and rail network, the New South Wales Government Railways began the first phase of work on The White Bay Power Station in 1912.
The plant, constructed in the Federation Anglo-Dutch architectural style, was fully operational from 1917 with two further phases of development occurring between the years 1923–1928 and 1945–1948 which further increased the stations electricity output. It remained under the control of the department until 1953 when the newly created Electricity Commission of NSW took over. Ownership moved to Pacific Power when NSW electricity was deregulated in 1995.
White Bay was the longest serving of Sydney's metropolitan power stations and ceased production on Christmas Day in 1983. During the 1990s, the site was decontaminated, asbestos was removed and the majority of the remaining machinery taken away. In 2000, the plant was sold to the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority (SHFA) for around A$4m.
The SHFA has produced a conservation management plan for the White Bay area and this was endorsed by the NSW Heritage Council in 2004. The future of the site, the now derelict buildings and the remaining contents remains uncertain.
SHFA is undertaking conservation works including roof repairs to the buildings to make them weatherproof and reduce further degradation to the remaining internal plant and equipment.
Equipment
White Bay Power Station boasted an interesting mixture of equipment, including 25 Hertz and 50 Hz alternators, mostly from British manufacturers.
Units 1 to 3 and temporary no. 4 – 25 Hz
The earliest plant comprised three 750 rpm 25 Hz turbo-alternators from Willans & Robinson of Rugby and Dick, Kerr of Preston, England with a continuous rating of 8.7 MW and a two-hour rating of 10.5 MW. The first alternator was tested in 1913, before the buildings that housed it were completed. The second set was installed in 1917. Delivery of the third Dick, Kerr alternator was delayed, and it was initially installed at Ultimo Power Station upon arrival from England in 1914. Owing to the delay of the third Dick, Kerr alternator, a single Curtis 7.5 MW turbo-alternator from General Electric of Schenectady, New York, USA was brought into temporary use in 1917 in the unit number four position. The third Dick, Kerr alternator was transferred from Ultimo to White Bay as unit no. 3 in 1918, giving the station an initial capacity of 28.5 MW. Steam was supplied by 8 Babcock & Wilcox, WIF long drum, chain grate, boilers. They each produced 30,000 lb/hour at a pressure of 205 psi and a temperature of . Unit no. 1 was decommissioned in 1944, but its alternator was reconfigured for use as a synchronous condenser, for correction of power factor in the 25 cycle per second grid. The other 2 sets were scrapped by 1948.
Units 4 and 5 – 25 Hz
The temporary General Electric unit was removed in the early 1920s to accommodate the expansion of the station as originally planned. In 1924, a 1,500 rpm 25 c/s turbo-alternator from English Electric Australia having a continuous rating of 18.75 MW was brought into use as the new unit no. 4, followed by a second identical unit (no. 5) in 1925. Another 8 Babcock &Wilcox, balanced draught, cross tube marine type boilers were built. They each produced 70,000 lb/hour at 215 psi and were installed in the 'A' boiler house. This was the end of the first stage of construction, with five 25 Hz turbo-alternators in final configuration, for 58.5 MW.
Turbo-alternator no.2 were retired in 1946 along with the first 4 boilers. The no. 4 machine was removed in 1951 and no. 5 removed in 1955. In 1952 the rest of the 'A' boilers were removed to make room for 'C' station. All 25 Hz equipment had been removed by 1958, coinciding with the gradual closure of the Sydney tram network.
Units 6 to 9 – 50 Hz – 86 MW
In 1926, the first 50 cycle equipment was brought into use. This comprised three Australian General Electric turbines with British Thomson-Houston alternators which ran at 1,500 rpm, with a continuous rating of 22 MW, they were numbered 6, 7 and 8. Steam was supplied by 9 Babcox and Wilcox CTM chain grate boilers. Each boiler produced 80,000 lbs/hour at a pressure of 275 psi and a temperature of . In 1928, a single 20 MW unit supplied by Parsons was brought into use (no.9), giving the second stage (B Station) a capacity of 86 MW, and the station a total of 144.5 MW. The BTH units experienced a number of turbine blade and ring failures from the late 1940s. Following the completion of the third stage (q.v.) in 1958, units 6 to 9 saw occasional emergency use and were decommissioned in June 1975.
Third stage – new units 1 and 2 – 50 Hz – 100 MW
A 50 MW, 50 cycle turbo-alternator from Parsons was commissioned in 1951 (no. 1), followed by a second identical unit in 1955 (no. 2). These two sets were erected on the 'A' station site and all 25 Hz equipment had been removed during this third stage of development in 1948. Steam was supplied from 4 Babcock + Wilcox pulverized coal high pressure boilers. Each boiler produced 225,000 lb/hour at 650PSI and . The No.5 turbo-alternator, an English Electric 18.75 MW 25 Hz, continued to operate for some time afterwards, using steam diverted from the new high pressure boilers. Owing to delays in boiler installation, the second 50 MW Parsons unit, which was in place from 1955, was not fully operational until 1958. By that time, the power station was unrecognizable from its original appearance. The capacity of the third stage of development was 100 MW, bringing the total to 186 MW, although this maximum was rarely attained. As the Electricity Commission of New South Wales built new power stations, White Bay became a peak load supplier.
Units 6 to 9 were decommissioned in 1975 and removed, thereafter only the 50 MW Parsons units remained. Thenceforth, the remaining units saw intermittent use; their last intensive use was during power shortages in 1982. The entire power station was closed permanently on 25 December 1983. Like Pyrmont, which was also fitted with 50 MW turbo-alternators in the 1950s, some of the generating equipment at White Bay saw little more than twenty years of regular use before decommissioning.
Recent uses
The site was a popular venue for photographers and film and television productions. Productions at the power station include The Matrix Reloaded, Red Planet and a number of Australian television series, including Water Rats, and advertisements. A metal staircase constructed during the making of The Matrix Reloaded remains in the boiler house. It was used in 2012 as a filming site for The Great Gatsby.
Occasional licensed guided tours of the plant have been arranged by organisations such as the Historic Houses Trust and Australia ICOMOS.
One of each piece of power plant machinery remains on the site to demonstrate the process of generating power from coal should public tours or redevelopment ever take place in the future.
The site forms part of the New South Wales Government's Bays Precinct urban renewal area. Google had expressed interest in working with the government to redevelop the site, but pulled out in April 2017.
Heritage listing
White Bay Power Station was the longest serving Sydney power station and is the only one to retain a representative set of machinery and items associated with the generation of electricity in the early and mid twentieth century. It retains within its fabric, and in the body of associated pictorial, written archives and reports and oral history recordings, evidence for the development of technology and work practices for the generation of electrical power from coal and water. This development of power generation at White Bay contributed to the expansion of the economy of Sydney and New South Wales.
As a result of its remarkably intact survival, it retains the unique ability to demonstrate, by its location, massing, design, machinery and associated archives, the influence and dominance that early power-generating technology exerted on the lives and urban fabric of inner cities in the first half of the 20th century. The extant items within the surviving operational systems are of an impressive scale and exhibit a high degree of creative and technical achievement in their design and configuration. They encompass all aspects of the generation of electrical power, and represent all phases from the inter-war period through to the more sophisticated technologies of the mid 20th century. They are of exceptional technical significance with research potential to yield information not available from any other source.
Aesthetically, White Bay Power Station contains internal and external spaces of exceptional significance. These spaces include raw industrial spaces of a scale, quality and configuration which is becoming increasingly rare and which inspire visitors and users alike. Externally, it is a widely recognised and highly visible landmark, marking the head of White Bay and the southern entry to the Balmain Peninsula and its industrial waterfront. It retains a powerful physical presence and industrial aesthetic and is the most important surviving industrial building in the area .
White Bay Power Station has strong and special associations and meanings for the local community, for former power station workers and for others who have used the site, and is of high social significance. It is a potent symbol of the area's industrial origins and working traditions, aspects of community identity that are strongly valued today by both older and new residents. It is one of the few surviving features in the area that provide this symbolic connection.
It is the only coal based industrial structure, dependent on a waterside location to survive adjacent to the harbour in the Sydney Region. It also forms part of a closely related group of large scale industrial structures and spaces (White Bay Container Terminal, Glebe Island Silos, Container Terminal and Anzac Bridge) which along with the White Bay Hotel, define a major entry point to the city from the west.
It is of exceptional structural significance to the State of New South Wales.
White Bay Power Station was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
White Bay Power Station is important as part of the States development of electrical power for industry and the growth of local and capital development across the State in the first 70 years of the 20th century. It is the only power station in NSW to retain in situ a full set of both structures and machinery from this period.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
White Bay Power Station has a rare ability to demonstrate once common and standard work practices of the early to middle 20th century which are now almost entirely discontinued through changes in technology and occupational health and safety. It is a rare surviving element in an area of Sydney which was once almost entirely dependent on such industries for its livelihood.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
White Bay Power Station retains a broad range of spaces and elements including machinery, which are exceptional for their raw industrial aesthetic qualities. As an assemblage of structures the White Bay Power Station retains exceptional aesthetic value as an icon of early to mid 20th century industry, an important component of a rare group of harbour side industrial structures and a prominent marker in the cityscape signifying the entry point from the west. In particular the two chimney stacks are visible from many parts of the inner west and are a constant point of reference.
Its design and construction while typical for its time is now a rare surviving example of such industrial buildings and machinery complexes. It also demonstrates technological achievements of its time in the erection of the 1927 reinforced concrete structures and the 1958 boiler house, with its large area of steel framed and glazed curtain walling.
The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
White Bay Power Station has strong and special associations and meanings for the local community, for former power station workers and for others who have used the site, and is of high social significance. It is a potent symbol of the area's industrial origins and working traditions, aspects of community identity that are strongly valued today by both older and new residents. It is one of few surviving features that provide this symbolic connection.
For former employees at White Bay Power Station, this place provides a link to their past working lives and evokes memories of people and events that remain important to them today. It represents the post-war period of power station operation, and through the retention of technologies, systems and machinery it has the ability to evoke this period and demonstrate the production methods and working conditions of the time.
White Bay Power Station is a widely recognised landmark, the most important surviving industrial signature building locally and the marker of the entry to the Balmain peninsula and its industrial harbour. It retains a powerful physical presence and industrial aesthetic.
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
As a now rare and intact surviving early 20th century industrial complex in the inner Sydney Harbour region and particularly in Balmain, White Bay Power Station contributes considerably to our understanding and appreciation of these areas and foreshores as formerly places of heavy industry and intense port activity.
As an early power station for the early 20th century tram and rail network, it was a vital component in the expansion and daily life of suburban Sydney.
White Bay Power Station contains a complete and in situ assemblage of machinery, spaces and elements comprising all the systems and processes for the generation of coal-fired electricity from the early to mid 20th century. This is the only surviving assemblage in NSW and it has the potential to yield information not found anywhere else in the State.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
As the only intact Power Station of its type left in NSW, with one complete power[-]generating system retained in situ for conservation, its rarity is firmly established.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
Retaining as it does a complete system of steam turbine generation of electricity from burning of fossil fuel, the White Bay Power Station is highly representative of this generation of power station. Other modern power stations use similar technology, albeit more modern and efficient. White Bay represents that type of early electricity generating technology which required the building of power stations close to the customer. As a complex of structures, buildings and machinery, it demonstrates the full configuration and processes of an early to mid 20th century city power station.
See also
Electricity
Electricity generation
Energy development
References
Attribution
Notes
Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority The history of White Bay Power Station told through the eyes of former employees.
State Records NSW, Electricity Commission of New South Wales, Agency Detail
"Leichhardt: On the margins of the city", Allen & Unwin, 1997, .
New South Wales Government Heritage Register; White Bay Power Station; Accessed October 2006;
O'Brien, G; The power has flickered, but the spark of the future is lit; Sydney Morning Herald; 26 November 2003;
External links
White Bay power station at the Dictionary of Sydney by Mark Dunn (2008). [CC-By-SA]
Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority
Local Images at InnerWest ImageBank
Sydney Architecture Images
Coal-fired power stations in New South Wales
Former buildings and structures in Sydney
Decommissioned power stations in New South Wales
Rozelle, New South Wales
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
New South Wales State Heritage Register |
4219002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Corvette%20%28C2%29 | Chevrolet Corvette (C2) | The Chevrolet Corvette (C2) is the second generation of the Corvette sports car, produced by the Chevrolet division of General Motors (GM) for the 1963 through 1967 model years.
History
Origin and development
The 1963 Sting Ray production car's lineage can be traced to two separate GM projects: the Q-Corvette, and Bill Mitchell's racing Sting Ray. The Q-Corvette exercise of 1957 envisioned a smaller, more advanced Corvette as a coupe-only model, boasting a rear transaxle, independent rear suspension, and four-wheel disc brakes, with the rear brakes mounted inboard. Exterior styling was purposeful, with peaked fenders, a long nose, and a short, bobbed tail.
Meanwhile, Zora Arkus-Duntov and other GM engineers had become fascinated with mid and rear-engine designs. Duntov explored the mid/rear-engine layout with the lightweight, open-wheel, single-seat CERV I concept of 1959. A rear-engined Corvette was briefly considered during 1958–60, progressing as far as a full-scale mock-up designed around the Corvair's entire rear-mounted power package, including its air-cooled flat-six, as an alternative to the Corvette's usual water-cooled V8. By the fall of 1959, elements of the Q-Corvette and the Sting Ray Special racer would be incorporated into experimental project XP-720, which was the design program that led directly to the production 1963 Corvette Sting Ray. The XP-720 sought to deliver improved passenger accommodation, more luggage space, and superior ride and handling over previous Corvettes.
While Duntov was developing an innovative new chassis for the 1963 Corvette, designers were adapting and refining the basic look of the racing Sting Ray for the production model. A fully functional space buck (a wooden mock-up created to work out interior dimensions) was completed by early 1960, production coupe styling was locked up for the most part by April, and the interior, instrument panel included, was in place by November. Only in the fall of 1960 did the designers turn their creative attention to a new version of the traditional Corvette convertible and, still later, its detachable hardtop. For the first time in the Corvette's history, wind tunnel testing influenced the final shape, as did practical matters like interior space, windshield curvatures, and tooling limitations. Both body styles were extensively evaluated as production-ready 3/8-scale models at the Caltech wind tunnel.
The vehicle's inner structure received as much attention as the aerodynamics of its exterior. Fiberglass outer panels were retained, but the Sting Ray emerged with nearly twice as much steel support in its central structure as the 1958–62 Corvette. The resulting extra weight was balanced by a reduction in fiberglass thickness, so the finished product actually weighed a bit less than the old roadster. Passenger room was as good as before despite the tighter wheelbase, and the reinforcing steel girder made the cockpit both stronger and safer.
Design and engineering
The first-ever production Corvette coupe sported a fastback body with a long hood and a raised windsplit that ran the length of the roof and continued down the back on a pillar that bisected the rear window into right and left halves. The split backlite is usually attributed to Mitchell, who claimed to have been inspired by the 57SC Bugatti "Atlantique" coupe. The feature actually predated both the C2 Corvette and Bob McLean's Q-Corvette, having been used by Harley Earl on both his Oldsmobile Golden Rocket show car and his own more traditional design studies for the C2 Corvette, some of which had progressed to full-scale models. Earl's inspiration was said to have been an Alfa Romeo coupe with a body by Scaglione shown at the 1954 Turin Auto Show. A similar design would be used by the third-generation Buick Riviera that ran from 1971 to 1973.
Quad headlamps were retained but newly hidden – the first American car so equipped since the 1942 DeSoto. The lamps were mounted in rotating housings that blended with the sharp-edged front end when "closed". Hidden headlamps would be a feature of the Corvette until the C6 model debuted in 2005. Coupe doors were cut into the roof, which made entry/exit easier in such a low-slung closed car. Faux vents were located in the hood and on the coupe's rear pillars; functional ones had been intended but were cancelled due to cost considerations.
The Sting Ray's interior carried a re-interpretation of the twin-cowl Corvette dash motif used since 1958, but a more practical one incorporating a roomy glovebox, an improved heater, and the cowl-ventilation system. A full set of round gauges included a huge speedometer and tachometer. The control tower center console returned, somewhat slimmer but now containing the clock and a vertically situated radio. Luggage space was improved as well, although due to the lack of an external trunklid, cargo had to be loaded behind the seats. The spare tire was located at the rear in a drop-down fiberglass housing beneath the gas tank (which now held instead of . The large round deck emblem was newly hinged to double as a fuel-filler flap, replacing the previous left-flank door.
Though not as obvious as the car's radical styling, the new chassis was just as important to the Sting Ray's success. Maneuverability was improved thanks to the faster recirculating ball, or "Ball-Race", steering, and a shorter wheelbase. The latter might ordinarily imply a choppier ride, but the altered weight distribution partly compensated for it. Less weight on the front wheels also meant easier steering, and with some 80 additional pounds on the rear wheels, the Sting Ray offered improved traction. Stopping power improved, too. Four-wheel cast-iron 11-inch drum brakes remained standard but were now wider, for an increase in effective braking area. Sintered-metallic linings, segmented for cooling, were again optional. So were Al-Fin brake drums, which not only provided faster heat dissipation (and thus better fade resistance) but less unsprung weight. Power assist was available with both brake packages. Evolutionary engineering changes included positive crankcase ventilation, a smaller flywheel, and an aluminum clutch housing. A more efficient alternator replaced the old-fashioned generator.
The independent rear suspension created by Duntov was derived from the CERV I concept, and included a frame-mounted differential with U-jointed half-shafts tied together by a transverse leaf spring. Rubber-cushioned struts carried the differential, which reduced ride harshness while improving tire adhesion, especially on rougher roads. The transverse spring was bolted to the rear of the differential case. A control arm extended laterally and slightly forward from each side of the case to a hub carrier, with a trailing radius rod mounted behind it. The half-shafts functioned like upper control arms. The lower arms controlled vertical wheel motion, while the trailing rods took care of fore/aft wheel motion and transferred braking torque to the frame. Shock absorbers were conventional twin-tube units. Considerably lighter than the old solid axle, the new rear suspension array delivered a significant reduction in unsprung weight, which was important since the 1963 model would retain the previous generation's outboard rear brakes. The new model's front suspension would be much as before, with unequal-length upper and lower A-arms on coil springs concentric with the shocks, plus a standard anti-roll bar. Steering remained the conventional recirculating-ball steering design, but it was geared at a higher 19.6:1 overall ratio (previously 21.0:1). Bolted to the frame rail at one end and to the relay rod at the other was a new hydraulic steering damper (essentially a shock absorber), which helped soak up bumps before they reached the steering wheel. What's more, hydraulically assisted steering would be offered as optional equipment for the first time on a Corvette – except on cars with the two most powerful engines – and offer a faster 17.1:1 ratio, which reduced lock-to-lock turns from 3.4 to just 2.9.
Drivetrains were carried over from the previous generation, comprising four small block V8s, three transmissions, and six axle ratios. Carbureted engines came in , , and versions. As before, the base and optional units employed hydraulic lifters, a mild camshaft, forged-steel crankshaft, 10.5:1 compression, single-point distributor, and dual exhausts. The 300-bhp engine produced its extra power via a larger four-barrel carburetor (Carter AFB instead of the 250's Carter WCFB), plus larger intake valves and exhaust manifold. Again topping the performance chart was a fuel-injected V8, available for an extra $430.40. The car's standard transmission remained the familiar three-speed manual, though the preferred gearbox continued to be the Borg-Warner manual four-speed, changing over to the Muncie M20 during the 1963 model year, delivered with wide-ratio gears when teamed with the base and 300-bhp engines, and close-ratio gearing with the top two powerplants. Standard axle ratio for the three-speed manual or two-speed Powerglide automatic was 3.36:1. The four-speed gearbox came with a 3.70:1 final drive, but 3.08:1, 3.55:1, 4.11:1, and 4.56:1 gearsets were available. The last was quite rare in production, however.
Corvette's designers and engineers – Ed Cole, Duntov, Mitchell, and others – knew that after 10 years in its basic form, albeit much improved, it was time to move on. By decade's end, the machinery would be put into motion to fashion a fitting successor to debut for the 1963 model year. After years of tinkering with the basic package, Mitchell and his crew would finally break the mold of Harley Earl's original design once and for all. He would dub the Corvette’s second generation "Sting Ray" after the earlier race car of the same name.
The C2 was designed by Larry Shinoda (Pete Brock was also instrumental on the C2) under the direction of GM chief stylist Bill Mitchell. Inspiration was drawn from several sources: the contemporary Jaguar E-Type, one of which Mitchell owned and enjoyed driving frequently; the radical Sting Ray Racer Mitchell designed in 1959 as Chevrolet no longer participated in factory racing; and a Mako shark Mitchell caught while deep-sea fishing. Duntov disliked the split rear window (which also raised safety concerns due to reduced visibility) and it was discontinued in 1964, as were the fake hood vents.
Model year changes
1963
The 1963 Corvette Sting Ray not only had a new design, but also newfound handling prowess. The Sting Ray was also a somewhat lighter Corvette, so acceleration improved despite unchanged horsepower. For the 1963 model year, 21,513 units would be built, which was up 50 percent from the record-setting 1962 version. Production was divided almost evenly between the convertible and the new coupe – 10,919 and 10,594, respectively – and more than half the convertibles were ordered with the optional lift-off hardtop. Nevertheless, the coupe wouldn't sell as well again throughout the Sting Ray years. The closed Corvette did not outsell the open one until 1969, by which time the coupe came with a T-top featuring removable roof panels. Equipment installations for 1963 began reflecting the market's demand for more civility in sporting cars. The power brake option went into 15 percent of production, power steering into 12 percent. On the other hand, only 278 buyers specified the $421.80 air conditioning; leather upholstery – a mere $80.70 – was ordered on only 1,114 cars. The cast aluminum knock-off wheels, manufactured for Chevy by Kelsey-Hayes, cost $322.80 a set, but few buyers checked off that option. However, almost 18,000 Sting Rays left St. Louis with the four-speed manual gearbox – better than four out of every five.
All 1963 cars had 327cid engines, which made 250 hp standard, with optional variants that made 300 hp, 340 hp and 360 hp. The most powerful engine was the Rochester fuel injected engine. Options available on the C2 included AM-FM radio (mid 1963), air conditioning, and leather upholstery. Also available for the first time ever on a Corvette was a special performance equipment package the RPO Z06, for $1,818.45. These Corvettes came to be known as the "Big Tanks" because the package initially had a gas tank versus the standard 20-gallon for races such as Sebring and Daytona. At first, the package was only available on coupes because the oversized tank would not fit in the convertible.
In 1963 only 199 Z06 Corvettes were produced, usually reserved for racing, and of the 199 a total of six were specifically created for Le Mans racing by Chevrolet. One of the six 1963 Z06 Sting Rays was built late in 1962 to race at Riverside on 13 October 1962. They were destined to compete in a different sort of race for sports cars, a NASCAR sanctioned event on the famous Daytona Oval, the Daytona 250 – American Challenge Cup. This meant the cars needed to be prepared to a different set of rules, the same as those for the big Grand National stock cars. The chassis was modified extensively and an experimental engine installed. The car was lightened in every way possible and weighed just over . Further prep was done by Mickey Thompson. Among other changes, Thompson replaced the fiberglass Z06 "Big Tank" with an even larger metal tank. Driven by Junior Johnson, plagued by rain in the race, substitute driver Billy Krause finished third behind Paul Goldsmith's Pontiac Tempest and A. J. Foyt in another Corvette.
New for the 1963 model year was an optional electronic ignition, the breakerless magnetic pulse-triggered Delcotronic, first offered by Pontiac on some 1963 models.
1964
For 1964 Chevrolet made only evolutionary changes to the Corvette. Due to concerns over rear visibility, the coupe’s two piece split rear window was dropped in favor of a single piece of arched glass. Besides the coupe's backbone window, the two simulated air intakes were eliminated from the hood, though their indentations remained. Also, the decorative air-exhaust vent on the coupe's rear pillar was made functional, but only on the left side. The car's rocker-panel trim lost some of its ribs and gained black paint between those ribs that remained; wheel covers were simplified; and the fuel filler/deck emblem gained concentric circles around its crossed-flags insignia. Inside, the original color-keyed steering wheel rim was now done in simulated walnut.
A few suspension refinements were made for 1964. The front coil springs were changed from constant-rate to progressive or variable-rate and were more tightly wound at the top, while leaf thickness of the rear transverse spring was also altered thus providing a more comfortable ride with no sacrifice in handling. Shock absorbers were reworked toward the same end. The 1964 Corvette arrived with a new standard shock containing within its fluid reservoir a small bag of Freon gas that absorbed heat. Chevy added more sound insulation and revised body and transmission mounts for the 1964 Corvette. It also fitted additional bushings to quiet the shift linkage and placed a new boot around the lever. The result was a more livable car for everyday transportation.
Drivetrain choices remained basically as before but the high-performance pair received several noteworthy improvements. The solid-lifter unit was driven with a high-lift, long-duration camshaft to produce and breathed through a big four-barrel Holley carburetor instead of the base engine's Carter unit. The fuel injected engine also gained , bringing its total to , but at a then-hefty $538.00. Although transmission options remained ostensibly the same for 1964, the two Borg-Warner T-10 four-speeds gave way to a similar pair of gearboxes built at GM's Muncie, Indiana, transmission facility. Originally a Chevy design, it had an aluminum case like the Borg-Warner box but came with stronger synchronizers and wider ratios for better durability and drivability. If enthusiast publications liked the first Sting Ray, they loved the 1964, though some writers noted the convertible's tendency to rattle and shake on rough roads. Sales of the 1964 Sting Ray reached 22,229 -— another new Corvette record, if up only a little from banner-year 1963. Coupe volume dropped to 8304 units, but convertible sales more than compensated, rising to 13,925.
1965
For its third season, the 1965 Corvette Sting Ray further cleaned up style-wise and was muscled up with the addition of an all-new braking system and larger power plants.
1965 styling alterations were subtle, confined to a smoothed-out hood now devoid of scoop indentations, a trio of working vertical exhaust vents in the front fenders that replaced the previous nonfunctional horizontal "speedlines," restyled wheel covers and rocker-panel moldings, and minor interior trim revisions. The 1965 Corvette Sting Ray became ferocious with the mid-year debut of the "Big-Block" engine producing . Ultimately, this spelled the end for the Rochester fuel injection system, as the carbureted 396ci/425hp option cost $292.70 to the fuel injected 327ci/375hp's $538.00. Few buyers could justify $245 more for less, even if the FI cars offered optional bigger brakes not available on carbureted models. After only 771 fuel injected cars were built in 1965, Chevrolet discontinued the option. It would be 18 years until it returned.
1965 also added another 350 hp small block engine (Option L79) which used hydraulic rather than solid lifters, a milder camshaft and a modestly redesigned smaller oil pan. Otherwise, the 350 hp engine was cosmetically and mechanically identical to the 365 hp engine (Option L76) solid lifter engine. The smaller oil pan allowed this high output small block 350hp engine to be ordered with optional Power Steering for the first time amongst the optional stable of higher output small block engines. Power steering was previously only available with the lower 250 hp and 300 hp engines.
Four-wheel disc brakes were also introduced in 1965. The brakes had a four-piston design with two-piece calipers and cooling fins for the rotors. Pads were in frequent contact with the rotors, but the resulting drag was negligible and did not affect fuel economy. Further, the light touching kept the rotors clean and did not diminish pad life, which was, in fact, quite high: a projected for the front brakes and about twice that distance for the rear binders. Total swept area for the new system was , a notable advance on the of the previous all-drum system. Per pending federal regulation, there was also a dual master cylinder with separate fluid reservoirs (only on models with power brakes for 1965) for the front and rear lines. Road testers rightly applauded the all-disc brakes. Testers found that repeated stops from produced no deterioration in braking efficiency, and even the most sudden stops were rock-stable. The drum brakes remained available, however, as a $64.50 credit option, but only 316 of the 23,562 Corvettes built that year came with drums. A side exhaust system appeared as an option as did a telescopic steering wheel. Also available were alloy spinner rims, at US$322 a set.
1966
For the 1966 Corvette, the big-block V8 came in two forms: on 10.25:1 compression, and 425 bhp via 11:1 compression, larger intake valves, a bigger Holley four-barrel carburetor on an aluminum manifold, mechanical lifters, and four- instead of two-hole main bearing caps. Though it had no more horsepower than the previous high-compression 396, the , V8 packed a lot more torque – vs. . In the 1960s engine outputs were at times deliberately understated. This happened for two reasons; to placate nervous insurance companies, and to allow the cars to qualify for lower NHRA brackets based on horsepower and weight. Estimates of up to for the 427 have been suggested as being closer to the truth. Conversely, power ratings in the sixties were done in SAE Gross Horsepower, which is measured on an engine without accessories or air filter or restrictive stock exhaust manifold, invariably giving a significantly higher rating than the engine actually produces when installed in the automobile. SAE Net Horsepower is measured with all accessories, air filters and factory exhaust system in place; this is the standard that all US automobile engines have been rated at since 1972. With big-block V8s being the order of the day, there was less demand for the 327, so small-block offerings were cut from five to two for 1966, and only the basic 300- and 350-bhp versions were retained. Both required premium fuel on compression ratios well over 10.0:1, and they didn't have the rocket-like thrust of the 427s, but their performance was impressive all the same. As before, both could be teamed with the Powerglide automatic, the standard three-speed manual, or either four-speed option.
The 1966 model's frontal appearance was mildly altered with an eggcrate grille insert to replace the previous horizontal bars, and the coupe lost its roof-mounted extractor vents, which had proven inefficient. Corvettes also received an emblem in the corner of the hood for 1966. Head rests were a new option, one of the rarest options was the Red/Red Automatic option with power windows and air conditioning from factory which records show production numbered only 7 convertibles and 33 coupes. This relative lack of change reflected plans to bring out an all-new Corvette for 1967. It certainly did not reflect a fall-off in the car's popularity, however. In fact, 1966 would prove another record-busting year, with volume rising to 27,720 units, up some 4,200 over 1965s sales.
1967
The 1967 Corvette Sting Ray was the last Corvette of the second generation, and five years of refinements made it the best of the line. Although it was meant to be a redesign year, its intended successor the C3 was found to have some undesirable aerodynamic traits. Duntov demanded more time in the wind tunnel to devise fixes before it went into production.
Changes were again modest: Five smaller front fender vents replaced the three larger ones, and flat-finish rockers sans ribbing conferred a lower, less chunky appearance. New was a single backup light, mounted above the license plate. The previous models' wheel covers gave way to slotted six-inch Rally wheels with chrome beauty rings and lug nuts concealed behind chrome caps. Interior alterations were modest and included revised upholstery, and the handbrake moved from beneath the dash to between the seats. The convertible's optional hardtop was offered with a black vinyl cover, which was a fad among all cars at the time.
The 427 was available with a 1282 ft³/min (605 L/s) Rochester 3X2-barrel carburetors arrangement, which the factory called Tri-Power producing at 5800 rpm and at 4000 rpm of torque. The ultimate Corvette engine for 1967 was coded L88, even wilder than the L89, and was as close to a pure racing engine as Chevy had ever offered in regular production. Besides the lightweight heads and bigger ports, it came with an even hotter camshaft, stratospheric 12.5:1 compression, an aluminum radiator, small-diameter flywheel, and a single huge Holley four-barrel carburetor. Although the factory advertised L88 rating was 430 bhp at 4600 rpm, the true rating was said to be about 560 bhp at 6400 rpm. The very high compression ratio required 103-octane racing fuel, which was available only at select service stations. Clearly this was not an engine for the casual motorist. When the L88 was ordered, Chevy made several individual options mandatory, including Positraction, the transistorized ignition, heavy-duty suspension, and power brakes, as well as RPO C48, which deleted the normal radio and heater to cut down on weight and discourage the car's use on the street. As costly as it was powerful – at an additional $1,500 over the base $4,240.75 price – the L88 engine and required options were sold to a mere 20 buyers that year. With potential buyers anticipating the car's overdue redesign, sales for the Sting Ray's final year totaled 22,940, down over 5,000 units from 1966 results. Meanwhile, Chevrolet readied its third-generation Corvette for the 1968 model year.
Engines
Reviews
The Sting Ray was lauded in the automotive press almost unanimously for its handling, road adhesion, and sheer power.
Car Life magazine bestowed its annual Award for Engineering Excellence on the 1963 Sting Ray. Chevy's small-block V8 – the most consistent component of past Corvette performance – was rated by the buff books to be even better in the Sting Ray. The 1963 was noted to have an edge over past models in both traction and handling because the new independent rear suspension reduced wheel spin compared to the live-axle cars.
Motor Trend tested a four-speed fuel injected version with 3.70:1 axle. They reported a 0–60 mph in 5.8 seconds and a 14.5-second standing quarter-mile at 102 mph. The magazine also recorded better than 18 miles per gallon at legal highway speeds and 14.1 mpg overall.
Motor Trend timed a 1964 fuel-injected four-speed coupe with the 4.11:1 rear axle, aluminum knock-off wheels (perfected at last and available from the factory), the sintered-metallic brakes, and Positraction through the quarter-mile in 14.2 seconds at 100 mph and the 0 to 60 mph in 5.6 seconds.
Road & Track tested the 300-bhp Powerglide automatic setup in a 1964 coupe and recorded a 0–60 mph time of 8.0 seconds, a quarter-mile in 15.2 seconds at 85 mph, and average fuel consumption of 14.8 mpg.
In 2004, Sports Car International named the Sting Ray number five on the list of Top Sports Cars of the 1960s.
Production notes
Gallery
Z06
Duntov first conceived of the Z06 in 1962. Despite GM's ongoing support of the AMA ban on factory racing involvement, Duntov knew that individual customers would continue to race Corvettes, so during the planning of the Sting Ray project he suggested that it would be a good idea to continue with parts development in order to benefit racers, and as a way of surreptitiously circumventing the racing ban. When GM management eventually withdrew their support of the ban, Duntov and his colleagues created "RPO Z06" as a special performance equipment package for the Corvette. The Regular Production Option (RPO) was a GM internal ordering code designation. The package was specifically designed for competition-minded buyers, so they could order a race-ready Corvette straight from the factory with just one check of an option box. Previously, the optional racing parts were literally hidden in the order form so that only the most knowledgeable and perceptive customers could find them. The Z06 package was first offered on the 1963 Corvette, and included:
Front anti-roll bar with a 20% larger diameter
Vacuum brake booster
Dual master cylinder
Sintered-metallic brake linings
Power-assisted Al-Fin drums cooled by front air scoops and vented backing plates
Larger diameter shocks and springs — nearly twice as stiff as those on the standard Corvette
These Corvettes came to be known as "Big Tanks" because the package initially replaced the gas tank with a tank for races such as Sebring and Daytona. At first the package was available only on coupes, as the oversized tank would not fit in the convertible, although the rest of the Z06 option package was later made available on convertibles as well.
Thus, the 1963 Corvette was technically the first Corvette that could be designated as "Z06." The only engine option on the Z06 was the L84 engine using Rochester fuel injection. With factory exhaust manifolds, required to run the cars in the SCCA production classes, Chevrolet rated the engine at . The Z06 option cost an additional $1,818.45 over the base coupe price of $4,252. Chevrolet later lowered the package price and eliminated the larger gas tank from the Z06 package, though it remained available as an add-on option for any coupe. All told, Chevrolet produced 199 of these "original" Z06s.
Grand Sport
In 1962 Duntov initiated a program to produce a lightweight version based on a prototype that mirrored the new 1963 Corvette. Concerned about Ford and the Shelby Cobra, Duntov's program included plans to build 125 examples of the Corvette Grand Sport to allow the model to be homologated for international Grand Touring races. After the GM executives learned of the secret project, the program was stopped, and only five cars were built, three coupes and two convertibles. All five cars have survived and are in private collections. They are among the most coveted and valuable Corvettes ever built, not because of what they accomplished, but because of what might have been.
The cars were driven by famed contemporary race drivers such as Roger Penske, A. J. Foyt, Jim Hall, and Dick Guldstrand among others. Dick Thompson was the first driver to win a race in the Grand Sport. He won a 1963 Sports Car Club of America race at Watkins Glen on August 24, 1963, driving Grand Sport 004.
Chassis #001 is owned by former banker and car collector Harry Yeaggy of Cincinnati, Ohio. It was purchased for $4.2 million in 2002.
Chassis 002 is a part of the permanent collection at the Simeone Foundation Automotive Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The car is in running condition, and is the only Grand Sport body which is original and unrestored. Also on display are a replica body and a spare 377 cubic inch engine, which were commissioned by the car's previous owner, Jim Jaeger, for participation in vintage racing without damaging the original components.
Chassis #003 is owned by car collector Larry Bowman. It was bought in 2004 for an undisclosed sum.
Chassis #004 is part of the Miles Collier Collection on display at The Revs Institute in Naples, Florida. This chassis was used in the Rolex Monterrey Motorsport Reunion in 2013.
Chassis #005 is in the private collection of Bill Tower of Plant City, Florida. He was a former Corvette development engineer and also owns several historically significant Corvettes in his collection.
The Corvette Grand Sports were raced with several different engines, but the most serious factory engine actually used was a 377 cubic inch displacement, all-aluminum, small block with four Weber side-draft carburetors and a cross-ram intake, rated at 6400 rpm. Body panels were made of thinner fiberglass to reduce weight and the inner body structure 'birdcage' was aluminum rather than steel. The ladder-type frame utilized large seamless steel tubular side members connected front and rear with crossmembers of about the same diameter tubes. Another crossmember was just aft of the transmission and a fourth one at the rear kick-up anchored the integral roll cage. The frame was slightly stiffer than the 1963 Corvette production frame and was lighter. A number of other lightweight components were utilized to reduce overall weight to about 800 pounds less than the production coupe. Initially the Grand Sport project was known simply as "The Lightweight".
Concept car
The 1963 Corvette Rondine (Ron-di-nay, Italian for Swallow) is a concept car based on a 1963 C2 chassis that was built for the 1963 Paris Auto Show. It was designed by Tom Tjaarda of Pininfarina. It was sold at Barrett-Jackson 2008 for 1.6 million dollars.
See also
Corvette Stingray (concept car)
Mako Shark (concept car)
Chevrolet Engineering Research Vehicle
Zora Arkus-Duntov
Bill Thomas Cheetah, a 1963 private-venture Shelby Cobra rival, whose drivetrain was generally sourced from the C2 Corvette
References
Notes
Bibliography
Brock, Peter Corvette Sting Ray — Genesis of an American Icon. Henderson, NV: Brock Racing Enterprises LLC, 2013. .
Flory, J. "Kelly", Jr. American Cars 1960–1972. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Coy, 2004. .
Antonick, Mike. "Corvette Black Book 1953–2000". Powell, Ohio: Michael Bruce Associates, Inc., 1999. .
Friedman, Dave and Paddock, Lowell C. Corvette Grand Sport: Photographic Race Log of the Magnificent Chevrolet Corvette Factory Specials 1962–1967. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Co., 1989. .
.
Mueller, Mike. Corvette Milestones. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Co., 1996. .
Nichols, Richard. Corvette: 1953 to the Present. London: Bison Books, 1985. .
External links
1963 Corvette - C2 Corvette history and technical development
1963 Corvette Grand Sport - Detailed history and images of the Grand Sport Corvette
1965 Corvette convertible - 1965 Corvette convertible
C2
Cars introduced in 1963
1960s cars
Cars discontinued in 1967 |
4219173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Corvette%20%28C3%29 | Chevrolet Corvette (C3) | The Chevrolet Corvette (C3) is the third generation of the Corvette sports car that was produced from 1967 until 1982 by Chevrolet for the 1968 to 1982 model years. Engines and chassis components were mostly carried over from the previous generation, but the body and interior were new. It set new sales records with 53,807 produced for the 1979 model year. The C3 is the third generation of the Chevrolet Corvette, and marks the second time the Corvette would carry the Stingray name, though only for the 1969–76 model years. This time it was a single word as opposed to Sting Ray as used for the 1963–67 C2 generation. The name would then be retired until 2014 when it returned with the release of the C7.
The most expensive Corvette C3 to sell in history was a 1969 L88 Lightweight, one of only four lightweight L88s to be produced. It was sold by Barrett-Jackson in January 2014 for $2,860,000 (£1,728,941).
History
Mako Shark II Concept
The Corvette C3 was patterned after the Mako Shark II designed by Larry Shinoda. Executed under Bill Mitchell's direction, the Mako II had been initiated in early 1964. Once the mid-engined format was abandoned, the Shinoda/Mitchell car was sent to Chevrolet Styling under David Holls, where Harry Haga's studio adapted it for production on the existing Stingray chassis. The resulting lower half of the car was much like the Mako II, except for the softer contours. The concept car's name was later changed to Manta Ray. The C3 also adopted the "sugar scoop" roof treatment with vertical back window from the mid-engined concept models designed by the Duntov group. It was intended from the beginning that the rear window and that portion of the roof above the seats to be removable.
The "Shark" has the distinction of being introduced to the motoring public in an unorthodox—and unintended—fashion. GM had tried their best to keep the appearance of the upcoming car a secret, but the release of Mattel's die-cast Hot Wheels line several weeks before the C3's unveiling had a certain version of particular interest to Corvette fans: the "Custom Corvette", a GM-authorized model of the 1968 Corvette.
1968–1969
For 1968, both the Corvette body and interior were completely redesigned. As before, the car was available in either coupe or convertible models, but coupe was now a notchback fitted with a near-vertical removable rear window and removable roof panels (T-tops). A soft folding top was included with convertibles, while an auxiliary hardtop with a glass rear window was offered at additional cost. Included with coupes were hold down straps and a pair of vinyl bags to store the roof panels, and above the luggage area was a rear window stowage tray. The enduring new body's concealed headlights moved into position via a vacuum operated system rather than electrically as on the previous generation, and the new hide-away windshield wipers utilized a problematic vacuum door. The door handles were flush with the top of the doors with a separate release button. Front fenders had functional engine cooling vents. Side vent windows were eliminated from all models, replaced with "Astro Ventilation", a fresh air circulation system. In the cabin, a large round speedometer and matching tachometer were positioned in front of the driver. Auxiliary gauges were clustered above the forward end of the console and included oil pressure, water temperature, ammeter, fuel gauge, and an analog clock. A fiber-optic system appeared on the console that monitored exterior lights and there was no glove box. The battery was relocated from the engine area to one of three compartments behind the seats to improve weight distribution. New options included a rear window defroster, anti-theft alarm system, bright metal wheel covers, and an AM-FM Stereo radio. All cars ordered with a radio, like the C2 cars, continued to be fitted with chrome-plated ignition shielding covering the distributor to reduce interference.
The chassis was carried over from the second generation models, retaining the fully independent suspension (with minor revisions) and the four-wheel disc brake system. The engine line-up and horsepower ratings were also carried over from the previous year as were the 3 and 4-speed manual transmissions. The new optional Turbo Hydramatic 3-speed automatic transmission (RPO M40) replaced the two-speed Powerglide. The L30, a small-block V8 engine rated at and a 3-speed manual transmission were standard, but only a few hundred 3-speed manual equipped cars were sold. The 4-speed manual was available in M20 wide-ratio or M21 close-ratio transmission versions. The M22 “Rock Crusher”, a heavy duty, close-ratio 4-speed gearbox, was also available for certain applications. The engine line-up included the L79, a high performance version of the small-block. Also available were several variants of the big-block V8 engine, that taken together made up nearly half the cars. There was the L36, a version with a Rochester 4-barrel carburetor; The L68, a motor with a Holley triple 2-barrel carb set up (3 X 2 tri-power); The L71, generating at 5,800 rpm and at 4,000 rpm of torque also with a tri-power; The L89 option was the L71 engine but with much lighter aluminum cylinder heads rather than the standard cast iron. Then there was the L88 engine that Chevrolet designed strictly for off-road use (racing), with a published rating of , but featured a high-capacity 4-barrel carb, aluminum heads, a unique air induction system, and an ultra-high compression ratio (12.5:1). All small block cars had low-profile hoods. All big block cars had domed hoods for additional engine clearance with twin simulated vents and “427” emblems on either side of the dome. The new seven-inch wide steel wheels had F70x15 nylon bias-ply tires standard with either white or red stripe tires optional. Rare options were: L88 engine (80), J56 heavy-duty brakes (81), UA6 alarm system (388), L89 aluminum heads (624).
In 1969, small block engine displacement increased from to , though output remained the same. All other engines and transmission choices remained unchanged from the previous year, though the L30 base engine was now the ZQ3 and the L79 motor was redesignated the L46. All cars featured steel wheels (increased from 7 inches). Tire size remained the same, although this was the first year for optional white lettered tires and the last for red striped tires. Carried over from the previous year were seven available rear axle ratios ranging from 2.73 to 4.56. Standard ratio remained 3.08 with automatic and 3.36 with manual transmission. The optional Positraction rear axle, mandated on many engine/gearbox combinations, was installed on more than 95% of the cars. "Stingray" script nameplates appeared on front fenders, now one word, in contrast to the “Sting Ray” name used previously. Exterior door handles were redesigned so the finger plate would actuate the door, eliminating the separate release button. Backup lights were integrated into the inboard taillights, headlight washers were added, and front grilles were made all black. Side-mounted exhausts and front fender vent trim were options for this year only. On the inside, revised door panels provided additional shoulder room in the C3's tighter cabin and headrests became standard. Steering wheel diameter was reduced from 16 to 15 inches to permit easier entry and exit, the ignition switch was moved from the dash to the steering column, and map pockets were added to the dash area in front of the passenger seat. Accounting for 57% of the cars, coupes with their removable roof panels, began a trend of outselling roadsters. An extended production cycle due to a labor dispute increased '69 volume. This was the last year for the L88 engine and the only year for the ZL1 option, which offered an all-aluminum big-block engine listed at . Rare options: ZL1 aluminum block (2), J56 heavy-duty brakes (115), L88 engine (116), L89 aluminum heads (390).
Car and Driver magazine wrote in October 1968, “The small-engine Corvettes are marginally faster and extraordinarily civilized. The large-engine Corvettes are extraordinarily fast and marginally civilized.”
1970–1972
With January 1970 production, fender flares were designed into the body contours to reduce wheel-thrown debris damage. New were eggcrate grills with matching front fender side vents and larger squared front directional lamps. The previously round dual exhaust outlets were made larger and rectangular in shape. Interiors were tweaked with redesigned seats and a new deluxe interior option combined wood-grain wood accents and higher-spec carpeting with leather seat surfaces. Positraction rear axle, tinted glass, and a wide-ratio 4-speed manual transmission were now standard. The base engine (ZQ3) remained at and the L46 was again offered as a high performance upgrade. New was the LT-1, a small-block V8 engine delivering a factory rated . It was a solid lifter motor featuring a forged steel crankshaft, 4-bolt main block, 11:1 compression ratio, impact extruded pistons, high-lift camshaft, low-restriction exhaust, aluminum intake manifold, 4-barrel carburetor, and finned aluminum rocker covers. The new engine, making up less than 8% of production, could not be ordered with air conditioning but was fitted with a domed hood adorned with “LT-1” decals.
Motor Trend in May 1970, clocked an LT-1 covering the quarter mile in 14.36 seconds at 101.69 mph and remarked, “There is Corvette and there is Porsche. One is the best engineering effort of America, the other of Germany. The difference in machines is not as great as the disparity in price.”
A special ZR1 package added racing suspension, brakes, stabilizer bars, and other high performance components to LT-1 cars. Big-block selection was down to one engine but displacement increased. The LS5 was a motor generating SAE gross and accounted for a quarter of the cars. The LS7, which was equipped with a single 800 CFM Holley carburetor and advertised at at 5600 rpm SAE gross and at 3600 rpm of torque, was planned and appeared in Chevrolet literature but is not believed to have ever been delivered to retail customers, but offered as a crate engine. A short model year resulted in a disproportionately low production volume of 17,316, down nearly 60%. Rare options: ZR1 special engine package (25), shoulder belts in convertibles (475), LT-1 engine (1,287).
Produced from August 1970, 1971 cars were virtually identical in appearance to the previous model inside and out. This was the final year for the fiber optics light monitoring system, the headlight washer system, and the M22 heavy duty 4-speed manual gearbox. For the first time, air conditioning was installed on most of the cars, with nearly 53 percent so ordered. Engines were detuned with reduced compression ratios to tolerate lower octane fuel. The small blocks available were the base engine, which dropped to , and the high performance LT-1, now listed at . The LS5 motor was carried over and produced . Offered in ‘71 only was the LS6 big-block featuring aluminum heads and delivering , highest of the 1970-72 MYs, and could be ordered with an automatic transmission. The ZR1 option was carried over for LT-1 equipped cars and the ZR2 option, offered this year only, provided a similar performance equipment package for LS6 cars, and restricted transmission to a 4-speed manual. Rare options: ZR1 special engine package (8), ZR2 special engine package (12), LS6 425 hp engine (188), shoulder belts in convertibles (677).
1972 (Aug. 1971 prod) was the last model year for chrome bumpers at both front and rear, the vacuum actuated pop-up windshield wiper door, as well as the removable rear window common to all 1968-72 coupes. The key activated anti-theft alarm system became standard. The increasingly popular choice of an automatic transmission was installed in most Corvettes for the first time, with nearly 54 percent so equipped. This year SAE net measurement for horsepower was now utilized (away from the previous SAE gross standard), and was largely responsible for the much lower engine output figures such as the rating on the standard motor. This was the final year for the LT-1 engine, rated at , and the ZR1 racing package built around it. Although the M22 HD 4-speed was no longer a Regular Production Option, it continued to be fitted to cars outfitted with the ZR1 package. The LT-1 could now be ordered with air conditioning, a combination not permitted the two previous years. The LS5 big block was again available and came in at . Noteworthy is in ’72 the LS5 was not available to California buyers. This was the beginning of a trend where Chevrolet restricted certain power train choices to California buyers due to that state's practice of applying more stringent emission (smog) standards than mandated by federal regulations. Convertibles were a vanishing breed by ‘72, and the Stingray was no exception. It sold only 6,508 copies, amounting to 9% of the market, placing it number three; it was beaten by the number one-selling Cutlass Supreme, with 11,571, but beat the Impala's 6,456 and the Mustang's 6,401. Rare options: ZR1 special engine package (20), shoulder belts with convertibles (749), LT1 engine option (1,741).
1973–1974
Model year 1973 started Corvette's transformation from muscle to touring sports car. A Chevrolet advertisement headlined: "We gave it radials, a quieter ride, guard beams and a nose job." Indeed, redesigned body mounts and radial tires did improve Corvette's ride, and interior sound levels were reduced by 40%. The chrome rear bumper was essentially carried over from the previous year. However, the chrome blade front bumper was dropped for the federally required standard for a light-weight front bumper system with an inner transverse tube attached to the frame with two Omark-bolts-(special steel fasteners which absorbed energy when a forming die, pushed back by the bumper, was forced down their length), and an injection-molded polyurethane bumper cover. The urethane nose was chosen over Chevy's other alternative, a more protruding version of the previous metal bumper. The new urethane bumper assembly added thirty-five pounds to the front end. Two small block engines were available. The base L-48 engine produced . The L-82 was introduced as the optional high performance small-block engine (replacing the LT-1 engine) and delivered . The new hydraulic lifter motor featured a forged steel crankshaft, running in a four-bolt main block, with special rods, impact extruded pistons, a higher lift camshaft, mated to special heads with larger valves running at a higher 9:1 compression, and included finned aluminum valve covers to help dissipate heat. The L-82 was designed to come on strong at higher RPM and ordered with nearly 20% of the cars at a cost of $299.
Car and Driver on the L-82 in December 1972, “…when it comes to making a choice, the L82 is the engine we prefer. Duntov and the other Corvette engineers gravitate toward the big blocks because they like the torque. And granted, the 454s will squirt through traffic with just a feather touch on the gas pedal. But, to us at least, the small block engine contributes to a fine sense of balance in the Corvette that is rare in any GT car, so rare that it would be a shame to exchange it for a few lb.-ft. of torque.”
The LS-4 big-block V8 engine was introduced in 1973 to replace the LS-5. It delivered and 15% of the cars were ordered so equipped. “454” emblems adorned the hood of big-block equipped Corvettes. All models featured a new cowl induction domed hood, which pulled air in through a rear hood intake into the engine compartment under full throttle, increasing power (but didn't show up in the horsepower ratings). 0-60 mph times were reduced by a second while keeping the engine compartment cooler. The new tire size was GR70-15 with white stripes or raised white letters optional. An aluminum wheel option was seen on 1973 and 1974 pilot cars, and a few 1973s were so equipped, but withheld for quality issues, and wouldn't be available until 1976.
Road & Track magazine stated in a 1973 road test: "For all its age, size and compromises, if the Corvette is equipped with the right options it is a pleasant and rewarding car to drive and this 1973 example was one of the best Corvettes we've ever driven." It was also the year for the first Off Road Suspension RPO Z07 produced and today it is considered a very rare production Corvette as only 45 were produced.
For 1974, a new rear bumper system replaced the squared tail and chrome rear bumper blades introduced in 1967 with a trim, tapering urethane cover carrying an integral license plate holder and recesses for the trademark round taillights. Underneath sat a box-section aluminum impact bar on two Omark-bolt slider brackets similar to the system used in the nose which allowed the Corvette to pass federal five-mph impact tests at the rear as well as the front. The new rear design was more up-to-date than the 60's shape that it replaced with the vast majority of enthusiasts embracing the new design. For the 1974 model only, casting limitations mandated left and right bumper covers with a vertical center seam. The anti-theft alarm key activator was moved from the rear panel to the front left fender. Tailpipes were now turned down as the new bumper cover eliminated the tailpipe extensions.
Car and Driver magazine said: "...We think the front and rear together produce a 'molded' shape that speaks of function rather than decor." Chevrolet commented on the new tailpiece in the '74 Corvette sales brochure: “Take the styling. We wouldn’t just change it for the sake of change. But when we made the rear bumper stronger, we made Corvette’s rear styling look different. And, we think better...”
A 1974 Stingray equipped with the L48 small-block was capable of 0-60 mph in 6.8 seconds; comparable to the 6.5 second time of the 1968 small-block rated at ; proof the 1972-74 Corvette engines had ample power regardless of reduced horsepower and net (bhp) ratings. The L-82 engine remained at and the LS4 dropped slightly to .
Hi-Performance Cars magazine in a L48, L82, and LS4 comparison test, September 1973, said: "Our choice for the all-around best performer must go to the base 350 L48 engine...The L48 delivers all the acceleration you'll ever need on the road in a steady, forceful manner...in addition it runs cool, idles smoothly, and can cruise all day at . The L48 took 6.8 seconds to reach , the L82, 6.7 seconds and the LS4 454, 6.4 seconds. On the Bridgehampton road course and over the ride and handling course at Suffolk County Raceway, the base L48 coupe was again our choice...the L-82 had the same balance as the L48 but if we weren't at the right rpm through a corner, or in the wrong gear, the (L82's) lack of torque made itself felt once again...the L48 was the best balanced of the three." In conclusion, they stated: "The Corvette as a total concept has always been far more than the sum of its individual parts. The fanatical clientele that buys 30,000 of them a year can attest to that. And we'll attest to the fact that after 20 years, the Corvette is more than going strong. It's still the epitome of the American motoring experience."
Resonators were added to the dual exhaust system on 1974 models which further helped quiet the interior. The radiator and shroud were revised for better low-speed cooling. The inside rear-view mirror width was increased from to . For the first time, lap and shoulder seat belts were integrated, but only in coupes. The FE7 Gymkhana "off-road" suspension included stiffer springs and a stiffer front stabilizer bar with no ordering restrictions. The new $7 FE7 suspension option was included with the Z07 package — The $400 package (also included H.D. power brakes) was available for L82 and LS4 cars with M21 transmission. 1974 was the end of an era for the Corvette with the last true dual exhaust systems, the last without a catalytic converter and the last use of the big block engine.
Hot Rod magazine in its March 1986 issue selected the 1973-74 Corvette LS4 454 as one of the "10 most collectable muscle cars" in the company of the 1968-70 Chevelle, 1970 'Cuda, 1970 Challenger, 1966-67 Fairlane, 1968-70 AMX, 1970 Camaro Z28, 1968-70 GTO, 1968–69 Charger, and 1967-68 Mustang. The big-block Corvettes were the only muscle cars produced after 1970 worthy of the list.
1975–1977
The 1975 model was advertised as "a more efficient Corvette," as service intervals were extended and electronic ignition and the federally mandated catalytic converter were introduced with "unleaded fuel only" warnings on the fuel gauge and filler door. Dual exhaust pipes were routed to a single converter, then split again leading to dual mufflers and tailpipes. Starting this year, tachometers were electronically driven. The Corvette began to be influenced by the metric system as speedometers now displayed small subfaces indicating kilometers-per-hour. 75's featured revised inner bumper systems with molded front and rear simulated bumper guards. The urethane rear bumper, now in its second year, reappeared as a one-piece seamless unit. This was the final year for Astro Ventilation. Power bottomed out this year — the base engine produced only and the only remaining optional motor, the L-82, dropped an astonishing , managing to deliver . With no larger engine available, L-82 hood emblems began to appear on cars so equipped. Unchanged was the standard rear axle ratio for the base engine, which remained at 3.08 with automatic and 3.36 with manual transmission. This was the last convertible for the 1968-82 third-generation and only 12% of the cars were ordered as such. As in previous years, a folding top came standard with roadsters and a body color or vinyl covered hardtop was optional at additional cost. Anticipating further federal safety restrictions, Chevrolet believed it would be Corvette's last soft-top model ever but the convertible returned in 1986. Due to the state's strict emissions standards, this was the last year Chevrolet installed the L-82 engine in a Corvette destined for California.
Car and Driver recorded a respectable 7.7 second 0-60 mph time in a 1975 base engine-automatic, making the Corvette still one of the fastest cars available at the time. C&D said: "The Corvette feels highly competent with power-everything to help you guide the long body around..."
1976 models featured steel floor panels shielding the catalytic converter exhaust. These steel floor panels weighed less than the previous fiberglass floor and reduced interior noise levels. Horsepower rose to for the base L-48 engine; for the optional L-82. To further reduce cabin noise levels, cowl induction was dropped in favor of the air cleaner ducted over the radiator, picking up outside air from the front of the car, thus reducing wind turbulence at the base of the windshield. The hood was carried over, with its cowl vent grille and induction system opening becoming non-functional. The optional cast aluminum wheels were finally made available, which reduced the unsprung weight of the car by 32 pounds. Nearly 15% of the cars were ordered with the new wheels at a cost of $299. A standard steel rim spare was used. This was the last year for optional white striped tires, as 86% of the cars were being delivered with the optional white lettered tires. A new rear nameplate for the rear bumper cover was introduced, eliminating the individual "Corvette" letters used since 1968. An unwelcome change was the "Vega GT" 4-spoke steering wheel, although its smaller diameter did provide extra room and eased entry/exit. The steering wheel, color-keyed to the interior, continued on 1977 through 1979 models, limited to non-tilt wheel cars only. GM's "Freedom" battery, a new sealed and maintenance-free unit, was now installed in all cars. The rear window defroster option was changed from the forced-air type of previous years to the new "Electro-Clear" defogger, an in-glass heated element type. Even without a convertible model, the Corvette still set new sales records.
Car and Driver recorded 6.8 second 0-60 mph times in both L-48 and L-82 4-speed equipped 1976 Corvettes. The magazine ordered an L-48 4-speed for a road trip to Alaska. C&D summarized: "The Corvette was a big hit–we expected and thoroughly enjoyed that–but we were surprised at how well it withstood the ordeal...once we recovered from the trip we conceded that we'd developed new respect for a car we'd long regarded as something of a put on. In every sense of the word, our Yukon Corvette proved to be tough and we'd have to say that even the production versions impressed us as coming closer to being real touring cars than we might ever have thought. There's a lot more sincere ring now to our stock answer to the question, Why a Corvette?"
1977 saw the steering column repositioned closer to the dashboard to allow a more "arms out" position for the driver. The custom interior with leather seat trim was now standard, with cloth and leather a no-cost option. A redesigned center console permitted universal Delco radio options. One consequence of this modification was that an 8-track tape player was now available as an option. Auxiliary gauges were restyled and the ammeter was replaced with a voltmeter. The sun visors were redesigned to swivel so as to provide some glare protection from the side as well as the front. Chevrolet responded to the criticism of the previous year's steering wheel with an all new three-spoke leather-wrapped unit, which was well received. Chevrolet featured this new wheel prominently on the front of their new Corvette sales brochure. The new wheel came on all cars fitted with the optional tilt-telescopic steering column which was ordered on all but a few thousand Corvettes. Corvette's refinement as a touring sports car continued as both power steering and power brakes became standard and new options included body-colored sport mirrors, cruise control, and a new convenience group. Cruise control was only available on cars with automatic transmissions. The convenience group included dome light delay, headlight warning buzzer, underhood light, low fuel warning light, interior courtesy lights, and passenger side visor mirror. The black exterior paint color returned (last offered in 1969). Unchanged was the horsepower ratings for both base and L-82 engines. Early in production, the engine paint color was changed from Chevy orange to Corporate blue. The “Stingray” script, seen on front fenders since 1969 disappeared, but new cross-flags emblems began appearing on fenders before the model year ended. Windshield posts were now painted black for a “thin pillar” look and this was the final year of the "sugar scoop" tunneled roof-line and vertical back window. A Corvette milestone was reached during 1977 as Chevrolet had built a half million Corvettes since production began in 1953.
1978–1979
1978 was the Corvette's 25th anniversary, and all 78s featured silver anniversary nose and fuel door emblems. A new fastback rear window was the most dramatic and noticeable styling change, giving the ten-year-old C3 Corvette body style a fresh lease on life. The fixed-glass fastback benefited both aerodynamics and increased the usable luggage space behind the seats while improving rearward visibility in the bargain. A shade was installed that could be pulled forward to cover the rear compartment to protect cargo and carpet against the sun. The tachometer and speedometer were redesigned to match the new “aircraft styled” center console and gauge cluster first seen the previous year. Redesigned interior door panels were also new as well as an actual glove box was added in front of the passenger seat, replacing the map pockets of previous years. Available options now included power door locks, a power antenna, dual rear speakers and a CB radio. The optional convenience group, introduced the previous year, now included intermittent (delay) wipers, floor mats, and the passenger side vanity mirror was an upgraded illuminated unit. The base L-48 engine generated ; Those destined for California or high altitude areas produced . Gone was the chrome-plated ignition shielding over the distributor, replaced with a metal-lined black plastic unit. The single-snorkel air intake used since 1976 was changed to a dual-snorkel set-up on L-82 equipped cars helping to boost that output to . L-82 engines were also now fitted with an aluminum intake manifold which saved 24 pounds compared to the cast iron unit of previous years. The Corvette converted to metric tires with the P225/70R15 as standard. Wider P255/60R15 tires were available as an option and required fender trimming from the factory for clearance. The fuel tank capacity increased from 17 gal to 24 gal on all cars. To make room for the larger tank, a smaller (P195/80D15) space saver spare tire was utilized.
Two special editions were offered to celebrate Corvette's 25th year. Before he retired, Bill Mitchell had suggested a Silver Anniversary model in his favorite color - silver, appropriately enough - and it appeared as the $399 B2Z option package. The first two-tone paint option offered since 1961, it presented silver over a gray lower body with a separating pinstripe, plus aluminum wheels and dual "sport" outside mirrors as mandatory options, which added another $380 to the cost. 6,502 Indy 500 Pace car replica editions were produced featuring Black/silver two-tone paint, front and rear spoilers, mirror-tint roof panels and contoured sport seats. Reviewers praised the car's classic strengths including its impressive straight-line numbers, especially an L48/automatic's 7.8 second 0-60 mph time and top speed of , and noted its more refined, less rattling ride. On the other hand, they continued to note its weaknesses, like a rear-end that tended to step out during sharp maneuvers and a cabin that was still cramped and uncomfortable.
Road & Track took a 1978 L82 to in just 6.6 seconds, flat out, and covered the quarter-mile in 15.3 seconds at 95 mph.
1979 saw the crossed-flag emblems on the nose and fuel door revert to those seen on the '77 model. Three popular features introduced on the '78 pace car replicas made it into this year's production: the new bucket seats, the front and rear spoiler package, and the glass roof panels. The new lightweight “high back” seats were made standard equipment. The new seats had better side bolster, provided easier access to the rear storage area, and the seat pair resulted in a weight reduction of about 24 pounds. The bolt-on front and rear spoilers were offered as an option and nearly 7,000 cars were ordered so equipped. Functionally, the spoilers decreased drag by about 15% and increased fuel economy by about a half-mile per gallon. A bigger hit were the glass mirror-tint roof panels, now a regular option, with nearly 15,000 cars so fitted despite their costing $365. All T-tops were now wired into the standard anti-theft alarm system. Tungsten-halogen high-beam headlights became standard as did an AM-FM radio, and for the first time a cassette tape player could be added as a $234 option. Heavy duty shock absorbers could now be ordered without the full Gymkhana suspension. An auxiliary electric engine cooling fan was first installed, but only on L-82 equipped cars with air conditioning. Rocker panels and rear window trim were painted black. Output for all engines increased due to new "open flow" mufflers. The dual-snorkel air intake introduced on L-82 cars the previous year was now fitted to all cars and the base engine now generated . The optional L-82 engine increased to . This was the final year a manual gearbox could be ordered with the L-82 engine. This was also the last year for the M21 close-ratio 4-speed, a gearbox that, as in previous years, required the optional L-82 engine. A wide-ratio 4-speed was available for all cars. Noteworthy is that about 82% of the cars were ordered with manual transmissions in 1968. In '79, less than 20% of the cars were delivered with manual gearboxes. This year reached an all-time high in Corvette popularity. Production hit its peak in 1979 at 53,807, a record that stands to this day.
1980–1982
In 1980, both front and rear bumper covers were restyled with brand new integrated aerodynamic spoilers that resulted in a significant reduction in drag and increased radiator air flow. The hood was also restyled as well. The crossed-flag emblems disappeared from the front fenders and were revised to a more elongated style on the nose and fuel door. L-82 emblems moved from the hood to the front fenders on cars ordered with the optional high performance engine. This was the finale for the L-82 Corvette emblem, now producing but it could not be mated to a 4-speed, as the manual gearbox was offered only with the L48 engine option. The speedometer in all cars read to a maximum of , mandated by a new and controversial federal law. Air conditioning became standard, as did the tilt-telescopic steering column, power windows, exterior sport mirrors, and the convenience group. New was an optional roof panel carrier that would mount to the rear fastback deck. Many weight-saving components were introduced including thinner body panels and an aluminum Dana 44 IRS (Independent Rear Suspension) differential and crossmember. The new lighter unit replaced the arguably stronger cast iron GM 10 bolt IRS differential. In line with further weight savings, the aluminum intake manifold associated with L-82 engines since 1978 was now installed in all cars, as well as an aluminum lower alternator mounting bracket replacing the cast iron piece used since 1972. For the first time, due to California emission considerations, a unique engine application was installed in cars delivered to that state and was mandatory. This motor was a V8 engine rated at , fitted with new tubular 409 stainless steel exhaust manifolds that were far lighter than the cast iron pieces they replaced, and mated to an automatic transmission, also mandatory. The carburetor and ignition timing were controlled by Chevrolet's new Computer Command Control system. The smaller displacement engine was not available in any other state. California buyers were credited $50 as consolation but had to pay for the California emissions certification which was $250. For comparison, the L-48 engine, standard in the other 49 states, was rated at . The base price increased four times during the model year raising the cost of the car by more than $1,200 to $14,345.24.
In 1981, there was only one powerplant available, a engine that, like the L-48 base engine the previous year, produced the , but was now designated the L81. The motor was certified in all states and available with manual or automatic transmissions. Chrome air cleaner lids and cast magnesium valve covers dressed up all engines. The light weight 4 into 1 stainless steel exhaust manifolds and computer control system introduced on the California engines the previous year were now standard, as was an auxiliary electric engine cooling fan. This, the last C3 available with a manual transmission, so equipped, had a published 0-60 mph in 8.1 seconds. This model year was the first Corvette to use a fiberglass rear leaf spring, now a Corvette trademark. The spring saved thirty-six pounds, but was limited to base suspensions with automatic transmission. When equipped with Delco's brand new optional ETR (Electronically Tuned Receiver) radio with a digital clock, the quartz analog instrument panel clock was replaced with an oil temperature gauge. The cast aluminum wheels, optional since ’76, were now ordered on 90 percent of the cars at a cost of $428. New options included a power adjustable driver’s seat and power remote outside mirrors. In mid-1981 production relocated from St. Louis to Bowling Green, Kentucky, and several two-tone paint options were offered.
1982 saw the debut of the "Cross-Fire Injection" fuel delivery system. This TBI (Throttle Body Fuel Injection) was not the type of fuel injection installed previously in some C1 and C2 Corvettes. It utilized two throttle bodies combined with Chevrolet's computer control system. The engine produced and was mated to a new four-speed automatic transmission with torque converters bypass in the top three gears. Compared to the previous Turbo-Hydramatic 3-speed, the new 700-R4 transmission had a lower first and second gear for improved low-end acceleration, and a fourth gear overdrive that would reduce engine RPM by 30 percent at highway cruising speeds, resulting in better fuel economy. On the downside, the new transmission was not considered a strong unit and proved problematic. The final model C3 Corvette's published performance numbers were 0-60 mph in 7.9 seconds-the quarter-mile in 16.1 at . This was the last year for 8-track tape availability and new "cross-fire injection" emblems appeared on front fenders. Nose and fuel door crossed-flags emblems changed to a more squared design.
In 1982, Chevrolet knew this would be the last year of an entire generation of Corvettes and so commemorated the occasion by offering a Collector Edition with separate serial number sequencing, silver-beige paint, unique wheels patterned after the 1967 model's bolt-on alloys, and an operable rear hatch window.
Special models
Astrovette (1969)
In 1969, General Motors leased three special edition Corvette Stingrays for astronauts Pete Conrad, Richard F. Gordon, Jr., and Alan Bean of the Apollo 12 mission. All three units sported a gold and black paint scheme chosen by Bean and were leased to them for US$1.00 a year.
ZL1 (1969)
For the 1969 model year the ZL1 option was offered featuring an all-aluminum big-block engine listed at gross, it propelled the ZL1 through the 1/4 mile in 12.1 seconds. The option cost $4,700 (the ZL1 was a $3,010 option that consisted of aluminum cylinder block and heads on top of the $1,032.15 L88 option). Though generally believed to deliver at least 100 hp (75 kW) more, this has been proved as only rumors, proper testing of the engine revealed closer to gross and net rating of only .
According to Motor Trend in a late 1968 road test, the Corvette ZL1 was the fastest production car ever produced (up to that time). For decades, automotive experts believed only two were built (yellow and white coupes), however Car and Driver in December 1969, revealed a third red ZL1. It was purchased by a Gulf Oil engineer who still owns and occasionally races it.
In 2023, one of two factory-produced 1969 Corvette ZL-1s was auctioned off by RM Sotheby's Arizona for $3,140,000.
ZR1 & ZR2 (1970–1972)
The ZR1 special engine package was a $1,221.00 option available exclusively with the LT-1 engine option. It included the solid-lifter small-block engine, heavy-duty four-speed transmission, power brakes, aluminum radiator, and a revised suspension with special springs, shocks, stabilizer bar, and spindle-strut shafts. Since it was competition equipment, the ZR1 could not be ordered with power windows, power steering, air conditioning, a rear-window defogger, wheel covers, or a radio. Only 53 1970-1972 ZR1's were built (25 in 1970, including 8 convertibles, 8 in 1971, and 20 in 1972).
The ZR2 special engine package was a $1,747.00 (1 year only) option originally planned for 1970, but officially released in 1971. It included the special equipment in the ZR1 package, but for the 454 LS-6 engine. Per GM policy, 1971 Corvette engines were detuned to run on low-lead fuel, except for the LS-6 V8, which was rated at on premium fuel. 188 cars in the 1971 model included the LS-6 engine, with only 12 with the ZR-2 package, including only 2 convertibles. Some believe the "ZR" lettering to stand for "Zora Racer", named after chief Corvette engineer Zora Duntov, but in 2008, Corvette Production Manager Harlan Charles said, "the reality is the codes are usually random and get meaning from enthusiasts."
Indy 500 pace car (1978)
The Corvette C3 was chosen as the pace car for the 1978 Indianapolis 500.
Initially, 2500 Indy 500 replica pacers—100 for each year of production—were scheduled for sale. But it was decided that each of Chevrolet's 6502 dealers should have one for showroom display. Thus what was called the Limited Edition Indy Pace Car Replica Corvette made up some 15 percent of total production. Like the Silver Anniversary model, the Pace Car Replica was actually an option package-RPO Z78. Its main distinction was black over silver metallic with a bright red pinstripe in between with a spoiler added to each end to alter appearance more dramatically. Pace car interiors reflected Bill Mitchell's influence, with full silver leather or silver leather/gray cloth upholstery and gray carpeting. All replicas were equipped with new thin-shell design-lumbar support seats, new glass t-tops, alloy wheels, power windows, air conditioning, tilt/telescope steering wheel, power locks, rear defogger, sport mirrors, heavy-duty battery, and AM/FM stereo with either eight-track tape player or CB radio. The final touch was the Indy 500 decal set included uninstalled with each limited-edition car.
Corvette America (1980)
The Corvette America was a rare version of the C3 distinguished by its four doors. Various sources stated that either General Motors built it or that it was custom built by California Coach Motors. The wheelbase was lengthened by approximately to accommodate the rear doors and seats. Automotive forums have reported that the Corvette America could be purchased on Craigslist or eBay for prices ranging from $145,000 to $275,000. Only five examples were made.
Collector Edition (1982)
The 1982 Collector Edition was the first Corvette with a hatchback rear window, foreshadowing the C4 Corvette. A special color scheme was used inside and out and Collector Edition badges were featured. The special, exclusive aluminum wheels were designed to look like the optional bolt-on wheels of the 1967 model. The Collector Edition had a "0" in the sixth digit of the VIN rather than the "8" found on standard Corvettes. This was the first Corvette to sell for more than $20,000, with a base price of $22,537.59. The Collector Edition had unlimited availability and 6,759 were produced out of a 1982 total production of 25,407.
Engines
Production
The C3 fourteen-year run shows an extreme contrast. The list price for the Corvette in 1968 was $4,663 (~$ in ). By 1982 the base price had increased to $18,290 (~$ in ). In 1968 there were six engines, two small-block V8s and four big-block V8s. By 1982 there was only one small block V8 engine available. In '68 there were five transmissions, including four manual choices. By '82 there was one, a four-speed automatic. Although refined, emission standards and fuel economy concerns had changed America's only sports car.
Gallery
C3 Corvette Photo Chronology
See also
Corvette Mako Shark (concept car)
Zora Arkus-Duntov "Father of the Corvette"
Opel GT
Chevrolet Aerovette experimental rotary engine concept car
References
External links
C3 Vette Registry
Corvette C3 Decoder
C3
Cars introduced in 1968
Roadsters
Convertibles
1970s cars
1980s cars
Cars discontinued in 1982 |
4219348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet%20Corvette%20%28C4%29 | Chevrolet Corvette (C4) | The Chevrolet Corvette (C4) is the fourth generation of the Corvette sports car, produced by American automobile manufacturer Chevrolet from 1983 until 1996. The convertible returned, as did higher performance engines, exemplified by the LT5 found in the ZR-1. In early March 1990, the ZR-1 would set a new record for the highest 24 hour-5,000 mile land-speed by going over a speed of . With a completely new chassis, modern sleeker styling, and other improvements to the model, prices rose and sales declined. The last C4 was produced on June 20, 1996.
Overview
The C4 Corvette represented a clean break from the Zora Arkus-Duntov-designed C3, with a completely new chassis and sleeker, more modern but still evolutionary styling. It was the work of a team under chief Corvette designer Dave McLellan, who'd taken over from Duntov in 1975. In a departure from the fiberglass panels of its forebears, the C4's rear bumpers and panels were made from molding plastics, a sheet molding compound. The C4 fastback coupé was the first general production Corvette to have a glass hatchback (the limited edition 1982 Collector Edition being the first Corvette equipped with this feature) for better storage access. The roof panel, which was made from fiberglass or optionally from clear acrylic, was removable. The Corvette C4 came standard with an electronic dashboard with a digital liquid crystal display instrument cluster. It displayed a combination of graphics for speed and RPM, fuel level, and used digital displays for other important engine functions. For the first time since 1957, the Corvette used single headlights instead of dual units, but they were still retractable.
Since emissions regulations were still changing and electronic engine management was in its infancy, engine power output was low compared to earlier generations. The primary design emphasis at launch was therefore focused on handling and braking, with an all-independent light-weight suspension and wheels and all new brakes with aluminum calipers. The front suspension saw the C3's coil springs replaced by a transverse fiberglass mono-leaf spring, which was only 1/3 of the weight of the coil springs while also introducing an anti-roll bar-like effect on the front. The price of the emphasis on handling was ride comfort, especially with the Z51 performance and handling package. Spring rates were sequentially softened for the 1985 model year. The C4 did not use separate body-on-frame construction like its predecessors. Instead, it used what GM termed a "uniframe", which consisted of a traditional perimeter frame, with the door posts, windshield frame, halo U-shaped frame overhead behind the seats and the rear portion of the floor pan integrated into one welded assembly. This was not a unibody assembly, as none of the exterior body panels were structural members. Due to a styling decision to use a targa top instead of T-tops, there was no structural member tying the windshield frame to the halo as on the C3. This required extremely tall side rails on the frame to maintain chassis rigidity, and as a result, the door sills were quite deep, with entry and exit likened by contemporary auto journals to a "fall in and climb out" experience. The targa top bolted into place, becoming a structural component, rather than simply latching on like T-tops. The emergency brake, located between the door sill and the drivers seat, was moved lower and toward the rear of the car in 1987 for easier entry and exit.
From the 1984 model year (available January 1984) through the 1988 model year, the Corvette was available with a Doug Nash "4+3" transmission - a 4-speed manual coupled to an automatic overdrive on the top three gears. This unusual transmission was a synergy that allowed the Corvette to keep a stout 4 speed, but add an overdrive. As technology progressed, it was replaced by a modern ZF 6-speed manual transmission. However, the C4's performance was hampered by its L98 engine until 1992, when the second-generation Chevy small block, the LT1, was introduced, markedly improving the C4's performance. 1996 was a high point of small block engines development and the LT4 was introduced in all six-speed manual transmission equipped cars. The LT4 produced maximum power output at 5,800 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm. While the LT4 was available in any Corvette, it was highlighted in the 1996 Grand Sport package.
The 1986 Corvette saw the return of the convertible and was named as the Pace Car for the Indianapolis 500. 1986 also saw the introduction of the Pass Key I passive anti-theft system, wherein each key contained a special pellet that could be detected and identified by the car's computer system by detecting electrical resistance. Being early in the rollout of this new technology, there were only 15 different resistance values available. Once thieves discovered this weakness, it markedly reduced the value of this early system.
Only a total of 43 prototype and pre-production Corvettes were manufactured with a 1983 Vehicle Identification Number (VIN). None were made available to the public as official production vehicles. All were destroyed except one, VIN 1G1AY0783D5100023 (white with a medium blue interior), fitted with a L83 V8 engine and a 4-speed automatic transmission. It was displayed above the factory entrance for years until it was restored and is now displayed in the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. The 1983 model delay was due to problems with parts supplier quality issues and production line changeover issues. GM decided to cancel the 1983 model year production and started the 1984 model year Corvettes early. Regular 1984 model year production began on January 3, 1983, and delivery to customers began in March 1983. The 1984 models were produced for 17 months.
ZR-1 (1990–1995)
General Motors acquired Group Lotus, a UK based engineering consultant and performance car manufacturing firm, during 1986. The Corvette division approached Lotus with the idea of developing the world's fastest production car, to be based on the C4 generation of the Corvette. With input from GM, Lotus designed a new engine to fit in place of the L98 V8 that was powering the standard C4. The result was what GM dubbed the LT5, an aluminum-block V8 with the same bore centers as the L98, but with four overhead camshafts and 32 valves. Lotus also designed a unique air management system for the engine to provide a wider power band by shutting off 8 of the 16 intake runners and fuel injectors when the engine was at part-throttle, while still giving the ZR-1 a power output of when at wide open throttle.
In addition to the engine, Lotus helped GM design the ZR-1's (which in prototype version was called "King of the Hill") The ZR-1 is fitted with Goodyear Eagle Gatorback tires having size of P315/ 35ZR-17 specially made for the car along with bigger ventilated disc brakes. Due to the heavier engine and body work along with wide tires, the ZR-1 is heavier than the standard C4 Corvette. The ZR-1 came standard with the UJ6 Low-Tire-Pressure Warning System along with an ABS system manufactured by Bosch. The FX3 suspension system was engineered by Bilstein and was similar to the system used in the Porsche 959 albeit with modifications from the Lotus Formula 1 division. The system used a gas-over-oil shock absorber whose hollow center shaft came fitted with an adjustable orifice which controls the flow of oil in the shock absorber. The system allowed for six damping settings in each of the three driving modes namely Touring, Sport, and Performance and had 14 total steps. Servomotors coupled with a microprocessor governed the vehicle's speed and adjusted the suspension system accordingly.
The 5.7-litre DOHC 32-valve LT5 engine unique to the car had a central bore spacing of 4.40 inches. The distance was maintained by reducing the bore from 4.00 to 3.90 inches while the stroke was increased from 3.48 to 3.66 inches. The aluminum cylinder liners were Nikasil-coated and the engine block has a cast-aluminum oil sump. The crankcase has integral four- and six-bolt cast-iron main
bearing caps which secure the forged steel crankshaft into place. The four camshafts of the engine are driven by a roller chain and actuate hydraulic lifters that eliminate valve lash adjustment. The four-valve combustion chambers feature centrally-located spark plugs which act in combination with dished aluminum pistons enabling for a compression ratio of 11.0:1. The engine held 12 quarts of oil, 7 more than the L98 engine. The LT5 also came with a unique two valve induction system along with 16 tuned-length intake runners and a specially designed intake manifold using three throttle bodies. The small primary throttle body was for responsive low speed operation while the two large secondary throttle bodies enabled for full-power usage. The engine used direct-fire ignition: Four coils ignite two spark plugs simultaneously, upon receiving their cue from a crankshaft sensor acting in combination with the ECM. Spark advance and
retardation are electronically controlled by the ECM, which gets an additional information from a knock sensor. A distinctive cooling system incorporating a 15% larger radiator ensured that the operating temperature of the engine remained the same as the L98 despite the differences in construction and operation.
In order to transfer power efficiently to the rear wheels, a unique 6-speed manual transmission manufactured by ZF was installed with a code name of ML9. The transmission used Computer Aided Gear Selection (CAGS) which forced the driver to shift from first to fourth under low power urban driving conditions. The transmission has a tweaked ring and pinion ratio of 3.54:1 and a lower final drive ratio of 3.33:1.
Other exterior modifications include a hard coated acrylic roof panel, and seven additional exterior colors. The interior came standard with leather sports seats and a Delco/Bose sound system.
Tested performance figures by Road & Track magazine include a acceleration time of 4.9 seconds, a quarter mile time of 13.4 seconds, braking distance of 132 ft from 60 mph and 233 ft from 80 mph along with skidpad acceleration of 0.94 g. The car's tested top speed by the magazine amounted to .
GM found that the engine required special assembly, and that neither the Corvette plant in Bowling Green, Kentucky, nor any of their normal production facilities could handle the workload, so Mercury Marine corporation of Stillwater, Oklahoma, was contracted to assemble the engines under their MerCruiser division, due to their experience in working with aluminum, and ship them to the Corvette factory in Bowling Green where the ZR-1s were being assembled. The engine assembly involved 95% drilling and boring completed at the Mercury Marine plant. The engine was largely assembled by hand and was tested on an engine stand before being sent to Chevrolet. Mercury Marine secured two LT5 V8 engines for itself. These engines were used in the ZR-1 owned by the company president and a custom made speedboat called the "Wette Vette". The engine was modified to be used in the boat and had an increased output of .
The ZR-1 was introduced at the 1989 Geneva Motor Show and went on sale later that year and was available only as a fastback coupé bodystyle with a removable roof panel. It was distinguishable from other Corvette coupes by its wider tail section, 11-inch wide rear wheels and its new convex rear fascia with four square shaped taillights along with a special red ZR-1 badge in between.
In 1990, the 1991 ZR-1 and 1991 base model received updates to bodywork, interior, and wheels. The rear convex fascia and square taillights that set the 1990 ZR-1 apart from the base model found their way to all 1991 models, making the high-priced ZR-1 less distinguishable; however the ZR-1's center high mount stop lamp remained above the rear window while those on base Corvettes were integrated into the rear fascia. Further changes were made the following year in 1991, including extra ZR-1 badges on the fenders and the introduction of Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR) or traction control. For model year 1993, modifications which were designed by Lotus were made to the cylinder heads, exhaust system and valvetrain of the LT5 bringing power output up from at 5,800 rpm and of torque at 5,200 rpm. In addition, a new exhaust gas recirculation system improved emissions control. The model remained nearly unchanged into the 1995 model year, after which the ZR-1 was discontinued as the result of waning interest, development of the LS series engines, manufacturing cost and the forthcoming introduction of the C5 generation. A total of 6,939 ZR-1 models were manufactured over the six-year period. Not until the debut of the C5 based Z06 in 2001 would Chevrolet have another production Corvette capable of matching the ZR-1's performance.
Although the ZR-1 was extremely quick for its time (0- in 4.4 seconds, and onto over ), the huge performance of the LT5 engine was matched by its robustness. As evidence of this, a stock ZR-1 set seven international and world records at a test track in Fort Stockton, Texas, on March 1, 1990, verified by the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile) for the group II, class 11 category:
at
at
at
at (World Record)
at (World Record)
12 Hours Endurance at
24 Hours Endurance at for (World Record)
These records were later broken by the Volkswagen W12, a one-off concept car that never went into production.
ZR-1 Active Suspension prototype (1990)
The Active Suspension prototype was based on the ZR-1, but it includes active hydraulic suspension found in GTP Corvette race car. It was developed as a prototype for a limited edition run in the 1990 model year.
25 active suspension vehicles were built at the Bowling Green Plant.
A prototype was sold in 2009 at the Barrett-Jackson Palm Beach auction for $60,000 (~$ in ) (before buyer premium).
B2K Callaway Twin-Turbo
The B2K was a high-performance alternative to the standard Corvette offered by Callaway Cars under license from Chevrolet from 1987 to 1991. It was available at Chevrolet dealers if the customer selected the "RPO B2K" option on the order specification sheet. Chevrolet approached Callaway to offer such an option after seeing the power output the tuning company was able to extract reliably from modified twin-turbocharged Alfa Romeo V6 engines. The car came with normal Chevrolet warranty as well as an additional one year 12,000-mile warranty from Callaway Cars. The conversion cost an extra US$26,995 over the price of a base model Corvette. The conversion consisted of taking the engine out of the car and performing a thorough set of modifications along with installing two turbochargers. The result was the engine rated at a reportedly conservative . The car was classified as a standard Corvette by the EPA, so it wasn't subject to additional registration requirements. Over 500 cars were subject to the conversion.
A derivative of the Twin Turbo Corvette, the Callaway SledgeHammer, recorded a speed of on Ohio's Transportation Research Center track making it the fastest road-going car at the time.
Special editions
Pace Car Convertible
A yellow convertible was the pace car for the 1986 Indianapolis 500 race. This marked the return of the convertible body style, absent from the Corvette lineup since 1975. All 7,315 1986 convertible Corvettes (all exterior colors) had "Indy 500 Pace Car" console identification.
35th Anniversary
The 1988 35th Anniversary edition, also known as the "Triple White Corvette" is a white Corvette fastback coupe with white wheels and white interior (including seats & steering wheel). It also features a removable black top and came equipped with everything, including its own unique emblems. The 35th Anniversary car is the 2nd Serialized Corvette in the production history of the C4 Corvette, with each car receiving an engraved number plaque on the console. 2,050 cars were built and a quoted 180 of these were manual transmission cars, making this a rare and collectible model.
40th Anniversary
The 1993 40th Anniversary package was available on all models. It included Ruby Red metallic paint and Ruby Red leather sport seats, along with Ruby Red Center Caps on the wheels, special trim and 40th anniversary side emblems. 6,749 were sold at an additional cost of US$1,455. All leather seats have the 40th emblem embroidered due to an error on the drawings sent to the seat supplier.
Brickyard 400 Festival/Parade Car
In 1994 twenty five (25) Corvette Convertibles were delivered to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for use in the inaugural running of the Brickyard 400. The Corvettes were primarily used to introduce the 43 NASCAR drivers in a parade lap prior to the start of the race during driver introductions. There were thirteen Red and twelve Black convertibles used, and most carried two drivers on the lap, with their names displayed on the hoods. They also carried civil, NASCAR, and Manufacturer dignitaries on other parade laps, such as "the King" Richard Petty, Bobby Allison, and Mayor Goldsmith of Indianapolis. It is unknown how many of these cars still exist in "full dress" since many dealers just removed the graphics when they received the cars after the race.
Indy Pace Car
In 1995, a C4 convertible was again the pace car for the Indianapolis 500, and a special pace car edition was offered. 527 were built.
Grand Sport
Chevrolet released the Grand Sport (GS) version in 1995 to mark the end of production of the C4 Corvette. The Grand Sport moniker is a nod to the original Grand Sport model produced in 1963. A total of 1,000 GS Corvettes were produced, 810 coupes and 190 convertibles. The 1996 GS came with the high-performance LT4 V8 engine, producing and of torque. The Grand Sport came only in Admiral Blue with a white stripe down the middle, 5-spoke black wheels, two red "hash marks" on the front driver's side wheel arch and special seat trim providing a distinctive look. The Grand Sport also has wider tires and the coupes were outfitted with small rear fender flares. The C4 Grand Sport also had a unique VIN compared with the standard C4.
Collector Edition
The 1996 Collector Edition was the last of the C4 Corvettes, just as the 1982 Collector Edition was the last of the C3s. It included Sebring Silver paint, silver 5-spoke alloy wheels, special emblems and seat trim. Of the 5,412 built, 4,031 were coupes and 1,381 were convertibles. It cost $1,250 more than the base model Corvette.
Production notes
Engines
Concept cars
Ramarro
The Ramarro is a restyled version of the C4 Corvette built by Italian design house Gruppo Bertone. The concept was unveiled in 1984 at the Los Angeles Auto Show, going on to win Auto&Design's Car Design Award in 1985. It is named after the Italian word for "green lizard".
CERV III
In June 1985, Chevrolet Chief Engineer Don Runkle and Lotus' Tony Rudd discussed creating a new show car to show off their engineering expertise. It was first unveiled at the Detroit Auto Show in January 1986 as the Corvette Indy concept car. By 1990, the project evolved into the CERV III (Corporate Engineering Research Vehicle III), which was a prototype closer to a production-ready vehicle. It was not approved for production due to its high cost.
ZR2
Also called the 'Big Doggie', the ZR2 is a concept model based on a C4 Corvette, but with a much larger big block OHV V8 engine with multi-port fuel injection similar to the tuned port injection found on the 1985-1991 base model and a 6-speed manual transmission.
The vehicle was built in 1989 by Corvette Development Engineering as a development car to study the possibility of achieving the performance of the ZR-1 while reducing cost by utilizing a big block engine. The engine was rated at .
The prototype vehicle, orange with black interior, was sold in 2009 at the Barrett-Jackson Collector Car Auction for US$71,500 (~$ in ).
Racing
Corvette GTP (IMSA)
As part of GM's initiative to promote the new C4 Corvette, the company funded a program in the IMSA GT Championship to run a GTP-class prototype under the Corvette name, mostly run by Hendrick Motorsports. Although the Corvette GTP actually shared very little with the production C4 Corvette, including the lack of a V8* engine in some races, it did use some styling cues. The project lasted until 1988 with mixed success.
* Note:
The final Corvette GTP built (HU8811.01), as raced by Peerless Racing, underwent extensive wind tunnel testing by GM, with many of the 'aero' developments (such as the short tail design) being used in later production C4s. The Peerless GTP Corvette also went back to the V8 small block engine from the turbocharged V6. This final GTP Corvette (Peerless) was driven by Hobbs, Baldwin, Villeneuve and Goodyear in IMSA before having the BBC based Eagle (10.2) engine installed to take to attempt to race at the Le Mans 24 Hours in 1990.
Le Mans
The C4 also made an appearance in international sports car endurance racing in a project orchestrated by former Corvette Cup driver Doug Rippie. The car, based on the ZR1 trim C4, competed in the popular GT1 class in 1995 at Le Mans and Sebring, where it momentarily led.
References
Further reading
External links
C4 Vette Registry
Callaway Twin-Turbo Corvette video
C4
Cars introduced in 1984
1990s cars
Cars discontinued in 1996
Front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles |
4219361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series | 1997 NASCAR Winston Cup Series | The 1997 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 49th season of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 26th modern-era NASCAR Cup series. It began on February 9 and ended on November 16. Jeff Gordon of Hendrick Motorsports won his second Cup championship at the end of the season.
It was the last season until 2019 without Matt Kenseth.
Teams and drivers
Complete schedule
Limited schedule
Schedule
Races
Busch Clash
The Busch Clash, a race for pole winners from the previous season, and drivers who have won the event before was run on February 9 in Daytona Beach, Florida. Terry Labonte drew the pole. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
3-Dale Earnhardt
22-Ward Burton
28-Ernie Irvan
6-Mark Martin
88-Dale Jarrett
25-Ricky Craven
30-Johnny Benson
37-Jeremy Mayfield
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade Twin 125s were run on February 13 in Daytona Beach, Florida. Mike Skinner and Steve Grissom were the pole sitters for races one and two, respectively. The races were broadcast tape-delayed on CBS just prior to the Daytona 500.
Race one results
88-Dale Jarrett
31-Mike Skinner
28-Ernie Irvan
23-Jimmy Spencer
4-Sterling Marlin
6-Mark Martin
10-Ricky Rudd
18-Bobby Labonte
22-Ward Burton
29-Robert Pressley
Race two results
3-Dale Earnhardt
24-Jeff Gordon
94-Bill Elliott
33-Ken Schrader
21-Michael Waltrip
2-Rusty Wallace
30-Johnny Benson
5-Terry Labonte
40-Robby Gordon
17-Darrell Waltrip
39th Daytona 500
The 1997 Daytona 500 was run on February 16 at Daytona International Speedway. The #31 of Mike Skinner won the pole. The race ended under caution after a big crash with five laps remaining involved several cars. The race was broadcast on CBS.
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
25-Ricky Craven
94-Bill Elliott
4-Sterling Marlin
37-Jeremy Mayfield
6-Mark Martin
22-Ward Burton
10-Ricky Rudd
17-Darrell Waltrip
Failed to qualify: 91-Mike Wallace, 95-Gary Bradberry, 78-Billy Standridge, 15-Larry Pearson, 42-Joe Nemechek, 97-Chad Little, 75-Rick Mast, 96-David Green*, 0-Delma Cowart, and 84-Norm Benning.
Robert Pressley's car caught air after he spun on lap 10. The rear of the car lifted so much, the car was temporarily sliding across the track on its nose. The landing was quite hard, so after the crew repaired the car, then Busch Series competitor and future 2-time Camping World Truck Series Champion Todd Bodine hopped in to complete more laps.
Joe Nemechek's car owner Felix Sabates bought the #73 entry of Phil Barkdoll, who had qualified 38th. Nemechek went to the #73 for the 500.
Dale Earnhardt rolled his #3 Chevrolet in a crash with the #28 Ford of Ernie Irvan while in a four-way battle for the lead with 12 laps to go. In the crash, the hood of Irvan's car flew into the backstretch grandstand, injuring some fans. Earnhardt famously noticed that his tires were still on the car after the roll, had his car taken off the hook, and drove it back to pit road. The car was repaired and Earnhardt finished the race, 5 laps down in 31st. The car can be found in a diecast form in 1:64 and 1:24 scale and is known to collectors as the "crash car".
At age 25, Jeff Gordon became the youngest Daytona 500 winner ever until Trevor Bayne in 2011. Richard Petty had previously been the youngest winner in 1964 when he won the 500 at age 26.
Hendrick Motorsports posted a 1-2-3 finish with Gordon winning the race, Terry Labonte finishing second, and Ricky Craven finishing in third.
Goodwrench Service 400
The Goodwrench Service 400 was run on February 23 at North Carolina Speedway. The #6 of Mark Martin won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
99-Jeff Burton
10-Ricky Rudd
25-Ricky Craven
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
7-Geoff Bodine
28-Ernie Irvan
1-Morgan Shepherd
With this victory, Jeff Gordon became the fourth driver to win the Daytona 500 and the second race of the season.
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held March 2 at Richmond International Raceway. Terry Labonte won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
2-Rusty Wallace
7-Geoff Bodine
88-Dale Jarrett
24-Jeff Gordon (-1)
43-Bobby Hamilton (-1)
10-Ricky Rudd (-1)
5-Terry Labonte (-1)
18-Bobby Labonte (-1)
30-Johnny Benson (-1)
44-Kyle Petty (-2)
During the post-race inspection, Rusty Wallace's engine failed to meet the proper 14:1 compression ratio. Due to this, NASCAR suspended Wallace's victory and confiscated his car's motor. After conducting another test the following day, the cooler temperature engine met the required compression ratio. As a result, Wallace's victory was certified official.
Only 3 cars finished on the lead lap in this race.
This was the last Winston Cup race at Richmond International Raceway scheduled for the daytime (excluding three races that were rain-delayed from Saturday night) until 2016, and the last time that the first Richmond race of the season was held in March, due to the cold, wet weather that is often seen at Richmond in late winter.
Primestar 500
The Primestar 500 was run on March 9 at Atlanta Motor Speedway in Hampton, Georgia. The #40 of Robby Gordon won the pole. The race was broadcast on ABC.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
28-Ernie Irvan
1-Morgan Shepherd
18-Bobby Labonte
99-Jeff Burton
6-Mark Martin
21-Michael Waltrip
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
43-Bobby Hamilton
Failed to qualify: 29-Robert Pressley, 36-Derrike Cope, 46-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 95-Ed Berrier, 08-Mike Miller
This was the final race held on the configuration of Atlanta Motor Speedway. Renovations had already started that would turn the racetrack into a quad-oval.
This race was red-flagged on lap 282 due to a crash involving the #41 of Steve Grissom. The #23 of Jimmy Spencer had spun out off Turn 2 and was hit by the #31 of Mike Skinner. Grissom spun to avoid this wreck and hit the inside wall near where there was a gate allowing infield access for motorhomes. Because of this, the car hit the wall tail first, breaking the wall, shearing the fuel cell out of the car, and putting Grissom on his roof. The #91 of Mike Wallace backed off the throttle upon seeing the accident, which caused his exhaust to throw flames right over the fuel cell (which was sitting along the outside wall at the end of the backstretch). This caused a significant fire. Grissom was not seriously injured.
TranSouth Financial 400
The TranSouth Financial 400 was held March 23 at Darlington Raceway. Dale Jarrett won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
16-Ted Musgrave
24-Jeff Gordon
99-Jeff Burton
18-Bobby Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
21-Michael Waltrip
33-Ken Schrader
7-Geoff Bodine
30-Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: 41-Steve Grissom, 78-Billy Standridge, 90-Dick Trickle
Phil Parsons substituted for Joe Nemechek, who was with family after his younger brother John's death. This was Parsons' final career Cup Series start.
First of only 2 times that Dale Jarrett would score back-to-back victories. The second time would come in 2001.
Until Kevin Harvick's win in this event on April 12, 2014, this would be the last Darlington race to be won by a driver who sat on the pole.
Interstate Batteries 500
The inaugural Interstate Batteries 500 was held April 6 at Texas Motor Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole. This was the first race held at the track and the first NASCAR race in the state of Texas since 1981. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
99-Jeff Burton*
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
3-Dale Earnhardt
22-Ward Burton
4-Sterling Marlin
21-Michael Waltrip
41-Steve Grissom
Failed to qualify: 19-Gary Bradberry, 27-Rick Wilson, 29-Robert Pressley, 46-Wally Dallenbach Jr., 66-H. B. Bailey, 74-Randy LaJoie, 95-Ed Berrier, 96-David Green, 02-Mike Bliss
This was Jeff Burton's first career Winston Cup victory.
Even though this race was the inaugural event, the race date was acquired as part of the purchase of North Wilkesboro Speedway in 1996.
On the first lap of the race, 15 cars were involved in a multi-car accident in turns 1 and 2. Dale Earnhardt was involved in the incident, but was able to continue.
On lap 162, an 8-car crash on the tri-oval began when Mike Skinner, Brett Bodine and Sterling Marlin spun into the infield coming off turn 4, and Rusty Wallace struck the outside wall after getting into some oil. Later, Ernie Irvan rear-ended Greg Sacks at over 140 mph while trying to race leader Terry Labonte back to the flag to get his lap back and hit the outside wall. Jeff Gordon ran into the back of Irvan trying to avoid Sacks.
Ricky Craven suffered a concussion in a practice crash and was forced to sit out. This was the beginning of a series of injuries that adversely affected Craven's career over the next 4 years. Todd Bodine subbed for Craven in this race and ran very well until he crashed out of the lead.
Food City 500
The Food City 500 was held on April 13 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Rusty Wallace won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
5-Terry Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
94-Bill Elliott
97-Chad Little
37-Jeremy Mayfield
11-Brett Bodine
Failed to qualify: 20-Greg Sacks, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 78-Billy Standridge, 91-Mike Wallace
This race had 20 cautions for 132 laps. The 20 cautions at the time tied a record for most cautions with the 1989 spring event at Bristol. However, this race had an additional 34 laps run under caution compared to the 1989 event.
On the last lap, Jeff Gordon bumped Rusty Wallace out of the way in Turn 4 to win the race. Wallace barely was able to hold off Terry Labonte for 2nd.
Jack Sprague subbed for Ricky Craven in this race due to Craven's injury at Texas last weekend.
Goody's Headache Powder 500
The Goody's Headache Powder 500 was held April 20 at Martinsville Speedway. Kenny Wallace won the pole. It was FILMAR Racing's first career pole of the season. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
43-Bobby Hamilton
6-Mark Martin
5-Terry Labonte
2-Rusty Wallace
81-Kenny Wallace
37-Jeremy Mayfield
18-Bobby Labonte
17-Darrell Waltrip
33-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: 19-Gary Bradberry, 20-Lance Hooper, 78-Billy Standridge, 79-Randy MacDonald, 96-David Green
Winner Jeff Gordon was spun out at one point of the race by Jimmy Spencer but was able to recover from the spin to win the race.
Ricky Craven returned to the #25 Chevrolet after missing 2 races due to the concussion he suffered at Texas. He finished 22nd, 2 laps down.
Jeff Gordon led 431 of the 500 laps in this race, the most laps he has led in a single race in his career.
Save Mart Supermarkets 300
The Save Mart Supermarkets 300 was held May 4 at Sears Point Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
17-Darrell Waltrip
11-Brett Bodine
21-Michael Waltrip
28-Ernie Irvan
99-Jeff Burton
22-Ward Burton
Failed to qualify: 29-Robert Pressley, 42-Joe Nemechek, 45-Gary Smith, 75-Rick Mast, 78w-Chuck Pruitt, 90-Dick Trickle, 96-David Green, 97-Chad Little, 09-R. K. Smith
The Melling Racing #9 team technically did not make the trip to Sears Point due to a lack of funding. However, they allowed Jeff Davis' Winston West Series team to use their number on their Ford so that the Melling team could get the owners' points. Davis ended up crashing out of the race, finishing 37th.
This was the last race for the Winston Cup Series on the configuration at Sears Point Raceway until 2019. After this event, a purpose-built section was added for the NASCAR weekend.
After David Green failed to qualify, Caterpillar put their logos on the #35 Ford was driven by Larry Gunselman, one of the Winston West teams. Gunselman started the race, but Green did get in the car and drive at one point.
The #19 Child Support Recovery Ford for Tri-Star Motorsports that was driven by Gary Bradberry in the race was actually qualified by Ken Pedersen, a driver in Winston West at the time.
The #78 Ford for Triad Motorsports tapped Tom Hubert, a crew member for Bahari Racing, to qualify the #78 in 2nd round qualifying. When Hubert (who had some road racing experience in other classes) qualified fast enough to earn the 27th starting spot in the race, Hubert was put in the car for the race to temporarily replace the team's regular driver, Billy Standridge.
This was the final race at Sears Point held in May, as it had been for the previous 5 years. In 1998, the race moved to the last Sunday in June, where it would remain through 2017.
Geoff Bodine Racing's sponsor; QVC, ran an unusual promotion in which a lucky fan would get their name and face on Geoff Bodine's #7 QVC Ford, with the winner being Mississippi native Dawn Gillis. Ultimately, however, Bodine would finish in last place.
Winston 500
The Winston 500 at Talladega Superspeedway was originally scheduled for Sunday, April 27, but rain forced the race to be postponed. Teams returned on Saturday, May 10 (Mother's Day weekend), and the race was held under sunny skies.
John Andretti started from the pole position. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
18-Bobby Labonte
98-John Andretti
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
23-Jimmy Spencer
99-Jeff Burton
30-Johnny Benson
28-Ernie Irvan
Failed to qualify: 19-Gary Bradberry, 42-Joe Nemechek*, 73-Phil Barkdoll, 78-Billy Standridge, 91-Mike Wallace, 95-Ed Berrier
The race was run caution-free, the first time in Talladega history. It also stands as the fastest race in NASCAR history (at , a record that still stands).
Joe Nemechek drove the #40 Chevrolet in place of Robby Gordon during this race since Gordon was attempting to do the Indy-Charlotte double in 1997. As a result of the rescheduled race, it conflicted with Pole Day at Indianapolis. As part of the contract that Gordon signed with SABCO Racing, the owner Felix Sabates provided a team for Gordon to attempt Indianapolis with. As for Nemechek, he finished 19th, 1 lap down in Gordon's car.
This was the last race for the #20 Ford for Ranier-Walsh Racing. The acquisition of their sponsor Hardee's by CKE Restaurants resulted in the company pulling sponsorship of the team. Without sponsorship, the team shut its doors. The #20 car would remain inactive until 1999 when Tony Stewart drove it for Joe Gibbs Racing.
Final time in his career that Mark Martin would win back-to-back races.
Winston Open
The Winston Open was held before The Winston All-Star Race on May 17 at Charlotte Motor Speedway as a last chance qualifier race for the cars that had not won a race yet in 1997 or late 1996 and was not a past champion. Chad Little won the pole. The winner of this race would qualify to be in The Winston All-Star Race.
Top ten results
25-Ricky Craven
41-Steve Grissom
9-Lake Speed
97-Chad Little
8-Hut Stricklin
46-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
30-Johnny Benson
33-Ken Schrader
98-John Andretti
31-Mike Skinner
The Winston
The Winston is the All-Star Race for the NASCAR Winston Cup Series held at the Charlotte Motor Speedway on May 17 after the Winston Open Race. Drivers have to qualify; Win a race since last year The Winston race, Win the Winston Open qualifier race, or Win one of The Winston All-Star Races from the past 5 years. This race was run in 3 segments with 2 30 lap segments and a 10 lap shootout segment for a total of 70 laps. Bill Elliott won the pole. Dale Jarrett won the first segment and Bobby Labonte won the second segment. The final segment results are posted in the top ten below. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten final segment results
24-Jeff Gordon
18-Bobby Labonte
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
23-Jimmy Spencer
6-Mark Martin
88-Dale Jarrett
25-Ricky Craven
10-Ricky Rudd
94-Bill Elliott
The only caution came on the 3rd lap of the first segment when Bobby Labonte spun coming off turn 4.
Gordon started 19th because of a problem during his qualifying run.
After the first segment was completed, the finishing order would be inverted for the start of the 2nd segment. The finishing order of the 2nd segment determined how the field would line up for the final segment. Caution laps counted in the first two 30-lap stages; however, only green flag laps were recorded in the final 10-lap stage.
Speedvision carried a special live in-car simulcast of this race.
During the prerace activities for The Winston, Indy Racing League driver Tony Stewart, who had qualified 2nd for the Indianapolis 500, drove several laps around the track in his IndyCar to promote an the IRL race to be held at Charlotte two months later.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 25 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Jeff Gordon won the pole. The race was shortened to 333 laps due to time issues after a long rain delay; it was after 1:00 am EDT when the race was completed. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
2-Rusty Wallace
6-Mark Martin
94-Bill Elliott
99-Jeff Burton
18-Bobby Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
1-Morgan Shepherd
10-Ricky Rudd
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Bobby Hillin Jr., 91-Mike Wallace, 95-Ed Berrier, 97-Chad Little
Race shortened to 333 laps (499.5 Miles) due to rain.
Geoff Bodine suffered a concussion in a practice crash on the Wednesday before the race in Turn 1. As a result, Geoff tapped his younger brother Todd to drive his #7 Ford in the race. However, the engine blew after Todd had made a run up through the field, leaving him with a 42nd-place finish.
This was the final race for flagman Doyle Ford, who had spent 38 years as a NASCAR official.
Miller 500
The Miller 500 was held June 1 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #18 of Bobby Labonte won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
10-Ricky Rudd
6-Mark Martin
99-Jeff Burton
37-Jeremy Mayfield
44-Kyle Petty
33-Ken Schrader
21-Michael Waltrip
94-Bill Elliott
31-Mike Skinner
4-Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: 78-Billy Standridge, 95-Ed Berrier
This was the last race held at Dover.
Robby Gordon, in a rather freak incident during the Indianapolis 500, suffered significant burns to his legs early on when an invisible fire started in the cockpit of his #42 Chevy-powered G-Force. This forced him to sit out for a couple of weeks. Wally Dallenbach Jr. subbed for Gordon at Dover, finishing 36th after suffering electrical problems. He was credited with completing 364 laps of the 500 lap distance.
Three different leaders had problems in the last 50 miles of the race. Second-place Jeff Gordon hit the back of leader Dale Jarrett while trying to avoid a spinning Kenny Wallace on lap 452. The contact broke Gordon's radiator and forced him behind the wall for repairs, eventually finishing 26th. Jarrett retook the lead after the caution, but blew an engine 5 laps after the restart; he finished 32nd. Jarrett's teammate Ernie Irvan inherited the lead and led the following 9 laps, but on lap 472, Chad Little broke a rear end in Turn 1 and dropped grease on the track. Irvan hit it, spun, and crashed out, finishing 30th. That gave the lead to Rudd, who held it the final 27 laps to win.
Pocono 500
The Pocono 500 was held June 8 at Pocono Raceway. The #43 of Bobby Hamilton won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
99-Jeff Burton
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
37-Jeremy Mayfield
16-Ted Musgrave
17-Darrell Waltrip
7-Geoff Bodine
5-Terry Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
Greg Sacks was tapped to sub for Robby Gordon in the #40 starting here at Pocono. He qualified 4th but spun into the wall coming out of Turn 1 on Lap 9 immediately in front of Jeff Gordon.
Miller 400
The Miller 400 was held June 15 at Michigan Speedway. Dale Jarrett won the pole. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
28-Ernie Irvan*
94-Bill Elliott
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
24-Jeff Gordon
88-Dale Jarrett
3-Dale Earnhardt
36-Derrike Cope
18-Bobby Labonte
30-Johnny Benson
This was Ernie Irvan's 15th and final Winston Cup victory, and it came at the very same track where he had almost lost his life three years earlier. He had tears in his eyes as he brought the 28 car into Victory Lane. The win also came in his last year with Robert Yates Racing.
This was the 1st career Winston Cup start for Jerry Nadeau in the #1 Pontiac for Precision Products Racing. He replaced Morgan Shepherd in the car.
This race would be the final CBS race that Ken Squier was the lap-by-lap announcer for. Starting with the DieHard 500 in October, all future races aired on CBS would have Mike Joy as the lap-by-lap announcer while Squier was transferred to serving as the studio host.
California 500 presented by NAPA
The inaugural California 500 presented by NAPA was held on June 22 at California Speedway. The #42 of Joe Nemechek won the pole. The race was broadcast on ABC.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
5-Terry Labonte
10-Ricky Rudd
16-Ted Musgrave
23-Jimmy Spencer
18-Bobby Labonte
29-Jeff Green
88-Dale Jarrett
25-Ricky Craven
6-Mark Martin
Failed to qualify: 78-Billy Standridge, 81-Kenny Wallace, 91-Mike Wallace*
After Mike Wallace failed to qualify for the race, his team hastily entered the Winston West race which was run the day before the Winston Cup race. He finished 3rd to Ken Schrader in that race.
Mark Martin ran out of gas with 10 laps to go and was forced to the pits for additional fuel. However, they did not get enough fuel in the car. This resulted in Martin running out of gas again on the last lap and having to coast to the line.
This was the only Cup race at California Speedway run in June. The following year, the California 500 moved to the first week of May, swapping dates with Sears Point Raceway.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held on July 5 at Daytona International Speedway. The #31 of Mike Skinner won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN for the last time.
Top ten results
98-John Andretti
5-Terry Labonte
4-Sterling Marlin
3-Dale Earnhardt
88-Dale Jarrett
2-Rusty Wallace
44-Kyle Petty
99-Jeff Burton
28-Ernie Irvan
18-Bobby Labonte
Failed to qualify: 7-Geoff Bodine, 29-Jeff Green, 91-Loy Allen Jr.
This was John Andretti's first Winston Cup career win.
This was the last July race at Daytona scheduled to run during the day. The 2014 Coke Zero 400 was run during the day, but only after being postponed due to rain the previous night.
The race ended with a 1 lap shootout, likely the last such shootout in the Winston Cup Series. John Andretti's crew chief Tony Furr employed a rather cynical strategy of brake-checking the field on the final restart, resulting in a stack-up of cars on the backstretch. As the field entered the final turns, cars spread out 3 and 4 wide, resulting in a multi-car wreck developed in turn 4. On ESPN's telecast of the race, the spotter for one of the drivers involved could be heard yelling "Goddammit."
It was also Cale Yarborough's first and only victory as a car owner.
Jiffy Lube 300
The Jiffy Lube 300 was held July 13 at New Hampshire International Speedway. #33 of Ken Schrader won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
99-Jeff Burton
3-Dale Earnhardt
2-Rusty Wallace
41-Steve Grissom
6-Mark Martin
94-Bill Elliott
5-Terry Labonte
28-Ernie Irvan
10-Ricky Rudd
7-Geoff Bodine
Pennsylvania 500
The Pennsylvania 500 was held July 20 at Pocono Raceway. The #42 of Joe Nemechek won the pole. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
24-Jeff Gordon
99-Jeff Burton
16-Ted Musgrave
6-Mark Martin
31-Mike Skinner
23-Jimmy Spencer
44-Kyle Petty
37-Jeremy Mayfield
94-Bill Elliott
Brickyard 400
The Brickyard 400 was held August 3 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole. The race was broadcast on ABC.
Top ten results
10-Ricky Rudd
18-Bobby Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
24-Jeff Gordon
37-Jeremy Mayfield
6-Mark Martin
30-Johnny Benson
94-Bill Elliott
31-Mike Skinner
28-Ernie Irvan
Failed to qualify: 1-Mike Wallace, 7-Geoff Bodine, 8-Hut Stricklin, 61-Tim Steele, 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Morgan Shepherd, 78-Bobby Hillin Jr., 90-Dick Trickle
First time since 1987 that Ricky Rudd win multiple races in a season.
The Bud at The Glen
The Bud at The Glen was held August 10 at Watkins Glen International. The #34 of Todd Bodine (in a one-off Winston Cup race for Team 34 Racing, his Busch Series team at the time) won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
7-Geoff Bodine
2-Rusty Wallace
40-Robby Gordon
6-Mark Martin
16-Ted Musgrave
94-Bill Elliott
5-Terry Labonte
41-Steve Grissom
46-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
This was Jeff Gordon's 1st career victory on a road course, beginning a streak of 6 consecutive road course wins that lasted until 2000.
This race was the 1st career Winston Cup start for Steve Park, driving the #14 Chevrolet for Dale Earnhardt Inc. He qualified well but ended up finishing 33rd, 2 laps down.
DeVilbiss 400
The DeVilbiss 400 was held August 17 at Michigan Speedway. The #30 of Johnny Benson won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
16-Ted Musgrave
28-Ernie Irvan
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte
94-Bill Elliott
99-Jeff Burton
3-Dale Earnhardt
5-Terry Labonte
Mark Martin won after coming from 2 laps down after suffering a blown left rear tire.
Roush Racing drivers dominated the day leading 177 of 200 laps.
Goody's Headache Powder 500
The Goody's Headache Powder 500 was held August 23 at Bristol Motor Speedway. The #81 of Kenny Wallace won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
90-Dick Trickle
99-Jeff Burton
41-Steve Grissom
33-Ken Schrader
5-Terry Labonte
18-Bobby Labonte
7-Geoff Bodine*
4-Sterling Marlin
Failed to qualify: 40-Robby Gordon, 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Morgan Shepherd
Jeff Gordon was spun out of the lead by Jeremy Mayfield around the halfway point of the race.
David Green got on his side during a crash around lap 260. The ground along on his driver's side after getting bounced off the #36 of Derrike Cope into the wall coming off Turn 4. After sliding about with other cars spinning around him, the car flipped over once and got back on all 4 wheels. Green was ok.
Shortly after the halfway point, Geoff Bodine's crew chief Pat Tryson quit the team, apparently unhappy with the way the team was (or wasn't) being managed.
Mountain Dew Southern 500
The Mountain Dew Southern 500 was held August 31 at Darlington Raceway. Bobby Labonte won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon*
99-Jeff Burton
88-Dale Jarrett
94-Bill Elliott
10-Ricky Rudd
5-Terry Labonte
18-Bobby Labonte
6-Mark Martin
21-Michael Waltrip
33-Ken Schrader
Failed to qualify: 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Morgan Shepherd, 91-Greg Sacks
Jeff Gordon's victory made him the 2nd and final driver, joining Bill Elliott, to win the Winston Million. Ironically, the 2 drivers that won the Winston Million won it in the very first running in 1985, and in the very last running in 1997. The program was replaced the following season in 1998 with the No Bull 5 program, which offered five drivers (that finished in the Top 5 of the last No Bull 5 race) the chance to win 1 million dollars.
Dale Earnhardt mysteriously passed out during the pace laps for the race and hit the wall. Nobody is really sure what caused this, but Earnhardt had to step out of the car for the day. Once the car was repaired, Busch Series driver Mike Dillon (the son-in-law of car owner Richard Childress) was tapped to sub in the #3. Dillon drove the car to a 30th-place finish, 85 laps down.
"Jeff Burton will make a challenge off the corner onto the straightaway, but Jeff Gordon wins it!" - Bob Jenkins as Jeff Burton tried to challenge Gordon for the victory in the last corners
Exide NASCAR Select Batteries 400
The Exide NASCAR Select Batteries 400 was held September 6 at Richmond International Raceway. The #94 of Bill Elliott won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
99-Jeff Burton
24-Jeff Gordon
7-Geoff Bodine
2-Rusty Wallace
42-Joe Nemechek
22-Ward Burton
27-Kenny Irwin Jr.*
16-Ted Musgrave
37-Jeremy Mayfield
This was Kenny Irwin Jr.'s 1st career Winston Cup start.
CMT 300
The CMT 300 was held September 14 at New Hampshire International Speedway. The #33 of Ken Schrader won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
24-Jeff Gordon
28-Ernie Irvan
43-Bobby Hamilton
41-Steve Grissom
25-Ricky Craven
88-Dale Jarrett
23-Jimmy Spencer
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
8-Hut Stricklin
This was the 1st September race held at New Hampshire International Speedway. The race date was acquired as part of the purchase of North Wilkesboro Speedway in 1996 that resulted in its dates being split.
Jeff Burton had an inner ear problem and required relief from Todd Bodine.
10th and final win of 1997 for Jeff Gordon.
Jeff Gordon became the 1st driver since Darrell Waltrip in 1981 & 1982 to score 10 victories in back-to-back seasons. However, Darrell Waltrip scored 12 victories in each season.
MBNA 400
The MBNA 400 was held September 21 at Dover Downs International Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
6-Mark Martin
3-Dale Earnhardt
44-Kyle Petty
18-Bobby Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
10-Ricky Rudd
24-Jeff Gordon
94-Bill Elliott
28-Ernie Irvan
75-Rick Mast
Failed to qualify: 14-Steve Park
This was the first race at Dover.
Mark Martin and Kyle Petty dominated this race, with Martin leading 194 laps and Petty leading 191. This would also be Kyle Petty's last top 5 finish until the 2007 Coca-Cola 600.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was held September 29 at Martinsville Speedway. Ward Burton won the pole. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Top ten results
99-Jeff Burton
3-Dale Earnhardt
43-Bobby Hamilton
24-Jeff Gordon
94-Bill Elliott
81-Kenny Wallace
22-Ward Burton
25-Ricky Craven
33-Ken Schrader
28-Ernie Irvan
Jeff Burton inherited the lead after leader Rusty Wallace jumped a restart and was black-flagged as a result.
Steve Park drove the #40 Chevrolet in place of Robby Gordon, who was subbing for Dario Franchitti at the inaugural Marlboro 500 CART race at California Speedway. Park blew an engine early and finished 41st. Ironically, Franchitti would drive the 40 car in 2008, 11 years later.
UAW-GM Quality 500
The UAW-GM Quality 500 was held October 5 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #7 of Geoff Bodine won the pole. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
18-Bobby Labonte
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
24-Jeff Gordon
99-Jeff Burton
94-Bill Elliott
22-Ward Burton
44-Kyle Petty
30-Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: 14-Steve Park, 15-Greg Sacks, 17-Darrell Waltrip, 31-Mike Skinner, 40-Elliott Sadler*, 71-Dave Marcis, 75-Rick Mast
Waltrip failed to qualify because Terry Labonte, who was higher in points, used the past champion's provisional. This was Waltrip's first DNQ in 23 years; last time was the 1974 Winston 500.
This was Rick Wilson's final Cup start.
This was the first career start for Kevin Lepage in the #91 Chevrolet. He finished 40th after wrecking.
Early in the race, there was an unusual water seepage problem on the backstretch. This resulted in the track near the outside wall in the middle of the backstretch being wet to the point where cars were kicking up spray. This did not cause any problems, however.
This was the first race for ISM Racing's #35 Pontiac with Todd Bodine as the driver. The car qualified well, then sank to the rear of the field and eventually finished 26th, 4 laps down.
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was held October 12 at Talladega Superspeedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole. Like many Talladega races, the story was "the Big One", collecting 23 cars on lap 140 after Jeff Gordon cut a tire and turned into traffic. Mark Martin was furious after the wreck, and made an infamous quote. "I hate restrictor plate racing," he said while being interviewed by a pit reporter. The race was broadcast on CBS.
Top ten results
5–Terry Labonte
18–Bobby Labonte
98–John Andretti
33–Ken Schrader
28–Ernie Irvan
25–Ricky Craven
44–Kyle Petty
7–Geoff Bodine
75–Rick Mast
2–Rusty Wallace
Failed to qualify: 8–Hut Stricklin, 22–Ward Burton, 29–Jeff Green, 78–Gary Bradberry, 95–Ed Berrier
The top 5 (T. Labonte, B. Labonte, Andretti, Schrader, Irvan) became the first drivers eligible for the Winston No Bull 5 million dollar bonus for next season, meaning that if any of them were to win the 1998 Daytona 500, they would receive an extra $1 million.
With this win Terry Labonte became only the second Chevrolet driver to win a race in 1997. Jeff Gordon had all of the other wins for Chevrolet in 1997.
Last top 5 finish for Ernie Irvan.
Last Talladega race to be broadcast by CBS. The network's acquisition of the AFC broadcasting rights for 1998, coupled with NASCAR's shifting the second Talladega race from July to October, meant that CBS's 22-year relationship with Talladega came to an end after the 1997 running.
This was the last time the DieHard brand sponsored the second Talladega race. Starting in 1998, DieHard and Winston, sponsor of the spring Winston 500 race, swapped race sponsorships.
This would be the first CBS race for Mike Joy as the lap-by-lap broadcaster.
AC Delco 400
The AC Delco 400 was held on Monday, October 27 at North Carolina Speedway. Bobby Labonte won the pole. It was originally scheduled to be run on Sunday, October 26 but heavy rain pushed the start to Monday morning. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
43–Bobby Hamilton
88–Dale Jarrett
25–Ricky Craven
24–Jeff Gordon
90–Dick Trickle
6–Mark Martin
5–Terry Labonte
3–Dale Earnhardt
4–Sterling Marlin
42–Joe Nemechek
Failed to qualify: 11–Brett Bodine, 71–Dave Marcis
Dura Lube 500 presented by Kmart
The Dura Lube 500 presented by Kmart was held November 2 at Phoenix International Raceway. Bobby Hamilton won the pole. Dale Jarrett's victory in this race marked the final victory for the Ford Thunderbird. The race was broadcast on TNN.
Top ten results
88-Dale Jarrett
2-Rusty Wallace
43-Bobby Hamilton
33-Ken Schrader
3-Dale Earnhardt
6-Mark Martin
30-Johnny Benson
41-Steve Grissom
44-Kyle Petty
7-Geoff Bodine
Failed to qualify: 1-Morgan Shepherd
NAPA 500
The 1997 championship season finale was the NAPA 500 held November 16 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Geoff Bodine won the pole at a speed of , which at the time was the fastest qualifying lap ever run outside of Daytona and Talladega. During the summer, the track had been reconfigured from a traditional oval to a quad-shaped oval. The race was broadcast on ESPN.
Jeff Gordon entered the race with a 77-point advantage over Dale Jarrett and an 88-point advantage over Mark Martin. During a practice session on Saturday, Gordon was driving down the pit lane, scrubbing his tires to heat them up on what was a cold morning. Gordon lost control and crashed into the parked car of Bobby Hamilton. Gordon had to go to a backup car, and qualified a lowly 37th. Gordon had to finish 18th or better to clinch the championship, but starting deep in the field, he had charge his way up through the pack. Jarrett finished 2nd, Martin 3rd, and Gordon 17th, while Bobby Labonte took the victory, the first win for Joe Gibbs Racing since the team switched from Chevrolet to Pontiac. Gordon ultimately hung on and won the title by only 14 points over Jarrett and 29 points over Martin, the closest three-way points finish under the Bob Latford 1975 points system.
Top ten results
18-Bobby Labonte
88-Dale Jarrett
6-Mark Martin
29-Jeff Green
36-Derrike Cope
44-Kyle Petty
43-Bobby Hamilton
42-Joe Nemechek
22-Ward Burton
30-Johnny Benson
Failed to qualify: 8-Hut Stricklin, 35-Todd Bodine, 40-Greg Sacks, 71-Dave Marcis, 77-Robert Pressley, 95-Ed Berrier, 96-David Green
Bobby Labonte won the first race on the new 1.54 mile configuration on Atlanta and became the first driver to win on both configurations of the track.
NASCAR Thunder Special Suzuka
The NASCAR Thunder Special Suzuka was a non points exhibition race held November 23 on the Suzuka Circuit - East Circuit in Japan. Mark Martin won the pole. The race was broadcast on TBS.
Top ten results
31-Mike Skinner
6-Mark Martin
74-Randy LaJoie
96-David Green
21-Michael Waltrip
09-Jim Richards
72-Kenny Wallace
38-Butch Gilliland
5-Jack Sprague
7-Geoff Bodine
This was the final race for Ford Thunderbirds. Mark Martin ran a Thunderbird and finished 2nd.
Bill France Jr. suffered a mild heart attack during the trip to Japan. He recovered to live nearly another 10 years.
Rain tires were used on Winston Cup cars for the first time ever during Qualifying and Practice sessions.
Results and standings
Drivers' championship
(key) Bold - Pole position awarded by time. Italics - Pole position set by owner's points standings. * – Most laps led.
NASCAR Rookie of the Year
After running the Cup series part-time for a decade, Mike Skinner finally ran a full-time schedule, and walked away with three top-tens and the Rookie of the Year title. His closest runner-up was David Green, despite the fact Green did not finish any higher than sixteenth. Third place was Green's brother Jeff, who came into the season midway with Diamond Ridge Motorsports. The last place finisher was Robby Gordon, who suffered through a tumultuous season with Team SABCO, dealing with injuries and personal disputes.
See also
1997 NASCAR Busch Series
1997 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
References
External links
Winston Cup Standings and Statistics for 1997
NASCAR Cup Series seasons |
4219527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaunen | Rhaunen | Rhaunen is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Birkenfeld district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It was the seat of the former Verbandsgemeinde Rhaunen.
Geography
Location
The municipality lies at the Idar Forest in the Hunsrück in a sprawling, well watered hollow. The hollow separates the Idar Forest massif from the Soonwald massif. Within the village itself, the Lingenbach empties into the Rhaunelbach, which itself, along with the Näßbach, the Macherbach and the Büdenbach, empties into the Idarbach.
The nearest major centres are Idar-Oberstein, Simmern, Morbach and Kirn.
Constituent communities
Also belonging to Rhaunen are the outlying centre of Neuzenbrunnen and the homesteads of Hochwälderhof and Königstein.
Geology
The solid rock in Rhaunen, Hunsrück slate, comes down from the Devonian. The hollow in which Rhaunen lies was formed by the many brooks that flow together here and that shaped various alluvial fans, which have very loamy subsoil. The Hunsrück slate can be found on the slopes overlooking the hollow, whereas the floodplains down in the dale are characterized by loaminess. While the slopes are mostly covered with mixed forests, meadowland is to be found in the dales, and on the higher-lying terraces and hills, cropraising. The slate was once intensively used as a building material, both for roofing and building walls. Even the many public buildings built in Rhaunen about the turn of the 20th century have unplastered walls made of slate quarrystone. Of the many slate quarries that were once to be found in the dales around Rhaunen, none is still in business. Here and there, though, tailing heaps can still be seen. The biggest operation in the slatemining business was the “Abenstern” quarry on the Wartenberg, going towards Hausen. It was quarrying slate until the late 1950s. The high ridges, of the Idar Forest massif for example, are formed of the most extremely weathering-resistant Taunus quartzite, whose effect on the land is to leave it rather useless for agriculture, although not altogether unusable in forestry. This Taunus quartzite harbours bog iron deposits, which until about the middle of the 19th century were mined and smelted. This was done at the Weitersbacher Hütte (ironworks) near Rhaunen.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Rhaunen amounts to 744 mm, which falls into the middle third of the precipitation chart for all Germany. At 50% of the German Weather Service's weather stations lower figures are recorded. The driest month is April. The most rainfall comes in November. In that month, precipitation is 1.4 times what it is in April. Precipitation varies only slightly and is spread quite evenly throughout the year. Only at 1% of the weather stations are lower seasonal swings recorded.
History
Given the central location, the place now called Rhaunen was already settled in Roman times, as witnessed by the sandstone blocks in the Evangelical church's north wall, which were formerly walled up. Rhunanu, first named in a record from Lorch Abbey (not to be confused with Lorsch Abbey) in the late 8th century, crops up again in 841 as Rhuna in a donation to Fulda Abbey. Rhaunen became the seat of the like-named high court district. Until the 14th century, the Waldgraves were the unqualified owners of the court and the places that it governed. Besides Rhaunen itself, these were Bollenbach, Bruschied, Bundenbach, Gösenroth, Hausen, Krummenau, Laufersweiler, Lindenschied, Oberkirn, Schwerbach, Stipshausen, Sulzbach, Weitersbach and Woppenroth. Also under the court's sway was the Schmidtburg. With this Waldgravial castle’s loss to Archbishop Baldwin of Trier in 1330, however, part of the court’s territory in the form of three villages also passed to the Electorate of Trier. Baldwin also managed at the same stroke to relieve the Waldgraves of one fourth of the high court. Territorial relations remained so until an end was put to the Old Empire in the late 18th century and the old mediaeval governmental body, the court, was likewise swept away.
In the course of the French occupation of the lands on the Rhine’s left bank in the wake of the Treaty of Lunéville, Rhaunen was grouped into the Department of Sarre, the arrondissement of Birkenfeld and the canton of Rhaunen. After the French withdrew in 1814, Rhaunen found itself in Prussia’s new Rhine Province, also becoming the seat of a Bürgermeisterei (“mayoralty”) in the Bernkastel-Kues district. Parts of the old high court district, however – Bundenbach, for instance – now belonged to the Principality of Birkenfeld, an exclave of the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, most of whose territory was in what is now northwest Germany, with a coastline on the North Sea. Even after the First World War, through the Weimar Republic and on through the time of the Third Reich, Rhaunen was the administrative seat for the surrounding villages. In the course of administrative restructuring in the 1960s, the Amt of Rhaunen became the Verbandsgemeinde of Rhaunen in the Birkenfeld district. This arrangement still stands.
The Baroque house at Otto-Conradt-Straße 5 (until 1978, Am Bach 5) was the Waldgravial Oberamtshaus (administrative centre of the Oberamt), and later, through inheritance, it fulfilled the same function for the comital family of Salm. Under French rule, it was the Gendarmerie barracks. In Prussian times, it first became a Catholic rectory, and then until 1899 a court building. Today it is an inn. The Amtmann who oversaw the Electoral-Trier fourth of the Rhaunen high court sat at the Schmidtburg (near Bundenbach).
The parish of Rhaunen comprised not only the like-named village but also Sulzbach, Weitersbach and, until 1504, Stipshausen. Rhaunen had a simultaneous church beginning in 1685, used by both Catholics and Evangelicals. This arrangement lasted more than two centuries, until 1887/1888, when the Catholic community built its own church on the way out of the village towards Sulzbach. Rhaunen was for centuries a judiciary, administrative and commercial hub. Its development peaked in Prussian times when it had the mayor's office, the Amt court and prison on the way out of the village towards Hausen, the chief forester's house on Hauptstraße, a notary's office, the cadastral office – later a professional college – on Poststraße on the way out of the village towards Bundenbach, a dairy likewise there, Catholic and Evangelical churches, a synagogue on Salzengasse and a hospital on the way out of the village towards Stipshausen, although this last site has been occupied since the 1960s by the Verbandsgemeinde administration building. Over the last few decades, though, with the growth of regional centres, the village has gradually lost its functions as a centre. Still left, however, are the Verbandsgemeinde administration, the two churches and a Mittelpunktschule (“midpoint school”, a central school, designed to eliminate smaller outlying schools) on the road towards Weitersbach.
The long timespan during which Rhaunen functioned as a centre for the other local villages has left its mark on the village's structure: Unlike the scattered settlement pattern seen in most of its neighbours, Rhaunen has a much more heavily concentrated built-up centre. The old neighbourhoods can still be made out in the three heavily built-up blocks bounded by Otto-Conradt-Straße (formerly called Am Bach, for its geographical location alongside the brook), Unterdorf, Hauptstraße, Straße am Wartenberg and Marktplatz (“Marketplace”). The church stands a short way outside this zone on a slope overlooking the village. This seemingly odd location is explained by the church's construction on top of an existing building – one of Roman origin.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 16 council members, who were elected at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Rhaunen's mayor is Manfred Klingel, and his deputies are Sascha Diepmanns, Anneliese Hammes and Andreas Endres.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads:
The municipality's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Per bend sable a wolf's head couped argent, and Or a lion rampant gules armed and langued azure.
The charge on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side, the wolf's head, was drawn from a 1711 seal used by the Rhaunen high court, while the one on the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side, the lion, is a reference to the village's former allegiance to the Waldgraves and Rhinegraves.
Town partnerships
Rhaunen fosters partnerships with the following places:
Drebach, Erzgebirgskreis, Saxony
Saint-Valérien, Yonne, France
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Evangelical parish church, Schustergasse 3 – aisleless church, about 1700; Late Gothic three-sided apse and west gable; north tower from the latter half of the 13th century, pointed spire about 1570; décor; organ 1723 by Johann Michael Stumm; characterizes village's appearance
Saint Martin's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Martin), Kirchstraße – three-naved Gothic Revival hall church, 1887/1888, built to plans by the Franciscan Paschalis (secularly: Theodor Gratze), Warendorf; characterizes village's appearance
Am Wartenberg 2 – corner house, partly timber-frame (slated), early 18th century; characterizes village's appearance
Am Wartenberg 3 – blocky building with hipped roof, late 19th century
Hauptstraße 8 – town hall; building with half-hipped roof and council loggia, partly timber-frame (slated), belfry, marked 1723
Hauptstraße 10 – former Amtshaus (Amt administrative centre); Late Historicist slate quarrystone building, Renaissance Revival, 1901
Hauptstraße 43 – forester's office; Swiss chalet style building, 1911
Kirchstraße 3 – Catholic rectory; Late Classicist solid building, 1863
Otto-Conrad-Straße 3 – former Waldgravial estate; plastered building with mansard roof, from the latter half of the 18th century
Poststraße 18 – former cadastral office; slightly asymmetrically grouped buildings with mansard roofs, 1911
Pühlstraße 35/37 – former Royal Amt Court with prison and prison yard; castlelike Baroque Revival slate quarrystone complex, 1899; equipment
Salzengasse 1 – Gründerzeit house with gable with exposed rafters, late 19th century
Salzengasse 3 – former Catholic school; blocky building with hipped roof, Rundbogenstil, 1862
Schulstraße 9 – former new school; three-winged complex, 1928, architect Nicolaus Coenen, Bernkastel
Unterdorf 8 – stately house, partly timber-frame (plastered), mansard roof, about 1800
Unterdorf 12 – house, partly timber-frame, partly slated, 18th century
Jewish graveyard, east of the village in the woods (monumental zone) – 33 gravestones in two rows, earliest from 1893; front sides mainly in Hebrew, backs inscribed in Latin
The organ at the Evangelical church is from 1723, making it the oldest preserved Stumm organ. Information about the various buildings of interest around the village is presented on historical plaques for visitors. At the Verbandsgemeinde administration building, visitors can see local Roman archaeological finds. Standing on a bridge over the ugly concrete channel through which the Rhaunelbach runs within the village – it is a flood-control measure – is a bronze statue, a personification of the Bachspautzer (roughly “Brook Spitter”), a traditional nickname for people from Rhaunen.
Parks
The Wartenberg, a mountain that forms a semicircle around Rhaunen, has many trails and good views of the village below.
Natural monuments
The ancient menhir standing at the way out of the village towards Stipshausen, a quartzite block known as the Königsstein (“King’s Stone”), is not a natural monument in the usual sense, but the slate plaque there identifies it as such. Genuine natural monuments amount to a few very old oaktrees and the Jakobstanne on the Wartenberg, a mighty Douglas-fir.
Sport
Rhaunen has a sport club, “TUS” Rhaunen, with various departments. Nationally known is the hike in the spring.
Regular events
Rhauner Herbstmarkt (Autumn Market), first Saturday in October
Weihnachtsmarkt (Christmas Market), December
The event Päädscher Laafe (or in High German, Pfade laufen – “Walk paths”) is a kind of “open house” day in the municipality, on which people can get a glimpse into places that are not otherwise open to the public. At the same time, it gives businesses and other institutions an opportunity to present themselves from a different angle.
Culinary specialities
These include Spießbraten (spit roast), Schaukelbraten (“swung” roast), Gefüllte Klöße (filled dumplings), Reibekuchen (potato pancake) and Schaales (another kind of potato pancake).
Economy and infrastructure
Service sector
Rhaunen offers the surrounding area many services, including physicians, authorities, churches, schools, workshops, filling stations and shops for daily and occasional needs, which can all be found in the village. There are, however, no businesses in the industrial sector.
Transport
Serving Rhaunen are bus routes 345, 351 and 352, run by Omnibusverkehr Rhein-Nahe (ORN). There are stops at Rhaunen Markt, the church, the Verbandsgemeinde administration building and the outdoor swimming pool. Route 345 runs from Idar-Oberstein railway station by way of Tiefenstein (a constituent community of Idar-Oberstein), Asbach and Stipshausen to Rhaunen Markt. Routes 351 and 352 run as links to Frankfurt-Hahn Airport, with 351 coming from Idar-Oberstein station and 352 from Kirn station.
Idar-Oberstein's railway station, as a Regional-Express and Regionalbahn stop, is linked by way of the Nahe Valley Railway (Bingen–Saarbrücken) to the Saarland and the Frankfurt Rhine Main Region. The Rhein-Nahe-Express running the Mainz-Saarbrücken route serves the station hourly. Every other one of these trains goes through to the main railway station in Frankfurt with a stop at Frankfurt Airport. Formerly, fast trains on the Frankfurt-Paris route had a stop at Idar-Oberstein. Kirn station, too, is on the Nahe Valley Railway.
Public institutions
Rhaunen is seat of the Verbandsgemeinde administration and also the Idarwald (Idar Forest) forester's office, whose area of responsibility has grown considerably in the wake of reform to forest administration. On the other hand, the notary's office, which had been in Rhaunen for more than a century, was moved to Morbach in the course of structural reform in 2007. There are, however, still consultations in Rhaunen. Also in the municipality are two clergymen, one Evangelical and one Catholic.
Education
Rhaunen has two kindergartens, a primary school, a branch location of the Sohren regional school and a folk high school.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Sigbert Josef Maria Ganser (1853–1931), famous psychologist. Ganser syndrome was named after him.
Albert Kahn (1869–1942), one of the most important industrial architects in modern times; emigrated to the United States
Walter Dix (1879–1965), plant cultivation scientist
Otto Conrad (1890–1968), teacher, photographer and local historian (“Vom Hunsrück zur Nahe”)
Gerd Heinz-Mohr (1913–1989), Evangelical theologian and writer, earned a doctorate in social studies of Nicholas of Cusa (“Unitas Christiana”)
Erwin Echternacht (b. 7 September 1925 - 2012), lives in Munich, sculptor, graphic artist, painter and writer, Staatliche Bildhauerschule, Landeskunstschule Mainz, Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, master's pupil with diploma, academic and competition prizes, exhibitions in Germany and abroad
Famous people associated with the municipality
Julius Bellinger (1831–?), German politician of the German Centre Party and Member of the Reichstag, was from 1867 to 1869 a justice of the peace in Rhaunen
Albin Edelhoff (1887–1974), painter and Friend of Nature
Peter Joseph Rottmann (1799–1881), important Hunsrück dialectal poet, married Wilhelmine Maull from Rhaunen
Further reading
Wilhelm Fabricius: Das Hochgericht Rhaunen. Erläuterungen zum Geschichtlichen Atlas der Rheinprovinz, dritter Band, Bonn 1901.
References
External links
Birkenfeld (district)
Naheland |
4220348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20English%20inventions%20and%20discoveries | List of English inventions and discoveries | English inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in England by a person from England. Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two. Nonetheless, science and technology in England continued to develop rapidly in absolute terms. Furthermore, according to a Japanese research firm, over 40% of the world's inventions and discoveries were made in the UK, followed by France with 24% of the world's inventions and discoveries made in France and followed by the US with 20%.
The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be English.
Agriculture
1627: Publication of first experiments in Water desalination and filtration by Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626).
1701: Seed drill improved by Jethro Tull (1674–1741).
18th century: of the horse-drawn hoe and scarifier by Jethro Tull
1780s: Selective breeding and artificial selection pioneered by Robert Bakewell (1725–1795).
1842: Superphosphate or chemical fertilizer developed by John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900).
1850s: Steam-driven ploughing engine invented by John Fowler (1826–1864).
1901: First commercially successful light farm-tractor invented by Dan Albone (1860–1906).
1930s onwards: Developments in dairy farming systems pioneered by Rex Paterson (1902–1978).
Ceramics
1748: Fine porcelain developed by Thomas Frye (c. 1710–1762), of Bow porcelain factory, London. Cf. Frye's rivals at Chelsea porcelain factory.
1770s: Jasperware developed by Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795).
1789–1793: Bone china created by Josiah Spode (1733–1797).
1813: Ironstone china invented by Charles James Mason (1791–1856).
Clock making
Anglo-Saxon times: type of candle clock invented by Alfred the Great (849–899).
c. 1657: Anchor escapement probably invented by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
c. 1657: Balance spring added to balance wheel by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
c. 1722: Grasshopper escapement invented by John Harrison (1693–1776); Harrison created the H1, H2, H3 & H4 watches (to solve the longitude measurement problem).
c. 1726: Gridiron pendulum invented by John Harrison (1693–1776).
c. 1755: Lever escapement, the greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches, invented by Thomas Mudge (1715–1794).
1761: First true Marine chronometer perfected by John Harrison (1693–1776).
1923: Self-winding watch invented by John Harwood (1893–1964).
1955: First accurate atomic clock invented by Louis Essen (1908–1997).
1976: Coaxial escapement mechanism invented by George Daniels (1926–2011).
Clothing manufacturing
1589: The stocking frame, a mechanical knitting machine used in the textiles industry, invented by William Lee (1563–1614).
1733: The flying shuttle, a key development in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution, invented by John Kay of Walmersley (1704-c. 1779).
1759: The Derby Rib machine (for stocking manufacture) invented by Jedediah Strutt (1726–1797).
1764: The spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaves (c. 1720–1778).
1767: Spinning frame invented by John Kay of Warrington.
1769: The water frame, a water-powered spinning frame, developed by Richard Arkwright (1732–1792).
1775–1779: Spinning mule invented by Samuel Crompton (1753–1827).
1784: Power loom invented by Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823).
1790: Sewing machine invented by Thomas Saint.
1808: The bobbinet, a development on the warp-loom, invented by John Heathcoat (1783–1861).
1856: Mauveine, the first synthetic organic dye, discovered by William Henry Perkin (1838–1907).
1941: Polyester invented by John Rex Whinfield (1901–1966).
Communications
Pre-1565: The pencil invented in Seathwaite, Borrowdale, Cumbria, using Grey Knotts graphite.
1588: Modern shorthand invented by Timothy Bright (1551?–1615).
1661: The postmark (called the "Bishop Mark") introduced by English Postmaster General Henry Bishop (1611–1691/2).
1667: Tin can telephone, a device that conveyed sounds over an extended wire by mechanical vibrations, invented by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
1714: Patent for an apparatus regarded as the first typewriter granted to Henry Mill (c. 1683–1771).
18th century: The Valentine's card first popularised.
1822: The mechanical pencil patented by Sampson Mordan (1790–1843) and John Isaac Hawkins (1772–1855).
1831: Electromagnetic induction & Faraday's law of induction. Began as a series of experiments by Michael Faraday (1791–1867); later became some of the first experiments in the discovery of radio waves and the development of radio.
1837: The first commercially successful electric telegraph developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875) and Sir William Fothergill Cooke (1806–1879).
1837: Pitman Shorthand invented by Isaac Pitman (1813–1897).
1840: Uniform Penny Post and postage stamp invented by Sir Rowland Hill (1795–1879).
1843: The Christmas card introduced commercially by Sir Henry Cole (1808–1882).
1873: Discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith (1828–1891). Smith's work led to the invention of photoelectric cells (solar panels), including those used in the earliest television systems.
1879: The first radio transmission, using a spark-gap transmitter (achieving a range of approximately 500 metres), made by David E. Hughes (1831–1900).
1888: The world's first moving picture film produced by Louis Le Prince (1841 – vanished 16 September 1890) of Roundhay Garden, Leeds Bridge.
1897: The world's first radio station was located at The Needles Batteries on the western tip of the Isle of Wight; it was set up by Marconi.
1899: The world's first colour motion picture film produced by Edward Raymond Turner (1873–1903).
1902: Proposition by Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925) of the existence of the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, a layer of ionised gas that reflects radio waves around the Earth's curvature.
1912: Development of radio communication pioneered by William Eccles (1875–1966).
1914: The world's first automatic totalisator invented by English-born George Julius (1873–1946).
2 December 1922: Mechanical scanning device (a precursor to modern television) demonstrated in Sorbonne, France by Englishman Edwin Belin.
1930: The Plessey company in England began manufacturing the Baird Televisor receiver: the first television receiver sold to the public.
1931: Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo invented at EMI in Hayes, Middlesex by Alan Blumlein (1903–1942).
1933: The 405-line television system (the first fully electronic television system used in regular broadcasting) developed at EMI in Hayes, Middlesex by Alan Blumlein (1903–1942), under the supervision of Sir Isaac Shoenberg.
1936: The world's first regular public broadcasts of high-definition television began from Alexandra Palace, North London by the BBC Television Service.
1930s: Radar pioneered at Bawdsey Manor by Scotsman Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973) and Englishman Henry Tizard (1885–1939).
1945: The concept of geostationary satellites for the use of telecommunications relays popularised by Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008).
1964 onwards: Use of fibre optics in telecommunications pioneered by Englishman George Hockham (1938–2013) and Chinese-born Charles K. Kao.
Late 1960s: Development of the long-lasting materials that made liquid crystal displays possible. Team headed by Sir Brynmor Jones; developed by Scotsman George Gray and Englishman Ken Harrison in conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment and the University of Hull, who ultimately discovered the crystals used in LCDs.
1970: The MTV-1, the first near pocket-sized handheld television, developed by Sir Clive Sinclair (1940–2021).
1973: First transmissions of the Teletext information service made by the British Broadcasting Corporation.
1992: Clockwork radio invented by Trevor Baylis (1937–2018).
3 December 1992: The world's first text/SMS message ("Merry Christmas") sent over the Vodafone GSM network by Neil Papworth (born 1969).
2016: Holographic TV device created by the BBC.
Computing
1822: The Difference Engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions, proposed by Charles Babbage (1791–1871).
1837: The Analytical Engine, a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, designed by Charles Babbage (1791–1871).
1842: The person regarded as the first computer programmer was Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), only legitimate child of the poet Byron and his wife Anne Isabella Milbanke, Baroness Wentworth.
1842: First programming language, the Analytical Engine order code, produced by Charles Babbage (1791–1871) and Ada Lovelace (1815–1852).
1854: Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, conceived by George Boole (1815–1864).
1912: Argo system, the world's first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer, invented by Arthur Pollen (1866–1937).
1918: The flip-flop circuit, which became the basis of electronic memory (Random-access memory) in computers, invented by William Eccles (1875–1966) and F. W. Jordan (1882–?).
1936–1937: The Universal Turing machine invented by Alan Turing (1912–1954). The UTM is considered to be the origin of the stored programme computer used in 1946 for the "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears John von Neumann's name: the Von Neumann architecture.
1939: The Bombe, a device used by the British to decipher German secret messages during World War II, invented by Alan Turing (1912–1954).
1943–1944: The Colossus computer – the world's first programmable, electronic, digital computer – invented by Tommy Flowers (1905–1988).
1946–1950: ACE and Pilot ACE invented by Alan Turing (1912–1954).
1946–1947: The Williams tube, a cathode ray tube used to store electronically (500 to 1,000 bits of) binary data, developed by Frederic Calland Williams (1911–1977) and Tom Kilburn (1921–2001).
1948: The Manchester Baby – the world's first electronic stored-programme computer – built by Frederic Calland Williams (1911–1977) and Tom Kilburn (1921–2001) at the Victoria University of Manchester.
1949: The Manchester Mark 1 computer developed by Frederic Calland Williams (1911–1977) and Tom Kilburn (1921–2001); historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers.
1949: EDSAC – the first complete, fully functional computer inspired by the von Neumann architecture, the basis of every modern computer – constructed by Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010).
Late 1940s/early 1950s: The integrated circuit, commonly called the microchip, conceptualised and built by Geoffrey Dummer (1909–2002).
February 1951: The Ferranti Mark 1 (a.k.a. the Manchester Electronic Computer), the world's first successful commercially available general-purpose electronic computer, invented by Frederic Calland Williams (1911–1977) and Tom Kilburn (1921–2001).
1951: The first known recordings of computer generated music played on the Ferranti Mark 1 computer using a programme designed by Christopher Strachey (1916–1975).
1951: LEO made history by running the first business application (payroll system) on an electronic computer for J. Lyons and Co. Under the advice of Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010), LEO was designed by John Pinkerton (1919–1997) and David Caminer (1915–2008).
1951: Concept of microprogramming developed by Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010) from the realisation that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer programme in high-speed ROM.
1952: Autocode developed by Alick Glennie (1925–2003) for the Manchester Mark 1 computer; Autocode is regarded as the first computer compiler.
1952: The first graphical computer game, OXO or Noughts and Crosses, programmed on the EDSAC at Cambridge University as part of a Ph.D. thesis by A.S. Douglas (1921–2010).
1952: First trackball built by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon Taylor (1908–1996); invented 1947 by Ralph Benjamin.
1956 onwards: Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer, built by the Metropolitan-Vickers Company of Manchester.
1958: EDSAC 2, the first computer to have a microprogrammed (Microcode) control unit and a bit slice hardware architecture, developed by a team headed by Maurice Wilkes (1913–2010).
1961: The Sumlock ANITA calculator, the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator, designed and built by the Bell Punch Company of Uxbridge.
1962: The Atlas computer – arguably the world's first supercomputer, and fastest computer in the world until the American CDC 6600 – developed by a team headed by Tom Kilburn (1921–2001). Introduced modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, instruction pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory, and paging.
Late 1960s: Denotational semantics originated in the work of Christopher Strachey (1916–1975), a pioneer in programming language design.
1970: Packet switching co-invented by Welsh engineer Donald Davies (1924–2000) and Polish-born Paul Baran; it was Davies who coined the term packet switching at the National Physical Laboratory in London.
1972: The Sinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator, produced by Sir Clive Sinclair (1940–2021).
1979: The first laptop computer, the GRiD Compass, designed by Bill Moggridge (1943–2012).
1979: Digital audio player (MP3 Player) invented by Kane Kramer (born 1956). His first investor was Sir Paul McCartney.
1980–1982: Home computers the Sinclair ZX80, ZX81 and ZX Spectrum produced by Sir Clive Sinclair (1940–2021).
1981: The Osborne 1 – the first commercially successful portable computer, precursor to the laptop computer – developed by English-American Adam Osborne (1939–2003).
1982: 3D Monster Maze, widely considered the first survival horror computer game, developed from an idea by J. K. Greye and programmed by Malcolm Evans (b. 1944).
1984: The world's first pocket computer, the (Psion Organiser), launched by London-based Psion PLC.
1984: Elite, the world's first computer game with 3D graphics, developed by David Braben (born 1964) and Ian Bell (born 1962).
1985: ARM architecture introduced by Cambridge computer manufacturer Acorn Computers; the ARM CPU design is the microprocessor architecture of 98% of mobile phones and every smartphone.
1989: World Wide Web invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955).
1989: HTTP application protocol and HTML markup language developed by Sir Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955).
1989: Launch of the first PC-compatible palmtop computer, the (Atari Portfolio), designed by Ian H. S. Cullimore.
1989: First touchpad pointing device developed for London-based Psion PLC's Psion MC 200/400/600/WORD Series.
1990: The world's first web browser invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955). Initially called WorldWideWeb, it ran on the NeXTSTEP platform, and was renamed Nexus in order to avoid confusion with the World Wide Web.
1990: The world's first web server invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. Initially called WWWDaemon, it ran on the NeXTSTEP platform and was publicly released in 1991; later it evolved and was known as CERN httpd.
1991 onwards: Linux kernel development and maintenance were greatly helped by English-born Andrew Morton (born 1959) and Alan Cox (born 1968).
2002: Wolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine proposed by London-born Stephen Wolfram (born 1959).
2012: Launch of the Raspberry Pi, a modern single-board computer for education, designed and built by Cambridgeshire-based charity Raspberry Pi Foundation.
Criminology
1836: Marsh test (used for detecting arsenic poisoning) invented by James Marsh (1794–1846).
1888–1895: Fingerprint classification method developed by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911); a breakthrough in forensic science.
1910: First use of wireless telegraphy in the arrest of a criminal, Dr Crippen.
1984: DNA fingerprints are discovered by Alec Jeffreys (born 1950).
1987: Process of DNA profiling developed by Alec Jeffreys (born 1950).
1991: Iris recognition algorithm invented by Swede John Daugman working at the University of Cambridge.
1995: World's first national flop DNA database developed: National DNA Database.
Cryptography
1605: Bacon's cipher devised by Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626).
1854: The Playfair cipher, the first literal digraph substitution cipher, invented by Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875).
1941: Codebreaker Bill Tutte (1917–2002) developed the Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher, which Hitler used to communicate with his generals in World War II.
1973: Clifford Cocks (born 1950) first developed what came to be known as the RSA cipher at GCHQ, approximately three years before it was rediscovered by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman at MIT.
Engineering
1600: The first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope, invented by William Gilbert (1544–1603).
1676–1678: First working universal joint devised by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
1698: First working steam pump invented by Thomas Savery (c. 1650–1715).
1709: First coke-consuming blast furnace developed by Abraham Darby I (1678–1717).
1712: Atmospheric steam engine invented by Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729).
1739: Screw-cutting lathe invented by Henry Hindley (1701–1771).
1780: Modified version of the Newcomen engine (the Pickard engine) developed by James Pickard (dates unknown).
1781: The Iron Bridge, the first metal bridge, cast and built by Abraham Darby III (1750–1789).
1791: The first true gas turbine invented by John Barber (1734–1801).
1796–97: The first iron-framed building (and therefore forerunner of the skyscraper) – Ditherington Flax Mill in Shrewsbury, Shropshire – built by Charles Bage (1751–1822).
1800: First industrially practical screw-cutting lathe developed by Henry Maudslay (1771–1831).
1806: The Fourdrinier machine, a papermaking machine, invented by Henry Fourdrinier (1766–1854).
1823: First internal combustion engine to be applied industrially patented by Samuel Brown (?–1849).
1826: Continuous track (under the name "universal railway") patented by Sir George Cayley (1773–1857).
1830: First (toroidal, closed-core) electric transformer invented by Michael Faraday (1791–1867).
1831: First electrical generator (or dynamo), the Faraday disk, invented by Michael Faraday.
1834–1878: Water and sewerage systems for over thirty cities across Europe designed by William Lindley (1808–1900).
1837: Kingston valve is introduced by engineer John Kingston.
1840s: The linear motor, a multi-phase alternating current (AC) electric motor, proposed by Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875); 1940s: developed by Eric Laithwaite (1921–1997).
1841: Widely accepted standard for screw threads devised by Joseph Whitworth (1803–1887).
1842: The adjustable spanner invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1796–1846).
1845: Hydraulic crane developed by William Armstrong (1810–1900); in 1863, Armstrong also built the first house in the world powered by hydroelectricity, at Cragside, Northumberland.
1846: The first fireproof warehousing complex – Albert Dock, Liverpool – designed by Jesse Hartley (1780–1860).
1848: The Francis turbine developed by James B. Francis (1815–1892), born near Witney, Oxfordshire.
1862: The invention of Plastic by Alexander Parkes (1813-1890)
1868: First commercial steel alloy produced by Robert Forester Mushet (1811–1891).
1869–1875: Crookes tube, the first cathode ray tube, invented by William Crookes (1832–1919).
1871: First enclosed wind tunnel invented, designed and operated by Francis Herbert Wenham (1824–1908).
1872: The Carey Foster bridge, a type of bridge circuit, invented by Carey Foster (1835–1919).
1880–1883: The Wimshurst machine, an Electrostatic generator for producing high voltages, developed by James Wimshurst (1832–1903).
1884: Steam turbine invented by Charles Algernon Parsons (1854–1913).
1885: Compression ignition engine (a.k.a. the diesel engine) invented by Herbert Akroyd Stuart (1864–1927).
1886: Prototype hot bulb engine or heavy oil engine built by Herbert Akroyd Stuart (1864–1927).
1889: Two-stroke engine invented by Joseph Day (1855–1946).
1890: Opening of the Forth Bridge – monumental cantilever railway bridge, and icon of Scotland – designed and engineered by English civil engineers Benjamin Baker (1840–1907) and John Fowler (1817–1898).
1902: Disc brakes patented by Frederick W. Lanchester (1868–1946).
1904: Vacuum tube (or valve) invented by John Ambrose Fleming (1849–1945).
1907: First reported observation of electroluminescence from a diode by H. J. Round (1881–1966); Round's discovery led to the creation of the light-emitting diode.
1917 onwards: Radio guidance systems pioneered by Archibald Low (1888–1956).
1935: Arnold Frederic Wilkins (1907–1985) contributed to the development of radar.
1940: Cavity magnetron improved by John Randall (1905–1984) and Harry Boot (1917–1983); consequently a critical component in microwave ovens and some radar.
Late-1940s/early 1950s: The microchip invented by Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (1909–2002).
1963: High strength carbon fibre invented at the Royal Aircraft Establishment in 1963. January 1969: Carr Reinforcements (Stockport, England) wove the first carbon fibre fabric in the world.
2007: The RepRap Project, the first self-replicating 3D Printer, developed at the University of Bath.
Household appliances
13th century: Magnifying glass defined by Roger Bacon (c.?1214-c.?1292).
Before 1596: Modern flushing toilet invented by John Harington (1560–1612). The term 'John', used particularly in the US, is generally accepted as a direct reference to its inventor.
1733: Perambulator developed by William Kent (c. 1685–1748).
1780: First mass-produced toothbrush produced by William Addis (1734–1808).
1795: First corkscrew patent granted to the Reverend Samuel Henshall (1764/5–1807).
1810: Tin can for food preservation patented by merchant Peter Durand (dates not known).
1818: Modern fire extinguisher invented by George William Manby (1765–1854).
1828: Thermosiphon, which forms the basis of most modern central heating systems, invented by Thomas Fowler (1777–1843).
1830: Lawn mower invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1796–1846).
1836: The Daniell cell – a type of electrochemical cell; an element of an electric battery – invented by John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845).
1840: Postage stamp invented by Sir Rowland Hill (1795–1879).
1845: Rubber band patented by inventor Stephen Perry (dates not known).
1878: Incandescent light bulb invented by Joseph Wilson Swan (1828–1914).
1884: Light switch invented by John Henry Holmes (dates not known) in Shieldfield.
1899: Little Nipper Mouse trap invented by James Henry Atkinson (1849–1942).
Late-19th century: Commercially produced electric toaster developed by R. E. B. Crompton (1845–1940).
Late-19th century: Modern pay toilet invented by John Nevil Maskelyne (1839–1917); Maskelyne invented a lock for London toilets, which required a penny to operate, hence the euphemism "spend a penny".
1901: First powered vacuum cleaner invented by Hubert Cecil Booth (1871–1955).
Before 1902: First practical Teasmade designed by clockmaker Albert E. Richardson (dates not known) of Ashton-under-Lyne.
Before 1920: Folding carton invented by Charles Henry Foyle (died 1948).
1924: First modern dishwasher invented by William Howard Livens (1889–1964)
1955: First fully automatic electric kettle produced by manufacturer Russell Hobbs of Failsworth, Greater Manchester.
1963: Lava lamp invented by accountant Edward Craven Walker.
1965: Collapsible baby buggy produced by Owen Finlay Maclaren (1907–1978).
1983: "Bagless" vacuum cleaner invented by James Dyson (born 1947).
Industrial processes
1740: English crucible steel developed by Benjamin Huntsman (1704–1776).
1743: Sheffield plate, a layered combination of silver and copper, invented by Thomas Boulsover (1705–1788).
1746: The lead chamber process, for producing sulfuric acid in large quantities, invented by John Roebuck (1718–1794).
c. 1760-c. 1840: Pioneers of the Industrial Revolution – Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859); Abraham Darby I (1678–1717); Abraham Darby II (1711–1763); Abraham Darby III (1750–1789); Robert Forester Mushet (1811–1891).
1769: The water frame, a water-powered spinning frame, invented by Richard Arkwright (1732–1792).
c. 1770: Coade stone, a high quality stoneware, created by Eleanor Coade (1733–1821).
1784–1789: Power loom developed by Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823).
1795: Hydraulic press invented by Joseph Bramah (1748–1814).
1820: The Rubber Masticator, a machine for recycling rubber, invented by Thomas Hancock (1786–1865).
1824: Portland cement patented by Joseph Aspdin (1778–1855).
1840: Electroplating process patented by George Elkington (1801–1865).
1843: Vulcanisation of rubber, a process for making natural rubber more durable, patented by Thomas Hancock (1786–1865).
1850: The Parkes process, for removing silver from lead during the production of bullion, invented by Alexander Parkes (1813–1890).
1850–1855: Steel production Bessemer process developed by Henry Bessemer (1813–1898).
1862: First man-made plastic – Nitrocellulose, branded Parkesine – invented by Alexander Parkes (1813–1890).
1912: Stainless steel invented by Harry Brearley (1871–1948).
1933: First industrially practical polythene discovered by accident in 1933 by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson in Northwich.
1952: The float glass process, for the manufacture of high-quality flat glass, invented by Alastair Pilkington (1920–1995).
1950s: The Wilson Yarn Clearer developed by inventor Peter Wilson (dates not known).
2001: Self-cleaning glass is developed by Pilkington.
Medicine
Anglo-Saxon times: The earliest pharmacopoeia in English (Cotton Vitellius, MS C. iii).
1628: First correct description of circulation of the blood in De Motu Cordis by William Harvey (1578–1657).
18th century: Invention of surgical forceps attributed to Stephen Hales (1677–1761).
c. 1711: First blood pressure measurement and first cardiac catheterisation by Stephen Hales (1677–1761).
1763: Aspirin's active ingredient discovered by Edward Stone (1702–1768).
1770s: Isolation of fibrin, a key protein in the blood coagulation process; investigation of the structure of the lymphatic system; and description of red blood cells by surgeon William Hewson (1739–1774), so-called "father of haematology".
1775: First demonstration that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen by Percivall Pott (1714–1788), also a founding father of orthopedy.
1778: The first Inhaler created by John Mudge (1721-1793)
1794: Colour blindness first described in a paper titled "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours" by John Dalton (1766–1844).
1798: Smallpox vaccine, the first successful vaccine to be developed, invented by Edward Jenner (1749–1823); in so doing, Jenner is said to have "saved more lives [. . .] than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."
1800: Anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide (entonox/"laughing gas") discovered by Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1817: First description of (what would come to be called) Parkinson's disease in "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" by James Parkinson (1755–1824).
1818 or 1829: First successful blood transfusion performed by James Blundell (1791–1878).
1819: First accurate description of hay fever by John Bostock (1773–1846).
1847: Ophthalmoscope conceived by Charles Babbage (1791–1871).
1850s: Location of the source of cholera by pioneer of anaesthesia and "father of epidemiology" John Snow (1813–1858).
1850s: General anaesthetic pioneered by Englishman John Snow (1813–1858) and Scotsman James Young Simpson.
1850s onwards: Treatment of epilepsy pioneered by Edward Henry Sieveking (1816–1904).
1858: First publication of Gray's Anatomy, widely regarded as the first complete human-anatomy textbook, by Henry Gray (1827–1861).
1860 onwards: Modern nursing pioneered by Florence Nightingale (1820–1910).
1867: Antisepsis in surgery invented by Joseph Lister (1827–1912).
1867: Clinical thermometer devised by Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925).
1887: First practical ECG machine invented by Augustus Waller of St Mary's Hospital in London.
1898: The mosquito identified as the carrier of malaria by Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932).
1901: Amino acid Tryptophan discovered by Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947).
1902: First typhoid vaccine developed by Almroth Wright (1861–1947).
1912: Vitamins discovered by Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947).
1915: Acetylcholine (ACh) identified by Sir Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968) for its action on heart tissue.
1937 onwards: Protein crystallography developed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994); Hodgkin solved the structures of cholesterol (1937), penicillin (1946), and vitamin B12 (1956), for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964; in 1969, she succeeded in solving the structure of insulin, on which she worked for over thirty years.
1937: Discovery of the Citric acid cycle ("Krebs Cycle") by German-born (naturalised) British physician and biochemist Hans Adolf Krebs (1900–1981) at the University of Sheffield.
1940s: Groundbreaking research on the use of penicillin in the treatment of venereal disease carried out in London by Jack Suchet (1908–2001) with Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming.
1941: Crucial first steps in the mass production of penicillin made by Norman Heatley (1911–2004).
1949: Diagnostic ultrasound first used to assess the thickness of bowel tissue by English-born physicist John J. Wild (1914–2009), so-called "father of medical ultrasound".
1949–1950: Artificial intraocular lens transplant surgery for cataract patients developed by Harold Ridley (1906–2001).
Late 1950s: Peak Flow Meter invented by Martin Wright (1912–2001), also the creator of the Syringe Driver.
1960 onwards: The hip replacement operation (in which a stainless steel stem and 22mm head fit into a polymer socket and both parts are fixed into position by PMMA cement) pioneered by John Charnley (1911–1982).
1960s: First use of sodium cromoglycate for asthma prophylaxis associated with Roger Altounyan (1922–1987).
1967 onwards: Computed Tomography and first commercial CT scanner invented by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield (1919–2004) in Hayes, Middlesex, at EMI Central Research Laboratories.
1969–1978: Development of in vitro fertilisation (IVF) by Patrick Christopher Steptoe (1913–1988) and Robert Geoffrey Edwards (1925–2013).
Late 1970s: Echo-planar imaging (EPI) technique, a contribution to the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), developed by Sir Peter Mansfield (1933–2017).
1980: Potential of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in treating a wide range of genetic diseases, among other breakthroughs, discovered by John Raymond Hobbs (1929–2008).
1981: Discovery of how to culture embryonic stem cells credited to England-born biologist Martin Evans (born 1941).
1993: Viagra (a.k.a. Sildenafil – compound UK-92,480) synthesised by a group of pharmaceutical chemists working at Pfizer's Sandwich, Kent research facility in England. The press identified Peter Dunn and Albert Wood as the inventors of the drug; only Andrew Bell, David Brown and Nicholas Terrett are listed on the original composition of matter patent.
2009: First baby genetically selected to be free of a breast cancer born at University College Hospital.
2014: The "Mom incubator", an Inflatable incubator for reducing mortality rates in premature babies, invented by James Roberts.
Military
1718: The Puckle Gun or Defence Gun, a multi-shot gun mounted on a tripod, invented by James Puckle (1667–1724).
1784: Shrapnel shell, an anti-personnel artillery munition, developed by Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842).
1804: The Congreve rocket, a weapon, invented by Sir William Congreve (1772–1828).
1830s: The safety fuse invented by William Bickford (1774–1834).
1854: The Whitworth rifle, often called the "sharpshooter" because of its accuracy and considered one of the earliest examples of a sniper rifle, invented by Sir Joseph Whitworth (1803–1887).
1854–1857: The Armstrong Gun, a uniquely designed field and heavy gun, developed by Sir William Armstrong (1810–1900).
1866: First effective self-propelled naval torpedo invented by Robert Whitehead (1823–1905).
1875: The side by side boxlock action, commonly used in double barreled shotguns, invented by William Anson and John Deeley for the Westley Richards company of Birmingham.
1884: The Maxim gun, the first self-powered machine gun invented by Sir Hiram Maxim (1840–1916); American-born, Maxim moved from the United States to England in 1881, becoming a (naturalised) British subject. The Maxim gun was financed by Albert Vickers of Vickers Limited and produced in Hatton Garden, London. It has been called "the weapon most associated with British imperial conquest".
1891: Cordite, first of the "smokeless powders" which came into general use towards the end of the 19th century, invented by Englishman Frederick Abel (1827–1902) and Scot James Dewar.
1901: Bullpup firearm configuration first used in the Thorneycroft carbine rifle, developed by an English gunsmith as patent No. 14,622 of July 18, 1901.
1906: The Dreadnought battleship, the predominant type of battleship in the early 20th century, credited to First Sea Lord Admiral John "Jackie" Fisher (1841–1920).
1914: First operational fighter aircraft, the Vickers F.B.5 (a.k.a. th "Gunbus"), developed from a design by Archibald Low (1888–1956).
1916: The tank developed and first used in combat by the British during World War I as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Key co-inventors include Major Walter Gordon Wilson (1874–1957) and Sir William Tritton (1875–1946).
1916: The first effective depth charge, an anti-submarine warfare weapon, developed from a design by Herbert Taylor at the RN Torpedo and Mine School, HMS Vernon.
1916: The Livens Projector, a weapon, created by William Howard Livens (1889–1964).
1917: Dazzle camouflage created by Norman Wilkinson (1878–1971).
1917: ASDIC active sonar, the first practical underwater active sound-detection apparatus, developed by Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and English physicist Albert Beaumont Wood (1890–1964).
1940s: High-explosive squash head, a type of ammunition, invented by Sir Charles Dennistoun Burney (1888–1968).
1941: The Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife invented by William Ewart Fairbairn (1885–1960) and Eric A. Sykes (1883–1945).
1941–1942: The Bailey bridge – a type of portable, pre-fabricated, truss bridge – invented by Donald Bailey (1901–1985). Field Marshal Montgomery emphasised the importance of the Bailey bridge in Britain winning the war.
1943: The bouncing bomb invented by Barnes Wallis (1887–1979).
1943: H2S radar (airborne radar to aid bomb targeting) invented by Alan Blumlein (1903–1942). Blumlein died in a plane crash during a secret trial of the H2S system.
1950: The steam catapult, a device used to launch aircraft from aircraft carriers, developed by Commander Colin C. Mitchell RNR.
1960s: Chobham armour, a type of vehicle armour, developed by a team headed by Gilbert Harvey of the FVRDE at the tank research centre on Chobham Common, Surrey.
1960: Harrier jump jet developed by Hawker Aircraft of Kingston upon Thames following an approach by the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1957.
Late 1970s: Stun grenades developed by the British Army's SAS.
Mining
Approx. 1780 BCE. The first modern Shovel found in Cheshire dated to 1780 BCE found in the Alderley Edge Mines.
1712: The Newcomen Engine invented by Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729); from c. 1705 Newcomen was first to use a Beam engine to pump water from mines.
1815: The Davy lamp, a safety lamp, invented by Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1815: The Geordie lamp, a safety lamp, invented by George Stephenson (1781–1848).
Musical instruments
1695: Northumbrian smallpipes (a.k.a. Northumbrian pipes) associated with Northumberland and Tyne and Wear.
1711: The Tuning fork invented by John Shore (c. 1662–1752).
1798: The harp lute invented by Edward Light (c. 1747-c. 1832); Light patented the instrument in 1816.
Early 19th century: The Irish flute is not an instrument indigenous to Ireland; a key figure in its development was English inventor and flautist Charles Nicholson (1775–1810).
1829: The concertina invented by Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875).
Early 20th century: The theatre organ developed by Robert Hope-Jones (1859–1914).
1870: Carbon microphone, invented by David Edward Hughes.
1968: The logical bassoon, an electronically controlled version of the bassoon, developed by Giles Brindley (born 1926).
Photography
Before 1800: Method of copying images chemically to permanent media devised by Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805).
1838: The Stereoscope, a device for displaying three-dimensional images, invented by Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875).
1840: Calotype or Talbotype invented by William Fox Talbot (1800–1877).
1850s: The Collodion process, an early photographic process, invented by Frederick Scott Archer (1813–1857).
1850s: The Ambrotype invented by Frederick Scott Archer (1813–1857) and Peter Wickens Fry (1795–1860).
1861: The Collodion-albumen process, an early dry plate process, invented by Joseph Sidebotham (father of Joseph Watson Sidebotham).
1871: The dry plate process, the first economically successful and durable photographic medium, invented by Richard Leach Maddox (1816–1902).
1878: The Horse in Motion or Sallie Gardner at a Gallop, a precursor to the development of motion pictures, created by Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904).
1879: The Zoopraxiscope, which may be considered the first movie projector, created by Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904).
1880s: Method of intensifying plates with mercuric iodide devised by B. J. Edwards (1838–1914); Edwards pioneered also the construction and design of instantaneous shutters.
1887: Celluloid motion pictures created by William Friese-Greene (1855–1921).
1906: Kinemacolor, the first successful colour motion picture process, invented by George Albert Smith (1864–1959).
Publishing firsts
1475: First book printed in the English language, Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, by William Caxton (c. 1422–c. 1491); eighteen copies survive.
1534: Cambridge University Press granted letters patent by Henry VIII; continuous operation since makes it the world's oldest publisher and printer.
1535: First complete printed translation of the Bible into English produced by Myles Coverdale (1488–1569).
1665: Philosophical Transactions, the first journal exclusively devoted to science, established by the Royal Society of London; it is also the world's longest-running scientific journal.
British Raj period: the first definite map of India drawn by English cartographers.
Mid-19th century: First noted journal club by English surgeon Sir James Paget (1814–1899); recalling in his memoirs time spent at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, Paget describes "a kind of club [. . .] a small room over a baker's shop near the Hospital-gate where we could sit and read the journals."
1893: Benjamin Daydon Jackson prepares the first volume of Index Kewensis, first publication aiming to register all botanical names for seed plants at the rank of species and genera.
Science
Physics
1600: Recognition that the earth was a giant magnet, by William Gilbert (1544–1603) in his six-book work De Magnete; De Magnete was known all over Europe, and was almost certainly an influence on Galileo.
1660: Hooke's Law (equation describing elasticity) proposed by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
1666–1675: Theories on optics proposed by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726/7); Newton published Opticks in 1704.
1687: Law of universal gravitation formulated in the Principia by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726/7).
1687: Newton's laws of motion formulated in the Principia.
1800: Infrared radiation discovered by Sir William Herschel (1738–1822).
1802: Theory on physiological basis of colour vision proposed by Thomas Young (1773–1829).
1803–1807: Evidence for a wave theory of light discovered by Thomas Young (1773–1829).
1823: Electromagnet invented by William Sturgeon (1783–1850).
1831: Discovery that electric current could be generated by altering magnetic fields (the principle underlying modern power generation) by Michael Faraday (1791–1867).
1845: Proposition that light and electromagnetism are related by Michael Faraday (1791–1867).
1845–1847: Demonstration that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) by James Joule (1818–1889); the unit of energy the Joule is named after him.
1871 and 1885: Discovery of the phenomenon Rayleigh scattering (which can be used to explain why the sky is blue), and prediction of the existence of surface waves by John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919).
1897: Discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson (1856–1940).
1911: Discovery of the Rutherford model of the Atom by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937).
1912: Invention of the mass spectrometer by J. J. Thomson (1856–1940).
1912: Bragg's law and the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances, discovered by William Henry Bragg (1862–1942) and William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971).
1913: Discovery of isotopes by J. J. Thomson (1856–1940).
1917: Discovery of the Proton by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937).
1924: Edward Victor Appleton awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1947 for proving the existence of the ionosphere during experiments carried out in 1924.
1928: Existence of antimatter predicted by Paul Dirac (1902–1984); Dirac made major contributions to the development of quantum mechanics.
1932: Splitting the atom, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation, first achieved by English physicist John Cockcroft (1897–1967) and Ireland's Ernest Walton.
1932: Discovery of the Neutron by James Chadwick (1891–1974).
1935: Possibility of Radar first proven in the "Daventry experiment" by Englishman Arnold Frederic Wilkins (1907–1985) and Scot Robert Watson-Watt.
1947: Holography invented in Rugby, England by Hungarian-British Dennis Gabor (1900–1979; fled from Nazi Germany in 1933). The medium was improved by Nicholas J. Phillips (1933–2009), who made it possible to record multi-colour reflection holograms.
1947: Discovery of the pion (pi-meson) by Cecil Frank Powell (1903–1969).
1964: The Higgs boson, an elementary particle implied by the Higgs field, proposed by Peter Higgs (born 1929) and others to explain why fundamental particles (which are theoretically weightless) might have acquired mass after their formation in the Big Bang.
1974: Hawking radiation predicted by Stephen Hawking (1942–2018).
Chemistry
Anglo-Saxon times: Anglo-Saxon goldsmiths used a process similar to cementation; as evidenced by the Staffordshire hoard.
1665: Correct theory of combustion first outlined in Micrographia by Robert Hooke (1635–1703); Hooke observed that something (known now as oxygen) is taken from the air and that in its absence combustion quickly ceases, however much heat is applied.
1766: Hydrogen discovered by Henry Cavendish (1731–1810); Cavendish described it as a colourless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air.
1775: Oxygen discovered by Joseph Priestley (1733–1804); Priestley called it "dephlogisticated air".
1791: William Gregor (25 December 1761 – 11 June 1817) discovered the elemental metal titanium.
1801: Charles Hatchett FRS (2 January 1765 – 10 March 1847[1]) discovered the element niobium.
1803: William Hyde Wollaston PRS (6 August 1766 – 22 December 1828) discovered the chemical element rhodium.
1803: William Hyde Wollaston PRS (6 August 1766 – 22 December 1828) discovered the chemical element palladium.
1803: Smithson Tennant FRS (30 November 1761 – 22 February 1815) discovered the element iridium.
1803: Smithson Tennant FRS (30 November 1761 – 22 February 1815) discovered the element osmium.
1803: Modern atomic theory developed by John Dalton (1766–1844). See also Dalton's law and Law of multiple proportions; Dalton is considered the father of modern chemistry.
1807: Sodium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1807: Potassium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1808: Calcium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1808: Strontium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1808: Barium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1808: Magnesium isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1808: Boron isolated by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1810: Elemental nature of Chlorine discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1813: Elemental nature of Iodine discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829).
1825: Benzene, the first known aromatic hydrocarbon, isolated and identified by Michael Faraday (1791–1867).
1861: Thallium discovered by William Crookes (1832–1919).
1865: Periodic Table devised by John Newlands (1837–1898); his Law of Octaves was a precursor to the Periodic Law.
1868: Helium discovered in the sun (via spectroscopy) by Norman Lockyer (1836–1920); not until ten years later was it found on Earth.
1868: Synthesis of coumarin (one of the first synthetic perfumes), and cinnamic acid via the Perkin reaction by William Henry Perkin (1838–1907).
1893: The Weston cell developed by England-born chemist Edward Weston (1850–1936).
1894: Argon discovered by English physicist John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919) and Scot William Ramsay.
1898: Morris Travers was an English chemist who with scot Sir William Ramsay discovered xenon, neon and krypton.
1901: Silicone discovered and named by Frederic Kipping (1863–1949); according to the nomenclature of modern chemistry, silicone is no longer the correct term, but it remains in common usage.
1913: Concept of atomic number introduced by Henry Moseley (1887–1915) in order to fix the inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight. Isaac Asimov wrote, "In view of what he [Moseley] might still have accomplished … his death might well have been the most costly single death of the War to mankind generally."
1913: Existence of isotopes first proposed by Frederick Soddy (1877–1956).
1940s / 1950s: Partition chromatography developed by Richard Laurence Millington Synge (1914–1994) and Archer J.P. Martin (1910–2002).
1950: VX (nerve agent) invented by Ranajit Ghosh at Porton Down, VX (nerve agent) is the world's most deadly chemical compounds. It only takes 10 milligrams to become a fatal dose.
1952: Structure of ferrocene discovered by Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921–1996) and others.
1959: First practical hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell developed by Francis Thomas Bacon (1904–1992).
1962: First noble gas compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate, prepared by Neil Bartlett (1932–2008).
1985: Buckminsterfullerene discovered by Sir Harry Kroto (1939–2016).
Biology
1665: Cell biology originated by Robert Hooke (1635–1703), who discovered the first cells in the course of describing the microscopic compartments within cork.
Early 19th century: the first recognition of what fossils were by Mary Anning.
1839: The identification and discovery of 150 mosses, lichens, liverworts, flowering plants and algae on the Kerguelen Islands by botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker. He later said of his gatherings "many of my best little lichens were gathered by hammering out the turfs or sitting on them till they thawed."
1855: The discovery of the first coal ball by Joseph Dalton Hooker who later on with partner William Binney made the first scientific description of coal balls.
1859: Theories of evolution by natural selection and sexual selection set out in On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (1809–1882).
1883: The practice of Eugenics developed by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), applying his half-cousin Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to humans.
1953: Double-helix structure of DNA determined by Englishman Francis Crick (1906–2004) and American James Watson. Crick was a pioneer in the field of molecular biology.
1958: the first cloning of an animal, a frog using intact nuclei from the somatic cells of a Xenopus tadpole by Sir John Gurdon.
1950 onward: the pioneering of the use of Xenopus eggs to translate microinjected messenger RNA molecules by Sir John Gurdon and fellow researchers, a technique which has been widely used to identify the proteins encoded and to study their function.
1960 onwards: Pioneering observation-based research into the behaviour of chimpanzees (our closest relatives in the animal kingdom) conducted by Jane Goodall (born 1934).
1977: DNA sequencing by chain termination developed by Frederick Sanger (1918–2013). Sanger won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry twice.
1977: Discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing by Richard J. Roberts (born 1943).
1996: Dolly the Sheep born as a result of Nuclear transfer, a form of cloning put into practice by Ian Wilmut (born 1944) and Keith Campbell (1954–2012).
2016: Scientists at the British bio-tech company Oxitec, in an attempt to stop the spread of dengue fever genetically engineer a 'sudden death' mosquito which after mating successfully with a wild female, any offspring produced will not survive to adulthood and the lethal gene is passed on from the female to any male they mate with and the cycle continues. 3,019,000 mosquitos were released on the Grand Cayman Islands and after three months 80% of the population of mosquitos in the target area had vanished.
Mathematics and statistics
1630–1632: The slide rule invented by William Oughtred (1574–1660), developing on work by Edmund Gunter (1581–1626) and Edmund Wingate (1596–1656).
1631: The "x" symbol for multiplication and the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions devised by William Oughtred (1574–1660) in Clavis Mathematicae (The Key to Mathematics).
1631: The symbols for "is less than" and "is greater than", along with other innovations, devised in the posthumously published algebra text Artis Analyticae Praxis by Thomas Harriot (c. 1560–1621).
1687: Calculus developed by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726/7), as set out in his Principia Mathematica.
1763 onwards: Key contributions made to the development of statistics by: Thomas Bayes (c. 1701–1761) (Bayes' theorem); Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) (statistical graphics); Francis Galton (1822–1911) (standard deviation, correlation, regression, questionnaires); Karl Pearson (1857–1936) (correlation coefficient, chi-square); William Gosset (1876–1937) (Student's t-distribution); Ronald Fisher (1890–1962) (Analysis of variance); Frank Yates (1902–1994).
1854: Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, proposed by George Boole (1815–1864).
1876: Connection between energy, matter and the curvature of space proposed in s:On the Space-Theory of Matter by William Kingdon Clifford (1845–1879), forty years before Einstein's general theory of relativity.
c. 1880: The Venn diagram devised by John Venn (1834–1923).
1884: Reformulation of Maxwell's equations into the four we know now by Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925).
1901: Discipline of modern mathematical statistics developed by Karl Pearson (1857–1936).
Astronomy
1609: First drawing of the Moon through a telescope by Thomas Harriot (c. 1560 – 1621); Harriot achieved this on 26 July 1609: over four months before Galileo.
1610: Sunspots discovered by Thomas Harriot (c. 1560–1621).
1668: Newtonian telescope invented by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727).
1705: Periodicity of Halley's Comet determined by Edmond Halley (1656–1742).
1712–1717: The Planetarium created by French-born Briton John Theophilus Desaguliers (1683–1784).
1758: Achromatic doublet lens patented by John Dollond (1706–1761).
1781: Discovery of the planet Uranus by Sir William Herschel (1738–1822); Herschel also discovered the moons Titania (1787), Oberon (1787), Enceladus (1789), and Mimas (1789).
1783: Existence of black holes first proposed by John Michell (1724–1793); Michell was first to suggest that double stars might be attracted to each other (1767), and he invented the torsion balance (before 1783).
1843: Existence and position of Neptune predicted, using only mathematics, by John Couch Adams (1819–1892).
1845: Nature of spiral galaxies discovered by William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse (1800–1867).
1846: Discovery of Triton by William Lassell (1799–1880); Lassell also discovered the moons Hyperion (1848), Ariel (1851), and Umbriel (1851).
1924: The Eddington limit – the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object – discovered by Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944).
1930s–1950s: Important contributions to the development of radio astronomy made by Bernard Lovell (1913–2012).
1946–1954: Pioneering theories of Nucleosynthesis (the formation of chemical elements in stars and supernova) proposed by Sir Fred Hoyle (1915–2001); in 1949, Hoyle coined the term "Big Bang".
1966 onwards: Important contributions to cosmology and (from 1973)quantum gravity made by Stephen Hawking (1942–2018), especially in the context of black holes.
1967: Pulsars discovered by English radio astronomer Antony Hewish (1924–2021) and one of his graduate students, Northern Irish Jocelyn Bell.
Late 1960s / early 1970s: Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of radio astronomy, developed by Martin Ryle (1918–1984) and Antony Hewish (1924–2021).
Geology and meteorology
1802: Nomenclature system for clouds developed by meteorology pioneer Luke Howard (1772–1864).
1815: First geological map of Great Britain created by William Smith (1769–1839); Smith is responsible, as well, for the observation that fossils can be used to work out the relative ages of rocks and strata (Principle of Faunal Succession).
1820: The dew-point hygrometer, an instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the atmosphere, invented by John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845).
1820s: Scientific study of dinosaurs initiated by Gideon Mantell (1790–1852).
1861: First weather map created by Francis Galton (1822–1911).
1880: The Seismograph, for detecting and measuring the strength of earthquakes, invented by John Milne (1850–1913).
1911 onwards: Geochronology pioneered by Arthur Holmes (1890–1965).
1938–1964: The Callendar effect, a theory linking rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature (Global warming), proposed by Guy Stewart Callendar (1898–1964).
Philosophy of science
c. 1240s: An early framework for the scientific method, based in Aristotelian commentaries, proposed by English statesman, scientist and Christian theologian Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253).
1267: Early form of the scientific method articulated in Opus Majus by Roger Bacon (c. 1214?-c. 1292?).
1620: Baconian method, a forerunner of the scientific method, proposed in the Novum Organum by Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626).
1892: Scope and method of science proposed in The Grammar of Science by Karl Pearson (1857–1936); the book was a pivotal influence on the young Albert Einstein and contained several ideas that were later to become part of his theories.
Scientific instruments
1630–1632: The slide rule invented by William Oughtred (1574–1660), developing on work by Edmund Gunter (1581–1626) and Edmund Wingate (1596–1656).
1630s: The micrometer invented by William Gascoigne (1612–1644).
1665: Compound microscope with 30x magnification developed by Robert Hooke (1635–1703); Hooke published Micrographia in 1665.
1668: The marine barometer invented by Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
1677: The Coggeshall slide rule, a.k.a. the carpenter's slide rule, invented by Henry Coggeshall (1623–1691).
1763: Triple achromatic lens invented by Peter Dollond (1731–1820).
1784: The Atwood machine, for demonstrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion, invented by George Atwood (1745–1807).
c. 1805: First bench micrometer – the "Lord Chancellor", capable of measuring to one ten-thousandth of an inch – invented by Henry Maudslay (1771–1831), a founding father of machine tool technology.
1833: Wheatstone bridge invented by Samuel Hunter Christie (1784–1865); improved and popularised in 1843 by Charles Wheatstone (1802–1875).
1972: The Sinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator, invented by Sir Clive Sinclair (1940–2021).
Sport
Before 1299: Bowls or lawn bowls can be traced to 13th-century England. The world's oldest surviving bowling green is Southampton Old Bowling Green, first used in 1299.
Late 15th century: Rounders developed from an older English game known as stoolball.
Early 16th century: Modern boxing developed from bare-knuckle boxing or prizefighting, a resurfacing of Ancient Greek boxing in England. The first recorded boxing match took place on 6 January 1681 in England, arranged by Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (1653–1688).
1519: World's oldest sporting competition still running, the Kiplingcotes Derby horse-race, established; it has run annually since without a break.
1530s: Origin of real tennis played with rackets, popularised by Henry VIII.
1598: The earliest definite reference to cricket; the sport may arguably be traced further back to 1301 with written evidence of a game known as creag played by Prince Edward, son of Edward I (Longshanks).
Aunt Sally, early 17th century.
After 1660: Thoroughbred horseracing developed in 17th- and 18th-century England; royal support from Charles II, a keen racegoer and owner, made horse-racing popular with the public.
1673: Oldest non-equine competition in England, the Scorton Arrow archery tournament, established in Scorton, Yorkshire.
1715: Oldest rowing race in the world, Doggett's Coat and Badge established; the race on the River Thames has been held every year since 1715.
1744: Earliest description of baseball in A Little Pretty Pocket-Book by John Newbery (1713–1767); the first recorded game of "Bass-Ball" took place in 1749 in Surrey. William Bray (1736–1832) recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday, 1755 in Guildford, Surrey; the game is considered to have been taken across the Atlantic by English emigrants.
Early 19th century: Modern field hockey developed in English public schools; the first club was established in 1849 in Blackheath, London.
1820s: Ice hockey, a variant of field hockey, invented by British soldiers based in Canada. British soldiers and emigrants to Canada and the United States played their stick-and-ball games on the winter ice and snow; in 1825, John Franklin (1786–1847) wrote during one of his Arctic expeditions: "The game of hockey played on the ice was the morning sport" on Great Bear Lake.
1823 or 1824: Invention of Rugby football credited to William Webb Ellis (1806–1872).
1850: The format of the modern Olympic Games inspired by William Penny Brookes (1809–1895); see also the Cotswold Olimpick Games.
c. 1850: A bowling machine for cricket named the Catapulta (a predecessor of the pitching machine) invented by Nicholas "Felix" Wanostrocht (1804–1876).
1857: Sheffield F.C. formed by former public school pupils, making it the world's first and oldest Association football club, as acknowledged by The Football Association and FIFA.
1867: Coconut shy in Kingston, Surrey.
1859–1865: Lawn tennis invented by Harry Gem (1819–1881) and Augurio Perera, a Spanish-born merchant and sportsman based in England.
1874–1875: Snooker invented by the British Army in India.
1874: Formal codification of the rules of modern Polo established by the Hurlingham Polo Association; polo had been introduced to England in 1834 by the 10th Hussars at Aldershot, Hants, and in 1862 the first polo club, Calcutta Polo Club, was established by two British soldiers, Captain Robert Stewart and (later Major General) Joe Sherer.
1880 onwards: Modern rock climbing developed by Walter Parry Haskett Smith (1859–1946), so-called "father of rock climbing".
1880s: Table tennis or ping-pong originated in Victorian England as an indoor version of tennis; it was developed and played by the upper class as an after-dinner parlour game.
1888: Tiddlywinks patent application by London bank clerk Joseph Assheton Fincher (1863–1900); Tiddlywinks originated as an adult parlour game in Victorian England.
1893–1897: Netball developed from early versions of women's basketball at Madame Österberg's College in England.
1895: Rugby league created with the establishment of the Northern Rugby Football Union (NRFU) as a breakaway faction of England's Rugby Football Union (RFU).
1896: The dartboard-layout used in the game and professional competitive sport of Darts was devised by Lancashire carpenter Brian Gamlin (c. 1852–1903); Gamlin died before he could patent his idea.
1899: Mixed martial art (MMA) Bartistu invented by Edward William Barton-Wright (1860–1951).
1948: The first Paralympic games competition, originally the Stoke Mandeville Games, created in England by German-born (from 1945 naturalised) British neurologist Ludwig Guttmann (1899–1980).
1954: Sir Roger Bannister (1929–2018) ran the first sub-four-minute mile on 6 May 1954.
1979: First modern bungee jumps made from the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol by members of the Oxford University Dangerous Sports Club.
Transport
Aviation
1799: Concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control set forth by Sir George Cayley (1773–1857); Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of Aeronautics and flight: he is sometimes called the "father of aviation".
1804: First glider to carry a human being aloft designed by Sir George Cayley (1773–1857). Cayley discovered and identified the four aerodynamic forces of flight: weight, lift, drag, and thrust; Modern aeroplane design is based on those discoveries, along with cambered wings which Cayley also discovered.
1837: Pioneering contribution to parachute design made by Robert Cocking (1776–1837); aged 61, Cocking was the first person to be killed in a parachuting accident.
1844: Hale rockets, an improved version of the Congreve rocket design that introduced thrust vectoring, invented by William Hale (1797–1870).
1848: World's first powered flight (of 30 feet) achieved in Chard, Somerset with the Aerial Steam Carriage by John Stringfellow (1799–1883), 55 years before the Wright brothers; Stringfellow and William Samuel Henson (1812–1888) patented their invention in 1842.
Late-19th century: The term "air port" first used – to describe the port city Southampton, where some early flying boats landed.
1929: Turbojet engine single-handedly invented by Sir Frank Whittle (1907–1996).
1949: First commercial jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, designed, developed and manufactured by de Havilland.
1954: First aircraft capable of supercruise, the English Electric Lightning, designed, developed and manufactured by English Electric.
1959: Aerospace engineer John Hodge (1929–2021) migrated to become part of NASA's Space Task Group, which was responsible for America's crewed space programme, Project Mercury.
1960: VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) aircraft (most famously the Harrier) invented by Gordon Lewis (1924–2010), Ralph Hooper (1926–2022), Stanley Hooker (1907–1984) and Sydney Camm (1893–1966); the project developed on ideas by Frenchman Michel Wibault.
1965: Concorde The world's first supersonic commercial aircraft (A joint development between British Airways, Air France) invented by Sir James Hamilton (1923–2012); the project was manufactured by BAC, Sud Aviation. It took Concorde three hours, fifteen minutes to fly from London Heathrow to New York JFK.
Railways
1825: Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the world's first operational steam passenger railway; it was taken over by the North Eastern Railway in 1863.
1830: Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first inter-city steam-powered railway; the railway was absorbed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1845.
1838: Opening of the first stretch of the Great Western Railway, from London Paddington station to (the original) Maidenhead station, engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).
Locomotives
1802: First full-scale railway steam locomotive built by Richard Trevithick (1771–1833). This built on the endeavours of two other Englishmen, engineer Thomas Savery (c.1650–1715), son of Devon, and the first practical steam engine built in 1712 by Londoner Thomas Newcomen (c.1664–1729). James Watt did not invent the steam engine. Rather Watt, prompted by English backer and manufacturer Matthew Boulton, effected improvements sufficient to make the invention commercially viable.
1812: First commercially viable steam locomotive, the twin cylinder Salamanca, designed and built by Matthew Murray (1765–1826) of Holbeck.
1813: First practical steam locomotive to rely simply on the adhesion of iron wheels on iron rails, Puffing Billy, built by William Hedley (1779–1843).
1814: First successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive, the Blücher, built by George Stephenson (1781–1848).
1824: First steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail-line, the Locomotion No. 1, built by Robert Stephenson (1803–1859), son of George Stephenson.
1829: Stephenson's Rocket built by George Stephenson (1781–1848) and his son Robert Stephenson (1803–1859); the Rocket was not the first steam locomotive, but it was the first to bring together several innovations to produce the most advanced locomotive of its day.
1829: The Sans Pareil, a less advanced competitor of Stephenson's Rocket, built by Timothy Hackworth (1786–1850).
1829: The Stourbridge Lion, first steam locomotive to be operated in the United States, built by Foster, Rastrick and Company of Stourbridge, Worcestershire, now West Midlands; the manufacturing company was headed by James Foster (1786–1853) and John Urpeth Rastrick (1780–1856).
1835: Der Adler the first steam locomotive in Germany. Built by George & Robert Stephenson in Newcastle.
1923: The Flying Scotsman built to a design by Sir Nigel Gresley (1876–1941); the Flying Scotsman was in 1934 the first steam locomotive to be authenticated at reaching in passenger service.
Other railway developments
1842: The Edmondson railway ticket invented by Thomas Edmondson (1792–1851); British Rail used Edmondson tickets until February 1990.
1852 onwards: Numerous inventions for railways by John Ramsbottom (1814–1897), including: the split piston ring (1852), the Ramsbottom safety valve (1855), the Displacement lubricator (1860), and the water trough (1860).
1863: Opening of the world's oldest underground railway, the London Underground, a.k.a. the Tube; the Tube is the oldest rapid transit system, and it was the first underground railway to operate electric trains.
Late 1940s: Maglev, the use of magnetic levitation to move vehicles without touching the ground, invented by Eric Laithwaite (1921–1997).
1981: The Advanced Passenger Train (APT), an experimental high-speed train that pioneered tilting, introduced by British Rail.
Roads
1804: The seat belt invented by Sir George Cayley (1773–1857).
1808: Tension-spoke wire wheels invented by Sir George Cayley (1773–1857).
1829: First practical steam fire engine invented by John Braithwaite the younger (1797–1880).
1834: The Hansom cab, a type of horse-drawn carriage, invented by Joseph Hansom (1803–1882).
1868: First traffic lights (manually operated and gas-lit) installed outside London's Houses of Parliament; invented by John Peake Knight (1828–1886).
c. 1870: "Ariel", a penny-farthing bicycle, developed by James Starley (1831–1881).
1876: The legal collection of 70,000 seeds from the rubber-bearing tree Hevea brasiliensis which led to the discovery of the perfect growing climate and locations for rubber trees by Sir Henry Alexander Wickham. Most commercial rubber plants are descended from the seeds he took to Kew Gardens
1884:Thomas Parker claimed to have invented the first electric car.
1885: First commercially successful safety bicycle, "the Rover", developed by John Kemp Starley (1855–1901).
1901: Tarmac patented by Edgar Purnell Hooley (1860–1942).
c. 1902: The invention of the Bowden cable popularly attributed to Sir Frank Bowden (1848–1921), founder and owner of the Raleigh Bicycle Company.
1910: Opening of the oldest existing driving school and first formal driving tuition provider, the British School of Motoring, in Peckham, London.
1922: Horstmann suspension, a coil spring suspension system commonly used on western tanks, invented by Sidney Horstmann (1881–1962).
1926: First automated traffic lights in England deployed in Piccadilly Circus in 1926; outside of London, Wolverhampton was in 1927 the first British town to introduce automated traffic lights.
1934: The Cat's eye, a safety device used in road marking, invented by Percy Shaw (1890–1976).
1934: The Belisha beacon introduced by Leslie Hore-Belisha (1893–1957).
1962: First modern Formula One car, the Lotus 25, designed by Colin Chapman (1928–1982) for Team Lotus; the design incorporated the first fully stressed monocoque chassis to appear in automobile racing.
1971: the world's first Bus Rapid Transit system, the Runcorn Busway, first conceived by Arthur Ling.
1985: The Sinclair C5, a one-person battery electric vehicle, invented by Sir Clive Sinclair (1940–2021).
1997: World Land Speed Record, 1,228 km/h (763 mph), achieved by ThrustSSC, a jet-propelled car designed and built in England. Project director: Richard Noble (born 1946); designed by Ron Ayers (born 1932), Glynne Bowsher and Jeremy Bliss; piloted by Andy Green (born 1962).
Sea
1578: The first submersible (a small, submarine-like vehicle) of whose construction there exists reliable information designed by Englishman William Bourne (c. 1535–1582) in his book Inventions or Devises; Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel put Bourne's concept into action in 1620.
1691: A diving bell capable of allowing its occupier to remain submerged for extended periods of time, and fitted with a window for the purpose of underwater exploration, designed by Edmund Halley (1656–1742), best known for computing the orbit of Halley's Comet.
c. 1730: The octant invented by English mathematician John Hadley (1682–1744); American optician Thomas Godfrey developed the instrument independently at approximately the same time.
1743: The "Whirling Speculum", a device used to locate the horizon in foggy or misty conditions, invented by John Serson (died 1744); Serson's Speculum can be seen as a precursor to the gyroscope.
1757: First sextant made by John Bird (1709–1776), adapting the principle of Hadley's octant.
1785: The lifeboat invented and patented by Lionel Lukin (1742–1834); William Wouldhave (1751–1821) made a rival claim, but he did not succeed with the practical application of his invention until 1789.
1799: The Transit, a type of sailing vessel with a remarkable turn of speed, patented by Richard Hall Gower (1768–1833).
1835: The screw propeller invented and patented by Francis Pettit Smith (1808–1874).
1843: Launch of the SS Great Britain – the first steam-powered, screw propeller-driven passenger liner with an iron hull; designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859), it was at the time the largest ship afloat.
1876: Plimsoll Line devised by Samuel Plimsoll (1824–1898).
1878: First commercially successful closed-circuit scuba designed and built by Henry Fleuss (1851–1932), a pioneer in the field of diving equipment.
1878–1879: Two early Victorian submarines, Resurgam I and Resurgam II, designed and built by George Garrett (1852–1902).
1894: The first steam turbine powered steamship, Turbinia (easily the fastest ship in the world at the time), designed by Anglo-Irish engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons (1854–1931), and built in Newcastle upon Tyne.
1899–1901: Developments on the hydrofoil by shipbuilder John Isaac Thornycroft (1843–1928), from the concept of Italian Enrico Forlanini.
1912: World's first patent for an underwater echo ranging device (sonar) filed a month after the sinking of the Titanic by Lewis Fry Richardson (1881–1953).
1915: Research into solving the practical problems of submarine-detection by sonar led by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937).
1955: The hovercraft invented by Sir Christopher Cockerell (1910–1999).
Miscellaneous
1286: First recorded use of the Halifax Gibbet, an early guillotine.
Early 17th century: The closely cut "English" lawn created in the Jacobean epoch of gardening, as the garden and the lawn became places created first as walkways and social areas. The English lawn became a symbol of status of the aristocracy and gentry; it showed that the owner could afford to keep land that was not being used for a building or for food production.
1668: Earliest concept of a metric system proposed by John Wilkins (1614–1672) in An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language.
1706: World's first life insurance company, the Amicable Society, founded by William Talbot (1658–1730) and Sir Thomas Allen, 2nd Baronet (c. 1648–1730).
1719: Oldest music-based festival, the Three Choirs Festival, established.
1725: The modern kilt, associated since the 19th century with Scottish culture, arguably invented by English Quaker Thomas Rawlinson (dates not known).
c. 1760: The jigsaw puzzle invented and commercialised by cartographer John Spilsbury (1739–1769).
1762: The Sandwich invented by John Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792)
1767: The carbonated soft drink invented by Joseph Priestley (1733–1804).
1768–1770: The modern circus invented by Philip Astley (1742–1814) in Astley's Amphitheatre on Westminster Bridge Road in Lambeth.
c. 1770–1780: The lorgnette (a pair of spectacles with a handle, used to hold them in place) invented by George Adams the elder (c. 1709–1773) and subsequently illustrated in a work by his son George Adams the younger, An Essay on Vision, briefly explaining the fabric of the eye (1789).
1772: Oldest arts festival established in Norwich 1772.
1787: First glee club founded in Harrow School.
1797: The top hat arguably invented by English haberdasher John Hetherington (dates not known).
1798: Consequences of population growth identified by Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) in An Essay on the Principle of Population.
1798: Oldest police force in continuous operation, the Marine Police Force, formed by English seafarer John Harriott (1745–1817) and Scot Patrick Colquhoun; it merged with the nascentMetropolitan Police Service in 1839.
18th century – 19th century: The history of comics developed with innovations by William Hogarth (1697–1764), James Gillray (1756/57–1815), George Cruikshank (1792–1878) and others. The Glasgow Looking Glass (1826), arguably the first comic strip. William Heath was its principal strip illustrator.
1811: The graphic telescope, a drawing aid with the power of a telescope, invented by water-colour painter Cornelius Varley (1781–1873).
1821: World's first modern nature reserve established by naturalist and explorer Charles Waterton (1782–1965); Waterton was described by David Attenborough as "one of the first people anywhere to recognise not only that the natural world was of great importance but that it needed protection as humanity made more and more demands on it".
1824: Rubber balloon invented by Michael Faraday (1791–1867) during experiments with gases.
1824: First animal welfare society, the RSPCA, founded by a group of reformers including William Wilberforce.
1826: First effective friction match invented by John Walker (1781–1859).
1829: Metropolitan Police Force founded by Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel; by 1857 all cities in the UK were obliged to form their own police forces.
1837 Egg-free custard by Alfred Bird
1840: Stamp collecting initiated by zoologist John Edward Gray (1800–1875); on 1 May 1840, the day the Penny Black first went on sale, Gray bought several with the intent to save them.
1844: The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers founded in Lancashire. The Rochdale Principles are the foundation for the co-operative principles on which co-ops around the world operate to this day.
1844: YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) founded in London by Sir George Williams (1821–1905), with the aim of putting Christian values into practice.
1846: The Christmas cracker invented by London confectioner Thomas J. Smith by wrapping a bon-bon in a twist of coloured paper, adding a love note, a paper hat and a banger mechanism. This new idea took off and the bon-bon was eventually replaced by a small toy or novelty.
1849: Bowler hat designed by London hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler.
1851: Prime meridian established at Greenwich by Sir George Biddell Airy (1801–1892), Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881; Airy's line, the fourth Greenwich Meridian, became the definitive, internationally recognised line in 1884.
1851: Revolutionary modular, prefabricated design, and use of glass utilised in the building of the Crystal Palace of the Great Exhibition by Joseph Paxton (1803–1865); after the exhibition, the Crystal Palace was moved to Sydenham where it was destroyed in a fire in 1936.
1851: Steel-ribbed umbrella developed by Samuel Fox (1815–1887).
1860: Linoleum invented by Frederick Walton (1834–1928).
1865: The Salvation Army, a Christian denominational church and international charitable organisation, founded by Methodist minister William Booth (1829–1912).
1866: The introduction, planting, cultivation and manufacturing of Ceylon tea in the British Crown colony of Ceylon, now Sri Lanka. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle said of the planting efforts "the tea fields of Ceylon were as true a monument to courage as the lions of Waterloo" and called it "one of the greatest commercial victories which pluck and ingenuity ever won."
1868: Erection of first mounted dinosaur skeleton, Hadrosaurus Foulkii and introduction of the universal standard for all future dinosaur displays by English artist Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins in concert with Dr Joseph Leidy and Edward Drinker Cope. Displayed at The Academy of Natural Sciences
1870s: One precursor (among others) of the modern gas mask constructed by physicist John Tyndall (1820–1893).
1897: Plasticine invented by art teacher William Harbutt (1844–1921).
1901: Model construction system Meccano invented by Frank Hornby (1863–1936).
1902: First large-scale programme of international scholarships, the Rhodes Scholarship, created by Cecil John Rhodes (1853–1902).
1907: The scout movement created by Lord Baden-Powell (1857–1941), on finding that his 1899 military training manual Aids to Scouting was being used by teachers and youth organisations.
1908: The reserve forest which would become the Kaziranga National Park founded by Lord Curzon of Kedleston to protect the dwindling species of rhinoceros.
1913: The crossword puzzle invented by Liverpool-born Arthur Wynne (1871–1945).
1922: Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by Archaeologist and Egyptologist Howard Carter, funded by Lord Carnarvon.
1933: Bayko – a plastic building model construction toy, and one of the earliest plastic toys to be marketed – invented by Charles Plimpton (1893–1948).
1946: Toy building bricks invented and patented (under the name "Kiddicraft") by Hilary (Harry) Fisher Page (1904–1957); The Lego Group acquired Page's patent in 1981.
1949: Oldest literary festival, the Cheltenham Literature Festival, established.
1965: Geometric drawing toy Spirograph developed by Denys Fisher (1918–2002).
See also
List of British innovations and discoveries
List of Welsh inventors
List of Scottish inventions and discoveries
Timeline of Irish inventions and discoveries
Science in Medieval Western Europe
References
English inventions
Inventions and discoveries
Lists of inventions or discoveries |
4220361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Gilstrap | Jim Gilstrap | James Earl Gilstrap (born November 10, 1946) is an American singer and session musician. He is best known for his 1975 solo hit single "Swing Your Daddy", as well as singing co-lead to the theme from the TV series Good Times.
Career
Gilstrap was born November 10, 1946, in Daingerfield, Texas to Jodie and Pearlie Mae (Tolbert) Gilstrap. He joined the U.S. Navy Reserve. He began his career in the music industry when he returned from serving in the Vietnam War. Early groups he worked with include the Doodletown Pipers and The Cultures.
In the early 1970s, Gilstrap was one of the backing vocalists in Stevie Wonder's backing outfit, "Wonderlove", appearing on Wonder's albums, Talking Book and Innervisions. Gilstrap sang the opening two lines of the Wonder song, "You Are the Sunshine of My Life" (with Lani Groves singing the next two lines). He subsequently signed a recording contract with Chelsea Records in 1975. His recording of the Kenny Nolan-penned "Swing Your Daddy" was a nmuber 4 hit in the UK Singles Chart in April 1975, and reached number 10 in the U.S. Billboard Black Singles chart. The song peaked at number 64 in Australia.
Gilstrap also recorded two albums of his own during the 1970s. The first, titled Swing Your Daddy, contained three more singles in "I'm on Fire" (covering 5000 Volts; it made number 78 in the U.S.), "House of Strangers" and "Put Out the Fire". The second album, Love Talk (1977), was not as successful.
He worked as a session artist for the UK singer Elkie Brooks on her album Live and Learn (1979), among other performances.
He can be heard in a vocal performance on Quincy Jones' 1974 jazz-funk composition "Soul Saga (Song Of The Buffalo Soldier)", from Jones' Body Heat album. Gilstrap also provided the male lead vocals for the theme music to the 1970s television program Good Times.
"I've Got You Where I Want You" (1975) was used in the soundtrack of the film Three Days of the Condor. In addition, he sang the theme song for the 1990s cartoon series TaleSpin. More recently he did an original song for the Japanese film Survive Style 5+ entitled "A Lament".
He worked with the group Side Effect on their track "Run, Run, Run" that was released on Bell Records.
Credits
Gilstrap's recording credits include:
Aaron Neville
Aaron Neville's Soulful Christmas (1993)
The Tattooed Heart (1995)
Devotion (2000)
Believe (2003)
20th Century Masters: The Christmas Collection (2003)
Gospel Roots (2005)
Christmas & Hits Duos (2008)
I Know I've Been Changed (2010)
Al Jarreau
Best of Al Jarreau (1996)
Al Kooper
Championship Wrestling (1982)
Altair All-Star Choir / Jim Gilstrap / Joyce Vincent / Pam Vincent
La La Peace Song (2018)
Amaia Montero
Amaia Montero (2008)
2 (2011)
Amy Grant
A Christmas to Remember (1999)
Andy Griffith
Just as I Am: 30 Favorite Old Time Hymns (1998)
Angela Bofill
Something About You (1981)
Too Tough (1983)
Anita Baker
The Songstress (1983)
Rapture (1986)
The Best of Anita Baker (2002)
Sweet Love: The Very Best of Anita Baker (2002)
Aretha Franklin
Aretha (1980)
Who's Zoomin' Who? (1985)
Aretha (1986)
Greatest Hits: 1980-1994 (1994)
Knew You Were Waiting: The Best of Aretha Franklin 1980-1998 (2012)
Art Garfunkel
Fate for Breakfast (1979)
B.B. King
King of Blues: 1989 (1988)
Barbra Streisand
Higher Ground (1997)
Songbird (1978)
Beau Williams
Bodacious (1984)
Bill Medley
Right Here and Now (1982)
Bill Withers
Making Music (1975)
The Essential Bill Withers (2013)
Billy Cobham
B.C. (1979)
Billy Preston / Syreeta
Billy Preston & Syreeta (1981)
Bob Crewe
Motivation (1977)
Bobby Lyle
New Warrior (1977)
The Journey (1990)
Boney James
Boney's Funky Christmas (1996)
Booker T. Jones
Try and Love Again (1978)
I Want You (1981)
Boz Scaggs
Silk Degrees (1976)
Down Two Then Left (1977)
Hits! (1980)
My Time: The Anthology (1969-1997) (1997)
The Collection: Slow Dancer/Silk Degrees/Down Two Then Left (2004)
Brainstorm
Funky Entertainment (1979)
Brandon Burrows
On the Move (2008)
Brownie McGhee / Sonny Terry / Sonny Terry & Brownie McGhee
Sonny & Brownie (1973)
Bunny Hull
Dream a World: A Child's Journey to Self-Discovery (2004)
Music For Young Masters: Secrets Of The Heart (2007)
Candi Staton
House of Love (1978)
The Best of Candi Staton [Warner Bros.] (1995)
Candi/Young Hearts Run Free (2013)
Music Speaks Louder Than Words/House of Love (2013)
Carl Anderson
Absence Without Love/On & On (2009)
Carrie Lucas
Simply Carrie (1977)
Céline Dion
Let's Talk About Love (1997)
Let's Talk About Love/Celine Dion (2008)
My Love: Essential Collection (2008)
Let's Talk About Love/A New Day Has Come (2009)
The Collection: Let's Talk About Love/Falling into You/A New Day Has Come (2009)
Christina Ashley
Let It All Go
Christopher Franke
Celestine Prophecy (1996)
Country Joe & Energy Crisis
Rock N Roll from Planet Earth (1978)
Country Joe McDonald
Classics (1989)
Country Joe McDonald / Country Joe & Energy Crisis
Paradise with an Ocean View (1976)
Crowded House
Crowded House (1986)
Crowded House/Temple of Low Men (2005)
D.J. Rogers
The Message Man: The Best of DJ Rogers (1998)
Dana Glover
Testimony (2002)
Darlene Koldenhoven
Inspired by a True Story
Daryle Chinn
From the Heart (1996)
Dave Grusin
3 Days of the Condor [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] (1975)
Dave Koz
Lucky Man (1993)
Off the Beaten Path (1996)
David Foster
The Christmas Album (1995)
David T. Walker
David T Walker (1973)
DeBarge
Time Will Reveal: The Complete Motown Albums (2011)
Debra Hurd
Debra Hurd (1983)
Dee Dee Bridgewater
Dee Dee Bridgewater (1976)
Just Family (1977)
Bad for Me (1979)
Only the Best of Dee Dee Bridgewater (2009)
Dee Dee Bridgewater [1976]/Just Family/Bad for Me/Dee Dee Bridgewater [1980] (2020)
DeLeon
Straight from the Heart (2001)
Diana DeGarmo
Blue Skies (2004)
Dreams (2004)
Dianne Reeves
Never Too Far (1990)
Dionne Warwick
Aquarela do Brasil (1995)
Sings Cole Porter/Aquarela do Brasil (2011)
Dirk Hamilton
You Can Sing on the Left or Bark on the Right (1976)
Disney
The Disney Afternoon Songbook: Music from Hit TV Shows (1990)
The Music of Disney: A Legacy in Song (1992)
Disney's Music from the Park (1996)
Disney's Rock-A-Bye Baby: Soft Hits for Little Rockers (1996)
Matrix Revolutions [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] (2003)
Don Grusin
Raven (1990)
Native Land (1993)
Donald Byrd
Thank You...For F.U.M.L. (Funking Up My Life) (1978)
Donald Byrd / Donald Byrd and 125th St.
Donald Byrd and 125th Street, N.Y.C. (1979)
Dr. John
Tango Palace (1979)
Elaine Norwood
Double Blessing (2006)
Eleanor
Jungle Wave
Elkie Brooks
Rich Man's Woman (1975)
Live & Learn (1979)
Elton John
The Fox (1981)
Duets (1993)
England Dan & John Ford Coley
Dr. Heckle & Mr. Jive (1978)
The Very Best of England Dan & John Ford Coley (1996)
Erich Kunzel
The Magical Music of Disney (1995)
Eros Ramazzotti
Todo Historias (1993)
Tutte Storie (1993)
Donde Hay Música (1996)
Dove C'e Musica (1996)
Eros (1997)
Cosas De La Vida (Can't Stop Thinking Of You) (1998)
Calma Apparente (2005)
Alas y Raices (2009)
Ali e Radici (2009)
Everlast
Eat at Whitey's (2000)
Love, War and the Ghost of Whitey Ford (2008)
Franky Perez
Poor Man's Son (2003)
Funk
Priced to Sell (1974)
Gene Page
Lovelock! (1976)
Close Encounters (1978)
George Benson
Give Me the Night (1980)
The George Benson Collection (1981)
While the City Sleeps (1986)
The Best of George Benson [Warner Bros.] (1995)
Les Incontournables (2000)
The George Benson Anthology (2000)
The Greatest Hits of All (2003)
Very Best of George Benson: The Greatest Hits of All (2004)
Rhino Hi-Five: George Benson (2005)
The Essential George Benson (2006)
George Duke
Snapshot (1992)
Illusions (1995)
Best of George Duke: The Elektra Years (1997)
Is Love Enough? (1997)
Cool (2000)
Face the Music (2002)
Duke (2005)
Ultimate George Duke (2007)
Dukey Treats (2008)
DreamWeaver (2013)
George Duke Collection (2014)
Gladys Knight
Miss Gladys Knight (1978)
Good Woman (1991)
Greg
Rockin' Down The Road [Bonus Tracks] (1995)
Hanne Boel
Misty Paradise (2001)
Harold Faltermeyer
Copout (2010)
Harry Styles
Harry Styles (2017)
Harvey Mason
Marching in the Street (1976)
Groovin' You (1979)
Sho Nuff Groovin' You: The Arista Records Anthology 1975-1981 (2017)
Henry Mancini
"Easy Baby" (from the film 99 and 44/100% Dead)
Herbie Hancock
Lite Me Up (1982)
Hiroshima
Hiroshima (1979)
Odori (1980)
Third Generation (1983)
Another Place (1985)
Go (1987)
Ongaku (1988)
East (1989)
Providence (1992)
L.A. (1994)
House of Pain
Shamrocks and Shenanigans: The Best of House of Pain and Everlast (2004)
Howard Tate
A Portrait of Howard (2006)
Irene Cara
Carasmatic (1987)
Irving Fields
Irving Fields and His Trio at the Emerald Room
Jackson Browne
Looking East (1996)
Jaco Pastorius
The Essential Jaco Pastorius (2007)
James Ingram
It's Your Night (1983)
It's Real (1989)
James Newton Howard
King Kong [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] (2005)
James Taylor
Dad Loves His Work (1981)
JT/Flag/Dad Loves His Work [Box Set] (1995)
Jean Carn
When I Find You Love/Sweet and Wonderful (2005)
Jesse Colin Young
American Dreams (1978)
Jim Gilstrap
Swing Your Daddy (1975)
Love Talk (1976)
Swing Your Daddy/Love Talk (1995)
Joe Cocker
Hymn for My Soul (2007)
Joe Sample
Roles (1983)
Sample This (1997)
The Best of Joe Sample (1998)
Introducing Joe Sample (2006)
Rhino Hi-Five: Joe Sample
Joey Lawrence
Joey Lawrence (1993)
John Hiatt
Little Head (1997)
John Powell
Ice Age: The Meltdown [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] (2006)
Johnny Gill
Chemistry (1985)
Johnny Gill / Stacy Lattisaw
Perfect Combination (1984)
Johnny Mathis
That's What Friends Are For/You Light Up My Life/Better Together: Duet (1997)
Mathis on Broadway (2000)
Johnny Mathis / Deniece Williams
That's What Friends Are For (1978)
José Feliciano
Just Wanna Rock 'n' Roll (1975)
Jose Feliciano [1980] (1980)
June Pointer
Baby Sister (1983)
Kanye West
808s & Heartbreak (2008)
Kathy Dalton
Amazing (1973)
Keith Moon (1975)
Two Sides of the Moon -
Kelis
Kelis Was Here (2006)
Kenny G
Breathless (1992)
Breathless/At Last... The Duets Album (2012)
Kenny Loggins
Back to Avalon (1988)
The Unimaginable Life (1997)
Kenny Rankin
Silver Morning (1975)
Peaceful: The Best of Kenny Rankin (1996)
Kurt Bestor
Sketches (1997)
Larry Graham
Fired Up (1985)
Leo Sayer
Leo Sayer (1978)
Leon Haywood
Intimate (1976)
Leonard Cohen
Recent Songs (1979)
Les McCann
Only The Best Of Les McCann (1974)
Pump It Up (2002)
Linda Lewis
Woman Overboard (1977)
Linda Ronstadt
Hasten Down the Wind (1976)
Simple Dreams (1977)
Living in the U.S.A. (1978)
Greatest Hits, Volume Two (1980)
The Linda Ronstadt Box Set (1999)
3 for One (2000)
Lionel Richie
Back to Front (1992)
Little Anthony & the Imperials
You'll Never Know (2008)
Livingston Taylor
3-Way Mirror (1978)
Carolina Day: The Collection (1970-1980) (1998)
Luther Vandross
Songs (1994)
The Ultimate Luther Vandross [2001] (2001)
The Essential Luther Vandross (2003)
Love, Luther (2007)
The Music of Luther Vandross (2009)
The Box Set Series (2014)
Lynn Ahrens / Stephen Flaherty / David Newman
Anastasia [Music From the Motion Picture] (1997)
Marilyn Scott
Smile (1992)
Take Me with You (1995)
Avenues of Love (1998)
Handpicked (2005)
I'm in Love Once Again (2005)
Marino
The Unexpected Alliance (2001)
Martha Davis
Policy (1987)
Martha Reeves
Martha Reeves (1974)
Melissa Manchester
If My Heart Had Wings (1995)
Michael Bolton
The One Thing (1993)
All That Matters (1997)
Hits 1985-1995: Best of the Best Gold (2003)
Michael Bolton [Collector's Tin] (2009)
Michael Jackson
Off the Wall (1979)
HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995)
Greatest Hits: HIStory, Vol. 1 (2001)
Off the Wall/Thriller (2004)
The Ultimate Collection [Sony/Epic] (2004)
The Essential Michael Jackson (2005)
King of Pop (2008)
Off the Wall/Invincible (2008)
The Collection (2009)
Michael White
White Night (1979)
Milira
Back Again!!! (1992)
Minnie Riperton
Stay in Love (1977)
Moogly
Sex & Soul: Mixed by Moog-Ly (2007)
Nancy Wilson
Come Get to This (1975)
This Mother's Daughter (1976)
Forbidden Lover (1987)
A Lady with a Song (1990)
Greatest Hits [Sony] (1999)
All in Love Is Fair/Come Get to This (2011)
Narada Michael Walden
Awakening (1979)
The Dance of Life (1979)
Victory (1980)
Confidence (1982)
Looking at You, Looking at Me (1983)
The Nature of Things (1985)
Ecstasy's Dance: The Best of Narada Michael Walden (1996)
Awakening/The Dance Of Life (2008)
Looking at You, Looking at Me/The Nature of Things/Divine Em
Neil Diamond
Beautiful Noise (1976)
The Greatest Hits (1966-1992) (1992)
In My Lifetime (1996)
Classics: The Early Years/Jazz Singer/Beautiful Noise (1997)
Neil Young
Living with War (2006)
Norman Connors
Take It to the Limit (1980)
Olivia Newton-John
Totally Hot (1978)
Over the Rhine
The Long Surrender (2011)
Patrice Rushen
Patrice (1978)
Pizzazz (1980)
Posh (1980)
Now (1984)
Anything But Ordinary (1994)
Haven't You Heard: The Best of Patrice Rushen (1996)
Patrice/Pizzazz/Posh (2013)
Straight from the Heart/Now (2013)
Remind Me: The Classic Elektra Recordings 1978-1984 (2019)
Patrick Doyle
Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011)
Patti Austin
Patti Austin (1984)
The Very Best of Patti Austin: The Singles (1969-1986) (2001)
Patti LaBelle
Winner in You (1986)
Be Yourself (1989)
Paul Williams
A Little Bit of Love (1974)
The Best of Paul Williams (2008)
Paul Young
Crossing (1993)
Peabo Bryson
Positive (1988)
Through the Fire (1994)
Peabo Bryson / Roberta Flack
Born to Love (1983)
Peggy Lee
Let's Love (1974)
Pharez Whitted
Mysterious Cargo (1996)
Phyllis Hyman
Phyllis Hyman (1977)
Goddess of Love (1983)
The Legacy of Phyllis Hyman (1996)
Praise & Worship
Rejoice Africa (1993)
Priscilla Ahn
A Good Day (2008)
Pugh Rogefeldt
Bamalama (1977)
Quincy Jones
Body Heat (1974)
Mellow Madness (1975)
I Heard That! (1976)
Roots: The Saga of an American Family (1977)
The Dude (1981)
Back on the Block (1989)
From Q, With Love (1999)
Q: The Musical Biography of Quincy Jones (2001)
Ultimate Collection (2002)
Summer in the city (2007)
Rachelle Ferrell
Rachelle Ferrell (1992)
Ramsey Lewis
Ramsey (1979)
Ray Charles
Genius & Soul: The 50th Anniversary Collection (1997)
Ultimate Hits Collection (1999)
Genius Loves Company (2004)
Forever Ray Charles (2007)
Ray Simpson
Ray Simpson (1992)
Rick Nelson
The Last Time Around 1970-1982 (2010)
Ricky Martin
Vuelve (1998)
Ringo Starr
Goodnight Vienna (1974)
Ringo the 4th (1977)
Roberta Flack
Blue Lights in the Basement (1977)
Roberto Carlos
Roberto Carlos (Mujer Pequena) (1992)
Todas As Manhas (1996)
Rodney Franklin
Skydance (1985)
Ron Kenoly
God is Able (1994)
Ronnie Foster
Delight (1979)
Roy Ayers
Fever (1979)
Russ Freeman
Sahara (1994)
Russell Hitchcock
Russell Hitchcock (1988)
Sam Cardon
Innovators [1995] (1995)
Santana
Spirits Dancing in the Flesh (1990)
Sarah Vaughan
Songs of the Beatles (1981)
Scherrie and Susaye
Partners (1979)
Seals & Crofts
Takin' It Easy (1978)
Side Effect
Effective (1973)
Side Effect/What You Need (2002)
Siedah Garrett
Kiss of Life (1988)
Stacy Lattisaw
Let Me Be Your Angel (1980)
With You (1981)
Sneakin' Out (1982)
Sixteen (1983)
The Very Best of Stacy Lattisaw (1998)
Stanley Clarke
Time Exposure (1984)
Guitar & Bass (2004)
Stanley Clarke / George Duke
3 (1990)
The Clarke/Duke Project, Vols. 1-3 (2010)
Stanley Turrentine
Have You Ever Seen the Rain (1975)
In the Pocket (1975)
Betcha (1980)
On a Misty Night (2002)
Starship
No Protection (1987)
No Protection/Love Among The Cannibals (1987)
Stephen Sinclair
A+ (1977)
Stevie Wonder
Talking Book (1972)
Innervisions (1973)
Fulfillingness' First Finale (1974)
Original Musiquarium I (1982)
The Definitive Collection (2002)
Susaye Greene
No Fear Here (2002)
Syreeta
Syreeta (1972)
One to One (1977)
Set My Love in Motion (1981)
Syreeta/Stevie Wonder Presents Syreeta (2004)
Teddy Pendergrass
Truly Blessed (1991)
The Blackbyrds
Night Grooves: The Blackbyrds' Greatest Hits (1978)
Action/Better Days (1994)
City Life/Unfinished Business (1994)
The Brothers Johnson
Look Out for #1 (1976)
Right on Time (1977)
Light Up the Night (1980)
Winners (1981)
The Jackson 5
The Jacksons: An American Dream (1992)
Original Album Classics (2008)
Triumph/Destiny (2009)
The Jacksons
Triumph (1980)
The Best Remixes (1998)
The Party
The Party (1990)
The Rippingtons
The Best of the Rippingtons (1997)
The Simpsons
Testify (2007)
Thelma Houston
I've Got the Music in Me (1975)
Tom Scott
Target (1983)
Toots Thielemans
Verve Jazz Masters '59: Toots Thielemans (1996)
Tour De 4force1
Quiet Moon
Tower of Power
Direct (1981)
Tracy Nelson
Tracy Nelson (1974)
Vanessa Rubin
Vanessa Rubin Sings (1995)
Wayne Henderson
Living on a Dream (1978)
Whitney Houston
Whitney (1987)
The Collection (2009)
Willy DeVille
Big Easy Fantasy
Backstreets of Desire (1994)
Loup Garou (1996)
Wilton Felder
Inherit the Wind (1980)
See also
List of performers on Top of the Pops
References
External links
Biography at Soulwalking.co.uk
Full Career Credits at AllMusic.com
1946 births
Living people
American session musicians
American male singers
Singers from Texas
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
People from Daingerfield, Texas
20th-century African-American male singers
United States Navy sailors
United States Navy reservists
21st-century African-American people
African-American United States Navy personnel
African Americans in the Vietnam War |
4221050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20Fowler | Lisa Fowler | Lisa Fowler (also Shaw) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Lucy Benjamin. The character was introduced as a "home-wrecking blonde" by executive producer Matthew Robinson on 7 December 1998. The character made her initial departure on 3 October 2002, when she was written out by producer Louise Berridge.
Berridge later reintroduced the character on two occasions in 2003. Despite several reports stating she would return, Benjamin did not reprise the role until 2010 when Bryan Kirkwood brought the character back for a single episode on 5 August 2010. The actress reprised the role again in 2017 for a brief stint, returning on 21 July 2017 and departing on 3 August 2017. On 27 May 2019, it was announced that Benjamin would once again be reprising the role for a "specific storyline" and Lisa returned on 2 September 2019. She departed once again on 24 January 2020. On 23 May 2023, it was announced that Benjamin had signed up to reprise the role for another short stint later in the summer, alongside Lisa's granddaughter Peggy Taylor. They returned on 10 July and departed on 20 July 2023.
Lisa is characterised as "a loyal, romantic Earth Mother" who is "feisty, independent and ambitious". Initially, show scriptwriters and BBC controller of drama, Mal Young, doubted Benjamin's casting in the role. However, after a volatile relationship with Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden), Lisa became an "eternal victim". The characters became instrumental in one of EastEnders most highly publicised and anticipated storylines, dubbed Who Shot Phil? in 2001, in which an unknown assailant guns down Phil. An estimated 22 million viewers watched Lisa confess to Phil's attempted murder, causing the third-largest power surge on record. Other storylines included Lisa's pregnancy with Phil's child, in which she opted not to tell him and claimed that her partner, Mark Fowler (Todd Carty), was the father, giving birth to Louise Mitchell (Rachel Cox/Brittany Papple/Tilly Keeper); in the show's Christmas 2001 episodes, Louise's parentage is revealed. In Lisa's returns, the storylines have centred around her daughter Louise's pregnancy, falling out with and coping with best friend Mel Owen's (Tamzin Outhwaite) death, a feud with Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean) and partially making amends with Phil.
Storylines
1998–2010
Lisa Shaw first appeared in Albert Square as a trainee market inspector, but clashes with her boss Michael Rose (Russell Floyd) because of her poor time-keeping. However, she starts to fall for him, and the pair strike up an affair. Lisa soon begins to feel guilty, and demands that Michael chooses between her and his wife Susan (Tilly Vosburgh). Michael initially chooses Lisa, but does not tell Susan, and Lisa threatens to tell her. To escape the breakdown of his marriage, he flees Walford with Susan in February 1999, leaving heartbroken Lisa behind.
She later makes friends with Mel Healy (Tamzin Outhwaite) and moves in with Mark Fowler (Todd Carty). Although Mark has feelings for her, Lisa does not notice, having a fling with Gianni di Marco (Marc Bannerman) and a relationship with Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden), resulting in Lisa's pregnancy. Phil asks her to have an abortion, but she refuses, so he asks her to move in after coming round to the idea, but she miscarries, and blames Phil. Lisa loses her job when Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) reports her for being absent, so she becomes dependent on Phil. He is happy with the situation, but she loses her confidence and becomes jealous of Phil's former wife, Kathy Mitchell (Gillian Taylforth) and son Ben (Morgan Whittle), hiding letters and a video from them. This irritates Phil, and he has sex with Mel when she is upset, following a fight with Lisa on Christmas Day. Regretting this, Mel agrees not to tell Lisa, but does so when Lisa says she intends to get pregnant again. Devastated, Lisa ends her relationship with Phil and moves in with Mark, but she is already pregnant. She keeps this secret, as Phil keeps belittling her, and on Mel and Steve Owen's (Martin Kemp) wedding night, Phil says that he never loved her, and suggests Mel give her tips in the bedroom. In revenge, Lisa steals a gun from the e20 nightclub and shoots Phil. He survives, and confronts her after leaving hospital, but realises that he drove her to it, and frames his enemy Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass) instead. Wanting to keep Phil away from her child, Lisa and Mark marry, claiming that he is the baby's father. Everyone believes it, and their romance becomes real. However, Lisa gives birth to her baby, named Louise, and Lisa tells Sharon Watts (Letitia Dean) that Phil is Louise's father. Sharon, however, tells Phil that Louise is his daughter, and he forces them to accept he will be part of Louise's life. Despite initial animosity, when Lisa sees Phil with Louise, old feelings resurface, and they eventually reconcile. Following an affair, Lisa leaves Mark, and goes to live with Phil.
However, Phil wants Louise, not Lisa, and when she realises this, she and Louise emigrate to Portugal. Phil finds Lisa, and brings Louise home after blackmailing Lisa about shooting him, making her think that she is unstable and an unfit mother. Phil leaves her standing on the edge of a cliff, and she is presumed dead. On Phil's wedding day to Kate Morton (Jill Halfpenny), Lisa returns to reclaim her daughter. He is difficult, leading her to plan to shoot him again, but Den Watts (Leslie Grantham) persuades her to let him do it. He and his son, Dennis Rickman (Nigel Harman), frame Phil for armed robbery, and Lisa gains custody when he is imprisoned. She leaves the Square with Louise.
Several years later, Jack Branning (Scott Maslen), a former policeman, tells Phil that Lisa and Louise are living in South East London. After seeing Louise call another man "daddy", Phil decides that she is better off with Lisa. Two years later, Louise arrives alone in Walford, saying that Lisa has gone on holiday but not returned. Louise is taken into care, but when Phil discovers this, he has a DNA test to prove Louise is his daughter, and gains custody of her.
Later that year, Phil is visited by a social worker, Derek Evans (Simon Lowe), who says that Lisa has made an application to see Louise. Phil does not want Lisa to have contact with Louise, but Phil's mother Peggy Mitchell (Barbara Windsor) takes her to see Lisa on Louise's request. Peggy slaps Lisa for abandoning her daughter, and Lisa reveals she had a breakdown and thought Louise might be better off without her, but the neighbour she left Louise with promised to look after her. Lisa worries that Phil might hurt Louise physically after Phil has hit Peggy, who is unable to assure Lisa that this will not happen.
Peggy allows Louise to stay with Lisa permanently, as long as Phil can visit her. Phil steals the social worker's bag to get Lisa's address, and drives there to confront her, but finds the house abandoned and empty.
2017–2023
Seven years later, Louise (now Tilly Keeper) is burnt by bullies Madison Drake (Seraphina Beh) and Alexandra D'Costa (Sydney Craven), and Lisa visits her in hospital. Lisa and Sharon argue, but Sharon allows Lisa to stay. She tells Sharon that Louise wanted to live with Phil when she got a new boyfriend, which she admits was a relief. Lisa tells Phil she has had help with her life and has changed, but he ejects her from the hospital, telling her to stay away from Louise. She then stands up to Phil, and he allows her to visit Louise. Lisa then starts talking strangely. She sees her therapist, and lies that she has been doing fun things with Louise.
Lisa takes the keys to Phil's house and lets herself in, talking to and smashing photos, but cuts herself on glass. A doctor allows Lisa to take Louise outside of the hospital, but Lisa tells Louise she has been discharged, and takes her to a train station. Phil and Sharon inform the police that Louise is missing, and they trace Lisa through a cash withdrawal. Phil then discovers that Lisa has a mental health team. Lisa takes Louise to a hotel, and prevents her from using the phone by cutting the cord, despite her being in agony. Louise realises that Lisa is not taking her medication. When Lisa allows Louise to go, she chooses to stay, and comforts Lisa when she is distressed.
Phil tracks them down, but Lisa hits him over the head with a phone, while Louise passes out. Sharon realises that Lisa's problems are all Phil's fault, and Lisa tells Louise they will go to the hospital together. Later, Louise blames herself for Lisa's condition, telling Phil she left her despite knowing she was ill.
In August 2019, a heavily pregnant Louise and her fiancé Keanu Taylor (Danny Walters) flee Walford after Phil's son Ben frames Keanu for attacking Phil, when the real culprit was Stacey Slater (Lacey Turner). Ben convinces Mel to give him Lisa's address, and Mel lies to Ben about Lisa's whereabouts; although Mel eventually reveals her location, Lisa is not found.
Lisa returns in September 2019 to seek Mel's help to get Keanu out of the country. Lisa suggests that she, Louise, Mel, Keanu and Mel's son Hunter Owen (Charlie Winter) flee together, but Hunter escapes and holds The Queen Vic hostage. Hunter takes Louise, threatening to shoot her if the police do not give into his demands, but he is later shot and killed by a marksman.
Phil asks Louise and Keanu to move back in with him, which upsets Lisa, as she had planned for her and Louise to live together. A concerned Lisa, recognising the signs, tries to support Louise's best friend Bex Fowler (Jasmine Armfield), advising her that she does not have to go to Oxford University if she does not want to, but Bex ignores her, pretending she is fine; Bex later overdoses, but eventually recovers.
Lisa and Mel fall out over Sharon, and also over Mel's increasing obsession with Louise's pregnancy. However, when Mel is killed, Lisa is devastated and, genuinely believing Sharon killed Mel, she exposes to Phil the truth she learned from a vengeful Mel that Phil is not Sharon's baby's father. Lisa later begins a feud with Sharon, and on the day of Mel's funeral, she bans the Mitchells from attending, and reveals to the whole pub that Sharon's baby is not Phil's.
After the square thinks Lisa is mentally ill again, she checks herself into a unit for a break. However, Sharon reveals to Lisa that Keanu is the father as Louise gives birth. Upon hearing this, Lisa leaves the unit, with the intention of telling Phil. Once Lisa sees them as a family, she decides not to tell Phil and Louise, but makes sure that Keanu never hurts Louise, stating that if he does, she will reveal everything. The birth of their granddaughter, Peggy Taylor, brings Lisa and Phil together, and they make amends.
Phil, however, becomes suspicious, and starts to believe Lisa. Mistakenly thinking Phil arranged Keanu's "murder", Lisa, Louise, Peggy and Phil flee to Portugal. In August 2021, Phil receives a call from Louise saying that Lisa was involved in a car accident in France, after a male driver drove into the back of her. Phil goes to care for Louise and Peggy while Lisa recovers.
In July 2023, Lisa returns to Walford with Peggy, having become her legal guardian due to Louise's "uncontrollable behaviour" as a result of Keanu's affair with Sharon. She refuses to let Keanu see Peggy unless he gives her large amounts of money for maintenance; these demands continue, and after various arguments with Phil and his fiancée Kat Slater (Jessie Wallace), it is then discovered that Lisa has been lying about Louise, and has been using the money to fund a gambling addiction. Keanu then breaks into Phil's safe and steals money from him to hand over to Lisa.
Phil discovers his money is missing and assumes it was Lisa. Kat calls the police; Lisa is arrested and held for questioning. Before Lisa is released, Keanu confesses to Phil that it was him who stole the money because Lisa was blackmailing him. Sharon discovers Lisa has a gambling problem, and tells Phil. Phil then refuses to hand over Peggy until Lisa gets her act together. A destitute Lisa is found sleeping on the square bench by Sharon, who invites her to stay with her for a couple of nights.
Sharon and Keanu have a row over these arrangements; Keanu then sees Lisa's bag, and hides her and Peggy's passports so that they will miss the flight back to Portugal the following day. Lisa searches Sharon's house, and furiously accuses Keanu of sabotage. With the help of Sharon and Martin Fowler (James Bye), Lisa finds the passports, and secretly orders a taxi to the airport. Keanu then realises Lisa is leaving with Peggy, and chases after the taxi, desperately watching on as Lisa departs with Peggy for Portugal.
Creation and development
Casting
The character's arrival was announced by the press in November 1998. She was one of Executive Producer Matthew Robinson's introductions, and was described as a "home-wrecking blonde". According to actress Lucy Benjamin, who played Lisa, the scriptwriters had doubts about casting her in the role: "I just knew in my heart that I'd be able to do it well. And I desperately wanted the security of a regular income. But after the audition they kept me hanging on for such a long time. They tortured me by saying yes then saying no. It's the only job I've ever cried about when I thought I didn't have it." Benjamin said that she was overjoyed when she was eventually given the part. In 2010, Matthew Robinson discussed Lisa's introduction with Walford Web, suggesting that Lisa and several other new characters introduced were an attempt to fill in character gaps in the soap resulting from a large number of axings. Lisa was conceptualised as a "totty" contingent. He indicated that the casting of Benjamin had been awkward, as BBC controller of drama Mal Young was hesitant about her hiring. He eventually relented and, according to Robinson, admitted after seeing her in the role that "she was, after all, a great asset to the show".
Personality
Prior to the 2000s, Lucy Benjamin described Lisa Shaw, as "feisty, independent and ambitious". Later, she described her as "a loyal, romantic Earth Mother". It was revealed through dialogue on-screen that Lisa had nursed her mother through terminal cancer, and that she had not lost her virginity until the age of 28, when she came to Walford.
The character's demeanour altered somewhat circa 2000. Due to her romantic pairing with Phil Mitchell, she became "mentally battered". Rupert Smith, author of EastEnders: 20 years in Albert Square, classified the character as an "eternal victim": one who endures misfortune and misery, and is an endless sufferer. He adds, "She was intelligent, beautiful and young — and so, of course, Lisa had to lie down and let men walk all over her [...] a snivelling, suicidal wreck." Benjamin has noted that her character was "constantly crying".
Relationship with Phil Mitchell
Lisa became more prominently featured in 1999, when she was paired romantically with Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden). The relationship was scripted as problematic, and included storylines about miscarriage, emotional and mental abuse, and infidelity, when Phil slept with Lisa's best friend, Mel Healy, (Tamzin Outhwaite).
One of EastEnders''' most highly anticipated storylines involved the couple. "Who Shot Phil?" saw Phil Mitchell gunned down outside his home in March 2001 in a Dallas-style whodunnit mystery. Various key characters were in the frame for the deed, and viewers were left guessing for weeks as to which one was the real culprit. Several outcomes were allegedly filmed, and it was reported that only a few TV executives knew the identity of the would-be assassin; even the actors were kept in the dark. A spokesman commented, "The cast are only getting their own scripts. They are not being told anyone else's storylines. Not even Phil knows who shot him. It's top secret." Scriptwriters were reportedly given private security after a writer's laptop was stolen, in what was believed to be an attempt to gain the identity of the assailant. The storyline captivated the public's imagination, leading to thousands of bets being placed at the bookies across the UK: bookmaker William Hill said there was about 50,000 bets on who was responsible for the shooting.
An estimated 22 million viewers watched EastEnders on 5 April 2001 to find out that Lisa – Phil's spurned ex-girlfriend – was the culprit. The episode caused the third-largest power surge on record, and the Liverpool and Barcelona UEFA Cup semi-final was postponed for 15 minutes to accommodate a special 40-minute edition of the soap.
Lucy Benjamin told the Daily Star that keeping the secret that her character was responsible for the attempted murder had been the "worst two months of her life". She commented to The Mirror, "For two months I've carried this secret and it's been tough, really hard. I've had to lie to my colleagues — all the suspects were told to say it wasn't us. I've become very good at lying! The lies went on and on. The first person I told that it wasn't me was Todd Carty, who plays Mark [Fowler]. I thought he was a good chap to try my lies on to see if he believed it! And he did. I was delighted that it was me. I think Lisa had every reason to do it". At the time, Benjamin expressed fear that the high-profile storyline would spell the end of her character, who she had thought would be imprisoned. However, in a further plot twist, Phil framed Dan Sullivan (Craig Fairbrass) for the shooting. Subsequent storylines involved in Lisa and Phil's narratives surrounded Lisa's pregnancy. In the storyline, Lisa, secretly expecting Phil's baby, married Mark, and claimed the baby was his. This secret was revealed in the Christmas Day 2001 episodes.
Departure (2002)
In June 2002, Lucy Benjamin was axed from her role of Lisa, whose departing storyline revolved around the rekindling of her romance with Phil. After beginning an affair, she left Mark, taking her daughter to live with the Mitchells. However, Lisa realised she had made a mistake when Phil and his family began excluding her from her daughter's life; she absconded with the baby in October 2002. In a subsequent plot, Phil retrieved his daughter off-screen, chasing Lisa to Portugal, and returning with Lisa and Louise's passport.
Guest stints (2003–2017)
In January 2003, the BBC announced that Lucy Benjamin would reprise the role of Lisa for a special set of episodes that revealed Lisa's fate in flashbacks. The episodes were filmed on-location in and around Albufeira on the Portuguese Algarve. It was claimed that several endings to the episodes had been filmed, and that the outcome was a "closely guarded secret". Despite initial claims that Lisa would be killed off in the episodes, this did not occur; instead, Lisa gave Phil custody of Louise after he convinced her she was unstable, and threatened to tell the police that she had once shot him if she returned to England.
However, in June 2003, it was confirmed that Lisa would once again be returning to the serial. Benjamin said, "I couldn't believe it when I got the call a few months ago to ask if I would return to Walford. I didn't think Lisa would give up baby Lou without one last fight." The return storyline was temporary, allowing Lisa to usurp Phil and once again take custody of her daughter, with the help of Den Watts (Leslie Grantham). The character then disappeared, exiting in November 2003.
Following this exit, numerous press reports suggested that the character would be returning to the serial again; these turned out to be false, with an EastEnders spokesperson saying in 2006 and 2007 that there were no current plans to bring the character back.
When asked if she would return in 2004, Benjamin said, "I loved Lisa. She was a great character and I loved playing all those story lines. It was a wonderful opportunity for me but all that angst and that drama can sometimes get to you. She hasn't been killed off. Loads of characters are revived and brought back but I don't know if it's something I'd want to do again at the moment. It still feels like only yesterday I was there and it's good to kind of recharge your batteries and get out there and do other things. But I love the show and I'd never say never! And I liked playing Lisa. I thought she was a great character so you just don't know."
In April 2010, it was reported that Lisa would return for a single episode later in the year in a bid to retrieve Louise from Phil, who gained custody of her earlier in the year. Benjamin said of her return: "I'm really looking forward to returning to EastEnders for this episode. It will be great to see some familiar faces and work alongside old friends again." Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood commented, "Lucy's character Lisa was responsible for one of the biggest cliffhanger episodes in EastEnders, so it's a real treat to have her back on screen," while a spokesperson for the show added, "Lisa Fowler was a major part of Phil's life – she knows him as well as anyone, so she won't be happy about him looking after his daughter. With their history, you know that this storyline is going to be an explosive episode in the Mitchells' history." The episode was broadcast on 5 August 2010.
Discussing her brief return, Benjamin said, "What I liked about doing this storyline was that it did explain where Lisa had been. When I was watching it, I was thinking 'Where's her mother? Where is Lisa? It's just ridiculous'. But it does make sense. She is mentally unstable and she does have times like that and the little girl is old enough to make her own decisions and say, 'I want to live with my dad now'. So she had to let her go. I liked that I was able to come back and defend myself because Lisa was kind of being slaughtered in the Square for being a rubbish mum!"
It was reported on 20 July 2017 that Benjamin had reprised the role for a "surprise" appearance; she was expected to be on screen until August. Lisa returns to care for Louise after she is seriously injured, arriving at the hospital in the closing moments of the episode. Steve McFadden (Phil) also returned to the serial in the episodes following Lisa's return, and a show insider commented, "When that hospital door starts to open, [the audience will] be on tenterhooks to see who has rushed to help Louise. When it turns out to be Lisa, rather than Phil, there will be gasps of shock. It's such a brilliant surprise." The show made no official confirmation of the reports, although Lisa returned in the episode broadcast in the United Kingdom on 21 July 2017.
It was subsequently confirmed that Lisa would be returning for a "brief stint", and would share scenes with Phil, following his return. On her return, Benjamin commented, "It was great to be back at EastEnders as it has been such a long time since I had been there. I loved being back in Elstree for the few weeks I was there, seeing old friends again and working with really talented people. I loved every minute of it."
Benjamin's agent was approached by the show with a potential return for Lisa, which intrigued Benjamin, who had reservations about returning, as she felt the character was "a chapter that was closed". Benjamin was later contacted personally by Liza Mellody, the show's story producer, who explained a possible storyline that appealed to Benjamin. She found the storyline "too good an offer to refuse" and agreed to the return, safe in the knowledge that "it was absolutely worth coming back for".
The actress struggled to keep her return a secret, and only informed her mother and husband. She called the secret "all very cloak and dagger" at the studios, and revealed that she was told to enter through a separate entrance and wear oversized sunglasses. On show scripts, Lisa's lines were listed under the character 'Sam' and, whenever Benjamin was filming, monitors that relay what is being filmed to sets are switched off.
Benjamin felt "a little apprehensive" on her first day back filming with the serial, but settled back in after 20 minutes, and enjoyed working with McFadden, Letitia Dean (Sharon Mitchell), Natalie Cassidy (Sonia Fowler), and Dean Gaffney (Robbie Jackson) again, which she compared to "being with old friends". Benjamin teased "great" scenes between Lisa and Sharon, Phil and Sonia, opining that it is "reminiscent of historical stuff". The actress also stated that she missed the workload associated with filming the serial and commented, "It was great to get my teeth back into doing what I do, really." Benjamin developed "a really lovely connection" with Tilly Keeper, who portrays Louise Mitchell, and found her "marvellous" to work with, calling her a "professional". They had never met before working together on EastEnders. The actress hoped her return has "a great impact" as she felt a "sense of responsibility" with portraying the storyline. She called the storyline dramatic and explained, "you'll see a lot of old Lisa being played out".
Benjamin explained the reasons for Lisa's return, saying she is back because Sonia contacted her, who "feels Louise needs her [Lisa] to be there" and Louise asks for Lisa in "a state of upset", where "she's a bit delirious". This allows Lisa the "choice about whether or not she wants to be involved." It was reported that Lisa would not get "a great reception", believing that Lisa has "been a bad mum", but Benjamin defended Lisa "not being there for Louise" as she "hasn't been informed about what's going on [...] and if things were going terribly wrong she'd know about it." Lisa has been absent from Louise's life due to "her own personal issues" and Lisa "thinks it's in Louise's best interest to have stayed away." Sharon will not "be particularly keen to see her for her own reasons", and Lisa staying away is seen as the best for Phil and his side of the family.
Benjamin said when it comes to Lisa and Phil, "there's always going to be drama [...] there's going to be fireworks" as Phil "isn't Lisa's favourite person" and "in true Lisa and Phil fashion, it will be quite explosive." Lisa sees Phil as the person that "triggers episodes of things going wrong for her" and the one who has "caused all of the problems going on her life", caused by him taking Louise away from her, which leads to her wariness around him, as she knows "what he's capable of doing." Benjamin believes Lisa and Phil will never "be the best of friends or see eye-to-eye", but Louise should be the person they put first and be adults for. Lisa sees Sharon as "the right woman for Phil" and regards her as "lovely", so she needs Sharon as an "ally" in order to help her relationship with Louise, but knows Sharon is "no fool", who "will stand her ground."
Benjamin added that Lisa "feels very guilty" about leaving Louise, and being excluded from her life, but her "driving force is her unconditional love for her child"; she has "hard times ahead with Louise, explaining why she hasn't been there. I think she just hopes her daughter will need her and see she's better off having her mum in her life."
Reintroduction (2019)
On 27 May 2019, it was announced that Benjamin would once again be reprising the role for a longer stint. Lisa, who was last seen in 2017, would be returning after discovering that her daughter Louise is pregnant. The friendship between Lisa and Mel Owen (Tamzin Outhwaite) would also be revisited, a friendship that was prominent during their original tenure in the soap.
On returning to the soap, Benjamin said: "Going back to EastEnders feels like going home. I love and adore playing Lisa, and am looking forward to seeing what's in store for her this time." The show's executive producer Jon Sen added: "Lisa is one of the most enduringly popular characters in the history of the show. We're chuffed Lucy has agreed to come back for a thrilling storyline that takes us into the heart of her past on the Square."
Departure (2020)
Benjamin confirmed during an interview on This Morning on 8 January 2020 that she had filmed her final scenes as Lisa, but was always "open for a return". In the interview, she also said that there would be no reunion between Lisa and Phil.
On Lisa's departure storyline, Benjamin said: "All Lisa knows is Keanu is the father of Sharon's baby and he's left the Square. That is all still to play out, the fact Lisa finds out more sinister things have happened to Keanu". Speaking about whether the door had been left open, Benjamin confessed: "I don't even know if I can talk about that. I knew I was going back for a stint and I've completed that stint." Benjamin commented, "It's so difficult. Lisa doesn't seem to go away, she's the bad penny."
Benjamin also said that she had enjoyed working with Tamzin Outhwaite, who played her on-screen best friend Mel Owen, once again. She said: "When Jon Sen put the call into me and said this is the storyline I said fantastic I get to work with Tamzin again and being with my mate was a glorious thing to get involved in. It was a massive storyline. A really big deal and done really well. Up until Mel died we had a great time exploring those characters and the dynamics between them. We got people who had never witnessed Mel and Lisa together seeing them for the first time."
Reception
In 2002, a survey done by Whitaker's revealed that 11% of British people questioned could not name a single world leader, but nearly half could list five characters in EastEnders. Most named was Phil Mitchell (44%), followed by Mark Fowler (40%), Pauline Fowler (30%), Peggy Mitchell (28%) and Lisa Fowler (24%).Daily Mirror television critic Ian Hyland has described Lisa as miserable, suggesting in 2002 that she was "red-hot favourite to take over [Pauline Fowler's] misery mantle." Jamie McCallum from The Guardian'' mocked the character and her relationship with Phil in 2000, stating, "We should, however, pay tribute to Lisa. This was the latest in a string of gripping dilemmas, including Should I Date Phil?, Should I Shag Phil? and Should I Give Birth to a Descendant of Phil? For one who spends so much time deliberating, that girl makes a lot of duff decisions."
See also
List of EastEnders characters (1998)
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Television characters introduced in 1998
British female characters in television
Fictional characters with psychiatric disorders
Fictional victims of domestic abuse
Fictional kidnappers
Fictional criminals in soap operas
Beale family (EastEnders)
Fictional gamblers
Fictional blackmailers |
4221261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian%20exodus | Istrian–Dalmatian exodus | The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus (; ; ) was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians from Yugoslavia. The emigrants, who had lived in the now Yugoslav territories of the Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, largely went to Italy, but some joined the Italian diaspora in the Americas, Australia and South Africa. These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. After World War I, the Kingdom of Italy annexed Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March and parts of Dalmatia including the city of Zadar. At the end of World War II, under the Allies' Treaty of Peace with Italy, the former Italian territories in Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March and Dalmatia were assigned to the nation of Yugoslavia, except for the Province of Trieste. The former territories absorbed into Yugoslavia are part of present-day Croatia and Slovenia.
According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict. The exodus started in 1943 and ended completely only in 1960. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).
Hundreds up to tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed during World War II by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA during the first years of the exodus, in what became known as the foibe massacres. From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration.
Overview of the exodus
A Romance-speaking population has existed in Istria since the fall of the Roman Empire, when Istria was fully Latinised. The coastal cities especially had Italian populations, connected to other areas through trade, but the interior was mostly Slavic, especially Croatian.
Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population for centuries, while making up about a third of the population in 1900. According to the 1910 Austrian census, out of 404,309 inhabitants in Istria, 168,116 (41.6%) spoke Croatian, 147,416 (36.5%) spoke Italian, 55,365 (13.7%) spoke Slovene, 13,279 (3.3%) spoke German, 882 (0.2%) spoke Romanian, 2,116 (0.5%) spoke other languages and 17,135 (4.2%) were non-citizens, who had not been asked for their language of communication. (Istria at the time included parts of the Karst and Liburnia). So, in the peninsula of Istria before World War I, local ethnic Italians accounted for about a third (36.5%) of the local inhabitants. Furthermore, the nearly complete disappearance of the Dalmatian Italians (there were 92,500 or nearly 33% of the total Dalmatian population in 1803, while now there are only 300) has been related to democide and ethnic cleansing by scholars like R. J. Rummel.
A new wave of Italians, who were not part of the indigenous Venetian-speaking Istrians, arrived between 1918 and 1943. At the time, Primorska and Istria, Rijeka, part of Dalmatia, and the islands of Cres, Lastovo, and Palagruža (and, from 1941 to 1943, Krk) were considered part of Italy. The Kingdom of Italy's 1936 census indicated approximately 230,000 people who listed Italian as their language of communication in what is now the territory of Slovenia and Croatia, then part of the Italian state (ca. 194,000 in today's Croatia and ca. 36,000 in today's Slovenia).
From the end of World War II until 1953, according to various data, between 250,000 and 350,000 people emigrated from these regions. Since the Italian population before World War II numbered 225,000 (150,000 in Istria and the rest in Fiume/Rijeka and Dalmatia), the remainder must have been Slovenes and Croats, if the total was 350,000. According to Matjaž Klemenčič, one-third were Slovenes and Croats who opposed the Communist government in Yugoslavia, but this is disputed. Two-thirds were local ethnic Italians, emigrants who were living permanently in this region on 10 June 1940 and who expressed their wish to obtain Italian citizenship and emigrate to Italy. In Yugoslavia they were called optanti (opting ones) and in Italy were known as esuli (exiles). The emigration of Italians reduced the total population of the region and altered its historical ethnic structure.
In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just 16% of the 225,000 Italians before World War II.
History
Early history
Via conquests, the Republic of Venice, between the 9th century and 1797, extended its dominion to coastal parts of Istria and Dalmatia. Thus Venice invaded and attacked Zadar multiple times, especially devastating the city in 1202 when Venice used the crusaders, on their Fourth Crusade, to lay siege, then ransack, demolish and rob the city, the population fleeing into countryside. Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders for attacking a Catholic city. The Venetians used the same Crusade to attack the Dubrovnik Republic, and force it to pay tribute, then continued to sack Christian Orthodox Constantinople where they looted, terrorized, and vandalized the city, killing 2.000 civilians, raping nuns and destroying Christian Churches, with Venice receiving a big portion of the plundered treasures.
The coastal areas and cities of Istria came under Venetian Influence in the 9th century. In 1145, the cities of Pula, Koper and Izola rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice. On 15 February 1267, Poreč was formally incorporated with the Venetian state. Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter. The Republic of Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula. Dalmatia was first and finally sold to the Republic of Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia wasn't fully consolidated from 1420.
From the Middle Ages onwards numbers of Slavic people near and on the Adriatic coast were ever increasing, due to their expanding population and due to pressure from the Ottomans pushing them from the south and east. This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while the countryside was populated by Slavs, with certain isolated exceptions. In particular, the population was divided into urban-coastal communities (mainly Romance speakers) and rural communities (mainly Slavic speakers), with small minorities of Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.
Republic of Venice influenced the neolatins of Istria and Dalmatia until 1797, when it was conquered by Napoleon: Capodistria and Pola were important centers of art and culture during the Italian Renaissance. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria and Dalmatia had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "Istrians" and "Dalmatians", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.
Austrian Empire
After the fall of Napoleon (1814), Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the Austrian Empire. Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Julian March, Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia.
During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:
Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries, while making up about a third of the population in 1900. Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803, but this was reduced to 20% in 1816. According to Austrian census, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865. In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers. For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia, (i.e. Dalmatia), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers. In 1909 the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only (previously both languages were recognized): thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.
World War I and post-War period
In 1915, Italy abrogated its alliance and declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire, leading to bloody conflict mainly on the Isonzo and Piave fronts. Britain, France and Russia had been "keen to bring neutral Italy into World War I on their side. However, Italy drove a hard bargain, demanding extensive territorial concessions once the war had been won".
In a deal to bring Italy into the war, under the London Pact, Italy would be allowed to annex not only Italian-speaking Trentino and Trieste, but also German-speaking South Tyrol, Istria (which included large non-Italian communities), and the northern part of Dalmatia including the areas of Zadar (Zara) and Šibenik (Sebenico). Mainly Italian Fiume (present-day Rijeka) was excluded.
After the war, the Treaty of Rapallo between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy (12 November 1920), Italy annexed Zadar in Dalmatia and some minor islands, almost all of Istria along with Trieste, excluding the island of Krk, and part of Kastav commune, which mostly went to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By the Treaty of Rome (27 January 1924), the Free State of Fiume (Rijeka) was divided between Italy and Yugoslavia.
Between 31 December 1910, and 1 December 1921, Istria lost 15.1% of its population. The last survey under the Austrian empire recorded 404,309 inhabitants, which dropped to 343,401 by the first Italian census after the war. While the decrease was certainly related to World War I and the changes in political administration, emigration also was a major factor. In the immediate post World War I period, Istria saw an intense migration outflow. Pula, for example, was badly affected by the drastic dismantling of its massive Austrian military and bureaucratic apparatus of more than 20,000 soldiers and security forces, as well as the dismissal of the employees from its naval shipyard. A serious economic crisis in the rest of Italy forced thousands of Croat peasants to move to Yugoslavia, which became the main destination of the Istrian exodus.
Due to a lack of reliable statistics, the true magnitude of Istrian emigration during that period cannot be assessed accurately. Estimates provided by varying sources with different research methods show that about 30,000 Istrians migrated between 1918 and 1921.
Most of them were Austrians, Hungarians and Slavic citizens who used to work for the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Slavs under Italian Fascist rule
After World War I, under the Treaty of Rapallo between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy (12 November 1920), Italy obtained almost all of Istria with Trieste, the exception being the island of Krk and part of Kastav commune, which went to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By the Treaty of Rome (27 January 1924) Italy took Rijeka as well, which had been planned to become an independent state.
In these areas, there was a forced policy of Italianization of the population in the 1920s and 1930s. In addition, there were acts of fascist violence not hampered by the authorities, such as the torching of the Narodni dom (National House) in Pula and Trieste carried out at night by Fascists with the connivance of the police (13 July 1920). The situation deteriorated further after the annexation of the Julian March, especially after Benito Mussolini came to power (1922). In March 1923 the prefect of the Julian March prohibited the use of Croatian and Slovene in the administration, whilst their use in law courts was forbidden by Royal decree on 15 October 1925.
The activities of Croatian and Slovenian societies and associations (Sokol, reading rooms, etc.) had already been forbidden during the occupation, but specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926). All Slovenian and Croatian societies and sporting and cultural associations had to cease every activity in line with a decision of provincial fascist secretaries dated 12 June 1927. On a specific order from the prefect of Trieste on 19 November 1928 the Edinost political society was also dissolved. Croatian and Slovenian co-operatives in Istria, which at first were absorbed by the Pula or Trieste Savings Banks, were gradually liquidated.
At the same time, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia attempted a policy of forced Croatisation against the Italian minority in Dalmatia.
The majority of the Italian Dalmatian minority decided to transfer in the Kingdom of Italy.
World War II
Following the Wehrmacht invasion of Yugoslavia (6 April 1941), the Italian zone of occupation was further expanded. Italy annexed large areas of Croatia (including most of coastal Dalmatia) and Slovenia (including its capital Ljubljana).
Helped by the Ustaše, a Croatian fascist movement animated by Catholicism and ultranationalism, the Italian occupation continued its repression of Partisan activities and the killing and imprisonment of thousands of Yugoslav civilians in concentration camps (such as the Rab concentration camp) in the newly annexed provinces. This increased the anti-Italian sentiments of the Slovenian and Croatian subjects of Fascist Italy.
During the Italian occupation until its capitulation in September 1943, the population was subjected to atrocities described by Italian historian Claudio Pavone as "aggressive and violent. Not so much an eye for an eye as a head for an eye"; atrocities were often carried out with the help of the Ustaše.
After World War II, there were large-scale movements of people choosing Italy rather than continuing to live in communist Yugoslavia. In Yugoslavia, the people who left were called optanti, which translates as 'choosers'; they call themselves esuli or exiles. Their motives included fear of reprisals, as well as economic and ethnic persecution.
Events of 1943
When the Fascist regime collapsed in 1943 reprisals against Italian fascists took place. Several hundred Italians were killed by Josip Broz Tito's resistance movement in September 1943; some had been connected to the fascist regime, while others were victims of personal hatred or the attempt of the Partisan resistance to get rid of its real or supposed enemies.
The Foibe massacres
Between 1943 and 1947, the exodus was bolstered by a wave of violence, known as the "Foibe massacres", mainly committed by OZNA and Yugoslav Partisans in Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), as well against anti-communists in general (even Croats and Slovenes), usually associated with Fascism, Nazism and collaboration with Axis, and against real, potential or presumed opponents of Tito communism. The type of attack was state terrorism, reprisal killings, and ethnic cleansing against Italians.
The mixed Italian-Slovenian Historical Commission, established in 1995 by the two governments to investigate these matters, described the circumstances of the 1945 killings:14. These events were triggered by the atmosphere of settling accounts with the fascists; but, as it seems, they mostly proceeded from a preliminary plan which included several tendencies: endeavors to remove persons and structures who were in one way or another (regardless of their personal responsibility) linked with Fascism, with the Nazi supremacy, with collaboration and with the Italian state, and endeavors to carry out preventive cleansing of real, potential or only alleged opponents of the communist regime, and the annexation of the Julian March to the new SFR Yugoslavia. The initial impulse was instigated by the revolutionary movement, which was changed into a political regime and transformed the charge of national and ideological intolerance between the partisans into violence at the national level.
The Yugoslav partisans intended to kill whoever could oppose or compromise the future annexation of Italian territories: as a preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Tito communism (Italian, Slovenian and Croatian anti-communists, collaborators and radical nationalists), the Yugoslav partisans also exterminated the native anti-fascist autonomists — including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, like Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull, who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia — for example in the city of Fiume, where at least 650 were killed after the entry of the Yugoslav units, without any due trial.
The term refers to the victims who were often thrown alive into foibas (deep natural sinkholes; by extension, it also was applied to the use of mine shafts, etc., to hide the bodies). In a wider or symbolic sense, some authors used the term to apply to all disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. They excluded possible 'foibe' killings by other parties or forces. Others included deaths resulting from the forced deportation of Italians, or those who died while trying to flee from these contested lands.
The estimated number of people killed in the foibe is disputed, varying from hundreds to thousands, according to some sources 11,000 or 20,000. The Italian historian, Raoul Pupo estimates 3,000 to 4,000 total victims, across all areas of former Yugoslavia and Italy from 1943 to 1945, with the primary target being military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators. He places the events in the broader context of "the collapse of a structure of power and oppression: that of the fascist state in 1943, that of the Nazi-fascist state of the Adriatic coast in 1945". The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus.
The exodus
Economic insecurity, ethnic hatred and the international political context that eventually led to the Iron Curtain resulted in up to 350,000 people, mostly Italians, choosing to leave Istria (and even Dalmatia and northern Julian March).
The exiles were to be given compensation for their loss of property and other indemnity by the Italian state under the terms of the peace treaties, but in the end did not receive anything. The exiles having fled intolerable conditions in their homeland on the promise of aid in the Italian homeland, were herded together in former concentration camps and prisons. Exiles also encountered hostility from those Italians who viewed them as taking away scarce food and jobs. Following the exodus, the areas were settled with Yugoslav people.
In a 1991 interview with the Italian magazine Panorama, prominent Yugoslav political dissident Milovan Đilas claimed to have been dispatched to Istria alongside Edvard Kardelj in 1946, to organize anti-Italian propaganda. He stated it was seen as "necessary to employ all kinds of pressure to persuade Italians to leave", due to their constituting a majority in urban areas. Although he was stripped of his offices in 1954, in 1946 Đilas was a high-ranking Yugoslav politician: a member of the Yugoslav Communist Party's Central Committee, in charge of its department of propaganda.
During the years 1946 and 1947 there was also a counter-exodus. In a gesture of comradeship hundreds of Italians Communists workers from the city of Monfalcone and Trieste, moved to Yugoslavia and more precisely to the shipyards of Rijeka taking the place of the departed Italians. They viewed the new Yugoslavia of Tito as the only place where the building of socialism was possible. They were soon bitterly disappointed. They were accused of deviationism by the Yugoslav Regime and some were deported to concentration camps.
The Italian bishop of the Catholic diocese of Poreč and Pula Raffaele Radossi was replaced by Slovene Mihovil Toroš on 2 July 1947. In September 1946 while Bishop Radossi was in Žbandaj officiating a confirmation local activists surrounded him in a Partisan kolo dance.
Bishop Radossi subsequently moved from the bishop's residence in Poreč to Pula, which was under a joint United Kingdom-United States Allied Administration at the time. He officiated his last confirmation in October 1946 in Filipana where he narrowly avoided an attack by a group of thugs. The Bishop of Rijeka, Ugo Camozzo, also left for Italy on 3 August 1947.
Periods of the exodus
The exodus took place between 1943 and 1960, with the main movements of population having place in the following years:
1943
1945
1947
1954
The first period took place after the surrender of the Italian army and the beginning of the first wave of anti-fascist violence.
The Wehrmacht was engaged in a front-wide retreat from the Yugoslav Partisans, along with the local collaborationist forces (the Ustaše, the Domobranci, the Chetniks, and units of Mussolini's Italian Social Republic).
The first city to see a massive departure of local ethnic Italians was Zadar. Between November 1943 and Zadar was bombed by the Allies, with serious civilian casualties (fatalities recorded range from under 1,000 to as many as 4,000 of over 20,000 city's inhabitants). Many died in carpet bombings. Many landmarks and centuries old works of art were destroyed. A significant number of civilians fled the city.
In late October 1944 the German army and most of the Italian civilian administration abandoned the city. On 31 October 1944, the Partisans seized the city, until then a part of Mussolini's Italian Social Republic. At the start of World War II, Zadar had a population of 24,000 and, by the end of 1944, this had decreased to 6,000. Formally, the city remained under Italian sovereignty until 15 September 1947 but by that date the exodus from the city had been already almost total (Paris Peace Treaties).
A second wave left at the end of the war with the beginning of killings, expropriation and other forms of pressure from the Yugoslavs authorities to establish control.
On 2–3 May 1945, Rijeka was occupied by vanguards of the Yugoslav Army. Here more than 500 collaborators, Italian military and public servants were summarily executed; the leaders of the local Autonomist Party, including Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull, were also murdered. By January 1946, more than 20,000 people had left the province.
After 1945, the departure of the local ethnic Italians was bolstered by events of less violent nature. According to the American historian Pamela Ballinger:After 1945 physical threats generally gave way to subtler forms of intimidation such as the nationalization and confiscation of properties, the interruption of transport services (by both land and sea) to the city of Trieste, the heavy taxation of salaries of those who worked in Zone A and lived in Zone B, the persecution of clergy and teachers, and economic hardship caused by the creation of a special border currency, the Jugolira.
The third part of the exodus took place after the Paris peace treaty, when Istria was assigned to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, except for a small area in the northwest part that formed the independent Free Territory of Trieste. The coastal city of Pula was the site of the large-scale exodus of its Italian population. Between December 1946 and September 1947, Pula almost completely emptied as its residents left all their possessions and "opted" for Italian citizenship. 28,000 of the city's population of 32,000 left. The evacuation of the residents has been organized by Italian civil and Allied military authorities in March 1947, in anticipation of the city's passage from the control of the Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories to the Yugoslav rule, scheduled for September 1947.
The fourth period took place after the Memorandum of Understanding in London. It gave provisional civil administration of Zone A (with Trieste), to Italy, and Zone B to Yugoslavia. Finally, in 1975 the Treaty of Osimo officially divided the former Free Territory of Trieste between Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Italian Republic.
Estimates of the exodus
Several estimates of the exodus by historians:
Vladimir Žerjavić (Croat), 191,421 Italian exiles from Croatian territory.
Nevenka Troha (Slovene), 40,000 Italian and 3,000 Slovene exiles from Slovenian territory.
Raoul Pupo (Italian), about 250,000 Italian exiles
Flaminio Rocchi (Italian), about 350,000 Italian exiles
The mixed Italian-Slovenian Historical Commission verified 27,000 Italian and 3,000 Slovene migrants from Slovenian territory. After decades of silence from the Yugoslav authorities (the history of the Istrian Exodus remained a tabooed topic in Yugoslav public discourse), Tito himself would declare in 1972 during a speech in Montenegro that three hundred thousands Istrians had left the peninsula after the war.
Famous exiles
Those whose families left Istria or Dalmatia in the post-World War II period include:
Alida Valli, film actress
Mario Andretti, racing driver
Lidia Bastianich, chef
Nino Benvenuti, boxer: three times professional world's champion and Olympic gold medalist
Enzo Bettiza, novelist, journalist and politician
Oretta Fiume, actress
Valentino Zeichen, poet and writer
Laura Antonelli, film actress, active 1965 to 1991
Sergio Endrigo, singer and songwriter
Antonio Blasevich, soccer player
Silvio Ballarin, scientist
Dino Ciani, pianist
Giovanni Cucelli, tennis player
Renzo de' Vidovich, politician and journalist
Aldo Duro, lexicographer
Wilma Goich, singer
Irma Gramatica, actress
Ezio Loik, soccer player
Ottavio Missoni, stylist
Anna Maria Mori, writer
Abdon Pamich, walker
Pier Antonio Quarantotti Gambini, writer
Nicolò Rode, sailor
Orlando Sirola, tennis player
Agostino Straulino, sailor
Leo Valiani, politician
Rodolfo Volk, soccer player
Legacy
Property reparation
On 18 February 1983 Yugoslavia and Italy signed a treaty in Rome where Yugoslavia agreed to pay US$110 million for the compensation of the exiles' property which was confiscated after the war in the Zone B of Free Territory of Trieste.
However, the issue of the property reparation is enormously complex and remains unresolved: as of 2022, the exiles have not yet received compensation. Indeed, there is very little probability that exiles out of the Zone B of the Free Territory of Trieste will ever be compensated. The matter of property compensation is included in the program of the Istrian Democratic Assembly, the regional party currently administrating the Istria County.
Minority rights in Yugoslavia
In connection with exodus and during the period of communist Yugoslavia (1945–1991), the equality of ethno-nations and national minorities and how to handle inter-ethnic relations was one of the key questions of Yugoslav internal politics. In November 1943, the federation of Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the second assembly of the Anti-Fascist Council of the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). The fourth paragraph of the proclamation stated that "Ethnic minorities in Yugoslavia shall be granted all national rights". These principles were codified in the 1946 and 1963 constitutions and reaffirmed again, in great detail, by the last federal constitution of 1974.
It declared that the nations and nationalities should have equal rights (Article 245). It further stated that "… each nationality has the sovereign right freely to use its own language and script, to foster its own culture, to set up organizations for this purpose, and to enjoy other constitutionally guaranteed rights…" (Article 274).
Day of Remembrance
In Italy, Law 92 of 30 March 2004 declared February 10 as a Day of Remembrance dedicated to the memory of the victims of Foibe and the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus. The same law created a special medal to be awarded to relatives of the victims:
Medal of Day of Remembrance to relatives of victims of foibe killings
Historical debate
There is not yet complete agreement amongst historians about the causes and the events triggering the Istrian exodus.
According to the historian Pertti Ahonen:
Motivations behind the emigration are complex. Fear caused by the initial post-war violence (summary killings, confiscations, pressure from the governmental authorities) was a factor. On the Yugoslav side, it does not appear that an official decision for expulsion of Italians in Yugoslavia was ever taken. The actions of the Yugoslav authorities were contradictory: on the one hand, there were efforts to stem the flow of emigrants, such as placement of bureaucratic hurdles for emigration and suppression of its local proponents. On the other hand, Italians were pressured to leave quickly and en masse.
Slovenian historian Darko Darovec writes:
It is clear, however, that at the peace conferences the new State borders were not being drawn using ideological criteria, but on the basis of national considerations. The ideological criteria were then used to convince the national minorities to line up with one or the other side. To this end socio-political organisations with high-sounding names were created, The most important of them being SIAU, the Slavic-Italian Anti-Fascist Union, which by the necessities of the political struggle mobilised the masses in the name of 'democracy'. Anyone who thought differently, or was nationally 'inconsistent', would be subjected to the so-called 'commissions of purification'. The first great success of such a policy in the national field was the massive exodus from Pula, following the coming into effect of the peace treaty with Italy (15 September 1947). Great ideological pressure was exerted also at the time of the clash with the Kominform which caused the emigration of numerous sympathisers of the CP, Italians and others, from Istra and from Zone B of the FTT (Free Territory of Trieste)
For the mixed Italian-Slovenian Historical Commission:
Since the first post-war days, some local activists, who wreaked their anger over the acts of the Istrian Fascists upon the Italian population, had made their intention clear to rid themselves of the Italians who revolted against the new authorities. However, expert findings to-date do not confirm the testimonies of some – although influential – Yugoslav personalities about the intentional expulsion of Italians. Such a plan can be deduced – on the basis of the conduct of the Yugoslav leadership – only after the break with the Informbiro in 1948, when the great majority of the Italian Communists in Zone B – despite the initial cooperation with the Yugoslav authorities, against which more and more reservations were expressed – declared themselves against Tito's Party. Therefore, the people's government abandoned the political orientation towards the "brotherhood of the Slavs and Italians", which within the framework of the Yugoslav socialist state allowed for the existence of the politically and socially purified Italian population that would respect the ideological orientation and the national policy of the regime. The Yugoslav side perceived the departure of Italians from their native land with growing satisfaction, and in its relation to the Italian national community the wavering in the negotiations on the fate of the FTT was more and more clearly reflected. Violence, which flared up again after the 1950 elections and the 1953 Trieste crisis, and the forceful expulsion of unwanted persons were accompanied by measures to close the borders between the two zones. The national composition of Zone B was also altered by the immigration of Yugoslavs to the previously more or less exclusively Italian cities.
The remaining Italians
According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). The number of speakers of Italian is larger if taking into account non-Italians who speak it as a second language.
In addition, since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, a significant portion of the population of Istria opted for a regional declaration in the census instead of a national one. As such, more people have Italian as a first language than those having declared Italian.
The number of people resident in Croatia declaring themselves Italian almost doubled between 1981 and 1991 censuses (i.e. before and after the dissolution of Yugoslavia). The daily newspaper La Voce del Popolo, the main newspaper for Italians of Croatia, is published in Rijeka/Fiume.
Official bilingualism
Italian is co-official with Slovene in four municipalities in the Slovenian portion of Istria: Piran (), Koper (), Izola () and Ankaran (). In many municipalities in the Croatian portion of Istria there are bilingual statutes, and the Italian language is considered to be a co-official language. The proposal to raise Italian to a co-official language, as in the Croatian portion of Istria, has been under discussion for years.
In various municipalities of Croatian Istria, census data shows that significant numbers of Italians still live in Istria, such as 51% of the population of Grožnjan/Grisignana, 37% at Brtonigla/Verteneglio, and nearly 30% in Buje/Buie. In the village there, it is an important section of the "Comunità degli Italiani" in Croatia. Italian is co-official with Croatian in nineteen municipalities in the Croatian portion of Istria: Buje (), Novigrad (), Izola (), Vodnjan (), Poreč (, Pula (, Rovinj (, Umag (, Bale (, Brtonigla (, Fažana (, Grožnjan (), Kaštelir-Labinci (), Ližnjan (), Motovun (), Oprtalj (), Višnjan (), Vižinada () and Vrsar ().
Education and Italian language
Slovenia
Beside Slovene language schools, there are also kindergartens, primary schools, lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools with Italian as the language of instruction in Koper/Capodistria, Izola/Isola and Piran/Pirano. At the state-owned University of Primorska, however, which is also established in the bilingual area, Slovene is the only language of instruction (although the official name of the university includes the Italian version, too).
Croatia
Beside Croat language schools, in Istria there are also kindergartens in Buje/Buie, Brtonigla/Verteneglio, Novigrad/Cittanova, Umag/Umago, Poreč/Parenzo, Vrsar/Orsera, Rovinj/Rovigno, Bale/Valle, Vodnjan/Dignano, Pula/Pola and Labin/Albona, as well as primary schools in Buje/Buie, Brtonigla/Verteneglio, Novigrad/Cittanova, Umag/Umago, Poreč/Parenzo, Vodnjan/Dignano, Rovinj/Rovigno, Bale/Valle and Pula/Pola, as well as lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools in Buje/Buie, Rovinj/Rovigno and Pula/Pola, all with Italian as the language of instruction.
The city of Rijeka/Fiume in the Kvarner/Carnaro region has Italian kindergartens and elementary schools, and there is an Italian Secondary School in Rijeka. The town of Mali Lošinj/Lussinpiccolo in the Kvarner/Carnaro region has an Italian kindergarten.
In Zadar, in Dalmatia/Dalmazia region, the local Community of Italians has requested the creation of an Italian asylum since 2009. After considerable government opposition, with the imposition of a national filter that imposed the obligation to possess Italian citizenship for registration, in the end in 2013 it was opened hosting the first 25 children. This kindergarten is the first Italian educational institution opened in Dalmatia after the closure of the last Italian school, which operated there until 1953.
Since 2017, a Croatian primary school has been offering the study of the Italian language as a foreign language. Italian courses have also been activated in a secondary school and at the faculty of literature and philosophy.
See also
Foibe massacres
National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe
Free Territory of Trieste
World War II in Yugoslavia
Italian Social Republic
Istria
Italian language in Croatia
Italian language in Slovenia
Dalmatia
Italianization
Croatisation
Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)
Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War
Niçard exodus
References
Bibliography
A Brief History of Istria by Darko Darovec
Raoul Pupo, Il lungo esodo. Istria: le persecuzioni, le foibe, l'esilio, Rizzoli, 2005. .
Raoul Pupo and Roberto Spazzali, Foibe, Mondadori, 2003. .
Guido Rumici, Infoibati, Mursia, Milano, 2002. .
Arrigo Petacco, L'esodo. La tragedia negata degli italiani d'Istria, Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia, Mondadori, Milano, 1999. English translation.
Marco Girardo, Sopravvissuti e dimenticati: il dramma delle foibe e l'esodo dei giuliano-dalmati. Paoline, 2006.
Further reading
Pamela Ballinger, "The Politics of the Past: Redefining Insecurity along the 'World's Most Open Border'"
Matjaž Klemenčič, "The Effects of the Dissolution of Yugoslavia on Minority Rights: the Italian Minority in Post-Yugoslav Slovenia and Croatia"
Site of an association of Italian exiles from Istria and Dalmatia
Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956 Report 2000
Relazioni Italo-Slovene 1880–1956 Relazione 2000
Slovensko-italijanski odnosi 1880–1956 Poročilo 2000
Italians mark war massacre
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Italians of Croatia
20th century in Croatia
Modern history of Italy
Contemporary history of Slovenia
Italy–Yugoslavia relations
History of Istria
Croatia–Italy relations
Italy–Slovenia relations
Post–World War II forced migrations
Anti-Italian sentiment
Aftermath of World War II in Yugoslavia |
4221322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraklis%20F.C.%20%28Thessaloniki%29 | Iraklis F.C. (Thessaloniki) | Iraklis F.C. () is a Greek professional football club based in the city of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece. As of 2021, the club competes in the Super League Greece 2. It plays its home matches at Kaftanzoglio Stadium.
Founded in 1908 as "Macedonikos Gymnasticos Syllogos" (Macedonian Gymnastics Club), they are one of the oldest in Greek football and the oldest in Thessaloniki, hence the nickname Ghireos (meaning the Elder). A year later, the name "Iraklis" (Heracles) was added to the club's name as an honour to the ancient Greek hero Heracles (or Hercules as the Roman equivalent). The team's colours are cyan or blue and white, inspired by the Greek flag. Iraklis is a founding member of Macedonia Football Clubs Association, as well as the Hellenic Football Federation, as a part of G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki.
Before the formation of the nationwide league of Alpha Ethniki, Iraklis competed in the league that was run by the Macedonia Football Clubs Association, winning it on no less than five occasions. The club has also played in five Greek Cup finals, lifting the trophy once in the 1976 final, which is the club's only domestic trophy. They have also an international title, as they won the Balkans Cup in 1985.
History
Foundation and first years (1899–1914)
Iraklis traced its roots back in 1899 when Omilos Filomouson (meaning Friends of Music Club) was established. The club was established as a cultural union of the Greeks of Thessaloniki, but in 1902 it founded a sports department. Football was a new sport at the time, but rapidly increasing in popularity and thus the board of directors decided to line up a football team. The first match that was held by the Omilos Filomouson football team was on 23 April 1905, against a team of the Western European diaspora of the city called Union Sportive. Omilos Filomouson won the match by a 3–0 scoreline.
Later on, the club faced financial problems, but members of the club joined forces with another Greek athletic club of the city, called Olympia. The result of this union was the foundation of a new club on 29 November 1908, called Makedonikos Gymnastikos Syllogos (meaning Macedonian Gymnastics Club), that gained a permission to operate by the Ottoman authorities. The new club's first president was a Greek doctor, Alkiviadis Maltos. The name of the club had a direct reference to the ethnic tensions that took place in the area at that time.
Due to the Young Turks' revolt of 1908 and their promises for ease of ethnic tensions in the area, the club was forced to change its name. Thus a new name was decided for the club, Ottomanikos Ellinikos Gymnastikos Syllogos Thessalonikis "Iraklis" (meaning Ottoman Greek Gymnastics Club of Thessaloniki "Iraklis"). The new name was approved, together with a new statute and a new board of directors, by a general assembly of the club on 13 April 1911. After the integration of Thessaloniki in the Kingdom of Greece, the operation of the club was accepted by the Greek courts in 1914 and on 11 January 1915 Iraklis became a fully registered sports club.
National establishment and early success (1914–1959)
Shortly after the end of the Second Balkan War, Iraklis together with the three Jewish football clubs of the city, Progrès Sportive, Alliance and French-German School Alumni Union organised the first Thessaloniki Football Championship in January and February 1914. Iraklis won Alliance 3–1, Progrès Sportive 5–1 and after winning the French-German School Alumni Union, the club was proclaimed Champion of Thessaloniki. On 6 April 1914, Iraklis played a match against Athinaikos Syllogos Podosfairou, that ended as a draw. It was the club's first match against a club outside Thessaloniki. In 1914, Iraklis established the club's youth squad, so the students of the Greek Gymnasium of the city could train in football. A year later Iraklis won the second Thessaloniki Football Championship. The next championship was not held due to World War I.
In the years following World War I, several football clubs were established in Thessaloniki and that led to the establishment of the Macedonia Football Clubs Association in 1923. The first championship from the newly founded association was organised shortly afterwards and Iraklis lost in the tournament's final 4–1 from Aris. In 1924 Iraklis played its first match against a club from outside the borders of Greece. It was a match against Yugoslav club SSK Skopje, a contest that ended 2–1 in favour of Iraklis. It was in that same year that Iraklis played its first match abroad, a 3–0 friendly win against SK Bitola. In 1926 the club appointed Hungarian Joseph Sveg as manager, the first ever foreign manager in Greece. Under Sveg's guidance, Iraklis won the Championship organised by the Macedonia Football Clubs Association in 1926–27. By winning 6–0 against the reigning champion of West Macedonia Ermis Shorovich and the champion of East Macedonia and Thrace Rodopi, Iraklis was proclaimed Champion of Macedonia and Thrace. In the following years, Iraklis did not have any success finishing in runner up and even lower positions in the Macedonia Football Clubs Association Championship.
In the 1933–34 season Iraklis won the Northern Group of the National Championship qualifying for the championship final, where the club had to compete against the champion of the Southern group Olympiacos. The first leg was played in Iraklis Ground on 10 June 1934. Although Iraklis took a 2–0 lead at half time, Olympiacos managed to make a comeback in the second half, winning the game by a 2–3 scoreline. The second leg was played a week later in Piraeus and Olympiacos was proclaimed National champion by winning this match 2–1.
In the following years Iraklis faced mid table mediocrity, with the exception of the 1936–37 season, when the club was only one point short to Macedonia Football Clubs Association champions PAOK. The 1938–39 season was a successful one for Iraklis, as it won both the Macedonia Football Clubs Association championship and the Northern Group of the National Championship, the second resulting in the qualification of Iraklis in the National final. In the national final Iraklis lost to AEK both away and at home (1–3 and 2–4 respectively), failing to win the silverware. In the following season Iraklis celebrated its consecutive win in the Macedonia Football Clubs Association Championship but failed to qualify for the National final.
All club football in Greece was suspended from 1941 to 1945 due to the German occupation of the country. After the war period, the club was constantly competing with Aris for the Thessaloniki championship, which gave upon its winner the right to participate in the Greek championship. Iraklis participated in the 1947 Greek Cup final, where was defeated 5–0 by the dominant Greek team of that era, Olympiacos. In the 1950s, the team solidified its position among the top teams in Greece along with Olympiacos, AEK Athens, Panathinaikos, Aris and PAOK. Nevertheless, the club struggled with financial difficulties in an ailing Greek economy. Thessaloniki (where many refugees from the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 had settled) was particularly damaged by the economic downturn. The highlight of the decade was the 1957 Greek Cup final, in which Iraklis was once again defeated by Olympiacos, 2–0.
Semi-professional Alpha Ethniki era (1959–1975)
Iraklis played in the inaugural season of A' Ethniki. The club secured the 10th position in the first season of national top tier of Greece. Iraklis football academy was founded during the same season after the suggestion of club manager Panos Markovic. In the 1960–61 season Iraklis finished 8th and achieved a record 4–0 win against Atromitos Piraeus. The club also reached the Greek Cup semi-finals that season, getting eliminated by Panionios. The following two seasons Iraklis played in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, getting eliminated both times, by F.K. Vojvodina and Real Zaragoza respectively. In the league, Iraklis secured the 6th position for the 1961–62 season, a club record at the time. The rest of the 1960s, Iraklis secured mid-table positions repeating the club record in the 1969–70 season. In 1965, Kostas Aidiniou, a player that together with fellow Greek international Zacharias Chaliabalias would lead the club for the following decade, debuted for Iraklis. During the 1968–69 season Iraklis matched its record win as it won AEL Limassol by a 4–0 margin.
In the 1970–71 season Iraklis, under the guidance of Yugoslav manager Ljubiša Spajić, finished 5th in the league, the club's best positioning since the establishment of Alpha Ethniki. In that season, Iraklis sold 45,634 tickets in a 1–0 home win against Panathinaikos, a club record since today and an Alpha Ethniki record at the time. The following for seasons, Iraklis achieved safe mid-table positions. In 1972, Iraklis signed Dimitris Gesios from Kozani, a player that would become the club's all-time league top-scorer. In the 1973–74 season Iraklis broke its biggest win record in Alpha Ethniki, by beating AEL 6–1. On 29 August 1974, Iraklis sold its star player Aidiniou to Olympiacos for 11,000,000 drachmas. In the next season Iraklis beat Kalamata 5–0 at home to match its record win and finished 8th in the league. The club also reached the semi-final of that season's Cup. Iraklis was eliminated 1–2 by Panathinaikos at home. After the match, three players of Iraklis, Chaliabalias, Rokidis and Nikoloudis revealed that there was an attempt from Panathinaikos officials to bribe them for the semi-final. The two first were driven out of the club while the latter was sent off the club for six months.
The Absolute Star: Vassilis Hatzipanagis era (1975–1990)
On 22 November 1975, the club acquired Vassilis Hatzipanagis, a USSR national of Greek descent, who was late voted a Greece's Golden player for UEFA Jubilee Awards. In the 1975–76 Greek Cup competition Iraklis eliminated Veria, Pierikos, Trikala and Panetolikos to reach the semi-finals. In the semi-finals Iraklis beat Panathinaikos 3–2, at home. Panathinaikos appealed against the result claiming the Iraklis' winning goal came from an offside position. Finally the courts turned down Panathinaikos' appeal and Iraklis qualified to the final to face Olympiacos. On 9 June 1976 Iraklis won the Cup after a 6–5 penalty shootout. In the final Hatzipanagis scored twice, Kousoulakis and Gesios scored once each, in a match that ended 2–2 in full-time and 4–4 in extra-time. In the league Iraklis finished in the 8th position led by Gesios and Hatzipanagis, that scored 9 and 6 goals respectively.
In the next season Iraklis was eliminated from Cypriot club APOEL in the Cup Winners' Cup and struggled in the league finishing in the 12th position, gathering just one point more from relegated Panetolikos. Iraklis improved slightly in the next season ending up ninth in the league with Gesios achieving a personal best scoring 13 goals. The 1978–1979 season the club improved greatly under the guidance of Antoni Brzeżańczyk. Iraklis finished sixth in the league, had a positive goal aggregate for the first time since the 1973–74 season and achieved the club's biggest victory in Alpha Ethniki by beating Rodos by an 8–1 margin.
The 1979–80 season was the first season of fully professional football in Greece. Iraklis finished in the 8th position in the league having his best goal difference since the establishment of Alpha Ethniki with +11. The highlight of the season was a 6–0 against title perennial contenders Panathinaikos, which is Panathinaikos' biggest league defeat to date. In the Greek Cup competition of the season Iraklis eliminated Veria, Niki Volos, Almopos Aridaea and Panarkadikos to reach the semi-finals. In the semi-finals Iraklis eliminated PAOK, but the club's chairman was accused for a bribe attempt by PAOK's player Filotas Pellios. Iraklis proceeded to play in the Cup final, but as the players' morale was damaged the club was defeated by underdogs Kastoria by a 5–2 margin.
At the end of the season Iraklis was demoted to the Beta Ethniki, due to the alleged bribery scandal. Iraklis appealed against that decision, and the club was, later on, declared not guilty, but the club already played in the Second Division. In the 1980–81 season Iraklis had to compete in the Beta Ethniki without his star player Vasilis Hatzipanagis. The club won the championship in the Northern Group with Ilias Chatzieleftheriou being the top scorer with 24 goals. Iraklis scored a total of 99 goals, conceding 22, and achieved a club league record 12–0 win against Edessaikos. Upon its return to the top tier Iraklis managed to finish in the 6th position in the league and achieved the club's best goal difference at the time with +14. In 1983–84 Iraklis finished in third place overall, which remains to date the club's best positioning, since professional football was established in 1959. The club, led by Hatzipanagis that scored 12 goals in the season, also had its best goal difference since the establishment of Alpha Ethniki with +27 goals and its best defence record, conceding only 20 goals.
In the 1984–85 season Iraklis finished in the 5th position setting the club's offensive record scoring 59 goals. Major contributors to this record were Hatzipanagis, Lakis Papaioannou and Sigurður Grétarsson each contributing 10 goals throughout the campaign. In the same season Iraklis won its only international competition, the Balkans Cup. Iraklis had to eliminate Turkish giants Galatasaray by winning 5–2 on aggregate in the quarter-finals, and Ankaragücü through a penalty shoot-out in the semi-finals. In the final's second leg Iraklis won Argeș Pitești 4–1, thus winning the trophy 5–4 on aggregate. In the 1985–86 season Iraklis, led by Lakis Papaioannou that finished the season with 8 goals, finished in the fourth position, having the best defensive record in the league, conceding 22 goals. Two years later, 17,000 fans travelled to Athens to support Iraklis in the 1987 Greek Cup final, unfortunately to see their team lose 3–1 on penalties (1–1 regular time) to OFI Crete. On 9 November 1990, shortly after an UEFA Cup match against Valencia, Hatzipanagis announced his retirement from professional football.
Reconstruction and change of ownership (1990–2007)
The 1990s were a period of reconstruction for the club, as aging players either left the club or retired. Hatzipanagis' retirement in 1990 had a major negative impact on the team's success. Fans began calling for a change in the club's management, as club president Petros Theodoridis began selling the team's most talented players (Christos Kostis, Giorgos Anatolakis, Savvas Kofidis etc.). Iraklis competed in 1990 against Valencia in the UEFA Cup, being eliminated in overtime at Mestalla.
Evangelos Mytilineos period (2000–2004)
The team was sold in 2000 to prominent Greek businessman Evangelos Mytilineos for almost €3,500,000 (1.18 billion drachmas). Despite the acquisition of many promising players during the first summer, the 2000–2001 campaign didn't have the expected results, with the club finishing in 5th position, out of European qualification spots. However, Iraklis managed to progress to the 2nd round of UEFA Cup, where they achieved a memorable (although without any effect) win over 1. FC Kaiserslautern in Fritz-Walter-Stadion. Next summer, Mytilineos's first move was to sell the highly rated striker and fans' favorite Michalis Konstantinou to Panathinaikos, setting a new record for the highest fee received for a domestic transfer. That move worsened the relationship between the new owner and the fans, while it clearly weakened the club, since Konstantinou was not replaced. Manager Giannis Kyrastas, who was widely considered one of Greece's bests, was replaced by previous coach Angelos Anastasiadis who in his second tenure managed to qualified once again for the UEFA Cup on a very small budget.
In 2004, Mytilineos announced his desire to leave the team and therefore sell it to Giorgos Spanoudakis (a friend of his from their school years, who used to be first vice-president of the club), for just €1, since the team was heavily in debt. Spanoudakis initiated a series of expensive but unsuccessful deals like Polish international Cezary Kucharski and Serie A veteran Giuseppe Signori, driving the team close to bankruptcy. He later tried to get rid of the team by selling it to yet another unknown businessman named Dimitris Houlis, who had been a president of Akratitos F.C. After a 5-month period during which Houlis controlled the team, the Greek football commission finally annulled the transfer, raising questions in the media regarding its handling of the previous one between Mytilinaios and Spanoudakis, too.
In January 2004, Savvas Kofidis, famous as a player of the team in the 1980s, became the team's manager. During the 2005–06, he led Iraklis to an acclaimed 4th-place finish, playing effective and attractive football, creating a club record for 13 consecutive wins at home. However, with considerable debts to players, coaches and the state, Spanoudakis started the 2006–07 season attempting to reconcile Iraklis finances by selling Joël Epalle and Panagiotis Lagos, who were instrumental in the previous year's success. Next year Kofidis resigned as manager of a considerably weakened team after Iraklis lost 7 and drew 2 of his first nine games in Greek Super League and additionally was eliminated from the UEFA Cup in extra time by Wisła Kraków. Eventually the 2006–07 season ended in a hard breaking fashion as the team gained its survival to Greek Super League only in the last matchday, after breaking a 39 matches unbeaten home run of Skoda Xanthi.
Financial collapse and relegations (2007–2011)
On 13 July 2007, Spanoudakis eventually resigned and the team passed to the hands of a consortium of local businessmen, with prominent Greek singer Antonis Remos (a lifelong fan of the team) as their leader. The new owners tried to stabilize the team financially having already paid the debts to Giuseppe Signori (almost 1,000,000 $) and to other players and lenders from the past.
However, on 4 May 2011 Iraklis was relegated back to Football League (Greece) after failing to obtain a license to participate in 2011–12 Super League. On 19 May 2011, the Disciplinary Committee of the competition found Iraklis guilty of forgery during the winter transfer window. Therefore, the club was automatically placed in the last position. That is a unique case as Iraklis has never finished in a relegation spot but has been relegated twice. Moreover, on 26 September the Professional Sports Committee stripped Iraklis from its professional licence and demoted it to Delta Ethniki. This situation spurred reactions from Iraklis fans, with demonstrations in Thessaloniki and Athens.
A.E.P. Iraklis 1908 (2012–2019)
The team finally competed in the 2011–12 Delta Ethniki, which started late due to Koriopolis, without much success. Meanwhile, the club's board was discussing a possible merger with another club. There were discussions with local teams Agrotikos Asteras and Anagennisi Epanomi, but only the ones with Pontioi were successful, and a pre-agreement contract was signed between Iraklis and Pontioi on 3 January 2012. The resulting team was named AEP Iraklis F.C., but virtually Iraklis replaced Pontioi Katerinis, who ceased to exist. On 20 January 2012, the merger was approved by amateur Iraklis, and their football team was disbanded and withdrawn from the Delta Ethniki.
The merged club
On 3 January 2012, the two teams reached an agreement regarding the running of the new club, with further negotiations planned after six months. Pontioi Katerinis would change their name to AEP Iraklis, take the badge and colors of Iraklis, and move to Kaftanzoglio Stadium. The squad would consist of players from both teams and be trained in Katerini.
On 23 January 2012, the team played their first game at home against Tilikratis, while pending approval of the merger by the Greek Professional Sports Committee.
Ιn August 2012, AEP Iraklis was incorporated as AEP Iraklis 1908 FC. The new merged club has no legal connection to the original Iraklis Thessaloniki F.C., but is essentially considered as a direct continuation of it, as it uses the crest of Iraklis Thessaloniki FC, its colours, and incorporates players and people associated with the former Iraklis FC. Therefore, G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki has no shares of the new company, but instead still holds the 10% of the bankrupt original Iraklis FC company, which remains to be dissolved.
On 24 September 2012, the merged club was accepted in Greek Football League, as an acknowledgement of injustice against the old PAE Iraklis. In 2014 the company was renamed in PAE Iraklis 1908.
In the summer of 2014, and after several months of negotiations, Spyros Papathanasakis became the new major shareholder of the club.
Relegation (2017)
Iraklis was dissolved as a professional club in 2017, due to major financial issues the club had been facing for some years. They failed to participate in Football League (second tier) and were thus dissolved as a professional football club and begun the season in division 3 (Gamma Ethniki). The next season they promoted back.
Iraklis 2015 (2019–2020)
Iraklis was relegated in 2019 from the professional second-tier Football League into the amateur fourth-tier Gamma Ethniki, due to the restructuring of the Greek national championships and its performance in conjunction to its financial state. This led the professional club into further insolvency and an inability to form a squad to participate in any championship in the 2019–20 season. Faced with this situation, a new football club, named Iraklis 2015 was formed through the volleyball club of the Iraklis sports club family, which started participating in the lowest regional championship of the Thessaloniki region, the Macedonia Football Clubs Association Gamma Amateur Championship, which is on the fourth tier regionally and on the eighth nationally. On 20 April 2020, amateur championships were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, therefore Iraklis won the championship winning all 15 games, scoring 88 goals and conceding 6.
P.O.T. Iraklis (2021–) "Road to redemption"
In July 2021, an agreement between the club and Triglia F.C. was announced and Iraklis will officially be in Super League 2 for the 2021–2022 season and they finished seventh (7th).
In the season 2022–2023, Iraklis FC played in the Super League 2 again, the second tier of the Greek football league system. They finished fifth (5th) in the North group with 47 points. They scored 56 goals (1st in the league).
For the season 2023–2024, he will compete again in Super League 2.
Crest and colours
Iraklis's crest has changed through times. The original club logo was a capital Η (Eta), the first letter of the word Iraklis (Ηρακλής) in Greek, surrounded by a circle. After the 2000 takeover of the club by Evangelos Mytilinaios, the logo was changed once again to a more "modern" looking one. During the 2008–09 season the club used a special logo, created especially for its centenary. The crest that is now used depicts the demigod Heracles resting upon his club, a scene inspired by Farnese Hercules statue, itself a copy of a statue crafted by Lysippos in the fourth century BC.
Throughout the entire club's history its colours were blue or cyan and white, to resemble the colours of the Greek flag, given the fact that Iraklis was established while Thessaloniki was a part of the Ottoman Empire. The team is so known in Greece as Kianolefkoi (Greek: "Κυανόλευκοι"), meaning the Cyan-Whites. Iraklis' away colours were usually either white or orange. Traditionally, the Iraklis shirt was blue and white stripes, but through the years this was changed often to all blue, all white, chess-like, and hooped, among others.
Kit evolution
First
Alternative
Sponsorships:
Great Shirt Sponsor: N/A
Official Sport Clothing Manufacturer: Givova
Official Sponsor: N/A
Facilities
Stadium
The first ground of the team was placed in the centre of Thessaloniki, nearby the White Tower. Its construction was funded by the members of G.S. Iraklis, but, after Thessaloniki became a part of Greece, the club was ousted from its owned ground, so a park could be created in its place. In 1915, Iraklis rented an area in the centre of Thessaloniki for a ten years period, but the club was unable to use its facilities until 1919, due to World War I. In 1927 the club renewed the contract for the use of the area, but in 1930, the newly founded Aristotle University of Thessaloniki tried to take the ownership of the field. For almost two decades the ground was used by both the athletes of Iraklis and the students of the university, until in the 1950s the university managed to get the ownership of the ground, so it could demolish it to construct a square, that is nowadays known as Platia Chimiou.
On 6 November 1960 Iraklis played its first match in Kaftanzoglio Stadium, to record a 2–1 win against M.G.S.S. Thermaikos Thessalonikis. Kaftanzoglio has been the home ground of Iraklis ever since, including the 2011–12 season, when both the G.S. Iraklis and the A.E.P. Iraklis team used it as their home ground. In the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons Iraklis used Makedonikos Stadium as its home ground. That decision was made due to the renovation of Kaftanzoglio for the 2004 Summer Olympics. Iraklis also owns a football ground and training facilities in the, adjacent to Kaftanzoglio Stadium, Chortatzides area, where the juveniles of the club train. There were plans for Iraklis to construct a new 22,000-seat stadium, in a club owned area in the eastern extremities of the city, in Mikra.
Training facility
Iraklis Sports Center locates in the area of Mikra and is the club-owned training ground of the team. The training facilities include three football fields, gym, sauna, water pool, such as the administration building of Iraklis FC. In the area, the club's new stadium also was planned to be built.
Supporters
Iraklis was well supported right from the start of its establishment. Even though the football section wasn't the most popular among club loyals in the very first years, it soon became the "flagship" of the sports club, as football became more and more popular. In the '70s and '80s, the club attracted crowds of around 10.000 people, to reach a peak in the 1983–84 season with an average attendance of 16,559. In the '90s, following Hatzipanagis' retirement and the general fall in attendances in Greek football, crowds in Kaftanzoglio deteriorated to a modest average of 5,000. A record low attendance was recorded during the '90s, as in a match against Paniliakos there were only 384 tickets sold. A brief increase in attendance was recorded after the purchase of the club by Evangelos Mytilineos, reaching a peak in the 2001–02 season with an average of 6,790. On 24 January 1971 Iraklis set the highest attendance record for any football match in Alpha Ethniki, with 45,634 tickets sold in the club's contest against Panathinaikos. In the 1987 Greek Cup final a crowd of 17,000 Iraklis fans travelled to Athens, to watch Iraklis lose in penalties against OFI. In two recent opinion polls Iraklis was ranked as the 6th most popular football club in Greece, gathering 2.8%–3.7% of the participating football supporters.
The most prominent supporters' club of the team is Aftonomi Thira 10 (meaning Autonomous Gate 10), a fan club with a total of 15 branches in Northern Greece. The fan club is known for holding an antiracist stance, as it participates in the Ultras Antiracist Festival. Other activities of the fan club include the publication of a magazine and the conduct of an annual festival. Other minor supporters' clubs are SFISE, Blue Boys, A.P.A.T.S.I. and Iraklis Fan Club of Athens.
Iraklis' supporters hold ties with the supporters of FSV Mainz, Rayo Vallecano, Zemun and FK Buducnost Podgorica as those have shown their support during Iraklis' supporters rallies against Super League's refusal to grant Iraklis a license to participate in the 2010–11 Super League season.
Also, the fans have sympathy for all the clubs named "Heracles" worldwide, most notably the Spanish Hércules CF. Since 2003, fans of both teams formed a friendship through the internet. There is even a Hércules CF supporters club that bears the name "Iraklis", in honor of their friendship.
Ownership and financing
Professional era
Until 1979 Greek football was semi-professional and each football club was run by a board and a president appointed by its respective multi-sport club, of which it was considered a branch. In the 1979–80 season the football branch of Iraklis became an SA owned by local businessmen Tertilinis and Pertsinidis. In the 1983–84 season Iraklis was bought by Petros Theodorides who remained at the helm of the club for almost 18 years. From the beginning of the 1999–2000 season there were demonstrations by the supporters of Iraklis, asking for the resignation of Theodoridis from his presidential seat and the sale of his stocks. On 11 February 2000 Greek business magnate Evangelos Mytilineos bought the stocks of Theodoridis for a reported 1.18 billion Greek drachmas. On 27 January 2003, two days after a 3–1 away defeat of Iraklis against OFI, Mytilineos gave a press conference in which he announced his withdrawal from Iraklis' affairs, due to his disgust with the establishment of Greek football.
Shortly afterwards the ownership of the club was passed to businessman Giorgos Spanoudakis for 1 euro and until 2006 the club had accumulated a debt of 8 million euros, partly because Mytilineos did not pay the taxes for the players' contracts and partly due to Spanoudakis handling of the club's affairs. After a takeover of the club, in 2005, by businessman Dimitris Khoulis failed, Spanoudakis continued having the ownership of Iraklis. In 2007 Spanoudakis declared the club's inability to repay its debts to the players and tried to hand Iraklis' stocks to Cypriot businessman Pheevos Morides. After the latter failed to fulfill his promises the deal was cancelled.
Greek singer Antonis Remos, a prominent supporter of Iraklis, expressed his interest to undertake the club's fortunes, but he moved back when Spanoudakis asked €500,000 to pass the club's ownership.
On 10 July 2007 Iraklis' administration building was set on fire by supporters in an attempt to express their discontent for the cancellation of the club's takeover from Antonis Remos. A few days later a deal was reached and Remos took over Iraklis. In the summer of 2010, Ioannis Takis took charge as the new chairman.
Summers 2010 and 2011 authorisation issues and reactions
On 1 June 2010, the club was denied a license to compete in next season's Greek Super League. That summer, Iraklis's fans rallied in Thessaloniki for more than 10 days. Also there were 2 rallies in Athens and other important places in Greece like Malgara and Tempi. Finally, on 25 June, Iraklis received permission to play in Greek Super League for the 2010–11 season.
On 4 May 2011, Iraklis were relegated to Football League (Greece) after failing to obtain a license to participate in 2011–12 Super League. On 19 May 2011, the Disciplinary Committee of the competition found Iraklis guilty of forgery during the winter transfer window. Therefore, the club was automatically placed in the last position. That is a unique case as Iraklis have never finished in a relegation spot but have been relegated twice. On 26 September, however, the Professional Sports Committee stripped Iraklis from its professional licence and demoted it to Delta Ethniki. The team competed in Delta Ethniki under the ownership of G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki, until the G.S. Irakli's General Assembly decided to disband it in favour of a merging deal with Pontioi Katerini to form AEP Iraklis F.C. in 2012.
The Club is named A.E.P. Iraklis 1908 (2012–2019)
Ιn August 2012, AEP Iraklis was incorporated as AEP Iraklis 2012 FC. The new merged club has no legal connection to the original Iraklis Thessaloniki F.C., but is essentially considered as a direct continuation of it. Therefore, G.S. Iraklis Thessaloniki has no shares of the new company, but instead still holds the 10% of the bankrupt original Iraklis FC company, which remains to be dissolved. Currently, MAE Pontioi Katerini own 10% of the new merged club, as required by the Greek sports law, the club's chairman Theodoros Papadopoulos and team fans own the rest, with the chairman possessing a relative majority.
Spyros Papathanasakis era (2014–2017)
In the summer of 2014 and after several months of negotiations Spyros Papathanasakis became the new major shareholder of the club holds the 90% of shares. The same year the company was once again renamed in PAE Iraklis 1908. In 2014–15, Iraklis promoted easily from the second division (Football League) to the Super League (first tier) after finishing in the first place during the regular season and second in the playoffs only behind AEK FC. The next season Iraklis finished in the 12th position to secure Super League status for the next season.
Two years later, despite successfully retaining Super League status once again by finishing 12th the team was again relegated to gamma ethniki (third tier) while the financial situation of the club was again under severe deterioration. This urged Papathanasakis, on 7 September 2017, to declare Iraklis' inability to satisfy financial obligations, causing the club to be disbanded for the second time in five years. Papathanasakis stepped down as owner and chairman of Iraklis FC. For this reason, a brand new committee with Nikos Vafeiadis as its chairman was made by Iraklis's Legends and fans to save the club.
Despite starting the 2017–18 season with only 14 players Vafeiadis and the rest of the brand new committee brought lots of players who quickly helped Iraklis to climb the rankings and play high quality football during their first season back in Gamma Ethniki since 2011–12. After an amazing season, despite being an outsider Iraklis finished top of the table in group 2. This obtained the club a Play-offs place. In the Play-offs Iraklis managed to finish in the 1st place and gain promotion to Football League (2nd tier).
Tom Papadopoulos era (2018–2019)
In the summer, negotiations began on the purchase of the football section of Iraklis Thessaloniki by the Greek–American businessman Tom Papadopoulos, who is involved in the processing and marketing of marble in the United States of America. On 27 September 2018, Professional Sports Committee of Greece announced that Tom Papadopoulos is the new major shareholder of Iraklis Thessaloniki and today 90% of its shares are its own, since it has already given €300,000 for the share capital of the new company set up a few days ago. The professional club formed through the merger with Pontioi Katerini F.C., which is owned by Tom Papadopoulos, does not currently compete and appears to be insolvent.
Players
Current squad
Management
Honours and achievements
Regional
Thessaloniki Championship
Winners (2): 1914, 1915
Macedonia FCA Championship
Winners (5): 1926–27, 1938–39, 1939–40, 1950–51, 1951–52
Runners up (6): 1923–24, 1925–26, 1929–30, 1936–37, 1946–47, 1952–53
Macedonia FCA Championship Fourth Division
Winners (1): 2019–20
National
Super League (First Division)
Runners up (3): 1933–34, 1938–39, 1946–47
Super League 2 (Second Division)
Champions (1): 1980–81
Runners up (1): 2014–15
Gamma Ethniki (Third Division)
Champions (1): 2017–18
Greek Cup
Winners (1): 1975–76
Runners up (4): 1946–47, 1956–57, 1979–80, 1986–87
Iraklis Thessaloniki in European competitions
Balkans Cup
Winners (1): 1984–85
Managerial history
Notable former players
Greek Golden Player – UEFA Jubilee Awards
Vasilis Hatzipanagis
Top foreign league goalscorer
Foreigner leading in league appearances
Records and statistics
Records
Biggest win:
14–1 v Enosi Charilaou, 1959–60 Greek Cup
13–0 v Odysseas Kordelio, 1955–56 Greek Cup
Biggest away win:
1–8 v Apollon Krya Vrysi, 1993–94 Greek Cup
Biggest league win:
12–0 v Edessaikos, 1980–81 Beta Ethniki
Biggest top tier win
8–1 v AEK, 1930–31 Panhellenic Championship,
8–1 v Rodos, 1978–79 Alpha Ethniki
League statistics
Positioning in Greek league
1 Demoted to second division due to a match fixing scandal in a cup game against PAOK. 2 Demoted to fourth division (amateur division) because the Professional Sports Committee stripped Iraklis from its professional licence. 3 Demoted to fourth division (amateur division) due to restructuring of national championships and its financial state.
Total league record
Head to head record against city rivals
As of 16 May 2015
Highest attendances
Statistics in Europe
UEFA club competitions' record
References
External links
Official Websites
Official Social Media Accounts
Iraklis F.C. (Thessaloniki)
Iraklis F.C. (Thessaloniki) players
Iraklis F.C. (Thessaloniki) managers
Iraklis F.C. (Thessaloniki) seasons
Iraklis Thessaloniki
Football clubs in Thessaloniki
Association football clubs established in 1908
1908 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
Super League Greece 2 clubs |
4221824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dortmund%20Sparkassen%20Chess%20Meeting | Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting | The Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting is an elite chess tournament held every summer in Dortmund, Germany. Dortmund is an invite-only event, with the exception that one slot at Dortmund is awarded to the winner of the annual Aeroflot Open in Moscow.
The tournament is usually played in a round-robin or double round-robin format. However, it took the form of a series of heads-up matches in 2002 and 2004. The 2002 Dortmund event was also notable in that it served as the Candidates Tournament for the Classical World Chess Championship 2004. Péter Lékó won, defeating Veselin Topalov in the finals.
The title sponsor is Sparkasse Dortmund.
List of winners
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! # !! Year !! Winner
|-
| (1) ||1928||
|-
| (2) ||1951||
|-
| (3) ||1961||
|-
| || ||
|-
| 1 ||1973||
|-
| 2 ||1974||
|-
| 3 ||1975||
|-
| 4 ||1976||
|-
| 5 ||1977||
|-
| 6 ||1978||
|-
| 7 ||1979||
|-
| 8 ||1980||
|-
| 9 ||1981||
|-
| 10 ||1982||
|-
| 11 ||1983||
|-
| 12 ||1984||
|-
| 13 ||1985||
|-
| 14 ||1986||
|-
| 15 ||1987||
|-
| 16 ||1988||
|-
| 17 ||1989||
|-
| 18 ||1990||
|-
| 19 ||1991||
|-
| 20 ||1992||
|-
| 21 ||1993||
|-
| 22 ||1994||
|-
| 23 ||1995||
|-
| 24 ||1996|| (with the same score as ; won on tiebreak because of higher Sonneborn–Berger score)
|-
| 25 ||1997||
|-
| 26 ||1998|| (with the same score as and ; won on tiebreak because of higher Sonneborn–Berger score)
|-
| 27 ||1999||
|-
| 28 ||2000|| and (with the same score as ; won on tiebreak because of higher Sonneborn–Berger score)
|-
| 29 ||2001|| (with the same score as ; won on tiebreak)
|-
| 30 ||2002||
|-
| 31 ||2003||
|-
| 32 ||2004||
|-
| 33 ||2005||
|-
| 34 ||2006|| (with the same score as ; won on tiebreak because of higher Sonneborn–Berger score)
|-
| 35 ||2007||
|-
| 36 ||2008||
|-
| 37 ||2009||
|-
| 38 ||2010||
|-
| 39 ||2011||
|-
| 40 ||2012|| (with the same score as ; won on tiebreak because of more wins)
|-
| 41 ||2013||
|-
| 42 ||2014||
|-
| 43 ||2015||
|-
| 44 ||2016||
|-
| 45 ||2017||
|-
| 46 ||2018||
|-
| 47 ||2019||
|-
| 48 ||2021||
|-
| 49 ||2022||
|-
| 50 ||2023||
|}
Events by year
1990s
1990
1991
1992
1993
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 21st Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 10–17 April 1993, Dortmund, Cat. XVI (2637)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2725 || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 5½ || || 2854
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2685 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 13.25 || 2680
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2550 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4 || 11.50 || 2699
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2655 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 1 || 1 || 0 || ½ || 3½ || 11.50 || 2634
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2615 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || 1 || ½ || 1 || 3½ || 10.25 || 2640
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2645 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || || ½ || ½ || 3|| || 2586
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2600 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 2½ || || 2540
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2620 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 2 || || 2481
|}
1994
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 22nd Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 15–24 July 1994, Dortmund, Cat. XVI (2640)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2640 || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 6½ || || 2806
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2640 || ½ || || ½ || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5½ || || 2720
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2650 || 0 || ½ || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 5 || || 2682
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2655 || ½ || 1 || 0 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || 4½ || 20.00 || 2638
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2650 || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || 4½ || 19.75 || 2639
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2615 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 4½ || 18.50 || 2643
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2780 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4½ || 18.25 || 2624
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2635 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 4 || || 2598
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2580 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || ½ || || 0 || 3 || 13.50 || 2522
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2555 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || || 3 || 13.00 || 2524
|}
1995
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 23rd Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 14–23 July 1995, Dortmund, Cat. XVII (2666)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2730 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 7 || || 2877
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2775 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 6½ || || 2818
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2605 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 0 || 1 || 5 || 21.00 || 2714
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2740 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 5 || 20.00 || 2699
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2645 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 0 || 4½ || || 2668
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2645 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || 4 || 17.00 || 2624
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2625 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 4 || 15.75 || 2626
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2650 || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || || 0 || 1 || 3½ || 13.75 || 2586
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2650 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || || 1 || 3½ || 12.50 || 2586
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2595 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 2 || || 2452
|}
1996
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 24th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 5–14 July 1996, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2676)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2765 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 7 || 28.50 || 2886
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2735 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 7 || 27.25 || 2889
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2665 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 6 || || 2802
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2685 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 4½ || 17.50 || 2675
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2665 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || || ½ || 1 || 0 || 1 || ½ || 4½ || 17.00 || 2677
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2685 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 0 || 1 || 4 || 15.50 || 2632
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2750 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4 || 14.75 || 2624
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2595 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 3½ || || 2605
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2585 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 2½ || || 2520
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2630 || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 2 || || 2461
|}
1997
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 25th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 4–13 July 1997, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2700)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! TPR !! Place
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2770 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 6½ || 2857 || 1
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2765 || ½ || || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5½ || 2772 || 2
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2745 || ½ || 1 || || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 5 || 2737 || 3–4
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2725 || 0 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 5 || 2739 || 3–4
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2670 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || 4½ || 2702 || 5
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2695 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 2657 || 6–8
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2745 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 0 || ½ || 1 || 4 || 2651 || 6–8
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2660 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || || 1 || ½ || 4 || 2660 || 6–8
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2580 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 3½ || 2632 || 9
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2640 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 3 || 2581 || 10
|}
GM Romuald Mainka won Open A tournament with the result 7½ out of 9.
1998
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 26th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 26 June – 5 July 1998, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2699)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2790 || || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 6 || 25.75 || 2813
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2670 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 6 || 25.00 || 2827
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2690 || 0 || ½ || || 1 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 6 || 24.50 || 2825
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2670 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 5 || || 2745
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2740 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 4½ || || 2694
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2770 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 17.50 || 2648
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2630 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 16.50 || 2663
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2630 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || ½ || 4 || 16.00 || 2663
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2690 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || || ½ || 3 || || 2575
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2710 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 2½ || || 2531
|}
1999
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 27th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 10–17 July 1999, Dortmund, Cat. XIX (2705)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2701 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5 || 2863
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2760 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4½ || 2798
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2700 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 4 || 2755
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2771 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 4 || 2745
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2708 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4 || 2754
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2656 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 0 || ½ || 2½ || 2609
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2690 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || || 0 || 2 || 2548
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2650 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || || 2 || 2554
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 27th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, Masters Event, 9–17 July 1999, Dortmund, Germany, Category X (2482)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | {{flagathlete|GM Eckhard Schmittdiel|Germany}} || 2505 || || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 6 || 2604
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2541 || ½ || || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 6 || 2600
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2500 || 0 || 1 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 0 || ½ || 1 || 5 || 2523
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2514 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 5 || 2521
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2509 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || 4½ || 2479
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2552 || 1 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 4 || 2431
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2489 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 2438
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2417 || 0 || 0 || 1 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 4 || 2446
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2453 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || 4 || 2442
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2340 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 0 || 0 || || 2½ || 2331
|}
17-year-old Olaf Wegener won Open A Swiss-system tournament with the score 8/10.
2000s
2000
28th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 7 – 16, 2000)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 28th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, SuperGM group, 7–16 July 2000, Dortmund, Category XIX (2702)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2770
| || 1 || 0 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 6 || 25.75 || 2789
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2762
| 0 || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 6 || 23.75 || 2836
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2755
| 1 || 0 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 5 || 21.75 || 2739
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2743
| ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5 || 20.75 || 2792
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2660
| 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 5 || 20.75 || 2750
|-
| 6 || align=left | ||
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || 4½ || || 2702
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2667
| ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 17.50 || 2664
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2702
| ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 4 || 16.50 || 2659
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2649
| ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 3½ || || 2568
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2615
| 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || || 2 || || 2520
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 28th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, GM group, 7–16 July 2000, Dortmund, Category IX (2456)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2490
| || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 6 || 2577
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2442
| 1 || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 0 || 5½ || 2538
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2530
| 0 || 0 || || 1 || 1 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 5½ || 2528
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2476
| ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5½ || 2534
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2552
| ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5 || 2488
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2477
| 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 5 || 2497
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2437
| ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 0 || 1 || 4 || 2415
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2444
| ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 3½ || 2377
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2359
| 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || || 0 || 2½ || 2301
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2357
| 0 || 1 || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || || 2½ || 2301
|-
|}
2001
29th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 12 – 22, 2001)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 29th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 12–22 July 2001, Dortmund, Germany, Category XXI (2755)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2802 || || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ 1 ||6½ || 2855
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2711 || 0 ½ || || ½ ½ || 1 1 || ½ ½ || 1 1 ||6½ || 2873
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2730 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || ½ ½ ||5½ || 2796
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2749 || 0 ½ || 0 0 || ½ ½ || || 1 1 || ½ 1 ||5 || 2756
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2744 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || 0 0 || || ½ ½ ||3½ || 2647
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2794 || ½ 0 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || ½ ½ || ||3 || 2598
|}
IM Arkadij Naiditsch (2524) defeated IM Almira Skripchenko-Lautier (2494) in Dortmund Sparkassen Match with the score 7:3.
The Dortmund Sparkassen Man-Machine Match between GM Robert Hübner (2612) and Deep Fritz ended in a draw with the score 3:3 (all the games were drawn).
2002
30th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 6 – 21, 2002)
Candidates Tournament
The main event was a Candidates Tournament to determine a challenger for Vladimir Kramnik's Einstein Group World Chess title.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 30th Sparkassen Chess, Group 1, 6–11 July 2002, Dortmund, Cat. XIX (2701)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! Points !! TB !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2697 || || ½ ½ || ½ 1 || ½ 1 || 4 || 1½ || 2826
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2745 || ½ ½ || || 1 ½ || 1 ½ || 4 || ½ || 2810
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2710 || ½ 0 || 0 ½ || || 1 ½ || 2½ || || 2640
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2650 || ½ 0 || 0 ½ || 0 ½ || || 1½ || || 2524
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Group 1 first place playoff, 12 July 2002, Dortmund, Germany
! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! Points !! Place !! TPR
|-
| align=left|
|| 2697
| style="background: black; color: white" | ½
| style="background: white; color: black" | 1
|| 1½
|| 1
|| 2938
|-
| align=left|
|| 2745
| style="background: white; color: black" | ½
| style="background: black; color: white" | 0
|| ½
|| 2
|| 2504
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 30th Sparkassen Chess, Group 2, 6–11 July 2002, Dortmund, Cat. XX (2728)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! Points !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2726 || || 1 0 || ½ ½ || 1 1 || 4 || 2853
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2717 || 0 1 || || ½ 1 || ½ ½ || 3½ || 2788
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2752 || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || || ½ ½ || 2½ || 2662
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2716 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || || 2 || 2606
|}
Side events
IM Tigran Nalbandian (2458) won Dortmund Open Swiss-system tournament with the score 9/11.
The match between GM Arkadij Naiditsch (2581) and GM Jan Timman (2623) ended in a draw with the score 4:4.
David Baramidze (2351) defeated IM Alisa Marić (2470) in Dortmund Sparkassen Match with the score 4½:3½.
2003
31st Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 31 – August 10, 2003)
GM Victor Bologan qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2003.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 31st Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 31 July – 10 August 2003, Dortmund, Category XVIII (2695)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2650 || || ½ ½ || 1 0 || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || 1 1 ||6½ || 2814
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2785 || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ ½ ||5½ || 2713
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2774 || 0 1 || ½ ½ || || 0 ½ || ½ 1 || 1 ½ ||5½ || 2715
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2648 || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || 1 ½ || || ½ ½ || 0 1 ||5 || 2704
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2739 || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ ||4 || 2614
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2574 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || 1 0 || ½ ½ || ||3½ || 2609
|}
IM Yuri Boidman (2407) won Dortmund Open A Swiss-system tournament with the score 8/9 and performance rating 2616.
GM Vladimir Belikov (2499) defeated IM David Baramidze (2470) in Dortmund Match with the score 6:4.
2004
32nd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 22 – August 1, 2004)
GM Sergei Rublevsky qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2004.
Preliminaries
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 32nd Sparkassen Chess, Group A, 22–27 July 2004, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2692)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! Points !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2782 || || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ 1 || 4 || 2787
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2727 || 0 ½ || || 1 1 || ½ ½ || 3½ || 2737
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2574 || ½ ½ || 0 0 || || ½ 1 || 2½ || 2674
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2686 || ½ 0 || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || || 2 || 2569
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 32nd Sparkassen Chess, Group B, 22–27 July 2004, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2691)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! Points !! TB !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2770 || || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 3 || 4 || 2665
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2741 || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 3 || 3½ || 2674
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2663 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || 3 || 2½ || 2700
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2591 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || || 3 || 2 || 2724
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Group B Rapid playoff, 27 July 2004, Dortmund, Cat. XVIII (2691)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! Points !! TPR
|-
| 1 || align=left | || 2770 || || ½ ½ || 1 1 || 1 0 || 4 || 2790
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2741 || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || 3½ || 2731
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2663 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || || 1 ½ || 2½ || 2643
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2591 || 0 1 || 0 ½ || 0 ½ || || 2 || 2599
|}
Knockout
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Final standings
! Place !! Player !! Rating
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2782
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2770
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2727
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2741
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2574
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2686
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2663
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2591
|}
2005
33rd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 8 – 17, 2005)
GM Emil Sutovsky qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2005.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 33rd Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 8–17 July 2005, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2709)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2612 || || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 ||5½|| 2800
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2788 || 1 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 0 || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ ||5|| 2743
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2729 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 0 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 0 ||5|| 2750
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2738 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ ||5|| 2749
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2655 || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 0 || 1 || ½ ||5|| 2758
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2744 || ½ || 1 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 ||4½|| 2705
|-
| 7 || align=left| || 2719 || ½ || 1 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 ||4½|| 2708
|-
| 8 || align=left| || 2763 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 ||4|| 2660
|-
| 9 || align=left| || 2674 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || || ½ ||3½|| 2633
|-
| 10 || align=left| || 2668 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ||3|| 2589
|}
2006
34th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 29 – August 6, 2006)
GM Baadur Jobava qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2006.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 34th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 29 July – 6 August 2006, Dortmund, Category XIX (2720)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2743 || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 ||4½|| 14.50 || 2819
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2742 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 ||4½|| 13.50 || 2819
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2732 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ ||4|| 14.00 || 2768
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2738 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ ||4|| 12.50 || 2768
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2729 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 1 || 1 ||4|| 11.75 || 2769
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2665 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 1 ||3½|| 11.00 || 2728
|-
| 7 || align=left| || 2761 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || || ½ ||2½|| 6.75 || 2612
|-
| 8 || align=left| || 2651 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ||2|| 5.00 ||2572
|}
2007
35th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (June 23 – July 1, 2007)
GM Evgeny Alekseev qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2007.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 35th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 23 June – 1 July 2007, Dortmund, Category XX (2727)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2772 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 ||5|| 2878
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2679 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ ||4|| 2783
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2738 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ ||4|| 2775
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2786 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 ||4|| 2768
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2757 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 ||3½|| 2722
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2693 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ ||3|| 2681
|-
| 7 || align=left| || 2733 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ ||2½|| 2624
|-
| 8 || align=left| || 2654 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ||2|| 2579
|}
2008
36th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (June 28 – July 6, 2008)
GM Ian Nepomniachtchi qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2008.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 36th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 28 June – 6 July 2008, Dortmund, Category XVIII (2694)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2741 || || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ ||4½|| 2790
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2740 || 0 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ ||4|| 2738
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2752 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 ||4|| 2736
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2634 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 ||4|| 2753
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2603 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || ½ || 1 ||4|| 2758
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2624 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || 1 || 1 ||3½|| 2705
|-
| 7 || align=left| || 2788 || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || || 1 ||3|| 2631
|-
| 8 || align=left| || 2677 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ||1|| 2388
|}
2009
37th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 2 – 12, 2009)
GM Étienne Bacrot qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2009.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 37th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 2–12 July 2009, Dortmund, Germany, Category XX (2744)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! Points !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2759 || || ½ ½ || ½ 1 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 1 1 ||6½|| 2851
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2756 || ½ ½ || || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || ½ ½ ||5½|| 2778
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2772 || ½ 0 || ½ ½ || || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || 1 ½ ||5½|| 2775
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2760 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || || ½ 1 || 1 ½ ||5½|| 2777
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2721 || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || || ½ ½ ||4|| 2677
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2697 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || ||3|| 2605
|}
2010s
2010
38th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 15–25, 2010)
GM Lê Quang Liêm qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2010.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 38th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 15–25 July 2010, Dortmund, Germany, Category XX (2731)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! Points !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2734 || || 0 ½ || 1 ½ || 1 ½ || ½ 1 || 1 ½ ||6½|| || 2840
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2681 || 1 ½ || || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || 1 ½ ||5½|| || 2777
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2790 || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || || ½ 1 || 1 0 || ½ ½ ||5|| 24.25 || 2719
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2761 || 0 ½ || 1 ½ || ½ 0 || || 1 0 || ½ 1 ||5|| 24.00 || 2725
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2684 || ½ 0 || ½ ½ || 0 1 || 0 1 || || ½ 0 ||4|| 20.75 || 2668
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2734 || 0 ½ || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ 0 || ½ 1 || ||4|| 19.50 || 2658
|}
2011
39th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 21 – 31, 2011)
GM Lê Quang Liêm qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2011.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ 39th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 21–31 July 2011, Dortmund, Germany, Category XX (2731)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! Points !! SB !! Wins !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left| || 2781 || || ½ ½ || 1 ½ || 1 ½ || 1 0 || 1 1 ||7|| 31.00 || 5 || 2870
|-
| 2 || align=left| || 2715 || ½ ½ || || 1 ½ || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || ½ ½ ||5½|| 27.00 || 1 || 2770
|-
| 3 || align=left| || 2764 || 0 ½ || 0 ½ || || 1 0 || 1 1 || ½ ½ ||5|| 23.25 || 3 || 2761
|-
| 4 || align=left| || 2701 || 0 ½ || ½ ½ || 0 1 || || ½ ½ || 1 ½ ||5|| 23.00 || 2 || 2737
|-
| 5 || align=left| || 2770 || 0 1 || ½ ½ || 0 0 || ½ ½ || || ½ 1 ||4½|| 22.00 || 2 || 2687
|-
| 6 || align=left| || 2656 || 0 0 || ½ ½ || ½ ½ || 0 ½ || ½ 0 || ||3|| 15.25 || 0 || 2597
|}
2012
40th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 13 – 22, 2012)
GM Mateusz Bartel qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2012.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 40th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 13–22 July 2012, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2711)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! !! Wins !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2775
| || ½ || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 6 || 4 || 4 || 23.00 || 2829
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2779
| ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 6 || 4 || 3 || 23.00 || 2829
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2726
| 1 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || 1 || 5½ || 5 || 3 || 24.50 || 2789
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2799
| 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5 || 5 || 3 || 20.50 || 2744
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2700
| ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5 || 5 || 2 || 21.50 || 2755
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2730
| ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5 || 4 || 2 || 21.50 || 2752
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2644
| ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 4 || 1 || 16.00 || 2676
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2655
| 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 3½ || 4 || 0 || 14.75 || 2637
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2674
| 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || || ½ || 2 || 5 || 1 || 8.00 || 2495
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2629
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1½ || 5 || 0 || 4.75 || 2447
|-
|}
2013
41st Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 26 – August 4, 2013)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 41st Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 26 July – 4 August 2013, Dortmund, Category XIX (2709)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! Points !! Wins !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2740
| || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 7 || 5 || 2925
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2784
| ½ || || 1 || ½ || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 6½ || 5 || 2866
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2737
| ½ || 0 || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4½ || 1 || 2705
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2710
| 0 || ½ || 0 || || 1 || 0 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 4½ || 3 || 2708
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2727
| 0 || 1 || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 2 || 2664
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2610
| ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || 4 || 1 || 2677
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2796
| 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || || 0 || ½ || 1 || 4 || 2 || 2656
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2752
| 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || 1 || || 0 || 1 || 4 || 3 || 2661
|-
| 9 || align=left | || 2605
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || || ½ || 3½ || 1 || 2640
|-
| 10 || align=left | || 2629
| ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || || 3 || 0 || 2592
|-
|}
2014
42nd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 12 – 20, 2014)
The 42nd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting took place between July 12 and July 20, 2014, in the "Orchesterzentrum NRW" in Dortmund, Germany. The eight-player round-robin tournament consisted of 7 games of Classical Chess. The field was led by Vladimir Kramnik, Fabiano Caruana, and Michael Adams. Players received 100 minutes for 40 moves, then an additional 50 minutes for 20 additional moves, and finally 15 minutes for the rest of the game plus 30 seconds per move starting from move one.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 42nd Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 12–20 July 2014, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2715)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! Wins !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2789
| || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5½ || 5 || 2934
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2737
| ½ || || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 2762
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2632
| 0 || ½ || || 1 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 2 || 2777
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2705
| ½ || 0 || 0 || || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 3½ || 3 || 2716
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2743
| 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 3½ || 1 || 2711
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2723
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || || 1 || ½ || 3 || 1 || 2664
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2777
| ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 2½ || 0 || 2604
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2616
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 2 || 0 || 2571
|-
|}
2015
43rd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (June 27 – July 5, 2015)
The 43rd Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting took place between June 27 to July 5 in the "Orchesterzentrum NRW" in Dortmund, Germany. The eight-player round-robin tournament consisted of 7 games of Classical Chess. The field was led by Vladimir Kramnik, Fabiano Caruana, and Wesley So. Players received 100 minutes for 40 moves, then an additional 50 minutes for 20 additional moves, and finally 15 minutes for the rest of the game plus 30 seconds per move starting from move one.
The tournament was also the final Dortmund appearance for Arkadij Naiditsch before his transfer to the Azerbaijan Chess Federation.
GM Ian Nepomniachtchi qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2015.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 43rd Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 27 June – 5 July 2015, Dortmund, Category XIX (2724)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2805
| || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5½ || || 2942
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2778
| 1 || || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || ½ || ½ || 4 || 4 || 2766
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2654
| 0 || 1 || || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 2784
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2783
| 0 || 0 || ½ || || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 3½ || || 2715
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2722
| 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || || 0 || ½ || ½ || 3 || 4 || 2674
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2720
| ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || 1 || || ½ || ½ || 3 || 3 || 2674
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2676
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 2½ || 4 || 2628
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2654
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 2½ || 3 || 2632
|-
|}
2016
44th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 9 – 17, 2016)
The 44th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting took place between July 9th to 17th in the "Orchesterzentrum NRW" in Dortmund, Germany. The eight-player round-robin tournament consisted of 7 games of Classical Chess. The field was led by Vladimir Kramnik, Fabiano Caruana, and Maxime Vachier-Lagrave. Players received 100 minutes for 40 moves, then 50 minutes for 20 additional moves, then 15 minutes for the rest of the game plus 30 seconds per move starting from move one.
GM Evgeniy Najer qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2016.
Maxime Vachier-Lagrave won the tournament on July 16 with 1 game to spare. This was his first Dortmund tournament victory.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 44th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 9–17 July 2016, Dortmund, Germany, Category XX (2732)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! !! Wins !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2798
| || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 5½ || || || 2954
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2812
| ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 4 || || 2771
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2810
| 0 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4 || 3 || 2 || 2771
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2713
| ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 1 || 2786
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2706
| 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 1 || 1 || 3½ || 4 || || 2735
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2674
| ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 3½ || 3 || || 2740
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2687
| 0 || 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || || 1 || 2 || || || 2574
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2653
| 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || ½ || 0 || || 1½ || || || 2512
|-
|}
2017
45th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 15 – 23, 2017)
GM Vladimir Fedoseev qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2017.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 45th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 15–23 July 2017, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2725)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! !! Wins !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2736
| || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || 4½ || 4 || 2 || 14.75 || 2826
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2726
| ½ || || ½ || 1 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || 4 || 4 || 2 || 13.75 || 2775
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2791
| ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 1 || 13.50 || 2766
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2812
| ½ || 0 || ½ || || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 3½ || 3 || 1 || 11.75 || 2713
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2642
| ½ || 1 || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 0 || ½ || 3 || 4 || 1 || 11.25 || 2687
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2712
| ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 3 || 4 || 0 || 10.50 || 2677
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2699
| 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || 3 || 3 || 1 || 9.75 || 2679
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2683
| 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 3 || 3 || 0 || 10.25 || 2681
|-
|}
2018
46th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 14 – 22, 2018)
GM Vladislav Kovalev qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2018.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 46th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 14–22 July 2018, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2720)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! !! Wins !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2757
| || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 1 || ½ || 1 || 5 || 3 || 3 || 15.50 || 2873
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2782
| ½ || || 0 || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || 1 || 4 || 4 || 2 || 12.25 || 2761
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2655
| ½ || 1 || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 4 || 1 || 14.00 || 2778
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2737
| ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 0 || 1 || 1 || 4 || 3 || 2 || 12.75 || 2776
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2638
| 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 1 || 3½ || 4 || 1 || 10.50 || 2732
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2792
| 0 || 0 || ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || 3 || 3 || 1 || 10.00 || 2668
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2733
| ½ || ½ || ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || || ½ || 3 || 3 || 0 || 10.50 || 2660
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2672
| 0 || 0 || ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || || 1½ || 4 || 0 || 5.00 || 2501
|-
|}
2019
47th Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting (July 13 – 21, 2019)
GM Kaido Külaots qualified as the winner of Aeroflot Open 2019.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ 47th Sparkassen Chess-Meeting, 13–21 July 2019, Dortmund, Germany, Category XIX (2705)
! !! Player !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! Points !! !! Wins !! SB !! TPR
|-
|-style="background:#ccffcc;"
| 1 || align=left | || 2760
| || 1 || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || ½ || ½ || 4½ || || || || 2798
|-
| 2 || align=left | || 2775
| 0 || || ½ || 0 || ½ || 1 || 1 || 1 || 4 || 4 || 3 || || 2744
|-
| 3 || align=left | || 2737
| ½ || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 1 || 4 || 4 || 1 || || 2749
|-
| 4 || align=left | || 2735
| ½ || 1 || ½ || || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 1 || 14.00 || 2750
|-
| 5 || align=left | || 2759
| ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 1 || ½ || ½ || 4 || 3 || 1 || 13.25 || 2746
|-
| 6 || align=left | || 2667
| 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || || ½ || 1 || 2½ || 4 || 1 || || 2607
|-
| 7 || align=left | || 2574
| ½ || 0 || ½ || ½ || ½ || ½ || || 0 || 2½ || 4 || 0 || || 2623
|-
| 8 || align=left | || 2644
| ½ || 0 || 0 || ½ || ½ || 0 || 1 || || 2½ || 3 || || || 2612
|-
|}
FM Thomas Michalczak (2239) won Sparkassen Chess Meeting Open A swiss-system tournament with the score 7½/9 and performance rating 2533.
References
Winners list and Reports since 1973 by Gerhard Hund (German)
External links
DORTMUND SPARKASSEN CHESS MEETING 2005
The Games of Dortmund Sparkassen 2005
2008 edition from TWIC
Chess competitions
Chess in Germany
1973 in chess
Recurring sporting events established in 1973
International sports competitions hosted by Germany
Sport in Dortmund |
4221870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan%20O%27Brien | Conan O'Brien | Conan Christopher O'Brien (born April 18, 1963) is an American television host, comedian, writer, and producer. He is best known for having hosted late-night talk shows for almost 28 years, beginning with Late Night with Conan O'Brien (1993–2009) and The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien (2009–2010) on the NBC television network, and Conan (2010–2021) on the cable channel TBS. Before his hosting career, O'Brien was a writer for the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live from 1988 to 1991, and the Fox animated sitcom The Simpsons from 1991 to 1993. He has also been host of the podcast series Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend since 2018 and is set to launch a travel show, Conan O'Brien Must Go, on Max.
Born in Brookline, Massachusetts, O'Brien was raised in an Irish Catholic family. He served as president of The Harvard Lampoon while attending Harvard University, and was a writer for the sketch comedy series Not Necessarily the News. After writing for several comedy shows in Los Angeles, he joined the writing staff of Saturday Night Live. O'Brien was a writer and producer for The Simpsons for two seasons until he was selected by Lorne Michaels and NBC to take over David Letterman's position as host of Late Night in 1993. Despite unfavorable reviews and threats of cancellation in the show's first years, O'Brien and the show developed and became highly regarded, earning a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series. He hosted Late Night for 16 years, and as of 2023 is the longest-serving host of the franchise.
In 2009, O'Brien moved from New York to Los Angeles to host his own incarnation of The Tonight Show for seven months until highly publicized network politics prompted a host change in 2010. After this departure, O'Brien hosted a 32-city live comedy tour titled The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour, which was the subject of the documentary Conan O'Brien Can't Stop (2011). He then hosted Conan from 2010 to 2021. Throughout his career, he has also hosted a number of awards shows and television specials, including the Emmy Awards in 2002 and 2006 and the White House Correspondents' dinner in 1995 and 2013. Conan was named one of Times 100 Most Influential People in 2010.
Known for his spontaneous hosting style, which has been characterized by The New York Times as "awkward, self-deprecating humor", O'Brien's late-night programs combine the "lewd and wacky with more elegant, narrative-driven short films". His segments outside the studio, dubbed "remotes", have also become some of his best-received work, including the international travel series Conan Without Borders. With the retirement of David Letterman on May 20, 2015, O'Brien became the longest-working late-night talk show host active in the United States. This active streak ended with O'Brien's retirement from late-night television in June 2021, with his entire run as a late-night host lasting almost 28 years.
Early life
O'Brien was born on April 18, 1963, in Brookline, Massachusetts. His father, Thomas Francis O'Brien (b. 1929), is a physician and professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School where he specializes in epidemiology. His mother, Ruth O'Brien (née Reardon; b. 1931), is a retired attorney and former partner at the Boston firm Ropes & Gray. O'Brien has three brothers and two sisters. O'Brien attended Brookline High School, where he served as the managing editor of the school newspaper, then called The Sagamore. He was a congressional intern for Congressmen Robert Drinan and Barney Frank, and in his senior year won the National Council of Teachers of English writing contest with his short story "To Bury the Living".
After graduating as valedictorian in 1981, O'Brien entered Harvard University. He lived in Holworthy Hall during his first year with future businessman Luis Ubiñas and two other roommates, and in Mather House during his three upper-class years. He majored in History & Literature, and graduated magna cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1985. O'Brien's senior thesis, entitled Literary Progeria in the Works of William Faulkner and Flannery O'Connor, concerned the use of children as symbols in the works of William Faulkner and Flannery O'Connor. During college, O'Brien briefly played drums in a band called the Bad Clams and was a writer for the Harvard Lampoon humor magazine. During his sophomore and junior years, he served as the Lampoons president. At this time, O'Brien's future boss at NBC, Jeff Zucker, was serving as president of the school newspaper The Harvard Crimson.
Career
Saturday Night Live (1988–1991)
After graduating from Harvard, O'Brien moved to Los Angeles to join the writing staff of HBO's sketch comedy series Not Necessarily the News. He was also a writer on the short-lived The Wilton North Report. He spent two years with that show and performed regularly with improvisational groups, including The Groundlings. In January 1988, Saturday Night Live (SNL) executive producer Lorne Michaels hired O'Brien as a writer. During his three years on SNL, he wrote such recurring sketches as "Mr. Short-Term memory" and "The Girl Watchers"; the latter was first performed by Tom Hanks and Jon Lovitz.
While on a writers' strike from Saturday Night Live following the 1987–88 season, O'Brien put on an improvisational comedy revue in Chicago with fellow SNL writers Bob Odenkirk and Robert Smigel called Happy Happy Good Show. While living in Chicago, O'Brien briefly shared an apartment with Jeff Garlin near Wrigley Field. In 1989, O'Brien and his fellow SNL writers received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series.
O'Brien, like many SNL writers, occasionally appeared as an extra in sketches; his most notable appearance was as a doorman in a sketch in which Tom Hanks was inducted into the SNL "Five-Timers Club" for hosting his fifth episode in 1990. O'Brien and Robert Smigel wrote the television pilot for Lookwell starring Adam West, which aired on NBC in 1991. Despite the support from NBC president Brandon Tartikoff, the pilot never went to series. Despite the negative reviews, it became a cult hit. It was later screened at The Other Network, a festival of unaired TV pilots produced by Un-Cabaret; it featured an extended interview with O'Brien and was rerun in 2002 on the Trio network.
In 1991, O'Brien quit Saturday Night Live, citing burnout and his recent engagement to be married. "I told Lorne Michaels I couldn't come back to work and I just needed to do something else," O'Brien recalled. "I had no plan whatsoever. I was literally in this big transition phase in my life where I decided, I'll just walk around New York City, and an idea will come to me." After leaving the show, O'Brien returned to host the show in 2001 during its 26th season. He returned to Saturday Night Live on the February 26, 2022 episode as a guest during a Five-Timers Club skit.
The Simpsons (1991–1993)
Mike Reiss and Al Jean, then showrunners of the animated sitcom The Simpsons, called O'Brien and offered him a job. The series was prestigious in the writing community at the time; O'Brien recalls "everyone wanted to be on that show, but they never hired." O'Brien was one of the first hires after the show's original crew. With the help of an old Groundlings friend, actor Lisa Kudrow, O'Brien purchased an apartment in Beverly Hills. He and Kudrow became involved as well, and Kudrow believed he should begin performing rather than writing. O'Brien disagreed, feeling that Kudrow was flattering him, and asserting he was happy as a writer. In his speech given at Class Day at Harvard in 2000, O'Brien credited The Simpsons with saving him, a reference to the career slump he was experiencing before being hired for the show.
From 1991 to 1993, O'Brien was a writer and producer for The Simpsons. When O'Brien first arrived at the Fox lot, they temporarily gave him writer Jeff Martin's office. O'Brien was nervous and self-conscious, feeling that he would embarrass himself in front of what he regarded as an intimidating collection of writers. O'Brien would pitch characters in their voices, as he thought that was the norm, until Reiss informed him that no one did this. He fit in quickly, commanding control of the room frequently; writer Josh Weinstein called it a "ten-hour Conan show, nonstop". According to John Ortved, one of his fellow writers said that Conan had been a shoo-in to take over as showrunner.
O'Brien wrote some of the series' most acclaimed episodes: "Marge vs. the Monorail" and "Homer Goes to College". The show was initially a highly realistic family sitcom; after O'Brien's debut, the show took a rapid shift in the direction of the surreal. O'Brien also has sole writing credits on "New Kid on the Block" and "Treehouse of Horror IV", on which he wrote the episode wraparounds. Wallace Wolodarsky described a "room character" Conan put on for the writers: "Conan used to do this thing called the Nervous Writer that involved him opening a can of Diet Coke and then nervously pitching a joke. He would spray Diet Coke all over himself, and that was always a source of endless amusement among us." During his time at The Simpsons, O'Brien also had a side project working with Smigel on the script for a musical film based on the "Hans and Franz" sketch from Saturday Night Live, but the film was never produced.Interview with Kevin Nealon. Conan. December 2, 2010.
Meanwhile, David Letterman was preparing to leave the talk show Late Night, prompting executive producer Lorne Michaels to search for a new host. Michaels approached O'Brien to produce; then-agent Gavin Polone stressed that O'Brien wanted to perform, rather than produce. He arranged with Michaels that O'Brien would do a test audition on the stage of The Tonight Show. Jason Alexander and Mimi Rogers were the guests, and the audience was composed of Simpsons writers. Wolodarksky recalled the experience: "Seeing this friend of yours, this guy that you worked with, walk out from behind that curtain and deliver a monologue was like something you could only dream up that you couldn't ever imagine actually happening." The performance was beamed by satellite to New York, where Lorne Michaels and NBC executives watched. The audition was not well received by media commentators, citing his "awkward" humor.
O'Brien was picked as the new host of Late Night on April 26, 1993. During pre-production, writer Robert Smigel suggested fellow writer Andy Richter to sit beside O'Brien and act as a sidekick. As the writers headed to the voice record for "Homer Goes to College", O'Brien received a phone call from Polone informing him of the decision. "He was passed out facedown into this horrible shag carpet. He was just quiet and comatose down there on that carpet," recalled postproduction supervisor Michael Mendel. "I remember looking at him and saying, 'Wow. Your life is about to change, in a really dramatic way.'" Fox, however, would not let O'Brien out of his contract. Eventually, NBC and O'Brien split the cost to get him out of the contract.Jean, Al. (2004). Commentary for "Cape Feare", in The Simpsons: The Complete Fifth Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. After O'Brien's departure, the writers at The Simpsons would watch videotaped episodes of Late Night at lunch the day following their midnight broadcast and analyze them.
Late Night (1993–2009)
Late Night with Conan O'Brien, originating from Studio 6A at 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City, premiered on September 13, 1993, to unfavorable reviews from contemporary critics. This reception was not completely unsurprising: there was significant public apprehension due to O'Brien being virtually unknown to the public, and O'Brien himself wrote a self-deprecating The New York Times piece titled "O'Brien Flops!" on the day of the show's premiere. Critics attacked O'Brien: Tom Shales of The Washington Post suggested that "the host resume his previous identity, Conan O'Blivion." Generally, critics viewed O'Brien as nervous and fidgety on-camera, and that he was "too smart, too East Coast, too sophisticated, too young and even too tall to be successful." The show was constantly at risk for cancellation; at one low point in 1994, NBC threatened to put him on a week-to-week contract. Executives were anxious to replace him with Greg Kinnear, who followed O'Brien with Later at 1:30 am. Interns filled empty seats in the audience while affiliates began to inquire about replacement hosts. In one installment after a short stretch of reruns, sidekick Andy Richter described his vacation activities as follows: "I sat back and reminded myself what it's like to be unemployed." The in-joke alluded to the rumors floating in the trades that NBC was near canceling the program.
Late Night under O'Brien slowly but steadily acquired commercial and critical success. Banter between O'Brien and Richter improved, and sketches grew in popularity ("If They Mated", "Desk Drive", "In the Year 2000"). A reliable staple involved a TV screen, lowered behind O'Brien's desk and displaying a still photo of a news figure. The lips and voice of these characters – frequently a party-crazed hillbilly interpretation of Bill Clinton – were supplied by writing partner Robert Smigel. A turning point was David Letterman's February 1994 appearance. "It was a morale boost," said O'Brien. "I'm thinking, If the guy who created the 12:30 thing comes on and says we're smart and funny, let's go." The show went through a wobble in January 1995 when Robert Smigel, feeling burned out, quit as head writer. The show's quality improved slowly over time, and most credit O'Brien's growing comedic performance. Within a year, a comedic formula began to arise: the show would combine the lewd and wacky with a more elegant, narrative-driven remotes. Aside from the studio sketches, the show featured segments that occurred in the field, called remotes. One famous remote was when Conan visited a historic, Civil War-era baseball league. That piece was one of O'Brien's personal favorites, later remarking, "When I leave this earth, at the funeral, just show this, because this pretty much says who I'm all about."
O'Brien's audience, largely young and male (a coveted demographic), grew steadily and the show began to best competitors in the ratings, and continued to do so for 15 seasons. In the early days of the Internet, fans launched unofficial websites, compiling precise summaries of each episode. Even Tom Shales was a convert: he called the show "one of the most amazing transformations in television history." Beginning in 1996, O'Brien and the Late Night writing team were nominated annually for the Emmy Award for Best Writing in a Comedy or Variety Series, winning the award for the first and only time in 2007. In 1997, 2000, 2002, 2003, and 2004, he and the Late Night writing staff won the Writers Guild Award for Best Writing in a Comedy/Variety Series. In 2001, he formed his own television production company, Conaco, which subsequently shared in the production credits for Late Night.
, Late Night with Conan O'Brien had for eleven years consistently attracted an audience averaging about 2.5 million viewers. The apotheosis of the Late Night remotes centered on the realization, in 2006, that O'Brien bore a striking resemblance to Tarja Halonen, entering her second term as president of Finland. Capitalizing on the resemblance and on the 2006 Finnish presidential election, O'Brien and Late Night aired mock political ads both in support of Halonen and against her main opponent Sauli Niinistö, which influenced popular perception of the race, which Halonen eventually won. O'Brien traveled to Finland shortly after the election. "We took the show to Helsinki for five days," O'Brien recalled, "where we were embraced like a national treasure." As part of the five-day trip, which was released as a one-hour special episode of Late Night, O'Brien met with Halonen at the Finnish Presidential Palace.
During the writers' strike in 2008, O'Brien staged a mock feud with Comedy Central's Jon Stewart (of The Daily Show) and Stephen Colbert (of The Colbert Report) over a dispute about which of the three were responsible for giving a "bump" to Mike Huckabee's campaign to become the Republican presidential nominee. This feud crossed over all three shows during the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike.
On February 20, 2009, NBC aired the last episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien. The show consisted of a compilation of previous Late Night clips and included a surprise appearance by former sidekick Andy Richter. Will Ferrell, John Mayer, and the White Stripes also appeared. O'Brien ended the episode by destroying the set with an axe, handing out the pieces of the set to the audience, and thanking a list of people who helped him. Among those thanked were Lorne Michaels, David Letterman, Jay Leno, and O'Brien's wife and children.
In 2019, clips from O'Brien's time on Late Night began to be posted on his TBS website and on the Team Coco YouTube channel.
The Tonight Show (2009–2010)
As part of a new contract negotiated with NBC in 2004, the network decided that O'Brien would take over The Tonight Show from Jay Leno in 2009. Leno then moved to a prime time slot, named The Jay Leno Show. Hosting The Tonight Show was a lifelong dream of O'Brien's, and the promise of succeeding Leno kept him in NBC's employ despite the fact that he likely could have secured a more lucrative deal at another network. O'Brien was a guest on Jay Leno's final episode of The Tonight Show. On June 1, 2009, Will Ferrell became Conan's first Tonight Show guest on the couch and Pearl Jam appeared as his first musical guest.
Conan acquired the nickname "Coco'''" after its use in the first "Twitter Tracker" sketch during the second episode of his Tonight Show run. Guest Tom Hanks used the nickname during his subsequent interview, even getting the audience to chant it. In reaction to the moniker, Conan remarked to Hanks in jest, "If that catches on, I'll sue you." During the taping of the Friday, September 25, 2009, episode of The Tonight Show, O'Brien suffered a mild concussion after he slipped and hit his head while running a race as part of a comedy sketch with guest Teri Hatcher. He was examined at a hospital and released the same day. A rerun was aired that night, but O'Brien returned to work the following Monday and poked fun at the incident.
By November 2009, ratings for O'Brien's The Tonight Show declined by around 2 million viewers since the previous year when Leno was host. On January 7, 2010, NBC executive Jeff Zucker met with Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien to discuss how to move Leno out of prime time, where his ratings were lackluster, and back into late night. It was proposed that O'Brien would remain as host of The Tonight Show, which would run at 12:05 am with Leno hosting a 30-minute show at 11:35 pm. Three days later, NBC Universal Television Entertainment chairman Jeff Gaspin confirmed that The Jay Leno Show would be moved to 11:35 pm following NBC's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Sources familiar with the situation stated that O'Brien was unhappy and disappointed with NBC's plan. On January 12, O'Brien released this statement: "I sincerely believe that delaying The Tonight Show into the next day to accommodate another comedy program will seriously damage what I consider to be the greatest franchise in the history of broadcasting. The Tonight Show at 12:05 simply isn't The Tonight Show." On January 21, 2010, it was announced that Conan had reached a deal with NBC that would see him exit The Tonight Show the next day. The deal also granted him $45 million, of which $12 million was designated for distribution to his staff, who had moved with Conan to Los Angeles from New York when he left Late Night.
The final Tonight Show with Conan aired January 22, 2010, and featured guests Tom Hanks, Steve Carell (who did an exit interview and shredded Conan's ID badge), Neil Young (singing "Long May You Run"), and Will Ferrell. For Ferrell's appearance, Conan played guitar with the band and Ferrell sang "Free Bird" while reprising his SNL cowbell. Ferrell's wife, Viveca Paulin, together with Ben Harper, Beck, and ZZ Top guitarist Billy Gibbons, also joined the band for this final performance.Conan O'Brien Thanks Fans in "Tonight" Farewell, The New York Times, January 23, 2010
Jay Leno returned to The Tonight Show following NBC's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. Under the $45 million deal with NBC, Conan was allowed to start working for another network as soon as September 2010. Conan's rumored next networks ranged from Fox to Comedy Central. Other networks reportedly interested in O'Brien included TNT, HBO, FX, Showtime, Revision3, and even the NBC Universal–owned USA Network.
Television hiatus and comedy tour (2010)
On February 8, 2010, it was reported that O'Brien was attempting to sell his Central Park West penthouse in New York with an asking price of $35 million. He had purchased the apartment in 2007 for $10 million. Two years earlier, O'Brien had purchased a home in the Brentwood section of Los Angeles for over $10.5 million. Some industry insiders have speculated that O'Brien had chosen to stay on the west coast in order to facilitate a return to late night television and because he did not want to put his children through another move.
O'Brien was included in the 2010 Time 100, a list compiled by Time of the 100 most influential people in the world as voted on by readers. After being prohibited from making television appearances of any kind until May, O'Brien spoke about the Tonight Show conflict on the CBS newsmagazine 60 Minutes on May 2, 2010. During the interview with Steve Kroft, O'Brien said the situation felt "like a marriage breaking up suddenly, violently, quickly. And I was just trying to figure out what happened." He also said he "absolutely" expected NBC to give him more of a chance and that, if in Jay Leno's position, he would not have come back to The Tonight Show. However, Conan said he did not feel unfortunate. "It's crucial to me that anyone seeing this, if they take anything away from this, it's I'm fine. I'm doing great," said O'Brien. "I hope people still find me comedically absurd and ridiculous. And I don't regret anything."
On March 11, 2010, O'Brien announced via his Twitter account that he would embark on a 30-city live tour beginning April 12, 2010, entitled, "The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour". Co-host Andy Richter, along with members of the former Tonight Show Band, joined O'Brien on the tour. Max Weinberg, however, was not able to join, except for a guest appearance at one of Conan's New York City shows. On April 12, 2010, O'Brien opened his two-month comedy tour in Eugene, Oregon, with a crowd of 2,500 and no TV cameras. The tour traveled through America's Northwest and Canada before moving on to larger cities, including Los Angeles and New York City, where he performed at Radio City Music Hall, next to his former Late Night studios. The tour ended in Atlanta on June 14. In 2011, the documentary film titled Conan O'Brien Can't Stop was released which followed O'Brien throughout his comedy tour. The film premiered March 2011 at the South by Southwest media festival to positive reviews. It was directed by Rodman Flender who is O'Brien's personal friend and classmate at Harvard University.
Conan (2010–2021)
The day his live tour began, O'Brien announced that he would host a new show on cable station TBS. The show, Conan, debuted on November 8, 2010, and aired Monday through Thursday at 11:00 pm ET/10:00 pm CT. O'Brien's addition moved Lopez Tonight with George Lopez back one hour. Refusing at first to do to Lopez what had happened to him at NBC, O'Brien agreed to join the network after Lopez called to persuade him to come to TBS.
In February 2015, following the onset of the Cuban thaw, O'Brien became the first American television personality to film in Cuba for more than half a century. O'Brien then visited Armenia for his next show abroad, during which he featured his assistant Sona Movsesian, who is Armenian American. While visiting, Conan guest-starred as a gangster on an Armenian soap opera. In April 2016, O'Brien visited South Korea in response to a fan letter urging him to visit, as well as a growing fan base online. His visit included a trip to the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which resulted in O'Brien and Steven Yeun also visiting North Korea on a technicality by stepping across the border line at the DMZ. Conan commented on the significance during the sketch, claiming, "The idea that you and I could be in North Korea, talking and communicating freely, seems like kind of a cool message." These remotes were later branded Conan Without Borders and became part of their own series, with O'Brien eventually traveling to thirteen countries in total. The series became some of his most popular work, winning an Emmy in 2018. The international shows became available on Netflix before moving to HBO Max.
TBS extended the show through 2018 in 2014 and through 2022 in 2017. In late 2018, Conan took a three-month hiatus while O'Brien launched another national comedy tour. The show returned January 22, 2019, in a new half-hour format without the live band.
In response to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the program switched to a remotely-produced format from O'Brien's home beginning March 30, 2020. In July 2020, it was announced that Conan would continue with this format, but would be filmed with limited on-site staff from the Largo at the Coronet in Los Angeles and no studio audience — making it the first American late-night talk show to return to filming outside of the host's residence (albeit still not from its main studio). In November 2020, TBS announced that Conan would end in June 2021. The final show aired on June 24, 2021, featuring a live audience and marking the end of O'Brien's twenty-eight year run as a late-night host. It was announced that O'Brien will move to a weekly untitled variety show on fellow WarnerMedia property HBO Max, where he is expected to focus more on his podcast and travel shows with a relaxed production schedule. On his final show, O'Brien featured fictional character Homer Simpson, marking also the three episodes that O'Brien wrote for the series. Comedians Will Ferrell and Jack Black also paid their farewell to the show in the series finale.
Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend (2018–present)
In 2018, O'Brien's production company, Team Coco, partnered with Earwolf to launch his own weekly podcast, Conan O'Brien Needs a Friend. The podcast debuted November 18, 2018, with Will Ferrell as the first guest. O'Brien stated the title is tongue-in-cheek, saying he would like to see if celebrity guests would actually be his friends. In each episode, Conan is joined by his guest, as well as his assistant Sona Movsesian and the show's producer Matt Gourley. Guests on the podcast have included Barack and Michelle Obama, Stephen Colbert, and Bob Newhart among others. The podcast has received strong reviews and became the top podcast on iTunes. The podcast has also won numerous awards throughout its run. Deadline Hollywood reported that, as of August 2021, the podcast had been downloaded over 250 million times and was averaging more than 9 million downloads per month.
In May 2022, the podcast, as well as the entire Team Coco digital media business, was sold to SiriusXM for $150 million. This sale included all other Team Coco podcasts including Inside Conan and Parks and Recollection, as well as the development of a comedy channel for SiriusXM radio service.
On May 17, 2023, it was announced that a four-episode international travel series titled Conan O'Brien Must Go was in production, to be released on Max. The series will feature O'Brien meeting various fans in person whom he had previously featured via video calls in his podcast series Conan O'Brien Needs a Fan.
Other work
Television producer
O'Brien was executive producer and co-wrote the pilot of the 2007 NBC adventure/comedy series Andy Barker, P.I., starring O'Brien's sidekick Andy Richter. After six episodes and low ratings, the show was canceled despite being named one of the Top Ten Shows of 2007 by Entertainment Weekly. Later, USA Network ordered a pilot episode of the medical-themed Operating Instructions, which was produced by O'Brien's production company Conaco. In January 2010 NBC ordered two pilots from Conaco, the one-hour courtroom drama Outlaw and a half-hour comedy. Outlaw was produced in eight episodes and premiered on September 15, 2010.
Voice work
O'Brien's first guest appearance after beginning his late-night career was playing himself in the season five Simpsons episode "Bart Gets Famous", interviewing Bart Simpson during his rise to fame as a catchphrase comedian. In 1999, O'Brien made an appearance on Futurama in the second-season episode "Xmas Story". O'Brien played himself as a head in a jar and still alive in the year 3000. O'Brien has made multiple voice appearances on the Adult Swim series Robot Chicken, including the specials Robot Chicken: Star Wars and Robot Chicken: Star Wars Episode II.
Other voice work performed by O'Brien includes the voice of Robert Todd Lincoln in the audiobook version of Assassination Vacation by Sarah Vowell, the voice of talk show host Dave Endochrine in the 2013 DC Universe Animated Original Movie Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (Part 2), the voice of the character Kuchikukan in the "Operation: Lunacorn Apocalypse" episode of Nickelodeon's The Penguins of Madagascar, and the voice of Santa Claus in The Backyardigans episode "The Action Elves Save Christmas Eve".
Guest appearances
On the TV show 30 Rock, O'Brien is depicted as an ex-boyfriend of lead character Liz Lemon, who works in the same building. In the episode "Tracy Does Conan", Conan appears as himself, awkwardly reunited with Lemon and coerced by network executive Jack Donaghy into having the character Tracy Jordan on Late Night, despite having been assaulted in Jordan's previous appearance. O'Brien also made a cameo appearance on the U.S. version of The Office. In the episode "Valentine's Day", Michael believes that he spots former SNL cast member, Tina Fey, but has actually mistaken another woman for her. In the meantime, Conan has a quick walk-on, and the camera crew informs Michael when he returns from talking to the Tina Fey lookalike. In 2011, he starred as himself in the web series Web Therapy (opposite Lisa Kudrow) for three episodes. O'Brien also made a guest appearance as the "Wandering MC" in the 2019 video game Death Stranding, where he communicates with the player using voice lines and facial expressions recorded during his visit to Kojima Productions' headquarters.
Hosting duties
O'Brien has hosted several awards shows and television specials. He hosted the 54th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2002 and the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2006, to critical acclaim. He also hosted the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. In 2011 and 2012, O'Brien hosted the Christmas in Washington special for TBS' sister network, TNT, featuring celebrity performances and a special appearance by the Obama family both years.
Conan has served as the master of ceremonies for the White House Correspondents' Association dinner in Washington, D.C. twice, in 1995 and 2013. In 2016, O'Brien hosted the 5th Annual NFL Honors in San Francisco, California. He also hosted a reunion special in Northern Ireland for Game of Thrones in 2018 for the final season of the series. The special was released on HBO Max in 2021.
Influences and style
O'Brien lists among his comedic influences David Letterman, Peter Sellers, Sid Caesar, Warner Bros. Cartoons, Johnny Carson, Ernie Kovacs, Bob Hope, and Woody Allen. In turn, actors and comedians who claim O'Brien as an influence include Mindy Kaling, Pete Holmes, Seth Meyers, Nikki Glaser, John Krasinski, Moses Storm, Sam Richardson, Colin Jost, Kumail Nanjiani, Ron Funches, John Mulaney, Eric André, and Taylor Tomlinson. The military working dog Conan is reportedly named after O'Brien according to Newsweek.
On Late Night, O'Brien became known for his active and spontaneous hosting style, which has been characterized as "self-deprecating" by both media outlets and O'Brien himself. This spontaneity is also apparent in remotes in which he is put in novel and open-ended environments. Some of these, such as a "Civil War-era baseball" remote during Late Night and his international Conan Without Borders shows, are among his best-received work.
Personal life
O'Brien is the distant cousin of Bill O'Brien on their fathers' side. O'Brien met Elizabeth Ann "Liza" Powel in 2000, when she appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in an advertising skit involving Hilton Furniture and Foote, Cone & Belding, where she worked as senior copywriter. The couple dated for nearly 18 months before their 2002 marriage in Powel's hometown of Seattle. O'Brien and Powel have a daughter, Neve (born 2003) and a son, Beckett (born 2005).
O'Brien often affirms his Irish Catholic heritage. On a 2009 episode of Inside the Actors Studio, he stated that ancestors from both sides of his family moved to America from Ireland starting in the 1850s, subsequently marrying only other Irish Catholics, and that his lineage is thus 100% Irish Catholic. His entirely homogenous ancestry was confirmed via DNA test a decade later, which he shared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. O’Brien noted that being entirely descended from just one ethnic group is extremely rare, and that he being so “shocked” his doctor.
He has been a registered Democrat since casting his first vote for president in 1984 for Walter Mondale. He considers himself a moderate on the political spectrum. O'Brien founded the anti-hunger organization Labels Are For Jars with his friend and former Harvard dormmate Father Paul B. O'Brien. He also helped open the Cor Unum meal center in Lawrence, Massachusetts in 2006.
Starting in September 2006, O'Brien was stalked by Father David Ajemian of the Archdiocese of Boston, who, despite multiple warnings to stop, sent O'Brien letters signed as "your priest stalker". Ajemian later sent O'Brien death threats and tried to forcefully enter a taping of Late Night before being arrested. On April 8, 2008, Ajemian pleaded guilty to stalking, and was later laicized.
In January 2008, after his show was put on hold for two months owing to the strike by the Writers Guild of America, he reemerged on late-night TV sporting a beard, which guest Tom Brokaw described as making him look like "a draft dodger from the Civil War." After leaving The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien in 2010, O'Brien again grew a beard, which he kept until May 2011, when it was partially shaved on the set of Conan by Will Ferrell (and completely shaved off-screen by a professional barber).
O'Brien purchased a $10.5-million mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles, California, to prepare for his move there in 2009 from New York City to host The Tonight Show at Universal Studios Hollywood. As part of a long-running gag, he brought his 1992 Ford Taurus SHO with him to California, showcasing it on both the inaugural episodes of The Tonight Show and Conan. O'Brien purchased an ocean-front house in Carpinteria, California in 2016. He listed the house for sale for $16.5 million in July 2022.
On June 12, 2011, O'Brien was awarded an honorary Doctor of Arts degree from Dartmouth College. In addition to the honorary degree, he delivered the commencement speech. On October 21, 2011, O'Brien was ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery, allowing him to perform a same-sex marriage while back in New York, then one of the few states in the US where gay marriage was legal, to tape a week's worth of shows. The wedding, between a member of O'Brien's staff and his partner, was held on the stage of the Beacon Theatre on November 3, 2011, and broadcast on Conan''. The same-sex marriage ceremony was the first to be broadcast on American late night television.
Filmography
Television
Film
Video games
Music videos
Awards and nominations
Sources
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
1963 births
Living people
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4222109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Whitaker%20%28photographer%29 | Robert Whitaker (photographer) | Robert Whitaker (13 November 1939 – 20 September 2011) was a British photographer, best known internationally for his many photographs of The Beatles, taken between 1964 and 1966, with his best known work, the "Butcher Cover", which featured on the band's 1966's US-only album Yesterday and Today. He also worked with the rock group Cream, photos from which were used in the Martin Sharp-designed collage on the cover of their 1967 LP Disraeli Gears.
Biography
Early life and career
Robert Whitaker, born in Britain in 1939, described himself as "one part Aussie lad" since his father and his grandfather were both Australian. According to Whitaker, his grandfather built the Princes Bridge in Melbourne. Although he has worked mostly in Britain, Australia and Australian connections featured significantly in his life and career.
Whitaker began work in London as a photographer in the late 1950s but he moved to Melbourne in 1961, where he began studying at the University of Melbourne and became part of the small but flourishing Melbourne arts scene. According to art historian David Mellor, it was his three years in Australia that transformed Whitaker's work as a photographer. A major influence was undoubtedly his friendship with two of the leading figures of the Melbourne art world, Georges Mora and Mirka Mora, and through them he came into contact with numerous major figures in Australian art and letters including John Reed and Sunday Reed, Ian Sime, Charles and Barbara Blackman, Barrett Reid, Laurence Hope, Arthur Boyd, Sidney Nolan and Joy Hester, as well as his own peer group including Martin Sharp, Richard Neville, Barry Humphries and Germaine Greer. He photographed many of these people including Georges and Mirka Mora and their three sons, Philippe Mora (who became a noted filmmaker), future gallery owner William Mora and Tiriel Mora, later a successful Australian actor who featured in the satirical TV series Frontline and the acclaimed comedy film The Castle.
Meeting The Beatles
Whitaker was running a freelance penthouse photo studio in Flinders Street, Melbourne when he had his fateful meeting with The Beatles and their manager Brian Epstein, during their 1964 Australian tour. His meeting came about more or less by accident, when he was asked to accompany a journalist friend to an interview with Brian Epstein for an article for Melbourne community newspaper The Jewish News. Whitaker's first published photograph featuring the group depicted Paul McCartney and George Harrison each holding up boomerangs presented to them by their Australian fans.
Robert Whitaker: "I photographed Epstein, saw he was a bit of a peacock and a cavalier, and put peacock feathers around his head in photographic relief. He was knocked out when he saw the picture. After that, he saw an exhibition of collages I had at the Museum of Modern Art and immediately offered me the position of staff photographer at NEMS, photographing all his artists. I initially turned it down, but after seeing The Beatles perform at Festival Hall I was overwhelmed by all the screaming fans and I decided to accept the offer to return to England ".
Whitaker accepted the job three months later, but before he left he spent one final Sunday at the Aspendale beach house of his friends Georges and Mirka Mora, taking a set of historic pictures which were exhibited for the first time in the Monash Gallery of Art's 2003 exhibition of his work. In one photograph, "Aspendale Beach", the Mora family - Georges, Mirka and their sons Philippe, William and Tiriel - are pictured in slouched, single file on the beach with Martin Sharp and architect Peter Burns. In another photograph, "Goodbye Bob", the same group of people sit holding a sign which reads: "GOD bless thee and keep thee … ASPENDALE 1964".
On his arrival in England in August 1964, Whitaker set to work photographing the members of the NEMS stable including Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas, Gerry & The Pacemakers (including cover shots for the How Do You Like It and Ferry Across The Mersey LPs) and Cilla Black (including cover shots for the Cilla and Cilla Sings A Rainbow LPs). He also did several photographs of the hugely successful Australian folk-pop group The Seekers, including the cover shots for Seekers Seen In Green (1967); his Seekers photos were also later used for the CDs Live At The Talk Of The Town and The Seekers Complete boxed set and a more recent photo of Judith Durham was used on the cover of her 2001 solo CD Hang On to Your Dream.
But it was with The Beatles and especially John Lennon, with whom he became close friends, that Whitaker created his most famous and enduring work. On of his first assignments was photographing The Beatles during their triumphant second American tour, including the historic Shea Stadium concert in New York. He spent the next two years travelling with the Beatles and shooting them at work, at rest and at play—on their tours, at home, in the recording studio, during private moments, and in formal photo sessions. Among his best-known images of The Beatles are the album cover photos featured on their 1966 LP Revolver and the compilation album A Collection of Beatles Oldies.
With almost unlimited access to the most famous and popular band in the world, Whitaker quickly became a key figure of the London underground scene, capturing "the creativity and excess of London in the sixties". He has been quoted as saying: "There were about 100 people who ran the Sixties" and he was fortunate enough to meet, work with and/or photograph them virtually all of them.
As the group's 'court photographer' Whitaker was able to photograph the Fab Four in many moods and situations. He accompanied The Beatles on their 1966 tour of Japan. In Tokyo the tour promoter gave him a Nikon 21mm wide-angle lens with which he took numerous shots of The Beatles relaxing in their hotel room at the Tokyo Hilton. These include several photographs of the four at work on a collaborative painting "Images of A Woman", the only such artwork they ever undertook, and a colour photo of the group inspecting antiques, which was used on the back cover of the compilation album A Collection of Beatles Oldies.
But without doubt his most celebrated work is the 1966 photo which was appropriated for The Beatles’ (in)famous Yesterday & Today album cover in the USA.
"The Butcher Sleeve"
On 25 March 1966 The Beatles went to Whitaker's Chelsea studio for a session intended to take photos for the cover of (and/or to promote) their forthcoming single, "Rain/Paperback Writer". Band and photographer were all determined to create something more than the run-of-the-mill publicity shots. Among the resulting images was that which has since become known as the "Butcher" photo, depicting The Beatles wearing white coats and draped with dismembered doll parts, artificial eyes, slabs of meat and false teeth.
This now-legendary image, one of the most famous images of the group, was originally conceived as one of a triptych of photographs, and intended as a surreal, satirical pop-art observation on The Beatles’ fame. Whitaker's inspirations for the images included the work of German surrealist Hans Bellmer, notably his 1937 book Die Puppe (La Poupée). Bellmer's images of puppets were first published in the French Surrealist journal Minotaure in 1934. Whitaker has also cited Meret Oppenheim as another important influence, notably her most famous creation "Lunch In Fur" (1936), a disturbing creation in which she covered a cup, saucer and spoon entirely in fur.
Whitaker: "It's an apparent switch-around of how you think. Can you imagine actually drinking out of a fur tea cup? I did a photograph of the Beatles covered in raw meat, dolls and false teeth. Putting meat, dolls and false teeth with The Beatles is essentially part of the same thing, the breakdown of what is regarded as normal. The actual conception for what I still call "Somnambulant Adventure" was Moses coming down from Mt. Sinai with the Ten Commandments. He comes across people worshipping a golden calf. All over the world I'd watched people worshipping like idols, like gods, four Beatles. To me they were just stock standard normal people. But this emotion that fans poured on them made me wonder where Christianity was heading".
It has been claimed that The Beatles intended the Butcher Sleeve to be a protest at the way their music was being "butchered" by their American label, Capitol Records. In a Nov. 15 1991 interview with Goldmine magazine, Whitaker discussed the Butcher Sleeve at length, and unequivocally put the "protest" claims to rest:
Goldmine: "How did that photo, featuring the Beatles among slabs of meat and decapitated dolls, come about? Was it your idea or the Beatles?"
Whitaker: It was mine. Absolutely. It was part of three pictures that should have gone into an icon. And it was a rough. If you could imagine, the background of that picture should have been all gold. Around the heads would have gone silver halos, jewelled. Then there are two other pictures that are in the book (The Unseen Beatles), but not in colour.
Goldmine: How did you prepare for the shoot?
Whitaker: It was hard work. I had to go to the local butcher and get pork. I had to go to a doll factory and find the dolls. I had to go to an eye factory and find the eyes. False teeth. There's a lot in that photograph. I think John's almost-last written words were about that particular cover; that was pointed out to me by Martin Harrison, who wrote the text to my book. I didn't even know that, but I'm learning a lot.
Goldmine: Why meat and dolls? There's been a lot of conjecture over the years about what that photo meant. The most popular theory is that it was a protest by the Beatles against Capitol Records for supposedly "butchering" their records in the States.
Whitaker: Rubbish, absolute nonsense. If the trilogy or triptych of the three photographs had ever come together, it would have made sense. There is another set of photos in the book which is the Beatles with a girl with her back toward you, hanging on to sausages. Those sausages were meant to be an umbilical cord. Does this start to open a few chapters?
Goldmine: Were you aware when you shot it that Capitol Records was going to use it as a record cover?
Whitaker: No.
Goldmine: Were you upset when they did and then when they pulled it and replaced it with another photo?
Whitaker: Well, I shot that photo too, of them sitting on a trunk, the one that they pasted over it. I fairly remember being bewildered by the whole thing. I had no reason to be bewildered by it, purely and simply, because it could certainly be construed as a fairly shocking collection of bits and pieces to stick on a group of people and represent that [the "butchering" of the Beatles' records] in this country [the U.S.].
Interviewed at the time (1966) in the British music magazine Disc and Music Echo, Whitaker said:
"I wanted to do a real experiment - people will jump to wrong conclusions about it being sick, but the whole thing is based on simplicity -- linking four very real people with something real. I got George to knock some nails into John’s head, and took some sausages along to get some other pictures, dressed them up in white smocks as butchers, and this is the result -- the use of the camera as a means of creating situations."
Whitaker was later quoted as saying that the basic motivation for making "A Somnambulant Adventure" came from the fact that he and The Beatles were "really fed up at taking what one had hoped would be designer-friendly publicity pictures"; in the interview conducted just before his death in 1980, John Lennon confirmed this.
"It was inspired by our boredom and resentment at having to do another photo session and another Beatles thing. We were sick to death of it. Bob was into Dalí and making surreal pictures."
Whitaker intended the triptych to be his "personal comment on the mass adulation of the group and the illusory nature of stardom … I had toured quite a lot of the world with them by then, and I was continually amused by the public adulation of four people".
The images in the triptych were conceived as the foundation of a much more elaborate work. He had planned to retouch the photos to give them the appearance of religious icons. The background was to be painted gold like a Russian icon and to have the Fab Four's heads surrounded by jewelled halos, with the photos bordered in rainbow colours. This decoration, contrasted with the bizarre situations of the photos themselves, was evidently intended to create a surreal juxtaposition between the band's image and celebrity, and the underlying fact that they were just as real and human as everyone else.
Whitaker: "John played with all sorts of bits and pieces before we actually did the picture. I did a few outtake pictures which were of them actually playing with a box full of dolls which they pulled out and stuck all over themselves. There was an enormous amount of laughter. There was even George Harrison banging nails into John's head with a hammer. The actual conception of what is termed the ‘Butcher's Sleeve’ is a reasonably diverse piece of thinking ..."
"...the [Butcher] cover was an unfinished concept. It was just one of a series of photographs that would have made up a gate-fold cover. Behind the head of each Beatle would have been a golden halo and in the halo would have been placed a semi-precious stone. Then the background would have contained more gold, so it was rather like a Russian icon. It was just after John Lennon had said that the Beatles were more popular than Jesus Christ. In a material world that was an extremely true statement."
The three main images taken at the March 25 session were intended to be the basis for the three panels of the triptych. The first photo shows The Beatles facing a woman with her back to the camera, her hands raised as if in surprise (or worship) while The Beatles hold a string of sausages. This was meant to represent the 'birth' of the Beatles, with the sausages serving as an umbilical cord. Whitaker explained: "My own thought was how the hell do you show that they've been born out of a woman the same as anybody else? An umbilical cord was one way of doing it."
The centre panel of the triptych is the image nowadays referred to as the "butcher" photo. It shows The Beatles dressed in butchers’ coats, draped with slabs of red meat, false teeth, glass eyes and dismembered doll parts. This picture was actually titled "A Somnambulant Adventure" and Bob's intention was to add other elements to it which would create a jarring juxtaposition between idolisation of The Beatles’ as gods of the pop world and their flesh and blood reality as ordinary human beings, but he was never able to realise this.
The photograph that would have been used for the right-hand panel of the triptych is one of George Harrison standing behind a seated John Lennon, hammer in hand, apparently driving nails into John's head. Whitaker explained that this picture was intended to demonstrate that the Beatles were not an illusion, not something to be worshipped, but people as real and substantial as "a piece of wood".
A fourth picture taken at the same session, but apparently not planned as part of the triptych, is also included in Whitaker's book The Unseen Beatles. It shows John framing Ringo's head with a cardboard box, on one of the flaps of which is written "2,000,000".
"I wanted to illustrate that, in a way, there was nothing more amazing about Ringo than anyone else on this earth. In this life he was just one of two million members of the human race. The idolization of fans reminded me of the story of the worship of the golden calf."
Like the famous 1963 photo of Christine Keeler taken by his contemporary Lewis Morley, Whitaker's "Butcher" photo soon passed out of his control and took on a life of its own. The Beatles themselves seem to have been behind the use of the photo in British trade advertisements and then on the cover of the Capitol album Yesterday and Today. The prime mover seems to have been Paul McCartney. In his book Shout, Beatles biographer Philip Norman claims that Brian Epstein had "misgivings" about the picture and felt it would disrupt the band's meticulously managed image, which had taken a hammering in the wake of the "bigger than Jesus" controversy. But according to Norman, the band overruled him.
Interestingly, the "Butcher" photo made three appearances in print in the UK before it was released in the USA on the cover of Yesterday And Today. It was first published on page 2 of New Musical Express on 3 June 1966 in an EMI advertisement promoting the forthcoming "Rain/Paperback Writer" single, and the same ad was published in Disc and Music Echo the next day, June 4. Both these versions were in monochrome. Its third appearance (and its first in colour) was on the front page of Disc and Music Echo on 11 June 1966 under the headline, "BEATLES: WHAT A CARVE-UP!" It can also reportedly be glimpsed in photos taken during the making of the Rain and Paperback Writer promotional film-clips, shot on 19 May, in which Paul McCartney can be seen inspecting transparencies from the 25 March photo session. None of these appearances seem to have caused any appreciable adverse reaction in the UK, even though they were published only days before Capitol's promotional release of the "Butcher Sleeve" version of Yesterday and Today.
At this time, up to and including Revolver, all The Beatles' American LPs (released by Capitol Records) differed markedly from the original UK releases from EMI. The Capitol LPs were collections of material culled from the Beatles' previously-released British albums and singles, selected and packaged by Capitol especially for the American market. Yesterday And Today included songs from the earlier Help! and Rubber Soul LPs plus, unusually, four songs from Revolver, which would not be released in Britain for another three weeks. It was Capitol's habit of cherry-picking album tracks and singles to compiled their own albums that was the origin of the claims about the Butcher Sleeve being some kind of protest against the American label.
Capitol printed the cover in early June, using the "Butcher" photo, and the release was scheduled for 15 June 1966. Estimates vary considerably as to how many copies of the album were printed and/or distributed. Whitaker puts the number at 250,000 but other sources range from as high as 750,000 to 400,000 to as low as 60,000. According to another estimate, about 25,000 copies were sold prior to the recall. Mojo magazine reported that 60,000 copies were distributed to radio, media and Capitol branch offices, who showed it to retailers.
Whitaker: "Having finished that particular picture, it was snatched away from me and sent off to America. It was reproduced as a record cover without ever having the artwork completed by me. The cover layout was somebody else's conception. It was a good idea to ban it at the time, because it made no sense at all. It was just this rather horrific image of four Beatles, whom everybody loved, covered in raw meat, the arms, legs and torsos of dolls, and false teeth. But they are only objects placed on the Beatles, rather like making a movie. I mean what you want to read into it is entirely up to you. I was trying to show that the Beatles were flesh and blood."
It has been suggested that Lennon was the main impetus behind the photo being used, but according to Alan Livingstone, Capitol's former president, (quoted in Mojo magazine in 2002), the decision to use the photo used on Yesterday And Today was taken largely at the insistence of Paul McCartney:
Alan Livingstone: "The reaction came back that the dealers refused to handle them. I called London and we went back and forth. My contact was mainly with Paul McCartney. He was adamant and felt very strongly that we should go forward. He said ‘It’s our comment on the war’. I don’t know why it was a comment on the war or if it would be interpreted that way."
Capitol were understandably nervous about adverse publicity, and could ill-afford another Beatles-related controversy. The label was still reeling from the fallout from John Lennon's notorious "bigger than Jesus" quip in March 1966, which had sparked a wave of protests and record burnings in conservative areas of the United States. The company reacted swiftly, issuing letters of apology, and on Tuesday 14 June, Capitol PR manager Ron Tepper issued an official letter of recall in which he quoted a statement from Capitol's president, Alan W. Livingston:
"The original cover, created in England, was intended as a ‘pop art' satire. However a sampling of public opinion in the United States indicates that the cover design is subject to misinterpretation. For this reason, and to avoid any possible controversy or undeserved harm to the Beatles' image or reputation, Capitol has chosen to withdraw the LP and substitute a more generally acceptable design."
The "Butcher sleeve" LPs were withdrawn and returned, and a new cover was hastily prepared at a reported cost of $250,000. The offending Butcher photo was replaced by an unremarkable Whitaker shot of the Beatles gathered around a large steamer trunk, taken in Brian Epstein's office. It was rushed to America, where Capitol staff spent the following weekend taking the discs from the returned "butcher" sleeves and putting them in the new sleeve. Several thousand copies of the original cover were destroyed and replaced by the ‘cabin trunk’ sleeve, but Capitol eventually decided that it would be more economical to simply paste the new cover photo over the old one. After the album was released, news of the ‘paste-over’ operation leaked out, and Beatle fans across America began steaming the cabin trunk photos off of their copies of Yesterday and Today in the hope of finding the "butcher" cover underneath.
The Butcher cover is still one of the most valuable and sought-after pieces of Beatle memorabilia. George Harrison himself called it "the definitive Beatles collectible" and Bob Whitaker relates the story of a woman who came up to him with an unpeeled ‘paste-over’ cover in the US, had him autograph it, and promptly sold it for US$40,000.
The scarcest copies of Yesterday and Today are the so-called "first state" versions, those still in their original shrink-wrapping, and the rarest and most valuable of these are the ‘first-state’ stereo pressings. Prior to 1987, there were only two sealed stereo copies and about six mono copies known to exist. Then, on Thanksgiving weekend 1987 at the Los Angeles Beatlefest convention, Peter Livingston, the son of former Capitol Records President Alan Livingston, walked into the Beatlefest dealer room at the show carrying a box of original first-state Butcher cover albums. Nearly every copy was sealed and in mint condition.
It transpired that after the recall in 1966, Peter's father had taken home a full box of the albums (five stereo and about twenty mono copies) from the inventory that would otherwise have had the new cover pasted over it. Stored in a cupboard under perfect conditions in the Livingston home, the albums lay untouched for twenty-one years. A canny collector instantly negotiated a purchase for one of the two stereo copies for US$2500 and a crowd quickly grew as word spread. The asking price for the mono copies was US$1000 and within a matter of minutes, the ten mono and two stereo copies were sold. Some of these copies were resold during the show for even higher sums; just one week later the prices had climbed to US$2000 for mono copies and US$10,000 for the stereo.
Over the next few months, under pressure from collectors, Peter Livingston slowly sold the remaining mono copies, by which time the price has risen to US$3000. Since then the price of mono copies has risen to over $5000. In the early 1990s the best of the four of the four sealed stereo Livingston copies sold to a US collector for $20,000 cash, a world-record price. In 1994 this was sold to a California collector for US$25,000.
Disraeli Gears
By 1967 The Beatles had withdrawn from touring and during the first half of 1967 they were ensconced in Abbey Rd working on their magnum opus, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club. With the demands of touring now removed, Whitaker's association with The Beatles and NEMS came to an end. By this time he was living and working in a residential studio space which he called Joubert Studios, located in the well-known building called The Pheasantry in King's Rd, Chelsea. This venerable artists’ colony was also home to some old friends from Australia—Martin Sharp and Philippe Mora and Germaine Greer.
Martin Sharp: "Bob setting to work with The Beatles was a real breakthrough. When Richard Neville and I left for England, Bob was on the top on my list of people to contact."
Whitaker's next major project, and one of his most famous collaborations, was created with Sharp—the classic psychedelic album cover for the landmark 1967 LP Disraeli Gears by British supergroup Cream.
Whitaker: "Cream were going to do a tour of the north of England and Scotland. I just jumped in a car. Various things presented themselves to us on our journey around Scotland, none of which I could have recreated in a studio. I was very lucky that Martin had discovered day-glo paint. I had all the pictures, which I knew were for some form of publicity. I made a whole series of colour prints and Martin just started cutting them up - much to my annoyance, because they weren't cheap to do. He then laid them out on a 12-inch square as a piece of finished artwork and then painted all over it."
Whitaker's friendship with Martin Sharp and Greer also led to him becoming closely involved with Oz magazine in 1967-68 and he contributed to many of the early editions of the famous underground magazine, including a famous collage depicting a woman seated on a flying toilet symbolically defecating on the British Houses of Parliament.
Later career
Over the next few years Whitaker gradually moved away from the pop scene and back to the art world where he had begun his photographic career. One of his most famous subjects from this period was a longtime hero, the doyen of surrealism, Salvador Dalí, whom he photographed several times between 1967 and 1972. He first met Dalí at his Spanish mansion and told him that he wanted to use his camera "to get inside his head".
Whitaker: "I said: 'I'll photograph inside every hole I can find'. I started by photographing his ears, then inside his mouth and up his nose."
The photos he took include three extreme close-ups of Dalí, plus one of Whitaker's wife Susie basking topless under the Spanish sun alongside the artist. The extreme close-ups were the first steps towards a photographic style that he finally developed fully in the 1990s, a concept he now calls the "Whitograph", shooting extreme close-ups with all 36 exposures of a roll of film to create a single portrait.
In 1969 he photographed Mick Jagger (who nicknamed him "Super Click") during the production of the Nicholas Roeg film Performance and he accompanied Jagger to Australia to photograph him on location during the filming of Ned Kelly. These were published in book form in 1970 under the title Mick Jagger Is Ned Kelly.
Whitaker also worked as a photojournalist, covering major world events for Time and Life magazines, including the Florence floods, the war in Cambodia and Vietnam and the bloody war of independence in Bangladesh. One of the most famous photographs from this period, the eerily beautiful "Bangladesh (1971)" depicts two dead soldiers near the Indian border, lying in golden sunlight, as if asleep.
In the early Seventies, Whitaker effectively retired from photography and for almost twenty years he farmed his property in Sussex. In 1991 he gathered some of his previously unpublished photographs of The Beatles for his successful book The Unseen Beatles (although many more unseen negatives apparently exist). The book was very successful and was followed by a touring exhibition of his photographs from the 1960s, "Underground London", which included photographs of the individual Beatles as well as many previously unseen shots from the "Butcher Sleeve" session. The exhibition visited The National Gallery of Victoria in 1998, before heading to America for a two-year tour.
For many years, Robert Whitaker fought an ongoing battle with Apple Corps over the rights to the "Butcher Sleeve" photo. Apple Corps told him they do not want the image reproduced as a book cover, postcard, poster, "virtually in no form whatsoever", a move which so angered Whitaker that he considered making an enormous print of the "Butcher Sleeve" for his "Underground London" exhibition and putting it behind closed doors so that people would have to file in one at a time.
Apple Corps has its own photo library which manages the use of copyright Beatle material around the world. When asked for his opinion on the situation, the late Derek Taylor, Apple Corps' long-serving press manager, was quoted as saying that "the person who might know who has the actual copyright to the ‘Butcher's Sleeve’ picture is not yet born." Taylor felt that, because Whitaker was employed by Epstein and NEMS at the time he took the picture, this gave Apple the legal copyright, although he recognised that it was Whitaker "who took the picture, who thought of the idea, and that would give him a proprietary moral right." Taylor added that although he has never personally enjoyed the picture "it has its place in history as part of their story. As a piece of Beatles' art it has its place on the wall."
Taylor also claimed that "George still doesn't like it", (mainly, it seems, because Harrison subsequently became a vegetarian). But Taylor reportedly believed that the banning of the cover was a mistake and found its replacement less innocuous than it seems. "I mean, which is worse, Beatles with meat all over them, or four Beatles in a trunk in a hotel room. If you really think about it what would they be doing in a trunk "?
Whitaker: "I made that dumb-ass photo of the Beatles with the trunk in Brian Epstein’s office when we were all in Argyll Street, next door to the London Palladium. Derek is right. It was far more stupid than anything else I could think of. The trunk was to hand in the office, so I thought that by putting the light meter in the picture it might convey an idea of the speed of light running so fast that it shot straight back up your arse. It was just to see what could become a record cover. "
In the mid-1990s Apple Managing Director Neil Aspinall began negotiations with Whitaker for the use of 300 of his images of the Beatles in the television documentary and book, The Beatles Anthology, but it proved to be a short-lived rapprochement:
Whitaker: "On one day Neil Aspinall is offering me £80,000 for the use of my pictures in his Anthology of the Beatles, chatting about their past around the table of an English pub. The next day Aspinall phones to say that he thinks I should give the Anthology all the pictures for nothing, having spent six months deciding which images should be reprinted, retouched and repaired. We, the Beatles, own Whitaker's life. Needless to say, they got nothing."
In 1997 Melbourne's Gallery 101 mounted a world-premiere exhibition of Whitaker's photographs of Mick Jagger, taken during the production of the film Ned Kelly.
In February–March 2002 his photos of George Harrison featured as part of a photographic tribute to George staged at the Govinda Galleries in Washington. In November 2002 he returned to Australia to open a 40th anniversary retrospective of his work entitled Yesterday & and Today: The Photography of Robert Whitaker 1962-2002 at the Monash Gallery of Art in Melbourne, which ran from 30 November 2002 to 26 January 2003. It included many previously unseen images from Whitaker’s early days in Australia, through his European work with The Beatles, Cream, The Seekers, Bob Hughes, Man Ray, Salvador Dalí and Peggy Guggenheim, to his more recent work with Australian artists such as Stelarc, Bruce Armstrong, and Howard Arkley.
In the early 2000s Robert Whitaker worked on compiling a digital archive of his work, and his photographs of The Seekers were chosen for a special commemorative Australia Post stamp issue to celebrate the group’s 40th anniversary.
Death
Whitaker died on 20 September 2011 following a long illness, aged 71. He left a widow and three children.
References
External links
IQ Art
"Shooting Stars" Heinrich, Karen, The Age'', 28 November 2002
Magidson Fine Art, Aspen
"Who Butchered The Beatles?"Mikkelson, David P.
"Yesterday & Today: The Photography of Robert Whitaker 1962–2002"Monash Gallery of Art
"Cream: Disraeli Gears"Pattingale, Graeme
Disraeli Gears Photo SessionsPattingale, Graeme
"Review: Robert Whitaker at The National Gallery Victoria."Taylor, Roger
"Hans Bellmer in The Art Institute of Chicago: The Wandering Libido and the Hysterical Body"Taylor, Sue
"Everything You Always Wanted To Know About … The Beatles Butcher Cover"York, Robert
1939 births
2011 deaths
Photographers from Hertfordshire
People from Harpenden
People from Haywards Heath
Album-cover and concert-poster artists |
4222124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru%20EJ%20engine | Subaru EJ engine | The Subaru EJ engine is a series of four-stroke automotive engines manufactured by Subaru. They were introduced in 1989, intended to succeed the previous Subaru EA engine. The EJ series was the mainstay of Subaru's engine line, with all engines of this series being 16-valve horizontal flat-fours, with configurations available for single, or double-overhead camshaft arrangements (SOHC or DOHC). Naturally aspirated and turbocharged versions are available, ranging from . These engines are commonly used in light aircraft, kit cars and engine swaps into air-cooled Volkswagens, and are also popular as a swap into copy wasserboxer engined Volkswagen T3/Vanagon. Primary engineering on the EJ series was done by Masayuki Kodama, Takemasa Yamada and Shuji Sawafuji of Fuji Heavy Industries, Subaru's parent company.
EJ15 (1.5L Boxer NA)
Usage:
Impreza GC1 series (JDM) - Replaced by Subaru EL engine in 2006 GD, GG, GE & GH series (JDM) Impreza.
Impreza 93-06 (Latin America)
Specifications
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 9.4:1 - 10.0
Valvetrain: SOHC, 16 valves
Fuel Delivery multi point fuel injection
EJ151
Horsepower: at 6000 rpm
Torque: at 3600 rpm
EJ152
Horsepower: at 5600 rpm
Torque: at 4000 rpm
EJ153
Horsepower: at 5200 rpm
Torque: at 3600 rpm
EJ154
Horsepower: at 5200 rpm
Torque: at 4000 rpm
EJ16 (1.6L Boxer NA)
Usage:
Impreza 93-94 (JDM only) GC4 series
Impreza 93-06 (Europe & Middle East)
Impreza 93-97 (Australia)
Impreza 93-06 (Latin America)
Specifications
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 9.4:1 - 10.0:1
Valvetrain: SOHC Belt drive
Fuel Delivery mpfi (carburetor in some locations)
EJ16
Horsepower: at 6000 rpm
Torque: at 4500 rpm
EJ18 (1.8L Boxer NA)
Usage:
Impreza 93-99 GC6 series
Legacy (except USA) 90-96 BC2, BC3, BD2, BD3, BG3 series
Isuzu Aska (1990–1993)
Specifications
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 9.5:1 - 9.7:1
Valvetrain: SOHC
Fuel Delivery Carburetor + Distributor (mainly for Latin American and Asian markets) and single point fuel injection
EJ181
Horsepower: at 6000 rpm
Torque: at 3200 rpm
EJ182
Horsepower: at 6000 rpm
Torque: at 4500 rpm
EJ183
Horsepower: at 5600 rpm
Torque: at 3600 rpm
EJ20 (2.0L Boxer Turbo/NA)
Bore:
Stroke:
At the 46th Tokyo Motor Show in October 2019, Subaru announced it would conclude production of the EJ20 by the end of March 2020. At that time, the EJ20 was only being sold in the Japanese domestic market for the WRX STI, and a special "WRX STI EJ20 Final Edition" with a balanced version of the engine was sold to commemorate the end of EJ20 production.
Naturally aspirated
EJ20E SOHC naturally aspirated
Legacy JDM
1989-1994 BC - BF series
1993-1999 BD - BG series( ECU code EURO, D3 ; Asia 4H)
1998-2004 BE - BH series( ECU code EURO, D3 ; Asia 4H)
2003-2009 BL - BP series
Europe
1991-1999 BC, BD, BF series
Impreza JDM
1993-1999 GC - GF series
2008-current GH - GE series
Europe
1994-1999 GC, GF series
Isuzu Aska (1990–1993)
1990-1993
EJ201 SOHC naturally aspirated
Bore:
Stroke:
2L installed in GC8 RX models only.
MAP sensor
Forester (Europe) SG Series (pre-facelift)
2002-2005
EJ20D DOHC naturally aspirated
Legacy JDM
1989-1999 BC - BF and BD - BG series
EJ202 SOHC naturally aspirated
Forester JDM SF series, 138 PS (1997 - 2002)
Forester JDM SG series, 137 PS (2004, perhaps 2003–2005), e.g. EJ202DXSAE x20
EJ203 SOHC naturally aspirated
Forester JDM SG series, 140 PS (2003 - 2008)
Legacy JDM 2.0i BP/BL series, 140 PS (2003 - 2009)
EJ204 DOHC naturally aspirated AVCS
Legacy B4 TSR JDM BE - BH series
1999-2001
Legacy JDM BL - BP series
2003-2009
Legacy (Europe) BL - BP series
2003-2007
Impreza JDM GC - GF series
1993-1999
Impreza GE - GH series
2007-2011
Forester (Europe) SG Series
2005-2007
Forester JDM SH Series
2008-2011
Exiga JDM YA Series
2008 - 2012
Legacy European and S. African Markets BM BR Series
2009-2014
EJ20C runs on compressed natural gas
All engines listed below were installed with a turbocharger and an intercooler:
EJ20T
Is not actually a valid code from Subaru, but is mostly used by enthusiasts and mechanics to describe the entire line of turbocharged engines that have been available over time. The practice began with the designation of the USA-spec turbo, commonly referred to as the EJ22T, and the habit of referring to any turbocharged engine as a "T" began. When referring to the EJ20T, one is speaking of one of the following:
EJ20G
EJ20G engines fall into 3 categories:
1. Rocker-style HLA EJ20G usage
Legacy RS 89-93
Legacy RS-RA 89-93
Legacy GT 89-93
Power output ranges from @ 6000 rpm and for the GT to @ 6400 rpm and for the RS versions.
Engines can be identified by coil on plug, and with 2 M6 bolts per coil and valve covers with 4CAM 16VALVE and horizontal lines above and below the plug holes. All these engines have the air-to-water intercooler setup (chargecooler) and close deck blocks equipped with piston oil squirters.
2. Bucket-style HLA EJ20G usage
Impreza WRX 92~96.
Impreza WRX Wagon 92~96
Impreza WRX Wagon AT 96~98
Subaru Impreza WRX RA 93~96
EUDM Subaru Impreza Turbo 94~96
This updated type of EJ20G was used in all WRX models since early 1992, cylinder head is equipped with hydraulic lifters compared
to the rocker arms used in the previous EJ20G. Pistons in this type of EJ20G are all cast aluminum. Closed-deck engine block equipped with
piston oil squirters was used until mid 1994. Followed by Open-deck block equipped with piston oil squirters was used very short period of time, Followed by Open-deck block from 1995 until mid 1996 when the first EJ20K WRX engines came out. The open deck block on all EJ20G could be identified by a smoother surface, and a tab on the right surface of the block halves. The EJ20G continued to be used in the WRX Wagon with an Automatic Transmission from 1996 till 1998 when it was replaced by the EJ205.
Closed deck:
EJ20GDW1HD 1992-05-01 to 1993-08-31 WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW1HE 1992-05-01 to 1993-08-31 WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW1HJ 1992-05-01 to 1993-08-31 WRXRA.EJ20G
EJ20GDW1HR 1992-05-01 to 1993-08-31 WRXRA.EJ20G
EJ20GDW2HD 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 S.WRX.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW2HE 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 S.WRX.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW2HJ 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 WRXRA.EJ20G
EJ20GDW2HR 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 WRXRA.EJ20G
EJ20GDW4HJ 1993-06-01 to 1995-08-31 WRXRA.EJ20G
EJ20GDW5HJ 1995-09-01 to 1996-08-31 WRXRA.EJ20G (STI VERSION)
Open deck:
EJ20GDX1ND 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 AT.EJ20G
EJ20GDX1NE 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 AT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW1ND 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 W.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW1NE 1993-05-01 to 1994-09-30 W.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW4HD 1994-06-01 to 1995-08-31 S.WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW4HE 1994-06-01 to 1995-08-31 S.WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW4ND 1994-06-01 to 1995-08-31 W.WRX.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW4NE 1994-06-01 to 1995-08-31 W.WRX.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDX4NE 1994-06-01 to 1995-08-31 WRX.AT.EJ20G
EJ20GDW5HE 1995-09-01 to 1996-08-31 S.WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW5NE 1995-09-01 to 1996-08-31 W.WRX.MT.EJ20G
EJ20GDX5NE 1995-09-01 to 1996-08-31 AT.EJ20G
EJ20GDX5HD 1995-09-01 to 1996-08-31 S.WRX.EJ20G
EJ20GDW5PE 1995-10-01 to 1996-08-31 W.WRX.MT.EJ20G (STI VERSION)
EJ20GDW5PE 1995-10-01 to 1996-08-31 WRXSTI.EJ20G
EJ20GDW5PJ 1995-10-01 to 1996-08-31 WRXRASTI.EJ20G
3. Shim-under-bucket style EJ20G usage
All EJ20G equipped Impreza WRX STI RA.(WRX RA needs confirming)
Power output ranges from at 6000 rpm for the WRX Wagons to at 6500 rpm for the WRX STI Version II.
Engines can be identified by coil on plug with 1 M8 bolt per coil and valve covers with 4CAM 16VALVE and horizontal lines above the plug holes. Generally these engines all have the slanted intercooler. Engines from the STI RAs received the upgraded Shim-Under-bucket style lifters unlike the normal HLA buckets the WRX & the WRX STI had. These engines also feature STI factory 8.5:1 forged pistons, lighter valves, the intake valves are marked INKO and the exhaust valves are marked EXKO. The standard HLA valves are I252 and E283 respectively. All WRX Wagon engines and automatic sedan engines came with a TD04 with 90 deg elbow, all manual WRX sedans including STI versions had a TD05 with 90 deg elbow.
EJ20J SOHC naturally aspirated
JDM Forester SF5 S/20 135 ps (1997-1998)
EJ20K
EJ20K engines fall into 2 categories:
1. Shim-over-bucket style EJ20K usage
JDM WRX 96~97
Impreza WRX wagon MT 97~98
Impreza WRX type RA or R MT 97~98
2. Shim-under-bucket style EJ20K usage
Impreza WRX STI MT 97~98
Impreza WRX STI wagon MT 97~98
Impreza WRX STI type RA or R MT 97~98
Power output is @ 6800 RPM for the Japanese versions and 300 PS for the v3 STI with VF23 turbo.
These engines can be identified by smooth valve covers, plug leads and a wasted spark coil in the middle of the intake manifold. In addition, the inlet manifold may be bare aluminum for all WRX models and red for all STI models. The engine utilizes an IHI ball-bearing turbo unit. VF22 on the WRX, either a VF23 or VF24 on the STI. These engines have die-cast pistons for all WRX models, STI and STI typeRA/STI type R models shares exactly the same factory forged pistons.
EJ205
This engine series is used for WRX models in the world market outside Japan as of 1999. The Japanese WRX models use the EJ207 from 1999~2001, except the 5-door wagon which also uses the EJ205. After 2001, all WRXs used the EJ205, until 2006 when the USDM WRX model changed engines to the EJ255. The EJ205 has an 8:1-9:1 compression ratio.
To identify an EJ205:
Coil on plug, except in JDM SF5 forester.
idle air integrated into throttle body
inlet under manifold
open deck block
Usage:
Impreza WRX
99~01 (JDM Wagon Body only)
01~06 (all JDM)
02~05 (USDM)
05 SAAB 9-2X AERO
99~06 (all other markets)
Forester Cross Sports, S/tb, STI
Late 99-01 (9:1 Compression ratio)
2003, at 5500 rpm
NOTE: The Australian Spec MY00 EJ205 does not have coil on plug but can be identified from the VIN of the vehicle (if known) where the tenth digit will be Y (for year 2000) and the sixth digit will be 8 (for the 2000yr/EJ205)
EJ207
It started its life for the 9/98-8/99 GC8 in Japan, UK, Australia.
The EJ207 has an 8.0:1 compression ratio.
To identify a 9/98-9/2000 EJ207 (v5/v6 WRX STI GC8/GF8)
wasted spark coil pack off center of manifold
idle air integrated into throttle body
inlet under manifold
red or bare aluminum intake manifold
Open deck block (2001+ are all Semi-closed)
higher rev limit than ej205
Version 7 has AVCS
V7 are single scroll, AVCS, throttle by cable, top-feed injectors, engines.
The TGV are deleted from the factory. The factory deletion is incomplete, even on the Spec C and even on the Type RA.
The exhaust is compatible all the way to the downpipe to the USDM WRX/Sti. Oxygen sensor is same as USDM EJ205.
The oil pan is like the USDM WRX 2.0
The Turbo is the VF30.
The ECU has the same number and shape harness plugs as the USDM WRX 2.0.
No immobilizer.
The engine speed is limited from the factory at 8000 rpm
V8, 9 are twinscroll, AVCS, throttle by cable, topfeed injectors, engines.
There are no TGV's, the intake manifold is one piece.
The spark plugs are specified one step colder, compared with other Sti.
The exhaust is completely different/incompatible with the USDM WRX/Sti, all the way from the header to the downpipe. It can be replaced by a USDM exhaust, the USDM does bolt up to the block.
The oil pan is like the USDM Sti.
The turbo is a VF37.
The ECU has the same number and shape harness plugs as the USDM WRX 2.0
There is no immobilizer for V8 and for some V9. Although to some V10. Even more from imported models. There were no transponder chip's inside the transmitter housing case.
The V9 known so far to not have immobilizer have been early V9 Spec C (revision E engines).
The engine speed is limited from the factory at 8000 rpm
When compared with the USDM A/C compressor, the JDM Sti is of a different part number and smaller in size. It is possible that the losses while using it are smaller.
Many have an additional intake air temperature sensor by the throttle body. Its function has been discussed but not completely clarified.
The power steering pump is different. The JDM cars included some Spec C with 13:1 steering rack. The pump remained the same, so it is designed to handle a fast rack.
The com protocol is not canbus for any of these.
Some of the Sti engines don't come with provision for cruise control. It is next to impossible to tell which had it.
The ROM settings are quite different from a V7.
The turbo inlet has one less connection in it and most likely is of a larger diameter than the USDM, from the factory.
The front Oxygen sensor has been relocated after the turbo, in the downpipe. Different part number 22641AA042.
Usage:
Impreza WRX STi 1998~present (JDM, specifically homologation models for World Rally Championship)
EJ20X/EJ20Y
Based on the same engine platform; the X designation indicates an automatic package, and the Y designation indicates a manual package. The EJ20X engine was introduced in the 2003 Legacy GT, mated to a five-speed automatic transmission, and the EJ20Y engine was introduced in the 2004 Legacy GT, with a five-speed manual transmission.
The EJ20X and EJ20Y are open deck engines whereby the cylinder walls were supported at the three and nine o’clock positions. It came with an aluminium alloy block with bores – with cast iron cylinder liners – and a stroke for a capacity of per cylinder, with thicker cylinder walls than EJ25.
The crankcase for the EJ20X and EJ20Y engines had five main bearings and the flywheel housing was cast with the crankcase for increased rigidity. The EJ20X engine is understood to have a forged crankshaft and connecting rods, but cast aluminium pistons with forged crowns.
The EJ20X and EJ20Y engines had an aluminium alloy cylinder head with cross-flow cooling, double overhead camshafts (DOHC) per cylinder bank and four valves per cylinder that were actuated by roller rocker arms.
The EJ20X and EJ20Y engines were equipped with Subaru's ‘Dual Active Valve Control System’ (‘Dual AVCS’) which provided variable intake and exhaust valve timing. The Legacy GT, the EJ20X engine was fitted with a twin-scroll IHI VF38 turbocharger; the EJ20Y engine, however, had a larger twin-scroll Mitsubishi TD04 HLA 19T turbocharger. For the revised BL.II Legacy GT, both the EJ20X and EJ20Y had an IHI VF44 turbocharger for the initial 2006 model year, replaced the following year with the IHI VF45.
Both came with a 9.5:1 compression and a fast spooling turbo yields a torque filled performance.
Turbos:
IHI VF38 (automatic, 03–06)
Mitsubishi TD04 HLA 19T (manual, 03–06)
IHI VF44 (manual and automatic, 06MY only)
IHI VF45 (manual and automatic, 06-09MY)
Usage:
EJ20X/EJ20Y
03~09 BL and BP Legacy GT
07-11 Subaru impreza gt
Engine Swapping Applications:
When swapping over the EJ20X/Y Powertrain over to these models, you have the option to use the twin-scroll turbocharger and JDM headers, up-pipe but you'll need to source/alternate a twin-scroll downpipe to fit along your current exhaust set-up or swap over the USDM Intake Manifold along with the USDM headers, up-pipe, turbocharger and use your existing exhaust set-up.
The EJ20X does not come with timing guides when installing on a manual USDM swap while the EJ20Y does.
Compatible Swap Options for USDM (But Only Have Intake AVCS Working) 32 Bit ECU W/ Intake AVCS Only:
08-14 WRX Models
04-07 STi Models
04+ Legacy GT Models
04+ Forester XT Models
Compatible Swap Options for USDM (With Dual AVCS Working) 32 Bit ECU W/ Intake & Exhaust:
08-21 STi Models
EJ20TT
This may refer to a DOHC Sequential Twin Turbo and intercooled engine (EJ20H/EJ20R/EJ206/EJ208). However, similar to the EJ20T, the term was never used by Subaru. Used from 1994 to 2005 in various iterations listed below. Due to the tight confines of the engine bay, the twin turbo engine was installed in Japanese-spec Legacies and Australian market Liberty B4 models, which were right-hand drive. The Pistons were lighter with a shorter skirt than the WRX EJ20T to allow for higher engine speed.
Specifications
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression ratio: 8.5:1 - 9.0:1
Valvetrain: DOHC
Fuel delivery multi-point sequential fuel injection
EJ20H
Usage:
1993-1996 pre-facelift Legacy chassis code BD5/BG5 (Revision A) JDM RS, GT, and GT/B-spec manual and automatic. 8.5:1 compression ratio.
1996-1998 facelift Legacy chassis code BD5/BG5 (Revision B & C) JDM RS, GT, GT-B automatic and GT manual. 9.0:1 compression ratio.
EJ20R
Usage:
1996-1997 facelift Legacy chassis code BD5/BG5 (Revision B) JDM RS and GT-B manual only. 8.0:1 compression ratio.
1997-1998 facelift Legacy chassis code BD5/BG5 (Revision C) JDM RS and GT-B manual only. 8.5:1 compression ratio.
EJ206
Usage:
1998-2003 Legacy chassis code BE5/BH5 JDM GT's, GT-B's and B4's () Transmission: Auto/5 Speed Manual
BH5A - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5B - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5C - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5D - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-III", or V7 generation.
EJ208
Usage:
1998-2003 Legacy chassis code BE5/BH5 JDM GT's, GT-B's and B4's () Transmission: Manual
BH5A - 8.5:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5B - 8.5:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5C - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-II", or V5/6 generation.
BH5D - 9.0:1 Compression - "Phase-III", or V7 generation.
Rev D EJ208's can be considered a totally different motor to the A/B/C's, they run totally different cams, cam pulleys with different timing marks, different crank sprocket with different timing marks, pink injectors instead of yellow 440's, different intake manifold design. etc.
A/B have primary VF25 for automatic transmission or VF26 for manual and secondary VF27 turbo's.
C have primary VF31 and secondary VF32 turbo's.
D have primary VF33 (46.5 / 9-blade turbine wheel and a / 6 + 6 blade compressor) and secondary VF32 (exhaust side it uses a 46.5 / 9-blade turbine wheel, teamed with a 52.5 / 10-blade compressor wheel). All secondary turbos are ball bearing and primary turbos are journal bearing.
EJ22 (2.2L Boxer Turbo/NA)
Usage:
Impreza 95-01
Legacy 90–99, Outback 95-96
Naturally Aspirated
Specifications
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 9.5:1 - 9.7:1
Valvetrain: SOHC
Fuel Delivery multi-point fuel injection
EJ22E
(1989-1994)
Horsepower: at 5800 rpm
Torque: at 4800 rpm
(1995-1996)
Horsepower: at 5800 rpm
Torque: at 4800 rpm
(1997-1998)
Horsepower: at 5400 rpm
Torque: at 4000 rpm
Australian model -
at 6000 rpm
at 4800 rpm
EJ22 Enhancements and Improvements
Beginning in the 1997 model year, the engine for 1997 Legacy and Impreza models had internal and external changes that yield an approximately 10% increase in power and 3% increase in fuel economy.
Accomplishing this involves many factors, one of which is engine friction reduction. The pistons were coated with molybdenum to reduce friction. The thin coating reduces moving friction and reduces cylinder wall scuffing.
The piston skirt was reshaped and the piston weight was reduced by approximately . Compression ratio was increased to 9.7:1 by reshaping the piston crown. This eliminates the clearance that was available between the piston at TDC and the fully opened valve. This transformed the EJ22 into an interference design.
Piston pin offset has been changed to . Piston to cylinder wall clearance has been reduced by increasing the piston diameter. Another source of high engine friction is the valve train. Hydraulic lash adjusters (HLAs) are always in contact with the valves. The hydraulic pressure of the lash adjuster must be overcome during operation and during the most critical time of engine start. To overcome this situation and to contribute to the total reduction of friction loss, 1997 and later SOHC engines have solid valve adjusters. The scheduled service of this valve train is set at . SOHC engines now use an adjustment screw to adjust valve clearance. Engines with the earlier HLA are recommended to use 10W30 or 10W40 oil year-round; 5W30 can be used at very low winter temperatures. The roller rocker cam follower system that was introduced on the Impreza engines, is installed on all 1996 model year and later engines. The roller assemblies are not serviceable separately, but the rocker arms may be serviced as individual units. The carbon composition head gaskets with integrated o-rings are interchangeable from left to right on 1990 to 1994 NA engines only.
Other engine modifications (1997): The intake manifold has been reshaped to increase the airflow mass and speed, contributing to improved low and mid engine speed operation. Components located on the intake manifold have been relocated as compared to the 1996 models. EGR Solenoid, Purge Control Solenoid, etc.
1999 Phase 2 Engine Enhancements (from endwrench article H-4 and H-6 service):
All engine for 1999 are the Phase 2 design. The Phase 2 engines are a SOHC design, with a newly designed cylinder head. Changes in the Phase 2 engines are as follows:
the engine and transmission are fastened with six bolts and two studs.
the thrust bearing has been moved to the number 5 position.
the oil groove in the number 1 and 3 have been changed to supply additional lubrication to the crank journal.
Additional Phase 2 Engine Features:
the cylinder head is a two-rocker shaft, solid type valve system with roller followers.
the valves are positioned at a larger angle than previous model years. The intake valves are positioned 23 degrees off-center with the exhaust valves positioned 20 degrees off-center. Prior model year engines utilized a 15-degree positioning angle.
head gasket thickness is .
the intake rocker arms are marked so they are correctly placed on the rocker shaft when servicing. An IN1 or IN2 will be embossed on each rocker arm. As viewed from the front of the engine the Number 1 intake valve of each cylinder and the number 2 intake valve have an IN1 marked and IN2 marked rocker arm that mates with it. New IN1 rocker arms can also be identified by a Green painted mark on the top of the rocker arm. The IN2 rocker arms have a white mark. Proper positioning is maintained through the use of a wave washer located between the rocker shaft arm and rocker arm shaft support.
the camshaft is secured to the cylinder head with the camcase. An oil passage in the cylinder head provides the passageway in the camcase with oil that leads to the intake rocker shaft. Oil from the camshaft is collected on the opposite side of the passageway leading to the intake rocker shaft to provide oil to the exhaust rocker shaft.
Note: Cylinder head and camcase must be replaced together (line bored).
the sparkplug pipe is pressed into the cylinder head and is not serviceable. If it becomes damaged the cylinder head must be replaced. The seals installed onto the ends of the sparkplug pipes seal against the valve covers and should be replaced when the valve cover is removed.
pistons on the engines have a offset, with the engine having a compression ratio of 10.0 to 1. The horsepower has increased to at 5600 rpm. Maximum torque is at 3600 rpm.
camshaft sprockets are constructed of a resin-type material with a metal key pressed into the sprocket for maintaining proper sprocket-to-shaft orientation.
Phase 2 Engines
EJ221 Naturally Aspirated
Usage: 1999 Legacy w/ California Emissions
EJ222 Naturally Aspirated
Usage: 1999 Impreza w/ California Emissions, 2000-2001 Impreza (all 2.2L)
EJ223 Naturally Aspirated
Usage: 1999 Impreza & Legacy w/ Federal Emissions
Specifications (Phase 2)
Horsepower: at 5600 rpm
Torque: at 3600 rpm
Displacement:
Phase 2 Design Type
Aspiration: Naturally Aspirated
Cylinder Configuration: Horizontal Flat - 4 Cylinder
Valve Train: SOHC, 16 Valve, Resin Type Cam Sprockets, Rubber Timing Belt
Timing Belt Change Interval: (EJ221 & EJ222); (EJ223)
Coolant Capacity:
Compression Ratio: 10:1
Cylinder Head Exhaust Port Configuration: Single Exhaust Port Per Head
Intake Valve Diameter:
Exhaust Valve Diameter:
Engine Rotation: Clockwise
Emissions: OBDIIB
Engine Weight:
Oil Pressure: at 700rpm: ; at 5000rpm:
Interference Type Engine
Ignition Timing: 15° / 700rpm
Valve Clearance: Intake: ; Exhaust:
Spark Plug Gap:
Fuel Injectors: Top Feed – 5 to 20 Ohm Resistance - /min
Low Oil Pressure Warning Activation:
Idle Speed: 700rpm +/- 200rpm
Fuel Pressure/Flow: at Idle (Flow: / Hour)
Firing Order: 1-3-2-4
Turbocharged
EJ22T
Phase one SOHC Turbo, This engine features a Fully closed deck block, Aluminum heads, non intercooled and internal oil squirters for cooling. The internals of the EJ22T are similar to the internals of the EJ22E (NA) with the exception of the Turbo engine utilizing low-compression dished pistons, making the compression ratio 8.1:1. Factory boost pressure on the EJ22T is 8.7psi (.59 Bar)
Legacy 1991-1994 (North American-spec). There were only 8199 EJ22T models reaching the United States (and Canada?) between 1991 and 1994. The 4-door sedan was called the Sport Sedan (SS) and the 5-door wagon was known as the Touring Wagon (TW). There were many more automatic-equipped models than 5-speeds built as sedans. The wagon was only sold as an automatic.
Valvetrain: SOHC (16 Valve)
Displacement: 2,212 cc (2.2 L; 135.0 cu in)
Bore: 96.9 mm (3.81 in)
Stroke: 75 mm (2.95 in)
Compression Ratio: 8.1:1
Power: 160 bhp (119 kW; 162 PS) at 5,600 rpm
Torque: 181 lb-ft (245.4 Nm) at 2,800 rpm
Fuel System: Multi-Point Fuel Injection
Firing Order: 1-3-2-4
Oil: 10w30 (Summer) 5w30 (Winter)
EJ22G
Phase two closed deck, based on the North American 1991-94 Legacy Turbo EJ22T engine uses the same casting marks but with a updated thrust bearing to position #5 instead of #3. It Uses identical cylinder heads and IHI RHF 5HB turbocharger as a EJ20K STi but with a unique closed deck crank case. The pistons and connecting rods are stock not forged. Although being closed deck, the block does not feature oil squirters for piston cooling, opposed to the EJ20G closed deck block and the USDM-only Legacy EJ22T closed deck block. Popular press often states the power of this engine was more than the factory stated 280 ps, citing that 280 ps was the maximum allowable power car companies in Japan could advertise at the time due to the gentleman's agreement. 305 hp, 300 hp+ "Way more than 280hp", are some examples, though it is impossible to truly substantiate these claims.
Displacement:
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 8.0:1
Valvetrain: DOHC
Fuel Delivery Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
EJ22G Turbo DOHC
Horsepower: at 6000 rpm
Torque: at 3200 rpm
Usage:
Impreza STi 22B GC8 series (JDM)
EJ25 (2.5L Boxer Turbo/NA)
Displacement: 2,457 cc (2.5L; 149.9 cu in)
Bore:
Stroke:
Compression Ratio: 9.5:1 - 10:1 (9.5:1 - 10.7:1 JDM) Naturally Aspirated, 8.0:1 - 9.5:1 Turbo
Fuel Delivery EFI
EJ25D
There were two variations of the EJ25D sold in the US market. The engine was introduced in 1996 in the Legacy 2.5GT, LSi, and Legacy Outback. That version of the engine used Hydraulic Lash Adjuster (HLA) heads, was recommended to be run on 91 octane fuel, had lower power and torque ratings than the later 1997-1999 EJ25D, and was only offered with an automatic transmission. In 1997 a revised engine was introduced that used heads with shimmed bucket lifters (rather than the HLAs), was designed to run on 87 octane fuel, and was available with either a manual or automatic transmission. Because of the DOHC valve architecture, the spark plugs are more difficult to service in comparison to SOHC variations. DOHC engines are therefore installed with platinum spark plugs with an extended spark plug service life of . The 1996 EJ25D uses different pistons than what was used for 1997–1999, which will increase the compression ratio significantly if combined with the 1997-1999 EJ25D heads.
For the Japanese Domestic Market, the EJ25D was advertised from January 1994 and was available from October 1994 in the 250T model Legacy. It was later added to the Grand Wagon/Lancaster. It was of the same basic design as the US market hydraulic EJ25D, with HLA, but had a compression ratio of 9.5:1. These HLA heads had a somewhat hemispeherical combustion chamber design. The engine was "facelifted" with the introduction of the BG9B in mid 1996, to have higher compression, 10.7:1, and solid lifters. The solid lifter heads had a cloverleaf style combustion chamber.
DOHC (JDM; 1994-1996) - JIS - at 6000 rpm and of torque at 2800 rpm
DOHC (USDM; 1996) - SAE - at 5600 rpm and of torque at 2800 rpm
DOHC (JDM; 1996–1998) - JIS - at 6000 rpm and of torque at 3800 rpm
DOHC (USDM; 1997–1999) - SAE - at 5600 rpm and of torque at 4000 rpm
Usage:
USDM Impreza 2.5 RS 98
USDM Legacy models: Outback (wagon), SUS (sedan '98-'99), LSi ('96-'97), GT.
JDM Legacy/Grand Wagon/Lancaster 1994–1998
USDM Forester 1998
EJ251
The EJ251 SOHC was the first version of a long line of single overhead cam engines by Subaru for the US market. The EJ251 was soon replaced by the EJ253 in many models due to its improved cooling to aid in head gasket life and improved engine management and sensors. The EJ251 commonly experienced head gasket failures resulting in interior channel breaches or exterior fluid leaks due to the continued use of a single layer coated gasket first introduced on the EJ25D. Intake volume is calculated by the use of a MAP sensor, unlike the EJ253 which uses a MAF sensor. Compression ratio is 10:1.
Power ISO: at 5600 rpm and of torque at 4400 rpm
Usage:
Impreza 2.5RS, 2.5TS, 2.5OBS 00-03 (US) (excludes 99)
Forester 00-04 (US)
Legacy 00-01 (US, 4EAT)
Legacy 00-04 (US)
Outback 00-01 (US, 4EAT)
Outback 02-04 (US)
Baja 03-05 (US)
EJ252
SOHC
The EJ252 was only briefly used in North America alongside the EJ251 in the USDM Legacy Outback for the 2000 and 2001 Model Years. They are most commonly found in MY00 Legacy Outbacks manufactured before the end of 1999 while MY00 Legacy Outbacks manufactured in 2000 are rarely designated with EJ252 codes in the VIN. While Subaru has not provided a direct list of revisions between the EJ251 and less common EJ252, there is some degree of information suggesting the EJ252 was simply an alternate version of the EJ251 made to meet California Emissions Standards when the SOHC EJ engines were first introduced in North America. Power output has been reported as ISO 115 kW (156 hp) but is often speculated to share the same specs with the largely identical EJ251. From unofficial analysis, the EJ251 shares the same block, cams, heads, pistons, connecting rods with the EJ252. The only notable differences confirmed are unique intake manifold and throttle body designs to accommodate the different MAP sensor location and IACV location. They also have different cam and crank sprocket reluctor configuration.
Usage:
Legacy/Outback 00 - 02 (5MT only)
EJ253
SOHC - at 5600 rpm, torque at 4400 rpm. Intake volume is regulated by use of a MAF sensor, unlike the EJ251 which is regulated by a MAP sensor.
I-Active valves (VVL intake side) on 2006 models which have ISO at 5600 rpm, torque at 4400 rpm.
PZEV-equipped 2007 and up models have ISO at 5600 rpm, torque at 4000 rpm Compression ratio is 10.1:1.
The EJ253 has an open deck design.
Impreza 99-01, 04-11
Legacy, Outback (North America) 05-12
Legacy [BL/BP] 03-09 (Europe)
Legacy [BM/BR] 09-12 (Europe, with )
Outback 03-09 (Europe)
Forester 99* (SF), 05-10 (SG, SH)
Baja 05+
Saab 9-2x Linear 05, 06
Impreza 2.5RS 04-06
EJ254
254 was a 2.5-litre DOHC AVCS motor. This was the first appearance of AVCS (Alongside the EJ204) on an EJ.
1998-2004 - DOHC with at 6000 rpm and of torque at 2800 rpm
Usage:
Forester T25 1998-2002 (JDM)
Forester 04-present (certain countries)
Legacy Lancaster 1998-2003 (JDM)
Legacy 250T 1998-2003 (JDM)
EJ255
DOHC 16-valve turbo with sodium-filled valves originally designed for North American market, now sees usage in some European Imprezas and Legacy models destined for South Africa and Liberty models for Australia. Power
EJ255 Version 1:
Used in the 2005 and 2006 Legacy, as well as the 2004 and 2005 Forester. This engine uses the same short block and heads as the EJ257 in US 04-06 STI.
EJ255 Version 2:
Used in the 2006-2014 WRX, the 2007-2009 Legacy GT, and the 2006-13 Forester XT. This is the newer AIS equipped EJ255, which uses a slightly different AB630 short block, as well as the AB820 heads. The only difference in the short block of this EJ255 and the 04-06 EJ257 is the pistons. They are of nearly the same construction, but have a slightly larger dish volume. for the USA market, the EJ255 version 2 engine made an appearance in the 2.5GT trim model of the Impreza, borrowing the engine from the 2008 WRX (the 2009 wrx got an increase in power)
EJ255 Version 3:
Used in the 2010-2012 Legacy. It has Dual-AVCS, 9.5:1 CR pistons, E25 heads with provisions for a scavenge oil pump turbo. The passenger intake camshaft is notched to spin the scavenge pump. The oil pan has an additional mounting bolt and one of the oil pan bolts changed position compared to the other variations of the EJ255.
Usage in North America:
Impreza (WRX): 2006–2014
Forester XT: 2004–2013
Legacy GT: 2005–2012
Outback XT: 2005-2009
Baja Turbo: 2004 - 2006
SAAB 9-2X: 2006 only.
Usage in the rest of the world:
Legacy/Outback: 2007–present
Impreza: 2005–present
Forester: 2005–2010.
EJ257 (STI)
DOHC four valves per cylinder fuel feed by Sequential Multipoint Fuel Injection (SMPFI) turbo. Denoting the STI variant of the EJ25, Originally designed for the North American Impreza STI in 2004 with Single AVCS and DBW. 2004-2007 STI models used the same shortblock, B25 heads, and valvetrain as the EJ255 in MY 2005-2006 Legacy GT and the same block as the 2004-2005 Forester XT. Later years used revised block, piston, connecting rods, crankshaft and heads to further improve performance and durability. Notably, the adoption of much improved Dual-AVCS W25 cylinder heads and an improved cylinder block design. MY19 variants of the engine feature a further revised piston design cast from a new alloy for increased strength, further improvements to the general valvetrain, a new ECU and revised engine programming that improved response and widened the torque curve. The engine has an increased redline of 6700 rpm over the WRX EJ255 variant.
Usage:
US Market Impreza WRX STi MY 2004~2007 at 6000 rpm (New SAE standard) and at 4000 rpm of torque.
US Market Impreza WRX STI MY 2008~2018 at 6000 rpm (New SAE standard) and at 4000 rpm of torque.
US Market WRX STI MY MY 2019–2021 at 6000 rpm (New SAE standard) and at 4000-5200 rpm of torque.
US Market STI S209 MY 2019 at 6,400 rpm and at 3,600 rpm of torque.
US Market Legacy GT/Outback XT MY05~06 (New SAE standard)
US Market Forester XT MY04-05
ADM WRX STi 08~present ,
EJ259
Usage:
2004 Legacy, Legacy GT and Legacy Outback (Only Sold in California and New England). Also sold in 2005 Legacy and Outback non turbo models. Engine has a unique setup, most notable is the oval, single port exhaust , three catalytic converters and five air/fuel and oxygen sensors. These engines were also all drive by wire (DBW), and had a three piece intake manifold with a tumble valve in the center section.
Other Data
All the EJ series share compatibility and construction similarity and are 16 valved engines. The EJ series started with the EJ15, a single overhead cam (SOHC) and makes ~, then the EJ16, a single overhead cam (SOHC). Later followed by the EJ20, a single overhead cam and the EJ22, a single overhead cam. The EJ20 turbocharged version was developed with dual overhead cams, as well as non-turbo DOHC engines and DOHC twin-turbos. The EJ18 and EJ20 were most popular in Europe.
The SOHC EJ Subaru boxer engines were non-interference engines through 1995, run by a single timing belt driving both cams (both sides of the engine) and the water pump. Because they are non-interference engines, if the timing belt fails, the engine of the models up to 1995 will not be damaged. The oil pump is driven directly from the crank shaft and the waterpump by the timing belt. All DOHC and 1998-up SOHC EJ engines are interference engines, if the timing belt fails the valves will likely be damaged.
All Subaru EJ engines have a 1-3-2-4 firing order, which, given the longer exhaust runners on cylinders 2 and 4 causes the characteristic "subaru boxer rumble".
Some of the 2005 and later Subaru vehicle Engines (especially the turbo charged engines) are using CAN bus as their sole Vehicle/Vessel speed input channel. When those ABS Speed signal are removed, the ECU will force the Engine to run in limp home mode. This has posed some challenge for people who try to use the same automotive boxer and engines on Aerospace application, engine replacement for aged Subaru vehicles, and VW Vanagon modifications, etc.
The following table has details on a few of the commonly modified Subaru engines:
All Spec C are Japanese only EJ207.
Awards
Subaru Turbo Boxer engine won 'best engine' in the 2.0 to 2.5 litre category in both the 2006 and 2008 International Engine of the Year awards. It also won a place on the list of Ward's 10 Best Engines in 2004 and 2010.
Notes
References
Subaru Engine Specs and Designations
http://www.fhi.co.jp/envi/info/pdf/leg_02_08.pdf
Subaru engines
Boxer engines
Four-cylinder engines
Gasoline engines by model |
4222171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur%20Fellows%20Program | MacArthur Fellows Program | The MacArthur Fellows Program, also known as the MacArthur Fellowship and colloquially called the "Genius Grant", is a prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation to typically between 20 and 30 individuals working in any field who have shown "extraordinary originality and dedication in their creative pursuits and a marked capacity for self-direction" and are citizens or residents of the United States.
According to the foundation's website, "the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishment, but rather an investment in a person's originality, insight, and potential," but it also says such potential is "based on a track record of significant accomplishments." The current prize is $800,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. Previously it was $625,000. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a review of the MacArthur Fellows Program. Since 1981, 1,111 people have been named MacArthur Fellows, ranging in age from 18 to 82. The award has been called "one of the most significant awards that is truly 'no strings attached'".
The program does not accept applications. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the foundation and reviewed by an anonymous and confidential selection committee of about a dozen people. The committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the president and board of directors. Most new fellows first learn of their nomination and award upon receiving a congratulatory phone call. MacArthur Fellow Jim Collins described this experience in an editorial column of The New York Times.
Marlies Carruth is the program's current director.
Recipients
Of the 965 terminal degrees earned by 928 fellows during the period 1981 through 2018, 540 (56%) are doctorates, with the Ph.D. accounting for 514 (53.3%). Ivy league schools awarded 306 (31.7%) degrees to 300 (32.3%) fellows.
Among all awards through the class of 2023, the alumni of Harvard University/Radcliffe College account for 188 fellowships, followed by the alumni of Yale University (95), University of California, Berkeley (78), Princeton University (71), and Columbia University/Barnard College (65). The following ten institutions have the most alumni fellows.
1981
A. R. Ammons, poet
Joseph Brodsky, poet
John Cairns, molecular biologist
Gregory V. Chudnovsky, mathematician
Joel E. Cohen, population biologist
Robert Coles, child psychiatrist
Richard Critchfield, essayist
Shelly Errington, cultural anthropologist
Howard Gardner, psychologist
Henry Louis Gates Jr., literary critic
John Gaventa, sociologist
Michael Ghiselin, evolutionary biologist
Stephen Jay Gould, paleontologist
Ian Graham, archaeologist
David Hawkins, philosopher
John P. Holdren, arms control and energy analyst
Ada Louise Huxtable, architectural critic and historian
John Imbrie, climatologist
Robert Kates, geographer
Raphael Carl Lee, surgeon
Elma Lewis, arts educator
Cormac McCarthy, writer
Barbara McClintock, geneticist
James Alan McPherson, short story writer and essayist
Roy P. Mottahedeh, historian
Richard C. Mulligan, molecular biologist
Douglas D. Osheroff, physicist
Elaine H. Pagels, historian of religion
David Pingree, historian of science
Paul G. Richards, seismologist
Robert Root-Bernstein, biologist and historian of science
Richard Rorty, philosopher
Lawrence Rosen, attorney and anthropologist
Carl Emil Schorske, intellectual historian
Leslie Marmon Silko, writer
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr., astrophysicist
Derek Walcott, poet and playwright
Robert Penn Warren, poet, novelist, and literary critic
Stephen Wolfram, computer scientist and physicist
Michael Woodford, economist
George Zweig, physicist and neurobiologist
1982
Fouad Ajami, political scientist
Charles A. Bigelow, type designer
Peter Robert Lamont Brown, historian
Robert Darnton, European historian
Persi Diaconis, statistician
William Gaddis, novelist
Ved Mehta, writer
Bob Moses, educator and philosopher
Richard A. Muller, geologist and astrophysicist
Conlon Nancarrow, composer
Alfonso Ortiz, cultural anthropologist
Francesca Rochberg, Assyriologist and historian of science
Charles Sabel, political scientist and legal scholar
Ralph Shapey, composer and conductor
Michael Silverstein, linguist
Randolph Whitfield Jr., ophthalmologist
Frank Wilczek, physicist
Frederick Wiseman, documentary filmmaker
Edward Witten, physicist, creator of the M-Theory
1983
R. Stephen Berry, physical chemist
Seweryn Bialer, political scientist
William C. Clark, ecologist and environmental policy analyst
Philip D. Curtin, historian of Africa
William H. Durham, biological anthropologist
Bradley Efron, statistician
David L. Felten, neuroscientist
Randall W. Forsberg, political scientist and arms control strategist
Alexander L. George, political scientist
Shelomo Dov Goitein, medieval historian
Mott T. Greene, historian of science
James E. Gunn, astronomer
Ramón A. Gutiérrez, historian
John J. Hopfield, physicist and biologist
Béla Julesz, psychologist
William Kennedy, novelist
Leszek Kołakowski, historian of philosophy and religion
Sylvia A. Law, human rights lawyer
Brad Leithauser, poet and writer
Lawrence W. Levine, historian
Ralph Manheim, translator
Robert K. Merton, historian and sociologist of science
Walter F. Morris Jr., cultural preservationist
Charles S. Peskin, mathematician and physiologist
A.K. Ramanujan, poet, translator, and literary scholar
Alice M. Rivlin, economist and policy analyst
Julia Robinson, mathematician
John Sayles, filmmaker and writer
Richard M. Schoen, mathematician
Peter Sellars, theater and opera director
Karen K. Uhlenbeck, mathematician
Adrian Wilson, book designer, printer, and book historian
Irene J. Winter, art historian and archaeologist
Mark S. Wrighton, chemist
1984
George W. Archibald, ornithologist
Shelly Bernstein, pediatric hematologist
Peter J. Bickel, statistician
Ernesto J. Cortes Jr., community organizer
William Drayton, public service innovator
Sidney Drell, physicist and arms policy analyst
Mitchell J. Feigenbaum, mathematical physicist
Michael H. Freedman, mathematician
Curtis G. Hames, family physician
Robert Hass, poet, critic, and translator
Shirley Heath, linguistic anthropologist
J. Bryan Hehir, religion and foreign policy scholar
Bette Howland, writer and literary critic
Bill Irwin, clown, writer, and performance artist
Robert Irwin, light and space artist
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, novelist and screenwriter
Fritz John, mathematician
Galway Kinnell, poet
Henry Kraus, labor and art historian
Paul Oskar Kristeller, intellectual historian and philosopher
Sara Lawrence-Lightfoot, educator
Heather Lechtman, materials scientist and archaeologist
Michael Lerner, public health leader
Andrew W. Lewis, medieval historian
Arnold J. Mandell, neuroscientist and psychiatrist
Peter Mathews, archaeologist and epigrapher
Matthew Meselson, geneticist and arms control analyst
David R. Nelson, physicist
Beaumont Newhall, historian of photography
Roger S. Payne, zoologist and conservationist
Michael Piore, economist
Edward V. Roberts, disability rights leader
Judith N. Shklar, political philosopher
Charles Simic, poet, translator, and essayist
Elliot Sperling, Tibetan studies scholar
David Stuart, linguist and epigrapher
Frank Sulloway, psychologist (child birth-order research)
John E. Toews, intellectual historian
Alar Toomre, astronomer and mathematician
James Turrell, light sculptor
Amos Tversky, cognitive scientist
Bret Wallach, geographer
Jay Weiss, psychologist
Arthur Winfree, physiologist and mathematician
J. Kirk Varnedoe, art historian
Carl R. Woese, molecular biologist
Billie Young, community development leader
1985
Joan Abrahamson, community development leader
John Ashbery, poet
John F. Benton, medieval historian
Harold Bloom, literary critic
Valery Chalidze, physicist and human rights organizer
William Cronon, environmental historian
Merce Cunningham, choreographer
Jared Diamond, environmental historian and geographer
Marian Wright Edelman, Children's Defense Fund founder
Morton Halperin, political scientist
Robert M. Hayes, lawyer and human rights leader
Edwin Hutchins, cognitive scientist
Sam Maloof, professional woodworker and furniture maker
Andrew McGuire, trauma prevention specialist
Patrick Noonan, conservationist
George Oster, mathematical biologist
Thomas G. Palaima, classicist
Peter Raven, botanist
Jane S. Richardson, biochemist
Gregory Schopen, historian of religion
Franklin Stahl, geneticist
J. Richard Steffy, nautical archaeologist
Ellen Stewart, theater director
Paul Taylor, choreographer, dance company founder
Shing-Tung Yau, mathematician
1986
Paul Adams, neurobiologist
Milton Babbitt, composer and music theorist
Christopher Beckwith, philologist
Richard Benson, photographer
Lester R. Brown, agricultural economist
Caroline Bynum, medieval historian
William A. Christian, historian of religion
Nancy Farriss, historian
Benedict Gross, mathematician
Daryl Hine, poet and translator
John Robert Horner, paleobiologist
Thomas C. Joe, social policy analyst
David Keightley, historian and sinologist
Albert J. Libchaber, physicist
David C. Page, molecular geneticist
George Perle, composer and music theorist
James Randi, magician
David Rudovsky, civil rights lawyer
Robert Shapley, neurophysiologist
Leo Steinberg, art historian
Richard P. Turco, atmospheric scientist
Thomas Whiteside, journalist
Allan C. Wilson, biochemist
Jay Wright, poet and playwright
Charles Wuorinen, composer
1987
Walter Abish, writer
Robert Axelrod, political scientist
Robert F. Coleman, mathematician
Douglas Crase, poet
Daniel Friedan, physicist
David Gross, physicist
Ira Herskowitz, molecular geneticist
Irving Howe, literary and social critic
Wesley Charles Jacobs Jr., rural planner
Peter Jeffery, musicologist
Horace Freeland Judson, historian of science
Stuart Alan Kauffman, evolutionary biologist
Richard Kenney, poet
Eric Lander, geneticist and mathematician
Michael Malin, geologist and planetary scientist
Deborah W. Meier, education reform leader
Arnaldo Dante Momigliano, historian
David Mumford, mathematician
Tina Rosenberg, journalist
David Rumelhart, cognitive scientist and psychologist
Robert Morris Sapolsky, neuroendocrinologist and primatologist
Meyer Schapiro, art historian
John H. Schwarz, physicist
Jon Seger, evolutionary ecologist
Stephen Shenker, physicist
David Dean Shulman, historian of religion
Muriel S. Snowden, community organizer
Mark Strand, poet and writer
May Swenson, poet
Huỳnh Sanh Thông, translator and editor
William Julius Wilson, sociologist
Richard Wrangham, primate ethologist
1988
Charles Archambeau, geophysicist
Michael Baxandall, art historian
Ruth Behar, cultural anthropologist
Ran Blake, composer and pianist
Charles Burnett, filmmaker
Philip James DeVries, insect biologist
Andre Dubus, writer
Helen T. Edwards, physicist
Jon H. Else, documentary filmmaker
John G. Fleagle, primatologist and paleontologist
Cornell H. Fleischer, Middle Eastern historian
Getatchew Haile, philologist and linguist
Raymond Jeanloz, geophysicist
Marvin Philip Kahl, zoologist
Naomi Pierce, biologist
Thomas Pynchon, novelist
Stephen J. Pyne, environmental historian
Max Roach, drummer and jazz composer
Hipolito (Paul) Roldan, community developer
Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, archaeologist
David Alan Rosenberg, military historian
Susan Irene Rotroff, archaeologist
Bruce Schwartz, figurative sculptor and puppeteer
Robert Shaw, physicist
Jonathan Spence, historian
Noel M. Swerdlow, historian of science
Gary A. Tomlinson, musicologist
Alan Walker, paleontologist
Eddie N. Williams, policy analyst and civil rights leader
Rita P. Wright, archaeologist
Garth Youngberg, agriculturalist
1989
Anthony Amsterdam, attorney and legal scholar
Byllye Avery, women's healthcare leader
Alvin Bronstein, human rights lawyer
Leo Buss, evolutionary biologist
Jay Cantor, writer
George Davis, environmental policy analyst
Allen Grossman, poet
John Harbison, composer and conductor
Keith Hefner, journalist and educator
Ralf Hotchkiss, rehabilitation engineer
John Rice Irwin, curator and cultural preservationist
Daniel Janzen, ecologist
Bernice Johnson Reagon, music historian, composer, and vocalist
Aaron Lansky, cultural preservationist
Jennifer Moody, archaeologist and anthropologist
Errol Morris, filmmaker
Vivian Paley, educator and writer
Richard Powers, novelist
Martin Puryear, sculptor
Theodore Rosengarten, historian
Margaret W. Rossiter, historian of science
George Russell, composer and music theorist
Pam Solo, arms control analyst
Ellendea Proffer Teasley, translator and publisher
Claire Van Vliet, book artist
Baldemar Velasquez, farm labor leader
Bill Viola, video artist
Eliot Wigginton, educator
Patricia Wright, primatologist
1990
John Christian Bailar, biostatistician
Martha Clarke, theater director
Jacques d'Amboise, dance educator
Guy Davenport, writer, critic, and translator
Lisa Delpit, education reform leader
John Eaton, composer
Paul R. Ehrlich, population biologist
Charlotte Erickson, historian
Lee Friedlander, photographer
Margaret Geller, astrophysicist
Jorie Graham, poet
Patricia Hampl, writer
John Hollander, poet and literary critic
Thomas Cleveland Holt, social and cultural historian
David Kazhdan, mathematician
Calvin King, land and farm development specialist
M. A. R. Koehl, marine biologist
Nancy Kopell, mathematician
Michael Moschen, performance artist
Gary Nabhan, ethnobotanist
Sherry Ortner, anthropologist
Otis Pitts, community development leader
Yvonne Rainer, filmmaker and choreographer
Michael Schudson, sociologist
Rebecca J. Scott, historian
Marc Shell, scholar
Susan Sontag, writer and cultural critic
Richard Stallman, Free Software Foundation founder, copyleft concept inventor
Guy Tudor, conservationist
Maria Varela, community development leader
Gregory Vlastos, classicist and philosopher
Kent Whealy, preservationist
Eric Wolf, anthropologist
Sidney Wolfe, physician
Robert Woodson, community development leader
José Zalaquett, human rights lawyer
1991
Jacqueline Barton, biophysical chemist
Paul Berman, journalist
James Blinn, computer animator
Taylor Branch, social historian
Trisha Brown, choreographer
Mari Jo Buhle, American historian
Patricia Churchland, (neuro)philosopher
David Donoho, statistician
Steven Feld, anthropologist
Alice Fulton, poet
Guillermo Gómez-Peña, writer and artist
Jerzy Grotowski, theater director
David Hammons, artist
Sophia Bracy Harris, child care leader
Lewis Hyde, writer
Ali Akbar Khan, musician
Sergiu Klainerman, mathematician
Martin Kreitman, geneticist
Harlan Lane, psychologist and linguist
William Linder, community development leader
Patricia Locke, tribal rights leader
Mark Morris, choreographer and dancer
Marcel Ophüls, documentary filmmaker
Arnold Rampersad, biographer and literary critic
Gunther Schuller, composer, conductor, jazz historian
Joel Schwartz, epidemiologist
Cecil Taylor, jazz pianist and composer
Julie Taymor, theater director
David Werner, health care leader
James Westphal, engineer and scientist
Eleanor Wilner, poet
1992
Janet Benshoof, human rights lawyer
Robert Blackburn, printmaker
Unita Blackwell, civil rights leader
Lorna Bourg, rural development leader
Stanley Cavell, philosopher
Amy Clampitt, poet
Ingrid Daubechies, mathematician
Wendy Ewald, photographer
Irving Feldman, poet
Barbara Fields, historian
Robert Hall, journalist
Ann Ellis Hanson, historian
John Henry Holland, computer scientist
Wes Jackson, agronomist
Evelyn Keller, historian and philosopher of science
Steve Lacy, saxophonist and composer
Suzanne Lebsock, social historian
Sharon Long, plant biologist
Norman Manea, writer
Paule Marshall, writer
Michael Massing, journalist
Robert McCabe, educator
Susan Meiselas, photojournalist
Amalia Mesa-Bains, artist and cultural critic
Stephen Schneider, climatologist
Joanna Scott, writer
John T. Scott, artist
John Terborgh, conservation biologist
Twyla Tharp, dancer and choreographer
Philip Treisman, mathematics educator
Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, historian
Geerat J. Vermeij, evolutionary biologist
Günter Wagner, developmental biologist
1993
Nancy Cartwright, philosopher
Demetrios Christodoulou, mathematician and physicist
Maria Crawford, geologist
Stanley Crouch, jazz critic and writer
Nora England, anthropological linguist
Paul Farmer, medical anthropologist
Victoria Foe, developmental biologist
Ernest Gaines, writer
Pedro Greer, physician
Thom Gunn, poet and literary critic
Ann Hamilton, artist
Sokoni Karanja, child and family development specialist
Ann Lauterbach, poet and literary critic
Stephen Lee, chemist
Carol Levine, AIDS policy specialist
Amory Lovins, physicist and energy analyst
Jane Lubchenco, marine biologist
Ruth Lubic, nurse and midwife
Jim Powell, poet, translator, and literary critic
Margie Profet, evolutionary biologist
Thomas Scanlon, philosopher
Aaron Shirley, health care leader
William Siemering, journalist and radio producer
Ellen Silbergeld, toxicologist
Leonard van der Kuijp, philologist and historian
Frank von Hippel, arms control and energy analyst
John Edgar Wideman, writer
Heather Williams, biologist and ornithologist
Marion Williams, gospel music performer
Robert H. Williams, physicist and energy analyst
Henry T. Wright, archaeologist and anthropologist
1994
Robert Adams, photographer
Jeraldyne Blunden, choreographer
Anthony Braxton, avant-garde composer and musician
Rogers Brubaker, sociologist
Ornette Coleman, jazz performer and composer
Israel Gelfand, mathematician
Faye Ginsburg, anthropologist
Heidi Hartmann, economist
Bill T. Jones, dancer and choreographer
Peter E. Kenmore, agricultural entomologist
Joseph E. Marshall, educator
Carolyn McKecuen, economic development leader
Donella Meadows, writer
Arthur Mitchell, company director and choreographer
Hugo Morales, radio producer
Janine Pease, educator
Willie Reale, theater arts educator
Adrienne Rich, poet and writer
Sam-Ang Sam, musician and cultural preservationist
Jack Wisdom, physicist
1995
Allison Anders, filmmaker
Jed Z. Buchwald, historian
Octavia E. Butler, science fiction novelist
Sandra Cisneros, writer and poet
Sandy Close, journalist
Frederick C. Cuny, disaster relief specialist
Sharon Emerson, biologist
Richard Foreman, theater director
Alma Guillermoprieto, journalist
Virginia Hamilton, writer
Donald Hopkins, physician
Susan W. Kieffer, geologist
Elizabeth LeCompte, theater director
Patricia Nelson Limerick, historian
Michael Marletta, chemist
Pamela Matson, ecologist
Susan McClary, musicologist
Meredith Monk, vocalist, composer, director
Rosalind P. Petchesky, political scientist
Joel Rogers, political scientist
Cindy Sherman, photographer
Bryan Stevenson, human rights lawyer
Nicholas Strausfeld, neurobiologist
Richard White, historian
1996
James Roger Prior Angel, astronomer
Joaquin Avila, voting rights advocate
Allan Bérubé, historian
Barbara Block, marine biologist
Joan Breton Connelly, classical archaeologist
Thomas Daniel, biologist
Martin Daniel Eakes, economic development strategist
Rebecca Goldstein, writer
Robert Greenstein, public policy analyst
Richard Howard, poet, translator, and literary critic
John Jesurun, playwright
Richard Lenski, biologist
Louis Massiah, documentary filmmaker
Vonnie McLoyd, developmental psychologist
Thylias Moss, poet and writer
Eiko Otake and Koma Otake, dancers, choreographers
Nathan Seiberg, physicist
Anna Deavere Smith, playwright, journalist, actress
Dorothy Stoneman, educator
Bill Strickland, art educator
1997
Luis Alfaro, writer and performance artist
Lee Breuer, playwright
Vija Celmins, artist
Eric Charnov, evolutionary biologist
Elouise P. Cobell, banker
Peter Galison, historian
Mark Harrington, AIDS researcher
Eva Harris, molecular biologist
Michael Kremer, economist
Russell Lande, biologist
Kerry James Marshall, artist
Nancy A. Moran, evolutionary biologist and ecologist
Han Ong, playwright
Kathleen Ross, educator
Pamela Samuelson, copyright scholar and activist
Susan Stewart, literary scholar and poet
Elizabeth Streb, dancer and choreographer
Trimpin, sound sculptor
Loïc Wacquant, sociologist
Kara Walker, artist
David Foster Wallace, author and journalist
Andrew Wiles, mathematician
Brackette Williams, anthropologist
1998
Janine Antoni, artist
Ida Applebroog, artist
Ellen Barry, attorney and human rights activist
Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web
Linda Bierds, poet
Bernadette Brooten, historian
John Carlstrom, astrophysicist
Mike Davis, historian
Nancy Folbre, economist
Avner Greif, economist
Kun-Liang Guan, biochemist
Gary Hill, artist
Edward Hirsch, poet, essayist
Ayesha Jalal, historian
Charles R. Johnson, writer
Leah Krubitzer, neuroscientist
Stewart Kwoh, human rights activist
Charles Lewis, journalist
William W. McDonald, rancher and conservationist
Peter N. Miller, historian
Don Mitchell, cultural geographer
Rebecca Nelson, plant pathologist
Elinor Ochs, linguistic anthropologist
Ishmael Reed, poet, essayist, novelist
Benjamin D. Santer, atmospheric scientist
Karl Sims, computer scientist and artist
Dorothy Thomas, human rights activist
Leonard Zeskind, human rights activist
Mary Zimmerman, playwright
1999
Jillian Banfield, geologist
Carolyn Bertozzi, chemist
Xu Bing, artist and printmaker
Bruce G. Blair, policy analyst
John Bonifaz, election lawyer and voting rights leader
Shawn Carlson, science educator
Mark Danner, journalist
Alison L. Des Forges, human rights activist
Elizabeth Diller, architect
Saul Friedländer, historian
Jennifer Gordon, lawyer
David Hillis, biologist
Sara Horowitz, lawyer
Jacqueline Jones, historian
Laura L. Kiessling, biochemist
Leslie Kurke, classicist
David Levering Lewis, biographer and historian
Juan Maldacena, physicist
Gay J. McDougall, human rights lawyer
Campbell McGrath, poet
Denny Moore, anthropological linguist
Elizabeth Murray, artist
Pepón Osorio, artist
Ricardo Scofidio, architect
Peter Shor, computer scientist
Eva Silverstein, physicist
Wilma Subra, scientist
Ken Vandermark, saxophonist, composer
Naomi Wallace, playwright
Jeffrey Weeks, mathematician
Fred Wilson, artist
Ofelia Zepeda, linguist
2000
Susan E. Alcock, archaeologist
K. Christopher Beard, paleontologist
Lucy Blake, conservationist
Anne Carson, poet
Peter J. Hayes, energy policy activist
David Isay, radio producer
Alfredo Jaar, photographer
Ben Katchor, graphic novelist
Hideo Mabuchi, physicist
Susan Marshall, choreographer
Samuel Mockbee, architect
Cecilia Muñoz, civil rights policy analyst
Margaret Murnane, optical physicist
Laura Otis, literary scholar and historian of science
Lucia M. Perillo, poet
Matthew Rabin, economist
Carl Safina, marine conservationist
Daniel P. Schrag, geochemist
Susan E. Sygall, civil rights leader
Gina G. Turrigiano, neuroscientist
Gary Urton, anthropologist
Patricia J. Williams, legal scholar
Deborah Willis, historian of photography and photographer
Erik Winfree, computer and materials scientist
Horng-Tzer Yau, mathematician
2001
Andrea Barrett, writer
Christopher Chyba, astrobiologist
Michael Dickinson, fly biologist, bioengineer
Rosanne Haggerty, housing and community development leader
Lene Hau, physicist
Dave Hickey, art critic
Stephen Hough, pianist and composer
Kay Redfield Jamison, psychologist
Sandra Lanham, pilot and conservationist
Iñigo Manglano-Ovalle, artist
Cynthia Moss, natural historian
Aihwa Ong, anthropologist
Dirk Obbink, classicist and papyrologist
Norman R. Pace, biochemist
Suzan-Lori Parks, playwright
Brooks Pate, physical chemist
Xiao Qiang, human rights leader
Geraldine Seydoux, molecular biologist
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Notes
References
External links
Official website
Fellowships
Lists of award winners |
4222210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray%20Humphreys | Murray Humphreys | Murray Humphreys (born Llewellyn Morris Humphreys; April 20, 1899 – November 23, 1965) (also known as The Camel or The Hump), was a Chicago mobster of Welsh descent who was the chief political fixer and labor racketeer, beginning during the Chicago Outfit during Prohibition. Considered to be a ruthless but also well-dressed, socially refined, and clever man, Humphreys believed in killing only as a last resort. He was known to place far greater trust in the bribability of lawmen, seemingly respectable businessmen, labor union leaders, and public officials. A favorite maxim of Humphreys' was: "The difference between guilt and innocence in any court is who gets to the judge first with the most". But perhaps the statement that best summed up Humphreys' philosophy of life was: "Any time you become weak, you might as well die". Al Capone once said of Humphreys, "Anybody can use a gun, but 'The Hump' uses his head. He can shoot if he has to, but he likes to negotiate with cash when he can. I like that in a man."
Humphrey's value to the Chicago Outfit was also due to his abilities as a fixer: to ensure that his fellow mobsters attracted as little publicity as possible. Whereas some senior wiseguys, such as Sam Giancana and Filippo Sacco, welcomed the limelight, others took their cue from Humphreys and conducted themselves behind the scenes and out of public view. He owned a nondescript bungalow in South Shore, Chicago but frequently lived in various high rise towers on the downtown lake front in Chicago, like the apartment he had on the 51st floor of Marina City's east tower. According to FBI files, he also owned an 80,000 dollar (roughly $800,000 today) winter home at 210 Harbor Dr, Key Biscayne, FL, in his wife's name.
Early life
Llewellyn Morris Humphreys was born in the United States, the third of five children. His parents, Bryan Humphreys and Ann Wigley, were from Carno, a small village near Newtown in Powys, Wales. They had married at the Methodist chapel in Llanidloes, Powys. However, as the long depression at the end of the 19th century caused great hardship in many Welsh farming communities, the young couple found it difficult to make a living from their isolated hilltop farm in Carno. The family eventually emigrated to the United States from the village of Llandinam.
The family's fortunes did not improve following arrival in America. Humphreys had to drop out of elementary school, aged seven, to get a job selling newspapers because of their impoverished condition. However, young "Curly" Humphreys (so nicknamed because of his dark curly hair) soon tried his hand at petty theft and became involved with the world of Chicago street gangs. By the time he had turned 13 years old, Humphreys was in the custody of a Chicago judge by the name of Jack Murray, who apparently attempted to interest the young hoodlum in a law career. While not inspiring Curly to follow in his footsteps, Judge Murray's judicial lessons proved of great value to Humphreys later on. It was at this time that Llewelyn Humphreys changed his name to Murray Humphreys.
During the next few years, Humphreys appears to have been involved in several jewel thefts and burglaries and by age 16, he was serving a 60-day sentence for petty larceny in Chicago's Bridewell Jail. The original charge had been one of felony burglary (which would have carried a much stiffer sentence) but Humphreys had convinced the prosecutor to change the charge. According to a later acquaintance of Humphreys, the young criminal's private ultimatum to the prosecutor went something like this: "You try to get me indicted for burglary and I will weep in front of the grand jury. They probably won't indict me because I am only 16 years old. But even if you get me to court, the do-gooders will say that because of my extreme youth I ought not to be sent to prison. However, if you reduce the charge to one of petty larceny, I will plead guilty. I will get a light sentence. You will get a conviction that looks good on your record. Everybody will be happy. What's more, you will receive a suitable gift before the case goes to court".
Humphreys then continued his life of crime, primarily one of jewel heists and burglaries. Murray left Chicago for his brother's home in Little Axe, near Pink, Oklahoma in 1921 after some difficulties. Taking a temporary job as a door-to-door salesman, Humphreys met an attractive young college student from Norman, named Mary Brendle. Marriage followed a brief courtship, and after a suitable time had elapsed, Humphreys took his young bride back with him to Chicago. Briefly going legitimate, Humphreys got a job as a short-order cook at a restaurant on Halsted Street, though Murray's "legitimacy" would be short-lived after he met customer Fred Evans.
The college-educated Evans was a small-time Chicago gangster in search of a partner who could help him break into the lucrative field of bootleg liquor. Evans found his partner in Humphreys, and the problem of having no product of their own was solved by the decision to hijack others' bootleg. All went smoothly for several years until Murray hijacked some bootleg belonging to the Capone mob. When Humphreys was identified by the truck's driver as the hijacker who had stuck a gun in his face, some Capone men picked Humphreys up and brought him before Capone. Exactly what conversation passed between the two is unknown, but apparently Capone was impressed enough by the smooth-talking young hood to give him a job with the Outfit. As an appreciative Capone was later to say of his chance discovery: "Nobody hustles like the Hump."
Mob career
He was skinny and dapper and handsome in a sinister sort of way, a representative of the new breed of racketeer, part thug and part businessman. And he enjoyed Capone's favor. —Capone: The Man and the Era, by Laurence BergreenThe 27-year-old Humphreys was put into the racketeering side of the business but also carried out some killings for the mob around this time. His two most commonly known nicknames were "The Camel" and "The Hump". It has been suggested that the nickname, "The Camel", derived from his preference for wearing camel hair coats; however, a more likely explanation is that "The Camel," evolved from his other nickname, "The Hump", derived from his surname. The names given to him by his friends, however, were more revealing: "Mr. Einstein", "The Brainy Hood" and "Mr. Moneybags".
From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, Humphreys, along with "Red" Barker, William "Three-Fingered Jack" White and William "Klondike" O'Donnell, was one of the mobsters who orchestrated the Outfit's takeover of a number of Chicago labor unions. Humphreys was later indicted for the December 1931 kidnapping of a union president, Robert G. Fitche, but escaped conviction.
In 1933, with Capone behind bars for income tax evasion, the chief investigator for the State Attorney's office described Murray Humphreys as "'public enemy No. 1' and 'the czar of business rackets in Chicago.'" Later that same year, Humphreys was indicted for income tax evasion himself. On the run for 18 months, he finally gave himself up near Whiting, Indiana and entered a plea of guilty. Sentenced by a federal judge to 18 months in Leavenworth Prison, Humphreys wound up serving only 13 months of his sentence.
It is likely that Humphreys had a hand in arranging the 1933 fake kidnapping of John "Jake the Barber" Factor, a British con artist wanted in England for stock swindling. Factor, a Capone friend, was facing extradition proceedings when the Outfit staged a fake disappearance and framed Capone rival Roger "Terrible" Touhy for allegedly kidnapping Factor. Touhy received a 99-year prison sentence but was released in 1959, only to be murdered several weeks later. Six months after Touhy's death, Humphreys supposedly bought several shares of an insurance company and eight months later redeemed the shares for $42,000. An Internal Revenue Service (IRS) investigation soon determined that these shares had been originally owned by John Factor. The IRS claimed that the $42,000 was a payment from Factor to Humphreys for the fake 1933 kidnapping; they forced Humphreys to declare the money as income and pay taxes.
Other career highlights for Humphreys include his discovering and exploiting the intricacies of the legal system's "double jeopardy" rule and the U.S. Constitution's Fifth Amendment for the Mob's benefit.
When Jake "Greasy Thumb" Guzik died in 1956, Humphreys became the Outfit's chief political fixer and financial manager or, in the words of one Mafia historian, their "strategist, councilor, and master schemer". Knowing that Guzik's body could not be found at the restaurant without compromising some of the Outfit's most valuable judicial resources, Humphreys had the body surreptitiously removed from the restaurant and taken home to Mrs. Guzik, who was curtly informed that her husband had officially died at home.
Giancana and his much valued "adviser" had rather dissimilar styles, illustrated by the following: both men were constantly tailed by Federal agents, but when Giancana grew impatient of a car tailing him, he put his foot to the gas and brought about a race between him and his pursuers. Humphreys, however, one day when he had had enough of being followed, got out of his car, sent his driver home, went up to the car that was following him and said: "You've been following me all day. There's no need for two cars. I'll ride with you." (He did just that, and apparently even bought the officers lunch.)
Sam Giancana and Murray Humphreys both topped the FBI's Top Hoodlum list, "Top Hoodlum" being a program put into operation in 1957 for the purpose of combating organized crime and the Mafia in particular. When Chicago FBI agents under the leadership of William F. Roemer finally discovered that a second-floor tailor shop on North Michigan Avenue, in the heart of what is now "Magnificent Mile", was a frequent meeting place for such Outfit notables as Humphreys, Tony Accardo, Sam Giancana and Gus Alex, the FBI painstakingly installed a hidden microphone in the shop after hours. "One microphone was worth a thousand agents", said Roemer, fondly remembering the bug they christened, "Little Al." "Little Al" remained in place undetected for five years, and gave the FBI invaluable knowledge about the inner workings of the Mafia.
Family and private life
Murray Humphreys:
Humphreys' first wife Mary Clementine Brendle, known affectionately as "Clemi", was an Oklahoman with part Cherokee ancestry. Together they had one child, a daughter named Llewella. The family's Chicago home was on 7710 Bennett Avenue, (where a plaque hung over the fireplace reading, "Love thy crooked neighbor as you love thy crooked self.) this saying is also accredited to Meyer Lansky in Wikipedia ) AJ /1/7/15 ) " In the yard, Humphreys built his daughter an intentionally crooked playhouse.
Their other home was in Norman, Oklahoma. Clemi's many relatives lived nearby and Humphreys soon endeared himself to his acquired nephews and nieces: "I was a small child, and he was always super nice to me," recalled Ray Brendle nearly 60 years later. "He made our Christmases. He would play Santa Claus and come down from the second floor dressed as Santa and carrying presents for all us kids. We were all dirt poor, and he was the only one who had money." Others in Norman were favorably impressed by Humphreys' habit of handing out silver dollars to strangers who appeared needy. Another nephew once recalled how, "every holiday, uncle Lew would go downtown, fill the station wagon with turkeys and other food, and give it to the underprivileged Indian children." This seemingly philanthropic side of Humphreys was also noted by FBI agents, who discovered that Humphreys "was the one gangster who looked after just-released convicts who needed jobs, and who made certain that the Outfit gave pensions to widows and disabled associates." An FBI agent trying to understand his growing regard for "The Camel", guessed that: "it is probably a common pitfall for lawmen to develop affection for those of their adversaries who have more of the good human qualities than their other targets."
In 1957, after a separation of three years from her husband, Mary Brendle Humphreys filed for divorce. The following year Humphreys married his mistress Jeanne Stacy, but soon re-established friendly relations with Clemi, frequently calling her by phone and making occasional visits to Oklahoma. In 1964, Humphreys took his ex-wife and their daughter on a two-month tour of Europe.
After his second marriage Humphreys bought a home in Florida under the alias of, "Mr. Lewis Hart", supposedly a retired Texas oilman. Having at this time developed the heart condition that eventually killed him, Humphreys seemed to have tried retiring himself from the mob, but was too valuable a man for the Outfit to lose and so his "retirement" never really came into effect.
If there was one very touchy subject for Humphreys, it was his daughter Llewella. At a young age, Llewella Humphreys was the victim of severe mental troubles. While in school she had shown fine musical talent, giving her father the idea to send her to Europe where she could further her musical studies but while in Rome Llewella met the Italian actor Rossano Brazzi, and the two became lovers. When Llewella returned to America she gave birth to a son on July 14, 1955, whom she named George Llewellyn Brady. Humphreys sent Llewella and her baby to live in Oklahoma with Llewella's mother; but, in 1958 Murray Humphreys had his increasingly ill and unstable daughter committed to a Topeka, Kansas, sanitarium, where she remained for the next three years.
Once, when questioned about his then-teenage daughter before a Senate committee, Humphreys became noticeably angry and snarled back at the offending Senator: "Would you like to have people asking questions about your family?" F.B.I tapes record Humphreys angrily remembering how Estes Kefauver, the United States Senate for Tennessee asked him outright "is your daughter nuts?" Humphreys said he had barely resisted the urge to have Kefauver "powdered".
Arrest and death
In 1965, Chicago boss Sam Giancana was jailed by Federal Judge William J. Campbell for his refusal to answer questions regarding the syndicate's activities. Campbell had blocked Giancana's plan to "Plead the Fifth" by announcing at the start of the hearing that Giancana would be granted automatic immunity for anything self-incriminating the gang boss might reveal in his testimony. When Giancana refused to say anything, he was charged with "Contempt of Court" and sentenced to be jailed "for the duration of the grand jury or until he chooses to answer." Three weeks after Giancana's arrest Humphreys was issued a subpoena to appear before the same grand jury. When Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Agent William Roemer came to Humphreys' Marina Towers apartment to deliver the subpoena he was met at the door by Ernest Humphreys, who told Roemer that his brother had just left for parts unknown. When leaving the apartment, Roemer noticed a distinctly colored blue blazer hung on a chair.
Knowing that because of increasing blindness in one eye Humphreys always visited his family in Oklahoma by train, Roemer promptly checked the Santa Fe Railroad at Dearborn Station and called ahead for agents to stop the Oklahoma bound train. Humphreys was met by federal agents in Norman, who escorted him back to Chicago. At this time Roemer began to assemble proof that Humphreys had been intentionally fleeing the subpoena. The railroad employee who had sold Humphreys his ticket remembered what Humphreys had been wearing and described the same blue blazer that Roemer had seen while speaking to Ernest Humphreys. Also, a porter recalled how, while on the train, Humphreys was reading a newspaper, which he eventually threw aside. Picking up the paper, the porter had been surprised to see the reader's face displayed on page one, accompanied by an article about his being sought by the grand jury for questioning. Humphreys' subsequent testimony to the grand jury that he had not known about the subpoena when he left the state was thereby disproved, and three agents were sent to arrest Humphreys on the charge of perjury.
Roemer, who had developed a liking for Humphreys in the course of his dealings with him, purposely did not include himself among the agents he sent to arrest the mobster. When the three selected agents knocked on the door of Humphreys' apartment it was opened by Humphreys, with a 38-caliber revolver in his hand. One of the agents is quoted as saying: "Murray, for Christ's sake, you know we're FBI agents, put down the gun". The agents overpowered the aging, 66 years old, mobster without much difficulty and handcuffed him. There was a safe in the apartment, and the agents decided to make a "search" "incident to the arrest", which was outside Humphreys' knowledge of law. They asked Humphreys to hand over the key, which Humphreys refused to do. Another struggle ensued, which ended in the agents forcibly taking the key from Humphreys' pants pocket and opening the safe. Its contents and Humphreys were taken downtown where Humphreys' restaurateur friend, Morrie Norman, posted bail for him.
That night, at approximately 8:30 p.m., Ernest Humphreys found his dead brother lying fully clothed and face down on the floor of the same room where he and the agents had fought. Humphreys had apparently been vacuuming the room at the time of his death. The Cook County Coroner Andrew Toman attributed cause of death to an acute coronary occlusion.
Humphreys' Oklahoma family, composed of Clemi, Llewella, and George, took a plane to Chicago and attended a private service at the Donnellan Funeral Home, where Humphreys' remains were cremated despite the wish he had expressed for his body to be donated for medical research. After the service Morrie Norman, having been a mutual friend of both Roemer and Humphreys, arranged a meeting between the family and Bill Roemer at his restaurant. "I told them all how much I respected their husband, father, and grandfather," recalled Roemer, "and that I deeply regretted what had happened."
I had clearly developed an affinity for Hump – more so by far than for anyone else in the mob. The man had killed in the Capone days on the way up. He had committed my cardinal sin, corruption, many times over. But there was a style about the way he conducted himself. His word was his bond ... Without question, I preferred working against a despised adversary such as a Giancana rather than a respected adversary such as a Humphreys. Each was a challenge – the difference being that I enjoyed the fruit of my success so much more against Giancana than I did against 'The Camel' ... in Chicago there would be plenty more mobsters to choose as targets. But none like Hump.
Roemer: Man Against the Mob, by William F. Roemer Jr.
Sandy Smith, the Chicago Tribune's top crime journalist, reported Humphreys' death in an article entitled, "His Epitaph: No Gangster Was More Bold". Another newspaper man, Mike Royko, had the following quip to offer: "[Humphreys] died of unnatural causes – a heart attack".
Quotes
"When Courtney was state's attorney and all of us guys got indicted and Nitti was hollerin' like hell, we broke through and we got the assistant state's attorney and we got the witness and let me tell you I had the jury, too, just in case. That's the way we got to revert to these days."
"If you ever have to cock a gun in a man's face, kill him. If you walk away without killing him after doing that, he'll kill you the next day".
Miscellany
Chicago tradition has it that the political advice, "Vote early and vote often", originated with Humphreys.
Named his dog, "Snorky", after Al Capone.
Described by Sam Giancana as "the nicest guy in the mob."
Reportedly inspired the character of Tom Hagen in The Godfather books.
In 2010, Newsok.com in Oklahoma City published a story about the couple who bought the Humphrey's retreat in Norman, Oklahoma. On the property is the mausoleum containing the remains of Humphreys and his daughter and first wife.
LINK:http://ndepth.newsok.com/murray-humphreys
"Humphreys was a highly skilled talent scout. According to scholars of such matters, he was the crime syndicate's leading recruiter of young blood, if you'll pardon the expression". - Mike Royko
Through his mother, Ann Wigley, Humphreys was the third cousin of Welsh nationalist politician Dafydd Wigley.
References
Further reading
Giancana, Chuck and Corbitt, Michael, Double Cross: The Explosive, Inside Story of the Mobster Who Controlled America. New York: Warner Books, 1992.
Hersh, Seymour M., The Dark Side of Camelot. New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997.
Russo, Gus, The Outfit: The Role of Chicago's Underworld in the Shaping of Modern America.
Roemer, William F., Jr., Roemer: Man Against the Mob.
External links
Jake the Barber: The Story of a Successful Conman (Part One of a Two-Party Story) by John Touhy
Excerpt from J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets, by Curt Gentry, (W.W. Norton & Company, 1991)
1899 births
1965 deaths
American gangsters
American people convicted of tax crimes
American people of Welsh descent
American trade unionists of Welsh descent
Chicago Outfit mobsters
Welsh-American history |
4222487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans | 2003 24 Hours of Le Mans | The 2003 24 Hours of Le Mans () was a non-championship 24-hour automobile endurance race from 14 to 15 June 2003 at the Circuit de la Sarthe near Le Mans, France for teams of three drivers each entering Le Mans Prototype and Grand Touring cars before approximately 220,000 people. It was the race's 71st edition, as organised by the automotive group, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) since 1923. A test day was held seven weeks prior to the race on 4 May.
A Bentley Speed 8 shared by Dane Tom Kristensen, Italian Rinaldo Capello and Brit Guy Smith started from pole position after Kristensen set the fastest overall lap time in the second qualifying session. The team won the race by two laps over Mark Blundell, David Brabham and Johnny Herbert's sister Bentley. It was Capello and Smith's first Le Mans victory and Kristensen's fifth. Bentley's sixth overall victory was their first since the 1930 edition. Champion Racing's Audi R8 of JJ Lehto, Emanuele Pirro and Stefan Johansson in third overall won the Le Mans Prototype 900 (LMP900) category from Audi Sport Japan Team Goh's entry of Seiji Ara, Jan Magnussen and Marco Werner.
A Noël del Bello Racing Reynard 2KQ-LM driven by Jean-Luc Maury-Laribière, Christophe Pillon and Didier André won the Le Mans Prototype 675 (LMP675) class, 32 laps ahead of the second-placed RN Motorsport DBA4 03S-Zytek car of John Nielsen, Casper Elgaard and Hayanari Shimoda. In a Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello, the Veloqx Prodrive Racing team of Jamie Davies, Tomáš Enge and Peter Kox won the Le Mans Grand Touring Sport (LMGTS) class, giving Ferrari its first GT victory since the 1981 race. Corvette Racing finished second and third in the category with their two C5-Rs ten laps behind. Porsche took the first six places in the Le Mans Grand Touring (LMGT) category, with an Alex Job Racing (AJR) 911-GT3 RS driven by Sascha Maassen, Emmanuel Collard and Lucas Luhr winning on the team's debut.
Background and regulation changes
The 71st edition of the 24 Hours of Le Mans took place from 14 to 15 June 2003 at the Circuit de la Sarthe road racing circuit close to Le Mans, France, from 14 to 15 June. The race was first held in 1923 after the automotive journalist Charles Faroux, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) general secretary Georges Durand and the industrialist Emile Coquile agreed to hold a test of vehicle reliability and durability. The 24 Hours of Le Mans is considered one of the world's most prestigious motor races and is part of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.
The ACO reduced the overall horsepower for the Le Mans Grand Touring Prototype (LMGTP), Le Mans Prototype 900 (LMP900), Le Mans Prototype 675 (LMP675), Le Mans Grand Touring Sports (LMGTS), and LMGT (Le Mans Grand Touring) categories by 10 per cent following the 2002 race. It permitted the use of carbon fibre chassis in the LMGTS class as well as the use of original automatic and semi-automatic gearboxes in a homologated road vehicle entered in the LMGTS and LMGT categories. Every engine had air restrictors installed and boost pressures were adjusted to try to achieve performance parity across all four categories. At a public meeting, drivers were told that crossing two wheels of a car over the white line denoting the circuit's boundaries and onto the kerbing would result in a stop-and-go penalty that would increase in severity if the transgression was repeated.
Entries
By the entry deadline on 20 February 2003, the ACO had received 72 applications (31 for the Prototype classes and 41 for the Grand Touring categories). It issued 50 race invitations, with entries divided between the LMP900, LMGTP, LMP675, LMGTS, and LMGT classes.
Automatic entries
Six automatic entry invitations were earned by teams of two cars that won their class in the 2002 24 Hours of Le Mans or in the 2002 American Le Mans Series (ALMS) season-closing round, the Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta, designated a qualifying race by the ACO as part of an agreement with the ALMS. Because entries were limited to teams, squads were not permitted to switch cars from last year to the next. They were allowed to change categories as long as the car's make did not change and the ACO approved the switch. Audi Sport Team Joest in both LMP categories, Corvette Racing in the LMGTS class and The Racer's Group (TRG) in the LMGT category received automatic entries based on class victories at the 2002 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi Sport North America and Corvette also qualified after winning their respective classes at the Petit Le Mans, as did Alex Job Racing (AJR) in the LMGT category. However, Audi declined their automatic invitations after it withdrew its factory operations and forwent its defence of the overall victory.
Entry list
On 25 March 2003, the ACO selection committee announced the full 50-car entry list for Le Mans, plus six reserves. The field consisted of an equal number of Prototype and GT cars representing 22 different car manufacturers (14 in the GT classes and 8 in the Prototype categories). After a protest was raised by Larbre Compétition owner Jack Leconte and alpine skier Luc Alphand over their respective teams being allocated one entry, ACO president Michel Cosson stated that the entries chosen appeared to be of high quality and that the automotive group wanted a heterogeneous field. He said that it was not the proper way to select race entries but disliked those who sought to detract from the event's excitement.
Bio-ethanol car
Team Nasamax, based in Sittingbourne, England, entered the first renewable-fuelled sports prototype racing car at the Le Mans event to raise awareness of renewable fuels. The Reynard 01Q had a Cosworth V8 turbocharged engine that ran on bio-ethanol fuel, which does not release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere because it is produced from crops. The car's fuel and inlet air systems were modified to allow for more efficient fuel combustion. An alternative exhaust system was built and the turbocharger's housing and vanes were modified.
Testing
On 4 May, the circuit hosted a mandatory pre-Le Mans testing day divided into two daytime sessions of four hours each, involving all 50 entries as well as all six reserve cars. The weather was clear and dry. In the final minutes of testing, Tom Kristensen in the 7 Bentley Speed 8 set the fastest lap of 3 minutes, 34.820 seconds. Jan Magnussen was the fastest privateer Audi R8 for Team Goh in second and the No. 7 Bentley was third. Audi Sport UK and Champion Racing were fourth and fifth, respectively. Late in testing, Frank Biela lost control on an oil patch laid by a Pagani Zonda at the Porsche Curves, crashing into a barrier at and damaging the Audi Sport UK car's right-rear corner. The No. 26 RN Motorsport DBA4 03S-Zytek car led in LMP675 with a 3 minutes, 47.708 seconds lap, followed by the No. 29 Noël del Bello Racing Reynard 2KQ-LM and the No. 27 Intersport Racing MG-Lola EX257 vehicles. Tomáš Enge's No. 88 Prodrive Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello lapped fastest in LMGTS at 3 minutes, 57.180 seconds, followed by Kelvin Burt's sister No. 80 car and Jérôme Policand's No. 72 Luc Alphand Aventures entry. Jörg Bergmeister's No. 81 TRG Porsche 911 GT3-RS led the LMGT class in 4 minutes, 8.636 seconds, followed by Sascha Maassen's No. 93 AJR car.
Qualifying
On the 11 and 12 June, all entrants had eight hours of qualifying divided into four two-hour sessions. To qualify for the race, all entrants were required to set a time that was within 110 per cent of the fastest lap set by the fastest vehicle in each of the four categories during the session. The weather was overcast and humid, and teams focused on car setup. Bentley took the lead early on with a flying lap from Mark Blundell's No. 8 car, followed by Kristensen and Johnny Herbert. Blundell eventually led with a lap of 3 minutes, 35.321 seconds. In second, Kristensen's No. 7 car was a quarter-second slower and Jan Magnussen was the fastest Audi privateer in third. Jan Lammers' No. 15 Racing for Holland Dome S101 improved on each of his timed laps to finish fourth, and Champion Racing's JJ Lehto was fifth. John Nielsen drove RN Motorsport's DBA4 03S-Zytek car to provisional pole in LMP675 with a time of 3 minutes, 45.243 seconds, eight seconds faster than the Intersport and Automotive Durango SRL teams. Oliver Gavin's No. 50 Chevrolet Corvette C5-R led the LMGTS category with a lap of 3 minutes, 55.613 seconds he set with five minutes left, demoting Enge's Prodrive Ferrari to second. After setting a lap in the final ten minutes, Johnny O'Connell's No. 53 car was third. In LMGT, AJR's Porsche of Maassen was almost three seconds faster than Timo Bernhard's TRG car and another seven-tenths faster than Marc Lieb's No. 87 Orbit entry. Separate spins from Chris McMurry, Kevin Buckler, Peter Kox and Andrew Bagnall did not disrupt the session.
Wednesday night's qualifying session was held with lower asphalt temperatures and teams performed scheduled simulation runs to see how their cars would perform under darkness with heavy fuel loads and worn tyres in the final 75 minutes. A lack of slower traffic and better grip allowed Kristensen to displace Blundell and twice improved the overall fastest lap to 3 minutes, 32.843 seconds, followed by David Brabham's sister No. 8 Bentley in second and Biela's No. 10 Audi third. Emanuele Pirro put the No. 6 Audi fourth as Lammers fell to fifth. Marco Werner's Team Goh Audi went into a gravel trap but continued driving. In LMP675, Nielsen improved the RN Motorsport Zytek car's lap by a second to 3 minutes, 44.343, increasing the gap over the Intersport team to almost ten seconds. 75 minutes into the session, the Team Bucknum Racing Pilbeam-JPX MP91 car's engine failed at Indianapolis corner and spilled oil on the track. Marshals took 20 minutes to dry the spilled oil before qualifying resumed. Enge's Prodrive Ferrari led the LMGTS class from the start. He improved on Corvette Racing's first-session lap to 3 minutes, 53.278 seconds. After a session-long battle with Bernhard, Maassen in the AJR Porsche maintained his lead in the LMGT category. Bagnall lost control of the Seikel Motorsport Porsche and was beached in a gravel trap. A collision with a Prototype in the Dunlop Chicane damaged David Warnock's PK Sport car's track rod.
An accident stopped Thursday's first qualifying session after seven minutes. Jamie Campbell-Walter spun a Lister Storm LMP car after hitting a bump on the exit of the Dunlop Esses. He crashed backwards into a left-hand side barrier at the Dunlop Curve at and . Marshals and safety teams spent ten minutes extricating Campbell-Walter from the car, removing a section of carbon fibre bodywork trapping his legs and put him into an ambulance. The Lister Storm was withdrawn owing to a lack of spare parts. Later, Ian Khan's Thierry Perrier Porsche engine failed, spilling oil on the Dunlop Chicane circuit. Robin Liddell was caught out and spun into a gravel trap after hitting the oil. Simultaneously, Roland Bervillé spun, collided with a barrier with his front-right corner, and broke the rear wing of the T2M Motorsport car, temporarily stopping the session. Herbert's No. 8 Bentley led with a lap of 3 minutes, 35.126 seconds, but remained second on the provisional grid. Magnussen used lower air temperatures to improve Team Goh Audi's lap and pass Lammers for third at the session's end. Lehto outperformed Champion Racing's entry to go fourth. Despite not lapping faster, the RN Motorsport Zytek car retained provisional pole in LMP675, while the Intersport Lola vehicle improved by more than five seconds to remain second in class. Enge's second-session lap kept him atop in LMGTS as Darren Turner in the sister Prodrive Ferrari passed the No. 50 Corvette for second. Because of the previous day's lap, AJR maintained its lead in LMGT.
The final session saw more incidents as cars were tested under race conditions. Thomas Erdos' Graham Nash Motorsport Saleen S7-R stopped on his outlap in a gravel trap at the Dunlop Chicane, necessitating trackside assistance. Gavin Pickering's Rachel Welter WR-Peugeot car stopped at the pit lane's exit, its bodywork flailing. Kristensen gave his co-drivers Rinaldo Capello and Guy Smith time to drive the No. 7 Bentley, which led the session and secured the pole position after Kristensen's lap from the second session. Herbert improved the sister No. 8 Bentley's lap on his second attempt by one-tenth of a second; it remained in second overall due to slower traffic delaying Herbert. Audi were unable to challenge, but Biela improved the Audi Sport UK team's fastest lap and went third and Magnussen qualified the Team Goh car fifth, separated by Lammers' Racing for Holland Dome car. Intersport's MG-Lola car was faster, but not fast enough to take the LMP675 pole position from the RN Motorsport Zytek car. which was two seconds slower due to a broken throttle linkage. The GT categories remained mostly unchanged, with Enge's No. 88 Prodrive Ferrari in LMGTS class failing to improve on his second session lap as teammate Turner moved to within four-tenths of a second. Porsche took the first three positions in the LMGT category, with Lucas Luhr's AJR car resetting the category lap record to a 4 minutes, 6.984 seconds and Bernhard's TRG entry qualifying second by four hundredths of a second.
Qualifying results
Pole position winners in each class are indicated in bold The fastest time set by each entry is denoted in gray.
Notes:
– The No. 20 Lister Storm LMP was withdrawn due to accident damage in the third qualifying session.
Warm-up
The drivers had a 45-minute warm-up session at 09:00 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) in overcast and cool weather. Bentley stayed fastest with Blundell's No. 8 car lapping at 3 minutes, 35.319 seconds. He was 2.615 seconds faster than the second-placed Bentley No. 7. The Audi Sport UK R8 was third with Champion Racing fourth and Racing for Holland Home fifth. The No. 50 Corvette led the LMGTS field and the TRG Porsche led in LMGT. Shortly after the session began, Romain Dumas' Team Nasamax Reynard experienced an ignition problem caused by a heat leak at the right of the engine's cylinder bank, severely damaging its engine compartment and necessitating a major component change.
Race
Start
Thunderstorms were forecast, and despite an earlier heavy rain shower, the weather at the start of the race was clear. The air temperature approached . Approximately 220,000 people attended the event. Both Bentley Speed 8s underwent checks to their ride heights, Ray Mallock rectified a faulty gearbox that leaked oil in the No. 64 Saleen S7-R, and Kondo Racing replaced the No. 9 Dome S101's V8 engine after a water leak. Don Panoz, the ALMS's founder, waved the French tricolour at 16:00 CEST to signal the start of the race, led by the starting pole sitter Capello's No. 7 Bentley. Following the withdrawal of the Lister Storm LMP, 49 cars were scheduled to start, but the No. 25 Gerard Welter WR LMP02 was in the pit lane with a mechanical fault. Capello maintained his lead, while Lammers' Racing for Holland car passed Magnussen's Team Goh Audi for third. Gavin brought the No. 50 Corvette into the pit lane at the end of the first lap with a throttle linkage issue, losing the car 26 minutes and dropping to last overall. When three privateer Audis passed Lammers, he dropped from second to sixth place as Bentley quickly pulled away from the rest of the field. Herbert briefly led Capello before the No. 8 Bentley made its first pit stop of the race on lap 10. Meanwhile, Intersport's Lola-MG took the lead in LMP675 after the RN Motorsport Zytek developed car trouble and AJR led the LMGT category.
The first hour of racing ended with the first crash, when Richard Stanton's No. 91 TVR Tuscan T400R was hit from behind by a Gerard Walter WR LMP02 car in the Porsche Curves, sending him into the outside concrete barrier at the complex's exit and breaking the car's right-rear suspension, stranding Stanton there. Stanton's repairs to the car's differential to make it driveable for a return to the pit lane were unsuccessful. Soon after, Capello locked the No. 7 Bentley's brakes as he approached the right-hand Mulsanne Corner, slowing to avoid spinning into a gravel trap. He held off Herbert in heavy traffic until Herbert passed him on the 23rd lap to retake the lead. Kristensen took over the No. 7 Bentley from Capello and retook the overall lead from Lehto's Audi R8 three laps later. Brabham's sister No. 8 car was called into the pit lane for a ten-second stop to have a loose door frame fixed. Casper Elgaard was the fastest driver in LMP675 at the time, restoring RN Motorsport Zytek to the class lead. On lap 28, Audi Sport UK instructed Biela to enter the pit lane. A Panoz prototype vehicle to his right prevented him from doing so, forcing him to complete an additional lap. The R8 slowed with a lack of fuel through Mulsanne Corner and was retired at the side of the track after Biela's attempt to weave and keep the car running on its starter failed.
Kristensen almost collided with Jean-Marc Gounon's Courage Compétition Judd exiting the pit lane in the third hour. At Arnage corner, Beppe Gabbiani's Racing for Holland car hit Kelly Collins' No. 50 Corvette, sending both cars spinning. Brabham's No. 8 Bentley passed Werner's Team Goh Audi R8 for second at the Dunlop Curve, but Werner reclaimed the position in slower traffic. Brabham reclaimed second when Werner entered the pit lane, as the RN Motorsport Zytek car lost the LMP675 class lead to Noël del Bello Racing's Reynard car of Didier André while its alternator was changed. After 3 hours and 40 minutes, safety cars were deployed to slow the race because an unknown car laid oil between the Mulsanne and Indianapolis turns. This prompted several cars to pit and brought much of the field closer together. The safety cars separated the field in the main LMP categories, leaving the Bentleys more than 2 minutes and 17 seconds apart, 50 seconds ahead of Werner's Team Goh Audi and another 50 seconds ahead of Stefan Johansson's Champion Racing car. Emmanuel Collard's AJR Porsche was forced into the pits with a faulty gearshift, allowing Buckler's TRG vehicle to take the LMGT lead until Bernhard made an unscheduled pit stop to replace a heavily slipping clutch. Jamie Davies' No. 88 Prodrive Ferrari came to the pit lane for a two-minute stop to fix a water leak, handing the lead to Kelvin Burt's sister No. 80 car.
Night
As night fell, the No. 29 Noël del Bello Racing Reynard car lost the LMP675 lead to the Intersport Racing MG-Lola car, which later saw driver Duncan Dayton spin at the PlayStation chicane but retain the class lead in the class. Tom Coronel's St Team Orange Spyker C8 Double-12R soon stopped at the pit lane entry with clutch failure. He exited the car and pushed it past a white line indicating where his pit crew could help. Coronel was then told by a trackside marshal that he could not push the car any further, and it dropped out of contention for completing the laps required for classification. The lead was 33 seconds between Smith and Capello's No. 7 Bentley and Blundell and Herbert's sister No. 8 car. Pirro's Champion Racing Audi R8 was third with Seiji Ara's Team Goh entry fourth. The LMGTS class was a close battle between the Prodrive pair of Kox and Anthony Davidson, who set nearly identical lap times during the seventh hour. Ron Fellows' No. 53 Corvette equalled their pace until the Ferraris increased their speed. In the eighth hour, Davidson spun into a gravel trap at the PlayStation chicane. The resulting pit stop to change the No. 80 Prodrive Ferrari's tyres and perform a precautionary check lost Davidson two laps and third place in LMGTS to Fellows.
David Saelens' Panoz, the Courage Compétition of Gounon, and Christophe Tinseau's Riley & Scott Mk III C-Ford were all within 20 seconds of each other for eighth place overall. Tinseau dropped out after a routine pit stop, leaving Saelens and Gounon separated by 18 seconds. Herbert's No. 8 Bentley pit stop on lap 116 saw a miscommunication between the mechanic holding a jack and a rear tyre fitter that cost him ten seconds. 1Lammers' Racing for Holland car closed a 15-second gap with its faster pace to pass Olivier Beretta's Riley & Scott Ford for fifth overall 19 laps later. Beretta suffered a puncture after hitting debris on the dirty side of the Mulsanne Straight at and slowed en route to the pit lane. Fellows' No. 50 Corvette, second in LMGTS, was hampered by a suspected alternator belt failure and entered the pit lane. A broken pulley operating the vehicle's oil pump was discovered by mechanics. They replaced the battery and the support, allowing Fellows to rejoin the circuit fourth in class. Kristensen's No. 7 Bentley made a 1-minute and 40-second pit stop to repair minor damage to the front of the car; he retained the overall lead over Brabham's sister No. 8 car. Luhr's No. 83 AJR Porsche succumbed to elevated oil and water temperatures caused by a sharp rock penetrating its radiator. The radiator was replaced in 24 minutes and five laps, and Luhr lost the LMGT class lead to Kazuyuki Nishizawa's No. 77 Team Taisan Advan car.
Magnussen spun at the Ford chicane, damaging Team Goh's Audi R8's front suspension. He drove the car to the pit lane, where mechanics worked for 8 minutes and 53 seconds to repair it. Werner drove the car back into fourth place. Jean-Luc Maury-Laribière of Noël del Bello Racingspun into a gravel trap at the Dunlop Curves. He recovered with the help of trackside marshals and retained the LMP675 class lead. Soheil Ayari's No. 18 Courage car passed Scott Maxwell's No. 12 Panoz LMP01 Evo car for ninth overall and then pulled away. After Team Taisan Advan made a pit stop to replace the driver's-side door, all three top LMGT cars were within a lap of each other, led by Johnny Mowlem's No. 94 Risi Competizione Ferrari. Mowlem held it until his car's engine failed on the Mulsanne Straight, handing Lieb's Orbit Porsche the class lead. Werner's Team Goh Audi R8 spent 10 minutes and 14 seconds in the garage twice for engine control unit repairs. Werner rejoined 3 minutes and 20 seconds ahead of Andy Wallace's Racing for Holland No. 15 car. As the race neared its halfway point, Smith's No. 7 Bentley lapped two to five seconds faster than Blundell's No. 8 car, extending the vehicle's overall lead to 1 minute and 20 seconds.
Morning to early afternoon
The second-placed car in LMGTS, Davidson's No. 80 Prodrive Ferrari, had a right-front wheel bearing fault in the 12th hour and was sent into a barrier at the end of the Mulsanne Straight. He extricated himself from the vehicle and was attended to by trackside marshals. Davidson was transported by ambulance to the infield medical centre to be examined by circuit doctors. He had bruising and a head concussion after hitting his head against a door, so he was taken to Centre Hospitalier Le Mans for a brain scan. Gavin's No. 50 Corvette C5-R moved to second in LMGTS after the Ferrari was retired. Prodrive requested that Kox, driving the No. 88 Ferrari, enter the pit lane for a precautionary brake check. Soon after, a low voltage indicator warning and no radio communication to the No. 8 Bentley's pit stall forced Blundell to pit for a replacement battery, losing the car two laps to the sister No. 7 entry. The No. 93 AJR Porsche led the field until a front splitter problem forced it into the pit lane for four minutes, handing the position to Lieb's Orbit vehicle. Owing to mechanical attrition among the Porsche 996s in the LMGT category, only two Porsches remained in contention for victory, and Ferrari was unable to challenge them. Front suspension problems for the No. 12 Panoz car and an engine failure curtailing the No. 4 Riley & Scott Mk III C's race promoted the No. 88 Prodrive Ferrari to tenth overall.
Luhr and Maassen's No. 93 AJR Porsche was able to battle Lieb's and later Leo Hindery's No. 87 Orbit car, eventually retaking the LMGT lead it had lost when it entered the pit lane for car repairs. Lammers suffered a left-rear puncture an hour and 20 minutes later, losing control of the No. 15 Racing For Holland car while braking. He spun several times backwards into a gravel trap at the Indianapolis corner, damaging a rear wheel. Track marshals pushed the car back onto the track, and Lammers drove to the pit lane to repair the damage. Gunnar Jeannette's No. 11 Panoz LMP01 Evo locked up and made light contact with the tyre barrier at Arnage corner simultaneously. Brabham made an unscheduled pit stop in the No. 8 Bentley for a second battery replacement. The change took 3 minutes, 32 seconds, and the car returned to the race in second overall. Collins' No. 50 Corvette transmission bearing was replaced in 15 minutes after bowing out of the battle for the LMGTS lead. Lehto's Champion Racing R8 could not take advantage of the No. 8 Bentley's mechanical issues and lost one additional lap after a spin. At the start of the 18th hour, Saelens in the No. 12 Panoz car lost grip through Mulsanne corner and made high-speed left-front contact with a tyre barrier. Saelens was unhurt, but the car's damage forced its retirement.
Maassen's No. 93 AJR Porsche entered the garage with a voltage loss corrected in six minutes by changing the alternator. Maassen returned to the track as the LMGT category leader. Wallace's No. 15 Racing for Holland Dome soon after had a flat battery, dropping the car from fifth to eighth overall. Gabbiani's sister No. 16 car's front-left tyre delaminated, launching carbon fibre debris from the car's front-left corner. The track needed cleaning and several cars had to pit again, necessitating the use of safety cars. Beretta's No. 11 Panoz car benefited the most from the safety car period, passing Jonathan Cochet's No. 13 Courage C60 vehicle on the Mulsanne Straight to finish fifth overall. Towards the end of the 20th hour, the LMP675 class leading Noël del Bello Reynard slowed with a misfiring engine but the car's 35-lap advantage kept it in the category lead. When Ayari's No. 18 Courage C60 began leaking fluids at the rear and entered the pit lane for a 22-minute repair, John Bosch's No. 15 Racing for Holland car reclaimed seventh. With the first four positions stable, attention focused on the battle for fifth place between the No. 11 Panoz LMP01 Evo and the No. 13 Courage C60 cars. Gaël Lasoudier's No. 99 XL Racing Ferrari had an rear engine bay fire at the PlayStation Chicane, causing the third deployment of the safety cars.
Finish
As the safety car period ended, Max Papis's No. 11 Panoz LMP01 Evo car caught and passed Stéphan Grégoire's No. 13 Courage C60 vehicle at Tetre Rouge turn. Fellows overtook his Corvette Racing teammate Collins in the final third of the lap to take second in LMGTS. Collins retook the lead from Fellows two laps later, before a pit stop for fuel, tyres and a driver change. O'Connell relieved Fellows and returned to second with a faster stop than Andy Pilgrim. Jean-Christophe Boullion's No. 17 Pescarolo Courage 60 car caught fire during a pit stop after fuel ignited. The team's mechanics intervened to extinguish the fire, allowing him to continue driving. Johansson's Champion Racing Audi stalled during a pit stop for tyres, fuel, and a driver swap with co-driver Pirro. The problem was fixed by replacing the battery in the car's right-hand corner. It returned to the track in third, ahead of Ara's Team Goh Audi. On the final lap, Lammers' No. 15 Racing for Holland Dome car caught and passed Gounon's No. 13 Courage Compétition C60 vehicle for sixth overall for his team. Meanwhile, Tristan Gommendy crashed at the Indianapolis turn, retiring the No. 16 Racing for Holland car in the pit lane.
Unhindered in the race's final hours, Smith was first in the No. 7 Bentley, two laps ahead of the No. 8 Bentley of Brabham. Audi finished three laps behind with Champion Racing third overall and first in the LMP900 class, in their first defeat at Le Mans since the 2000 edition. Team Goh took fourth. It was Smith and Capello's first Le Mans victory and Kristensen's fifth. Kristensen became the first driver in history to win four consecutive 24 Hours of Le Mans. He also tied Derek Bell's record of five victories and was one win shy of Jacky Ickx's all-time record of six. It was Bentley's sixth overall Le Mans victory and its first since the 1930 race. Prodrive held their ten-lap lead in the LMGTS category, earning Enge, Kox and Davies their first class victories and Ferrari's first in a GT class since the 1981 edition. Corvette Racing completed the class podium with the No. 50 ahead of the No. 53. In the LMGT class, Porsche took the first six places, with AJR winning the category on the team's first visit to Le Mans. Orbit Racing and Thierry Perrier finished second and third in class. Noël del Bello Racing, unchallenged since the night, were victorious in the LMP675 class, 31 laps ahead of the RN Motorsport Zytek and 84 laps in front of Rachel Welter's WR LMP01.
Race results
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 per cent of the overall winning car's race distance) was 264 laps. Class winners are denoted with bold.
References
External links
Le Mans
Le Mans
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races |
4222539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20safety%20and%20security | Nuclear safety and security | Nuclear safety is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The achievement of proper operating conditions, prevention of accidents or mitigation of accident consequences, resulting in protection of workers, the public and the environment from undue radiation hazards". The IAEA defines nuclear security as "The prevention and detection of and response to, theft, sabotage, unauthorized access, illegal transfer or other malicious acts involving nuclear materials, other radioactive substances or their associated facilities".
This covers nuclear power plants and all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, industry, and military uses.
The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new and safer reactor designs. However, a perfect safety cannot be guaranteed. Potential sources of problems include human errors and external events that have a greater impact than anticipated: the designers of reactors at Fukushima in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems which were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks, war, insider sabotage, and cyberattacks are also conceivable.
Nuclear weapon safety, as well as the safety of military research involving nuclear materials, is generally handled by agencies different from those that oversee civilian safety, for various reasons, including secrecy. There are ongoing concerns about terrorist groups acquiring nuclear bomb-making material.
Overview of nuclear processes and safety issues
, nuclear safety considerations occur in a number of situations, including:
Nuclear fission power used in nuclear power stations, and nuclear submarines and ships.
Nuclear weapons
Fissionable fuels such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239 and their extraction, storage and use
Radioactive materials used for medical, diagnostic and research purposes, for batteries in some space projects,
Nuclear waste, the radioactive waste residue of nuclear materials
Nuclear fusion power, a technology under long-term development
Unplanned entry of nuclear materials into the biosphere and food chain (living plants, animals and humans) if breathed or ingested
Continuity of uranium supplies
With the exception of thermonuclear weapons and experimental fusion research, all safety issues specific to nuclear power stems from the need to limit the biological uptake of committed dose (ingestion or inhalation of radioactive materials), and external radiation dose due to radioactive contamination.
Nuclear safety therefore covers at minimum:
Extraction, transportation, storage, processing, and disposal of fissionable materials
Safety of nuclear power generators
Control and safe management of nuclear weapons, nuclear material capable of use as a weapon, and other radioactive materials
Safe handling, accountability and use in industrial, medical and research contexts
Disposal of nuclear waste
Limitations on exposure to radiation
Responsible agencies
International
Internationally the International Atomic Energy Agency "works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies." Some scientists say that the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents have revealed that the nuclear industry lacks sufficient oversight, leading to renewed calls to redefine the mandate of the IAEA so that it can better police nuclear power plants worldwide.
The IAEA Convention on Nuclear Safety was adopted in Vienna on 17 June 1994 and entered into force on 24 October 1996. The objectives of the convention are to achieve and maintain a high level of nuclear safety worldwide, to establish and maintain effective defences in nuclear installations against potential radiological hazards, and to prevent accidents having radiological consequences.
The convention was drawn up in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl accidents at a series of expert level meetings from 1992 to 1994, and was the result of considerable work by States, including their national regulatory and nuclear safety authorities, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, which serves as the Secretariat for the convention.
The obligations of the Contracting Parties are based to a large extent on the application of the safety principles for nuclear installations contained in the IAEA document Safety Fundamentals ‘The Safety of Nuclear Installations’ (IAEA Safety Series No. 110 published 1993). These obligations cover the legislative and regulatory framework, the regulatory body, and technical safety obligations related to, for instance, siting, design, construction, operation, the availability of adequate financial and human resources, the assessment and verification of safety, quality assurance and emergency preparedness.
The convention was amended in 2014 by the Vienna Declaration on Nuclear Safety. This resulted in the following principles:
1. New nuclear power plants are to be designed, sited, and constructed, consistent with the objective of preventing accidents in the commissioning and operation and, should an accident occur, mitigating possible releases of radionuclides causing long-term off site contamination and avoiding early radioactive releases or radioactive releases large enough to require long-term protective measures and actions.
2. Comprehensive and systematic safety assessments are to be carried out periodically and regularly for existing installations throughout their lifetime in order to identify safety improvements that are oriented to meet the above objective. Reasonably practicable or achievable safety improvements are to be implemented in a timely manner.
3. National requirements and regulations for addressing this objective throughout the lifetime of nuclear power plants are to take into account the relevant IAEA Safety Standards and, as appropriate, other good practices as identified inter alia in the Review Meetings of the CNS.
There are several problems with the IAEA, says Najmedin Meshkati of University of Southern California, writing in 2011:
"It recommends safety standards, but member states are not required to comply; it promotes nuclear energy, but it also monitors nuclear use; it is the sole global organization overseeing the nuclear energy industry, yet it is also weighed down by checking compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)".
National
Many nations utilizing nuclear power have specialist institutions overseeing and regulating nuclear safety. Civilian nuclear safety in the U.S. is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). However, critics of the nuclear industry complain that the regulatory bodies are too intertwined with the industries themselves to be effective. The book The Doomsday Machine for example, offers a series of examples of national regulators, as they put it 'not regulating, just waving' (a pun on waiving) to argue that, in Japan, for example, "regulators and the regulated have long been friends, working together to offset the doubts of a public brought up on the horror of the nuclear bombs". Other examples offered include:
in China, where Kang Rixin, former general manager of the state-owned China National Nuclear Corporation, was sentenced to life in jail in 2010 for accepting bribes (and other abuses), a verdict raising questions about the quality of his work on the safety and trustworthiness of China's nuclear reactors.
in India, where the nuclear regulator reports to the national Atomic Energy Commission, which champions the building of nuclear power plants there and the chairman of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, S. S. Bajaj, was previously a senior executive at the Nuclear Power Corporation of India, the company he is now helping to regulate.
in Japan, where the regulator reports to the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, which overtly seeks to promote the nuclear industry and ministry posts and top jobs in the nuclear business are passed among the same small circle of experts.
The book argues that nuclear safety is compromised by the suspicion that, as Eisaku Sato, formerly a governor of Fukushima province (with its infamous nuclear reactor complex), has put it of the regulators: “They're all birds of a feather”.
The safety of nuclear plants and materials controlled by the U.S. government for research, weapons production, and those powering naval vessels is not governed by the NRC. In the UK nuclear safety is regulated by the Office for Nuclear Regulation (ONR) and the Defence Nuclear Safety Regulator (DNSR). The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) is the Federal Government body that monitors and identifies solar radiation and nuclear radiation risks in Australia. It is the main body dealing with ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and publishes material regarding radiation protection.
Other agencies include:
Autorité de sûreté nucléaire
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission
Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland
Federal Atomic Energy Agency in Russia
Kernfysische dienst, (NL)
Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority
Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, (DE)
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (India)
Nuclear power plant safety and security
Complexity
Nuclear power plants are some of the most sophisticated and complex energy systems ever designed. Any complex system, no matter how well it is designed and engineered, cannot be deemed failure-proof. Veteran journalist and author Stephanie Cooke has argued:
The reactors themselves were enormously complex machines with an incalculable number of things that could go wrong. When that happened at Three Mile Island in 1979, another fault line in the nuclear world was exposed. One malfunction led to another, and then to a series of others, until the core of the reactor itself began to melt, and even the world's most highly trained nuclear engineers did not know how to respond. The accident revealed serious deficiencies in a system that was meant to protect public health and safety.
The 1979 Three Mile Island accident inspired Perrow's book Normal Accidents, where a nuclear accident occurs, resulting from an unanticipated interaction of multiple failures in a complex system. TMI was an example of a normal accident because it was "unexpected, incomprehensible, uncontrollable and unavoidable".
Perrow concluded that the failure at Three Mile Island was a consequence of the system's immense complexity. Such modern high-risk systems, he realized, were prone to failures however well they were managed. It was inevitable that they would eventually suffer what he termed a 'normal accident'. Therefore, he suggested, we might do better to contemplate a radical redesign, or if that was not possible, to abandon such technology entirely.
A fundamental issue contributing to a nuclear power system's complexity is its extremely long lifetime. The timeframe from the start of construction of a commercial nuclear power station through the safe disposal of its last radioactive waste, may be 100 to 150 years.
Failure modes of nuclear power plants
There are concerns that a combination of human and mechanical error at a nuclear facility could result in significant harm to people and the environment:
Operating nuclear reactors contain large amounts of radioactive fission products which, if dispersed, can pose a direct radiation hazard, contaminate soil and vegetation, and be ingested by humans and animals. Human exposure at high enough levels can cause both short-term illness and death and longer-term death by cancer and other diseases.
It is impossible for a commercial nuclear reactor to explode like a nuclear bomb since the fuel is never sufficiently enriched for this to occur.
Nuclear reactors can fail in a variety of ways. Should the instability of the nuclear material generate unexpected behavior, it may result in an uncontrolled power excursion. Normally, the cooling system in a reactor is designed to be able to handle the excess heat this causes; however, should the reactor also experience a loss-of-coolant accident, then the fuel may melt or cause the vessel in which it is contained to overheat and melt. This event is called a nuclear meltdown.
After shutting down, for some time the reactor still needs external energy to power its cooling systems. Normally this energy is provided by the power grid to which that plant is connected, or by emergency diesel generators. Failure to provide power for the cooling systems, as happened in Fukushima I, can cause serious accidents.
Nuclear safety rules in the United States "do not adequately weigh the risk of a single event that would knock out electricity from the grid and from emergency generators, as a quake and tsunami recently did in Japan", Nuclear Regulatory Commission officials said in June 2011.
Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns:
In September 1980, Iran bombed the Al Tuwaitha nuclear complex in Iraq in Operation Scorch Sword.
In June 1981, an Israeli air strike completely destroyed Iraq's Osirak nuclear research facility in Operation Opera.
Between 1984 and 1987, Iraq bombed Iran's Bushehr nuclear plant six times.
On 8 January 1982, Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC, attacked South Africa's Koeberg nuclear power plant while it was still under construction.
In 1991, the U.S. bombed three nuclear reactors and an enrichment pilot facility in Iraq.
In 1991, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel's Dimona nuclear power plant
In September 2007, Israel bombed a Syrian reactor under construction.
On 4 March 2022, Russian forces carried out artillery strikes at the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
In the U.S., plants are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by a sizeable force of armed guards. In Canada, all reactors have an "on-site armed response force" that includes light-armored vehicles that patrol the plants daily. The NRC's "Design Basis Threat" criterion for plants is a secret, and so what size of attacking force the plants are able to protect against is unknown. However, to scram (make an emergency shutdown) a plant takes fewer than 5 seconds while unimpeded restart takes hours, severely hampering a terrorist force in a goal to release radioactivity.
Attack from the air is an issue that has been highlighted since the September 11 attacks in the U.S. However, it was in 1972 when three hijackers took control of a domestic passenger flight along the east coast of the U.S. and threatened to crash the plane into a U.S. nuclear weapons plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plane got as close as 8,000 feet above the site before the hijackers’ demands were met.
The most important barrier against the release of radioactivity in the event of an aircraft strike on a nuclear power plant is the containment building and its missile shield. Former NRC Chairman Dale Klein has said "Nuclear power plants are inherently robust structures that our studies show provide adequate protection in a hypothetical attack by an airplane. The NRC has also taken actions that require nuclear power plant operators to be able to manage large fires or explosions—no matter what has caused them."
In addition, supporters point to large studies carried out by the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute that tested the robustness of both reactor and waste fuel storage and found that they should be able to sustain a terrorist attack comparable to the September 11 terrorist attacks in the U.S. Spent fuel is usually housed inside the plant's "protected zone" or a spent nuclear fuel shipping cask; stealing it for use in a "dirty bomb" would be extremely difficult. Exposure to the intense radiation would almost certainly quickly incapacitate or kill anyone who attempts to do so.
Threat of terrorist attacks
Nuclear power plants are considered to be targets for terrorist attacks. Even during the construction of the first nuclear power plants, this issue has been advised by security bodies. Concrete threats of attack against nuclear power plants by terrorists or criminals are documented from several states. While older nuclear power plants were built without special protection against air accidents in Germany, the later nuclear power plants built with a massive concrete buildings are partially protected against air accidents. They are designed against the impact of combat aircraft at a speed of about 800 km / h. It was assumed as a basis of assessment of the impact of an aircraft of type Phantom II with a mass of 20 tonnes and speed of 215 m / s.
The danger arising from a terrorist caused large aircraft crash on a nuclear power plant is currently being discussed. Such a terrorist attack could have catastrophic consequences. For example, the German government has confirmed that the nuclear power plant Biblis A would not be completely protected from an attack by a military aircraft. Following the terrorist attacks in Brussels in 2016, several nuclear power plants were partially evacuated. At the same time, it became known that the terrorists had spied on the nuclear power plants, and several employees had their access privileges withdrawn.
Moreover, "nuclear terrorism", for instance with a so-called "Dirty bomb," poses a considerable potential hazard.
Plant location
In many countries, plants are often located on the coast, in order to provide a ready source of cooling water for the essential service water system. As a consequence the design needs to take the risk of flooding and tsunamis into account. The World Energy Council (WEC) argues disaster risks are changing and increasing the likelihood of disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, flooding. High temperatures, low precipitation levels and severe droughts may lead to fresh water shortages. Failure to calculate the risk of flooding correctly lead to a Level 2 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale during the 1999 Blayais Nuclear Power Plant flood, while flooding caused by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami lead to the Fukushima I nuclear accidents.
The design of plants located in seismically active zones also requires the risk of earthquakes and tsunamis to be taken into account. Japan, India, China and the USA are among the countries to have plants in earthquake-prone regions. Damage caused to Japan's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant during the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake underlined concerns expressed by experts in Japan prior to the Fukushima accidents, who have warned of a genpatsu-shinsai (domino-effect nuclear power plant earthquake disaster).
Safeguarding critical infrastructure like nuclear power plants is a requirement and necessary for chemical facilities, operating nuclear reactors and many other utility facilities. In 2003, the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) developed mandates regarding enhanced security at nuclear power plants. Primary among them were changes to the security perimeter and the screening of employees, vendors, and visitors as they accessed the site. Many facilities recognize their vulnerabilities, and licensed security-contracting firms have arisen.
Multiple reactors
The Fukushima nuclear disaster illustrated the dangers of building multiple nuclear reactor units close to one another. Because of the closeness of the reactors, Plant Director Masao Yoshida "was put in the position of trying to cope simultaneously with core meltdowns at three reactors and exposed fuel pools at three units".
Nuclear safety systems
The three primary objectives of nuclear safety systems as defined by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission are to shut down the reactor, maintain it in a shutdown condition, and prevent the release of radioactive material during events and accidents. These objectives are accomplished using a variety of equipment, which is part of different systems, of which each performs specific functions.
Routine emissions of radioactive materials
During everyday routine operations, emissions of radioactive materials from nuclear plants are released to the outside of the plants although they are quite slight amounts.
The daily emissions go into the air, water and soil.
NRC says, "nuclear power plants sometimes release radioactive gases and liquids into the environment under controlled, monitored conditions to ensure that they pose no danger to the public or the environment", and "routine emissions during normal operation of a nuclear power plant are never lethal".
According to the United Nations (UNSCEAR), regular nuclear power plant operation including the nuclear fuel cycle amounts to 0.0002 millisieverts (mSv) annually in average public radiation exposure; the legacy of the Chernobyl disaster is 0.002 mSv/a as a global average as of a 2008 report; and natural radiation exposure averages 2.4 mSv annually although frequently varying depending on an individual's location from 1 to 13 mSv.
Japanese public perception of nuclear power safety
In March 2012, Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda said that the Japanese government shared the blame for the Fukushima disaster, saying that officials had been blinded by an image of the country's technological infallibility and were "all too steeped in a safety myth."
Japan has been accused by authors such as journalist Yoichi Funabashi of having an "aversion to facing the potential threat of nuclear emergencies." According to him, a national program to develop robots for use in nuclear emergencies was terminated in midstream because it "smacked too much of underlying danger." Though Japan is a major power in robotics, it had none to send in to Fukushima during the disaster. He mentions that Japan's Nuclear Safety Commission stipulated in its safety guidelines for light-water nuclear facilities that "the potential for extended loss of power need not be considered." However, this kind of extended loss of power to the cooling pumps caused the Fukushima meltdown.
In other countries such as the UK, nuclear plants have not been claimed to be absolutely safe. It is instead claimed that a major accident has a likelihood of occurrence lower than (for example) 0.0001/year.
Incidents such as the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster could have been avoided with stricter regulations over nuclear power. In 2002, TEPCO, the company that operated the Fukushima plant, admitted to falsifying reports on over 200 occasions between 1997 and 2002. TEPCO faced no fines for this. Instead, they fired four of their top executives. Three of these four later went on to take jobs at companies that do business with TEPCO.
Uranium supplies
Nuclear fuel is strategic resource whose continuous supply needs to be secured to prevent plant outages. IAEA recommends at least two suppliers to ensure supply disruptions as result of political events or monopolistic pressure. Worldwide uranium supplies are well diversified, with dozens of suppliers in various countries, and small amounts of fuel required make the diversification much easier than in case of large-volume fossil fuel supplies required by energy sector. For example, Ukraine faced the challenge as result of conflict with Russia, which continued to supply the fuel but used it to leverage political pressure. In 2016 Ukraine obtained 50% of its supplies from Russia, and the other half from Sweden, with a number of framework contracts with other countries.
Hazards of nuclear material
There is currently a total of 47,000 tonnes of high-level nuclear waste stored in the USA. Nuclear waste is approximately 94% Uranium, 1.3% Plutonium, 0.14% other actinides, and 5.2% fission products. About 1.0% of this waste consists of long-lived isotopes 79Se, 93Zr, 99Te, 107Pd, 126Sn, 129I and 135Cs. Shorter lived isotopes including 89Sr, 90Sr, 106Ru, 125Sn, 134Cs, 137Cs, and 147Pm constitute 0.9% at one year, decreasing to 0.1% at 100 years. The remaining 3.3–4.1% consists of non-radioactive isotopes. There are technical challenges, as it is preferable to lock away the long-lived fission products, but the challenge should not be exaggerated. One tonne of waste, as described above, has measurable radioactivity of approximately 600 TBq equal to the natural radioactivity in one km3 of the Earth's crust, which if buried, would add only 25 parts per trillion to the total radioactivity.
The difference between short-lived high-level nuclear waste and long-lived low-level waste can be illustrated by the following example. As stated above, one mole of both 131I and 129I release 3x1023 decays in a period equal to one half-life. 131I decays with the release of 970 keV whilst 129I decays with the release of 194 keV of energy. 131gm of 131I would therefore release 45 gigajoules over eight days beginning at an initial rate of 600 EBq releasing 90 kilowatts with the last radioactive decay occurring inside two years. In contrast, 129gm of 129I would therefore release 9 gigajoules over 15.7 million years beginning at an initial rate of 850 MBq releasing 25 microwatts with the radioactivity decreasing by less than 1% in 100,000 years.
One tonne of nuclear waste also reduces CO2 emission by 25 million tonnes.
Radionuclides such as 129I or 131I, may be highly radioactive, or very long-lived, but they cannot be both. One mole of 129I (129 grams) undergoes the same number of decays (3x1023) in 15.7 million years, as does one mole of 131I (131 grams) in 8 days. 131I is therefore highly radioactive, but disappears very quickly, whilst 129I releases a very low level of radiation for a very long time. Two long-lived fission products, technetium-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and iodine-129 (half-life 15.7 million years), are of somewhat greater concern because of a greater chance of entering the biosphere. The transuranic elements in spent fuel are neptunium-237 (half-life two million years) and plutonium-239 (half-life 24,000 years). will also remain in the environment for long periods. A more complete solution to both the problem of both actinides and to the need for low-carbon energy may be the integral fast reactor. One tonne of nuclear waste after a complete burn in an IFR reactor will have prevented 500 million tonnes of CO2 from entering the atmosphere. Otherwise, waste storage usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving permanent storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form.
Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.
Since the fraction of a radioisotope's atoms decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to its half-life, the relative radioactivity of a quantity of buried human radioactive waste would diminish over time compared to natural radioisotopes (such as the decay chain of 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium which are at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each over the crust's 3 * 1019 ton mass). For instance, over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km2) by ≈ 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, although the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.
Safety culture and human errors
One relatively prevalent notion in discussions of nuclear safety is that of safety culture. The International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group, defines the term as “the personal dedication and accountability of all individuals engaged in any activity which has a bearing on the safety of nuclear power plants”. The goal is “to design systems that use human capabilities in appropriate ways, that protect systems from human frailties, and that protect humans from hazards associated with the system”.
At the same time, there is some evidence that operational practices are not easy to change. Operators almost never follow instructions and written procedures exactly, and “the violation of rules appears to be quite rational, given the actual workload and timing constraints under which the operators must do their job”. Many attempts to improve nuclear safety culture “were compensated by people adapting to the change in an unpredicted way”.
According to Areva's Southeast Asia and Oceania director, Selena Ng, Japan's Fukushima nuclear disaster is "a huge wake-up call for a nuclear industry that hasn't always been sufficiently transparent about safety issues". She said "There was a sort of complacency before Fukushima and I don't think we can afford to have that complacency now".
An assessment conducted by the Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique (CEA) in France concluded that no amount of technical innovation can eliminate the risk of human-induced errors associated with the operation of nuclear power plants. Two types of mistakes were deemed most serious: errors committed during field operations, such as maintenance and testing, that can cause an accident; and human errors made during small accidents that cascade to complete failure.
According to Mycle Schneider, reactor safety depends above all on a 'culture of security', including the quality of maintenance and training, the competence of the operator and the workforce, and the rigour of regulatory oversight. So a better-designed, newer reactor is not always a safer one, and older reactors are not necessarily more dangerous than newer ones. The 1979 Three Mile Island accident in the United States occurred in a reactor that had started operation only three months earlier, and the Chernobyl disaster occurred after only two years of operation. A serious loss of coolant occurred at the French Civaux-1 reactor in 1998, less than five months after start-up.
However safe a plant is designed to be, it is operated by humans who are prone to errors. Laurent Stricker, a nuclear engineer and chairman of the World Association of Nuclear Operators says that operators must guard against complacency and avoid overconfidence. Experts say that the "largest single internal factor determining the safety of a plant is the culture of security among regulators, operators and the workforce — and creating such a culture is not easy".
Investigative journalist Eric Schlosser, author of Command and Control, discovered that at least 700 "significant" accidents and incidents involving 1,250 nuclear weapons were recorded in the United States between 1950 and 1968. Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Cold War.
Risks
The routine health risks and greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are small relative to those associated with coal, but there are several "catastrophic risks":
The extreme danger of the radioactive material in power plants and of nuclear technology in and of itself is so well known that the US government was prompted (at the industry's urging) to enact provisions that protect the nuclear industry from bearing the full burden of such inherently risky nuclear operations. The Price-Anderson Act limits industry's liability in the case of accidents, and the 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act charges the federal government with responsibility for permanently storing nuclear waste.
Population density is one critical lens through which other risks have to be assessed, says Laurent Stricker, a nuclear engineer and chairman of the World Association of Nuclear Operators:
The KANUPP plant in Karachi, Pakistan, has the most people — 8.2 million — living within 30 kilometres of a nuclear plant, although it has just one relatively small reactor with an output of 125 megawatts. Next in the league, however, are much larger plants — Taiwan's 1,933-megawatt Kuosheng plant with 5.5 million people within a 30-kilometre radius and the 1,208-megawatt Chin Shan plant with 4.7 million; both zones include the capital city of Taipei.
172,000 people living within a 30 kilometre radius of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, have been forced or advised to evacuate the area. More generally, a 2011 analysis by Nature and Columbia University, New York, shows that some 21 nuclear plants have populations larger than 1 million within a 30-km radius, and six plants have populations larger than 3 million within that radius.
Black Swan events are highly unlikely occurrences that have big repercussions. Despite planning, nuclear power will always be vulnerable to black swan events:
A rare event – especially one that has never occurred – is difficult to foresee, expensive to plan for and easy to discount with statistics. Just because something is only supposed to happen every 10,000 years does not mean that it will not happen tomorrow. Over the typical 40-year life of a plant, assumptions can also change, as they did on September 11, 2001, in August 2005 when Hurricane Katrina struck, and in March, 2011, after Fukushima.
The list of potential black swan events is "damningly diverse":
Nuclear reactors and their spent-fuel pools could be targets for terrorists piloting hijacked planes. Reactors may be situated downstream from dams that, should they ever burst, could unleash massive floods. Some reactors are located close to faults or shorelines, a dangerous scenario like that which emerged at Three Mile Island and Fukushima – a catastrophic coolant failure, the overheating and melting of the radioactive fuel rods, and a release of radioactive material.
The AP1000 has an estimated core damage frequency of 5.09 x 10−7 per plant per year. The Evolutionary Power Reactor (EPR) has an estimated core damage frequency of 4 x 10−7 per plant per year. In 2006 General Electric published recalculated estimated core damage frequencies per year per plant for its nuclear power plant designs:
BWR/4 – 1 x 10−5
BWR/6 – 1 x 10−6
ABWR – 2 x 10−7
ESBWR – 3 x 10−8
Beyond design basis events
The Fukushima I nuclear accident was caused by a "beyond design basis event," the tsunami and associated earthquakes were more powerful than the plant was designed to accommodate, and the accident is directly due to the tsunami overflowing the too-low seawall. Since then, the possibility of unforeseen beyond design basis events has been a major concern for plant operators.
Transparency and ethics
According to journalist Stephanie Cooke, it is difficult to know what really goes on inside nuclear power plants because the industry is shrouded in secrecy. Corporations and governments control what information is made available to the public. Cooke says "when information is made available, it is often couched in jargon and incomprehensible prose".
Kennette Benedict has said that nuclear technology and plant operations continue to lack transparency and to be relatively closed to public view:
Despite victories like the creation of the Atomic Energy Commission, and later the Nuclear Regular Commission, the secrecy that began with the Manhattan Project has tended to permeate the civilian nuclear program, as well as the military and defense programs.
In 1986, Soviet officials held off reporting the Chernobyl disaster for several days. The operators of the Fukushima plant, Tokyo Electric Power Co, were also criticised for not quickly disclosing information on releases of radioactivity from the plant. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev said there must be greater transparency in nuclear emergencies.
Historically many scientists and engineers have made decisions on behalf of potentially affected populations about whether a particular level of risk and uncertainty is acceptable for them. Many nuclear engineers and scientists that have made such decisions, even for good reasons relating to long term energy availability, now consider that doing so without informed consent is wrong, and that nuclear power safety and nuclear technologies should be based fundamentally on morality, rather than purely on technical, economic and business considerations.
Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy is a 1975 book by Amory B. Lovins and John H. Price. The main theme of the book is that the most important parts of the nuclear power debate are not technical disputes but relate to personal values, and are the legitimate province of every citizen, whether technically trained or not.
Nuclear and radiation accidents
The nuclear industry has an excellent safety record and the deaths per megawatt hour are the lowest of all the major energy sources. According to Zia Mian and Alexander Glaser, the "past six decades have shown that nuclear technology does not tolerate error". Nuclear power is perhaps the primary example of what are called ‘high-risk technologies’ with ‘catastrophic potential’, because “no matter how effective conventional safety devices are, there is a form of accident that is inevitable, and such accidents are a ‘normal’ consequence of the system.” In short, there is no escape from system failures.
Whatever position one takes in the nuclear power debate, the possibility of catastrophic accidents and consequent economic costs must be considered when nuclear policy and regulations are being framed.
Accident liability protection
Kristin Shrader-Frechette has said "if reactors were safe, nuclear industries would not demand government-guaranteed, accident-liability protection, as a condition for their generating electricity". No private insurance company or even consortium of insurance companies "would shoulder the fearsome liabilities arising from severe nuclear accidents".
Hanford Site
The Hanford Site is a mostly decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington, operated by the United States federal government. Plutonium manufactured at the site was used in the first nuclear bomb, tested at the Trinity site, and in Fat Man, the bomb detonated over Nagasaki, Japan. During the Cold War, the project was expanded to include nine nuclear reactors and five large plutonium processing complexes, which produced plutonium for most of the 60,000 weapons in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. Many of the early safety procedures and waste disposal practices were inadequate, and government documents have since confirmed that Hanford's operations released significant amounts of radioactive materials into the air and the Columbia River, which still threatens the health of residents and ecosystems. The weapons production reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War, but the decades of manufacturing left behind of high-level radioactive waste, an additional of solid radioactive waste, of contaminated groundwater beneath the site and occasional discoveries of undocumented contaminations that slow the pace and raise the cost of cleanup. The Hanford site represents two-thirds of the nation's high-level radioactive waste by volume. Today, Hanford is the most contaminated nuclear site in the United States and is the focus of the nation's largest environmental cleanup.
1986 Chernobyl disaster
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles, crippling the Soviet economy.
The accident raised concerns about the safety of the nuclear power industry, slowing its expansion for a number of years.
UNSCEAR has conducted 20 years of detailed scientific and epidemiological research on the effects of the Chernobyl accident. Apart from the 57 direct deaths in the accident itself, UNSCEAR predicted in 2005 that up to 4,000 additional cancer deaths related to the accident would appear "among the 600 000 persons receiving more significant exposures (liquidators working in 1986–87, evacuees, and residents of the most contaminated areas)". Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and health care costs of the Chernobyl disaster.
Eleven of Russia's reactors are of the RBMK 1000 type, similar to the one at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Some of these RBMK reactors were originally to be shut down but have instead been given life extensions and uprated in output by about 5%. Critics say that these reactors are of an "inherently unsafe design", which cannot be improved through upgrades and modernization, and some reactor parts are impossible to replace. Russian environmental groups say that the lifetime extensions "violate Russian law, because the projects have not undergone environmental assessments".
2011 Fukushima I accidents
Despite all assurances, a major nuclear accident on the scale of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster happened again in 2011 in Japan, one of the world's most industrially advanced countries. Nuclear Safety Commission Chairman Haruki Madarame told a parliamentary inquiry in February 2012 that "Japan's atomic safety rules are inferior to global standards and left the country unprepared for the Fukushima nuclear disaster last March". There were flaws in, and lax enforcement of, the safety rules governing Japanese nuclear power companies, and this included insufficient protection against tsunamis.
A 2012 report in The Economist said: "The reactors at Fukushima were of an old design. The risks they faced had not been well analysed. The operating company was poorly regulated and did not know what was going on. The operators made mistakes. The representatives of the safety inspectorate fled. Some of the equipment failed. The establishment repeatedly played down the risks and suppressed information about the movement of the radioactive plume, so some people were evacuated from more lightly to more heavily contaminated places".
The designers of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant reactors did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake. Nuclear reactors are such "inherently complex, tightly coupled systems that, in rare, emergency situations, cascading interactions will unfold very rapidly in such a way that human operators will be unable to predict and master them".
Lacking electricity to pump water needed to cool the atomic core, engineers vented radioactive steam into the atmosphere to release pressure, leading to a series of explosions that blew out concrete walls around the reactors. Radiation readings spiked around Fukushima as the disaster widened, forcing the evacuation of 200,000 people. There was a rise in radiation levels on the outskirts of Tokyo, with a population of 30 million, 135 miles (210 kilometers) to the south.
Back-up diesel generators that might have averted the disaster were positioned in a basement, where they were quickly overwhelmed by waves. The cascade of events at Fukushima had been predicted in a report published in the U.S. several decades ago:
The 1990 report by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, an independent agency responsible for safety at the country's power plants, identified earthquake-induced diesel generator failure and power outage leading to failure of cooling systems as one of the “most likely causes” of nuclear accidents from an external event.
The report was cited in a 2004 statement by Japan's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, but it seems adequate measures to address the risk were not taken by TEPCO. Katsuhiko Ishibashi, a seismology professor at Kobe University, has said that Japan's history of nuclear accidents stems from an overconfidence in plant engineering. In 2006, he resigned from a government panel on nuclear reactor safety, because the review process was rigged and “unscientific”.
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Japan "underestimated the danger of tsunamis and failed to prepare adequate backup systems at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant". This repeated a widely held criticism in Japan that "collusive ties between regulators and industry led to weak oversight and a failure to ensure adequate safety levels at the plant". The IAEA also said that the Fukushima disaster exposed the lack of adequate backup systems at the plant. Once power was completely lost, critical functions like the cooling system shut down. Three of the reactors "quickly overheated, causing meltdowns that eventually led to explosions, which hurled large amounts of radioactive material into the air".
Louise Fréchette and Trevor Findlay have said that more effort is needed to ensure nuclear safety and improve responses to accidents:
The multiple reactor crises at Japan's Fukushima nuclear power plant reinforce the need for strengthening global instruments to ensure nuclear safety worldwide. The fact that a country that has been operating nuclear power reactors for decades should prove so alarmingly improvisational in its response and so unwilling to reveal the facts even to its own people, much less the International Atomic Energy Agency, is a reminder that nuclear safety is a constant work-in-progress.
David Lochbaum, chief nuclear safety officer with the Union of Concerned Scientists, has repeatedly questioned the safety of the Fukushima I Plant's General Electric Mark 1 reactor design, which is used in almost a quarter of the United States' nuclear fleet.
A report from the Japanese Government to the IAEA says the "nuclear fuel in three reactors probably melted through the inner containment vessels, not just the core". The report says the "inadequate" basic reactor design — the Mark-1 model developed by General Electric — included "the venting system for the containment vessels and the location of spent fuel cooling pools high in the buildings, which resulted in leaks of radioactive water that hampered repair work".
Following the Fukushima emergency, the European Union decided that reactors across all 27 member nations should undergo safety tests.
According to UBS AG, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents are likely to hurt the nuclear power industry's credibility more than the Chernobyl disaster in 1986:
The accident in the former Soviet Union 25 years ago 'affected one reactor in a totalitarian state with no safety culture,' UBS analysts including Per Lekander and Stephen Oldfield wrote in a report today. 'At Fukushima, four reactors have been out of control for weeks – casting doubt on whether even an advanced economy can master nuclear safety.'
The Fukushima accident exposed some troubling nuclear safety issues:
Despite the resources poured into analyzing crustal movements and having expert committees determine earthquake risk, for instance, researchers never considered the possibility of a magnitude-9 earthquake followed by a massive tsunami. The failure of multiple safety features on nuclear power plants has raised questions about the nation's engineering prowess. Government flip-flopping on acceptable levels of radiation exposure confused the public, and health professionals provided little guidance. Facing a dearth of reliable information on radiation levels, citizens armed themselves with dosimeters, pooled data, and together produced radiological contamination maps far more detailed than anything the government or official scientific sources ever provided.
As of January 2012, questions also linger as to the extent of damage to the Fukushima plant caused by the earthquake even before the tsunami hit. Any evidence of serious quake damage at the plant would "cast new doubt on the safety of other reactors in quake-prone Japan".
Two government advisers have said that "Japan's safety review of nuclear reactors after the Fukushima disaster is based on faulty criteria and many people involved have conflicts of interest". Hiromitsu Ino, Professor Emeritus at the University of Tokyo, says
"The whole process being undertaken is exactly the same as that used previous to the Fukushima Dai-Ichi accident, even though the accident showed all these guidelines and categories to be insufficient".
In March 2012, Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the Japanese government shared the blame for the Fukushima disaster, saying that officials had been blinded by a false belief in the country's "technological infallibility", and were all too steeped in a "safety myth".
Other accidents
Serious nuclear and radiation accidents include the Chalk River accidents (1952, 1958 & 2008), Mayak disaster (1957), Windscale fire (1957), SL-1 accident (1961), Soviet submarine K-19 accident (1961), Three Mile Island accident (1979), Church Rock uranium mill spill (1979), Soviet submarine K-431 accident (1985), Therac-25 accidents (1985-1987), Goiânia accident (1987), Zaragoza radiotherapy accident (1990), Costa Rica radiotherapy accident (1996), Tokaimura nuclear accident (1999), Sellafield THORP leak (2005), and the Flerus IRE cobalt-60 spill (2006).
Health impacts
Four hundred and thirty-seven nuclear power stations are presently in operation but, unfortunately, five major nuclear accidents have occurred in the past. These accidents occurred at Kyshtym (1957), Windscale (1957), Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986), and Fukushima (2011). A report in Lancet says that the effects of these accidents on individuals and societies are diverse and enduring:
"Accumulated evidence about radiation health effects on atomic bomb survivors and other radiation-exposed people has formed the basis for national and international regulations about radiation protection. However, past experiences suggest that common issues were not necessarily physical health problems directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather psychological and social effects. Additionally, evacuation and long-term displacement created severe health-care problems for the most vulnerable people, such as hospital inpatients and elderly people."
In spite of accidents like these, studies have shown that nuclear deaths are mostly in uranium mining and that nuclear energy has generated far fewer deaths than the high pollution levels that result from the use of conventional fossil fuels. However, the nuclear power industry relies on uranium mining, which itself is a hazardous industry, with many accidents and fatalities.
Journalist Stephanie Cooke says that it is not useful to make comparisons just in terms of number of deaths, as the way people live afterwards is also relevant, as in the case of the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents:
"You have people in Japan right now that are facing either not returning to their homes forever, or if they do return to their homes, living in a contaminated area for basically ever... It affects millions of people, it affects our land, it affects our atmosphere ... it's affecting future generations ... I don't think any of these great big massive plants that spew pollution into the air are good. But I don't think it's really helpful to make these comparisons just in terms of number of deaths".
The Fukushima accident forced more than 80,000 residents to evacuate from neighborhoods around the plant.
A survey by the Iitate, Fukushima local government obtained responses from some 1,743 people who have evacuated from the village, which lies within the emergency evacuation zone around the crippled Fukushima Daiichi Plant. It shows that many residents are experiencing growing frustration and instability due to the nuclear crisis and an inability to return to the lives they were living before the disaster. Sixty percent of respondents stated that their health and the health of their families had deteriorated after evacuating, while 39.9 percent reported feeling more irritated compared to before the disaster.
"Summarizing all responses to questions related to evacuees' current family status, one-third of all surveyed families live apart from their children, while 50.1 percent live away from other family members (including elderly parents) with whom they lived before the disaster. The survey also showed that 34.7 percent of the evacuees have suffered salary cuts of 50 percent or more since the outbreak of the nuclear disaster. A total of 36.8 percent reported a lack of sleep, while 17.9 percent reported smoking or drinking more than before they evacuated."
Chemical components of the radioactive waste may lead to cancer.
For example, Iodine 131 was released along with the radioactive waste when Chernobyl disaster and Fukushima disasters occurred. It was concentrated in leafy vegetation after absorption in the soil. It also stays in animals’ milk if the animals eat the vegetation. When Iodine 131 enters the human body, it migrates to the thyroid gland in the neck and can cause thyroid cancer.
Other elements from nuclear waste can lead to cancer as well. For example, Strontium 90 causes breast cancer and leukemia, Plutonium 239 causes liver cancer.
Improvements to nuclear fission technologies
Redesigns of fuel pellets and cladding are being undertaken which can further improve the safety of existing power plants.
Newer reactor designs intended to provide increased safety have been developed over time. These designs include those that incorporate passive safety and Small Modular Reactors. While these reactor designs "are intended to inspire trust, they may have an unintended effect: creating distrust of older reactors that lack the touted safety features".
The next nuclear plants to be built will likely be Generation III or III+ designs, and a few such are already in operation in Japan. Generation IV reactors would have even greater improvements in safety. These new designs are expected to be passively safe or nearly so, and perhaps even inherently safe (as in the PBMR designs).
Some improvements made (not all in all designs) are having three sets of emergency diesel generators and associated emergency core cooling systems rather than just one pair, having quench tanks (large coolant-filled tanks) above the core that open into it automatically, having a double containment (one containment building inside another), etc.
Approximately 120 reactors, such as all those in Switzerland prior to and all reactors in Japan after the Fukushima accident, incorporate Filtered Containment Venting Systems, onto the containment structure, which are designed to relieve the containment pressure during an accident by releasing gases to the environment while retaining most of the fission products in the filter structures.
However, safety risks may be the greatest when nuclear systems are the newest, and operators have less experience with them. Nuclear engineer David Lochbaum explained that almost all serious nuclear accidents occurred with what was at the time the most recent technology. He argues that "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes". As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".
Developing countries
There are concerns about developing countries "rushing to join the so-called nuclear renaissance without the necessary infrastructure, personnel, regulatory frameworks and safety culture". Some countries with nuclear aspirations, like Nigeria, Kenya, Bangladesh and Venezuela, have no significant industrial experience and will require at least a decade of preparation even before breaking ground at a reactor site.
The speed of the nuclear construction program in China has raised safety concerns. The challenge for the government and nuclear companies is to "keep an eye on a growing army of contractors and subcontractors who may be tempted to cut corners". China has asked for international assistance in training more nuclear power plant inspectors.
Nuclear security and terrorist attacks
Nuclear power plants, civilian research reactors, certain naval fuel facilities, uranium enrichment plants, and fuel fabrication plants, are vulnerable to attacks which could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The attack threat is of several general types: commando-like ground-based attacks on equipment which if disabled could lead to a reactor core meltdown or widespread dispersal of radioactivity; and external attacks such as an aircraft crash into a reactor complex, or cyber attacks.
The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the September 11, 2001 attacks. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a core meltdown at a nuclear power plant, and/or sufficiently damage spent fuel pools, such an attack could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The Federation of American Scientists have said that if nuclear power use is to expand significantly, nuclear facilities will have to be made extremely safe from attacks that could release massive quantities of radioactivity into the community. New reactor designs have features of passive safety, which may help. In the United States, the NRC carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) sites at least once every three years.
Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns. Various acts of civil disobedience since 1980 by the peace group Plowshares have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the groups actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at nuclear weapons plants in the United States. The National Nuclear Security Administration has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. Non-proliferation policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material". Nuclear weapons materials on the black market are a global concern, and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon by a militant group in a major city, with significant loss of life and property. Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities.
Nuclear fusion research
Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.
Construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station, DEMO, has been proposed. There is also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of an Inertial fusion power plant.
Fusion powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and plasma containment led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2010, more than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial power production was still believed to be unlikely before 2050.
More stringent safety standards
Matthew Bunn, the former US Office of Science and Technology Policy adviser, and Heinonen, the former Deputy Director General of the IAEA, have said that there is a need for more stringent nuclear safety standards, and propose six major areas for improvement:
operators must plan for events beyond design bases;
more stringent standards for protecting nuclear facilities against terrorist sabotage;
a stronger international emergency response;
international reviews of security and safety;
binding international standards on safety and security; and
international co-operation to ensure regulatory effectiveness.
Coastal nuclear sites must also be further protected against rising sea levels, storm surges, flooding, and possible eventual "nuclear site islanding".
See also
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
Broken Arrow (nuclear)
Deep geological repository
Design basis accident
Environmental impact of nuclear power
International Nuclear Events Scale
Journey to the Safest Place on Earth
Nuclear terrorism
Nuclear accidents in the United States
Nuclear criticality safety
RELAP5-3D A reactor design and simulation tool to prevent accidents.
Nuclear fuel response to reactor accidents
Nuclear holocaust
Nuclear power debate
Nuclear power plant emergency response team
Nuclear whistleblowers
Nuclear weapon
Micro nuclear reactor
Passive nuclear safety
Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
Safety code (nuclear reactor)
Material unaccounted for
References
External links
International Atomic Energy Agency website
Nuclear Safety Info Resources
Nuclear Safety Discussion Forums
The Nuclear Energy Option, online book by Bernard L. Cohen. Emphasis on risk estimates of nuclear.
Environmental impact of nuclear power
Nuclear weapons
Safety practices |
4222646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20NCAA%20Division%20I-A%20football%20season | 1999 NCAA Division I-A football season | The 1999 NCAA Division I-A football season saw Florida State named national champions, defeating Virginia Tech in the BCS Sugar Bowl.
Florida State became the first team in history to start out preseason No. 1 and remain there through the entire season. Their 12–0 season gave them 109 victories in the '90s, the most for any decade. Virginia Tech also had a remarkable season behind freshman quarterback Michael Vick, who was being touted as college football's best player.
Vick was outshone in the national championship game by Florida State wide receiver Peter Warrick. Warrick had early problems with the law, charged with a misdemeanor he sat out two games early in the season. But he scored three touchdowns in the title game, earning MVP honors.
The BCS adopted a new rule after the previous season, nicknamed the "Kansas State Rule," which stated that any team ranked in the top four in the final BCS poll is assured of an invitation to a BCS bowl game.
Many teams faced debacles. East Carolina faced Hurricane Floyd, and in that same week, faced the No. 9 Miami Hurricanes. The Pirates were down, 23–3, but scored 24 unanswered points to win the football game, 27–23.
Kansas State finished 6th in the BCS standings but again received no BCS bowl invitation, this time being passed over in favor of Michigan (ranked eighth). Kansas State's predicament demonstrated early on the problem of trying to balance historic bowl ties and creating a system which gives top bowl bids to the most deserving teams. In addition, for a second straight season, a team from outside the BCS Automatic Qualifying conferences (Marshall) went undefeated but did not receive a bid to a BCS bowl game, which illustrated the problem of BCS Non-Automatic Qualifying conference teams being shut out of the BCS bowls.
Rule changes
The NCAA Rules Committee adopted the following changes for the 1999 season:
Holding penalties committed behind the line of scrimmage will be enforced from the previous spot, modifying a 1991 rule that penalized holding (as well as illegal use of hands and clipping) committed behind the scrimmage line from the spot of the foul.
The penalty for intentional grounding was changed from a five-yard penalty from the spot of the foul plus loss-of-down to simply a loss-of-down at the spot of the foul.
Bandannas that are visible are considered illegal equipment.
Offensive teams may not break a huddle with 12 or more players.
Continuing action dead-ball fouls against both teams are disregarded, however any disqualified players must leave the game.
Conference and program changes
Two teams upgraded from Division I-AA, thus increasing the number of Division I-A schools from 112 to 114.
The Mountain West Conference was formed prior to the season by eight former members of the Western Athletic Conference.
Arkansas State joined the Big West Conference as its seventh member after three seasons as an independent.
Two schools made the move up to Division I-A football this season: the University at Buffalo and Middle Tennessee State University.
Conference changes
Program changes
Two programs, each playing as independents, changed their names prior to the season:
After Northeast Louisiana University changed its name to the University of Louisiana at Monroe, the Northeast Louisiana Indians became the Louisiana–Monroe Indians.
Similarly, after the University of Southwestern Louisiana changed its name to the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, the Southwestern Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns became the Louisiana–Lafayette Ragin' Cajuns.
Regular Season
August–September
In the preseason AP Poll, No. 1 Florida State was followed by No. 2 Tennessee, the team which had defeated them in last year’s championship game. The top five were rounded out by No. 3 Penn State, No. 4 Arizona, and No. 5 Florida.
August 28: No. 1 Florida State beat Louisiana Tech 41-7, and No. 3 Penn State blasted No. 4 Arizona by the same 41-7 score in the Pigskin Classic. The other highly-ranked teams had not begun their seasons, and the next AP Poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Florida, and No. 5 Nebraska (who moved up from sixth place).
September 4: No. 1 Florida State was idle. No. 2 Penn State posted another blowout win, 70-24 over Akron. No. 3 Tennessee began their schedule with a 42-17 defeat of Wyoming, No. 4 Florida beat Western Michigan 55-26, and No. 5 Nebraska won 42-7 at Iowa. The top five remained the same in the next poll.
September 11: No. 1 Florida State got past No. 10 Georgia Tech by a 41-35 score. No. 2 Penn State had an even closer call, needing a late field goal and a block of a potential game-tying kick with time running out to preserve a 20-17 win over rival Pittsburgh. No. 3 Tennessee was idle. No. 4 Florida beat Central Florida 58-27, and No. 5 Nebraska shut out California 45-0. The next poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Tennessee, and No. 3 Penn State, with Florida and Nebraska tied at No. 4.
September 18: No. 1 Florida State beat No. 20 North Carolina State 42-11. No. 2 Tennessee visited No. 4 Florida, whom they had defeated in 1998 after several frustrating losses earlier in the decade. This time, the Gators went back on top in a 23-21 squeaker. No. 3 Penn State edged past No. 8 Miami as the Nittany Lions followed a crucial fourth-down stop with a 79-yard touchdown pass to win 27-23. No. 4 Nebraska dropped out of the top five after struggling to beat Southern Mississippi 20-13. A tie-breaking safety proved to be the key play in No. 6 Michigan’s 18-13 win at Syracuse, while No. 7 Texas A&M overwhelmed Tulsa 62-13. The next poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Michigan, and No. 5 Texas A&M.
September 25: No. 1 Florida State visited North Carolina for a 42-10 victory, No. 2 Penn State defeated Indiana 45-24, and No. 3 Florida won 38-10 at Kentucky. No. 4 Michigan held eventual Heisman Trophy winner Ron Dayne without a single rushing yard in the second half of the Wolverines’ 21-16 victory at No. 20 Wisconsin. No. 5 Texas A&M beat Southern Mississippi 23-6, and the top five remained the same in the next poll.
October
October 2: No. 1 Florida State beat Duke 51-23. No. 2 Penn State was idle. No. 3 Florida hosted No. 21 Alabama for a thriller in which the Crimson Tide’s Shaun Alexander ran for four touchdowns, including game-tying scores both at the end of regulation and in overtime. Alabama missed the extra point on the latter touchdown, but an offsides penalty gave their kicker a second chance, and this time he converted the point-after for a 40-39 finish which was Florida’s first loss at home in five years. No. 4 Michigan defeated No. 11 Purdue 38-12, but No. 5 Texas A&M was upset 21-19 by Texas Tech. No. 6 Nebraska won 38-14 over Oklahoma State, and No. 8 Virginia Tech pulled off a 31-7 victory at No. 24 Virginia. The next poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Michigan, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Virginia Tech.
October 9: No. 1 Florida State hosted No. 19 Miami and won 31-21, while No. 2 Penn State visited Iowa for a 31-7 victory. No. 3 Michigan fell 34-31 to No. 11 Michigan State as the Spartans’ Bill Burke and Plaxico Burress set school records for passing and receiving yards. No. 4 Nebraska defeated Iowa State 49-14, and No. 5 Virginia Tech won 58-20 at Rutgers. The next poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Virginia Tech, and No. 5 Michigan State.
October 16: No. 1 Florida State beat Wake Forest 33-10, and No. 2 Penn State defeated No. 18 Ohio State 23-10. No. 3 Nebraska was idle. No. 4 Virginia Tech overwhelmed No. 16 Syracuse 62-0; not only did the Hokies’ offense put on a show, but the defense also returned two fumbles and an interception for touchdowns. No. 5 Michigan State lost 52-28 at No. 20 Purdue. No. 6 Tennessee was idle, but nevertheless moved back into the top five: No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Virginia Tech, and No. 5 Tennessee.
October 23: Clemson coach Tommy Bowden nearly pulled off an upset against his father Bobby’s top-ranked Florida State team, but the Seminoles escaped with a 17-14 victory. No. 2 Penn State looked ineffective on offense, but the Nittany Lions converted three turnovers into touchdowns in a 31-25 win at No. 16 Purdue which moved coach Joe Paterno into third place on the all-time wins list. No. 3 Nebraska also struggled to hold onto the ball, losing three fumbles (including a crucial one at their opponent’s 2-yard line) in a 24-20 loss at No. 18 Texas. No. 4 Virginia Tech was idle. No. 5 Tennessee visited No. 10 Alabama for a 21-7 win, and idle No. 6 Florida returned to the top five: No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Penn State, No. 3 Virginia Tech, No. 4 Tennessee, and No. 5 Florida. The first BCS standings, released after this weekend’s games, had the same top four but placed Kansas State at No. 5.
October 30: No. 1 Florida State won 35-10 at Virginia, No. 2 Penn State went to Illinois for a 27-7 victory, No. 3 Virginia Tech was a 30-17 winner at Pittsburgh, No. 4 Tennessee beat South Carolina 30-7, and No. 5 Florida defeated No. 10 Georgia 30-14. The top five remained the same in the AP Poll, and Florida’s big victory was sufficient to move the Gators from sixth to fourth place in the BCS standings.
November
November 6: No. 1 Florida State was idle. Unranked Minnesota completed a 4th-and-16 pass to set up a game-winning field goal and stun No. 2 Penn State 24-23; after their hot start, the Nittany Lions would lose all of their remaining regular-season games by a touchdown or less. Another thriller took place in Morgantown, where No. 3 Virginia Tech led West Virginia 19-7 with five minutes left but then allowed two Mountaineers touchdowns in quick succession. In a last-ditch effort, Michael Vick led the Hokies on a 58-yard drive resulting in a field goal which put them back on top 22-20 as time expired. No. 4 Tennessee beat No. 24 Notre Dame 38-14, No. 5 Florida escaped Vanderbilt 13-6, and No. 6 Kansas State held off Colorado 20-14. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Tennessee, No. 4 Florida, and No. 5 Kansas State; the BCS standings had Tennessee second and Virginia Tech third.
November 13: No. 1 Florida State defeated Maryland 49-10. No. 2 Virginia Tech beat No. 19 Miami 43-10. No. 3 Tennessee blew a fourth-quarter lead to Arkansas and lost 28-24, while No. 4 Florida won 20-3 at South Carolina to clinch a spot in the SEC Championship Game. No. 5 Kansas State fell 41-15 at No. 7 Nebraska. No. 9 Wisconsin breezed past Iowa 41-3 to win the Big Ten title and a spot in the Rose Bowl. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Florida, No. 4 Nebraska, and No. 5 Wisconsin, while the BCS standings had Nebraska third, Florida fourth, and Tennessee fifth.
November 20: Undefeated No. 1 Florida State visited one-loss No. 3 Florida with a spot in the national title game likely at stake, and the Seminoles prevailed 30-23. No. 2 Virginia Tech, the only other undefeated squad in the major conferences, blew out Temple 62-7. No. 4 Nebraska was idle, and No. 5 Wisconsin had already finished their schedule. The next AP Poll featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Wisconsin, and No. 5 Florida; the BCS standings ranked Tennessee fourth rather than Wisconsin.
November 26: No. 1 Florida State, No. 4 Wisconsin, and No. 5 Florida had all finished their schedules. No. 2 Virginia Tech completed their undefeated season with a 38-14 defeat of No. 22 Boston College. No. 3 Nebraska blew a 27-3 fourth-quarter lead over Colorado and gave the Buffaloes a chance to win in regulation, but a missed field goal sent the game to overtime. After Colorado opened the extra period with a field goal, Eric Crouch’s one-yard touchdown run gave the Cornhuskers a 33-30 win and a berth in the Big 12 Championship Game. The top five remained the same in the next AP Poll; the BCS standings had Florida fourth and Tennessee fifth.
December
December 4: In the Big 12 Championship Game, No. 3 Nebraska faced No. 12 Texas, the only team that had defeated them in the regular season. The Cornhuskers redeemed themselves this time, breezing to a 22-6 victory. The SEC Championship Game between No. 5 Florida and No. 7 Alabama had a much more surprising result. After the favored Gators scored the first touchdown, the Crimson Tide ran off 34 points in a row on their way to a 34-7 victory. The final AP Poll of the regular season featured No. 1 Florida State, No. 2 Virginia Tech, No. 3 Nebraska, No. 4 Wisconsin, and No. 5 Alabama; the final BCS standings had the same top three, Alabama fourth, and Tennessee fifth.
As the only two unbeaten teams in the major conferences, No. 1 Florida State and No. 2 Virginia Tech were the obvious choices to play for the national championship in the Sugar Bowl. No. 3 Nebraska drew No. 6 Tennessee, who earned an at-large BCS bid, in the Fiesta Bowl. The Rose Bowl featured the usual Big Ten/Pac-10 matchup between No. 4 Wisconsin and No. 22 Stanford. No. 8 Michigan, who finished second in the Big Ten, got the other at-large spot and faced No. 5 Alabama in the Orange Bowl. For the second year in a row, No. 7 Kansas State was kept out of the BCS bowls despite having just one loss; the Wildcats’ opponent would be Washington in the Holiday Bowl. No. 11 Marshall, who finished undefeated but was not part of a major conference, went up against Brigham Young in the Motor City Bowl.
Regular season top 10 matchups
Rankings reflect the AP Poll. Rankings for Week 9 and beyond will list BCS Rankings first and AP Poll second. Teams that failed to be a top 10 team for one poll or the other will be noted.
Week 0
No. 3 Penn State defeated No. 4 Arizona, 41–7 (Beaver Stadium, University Park, Pennsylvania)
Week 2
No. 1 Florida State defeated No. 10 Georgia Tech, 41–35 (Doak Campbell Stadium, Tallahassee, Florida)
Week 3
No. 3 Penn State defeated No. 8 Miami, 27–23 (Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, Florida)
No. 4 Florida defeated No. 2 Tennessee, 23–21 (Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, Gainesville, Florida)
Week 6
No. 6 Tennessee defeated No. 10 Georgia, 37–20 (Neyland Stadium, Knoxville, Tennessee)
Week 8
No. 5 Tennessee defeated No. 10 Alabama, 21–7 (Bryant-Denny Stadium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama)
Week 9
No. 6/5 Florida defeated No. NR/10 Georgia, 30–14 (Alltel Stadium, Jacksonville, Florida)
Week 11
No. 6/7 Nebraska defeated No. 5/5 Kansas State, 41–15 (Memorial Stadium, Lincoln, Nebraska)
No. 9/11 Alabama defeated No. 10/8 Mississippi State, 19–7 (Bryant-Denny Stadium, Tuscaloosa, Alabama)
Week 12
No. 1/1 Florida State defeated No. 4/3 Florida, 30–23 (Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, Gainesville, Florida)
Week 14
No. 7/7 Alabama defeated No. 4/5 Florida, 34–7 (1999 SEC Championship Game, Georgia Dome, Atlanta, Georgia)
Conference standings
Bowl games
Rankings from final regular season AP poll
BCS bowls
Sugar Bowl: No. 1 Florida State (BCS No. 1, ACC Champ) 46, No. 2 Virginia Tech (BCS No. 2, Big East Champ) 29
Orange Bowl: No. 8 Michigan (At Large) 35, No. 5 Alabama (SEC Champ) 34 (OT)
Rose Bowl: No. 4 Wisconsin (Big 10 Champ) 17, No. 22 Stanford (Pac-10 Champ) 9
Fiesta Bowl: No. 3 Nebraska (Big 12 Champ) 31, No. 6 Tennessee (At Large) 21
Other New Years Day bowls
Cotton Bowl Classic: No. 24 Arkansas 27, No. 12 Texas (Big 12 Runner Up) 6
Florida Citrus Bowl: No. 9 Michigan State 37, No. 10 Florida (SEC Runner Up) 34
Outback Bowl: No. 21 Georgia 28, No. 19 Purdue 25 (OT)
: No. 23 Miami 28, No. 17 Georgia Tech 13
December bowl games
Peach Bowl: No. 16 Mississippi State 17, Clemson 7
: Illinois 63, Virginia 21
Sun Bowl: Oregon 24, No. 13 Minnesota 20
Alamo Bowl: No. 14 Penn State* 24, No. 18 Texas A&M 0
Insight.com Bowl: Colorado 62, No. 25 Boston College 28
Holiday Bowl: No. 7 Kansas State 24, Washington 20
: No. 15 Southern Mississippi (C-USA Champ) 23, Colorado State 17
Aloha Bowl: Wake Forest 23, Arizona State 3
Oahu Bowl: Hawaii-Manoa (WAC Champ) 23, Oregon State 17
Independence Bowl: Mississippi 27, Oklahoma 25
Music City Bowl: Syracuse 20, Kentucky 13
Las Vegas Bowl: Utah 17, Fresno State 16
: No. 11 Marshall (MAC Champ) 21, BYU (MWC Champ) 3
Humanitarian Bowl: Boise State (Big West Champ) 34, Louisville 31
Mobile Alabama Bowl: TCU 28, No. 20 East Carolina 14
Final polls
Heisman Trophy voting
The Heisman Trophy is given to the year's most outstanding player
Other major awards
Maxwell Award (College Player of the Year) – Ron Dayne, Wisconsin
Walter Camp Award (Back) – Ron Dayne, Wisconsin
Davey O'Brien Award (Quarterback) – Joe Hamilton, Georgia Tech
Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (Senior Quarterback) – Chris Redman, Louisville
Doak Walker Award (Running Back) – Ron Dayne, Wisconsin
Fred Biletnikoff Award (Wide Receiver) – Troy Walters, Stanford
Bronko Nagurski Trophy (Defensive Player) – Corey Moore, Virginia Tech, DE
Chuck Bednarik Award – LaVar Arrington, Penn State
Dick Butkus Award (Linebacker) – LaVar Arrington, Penn State
Lombardi Award (Lineman or Linebacker) – Corey Moore, Virginia Tech, DE
Outland Trophy (Interior Lineman) – Chris Samuels, Alabama, OT
Jim Thorpe Award (Defensive Back) – Tyrone Carter, Minnesota
Lou Groza Award (Placekicker) – Sebastian Janikowski, Florida St.
Paul "Bear" Bryant Award – Frank Beamer, Virginia Tech
Football Writers Association of America Coach of the Year Award – Frank Beamer, Virginia Tech
References |
4222856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944%20in%20baseball | 1944 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: St. Louis Cardinals over St. Louis Browns (4–2), in the "Streetcar Series"
All-Star Game, July 11 at Forbes Field: National League, 7–1
Other champions
Amateur World Series: Venezuela
Negro League World Series: Homestead Grays over Birmingham Black Barons (4–1)
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: West, 7–4
All-American Girls Professional Baseball League: Milwaukee Chicks over Kenosha Comets
Awards and honors
Baseball Hall of Fame
Kenesaw Mountain Landis
Most Valuable Player
Hal Newhouser (AL) – pitcher, Detroit Tigers
Marty Marion (NL) – shortstop, St. Louis Cardinals
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Marty Marion (NL) – St. Louis Cardinals
The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award
Bobby Doerr (AL) – Second base, Boston Red Sox
Marty Marion (NL) – Shortstop, St. Louis Cardinals
The Sporting News Pitcher of the Year Award
Hal Newhouser (AL) – Detroit Tigers
Bill Voiselle (NL) – New York Giants
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Luke Sewell (AL) – St. Louis Browns
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
Negro National League final standings
Events
January–March
March 1 – The St. Louis Browns trade catcher Rick Ferrell to the Washington Senators in exchange for catcher Tony Giuliani. However, Giuliani, who'd played for St. Louis during the 1936 and 1937 seasons, refuses to report. Washington completes the trade by sending outfielder Gene Moore to St. Louis in Giuliani's place.
April–June
April 27 – At Braves Field, Jim Tobin of the Boston Braves no-hits the Brooklyn Dodgers 2–0 and helps his own cause by homering off Fritz Ostermueller in the eighth inning. Tobin becomes the second no-hit pitcher to hit a home run in the same game, joining Wes Ferrell almost a full 13 years earlier, on April 29, .
May 1 – George Myatt of the Washington Senators goes 6-for-6 as the Nats beat the Red Sox, 11–4.
May 4 – The St. Louis Browns announce that they are dropping their segregation policy restricting Negro fans to the bleachers.
May 10 – Mel Harder becomes the 50th pitcher in major league history to win 200 games as the Cleveland Indians defeat the Boston Red Sox 5-4.
May 15 – At Crosley Field, Clyde Shoun of the Cincinnati Reds no-hits the Boston Braves 1–0. The only baserunner he allows is a third-inning walk to his mound opponent, Jim Tobin, himself a no-hit pitcher only 18 days earlier.
June 1 – The Cincinnati Reds sell the contract of Fritz Ostermueller to the Pittsburgh Pirates.
June 6:
All games are cancelled due to D-Day.
The Brooklyn Dodgers acquire Eddie Stanky from the chicago Cubs in exchange for pitcher Bob Chipman.
June 10 – 15-year-old pitcher Joe Nuxhall of the Cincinnati Reds makes his major league debut. He is the youngest player ever to appear in a Major League game. After giving up five runs to the Cardinals in of an inning, he is relieved by Jake Eisenhart, who gets the final out in his only major league appearance.
July–September
July 11 – At Forbes Field, home of the Pittsburgh Pirates, the National League defeats the American League, 7–1, in the All-Star Game.
August 10 – Red Barrett of the Boston Braves throws a shutout with just 58 pitches – a record for fewest pitches in a nine-inning game. The game lasted 75 minutes. Barrett gave up only two hits. He did not strikeout or walk any batters, and threw an average of only 2 pitches per batter. In 1944, 96 of the Reds games was completed in under two hours.
September 30 – Detroit Tigers pitcher Hal Newhouser wins his 29th game, defeating the Washington Senators, 7–3.
October–December
October 9 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeated the St. Louis Browns, 3–1, in Game 6 of the World Series to win their fifth World Series, four games to two. The Browns are the last of the original eight members of the American League to win the pennant. It would be their only World Series appearance before relocating to Baltimore ten years later. This only marked only the third time in World Series history in which both teams had the same home field, Sportsman's Park, with the other two being in 1921 and 1922 at the Polo Grounds. The Series was also known as the "Streetcar Series", or the "St. Louis Showdown".
November 28 – Detroit Tigers pitcher Hal Newhouser, who posted a 29–9 record with 187 strikeouts and a 2.22 ERA, is named the American League Most Valuable Player, gathering four more votes than pitching teammate Dizzy Trout (27–14, 144, 2.12).
December 2 – Japan, where baseball has been banned as an undesirable enemy influence, mourns the death of Eiji Sawamura. The Japanese pitcher, who is killed in action in the Pacific, became a national hero by striking out Babe Ruth in an exhibition game.
Births
January
January 3 – Dick Colpaert
January 4 – Tito Fuentes
January 4 – Charlie Manuel
January 5 – Tom Kelley
January 5 – Charlie Vinson
January 7 – Dick Calmus
January 9 – Dick Thoenen
January 10 – Chuck Dobson
January 11 – Frank Baker
January 11 – Jim McAndrew
January 13 – Larry Jaster
January 16 – Gene Stone
January 17 – Denny Doyle
January 18 – Carl Morton
January 19 – Chet Trail
January 20 – Carl Taylor
January 23 – Paul Ratliff
January 25 – Gary Holman
February
February 1 – Paul Blair
February 1 – Hal King
February 3 – Wayne Comer
February 3 – Celerino Sánchez
February 9 – Jim Campanis
February 9 – Randy Schwartz
February 11 – Ollie Brown
February 13 – Sal Bando
February 16 – Glenn Vaughan
February 17 – Dick Bosman
February 18 – Syd O'Brien
February 19 – Chris Zachary
February 21 – Tokuji Nagaike
February 23 – Don Shaw
February 25 – Stump Merrill
February 26 – Don Secrist
February 29 – Steve Mingori
March
March 1 – Vern Fuller
March 1 – Ron Klimkowski
March 9 – Ed Acosta
March 10 – John Briggs
March 10 – Joe Campbell
March 12 – Joe Moock
March 14 – John Miller
March 15 – Wayne Granger
March 15 – Dave Watkins
March 16 – Rick Renick
March 17 – Cito Gaston
March 20 – Steve Blateric
March 20 – Bob Taylor
March 21 – Manny Sanguillén
March 22 – Matt Galante
March 23 – George Scott
March 25 – Jim Britton
March 29 – Denny McLain
April
April 1 – Rusty Staub
April 3 – Gomer Hodge
April 7 – Bill Stoneman
April 9 – Joe Brinkman
April 12 – Terry Harmon
April 14 – Frank Bertaina
April 16 – Bob Montgomery
April 24 – Bill Singer
April 25 – Drew Baur
April 25 – Joe Hague
April 25 – Ken Tatum
April 26 – Leon McFadden
May
May 6 – Masanori Murakami
May 7 – Billy Murphy
May 14 – Jim Driscoll
May 19 – Stan Swanson
May 22 – Frank Coggins
May 22 – Bob Schaefer
May 27 – Jim Holt
June
June 6 – Bud Harrelson
June 7 – Roger Nelson
June 7 – Frank Reberger
June 8 – Mark Belanger
June 20 – Dave Nelson
June 28 – Hal Breeden
June 30 – Ron Swoboda
July
July 4 – Fred Rico
July 9 – Hal Haydel
July 9 – Sonny Jackson
July 12 – Tom Tischinski
July 13 – Buzz Stephen
July 14 – Billy McCool
July 18 – Rudy May
July 22 – Sparky Lyle
July 25 – Buddy Bradford
July 25 – Fred Scherman
July 30 – Pat Kelly
July 30 – Doug Rader
July 31 – Frank Brosseau
August
August 2 – Chris Coletta
August 4 – Rich Nye
August 15 – Mike Compton
August 15 – John Matias
August 18 – Mike Ferraro
August 20 – Graig Nettles
August 25 – Dick Smith
August 27 – Johnny Hairston
August 30 – Tug McGraw
September
September 7 – Barry Lersch
September 10 – Jim Hibbs
September 11 – John McSherry
September 11 – Dave Roberts
September 16 – Chuck Brinkman
September 19 – Russ Nagelson
September 20 – Ed Phillips
September 22 – Jim Fairey
September 23 – Oscar Zamora
September 27 – Gene Rounsaville
September 27 – Gary Sutherland
October
October 4 – Tony La Russa
October 8 – Ed Kirkpatrick
October 9 – Freddie Patek
October 11 – Mike Fiore
October 14 – Rich Robertson
October 15 – Dick Such
October 23 – Jim Rittwage
October 24 – Johnny Jeter
October 25 – Skip Guinn
October 29 – Jim Bibby
October 29 – Gary Neibauer
November
November 7 – Joe Niekro
November 8 – Ed Kranepool
November 9 – Al Severinsen
November 17 – Tom Seaver
November 27 – Ron Tompkins
December
December 1 – Jim Ray
December 4 – Lee Bales
December 6 – Tony Horton
December 9 – Del Unser
December 10 – Steve Renko
December 15 – Stan Bahnsen
December 15 – Jim Leyland
December 18 – Steve Hovley
December 19 – Rob Gardner
December 20 – Don Mason
December 22 – Steve Carlton
December 23 – Ray Lamb
December 23 – Vic LaRose
December 30 – José Morales
December 30 – Bob Schroder
Deaths
January
January 7 – George Mullin, 63, pitcher who won 228 games including a no-hitter, mainly with the Tigers, having five 20-win seasons.
January 8 – Harry Daubert, 51, pinch-hitter for the 1915 Pittsburgh Pirates.
January 13 – Kid Elberfeld, 68, shortstop for six clubs in 11 seasons between 1898 and 1914, who also managed the New York Highlanders of the American League in the 1908 season.
January 30 – Ed Clough, 37, outfielder and pitcher who played from 1924 through 1926 with the St. Louis Cardinals.
February
February 4 – Dixie Davis, 53, pitcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, Philadelphia Phillies and St. Louis Browns during ten seasons spanning 1910–1926.
February 18 – Hub Pernoll, 55, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers in the 1910 and 1912 seasons.
February 20 – Harry Wilhelm, 69, pitcher for the 1899 Louisville Colonels.
February 21 – Jack Enzenroth, 58, catcher who played from 1914 to 1915 with the St. Louis Browns and the Kansas City Packers.
February 23 – Al Bauer, 84, pitcher who played with the Columbus Buckeyes in 1884 and for the St. Louis Maroons in 1886.
February 25 – Bill Knowlton, 45, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1920 season.
March
March 10 – Dan Howley, 58, player, coach and manager who caught in 1913 for the Philadelphia Phillies, later served as a coach for the Detroit Tigers in 1919 and 1921–1922, then managed the St. Louis Browns from 1927 to 1929 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1930 to 1932.
March 11 – Bill Duzen, 74, pitcher who played in 1890 for the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League.
March 17 – Rube Kroh, 57, pitcher who played for the Boston Americans, Chicago Cubs and Boston Braves during six seasons spanning 1906–1912, being also credited as the player who got the ball into the hands of Johnny Evers in the famous Merkle's Boner game.
March 18 – Frank Motz, 74, first baseman who played with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1890 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1893 to 1894.
March 19 – Joe Dunn, 59, catcher for the Brooklyn Superbas during the 1908 and 1909 baseball seasons, who later became a distinguished manager in the minor leagues, winning championship titles in 1919, 1920 and 1930.
March 19 – John Kelly, 65, ot. Louis Cardinals in the 1907 season.
March 22 – Claude Hendrix, 54, pitcher who played from 1911 through 1920 for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Chi-Feds, Chicago Whales and Chicago Cubs.
March 24 – Bob Glenalvin, 77, second baseman for the Chicago Colts of the National League in 1890 and 1893.
March 26 – Neil Stynes, 75, catcher who played in two games for the 1890 Cleveland Infants of the short-lived Players' League.
April
April 2 – Bob Brush, 69, backup catcher who played for the 1907 Boston Doves of the National League.
April 11 – Jack Dunleavy, 64, outfielder and pitcher who played from 1903 through 1905 for the St. Louis Cardinals.
April 16 – Pop Foster, 66, outfielder who spent 18 years in baseball, four of them in the Major Leagues with the New York Giants, Washington Senators and Chicago White Sox from 1898 to 1901.
April 20 – Elmer Gedeon, 27, outfielder for the 1939 Washington Senators, whose name is linked forever to that of Harry O'Neill as the only two major leaguers that were killed during World War II.
April 25 – Tony Mullane, 85, first pitcher to throw left-handed and right-handed in a same game, who won 284 games a posted 3.05 ERA in 13 seasons, including five 30-win seasons and the first no-hitter in American Association history in 1882, while leading the league in shutouts twice and strikeouts once, and compiling 264 complete with the Cincinnati Reds, which remains a club record.
May
May 2 – Art Thomason, 55, backup outfielder for the Cleveland Naps in its 1910 season.
May 9 – Snake Deal, 65, first baseman who played with the Cincinnati Reds in 1906.
May 12 – John Pappalau, 69, pitcher for the Cleveland Spiders in 1897.
May 14 – Billy Hart, 77, pitcher who played for the 1890 St.Louis Browns of the American Association.
May 18 – Bob Clark, 46, pitcher who played from 1920 to 1921 for the Cleveland Indians.
May 18 – Tim Shinnick, 76, second baseman who played from 1890 to 1891 for the Louisville Colonels of the American Association.
May 31 – John McKelvey, 96, outfielder who played in 1875 for the New Haven Elm Citys of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players.
June
June 5 – Phil Knell, 79, pitcher for the Cleveland Spiders, Columbus Solons, Louisville Colonels, Philadelphia Athletics, Pittsburgh Alleghenys/Pirates and Washington Senators in a span of six years from 1888 to 1995, who had two 20-win seasons, and led three different leagues for the most hitters hit by pitches from 1890 to 1892.
June 21 – Harry Swacina, 62, first baseman who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Baltimore Terrapins in parts of four seasons from 1907–1915.
June 28 – Dan Stearns, 82, first baseman for six teams in seven seasons spanning 1880–1889, who is better known as the man that produced the final out in Tony Mullane's no-hitter in 1882, he first no-no in American Association history.
July
July 3 – Pete McBride, 68, pitcher for the 1898 Cleveland Spiders and the 1989 St. Louis Perfectos.
July 3 – Charlie Reynolds, 79, catcher who played for the Kansas City Cowboys and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms during the 1889 season.
July 5 – Claude Rothgeb, 64, right fielder for the 1904 Washington Senators of the American League, who also enjoyed a distinguished career as a football coach at Colorado College and Rice University, and as a baseball coach at Texas A&M.
July 10 – Tom Walker, 62, pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Athletics in the 1902 season and for the Cincinnati Reds from 1904 to 1905.
July 16 – Hal Irelan, 53, second baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1914 season.
July 22 – Irv Waldron, 68, catcher who played for the Milwaukee Brewers and Washington Senators of the American League in 1901.
August
August 2 – Arthur Hauger, 50, fourth outfielder for the 1912 Cleveland Naps, who also spent more than 30 years in baseball as a player, coach and manager in the Minor Leagues.
August 4 – Camp Skinner, 47, backup outfielder who played in 1922 for the first-place New York Yankees and the next year played for the last-place Boston Red Sox.
August 16 – Tom Sullivan, 37, catcher who played briefly with the Cincinnati Reds in 1925.
August 21 – Bob Gilks, 80, infielder/outfielder and pitcher for the Cleveland Blues/Spiders and Baltimore Orioles in five seasons from 1887 to 1893, who hit .239 in 339 games and posted a 9–9 pitching record with a 3.98 ERA, while leading the American Association in saves in the 1888 season.
August 21 – Lew Post, 69, outfielder for the 1902 Detroit Tigers.
August 29 – Willie McGill, 70, who made his major league debut in the Players' League in 1890 as a 16-year rookie, and the following year won 21 games in the last season that the American Association existed, pitching the rest of his career in the National League primarily during a lively ball era, ending with a career win–loss record of 72–74 for six teams before retiring at age 22.
August 30 – Bill Duggleby, 70, pitcher for three clubs during eight seasons from 1898 to 1907, who had a 20-win season and posted a career record of 93–102 with a 3.18 ERA in 241 pitching appearances, including 159 complete games.
September
September 4 – Jack Gleason, 90, third baseman for five teams in a span of six seasons from 1877 to 1886, and a member of the 1884 Union Association Champions St. Louis Maroons.
September 9 – Frank Shugart, 77, shortstop for six teams in eight seasons spanning 1890–1901, who was blacklisted from baseball after the 1901 season because of an altercation in which he punched an umpire in the face, and eventually had to resume his career in the Minor Leagues.
September 9 – Orlin Collier, 37, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers in the 1931 season.
September 16 – Farmer Steelman, 69, catcher who played from 1899 through 1902 for the Louisville Colonels, Brooklyn Superbas and Philadelphia Athletics.
October
October 2 – Dick Robertson, 53, pitcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Robins and Washington Senators in parts of three seasons spanning 1913–1919.
October 9 – Joe DeBerry, 47, who played for the St. Louis Browns of the American League in 1920 and 1921.
October 10 – Louis Leroy, 65, pitcher for the New York Highlanders and the Boston Red Sox in a span of three seasons from 1905 to 1910.
October 14 – Topsy Hartsel, 70, outfielder for four teams in 14 seasons, who led the American League in stolen bases and runs scored in 1902, and was a member of the Philadelphia Athletics teams who clinched the league's pennant in 1902 and 1905, and the World Series in 1910 and 1911.
October 17 – Jack Powell, 70, pitcher who won 245 games, primarily for the St. Louis Browns and the St. Louis Cardinals.
October 22 – Jim Brown, 47, fourth outfielder who played for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1915 season and the Philadelphia Athletics in 1916.
October 24 – Pinky Swander, 64, right fielder who played from 1903 to 1904 for the St. Louis Browns.
October 29 – Scott Hardesty, 74, shortstop for the 1899 New York Giants.
November
November 2 – Ed Brandt, 39, pitcher who played from 1928 through 1938 for the Boston Braves, Brooklyn Dodgers and Pittsburgh Pirates.
November 2 – Bert Conn, 65, pitcher and second baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1898 and 1901 seasons.
November 19 – Frank Brill, 80, pitcher and outfielder for the 1884 Detroit Wolverines.
November 25 – Kenesaw Mountain Landis, 78, commissioner of baseball since that office's creation in 1920, who established the position's authority in overseeing cleanup of corruption in wake of the Black Sox scandal, banishing eight players from the sport for life for involvement in throwing the 1919 World Series. Previously, as federal judge had presided over 1914 case in which the Federal League challenged the Major Leagues under antitrust law, being also a strong advocate of the independence of Minor League Baseball from control of MLB.
November 28 – Elmer Miller, 54, outfielder who played for the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox in part of nine seasons between 1912 and 1922.
December
December 2 – Eiji Sawamura, 27, Hall of Fame Japanese pitcher who played for the Tokyo Kyojin.
December 4 – Roger Bresnahan, 65, Hall of Fame catcher and leadoff hitter who starred for the New York Giants from 1902 to 1908, known as the first major leaguer to wear shin guards, while remaining the only catcher to steal over 200 bases in a Major League career.
December 9 – Swat McCabe, 63, shortstop who played from 1909 to 1910 for the Cincinnati Reds.
December 12 – Ed Pinnance, 65, Canadian pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Athletics in its 1903 season.
December 13 – Lloyd Christenbury, 51, infield/outfield utility who played four seasons with the Boston Braves from 1919 to 1922.
December 13 – Welcome Gaston, 69, pitcher who played for the Brooklyn's Bridegrooms and Superbas clubs in parts of the 1898 and 1899 seasons.
December 14 – Jouett Meekin, 77, who was reportedly as one of the three hardest-throwing pitchers of the 1890s, along with Cy Young and Amos Rusie, while playing from 1891 to 1900 with five different National League teams, most prominently for the New York Giants from 1894 to 1899, winning 33 games for the team in 1894 en route to a postseason championship.
December 15 – Jim Chatterton, 80, infield/outfield utility and pitcher who played for the Kansas City Cowboys of the Union Association in 1884.
December 20 – Elmer Zacher, 64, outfielder who played for the New York Giants and St. Louis Cardinals during the 1910 season.
December 28 – Bill Bowman, 77, backup catcher for the Chicago Colts in 1891.
December 31 – Bill Chappelle, 63, pitcher who played for the Boston Doves, Cincinnati Reds and Brooklyn Tip-Tops in a span of three seasons from 1908 to 1914.
References
External links
Baseball Reference – 1944 MLB Season Summary
Baseball Reference – MLB Players born in 1944
Baseball Reference – MLB Players died in 1944 |
4222874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema%20%28Kant%29 | Schema (Kant) | In Kantian philosophy, a transcendental schema (plural: schemata; from , "form, shape, figure") is the procedural rule by which a category or pure, non-empirical concept is associated with a sense impression. A private, subjective intuition is thereby discursively thought to be a representation of an external object. Transcendental schemata are supposedly produced by the imagination in relation to time.
Role in Kant's architectonic system
Kant created an architectonic system in which there is a progression of phases from the most formal to the most empirical: "Kant develops his system of corporeal nature in the following way. He starts in the Critique with the most formal act of human cognition, called by him the transcendental unity of apperception, and its various aspects, called the logical functions of judgment. He then proceeds to the pure categories of the understanding, and then to the schematized categories, and finally to the transcendental principles of nature in general." It is within this system that the transcendental schemata are supposed to serve a crucial purpose. Many interpreters of Kant have emphasized the importance of the schematism.
Purpose of the schematism chapter
If pure concepts of the understanding (Kantian Categories) and sense perceptions are radically different from each other, what common quality allows them to relate? Kant wrote the chapter on Schematism in his Critique of Pure Reason to solve the problem of "...how we can ensure that categories have 'sense and significance.' "
A posteriori concepts have sense when they are derived from a mental image that is based on experienced sense impressions. Kant's a priori concepts, on the other hand, are alleged to have sense when they are derived from a non–experienced mental schema, trace, outline, sketch, monogram, or minimal image. This is similar to a Euclidean geometrical diagram.
Whenever two things are totally different from each other, yet must interact, there must be some common characteristic that they share in order to somehow relate to one another. Kantian Categories, or a priori concepts, have, according to Kant, a basic and necessary importance for human knowledge, even though they are totally different from sensations. However, they must be connected in some way with sensed experience because
"… an a priori concept which cannot, as it were, establish any empirical connections is a fraud … the purpose of the Schematism chapter was to show that the categories at least do have satisfactory empirical connections."
Kant was preoccupied "with bridging the otherwise heterogeneous poles of 'thought' and 'sensation' in the Schematism of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding (A 138/B 177)."
Explication of the Kantian account of schemata
Three types of concept and their schemata
There are three types of concept that require a schema in order to connect them to phenomenal sense perceptions so that they have sense [Sinn] and meaning [Bedeutung]. These three types are (1) empirical concepts, (2) pure (mathematical) sensuous concepts, and (3) pure concepts of the understanding, or [Kantian] Categories. The first two employ schemata. The third employs transcendental schemata.
Empirical concepts
An empirical concept is the abstract thought of that which is common to several perceptions. When an empirical concept is said to contain an object, whatever is thought in the concept must be intuited in the mental representation of the object. Examples of intuitive perceptions that are the content of empirical concepts are vague images that are imagined in order to connect a concept with the perceptions from which it was derived as their common feature. "Intuitions," Kant wrote, "are always required to verify or demonstrate the reality of our concepts." These examples ensure that "our abstract thinking has not strayed far from the safe ground of perception, and has possibly become somewhat high-flown or even a mere idle display of words." This is because "concepts are quite impossible, and are utterly without meaning or signification, unless an object is given for the concepts themselves, or at least for the elements of which they consist." For example, "The concept of a dog signifies a rule according to which my imagination can trace, delineate, or draw a general outline, figure, or shape of a four-footed animal without being restricted to any single and particular shape supplied by experience." In order to prevent the emptiness of "thoughts without contents," it is "necessary to make our concepts sensible, i.e., to add an object of intuition to them." In order to test whether a concept is sensible, we sometimes " … go back to perception only tentatively and for the moment, by calling up in imagination a perception corresponding to the concept that occupies us at the moment, a perception that can never be quite adequate to the (general) concept, but is a mere representative of it for the time being. … Kant calls a fleeting phantasm of this kind a schema."
Pure sensuous (mathematical) concepts
These are concepts that relate, prior to experience, to the external sense of space and the internal sense of time. As such, they are mathematical in that they refer to geometry and arithmetic. A pure, sensuous concept is the construction or mental drawing of what is common to several geometrical figures. These mathematical concepts are not based on objective visual images. They are based on schemata that exist only in thought. Any particular image could not be as general as the concept. The schemata are rules that allow the imagination to mentally construct or draw or trace a pure, general geometrical form that gives the pure, sensuous concept significance. "… [T]o possess the schema corresponding to the concept triangle is to be able to envisage the variety of things to which the word "triangle" applies." "[T]he schema of sensuous concepts (such as of figures in space) is a product and, as it were, a monogram of the pure imagination a priori. Images become possible only through the schema. But the images must always be connected with the concept only by means of the designated schema. Otherwise, the images can never be fully congruent to the general concept."
Pure concepts of the understanding (Categories)
A pure concept of the understanding, or category, is a characteristic, predicate, attribute, quality, or property of any possible object, that is, an object in general or as such. These concepts are not abstractions of what is common to several perceived, particular, individual objects, as are empirical concepts. "Since the categories are a priori and are therefore not abstractions from sense perceptions, they owe their origin to the very nature of the mind itself." They are not derived from perceptions of external objects, as are empirical concepts. Instead, they are the result of the way that the mind is constituted or formed. They come from within the mind, not from outside of the mind.
Kant claimed that the schemata of pure, non-empirical concepts, or categories, provide a reference to intuition in a way similar to the manner of empirical concepts. "If the concepts are empirical, the intuitions are called examples; if they are pure concepts of the understanding, the intuitions are called schemata." In the same way that examples provide signification for empirical concepts, schemata help to answer the question of "whether operating with the categories is anything other than playing with words."
Since the pure concepts of the understanding, or categories, are characteristics of all objects in general, they can never be associated with the image of any specific, particular, individual object. "Since they are pure, they cannot be pictures..." "Yet there must be some connection between the abstract idea and the experienced world to which the idea is expected to apply..." "In order for the pure categories to have objective validity (and not merely subjective validity) they must be related to sensibility."
Applying pure concepts to sense impressions
The categories, or pure concepts of the understanding, are a priori logical innate forms that are conditions of the possibility of things in general, or of things as such. A thing can become a known object of thought when an a posteriori sense impression is comprehended through the forms of the categories. Categories and sense impressions are totally different from each other. Categories are utterly heterogeneous with the perceptions that are experienced through the sense organs. In order for specific phenomena of Nature to be thought from the combination of categories (pure concepts) and sense perceptions, there must be a third, mediating procedure that connects them. This mediator is a transcendental schema. Transcendental schemata meaningfully join the empty "thoughts without content" and the blind "intuitions without concepts."
Schemata that mediate between empirical (a posteriori) concepts or mathematical (pure sensuous) concepts and perceptions are similar to adapters. Just as adapters are devices for fitting together incompatible parts, schemata connect empirical concepts with the perceptions from which they were derived. Schemata are rules for the production of images. As rules, they are related to concepts. As image–producers, they are related to perceptions. "While the concept belongs to the understanding and its instance to perception, the schema has, so to speak, a foot in either domain. As rules for the production of images the schemata … are linked to the understanding; as rules for the production of images they are linked to perception." The "adapter" simile is even more apt in the case of transcendental schemata. This is because pure concepts of the understanding (Categories) are totally unrelated to perceptions. The pure concepts or Categories are original constituent components of the understanding and are not derived from empirical sense perceptions.
Transcendental schemata
Transcendental schema are not related to empirical concepts or to mathematical concepts. These schemata connect pure concepts of the understanding, or categories, to the phenomenal appearance of objects in general, that is, objects as such, or all objects.
Judgment
Transcendental Schematism results from the ability to make judgments. Judgment applies "the concepts of the understanding [the Categories] to phenomena." " … [T]he judgment … schematizes these concepts a priori and applies these schemata, without which no experiential judgment would be possible, to each empirical synthesis. … the transcendental schematism of judgment provides it [judgment] with a rule under which given empirical intuitions are to be subsumed." Kant defined the Greek word hypotyposis as a " … rendering perceptible to the senses, making sensual (Versinnlichung)." The usual definition is "example, pattern, outline, or sketch." If a hypotyposis is schematic, according to Kant, "...to a concept, which is comprehended by the understanding, the corresponding intuition is given a priori..." This is in opposition to a symbolic hypotyposis, like God, in which the concept can only be thought by Reason and to which no sensible intuition can be adequate. Schemata contain direct presentations of the concept. They make this presentation demonstratively, not by the use of analogies. Judgment, according to Kant, works mechanically with given appearances and brings them under concepts. It does this as a tool that is utilized and controlled by both the understanding and the senses. To avoid possible mistakes in judgments one must conduct the transcendental reflection.
Time
The schematism of the pure understanding is "the sensuous condition [time] under which alone pure concepts of the understanding [the Categories] can be used." Categories, or pure concepts of the understanding, are abstract representations of objects in general. However, they can result in thought about particular, specific internal or external objects if they are related to time. All concepts are derived from perceptions, therefore pure concepts [Categories] are based on pure perceptions. The purest perception, or schema, is time. Time has the purest relation to sensation that is possible. It is the mere form of sensation because sensations must be felt in succession. Therefore, time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept.
All things are experienced in time, that is, in succession, one after another. This applies to our internal selves as well as to all external objects. Since categories are the forms through which every specific thing can be thought as being in time, categories are related to time. Thus, pure concepts, or categories, and phenomenal objects share time as a common feature. Therefore, time is the means by which an intuited phenomenon is subsumed under a pure concept. Schemata are transcendental time determinations. "Hence it will be possible for the category to be applied to appearances by means of the transcendental time determination, which, as the schema of the concepts of the understanding, mediates the subsumption of appearances under the category."
Schemata are procedural rules, not images
Because schemata are determinations of objects in general, not specific, individual objects, they are not particular images. Kant asserted that "… a schema must be distinguished from an image." A schema is a procedural rule. The rule prescribes the way to relate a pure concept to an object in general. Schemata are ways of applying pure concepts (categories) to sense impressions. They are prescriptions for graphically illustrating a pure concept. A schema is a method for representing a non-empirical concept in any image as such or any image in general. " … [F]or Kant a schema is not an image, but a capacity to form images or (perhaps) to construct models." "The schema of a pure concept of the understanding is something which can never be made into an image..."
Lewis White Beck wrote, "The pure concepts of the understanding…are applied to the pure form of intuition (time) to give rise to the 'transcendental schemata' or rules of the application of pure concepts to whatever sense–impressions we receive." To exemplify this, he continued, "To take the most important example, we have the hypothetical (if–then) judgment, which is the mode of judgment under the category of cause. This is applied to phenomena in time by the schema of causation, namely, the rule that the cause of a phenomenon is another phenomenon that invariably precedes it in time…." In this way, Beck showed that a transcendental schema is the rule that leads to the understanding of successive [in time] sensations according to various pure concepts [Kant's "categories"].
Examples of different categories and their schemata
Each category has one schema. Some schemas are shared by other categories in their class.
The categories of quantity all share the schema of number. Quantity is related to a numerical time series. William H.S. Monck claimed that Kant can be understood as saying "In apprehending an object I always successively add part to part, and thus generate a series of determinate magnitude." Unity is one moment in time. Plurality is several moments. Totality is expressed as all moments. But Monck noted that "Kant does not trace out specially the Schemata of the Categories of Unity, Plurality, and Totality." Monck supposed: "In the Category of Unity I presume we should stop at the first term of the Time–series: for the Category of Plurality we should represent the addition of unit to unit without laying down any determinate limit; and for the Category of Totality we should limit the number of units and complete the addition up to this number."
The categories of quality all have degrees of reality as their schema. Quality is related to the content of real being in time. Kant metaphorically explained the schema of quality as the filling up of time with a sensation. Monck paraphrased Kant as saying, "We may speak of time as being more completely filled when the sensation is more vivid, and less completely filled when the sensation is weaker. If the sensation is sufficiently vivid the present moment is so filled with it that it seems impossible to attend to, or even be conscious of any other sensation simultaneously; but when it becomes weaker we have leisure to perceive other sensations also. This occurs by degrees. "We can represent this filling as taking place by a gradual increase from zero (empty time) to any given degree of vividness, or by a similar descent from the sensation of the moment to zero." Reality is the experience of sensation in time. Negation is the absence of sensation in time. Limitation is the range of degrees, between the transition from full to empty, by which things are sensed in time. But Monck stated that "Again Kant does not here give in detail the Schemata of the Categories of Reality, Negation, and Limitation." He qualifiedly suggested that "In the first case [Reality], we should, perhaps, represent the sensation as occupying the present moment to the exclusion of everything else; in the second [Negation] the sensation as entirely absent from the present moment; in the third [Limitation] the sensation as occupying the present moment along with others.
"The Schema of the Category of Relation is the Order of Time." In the class of relation, each category has its own schema. Substance's schema is the permanence of the unchanging substance (subject) to which accidents (predicates) belong, or the permanence of the object in time. Causality's schema is the necessary succession of a consequent to an antecedent. That is, "… the Schema of the Category of Cause is its regular Antecedence in Time (i.e. Succession in Time determined by fixed law)." The category of community has the schema of the necessary coexistence of the accidents of one substance with the accidents of another substance. This communal interaction consists of the changing accidents of one substance having their cause in the changing accidents of another substance, and vice versa. This can be understood as "… the Simultaneity of objects in Time."
"The Schema of the Category of Modality according to Kant is Time itself as related to the Existence of the object." In the class of modality, the category of possibility has the schema of possibility at any time. The schema of actual existence at a certain time belongs to the category of existence. Finally, the category of necessity has the schema of being an object at all times.
Even though Kant provided these illustrations and examples of schemata, author John Mahaffy claimed that the topic remained obscure. He wrote, "I may add, that these illustrations of the various schemata are developed and explained by the succeeding chapters on the Principles which embody them, and that it is impossible to make them clear to the reader until he has studied the theory of the Principles."
Schematized and unschematized categories
The schemata give the categories a "cash value", as though the category is like paper money and sense experience is analogous to precious metal. A schema is the agreement or harmony of a category with sensual phenomena. For example, "Number is the quantity of the phenomenon; sensation is the reality of the phenomenon; the permanence and endurance of things is the substance of the phenomenon, eternity is the necessity of the phenomenon, etc." In this way, the schemata restrict the categories to conditions of sensibility. "Schematism and the schemas thus have the property of 'realizing' the categories at the same time as restricting their scope to appearances." Categories cannot be realized in objects that are not detectable by the senses, that is, are not phenomenal objects (objects that appear to an observer).
"The schemata of the pure concepts of the understanding are, therefore, the true and sole conditions for providing these concepts with a reference to objects and hence with signification. And therefore the categories have, in the end, no other use than a possible empirical one." In order for categories to refer to perceived, experienced objects, they must be schematized. If a category is not schematized, then it has no reference to perception. An unschematized category can be thought, but can not be known. If something can never be perceived, it can never be known. Schemata represent things in general as they appear, not as they might otherwise exist. "Categories, therefore, without schemata are only functions of the understanding necessary for concepts, but do not themselves represent any object." This act results in the formation of one abstract concept from various perceptions or other concepts. With the transcendental determination of time as the transcendental schema, " … use of the categories is clearly restricted to the range of things that fall within time — meaning, for Kant, restricted to phenomena." Metaphysical entities that are not related to time, such as spontaneous or uncaused movements, immortal souls, and eternal gods, are products of unschematized categories. They can be thought, but not known.
Unschematized concepts
Two kinds of concepts do not use schemata in order to exhibit their empirical bases: rational concepts (ideas of reason), and Platonic Ideas. With these concepts or ideas, there is no intermediate nexus between abstract entity and concrete sense perception. These unschematized concepts do not contain or subsume a representation of an object that is the basis of a concept.
Kant listed three rational concepts or ideas of reason: God, freedom, and immortality. They are not found in experience. “…[T]he difficulty about ideas of reason is that ‘absolutely no intuition commensurate with these can be given’ (Critique of Judgment, § 59).” “To make sense of such ideas we must accordingly have recourse to an alternative procedure, in which use is made of ‘symbols’ as opposed to schemata proper. What happens here is…that we find some empirically intuitable situation which can serve as a model by reference to which the idea can be made comprehensible.” For example, Kant tried to show how sense can be made of the idea of an unseen God “by making a [loving or angry] father’s relationship to his children the [metaphorical, figurative] symbol of God’s relationship to the world.” The rational idea of a non-deterministic occurrence can be spoken of in reference to the analogies of the universe as a mechanism [such as a clock] or organism. Thus, while pure concepts of understanding, empirical, and pure sensible concepts are directly exhibited and made sensible through schemata, ideas of reason are indirectly exhibited through relations by the use of symbolic analogy.
Professor W. H. Walsh attempted to explain how schemata are used to make sense of, or exhibit, the twelve Kantian categories (pure concepts of the understanding) while symbolic analogous relationships are used for the three rational concepts (ideas of reason). "It may be useful in this connection to compare what Kant says about the schematization, or quasi-schematization, of ideas of reason with what he says about the schematization of categories. The problem in the two cases is in essentials identical: how to make a concrete use of concepts which are by nature remote from sense. To show that such a use is possible we need, in Kant’s technical terminology, to find intuitions corresponding to them. In the case of pure concepts of the understanding this can be done, since we can point to the appropriate schemata; the difficulty about ideas of reason is just that 'absolutely no intuition commensurate with them can be given' (Critique of Judgment, §59). To make sense of such ideas [of reason] we must accordingly have recourse to an alternative procedure, in which use is made of ‘symbols’ as opposed to schemata proper. What happens here is, roughly, that we find some empirically intuitable situation which can serve as a model by reference to which the idea [of reason] can be made comprehensible. The idea of God, for example, is incapable of being schematized, but we can nevertheless make partial sense of it for certain purposes by making a father’s relationship to his children the symbol of God’s relationship to the world....What is noteworthy in this discussion…is…the sharp contrast drawn between schema and symbol, and hence between the meaningfulness of categories and that of ideas [of reason]….every concept capable of schematization…seems to allow that the relationship between idea [of reason] and symbol is altogether less intimate: symbolizing is a relatively arbitrary process, and hence each idea [of reason] can be symbolized in a variety of ways." A category has one transcendental schema; an idea of reason can have multiple symbols for its analogy.
Plato’s Ideas (also known as notions, forms, paradigms, or archetypes) are concepts that function as patterns or models. They are related to objects in the experienced world Ideas are related to natural objects or their perceptual representations by the processes of participating, partaking, and copying. “The particular objects which we perceive are imperfect copies or reflections of the eternal patterns.”
Link to the Unconscious
In von Hartmann’s Philosophy of the Unconscious he declared that Kantian Transcendental Schemata connect unconscious Categories to conscious knowledge. Kant’s Pure Concepts of the Understanding, or Categories, are unconscious representations or ideas that lie beyond knowledge. According to von Hartmann, these unconscious Categories produce conscious knowledge through the mediation of the Schemata of the Pure Understanding.
Alternative schemata
Kant said that the schema of a concept is the representation of a general procedure of the imagination by which an image can be supplied for a concept. Kant claimed that time is the only proper and appropriate transcendental schema because it shares the a priori category's generality and purity as well as any a posteriori phenomenon's manner of appearance. However, it may be true that time is not the only possible schema.
Space
"Even more remarkable, however, is the fact that in order to understand the possibility of things as consequent upon the categories, and hence in order to establish the categories' objective reality, we need not merely intuitions but indeed always outer intuitions." Since space is the form of all appearances of the outer senses, it may seem that space could serve as a schema. Indeed, any phenomenon that requires space, as well as time, as a form would also need a spatial schema. "This suggests that he may have thought at one point of recasting the Schematism argument in a fundamental way, by substituting space for time; but if he had this idea, he did not carry it out." In the editor's introduction to his translation of the Critique, Paul Guyer asserted that "…although the content of the transcendental schemata for the categories may be explicated in purely temporal terms, the use of these schemata in turn depends upon judgments about the spatial properties and relations of at least some objects of empirical judgment." Guyer claimed that this declaration was clarified in Kant's "The System of All Principles" section. In this way, the use of schemata is supposed to involve both space and time, instead of merely time.
Norman Kemp Smith claimed that there is apparently no good reason why Kant did not consider space to also be a transcendental schema for his Categories. Kemp Smith argued that consciousness of space is as fundamental as that of time. He concluded that "…Kant’s concentration on the temporal aspect of experience is exceedingly arbitrary…." and therefore without reason. Experience, Kant had claimed, is always spatio-temporal. Inner sense, however, may be exclusively temporal. Kemp Smith then guessed, in opposition to his earlier statement, why Kant ignored space as a transcendental schema. "Possibly Kant’s very natural preoccupation with his new revolutionary doctrine of inner sense and productive imagination has something to do with the matter [i.e., is the reason for his elimination of space]." Thus, Kant's doctrine of inner sense and its emphasis on time resulted in his exclusion of space as a transcendental schema.
A. C. Ewing claimed that the reason that Kant did not use space as a transcendental schema was because space is not needed in order to understand the relational concepts of substance or causality. According to Professor Ewing, Kant did intend to use space as a transcendental schematic mediator between a category and a sensible intuition. Kant, according to Professor Ewing, for one category did use space as a transcendental schema to unify a pure concept with a sensible intuition. Even though space is not needed in order to understand the relations of substance and causality, it is required in order to understand the conceptual relation of community or reciprocity.
Werner Pluhar explained why time, rather than space, is used as a connection to include (subsume) sensory intuition in the Kantian categories or pure concepts of the understanding. “…[A]ll [transcendental] schemata connect the categories with time; the reason for this is that time is the only form of intuition that applies to any intuition whatsoever, even to the inner intuition we have of ourselves, whereas space applies merely to all outer intuitions.” (Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Translator’s Introduction, p. xxxvi, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1987)
Organism
In order to show how time may not be the only schema, Professor Walsh suggested that there is "… the possibility of making sense of the categories in organic as opposed to mechanical terms." He hypothesized that "Elements in an organic complex would here take the place of elements in a temporal situation. Substance might be interpreted in terms of growth and form as opposed to what underlies mechanical change, and causality be thought of in terms of purpose and function." However, Professor Walsh concluded that Kant's choice of time as schema was more precise than any alternative choices. In spite of the general difficulty in understanding Schematism, he asserted that "… Kant's doctrine of schematism, if not altogether satisfactory at the theoretical level, will continue to stand on the strong empirical ground that the schemata offered do enable us to give real meaning to the categories and find for them a genuine use."
Schemata of systematic unity
In his discussion of the Architectonic of Pure Reason, Kant utilized the concept of schema in a way that was similar to his discussion of the schemata of the Categories. A science's whole systematic organization consists of parts. The parts are various cognitions or units of knowledge. The parts are united under one idea which determines the relation of the parts to each other and also the purpose of the whole system. A schema is needed to execute, carry out, or realize this unifying idea and put it into effect. This schema is a sketch or outline of the way that the parts of knowledge are organized into a whole system of science. A schema which is sketched, designed, or drafted in accordance with accidental, empirical purposes results in mere technical unity. But a schema that is drawn up from an a priori rational idea is the foundational outline of architectonic unity. Science must have architectonic unity. "For the schema of what we call science must contain the whole's outline (monogramma) and the whole's division into parts in conformity with the idea — i.e., it must contain these a priori — and must distinguish this whole from all others with certainty and according to principles." This use of the concept of schema is similar to Kant's previous use. It is a minimal outline, monogram, or diagram that realizes or executes an abstract, general concept or idea (Idee) as actual, perceptual experience.
Criticism
Obscurity of the concept "schema"
Kant introduced the concept of the transcendental schema in his chapter entitled "Of the Schematism of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding." It is considered to be one of Kant's more difficult chapters. Even though he knew that he was not writing for a popular readership, Kant twice tried to apologize for this chapter by calling it "very dry" and "dry and tedious." Kant entered into his 1797 notebook: "In general, the schematism is one of the most difficult points. – Even Herr Beck cannot find his way about in it." Professor W.H. Walsh, of the University of Edinburgh, wrote: "The chapter on Schematism probably presents more difficulties to the uncommitted but sympathetic reader than any other part of the Critique of Pure Reason. Not only are the details of the argument highly obscure (that, after all, is a common enough experience in reading Kant, though one is not often so baffled as one is here): it is hard to say in plain terms what general point or points Kant is seeking to establish." Arthur Schopenhauer referred to it as "…the strange 'Chapter on the Schematism of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding,' which is well known for its great obscurity, since no one has ever been able to make anything out of it." Schopenhauer's notebooks contained entries that described Kant's chapter on schemata as "an audacious piece of nonsense" and the schema as "an absurdity whose non–existence is plain." Schopenhauer also remarked on "...the futility of such intermediate things between intuitive perception and concepts." In Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata, he attempted to clear up the obscurity by attributing Kant's concept of schemata simply to a psychological need for architectonic symmetry in his writings. Empirical concepts are based on empirical perceptions. Kant, however, tried to claim that, analogously, pure concepts (Categories) also have a basis. But this contradicts his previous assertion that pure concepts simply exist in the human mind and are not based on pure, schematic perceptions. Schopenhauer also alleged that schemata were introduced merely to give plausibility to Kant's description of the categories or pure concepts of the understanding. The article on Kant in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls Kant's schematism a "baffling doctrine " with "cryptic sentences." Josiah Royce referred to "the perplexing doctrine of the Schema." The Scottish philosopher Robert Adamson wrote: "Kant's manner of explaining the functions of schematism is extremely apt to be misunderstood, and to mislead." Kant's early critics (1782 –1789) did not discuss schematism because they couldn't follow Kant's explanation. Heidegger wrote of "the dryness and tediousness of this analysis…." After more than two centuries, Kant's explanation of schema still seems to be unclear to many readers. In their book on parallel distributed processing, the PDP Research Group discussed Kant's schemata when they appropriated that word to designate their concept of image schemata. "The schema," they wrote, "throughout history, has been a concept shrouded in mystery. Kant's … use of the term has been provocative but difficult to understand." After this sentence, no further attempt was made to discuss Kant's term and the concept that it designates. H. H. Price, in Thinking and Experience, page 292, referred to Kant's Schema and wrote, "…I must confess I do not fully understand it." In 2004, Professor Georges Dicker of SUNY Brockport stated: "I find the Schematism especially opaque…." Kant scholar Norman Kemp Smith judged the schematism chapter to be a "highly artificial argument." Kant's explanation seems, to Kemp Smith, to be contrived and to have no natural progression. Hermann Weyl described his reaction to Kant: "While I had no trouble making this part of Kant’s teaching [regarding a priori space and a priori synthetic judgments] my own, I still had much trouble with the Schematism of Pure Mental Concepts…." In his English lectures, published in 1796, Kant's pupil Friedrich August Nitsch warned his listeners and readers against the difficulty in comprehending Kant's concept of the schema. He wrote: "It will require great efforts of abstraction in the reader to conceive the Schematism of the intellect, in a perfectly clear manner. In his essay "Kant’s Conception of the Categories," T. K. Seung called "…the 'Schematism,' perhaps the most oracular chapter of the Critique….". Professor Eva Schaper wrote that “Schematism…has posed problems for interpreters, and many have wondered whether Kant’s thought had fully matured at the time he wrote it.”
According to Kant, a transcendental schema is a mediating nexus, a third thing (tertium quid; ein Drittes), between a pure concept and a phenomenon. This mediation was never satisfactorily explained by Kant, and Charles Sanders Peirce declared that it is a major part of Kant's system. Kant's "doctrine of the schemata can only have been an afterthought…," Peirce wrote. The theory of mediating schemata was "an addition to his system after it was substantially complete." The enormous importance of the concept of the transcendental schema was emphasized by Peirce when he wrote that "if the schemata had been considered early enough, they would have overgrown his whole work."
Discrepancies
According to Professor W. H. Walsh, there is an apparent discrepancy in Kant's central arguments about schematism. Kant, according to Professor Walsh, first claimed that empirical concepts do not require schemata. Only pure concepts need schemata in order to be realized. This is because pure concepts are totally different from intuitions, whereas, empirical concepts are abstracted from intuitions and are therefore homogeneous with them. But in another part of his chapter, Kant states that mathematical concepts have schemata. "In fact," he wrote, "it is schemata, not images of objects, that lie at the basis of our pure sensible (i.e., geometrical) concepts." In discussing schematism as the method of representing in one image a certain mathematical quantity according to a certain concept, he wrote: "This representation of a general procedure of the imagination by which a concept receives its image, I call the schema of such concept." With regard to pure concepts, Kant then declares, "The schema of a pure concept of the understanding, on the contrary, is something which can never be made into an image … ."
Kant, according to Professor Walsh, has two distinct ways of describing schemata. "Sometimes, as at the beginning of his discussion, he speaks as if a schema were a feature of things which could be pointed to … ". In another place, Kant " … speaks as if schematism were a procedure … ."
Reconciling Irreconcilables
Problematic mediation
The perennial mind-body problem examines the relation between cognitions that are inside of a knower’s brain and objects that appear to be outside of that brain. This dualism is reflected in many philosophical dichotomies. These dichotomies consist of two opposing parts that are totally heterogeneous to each other. Kant was concerned with the problem of uniting these opposites for much of his middle and later life. Descartes incorrectly claimed that the dichotomy of soul and body is unified when the brain’s pineal gland is psychokinetically moved by the brain’s thoughts. Salomon Maimon likened Kant’s Transcendental Schemata to Descartes’ pineal gland. Kant’s concept of Transcendental Schema is understood as being a variation of the enduring mind-body problem because his Transcendental Schema subsumes a sensuous intuition under a pure concept, combining conceptual understanding [mind] with perceptual sensation [body].
Kant’s Three Mediators
In each of his three critiques, Kant described the inclusion of a particular, sensible, concrete intuition in a universal, super-sensible, abstract concept. This inclusion or subsumption occurs, according to Kant, by means of a mediator.
"In the first Critique, Kant introduces the [transcendental] schema by arguing that it is needed to mediate between the pure concepts of the understanding and imagination (intuition). In the second Critique Kant similarly introduces the typus as needed to mediate between reason’s moral law and understanding….In the Critique of Judgment,… Kant justifies his treatment of judgment as…a cognitive power in its own right partly by showing how it mediates between the other two higher cognitive powers, understanding and reason…."
The three mediators (transcendental schema, typus, and judgment) have nearly equivalent functions. Kant presented the typus mediator (in the second critique) and judgment (as mediator in the third critique) as having nearly the same properties as the transcendental schema mediator (in the first critique).
"The model of the mediating item developed in the Schematism has five features….The mediator must be 1) a third thing, 2) homogeneous with both [heterogeneous] parties, but 3) independent of both as well. It must also be 4) analogical, but, in the case of non-schematic mediation, 5) it must remain at the level of analogy--it must not mediate substantively or materially between the two parties, unlike schematic mediation…."
Schopenhauer criticized Kant’s use of the first Critique’s organization in Kant’s construction of the second and third Critiques."The [first critique’s] table of categories is now supposed to be the guiding line along which every metaphysical, and in fact every scientific, speculation is to be conducted (Prolegomena, § 39). In fact, it is not only the foundation of the whole Kantian philosophy, and the type according to which its symmetry is carried through everywhere…but it has also really become the Procrustean bed on to which Kant forces every possible consideration…."
The second Critique’s typus matches the first Critique’s transcendental schema in obscurity. "[E]ven a reader as acute and sophisticated as Jacob Sigismund Beck wrote to Kant in [3 July] 1792 to express his puzzlement over the Typic."
Judgment as Mediator
Judgment, according to Professor Pluhar, mediates between understanding and reason in the following way: "…in a syllogism the power of judgment subsumes the particular under some universal (i.e., under some principle) supplied by understanding and thereby enables reason to make an inference from that universal to the particular." Kant hypothesized that judgment is "…the ability [capacity] to subsume the particular under the universal…." In this way, the two discrete, heterogeneous cognitions, viz., abstract universal and concrete particular, are linked together by means of the mediating judgment. Kant called this mediate linkage "subsumption" [Subsumtion], a verb that denotes the inclusion of a part into a whole.
A Third Thing (ein Drittes)
Kant taught that a Transcendental Schema is a third thing that exists between a perceived phenomenon or appearance and a conceived Category (pure concept of the Understanding). Through the mediation of time, as a third, shared thing, a pure Category that is merely thought can be applied to a phenomenon that is experienced as a sense perception, or, in other words, a phenomenon can be subsumed under a Category.
Previous philosophers had analyzed similar applications or subsumptions while they were investigating heterogeneous relations. They had claimed that an attempt to relate disparate things results in infinite degrees of relation. For example, Plato wrote about an endless series or infinite regress of Forms (i.e., Ideals, Ideas, Paradigms); Aristotle deliberated upon the Third Man Argument.
In Plato’s "Parmenides" dialogue he had Socrates discuss the relationship between a Form and a thing that has a share in the Form. In order for them to relate to each other they must be like each other in some way; they must share some common property. But, in order to relate to the common property, they must share a further common property, and so on to infinity
Aristotle commented on the relation between Plato’s Universal Form of Man and the phenomenal appearance of an individual physical man.
Aristotle’s claim is that, if [the Platonic Form of] Man Itself is separated from the individual men, then, since the individuals and [the Platonic Form] of Man Itself are both men, a "third" man will be predicable (and thus separate from them) of both -- a "fourth" of those three, a "fifth" of the resulting four, and so on.
The problem of the infinite regress of mediated relations is by-passed if Kant’s use of the "third thing" analogy is understood as being inappropriate. According to Norman Kemp Smith, the Transcendental Schema is not a third thing between a sensed appearance and a thought Category. "[The] relation holding between categories and the material of sense is that of form and matter…," not "…between a class concept and the particulars which can be subsumed under it." "…[T]he true Critical teaching is that category and intuition, that is to say, form and content mutually condition one another, and that the so-called schema is simply a name for the latter [intuition or content] as apprehended in terms of the former [category or form].
Adamson's interpretation
Scottish philosopher Robert Adamson wrote from a Hegelian standpoint. He believed that Kant's analysis of knowledge into the separate topics of intuition, schema, and concept was mechanical and artificial. Adamson claimed that "Thought and Intuition are organically united in the schema." "We are not to suppose that the subsumption [of the intuition under the pure notion] is mechanical; that the particular is something distinct from the universal. The union is organic; the particular is only the universal under a special form. The same function of synthesis, which in pure abstraction we call category, is, in realization, the schema, and the intuition is not apart from the schema." Kant's abstract analysis of perceptual knowledge was, according to Adamson, the misleading separation of an organic unity into individual components. He asserted that "… we must on no account regard Notion, Schema, and Intuition, as three parts of perception which would exist in isolation."
This amalgamation is typical of the Hegelian "dialectical" formula in which two apparent opposites are always subsumed or reconciled by some third entity.
Pluhar's interpretation
In the translator's introduction to his version of Kant's Critique of Judgment, Werner Pluhar tried to explain schemata. He noted that perceptual intuitions and Kant's conceptual categories are very different, yet they relate to each other. This exposition by Professor Pluhar paraphrases Kant's doctrine that perceptions are based on concepts. Kant's position can be contrasted with Schopenhauer's opposite teaching that concepts are derived or abstracted from perceptions, thereby giving content to the concepts and allowing them to make sense. This is the very reason why pure concepts, or categories, require schemata. "Something is needed," Pluhar wrote, sharing Kant's viewpoint, "to mediate between intuition in general and the categories, viz., a rule or 'schema' that stipulates what conditions the intuition must meet so that it can match a category." Professor Pluhar then gave a specific example of how time is utilized to accomplish the matching or mediation. His explanation does not resort to presenting schemata through the use of visual analogies such as "sketches" or "outlines." Pluhar's schemata are rules. "In the case of causal relation, the schema is the rule that the effect must follow the cause in time." After providing this particular instance, he declared generally that "…all schemata connect the categories with time…." Professor Pluhar then asserted the reason for this schematic connection: "…time is the only form of intuition that applies to any intuition whatsoever, even to the inner intuition that we have of ourselves, whereas space applies merely to all outer intuitions." Oddly enough, schemata do not have to be added as mediators to the categories of causality and substance. These are already temporalized. Time is intrinsic to the relation between cause and effect. Substance, by its very nature, is a thing that continually endures.
Watson on time and schematism
Canadian professor John Watson, in his discussion of Kantian philosophy, wrote about supposed supersensible, atemporal beings such as God or the soul. Such things are said to have a timeless existence. As such, though, they cannot be known or experienced. Watson asserted that "…whatever cannot be ‘schematized’...cannot be known...." He considered Kantian schematization as "...conforming to the process by which the definite or concrete becomes a possible object in time...." Schematizing an object is representing an object in time. Accordingly, timeless "...supersensible realities...are not capable of being 'schematized,' do not admit of the application to them of the [Kantian] categories and can never become objects of actual sensible experience." "In the Critique of Pure Reason it has been maintained that no knowledge of supersensible realities can be obtained, since such knowledge always implies a process of determining [or schematizing] objects in time, whilst the supersensible is necessarily free from the limits of time." If supersensible objects cannot be schematized because they are not in time, then "…to the supersensible world…the schematized categories have no application….". If a supersensible thing, like God or the soul, is not in time, then it can't be schematized, can't be applied to Kantian categories, and therefore can't be a known object. Such supersensible entities would have to be schematized through the form of time if they were to be known as having sequentially countable magnitude, gradations of intensive reality, permanent substantiality, or successive causality.
Elaborations of Kant's notion of schema in cognitive science
The philosopher Mark Johnson discusses Kant's conception of a schema with respect to developing a theory of the imagination within cognitive science. Johnson's theory makes use of Kant's insights that analogy is the cognitive mechanism which links sensible percepts to their conceptual categories, and that creative analogy—or what Johnson calls conceptual metaphor—is the cognitive mechanism by which we come to have our understanding of those abstract concepts and categories of which we have less direct sensible experience. He proposes that we use imaginative schemata to structure abstract concepts largely in terms a set of spatial analogies he calls image schemata. In Johnson's view, we acquire image schemata primarily from recurrent patterns of experiences in infancy and early childhood, and then reuse these image schemata in a metaphoric fashion both to reason abstractly and as we speak our language.
In an increase of ambiguity and confusion, some cognitive scientists today have appropriated the often–misused technical term "schema" to mean Kantian Category. In his book Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Basic Principles and Applications (Jason Aronson Publishers,1996), Robert L. Leahy of the American Institute for Cognitive Therapy in New York City and the Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University exemplifies this misuse. In Chapter 2, "Historical Context of Cognitive Therapy," he wrote of how, for Kant, "reality is never directly knowable, but rather is 'known' through 'categories of thinking.'" Leahy then stated, "According to Kant, all knowledge was based on the 'categories' (which today we would call schemas). Consequently, reality was never directly knowable--we only knew the schemas." In this way, Kant's concept of "category," or "pure concept of the understanding," is no longer defined as being a predicate, property, quality, or characteristic of any and all objects in general. A Kantian Category is now vaguely considered by cognitive scientists to be a "schema," which was a term that Kant had already used to designate the subsumption of an empirical intuition, through time, under a category or pure concept.
See also
Schema (psychology)
Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy
Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata
Image schema
Category (Kant)
References
Bibliography
Adamson, Robert, On the Philosophy of Kant, 1879
Caygill, Howard, A Kant Dictionary, Blackwell. 1995,
Ellington, James W., "The Unity of Kant's Thought in His Philosophy of Corporeal Nature," Philosophy of Material Nature, Hackett, 1985,
Heidegger, Martin, Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, Indiana U. Press, Bloomington, 1962
Kant, Immanuel, Critique of Pure Reason, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
Kant, Immanuel, Critique of Judgment, Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett, 1987,
Kant, Immanuel, Immanuel, First Introduction to the Critique of Judgment, Library of Liberal Arts, 146, Bobbs–Merrill, 1965
Kant, Immanuel, Immanuel, Prolegomena to any future metaphysics, Bobbs–Merrill, 1976,
Kant–Studien, Band 49 (1957), Kölner Universitäts–Verlag
Stephan Körner, Kant, Penguin Books, 1964,
Mahaffy, John P., Kant's Critical Philosophy for English Readers, 1872
Johnson, Mark, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason, University of Chicago, 1987
McClelland, J.L., D.E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 2: Psychological and Biological Models, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
Monck, William H.S., Introduction to the Critical Philosophy, 1874
Schopenhauer, Arthur, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, Dover, 1969,
Schopenhauer, Arthur, Manuscript Remains, Vol. 2, Berg Publishers Limited, 1988,
The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 3, Macmillan, 1972
von Hartmann, Eduard, Philosophy of the Unconscious, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1931
Walsh, W. H., "Schematism", Kant–Studien, Band 49 (1957), Kölner Universitäts–Verlag, 1957
Kantianism |
4223320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20Sheriff%20Shaider | Space Sheriff Shaider | is a tokusatsu television show that aired from March 2, 1984, to March 8, 1985. It is the last of the "Space Sheriff Series" of the broader Metal Hero Series franchise, the previous two being Space Sheriff Gavan and Space Sheriff Sharivan.
Action footage from Shaider was used for Season 2 of VR Troopers. For distribution purposes, Toei refers to this television series as Space Captain Sheider.
Plot
In college studying archaeology, Dai Sawamura deciphers the symbols of the Nazca Lines in Peru. Impressed by this feat, the recruit and train him to be Earth's third Space Sheriff. He's given the code name Shaider in memory of an ancient warrior who defeated Emperor Kubilai and brought down his Fuuma Empire 12,000 years ago. When Fuuma returns, Dai is deputized as he returns to Earth to battle Fuuma.
Characters
Vavilos Crew
, serves as the headquarters of Shaider and Annie as it circles around the Earth. In combat, Vavilos can fire the from its wings. Whenever Shaider enters the Fushigi Dimension (known as "Time Space Warp" in the Philippines) and encounters a giant Fuuma gunship, he summons Vavilos, commanding it to transform either into a giant gun called the Big Magnum or a giant robot called the Vavilos Robot, whose chest emits a giant laser beam called Vavilos Fire, fires Vavilos Lasers from its hands, can catch the Fuuma Gunship's missiles and throw it back towards the Gunship and can shoot Vavilos Missiles.
A former archaeologist, he continued his astronomer father's research into studying the Nazca images and manages to track the meaning behind it from Peru to Easter Island. There, Dai uncovers an altar that knocks himself unconscious. Finding himself on Planet Bird, Dai becomes Space Sheriff Shaider for managing to solve the missing item. Eventually learning of the warrior Shaider and his presumed relation, Dai realizes his fate is to finish his ancestor's duty by putting an end to Fuuma. When Fuuma managed to take over most of the Universe, Dai learns the altar is actually an entrance to where headless body of Kubilai was sealed along with Kubilai's weak point. Though sealed in by Poe with a limited amount of oxygen, Shaider manages to escape and fight his way through the Fushigi Castle to save Annie before fighting Kubilai and won against the fiend. With his mission on Earth over, Dai decides to take Annie around the world. When he transforms with the command , He is bathed with Plasma Blue Energy emitted from Vavilos to form his armor within milliseconds. As Shaider, he uses the Laser Blade sword in his signature move Shaider Blue Flash or the Video Beam Gun in conjunction with Shaider Scope scanner to track down invisible foes. His own blues include, Shaider Punch, Shaider Kick, and Blue Flash Spark.
Dai's girlfriend, whose homeworld of Mount was annihilated by Fuuma. She requested to be assigned to Earth with Dai, with intentions of vengeance. She usually drives a yellow Mazda RX-7 FB to patrol the streets or arrive at the scene of a battle, using a Laser Shot sidearm in battle. In the crossover special, Dai Reveals to Retsu and Den that she is In Egypt studying Archaeology. During the events of Shaider: Next Generation, she is the doctor in a clinic who assisted Shu Karasuma (the new Shaider) by removing the marvel beast Pitapita's unbreakable marvel gel that bound him to its hostage.
Arsenal
A multi-part tank that splits into the , a fighter jet that fires and the , a drill tank that it contains to attack enemy arsenals on the ground, or underground, rescuing people enslaved by Fuuma in the process. It is also equipped with a .
A Suzuki motorcycle that serves as Shaider's vehicle to enter the "Strange Realm" in order to chase Fuuma's Strange Beasts. Capable of shooting and . On VR Troopers, the Blue Hawk is the name of the jet-fighter used by Ryan Steele, while the motorcycle he uses is called the Nitro Cycle.
Suzuki SJ A stock Suzuki mini-SUV with Jimny livery and spare tire cover design, which Dai uses to patrol in plain clothes. Essentially the same vehicle used in Space Sheriff Gavan, only in blue instead of red.
Mazda RX-7 Savanna FB A yellow sports car which Annie uses to patrol in plain clothes.
Earth
Carrying over from Sharivan and Gavan, Kojiro now runs a pet shop where owns a pig named Tonko. He doubles as a teacher, giving Dai a place to stay after learning of his past and (once again) unaware of his dual identity. He has feelings for Annie.
Kojiro's teenage assistant, living with her father and younger brother .
Hiroyuki A student under Oyama.
A student under Oyama.
A student under Oyama.
A student under Oyama.
Mio A student under Oyama.
A student under Oyama who is Rumi's sister.
An ancient warrior from the stars who drove Kubilai from Earth and demolished the , remaining on Earth for the rest of his days and fathering a line that presumably leads to Dai, the current Shaider. Warrior Shaider's ideals were also the foundation of the Galactic Union Patrol.
Galactic Union Police
(1, 4, 8, 17-21, 28, 32, 35, 41, 44, 45, 47 and 48) He is the commander of Galactic Union Patrol and the father of Mimi.
( 1, 4, 8, 14, 17-21, 28, 32, 35, 41, 44, 45, 47 and 48) She is Commander Qom's assistant.
She is the daughter of Commander Com, formerly Gavan's assistant and now his fiancée. She is a teacher at the Space Sheriff School. She asks Shaider to take Annie with him to Earth. After the final battle against Fuuma, she marries Gavan.
The captain of Galactic Union Patrol. He battles Fuuma to defend the Bird Planet. After the battle against Fuuma, he announces his marriage to Mimi.
He is a Space Sheriff from Iga Planet and helps defend that planet from Fuuma attack.
Ullu (1) He has a face like a squirrel, Dai's classmate and friend who was deputized in response to Fuuma's war declaration. He was killed when Fuuma attacks his home planet during the Great Invasion.
Kitz (1) He has a face like a bird, Dai's classmate and friend who was deputized in response to Fuuma's war declaration. He was killed when Fuuma attacks his home planet during the Great Invasion.
Andro (1) Dai's classmate and friend who was deputized in response to Fuuma's war declaration. He is killed when Fuuma attacks his home planet during the Great Invasion.
(41) A cheery journalist from Planet Bird who, against the wishes of her father, the president, heads to Earth to write about the Space Sheriffs and Fuuma. However, crashing into the Fuuma fortress by mistake, Vivian is used in the villains' plan to destroy Vavilos. In the process, due to Pairpair, Vivian falls in love with Shaider to Annie's dismay.
Fushigi World Fuuma
is a religion from the Mayan Pyramid-like Fushigi Palace in the Fushigi Dimension, a subspace made of atomic particles that reaches temperatures around 6,000 degrees Celsius. The residents of this realm revere Kubilai as a god while carrying out his intent of conquering the universe through psychological attacks on many planets, destroying worlds like Gao, Omega, Mind, Gor, Marine, and Mount before targeting Earth to establish the second Mu Empire. Their airforce includes mini-carriage-like fighter jets and battleships with frowning face plates. Eventually, on Kubilai's birthday, Fuuma celebrates by systematically destroying every planet while pressing hard on their goal to conquer Earth. But once Kubilai is killed, Fuuma disbands as the palace self-destructs just as they nearly dominated the entire universe.
(also known as Fuuma Lei-Ar in the Philippine dub). The three red-eyed former rulers of the , Kubilai corrupted the hearts and minds of humanity long ago until the warrior Shaider came and slaughtered his son Rahu and daughter-in-law and vanquished the evils of the world. Losing his snake-armed body in the process, Kubilai was reduced to a giant, golden head, and he embedded himself in the wall of the Fuuma Palace's throne room where he rules Fuuma while a new robotic body was being built for him. When he found the resting place of his ancient foe and the prison holding his body, Kubilai went to great lengths to ensure his weakness, his third eye, would not be revealed. When Shaider storms his palace, Kubilai unveils his robot body and takes Shaider into the Fushigi Dimension for an epic final battle. After detaching from his robot body, Kubilai meets his end when Shaider plunged his Laser Blade into Kubilai's third eye and then used Shaider's Blue Flash to finish him.
(47) Sealed within the Eastern cave where Dai found the ruins by the Warrior Shaider, Kubilai's headless body grew several more tentacled limbs with one-eyed snake-like heads on the ends and an eye protruding from its neck. When Dai broke the seal to find the means to stop Kubilai's head, he unwittingly revived the body, and he hunts Shaider to take out his pent-up rage on. Managing to trick the body into the cave's entrance in order to blind it, Shaider manages to blow off all of his tendrils and then defeat the body with the Shaider Blue Flash before it could regenerate. The monster managed to mock Shaider when he is trapped in the chamber before being killed for good.
Kubilai's 15,000-year-old grandkid who serves as advisor and strategist, wearing elegant white robes with a horned, immense oval-shaped headdress and the "Sky Cutter" scepter through which they shoot blue beams from its core. As a high priest with telekinetic abilities, Poe presides over the Fushigi Beast birth and Fushigi Dimension Generation ceremonies. Poe also drinks an elixir made somehow from young girls and Kubilai's energy every 500 years to maintain their youthful appearance or their face assumes its actual corpse-like appearance and they would die. Having nightmares about the Nazca images, yet soothed by a mark on their staff, Poe wanted to find out the meaning behind it. It was only after Kubilai reveals the full story to them that Poe becomes more determined to kill Shaider to the point of taking part in later attacks on Shaider to avenge their parents and Mu. After Hessler and Girls 1 and 3 die, Poes arrives on Easter Island to go all out in killing Shaider through their "Phantom Showtime" torture with the aid of the remaining Girls and the Beasts. However, Shaider manages to escape the trap, though Poe later destroys the entrance to the prison of Kubilai's Body to trap Shaider. When Kubilai is killed, Poe loses the means to stay young and fades away into nothingness alongside the Beasts.
(1-45) A sword-wielding field operative in black armor. Hessler oversees the attacks on Earth. He is a proud yet easily irritated warrior. Though he encouraged Himley to fight alongside him, Hessler started to regret the decision when Girls 1 and 2 point out to him that his brother might upstage him. Driven by the justified paranoia, Hessler mortally wounds his brother during their fight with Shaider and leaves him to die. After the death of Girl 1, Hessler heads to Eastern Island to confront Shaider as he makes his way to the ruins. Their duel transverses from Easter Island to the Fushigi Dimension where Hessler falls to Shaider's Shaider Blue Flash.
A team of five deadly kunoichi trained in the most vicious and dangerous arts of combat led by . The other members include , (1-45), , . They serve under Hessler and battle Shaider and Annie on every Fuuma Mission. While Girl 3 performed a suicide attack at Hessler's command in an attempt to kill Shaider, the remaining members help Po in stopping Shaider from finding out Kubilai's secret. Soon after capturing Annie and Shaider arrives to save her, the three Girls allow Kubilai to devour them into their combined bat form to kill Shaider.
(1-44) The black-suited leader of the Girl's Army, Hessler's right hand. On Kubilai's birthday, Girl 1 offers to personally kill Shaider and Annie for her master. To achieve that goal, Girl 1 uses Fuuma science to become a black-armored cyborg with various concealed weapons. However, though her body is destroyed by Shaider, the spell Po cast on her during the operation takes effects as Girl 1's astral self possesses Annie to have her sabotage Vavilos. When Shaider intervenes, Girl 1 becomes tangible battles Shaider as they take their fight into the Fushigi Dimension where her powers are magnified. But in the end, Shaider kills her for good with Video Beam on the source of her life after disrupting her form with Shaider Blue Flash.
The low level creatures of Fuuma creatures present in the throne room who sometimes aid in Fuma missions that require them to assume forms. Composed of the child-like flutist , the gray trunked , the insectoid , the pot-bellied , and stone-like . The other member of their group named is fastened to the wall and thus is more of a decoration than an agent of Fuuma. After Kubilai's death, the Beasts faded out of existence along with Poe.
The followers of Fuuma who wear Rangda-style masks with big round eyes and fanged mouths armed with hatchets and rifles. They act either as foot soldiers or as pilots for the carriage-shaped aircraft. Shaider occasionally pummels them before going on to fight the Strange Beasts. Destroyed at the end of the series when the fortress crumbled apart and exploded.
Fushigi Beasts
The are psychedelic, deceptively comical-looking creatures that Kubilai "gives birth" to in the form of pearls called using a special ceremony with the help of Poe. Placed within boiling Fushigi Seawater, the pearl enlarges into a giant egg that Kubilai hatches with his beam. Their naming system is two syllables, then those two syllable repeated. According to Poe in episode 5 they are considered as Kubilai's offspring, not just creations. During a fight with Shaider, a Fushigi Beast retreats into a where it becomes four times more powerful in an attempt to get the upper hand against Shaider along using the realm itself as a weapon.
(1) A green and red Fushigi Beast with a Barong-like face, using a spear, and able to roll into a ball. Its powers include super speed, levitation, teleportation, size changing, turning into a giant anemone, an explosive spear, and a sword. It was sent to Earth in order to ensure Fuuma's scheme to using the Fushigi Song to send people into a berserker rage via a pirated broadcast. When Shaider arrives to stop it, Balibali is deployed to deal with him. After Shaider destroys the broadcast source, Balibali escapes into th Fushigi Dimension with the Star Sheriff in pursuit. Balibali tries to kill Shaider in both giant and normal-sized forms before the Star Sheriff destroys it with his Shaider Blue Flash.
(2) A hideous canine Fushigi Beast with eyeball bombs and a long tongue. Its powers include a human disguise, emitting the petopeto virus which forces animals to become berserk, explosive boomerangs, a zambatou, a long tongue, teleportation, size changing, choking gas from the mouth, and eye bombs. Petpet assumes the form of a dwarf trumpeter and takes some of the Beasts incognito as a carnival band so they can parade around town while shooting particles from his mouth to drive any animal infected into a crazed carrier that passes the madness into other animals. Managing to track Petpet down with Annie's help, Shaider chases the Fushigi Beast into the Fushigi Dimension where the monster uses the environment to his advantage before Shaider uses his Shaider Blue Flash to destroy Petpet.
(3) A green plant monster. Its powers include a halberd with a machine gun, high jumping, invisibility, and choking from the trunk. Girugiru was created in a plan to keep the Star Sheriffs from interfering by exposing Annie to altered delusion-inducing, with Girugiru and the Rare Beasts disguising themselves as the rest of her family to trick her into attacking her partner. Once Annie snaps out of the deception, Shaider chases Girugiru into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(4) A purple skull-faced Fushigi Beast with a ram-headed staff, Meromero disguised herself as a witch to lure children with delusions of magic they can be switched with the Beasts posing as them in animal form so that the real children can be turned into loyal animal-human hybrids to manipulate their parents into submission. When Dai gets involved, he manages to find the lab at an amusement park with the aid of Yohko's dog. With Annie providing cover, Shaider manages to restore the mutated children and destroy the lab. As Annie takes the captive children and Yohko to safety, Shaider pursue Meromero into the Fushigi Dimension where it gained the ability to disappear and attack him out of nowhere, but Shaider uses his Shaider Scope to counter before destroying with Shaider Blue Flash. Its powers include a witch and butterfly disguise, a staff with teleportation properties and can emit explosions, retracting into her levitation cloak, invisibility, and telekinesis.
(5) An oversized staff-wielding silkworm Fushigi Beast that looks like it is attached to a creature with a goofy looking face. Its powers include mouth webs that can cocoon humans in seconds, a staff with a torch at the end, invisibility, and a sword. Mujimuji is used in a scheme to make hard working people lazy. With the Girl' Army spreading rumors about the monster as an enlightened being, they gathered hard working people to become lazy gluttons before entering a chrysalis state to eventually become worm-like creatures. However, the incident gets Dai's Attention when Girl 1 kidnaps Yohko for a forced conversion after being brushed off. When Annie is captured during her infiltration, Shaider saves her from becoming a chrysalis before fighting Mujimuji as Annie takes his potential victims to safety. Taking the fight to the Fushigi Dimension, Mujimuji overpowers Shaider with its silk attacks until it was destroyed by the Shaider Blue Flash with his victims restore to normal.
(6) A food-based Fushigi Beast with a bowl-like hat who creates food and beverages that gives whoever eats it telekinetic powers in a scheme to have the bullied children take revenge on their tormentors. Its powers include teleportation, a high body temperature, a mentally controlled set of an oversized fork and butter knife with explosive properties, and a machine gun in each fork tip. Gokugoku's food was first tested on a depressed child named Shigeru who attacked not only the bullies, but his PE coach and his own family with before collapsing once losing the last of his powers. Shigeru's sudden change catches Dai's attention as Fuuma starts recruiting more bullied kids to cause chaos. Using the cat Shigeru discarded, Dai finds the boy as he is force-fed by the Girls Army. Once having Annie take Shigeru out of harm's way, Shaider battles Gokugoku before they enter the Fushigi Dimension. Using his knife and fork on Shaider, Gokugoku is destroyed by the Shaider Blue Flash.
(7) A Fushigi Beast based on the Rose Animal, a proposed giant frog/rose hybrid, who was sent after the biotechnology scientist Dr. Katori to get the data to create actual rose animals to ravage cities. Its powers include a detachable pedal cloak, a throned spear with a machine gun, high jumping, teleportation, size growth, and finger beams. Barabara was only created as a countermeasure when Dai offers to protect Dr. Katori's daughter Ayako when she is targeted when the scientist refused to give the Girls Army his research. After Barabara renders Annie powerless with its rose petals, Fuuma gains the CD holding the Rose Animal data until Shaider arrives and destroys it in the ensuing fight. Fighting Barabara in the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider manages to impale the monster with its own weapon before finishing it off with the Shaider Blue Flash.
(8) A green reptilian Fushigi Beast with a mantis-like torso for a head. Its powers include a ringed staff, a human disguise, high jumping, invisibility, telepathic explosions, and can survive decapitation. Kerokero was created help Hessler capture a rebeling teenage girl named Yukari, who is actually the princess of Planet Freyn that sent to Earth during Fuuma's genocide to be safe until she is of proper age to return to her home world with the other survivors and rebuilt it. When Dai and Annie uncover the truth, Yukari refused to believe it and was captured by Fuuma as she runs off when brought to where the earth-bound Freynians are to gather. After saving Yukari, Shaider battles Hesseler's group and Fuuma aircraft before chasing Kerokero into the Fushigi Dimension. After chopping its head off, Shaider destroys Kerokero with the Blue Shaider Flash. Soon after, Yukari finally leaves for Freyn. Note: the Space Sheriff Gavan laser blade theme was used for destroying Kerokero.
(9) A Fushigi Beast with bongos on its chest that allow it to teleport and armed with a mallet and twin swords. Its powers include hypnotic bongos for pectorals, holograms, a staff, teleportation, dividing into three guitar ninjas, and a pair of swords. Tamtam's ability to manipulate music is used in a scheme to make the children into Fuuma's devoted servants. Tamtam first uses the music of the brainwashed Blue Boys band and using it to corrupt the minds of the youth. Investigating the concert and unable confirm Fuuma's influence, Dai finds the band. Fuuma then starts the next phrase by ensuring the parents would the Blue Boys Band due to their children flunking, luring the children into a concert with Tamtam and a few Beasts posing as the Blue Boys. However, Dai and Annie crashed the concert, saving the captive audience and the real band. Chasing Tamtam into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider battles guitarists in gas masks and a giant mallet drumstick before destroying the Fushigi Beast with Shaider Blue Flash.
(10) A college professor Fushigi Beast with a large hardback book embedded in its chest. Its powers include telekinesis through music, holograms, a large quill sword armed with a machine gun, size changing, teleportation, and invisibility. Able to manipulate dolls with its music, Paspas targeted children to teach them the Fuumese language and spread it like wildfire. Dai learns of the scheme when he encountered a group children who have no recollection of being out. When Dai starts getting too close, Paspas aid Hessler and Girls Army in attacking him until he escapes in Vavilos. Once the parents finally believe Dai after seeing Paspas' work themselves, he and Annie disguise themselves as stuffed animals to wait out the Fushigi Beast. After gaining access to Paspas' dimension, Shaider made his move. As Annie gets the children to safety, Shaider battles Paspas in the Fushigi Dimension before destroying it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(11) A police-themed Fushigi Beast with a cell door as part of its collar and a pinwheel staff. Its powers include teleportation, shrinking objects while placing them in his mouth, high jumping, a five-hooked staff that emits electric surges and has a machine gun, encasing opponents in a glass ball, and size changing. Getogeto is used in a Fuuma scheme to abduct child prodigies to be enhanced for a ten-year plot to conquer Japan incognito. However, Annie manages to allow herself to be captured while in disguise so she can free the kids as Shaider arrives to her location. As Annie takes the children to safety, Shaider pursues Getogeto into the Fushigi Dimension where the Fushigi Beast overpowers with its mirror-themed powers until Shaider destroys it with his Shaider Blue Flash.
(12) A robotic Fushigi Beast with a mouth-less humanoid face with wing decorations and a mouth on its chest Its powers include commanding robot children, a staff with a wrench on the end, high jumping, size changing, face flames, summoning three swordsmen with explosive capes and hand rockets, and a machine gun in the scalp. Roborobo was used Fuuma's scheme to supplant children with robotic duplicates and eventually eliminate the real one. When they piece together the plan, they save Genta as he is attacked by his robot double, forcing the robot into its true form as they follow it to Hessler and Roborobo. Pursuing Roborobo into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider battles the Fushigi Beast and its three phantom-masked warriors before using the Shaider Blue Flash to destroy Roborobo, with all the robot duplicates evaporating as a result.
(13) A strongman Fushigi Beast with a trophy-like head, iron weights on his shoulders, and an arsenal of Olympic-themed weapons. Its powers include a large wrecking ball, high jumping, size changing, a gun in the right hand, an explosive ring, speed, teleportation, a pullvolt, invisibility, and a sword. Kotokoto was used in Hessler's scheme to lure promising athletes into an underground gym to make them into Fuuma followers by taking out her competition. When Dai noticed such a change in girl named Haruka, he and Annie managed to find the underground gym break Fuuma's hold over the athletes. As Annie takes the athletes to safety, Shaider pursues Kotokoto to the Fushigi Dimension and splits the monster's head in half with Shaider Blue Flash.
(14) A yellow/gold/black-colored dragon-like Fushigi Beast with a large, open, fanged filled fire-spewing mouth above one set of eyes with another set on the sides of its head. Its powers include possession, a cutlass with a machine gun in the tip, high jumping, size changing, mouth flames, invisibility, teleportation, and summoning cross bombs. Guriguri was created to pursue Jimmy Kitahra, who mutated after being exposed to time warp radiation. As Jimmy believed Mariko to be her aunt, his love Kiriko, Fuuma had Guriguri possess her to capture Jimmy in order to duplicate his molecular-bending powers for their plans. However, Shaider intervenes and chases Guriguri into the Fushigi Dimension, stabbing the monster with its own sword before finishing it off with the Shaider Blue Flash.
(15) A tusked turtle Fushigi Beast armed with a trident who breathes fire and smoke. Its powers include swimming, high jumping, a trident with a machine gun in each spear, teleportation, summoning a cage, size changing, flammable mouth mist, and summoning four harpooners with grenades. Gamegame was created to go after the last three survivors of Planet Marine and their golden turtle until Shaider drove it off. When Gamegame goes after the Marinians, Shaider chased it into the Fushigi Dimension, fighting it and its phantom-masked warriors until Shaider runs the monster through with its own weapon before destroying it with Shaider Blue Flash while the Marinians leave for Earth's seas.
(16) A scaly, green gremlin Fushigi Beast designed for the purpose of destroying Shaider. Its powers include a reflective torso, mouth energy blasts, size changing, high jumping, choking gas from the mouth, teleportation, and dividing into three swordsmen. It overpowers Shaider in his first encounters until Annie arrives and blasts the monster in the back of the head, causing it to go into state of confusion and drives Hessler away before shrinking into a fairly harmless and cute lizard creature that is found by Kochirou. While Bokeboke runs off into a nearby household, Fuuma searches for their creation to restore it to true form with twice the power. After Bokeboke regains it normal form, Shaider manages to hit it in the back with his Laser Blade before chasing into the Fushigi Dimension where he destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash after stabbing it in the head.
(17) A Moai-topped Fushigi Beast armed with the ability to conjure giant levitating stone heads. Its powers include a shovel-machine gun hybrid staff, retracting into his Moai-like helmet, size changing, mouth flames, dividing into three swordsmen, and high jumping. Created in response to Poe having dreams, it was sent with the Girls' Army after Dr. Asai to get his aid in translating the Nazca images. After managing to save Dr. Asai and his daughter, Shaider pursues Girigiri into the Fushigi Dimension and manages to chop its hat off before destroying it with his Shaider Blue Flash.
(18) A multi-colored armored spider Fushigi Beast. Its powers include a memory-scanning helmet, a mentally controlled trident that emits electric surges and has a machine gun, size changing, explosive mouth webs, and teleportation. Muumuu was created to capture Annie in a scheme to force Dai to reveal the meaning behind the Nazca images. After saving Annie, Shaider chases Mumu into the Fushigi Dimension and manages to impale with its own trident before destroying it with the Shaider Blue Flash.
(19) A magnet-themed Fushigi Beast with magnet shapes on its forearms. Its powers include a pair of powerful wrist magnets, a trident, magnetic rays from the wrist magnets, and high jumping. Magmag was created by Poe after reviewing Shaider's fighting style and arsenal, designing the monster to use its magnet-forearms to cause Shaider's Combat Suit to malfunction. The attack also effected Dai's self-confidence as perfects his swordsmanship while Magmag kidnaps a bus full of children so Fuuma can rig it to explode to call the Space Sheriff out. After finishing his training, Shaider arrives to Annie's aid and overcomes Magmag's magnetism, destroying the Fushigi Beast with Shaider Blue Flash. This monster was not sent to the Fushigi Dimension during Shaider's final battle with it.
(20) A green, thorny leech Fushigi Beast with an eye in its mouth. It's powers include spawning Fushigi Song Flowers that make people violent, teleportation, a human disguise, high jumping, a spear, size changing, mouth sparks and mist, summoning an entrapping flower, and dividing into three spearmen. Growing Fushigi Song Flowers on its body, Shigishigu to spread them across the city to brainwash whoever sniffs them enter a state of bliss before becoming dangerously violent as part of a plan to have the human race destroy itself. As Dai and Annie were vaccinated on Planet Bird, they were unaffected and attempt to destroy as many Fushigi flowers as an antidote is created. When Shigishigi causes a potential World War III, Shaider baits the Monster into a trap to fight it. Chasing Shigishigi into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash after stabbing it with its own weapon.
(21) A Fushigi Beast. Its powers include a human disguise, a camera that creates magical illusions, teleportation, a cane with a blade at the butt, size changing, and explosive flashes from his camera. This monster was not sent To the Fushigi Dimension. Surisuri poses as a photographer, having Chiharu's family care for Yaada in a cuckoo family experiment to destroy social ties through imprinting. Annie gets involved and is affected by Surisuri's spell, seeing the Fushigi Beast as Shaider as the real one comes to her aid immune to Surisuri's spell due to his Combat Suit's visor. Developing contact lens from the visor material, Dai and Annie infiltrate the Fuuma base. Chasing Surisuri into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider stabs him with his cane before destroying him with the Shaider Blue Flash.
(22) A sea monster-themed Fushigi Beast with a jellyfish head that has two mouths, starfish hands, and wields a fin-blade halbard as its weapon. Its powers include swimming, a zambatou, size changing, summoning six-gilled sharks, dividing into three swordsmen, and teleportation. This monster was not sent To the Fushigi Dimension. It was created to capture women on Namegawa Island to be scientifically altered into Marinian-like beings to serve Fuuma, capturing Dr. Koshirou and Yoko as a result. However, a prototype gillman leads Dai to their base of operations before being killed off. Freeing the Fuuma captives, Shaider pursues Umiumi to the Fushigi Dimension. Fighting the monster's giant sharks and phantom-masked grunts, Shaider destroys Umiumi with Shaider Blue Flash.
(23) A spiked Fushigi Beast with nunchaku that's able to spew gas. Its powers include invisibility, a chained mace and kanabo that can emit electric shocks, high jumping, choking mouth gas, telekinesis, teleportation, size changing, eye bombs, dividing into three swordsmen with choking gas and laser guns, and a sword that emits sparks. Gasgas was created as part of a Fuuma scheme to use the anti-Vavilos device they developed to negate Shaider's remote transformation. When Dai falls for the trap, he is unable to become Shaider as he is forced to run for his life while subjected to the poison gas. However, Annie actives the Shokatsu System manually to save Shaider as he proceeds to destroy the machine. Chasing Gasgas into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider fights through the monster's red-helmeted, commando-garbed grunts before knocking the monster's broadsword away to destroy it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(24) A white rat-faced horned Fushigi Beast in red armor. Its powers include creating a pocket dimension, a mentally controlled scythe-like spear, mental explosions, a human disguise, teleportation, and high jumping. Lovelove aided Poe in the guise of a trumpet-playing barkeep to abduct pretty women along with Annie. However, Shaider saves Annie and chases Lovelove into the Fushigi Dimension, destroying him with Shaider Blue Flash.
(25) A gray psychic Fushigi Beast that wields a spiked club. Its powers include a human disguise, telekinesis, a staff with a mace on the end that emits electric bolts, and teleportation. Psypsy posed as Akane's father to have her assume the identity of Esper Queen to cause chaos with her Esper Army gang. When Shaider gets involved and exposes his scheme, Psypsy assumes his true form. Chasing Psypsy into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider destroys him with Shaider Blue Flash.
(26) A tiki-headed Fushigi Beast with a trident. Its powers include invisibility, spawning hypnotic stone heads of Kubali, high jumping, a mentally controlled double sided trident with a machine gun in each tip, and teleportation. Kamikami was used in a scheme to convert the populace of the New Town community into a Kubilai-worshipping cult. Shaider started investigating the strange events around the Yoshida family, destroying the Kubailai idol to free New Town folk. Shaider then chases Kamikami into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys the Fushigi Beast with Shaider Blue Flash.
(27) A scaly gladiator-themed Fushigi Beast in a green fur mantle with horns on his head. Its powers include a human disguise, bull horns, a sword, teleportation, size changing, and pink energy balls from the hands. Posing as a Caesar-like figure, Deathdeath oversaw the combat between Girda and Billy Shinigami, converted into Fuuma cyborgs, massacre athletes kidnapped and drugged by Fuuma. One learning the truth, Shaider defeats the cyborgs and frees the athletes before chasing Deathdeath into the Fushigi Dimension, knocking the monster's sword away and then destroys him with Shaider Blue Flash.
(28) Hessler's younger brother, dressed in spider-like armor and is armed with two swords and a trident. His powers include a pair of swords, a trident, eye beams, and purple hand lightning. Undergoing the same training as Hessler, Himley gains Kubilai's blessing to aid his brother. Using a Batian Tarantula, and playing on Shaider's kindness for children, Himley manages to poison him before fighting him as the paralysis starts to take effect. After Shaider escapes, managing to get cured in time, Himley is given a golden sword as a reward along with the favor of Girls 3-5. However, this goes to Himley's head as he plots taking his brother's place as Fuuma's general. Though he nearly killed Shaider, Himley ends up being killed in fatal sneak attack inflicted by his brother. Himley was not sent To the Fushigi Dimension during the final fight with Shaider.
(29) A wool spindle-headed Fushigi Beast with a sheep's head protruding from its pelvis. Its powers include making fibers that turn humans violent, a spear with a pair of large scissors on the end that shoot lasers, summoning a pair of large boots, mouth flames, dividing into three men with electric cloths, and high jumping. Hessler and the Girl's Army use the wool from Itoito to manufacture clothing that gives the user super powers with a violent side effect, testing on the clothes on children before making a clothing line for adults. Annie infiltrates the store front, donning various guises to stop the production at its source. As Annie accomplishes in her mission, Shaider chases Itoito into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(30) A four-tusked elephant-like Fushigi Beast with an extendable trunk-like tendril and a star-bladed spear. Its powers include disguising itself as a tent-like mat, teleportation, telekinesis, illusions, an extendable trunk, a mentally controlled staff with a star blade on the end, and high jumping. Buyobuyo was created to assist in Fuuma's black market scheme involving child slavery by posing as a Goony Mat funhouse. Despite Hessler's precautions for the Shaian, Shaider manages to force his way into the base to free Annie and the children. After blasting the Fuuma base to bits, Shaider destroys Buyobuyo with Shaider Blue Flash.
(31) A furry white ape-like Fushigi Beasts with large ears. They were created as part of a plan to make use of the premature Fushigi Beast Eggs Kubilai sneezed out while suffering a head cold, selling them off as "canned pets" Fumafuma of Amazon. The Fumafuma would be bought by children as Fuuma converts one of the Fumafuma with a growth elixir and have it command the smaller ones to attack the humans. After Shaider takes out the Fumafuma manufacture plant, he and Annie track down the modified Fumafuma as it gathers its army and go on a rampage. When Shaider arrives to Annie's aid, the Fumafuma fuse into a single ape-like form that could blast electricity and wield an electric trident. In the end, Shaider destroys the Fumafuma monster with Shaider Blue Flash.
(32) A three-faced crow Fushigi Beast in armor. Its powers include a lance-like trident, a rotatable set of three eagle heads, a mouth gun, teleportation, and high jumping. Karikari was created to aid Fuuma's Darkian allies in capturing the Cureian prince Ozma. As Annie takes Ozma and Tamiko to safety, Shaider defeats the boy's Darkian pursuers before chasing Karikari into the Fushigi Dimension. Managing to impale Karikari with its own weapon, Shaider destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(33) A white puppet Fushigi Beast mutant with a large, creepy, smiling mouth and a cutlass. Its powers include a human disguise, controlling dummies, immobilizing humans, a sword, a shield, high jumping, size changing, choking gas from the mouth, and invisibility. Posing a ventriloquist and using an animated puppet named Sakura, Marimari captures children to make into his marionettes. When Shaider intervening, Marimari captures Annie to add her to his collection. Once he destroys Sakura to break Marimari's hold over his victims so Annie can get the children to safety, Shaider pursues the Fushigi Beast into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(34) A bug-eyed serpentine Fushigi Beast with bug-eyes. Its powers include a halberd, illusions, a human disguise, a tentacle in the right arm, teleportation, converting into toxic green slime, size changing, and eye tractor beams. Kagekage was created by Kubilai to destroy the dig site in order to conceal his weakness. After stealing the gold tablet from the dig site, Kagekage assumes a slime form to capture Shaider as Poe attempts to kill him. Upon breaking free however, Shaider forces Kagekage off him as they take their fight to Fushigi Dimension, blasting the monster to bits with the Video Beam.
(35) A dog-faced Fushigi Beast. Its powers include a long sword with a hidden machine gun, a human disguise, high jumping, spawning arrow-like harpoons, size changing, mouth flames, teleportation, and invisibility. Daridari assumes the form of Dai's father, Professor Daijiro Sawamura, to lure him a trap so he can be killed. However, Annie frees Shaider as he chases Daridari into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(36) A computer-headed Fushigi Beast armed with a broadsword. Its powers include spawning dream computers, high jumping, a sword, teleportation, size changing, hot sparks from the mouth, summoning pipes that emit hot sparks, and summoning a fake Shaider. Comcom was created to produce a supply of Yumecom, computers designed to grant the desires of whatever typed in it, in a scheme to induce laziness. When Dai gets to the bottom of it sometime after raiding on a factory, he and Annie eventually find Fuuma's base of operations and destroy it. Chasing Comcom into the Fushigi Dimension, fighting a duplicate of himself in the process, Shaider manages to destroy the Fushigi Beast with Shaider Blue Flash.
(37) A Fushigi Beast with a head resembling human lips with fangs who uses a sword and shield as his weapon. Its powers include high jumping, a pair of swords, a round shield, teleportation, a human disguise, hypnosis, mouth flames, summoning five soldiers, spitting spears, and size changing. Assuming a human form called General Guchi, Guchiguchi recruits teenagers to create a foul-tempered army large enough to cause a world war and overwhelm Shaider. Using a homing beacon place in a truck holding captive teens, Annie finds the training grounds as Shaider arrives to provide back up. Chasing Guchiguchi into the Fushigi Dimension, forcing him into his true form while disarming him, Shaider destroys the Fushigi Beast with Shaider Blue Flash to break its hold over the teens.
(38) A red Fushigi Beast with a movie camera on top of its head. Its powers include turning into a film camera, a cane that emits electric shocks, teleportation, high jumping, spawning mirages from the forehead camera, and invisibility. Moviemovie poses as a video camera used in the filming of Mashoujo Cinderella with child actress Sei starring in a Fuuma directed movie in hopes to encouraging bad behavior towards it target viewers. Going into the Fushigi Dimension to stop Sei from unknowingly killing her costar, Shaider battles Moviemovie and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(39) A black Santa Claus-suited Fushigi Beast with kudu-like horns and bat-like wings. Its powers include a drill lance that emits explosions and fire with a machine gun in the drill, a black Santa Claus disguise, teleportation, a pocket dimension, size changing choking mouth mist, and invisibility. Satasata posed as "Satan Claus" and visited all the boys and girls to take their presents and then creates an Anti-Santa cult, converting children into his masked followers to commit acts of violence. After freeing the children from Satasata's influence and forcing him into his true form, Shaider chases the Fushigi Beast into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
Muchimuchi (Movie 2) A large worm-tentacled Fushigi Beast. Its powers include a human disguise, dimensional warping, tongue spears, teleportation, spawning clones, waist tentacles, size changing, mouth flames, and green tentacle energy bolts. Muchimuchi poses as an old man to kidnap genius children to use them in their plan to take over the universe as child soldiers. With Shaider faking his death, he and Annie manage to save the abducted children. Chasing Muchimuchi into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider destroys it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(40) A green fish-like Fushigi Beast with secondary bug-eyes on its neck along with a drill-arm attachment, that's able to use a giant mallet and morning star. Its powers include laser absorbing, summoning a drill on the right arm, a body strong enough to survive several thousand foot drops, a claw hammer that can turn into a wrecking ball-like mace, and high jumping. This monster was not sent To the Fushigi Dimension. Terotero was created in a Fuuma scheme to take down Vavilos when Annie unknowingly brought it into the ship as an Fushigi Beast Egg within a plush bunny. Once hatched, Terotero evaded Annie as she unknowingly matures it with her laser. Using the primary Blue Plasma System, Annie manages to activate the secondary system in time as Shaider fall into Hessler's trap. Managing to drag Terotero out of the Vavilos, Shaider disarms the Fushigi Beast before destroying it with the Shaider Blue Flash.
(41) A white cupid-thmed Fushigi Beast with a heart-shaped chest armed with a heart-bladed staff. Its powers include manipulating love hormones, a large heart arrow that fires heart bombs, teleportation, mouth needles, and high jumping. It was created in a scheme to destroy the bond between Shaider and Annie by making Vivian fall in love with the former. Pairpair later hold Shaider at by while Vivian carries out Fuuma's plan to destroy Vavilos. Chasing Pairpair into the Fushigi Dimension, Shaider impales the Fushigi Beast with its own weapon before destroying it with Shaider Blue Flash.
(42) A blue humanoid snake/lizard Fushigi Beast armed with a trident. Its powers include a human disguise, teleportation, an electric staff with coiling ribbons, size changing, hot mouth sparks, summoning six ribbon twirlers, mouth energy bolts, and high jumping. It posed as the teacher Miss Mitsuru to gather bullies in classroom 6-0, seemingly making them good in the public eye via her piano playing. However, in reality, she makes them into dangerous sociopaths. However, when Shaider uncovers the scheme, Hebihebi battles the Space Sheriff as they take their battle to the Fushigi Dimension where she is destroyed by Shaider Blue Flash after being impaled by her own weapon.
(43) The last of the Fushigi Beasts to be created, sent to Earth in the form of a sapphire egg to a middle class Ikeda family in an experiment to undermine Japan's social class system. Its powers include spawning explosive vines from the body that can emit electric shocks, size changing, a whip tongue, extendable arms, teleportation, a leaf-like trident, and eye energy bolts. Once fully grown into his plant-like form with ravenous hunger, Tsutasuta devours the family dog Jiro and forces the Ikeda family to buy a vast amount of food to the point of putting them in massive debt. After getting the family to safety, Shaider chases Tsutatsuta into the Fushigi Dimension and destroys him with Shaider Blue Flash.
Other Villains
(Movie 1) An alien assassin who makes a living been hunting down Space Sheriffs, previously fighting Gavan and later Sharivan. Arriving to Earth, adapting a helmet, twin shoulder cannons, and other weapons into his fighting style after losing to Gavan and Sharivan, Omega targeted Shaider and challenges him to a fight to the death. However, Hessler and the Girls' Army intervene out of pride by holding Annie and children hostage, Omega stops them from killing Shaider. Soon after saving the children, Shaider battles Omega with Annie and Fuuma as witnesses as Omega finally falls to Shaider's Blue Flash.
Cast
Dai Sawamura/Shaider/Alexis (Philippines version) Hiroshi Tsuburaya
Annie Naomi Morinaga
Commander Com Toshiaki Nishizawa
Mimi Wakiko Kano
Marin Kyoko Nashiro
Kojiro Oyama/Doctor Ang (Philippines version) Masayuki Suzuki
Great Emperor Kubilai/Fuma Lei-ar (Philippines version) Shōzō Iizuka (voice)
Priest Poe/Babaylan Ida (Philippines version) Jun Yoshida
Hessler/Drigo (Philippines version) Kazuhiko Kubo
Narrator Tōru Ōhira
Girl 1 Keiko Nawa
Girl 2 Aya Kanno (1-15) Mai Ooishi (16-35, 1st movie)Yumiko Yashima (36-48, 2nd movie)
Girl 3 Yoshimi Kawashima
Girl 4 Noriko Kojima
Girl 5 Rina Naoi
Episode list
Movies
Two movies were also filmed. takes place between episodes 19 and 20, and was released on July 14, 1984. takes place between episodes 39 and 40, and was released on December 22, 1984.
Space Sheriff Shaider (movie)
Shozo Uehara (script),Hideo Tanaka (director)
Space Sheriff Shaider -Pursuit! The Strange Kidnappers
Shozo Uehara (script),Hideo Tanaka (director)
Songs
Opening theme
Lyrics Keisuke Yamakawa
Composition and Arrangement Michiaki Watanabe
Artist Akira Kushida
Ending theme
Lyrics Keisuke Yamakawa
Composition and Arrangement Michiaki Watanabe
Artist Akira Kushida
In other countries
Space Sheriff Shaider was released in the Philippines as Shaider in the late-1980s, where it became the first tokusatsu show to be dubbed in Filipino on ABS-CBN (1988-1991), IBC (1992-1994), RPN-9 (1997-1998), GMA Network (2003-2005), Hero TV (2006-2009), TeleAsia (2014). In this release, Dai Sawamura was renamed, Alexis. Also in this version, Kojiro Oyama is called Doctor Ang, Kubilai is called Fuuma Ley-ar, Priest Poe is called Ida (voiced by a female instead of a male as in the original) and Hessler is called Drigo.
The series was aired on M6 in France under the title Capitaine Sheider. The theme song was performed by Bernard Minet.
The series was also broadcast in Brazil, also under the name Shaider, in the early 1990s. Different from other tokusatsu series in Brazil, Shaider was broadcast on a channel as unpopular as the main ones around that time in Brazil, Rede Gazeta. As a result, only a few people saw the show. Rede Globo, though one of the most popular television channels, later began broadcasting Shaider in the early morning, around 5 am, until it disappeared completely from television.
Video game
A video game based on the television series, The Space Sheriff Spirits, was released for the PlayStation 2 system on May 25, 2006, by Bandai Namco. This product was made available in Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan. The actors for Gavan and Sharivan reprised their roles, but Hiroshi Tsuburaya died before the game was developed, so anime voice actor Takuo Kawamura took over the role of Shaider instead.
References
External links
1984 Japanese television series debuts
1985 Japanese television series endings
Western (genre) peace officers
Japanese science fiction television series
Metal Hero Series
Space adventure television series
Space Western television series
TV Asahi original programming |
4223827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat%20Joe | Fat Joe | Joseph Antonio Cartagena (born August 19, 1970), better known by his stage name Fat Joe, is an American rapper from New York City. He began his music career as a member of hip hop group Diggin' in the Crates Crew (D.I.T.C.) in 1992, he then embarked on a solo career a year later with his debut album Represent (1993). Cartegena formed the hip hop group Terror Squad and its namesake record label in the late 1990s, through which he would discover and sign fellow New York artists including Big Pun, Remy Ma, Tony Sunshine, and Cuban Link, as well as then-unknown producers DJ Khaled and Cool & Dre.
Represent spawned the single "Flow Joe", which reached number one on the Billboard Hot Rap Songs chart. It was followed up with the albums Jealous One's Envy (1995), Don Cartagena (1998), and Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.) (2001)—the latter received platinum certification from the RIAA and contained the hit single, "What's Luv?" (featuring Ja Rule and Ashanti). The song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, while his 2004 single "Lean Back" with his group Terror Squad reached number one on the chart, ultimately becoming his most successful record to date. In the following years, Cartagena would release the notable singles "Make It Rain" (featuring Lil Wayne) in 2006, and "All the Way Up" (with Remy Ma featuring French Montana and Infared) a decade later.
Cartagena has appeared in several films, including Scary Movie 3 and Happy Feet, as well as Spike Lee's Netflix series She's Gotta Have It. In 2018 he began hosting a podcast on Tidal, Coca Vision, where he discusses music, friendships, and pop culture with various celebrity guests.
Early life
Fat Joe was born Joseph Antonio Cartagena in the Bronx borough of New York City, where he was raised by parents of Puerto Rican and Cuban descent. Living in the Forest Houses, a public housing project in the South Bronx neighborhood of Morrisania, Fat Joe began stealing at a young age to support his family. He also admits that he was a bully in his childhood. His brother introduced him to hip hop music.
Music career
1992–1995: early years
Under stage name Fat Joe da Gangsta and part of the rap group D.I.T.C., Cartagena was signed to Relativity Records in the early 1990s, recording material and working with many artists whom he would later sign to his own label. In 1993, his debut album Represent was released, featuring production from The Beatnuts, Diamond D, Lord Finesse, and others. Its lead single, "Flow Joe" peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Rap Singles chart; other minor singles from the album included "Watch the Sound" and "This Shit Is Real".
In 1995, Fat Joe released his second studio album, Jealous One's Envy, which peaked at #71 on The Billboard 200 and at #7 on Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums. The album featured a guest appearance from KRS-One and production from Diamond D. The lead single was "Success", which did not chart, but his second single, "Envy" peaked at #8 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. One day while writing for the album at Chung King Studios, Fat Joe happened to find that his rap idol, LL Cool J was in another room with Trackmasters, working on the remix version of LL's single "I Shot Ya". After being welcomed to contribute a verse, Joe appeared on the record and in its accompanying video along with Foxy Brown, Keith Murray, and Prodigy of Mobb Deep. The track is considered by Joe to be one of his career highlights.
During the recording of Jealous One's Envy, Joe discovered fellow Latino rapper Big Pun, who was featured on the song "Watch Out". Joe later explained the rapper's influence on him: "Latinos before us who had the opportunity to do it just didn't know how to do it. They came in trying to do this black music, waving flags. [But] we're trying to kick in the doors for other Latinos and represent our people, and it shows."
1998–2005: signing with Atlantic, Terror Squad, J.O.S.E., 50 Cent feud
In 1997, Fat Joe signed with Mystic Entertainment Group and The Warner Music Group's Atlantic Records through Craig Kallman's Big Beat Records. Under the deal, he was granted his own label, Terror Squad Productions. He subsequently began recording his third studio album. His third studio album, Don Cartagena was released on September 1, 1998. It was released in conjunction with his own label Terror Squad Productions. It peaked on the Billboard 200 at #7 and #2 on Top R&B/Hip Hop albums, eventually being certified gold by the RIAA.
The album featured three singles with accompanying music videos, "Bet Ya Man Can't Triz", "John Blaze", and "Don Cartagena". Guest appearances included Nas, Puff Daddy, Big Pun, Raekwon, Jadakiss, and Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. On the album, Fat Joe debuted his own group Terror Squad consisting of the late Big Pun, as well as Cuban Link, Triple Seis, Prospect, Armageddon, and later Remy Ma. Former Terror Squad member Triple Seis also went on record when asked who had written Fat Joe's lyrics, stating that he and Pun were Joe's ghostwriters for Don Cartagena, and asserts that Joe continues to hire ghostwriters.
Fat Joe executive produced and waa featured on Big Pun's 1998 album Capital Punishment. In 1999, he appeared on Jennifer Lopez's single "Feelin' So Good" from her On the 6 album with late rapper Big Pun.
Fat Joe released his fourth album Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.) in 2001, with Fat Joe eexecutive producing the album. The album featured a star-studded lineup from the likes of Ashanti, Ja Rule, N.O.R.E., Busta Rhymes, Petey Pablo, M.O.P., Ludacris, R. Kelly, Buju Banton, and artists from his Terror Squad label. The lead single "We Thuggin'" featuring R. Kelly was a big hit in late 2001, but would not reach the level of his hit single "What's Luv?". At the time of the album's release, Fat Joe was managed by The Squad Music. The album was Fat Joe's biggest album commercially, being certified Platinum in America for shipping and selling over a million copies. However, Fat Joe's fifth album Loyalty, released later in 2002, was not as successful.
In 2003, Fat Joe was featured in the pop single "I Want You" by Mexican singer Thalía. The same year, he and Tony Sunshine performed the single "Crush Tonight" from Loyalty on the Comedy Central program Chappelle's Show.
Despite the setback, Fat Joe scored a number-one hit in 2004 with his group Terror Squad, collaborating with Remy Ma on the Scott Storch production "Lean Back" from the album True Story. Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic called the song "a perfect club-ready duet between Joe and Remy Ma that boasts a trademark Scott Storch beat and a memorable singalong hook and dance-along step". He then began recording material for Ivy Queen's debut English-language album Real in support of her goal to compete in the world of English-language hip hop music. Fat Joe portrayed himself and provided his own voice and likeness for the September 2004 video game, Def Jam: Fight For NY. The video game also featured Fat Joe's 2002 song Take A Look At My Life from Loyalty.
A year later, in 2005, Fat Joe released his sixth album All or Nothing, noted for featuring the popular diss track "My Fofo", aimed at fellow New York rapper 50 Cent, who had dissed Joe for recording with Ja Rule. All or Nothing spawned the singles "So Much More" and "Get It Poppin" featuring Nelly, also with guest appearances from Eminem, Mase, Remy Ma, Mashonda, and R. Kelly. Responding to "My Fofo", 50 Cent attacked Fat Joe in his song "Piggy Bank" from his best-selling 2005 album The Massacre. Fat Joe subsequently attacked 50's street credibility and called him a "coward" on a phone interview with Kay Slay of New York City hip-hop radio station WQHT. The conflict carried on at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards, while Fat Joe introduced the reggaeton act featuring Daddy Yankee, Joe remarked, "I feel safe with all the police protection—courtesy of G-Unit." Shortly after, when MTV switched to a commercial break, 50 Cent directed an obscenity at Joe, and 50 Cent jumped on stage as Fat Joe was leaving.
His recordings catalog for Atlantic Records is no longer under ownership of Warner Music Group, being divested in 2017 to RT Industries, a company founded by Razor & Tie founders. However, Warner Music retains the digital distribution rights, now under its ADA division. This divestment was required as effect of a deal with IMPALA and the Merlin Network, related to Warner Music's acquisition of Parlophone Records from EMI.
2006–2008: Me, Myself & I, The Elephant in the Room, the 50 Cent feud continued, and moreMe, Myself & I, released in 2006, is Fat Joe's seventh album. It was his first album released on his new deal with Virgin Records. It featured the hit single "Make It Rain" with southern rapper Lil Wayne, followed by "No Drama (Clap and Revolve)". Fat Joe did a freestyle cipher segment for VH1's "Freestyle 59" competition in October 2006 prior to the VH1 Hip Hop Honors featuring New Jersey emcee Neuse.
In June 2007, Catholic priest Michael Pfleger targeted Fat Joe as among several rappers he believed promoted misogyny in his billboard campaign "Stop Listening to Trash", which was launched June 18, 2007, throughout Chicago, where Pfleger preaches. Also that month, Fat Joe was featured in the DJ Khaled singles "We Takin' Over" alongside Akon, T.I., Rick Ross, Birdman, and Lil Wayne and the remix to Khaled's "I'm So Hood" with Lil Wayne, Young Jeezy, Rick Ross, Busta Rhymes, Big Boi, Ludacris, and Birdman. Verbal disputes between Fat Joe and 50 Cent continued during this time period: in September 2007, on the BET program Rap City, 50 Cent accused Fat Joe of being cowardly for not willing to confront him, but Fat Joe dismissed this claim as nonsense. Later in January, 50 Cent released another Fat Joe diss, called "Southside Nigga (I'm Leaving)". At the end of January 2008, Fat Joe and his longtime accountant Brian Dittrich both denied rumors spreading on the Internet that Fat Joe owed the IRS taxes.
Fat Joe's eighth solo studio album The Elephant in the Room was distributed by Imperial Records, a division of Capitol Records and Terror Squad Entertainment, and released on March 11, 2008; its lead single was "I Won't Tell" featuring singer J. Holiday. The album debuted at the sixth position on the Billboard Hot 100. "Ain't Sayin' Nuthin'" followed and featured Plies.
On March 20, 2008, shortly after record sales were released for Fat Joe's new album The Elephant in the Room, 50 Cent released a video via his YouTube account, which features the "funeral" of Fat Joe, which shows 50 Cent crying in the fake footage. 50 Cent then talks about Fat Joe's record sales and states that he ended Fat Joe's career (like he says he did to Ja Rule's) and that his mixtape blew out Fat Joe's album.
2009: Jealous Ones Still Envy 2
Fat Joe's ninth solo studio album, J.O.S.E. 2, was released towards the end of June 2009. The project reprises the title of Joe's 2002 RIAA-Certified Platinum release, Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.), and marked Joe's third release since bringing his Terror Squad imprint to the EMI family in 2006. For this album, Joe has reached out to many artists, landing assists from Ron Browz, Fabolous, Lil' Kim, T-Pain, Lil Wayne, and Akon. Producers include Jim Jonsin, The Inkredibles, and frequent collaborator StreetRunner. "One", featuring Akon, was the first single. The album was released on October 6, 2009, and sold 11,000 copies in its first week. It debuted on The Billboard 200 at #73.
2010: signing to E1 Music and The Darkside
In January 2010, Fat Joe announced that he was working on a new album, The Darkside Vol. 1. MTV News reported that Fat Joe intended "all the material...to be much harsher" than his previous album. Production comes from The Alchemist, Cool & Dre, Streetrunner, DJ Premier, Scoop DeVille, Just Blaze, Scram Jones, Raw Uncut and DJ Infamous with guest appearances by Busta Rhymes, Trey Songz, Lil Wayne, R. Kelly, Clipse, Cam'ron, Rico Love, Too $hort, TA, and Young Jeezy. The first single from The Darkside Vol. 1 is "(Ha Ha) Slow Down", which features Young Jeezy. The second single off the album is "If It Ain't About Money" and features Trey Songz.
On March 28, 2010, Fat Joe signed a record deal with E1 Music.The Darkside Vol. 1 was released on July 27, 2010, and sold approximately 12,000 copies in the first week and entered the Billboard 200 at #27.
2011–present: Feature on Champagne And Cocaine, Darkside Vol. 2., Plata O Plomo with Remy Ma, and Family Ties with Dre
On April 7, 2011, Jamie Drastik released his second mixtape Champagne And Cocaine which contains the song "One Hundred And Ten" featuring Fat Joe.
Joe was featured on a remix to DJ Khaled's song "Welcome to My Hood", which also features Ludacris, T-Pain, Busta Rhymes, Twista, Mavado, Birdman, Ace Hood, Game, Jadakiss, Bun B, and Waka Flocka Flame. It is included as the final track on Khaled's fifth studio album We the Best Forever.
In an interview with XXL Magazine on September 21, 2011, Fat Joe stated The Darkside Vol. 2 is going to be his first ever official mixtape and will feature the Mark Henry-produced songs "Massacre on Madison" and "Drop a Body", both of which were released earlier in the year. Joe went on to say he is also working on an album which is yet to be named but the first single is called "Another Round" produced by Cool and Dre and Young Lad and features Chris Brown.
On October 19, 2011, "Another Round" the first single off Joe's yet to be named eleventh studio album was released on iTunes. The second single released from the album is "Yellow Tape" which features Lil Wayne, ASAP Rocky, and French Montana. In September 2012, Joe featured in Grammy awards winner Alejandro Sanz's new album, La Música No Se Toca in a music named Down. Joe would then release another single, "Ballin'" on March 18, 2013. The song features Wiz Khalifa and Teyana Taylor.
Fat Joe joined D.I.T.C. for their album Sessions. The album was released in October 2016 and was preceded by the lead single "Rock Shyt". Via Hiphop Wired, Joe revealed that he and Remy Ma are releasing a joint album. The first single, "All the Way Up" featuring French Montana and Infared, peaked at #27 on the Hot 100, becoming his first top 40 hit in nearly a decade. The album, Plata O Plomo, and was released in February 2017.
On August 2, 2017, Fat Joe released "So Excited" with Dre.
On July 24, 2018, he released "Attention" with Chris Brown.
Fat Joe's second collaborative album called Family Ties, with Dre, was released in December 2019.
In December 2020, Fat Joe appeared in the ComplexLand virtual event and talked about the best sneakers of the year.
Personal life
Family
Fat Joe is married with three children, and has lived in Miami and Tenafly, New Jersey.
Community work
Fat Joe has been back to his old school in the Bronx, New York to donate computers for students.
In 2008, he attended the grand opening of the Hip Hop Soda Shop in Miami which was a community outreach project set up by Ben Chavis for the youth to hang out and do things such as record music, use the computers and play on Xbox 360s.
At a "School is Cool" assembly in Public School 5 in Jersey City, New Jersey on June 11, 2009, Fat Joe was a speaker.
On January 23, 2011, Fat Joe appeared with Newark mayor Cory Booker and fitness expert Jeff Halevy at an event to promote the Newark branch of Michelle Obama's Let's Move! initiative against childhood obesity.
Weight loss
By 1996, he weighed . In 2005, Stuff magazine and ContactMusic.com profiled Fat Joe's weight loss efforts.
In 2011, Fat Joe unveiled his latest weight loss efforts in the video for his song "Drop a Body" after losing off his previous weight of . Furthermore, he follows a low-carb approach, eating sweet potatoes but not eating certain carbohydrates such as white bread, white rice, and white pasta.
In 2022, Fat Joe said that he would not change his stage name from Fat Joe despite his weight loss, because it would not be a good marketing move."Grammy-nominated Artist Fat Joe Opens Up Like Never Before in New Memoir" (interview). GMA3: What You Need To Know. ABC. November 17, 2022.
Legal issues
On September 8, 1998, Fat Joe and Big Pun were arrested on assault charges for hitting a man with a baseball bat and stealing the man's gold chain on June 14 that year. Joe was arrested again on May 12, 2002, for allegedly fighting with another man at B.B. King's Blues Club in Times Square, but the charges were dropped on January 10, 2003.
In two murder cases, Fat Joe has been named a witness:
Joe's former bodyguard, Jose Mulero (also known as Sing Sing), was arrested on September 17, 2004, for the April 15, 1994, shooting death of 16-year-old Ernesto Rivera at a Bronx nightclub. Responding to a subpoena, Fat Joe claimed to have heard the shooting and seen people fleeing the scene, but investigators argued that he was standing closer to Mulero, by a door.
Miami Beach police also named Fat Joe as a witness in a 2007 Memorial Day double murder outside David's Cafe II in South Beach. Jermaine Wufgang Chamberline of Miami Gardens was accused of shooting Lessli Paz and Joey Navarro to death on that morning; Fat Joe and the two victims were sitting in a rented Cadillac Escalade parked outside the restaurant when a fight broke out between passengers and another man.
In December 2012, Fat Joe pleaded guilty to tax evasion for not paying income tax on over $3million from 2007 to 2010. On June 24, 2013, he was sentenced to four months in prison for tax evasion. He began the sentence on August 26, 2013, and was released on November 28, 2013.
LGBT beliefs and support
During an interview with Vlad TV, Joe stated that he believes that gay people should not hide their sexuality and should stand by who they are. He mentioned that it's possible that he has done songs with gay rappers and that there are likely several gay people besides rappers in the hip hop industry who are in the closet, describing it as a "Gay Mafia".
His comments came after he was asked to comment on radio personality Mister Cee being arrested for public lewdness with a transgender sex worker.
Discography
Studio albums
Represent (1993)
Jealous One's Envy (1995)
Don Cartagena (1998)
Jealous Ones Still Envy (J.O.S.E.) (2001)
Loyalty (2002)
All or Nothing (2005)
Me, Myself & I (2006)
The Elephant in the Room (2008)
Jealous Ones Still Envy 2 (J.O.S.E. 2) (2009)
The Darkside Vol. 1 (2010)
Collaboration albums
The Album with Terror Squad (1999)
True Story with Terror Squad (2004)
Plata O Plomo with Remy Ma (2017)
Family Ties with Dre (2019)
What Would Big Do 2021'' with DJ Drama (2021)
Filmography
Film
Television
Video game
Awards and nominations
ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards
Billboard Latin Music Awards
Grammy Awards
iHeartRadio Music Awards
BET Awards
MTV Video Music Awards
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Latin hip hop
List of number-one dance hits (United States)
List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart
List of Cubans
References
External links
Official website (archived from 2013)
1970 births
Living people
American entertainers of Cuban descent
American music industry executives
American musicians of Puerto Rican descent
Atlantic Records artists
Big Beat Records (American record label) artists
Businesspeople from New York City
Diggin' in the Crates Crew members
East Coast hip hop musicians
Pop rappers
Hardcore hip hop artists
Gangsta rappers
Hispanic and Latino American rappers
Imperial Records artists
People from Tenafly, New Jersey
Puerto Rican rappers
Rappers from the Bronx
Relativity Records artists
OnlyFans creators
Terror Squad (group) members
Virgin Records artists
Universal Records artists
21st-century American rappers |
4224322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFL%20Sydney | AFL Sydney | AFL Sydney is an Australian rules football League, based in metropolitan Sydney, Australia which has been run since 1903. The AFL Sydney competition comprises 118 teams from 22 clubs which play across seven senior men's divisions, five women's divisions, a Master's Division and two under 19 men's competitions in season 2023. The competition is technically Sydney's division of the New South Wales Australian Football League.
History
The Sydney AFL began as the NSW Australian Football Association in 1903. In 1980 it became known as the "Sydney Football League". It was renamed the "Sydney AFL" in 1998 before a new name change for season 2009, "AFL Sydney".
11 clubs contested the opening season in 1903 (including: East Sydney FC, Ashfield Electorate FC, North Shore FC, North Sydney FC, South Sydney FC, YMCA FC, Paddington FC, Redfern FC, West Sydney FC, Newtown FC, Sydney FC and Balmain FC), with East Sydney taking out the first premiership with a 6-point win over North Shore. 100 years later, similar to the repeated result of the centenary cricket Test in 1977; in the centenary season in 2003, East Sydney (by now known as UNSW-Eastern Suburbs) again defeated North Shore by 6 points.
Over the years many clubs have come and gone, with the turnover of teams continuing to the present day. By 1998 the league consisted of 7 teams – Balmain, Pennant Hills, North Shore, St George, East Sydney, Western Suburbs and Baulkham Hills.
1999
In 1999, Campbelltown returned to the Sydney AFL after a 3-year stint in AFL Canberra. The Blues, as they were then known, were an exceptionally strong club at the time and dominated the league in their first year back in Sydney. In the grand final, Campbelltown 18.5 (113) were far too good for Balmain 13.13 (91) to take out the premiership by 22 points.
2000
In 2000, after the AFL's reserve grade competition was abolished, the Swans fielded a team in the Sydney AFL, known as the Redbacks. This move didn't turn out to be successful, with the existing clubs unable to compete against full-time professional footballers who had far superior training resources. The games were generally one-sided, to the point where the rules were changed halfway through the season to allow other clubs to field an extra player against the Redbacks. The Redbacks finished top of the ladder, but elected not to compete in the finals; and in their absence Pennant Hills took out their first premiership with a 15.12 (102) to 12.7 (79) win over North Shore in the grand final.
During the 2000 season, several Sydney AFL clubs had formed strategic alliances with clubs in the AFL. As part of this, some Sydney AFL clubs were to change their identity over the next few years. North Shore had always been black and red but took on the Bombers nickname of Essendon. St George renamed themselves the St George Crows and began wearing the navy, gold and blue strip of Adelaide. But the biggest change in identity was Baulkham Hills, who changed their colours to blue and gold and took on the new name of the East Coast Eagles. Other clubs were to follow suit. Another change in 2000 was the merger of traditional powerhouse East Sydney with the University of NSW club to form the UNSW-Eastern Suburbs Bulldogs.
2001
In 2001, with the Redbacks concept having not been considered a success, the Swans entered an alliance with Port Melbourne in the VFL and fielded their reserves with Port Melbourne. They continued to field a Redbacks team for the next 2 years, mainly as a junior development and talent-spotting team; but the Redbacks were never to make the top 4 again. Instead it was North Shore who led from start to finish in 2001, and although the grand final was tight the Bombers got critical goals when it mattered to record a 12.12 (84) to 10.9 (69) victory over Campbelltown.
2002
2002 saw a resurgent Uni NSW-Eastern Suburbs team return to the top, and despite a strong challenge from North Shore the Bulldogs finished the season as minor premiers. But the Bulldogs would have to go the long way into the grand final after North Shore came from behind to beat them by 3 points in the major semi-final. But UNSW-ES bounced back to win the preliminary final and earn a grand final berth, something that no major-final loser has managed to do in the 4 years since.
On grand final day, despite the bright sunshine and perfect conditions, no side was able to score for the first 17 minutes as the defences of both teams held tight. But eventually it was to be North Shore that cracked, and although they fought back in the third term to come into the last break only a few points behind, they never led. Instead, it was UNSW-ES who ran away with the game in the last quarter to record a 16.10 (106) to 11.6 (72) win and their first premiership since the merger. This was the last grand final to be played at Macquarie University.
2003
The Redbacks finally withdrew from the Sydney AFL in 2003 and the competition was reduced to 8 teams. North Shore got the season off to a flying start and were undefeated for the first 14 rounds, the Bombers losing only 2 home & away games all season. Campbelltown returned to form early in the season, but after being badly beaten by North Shore at Gore Hill in round 7 they fell away and only just scraped into the finals and have yet to make the finals since. Instead it was St George that came in 2nd, with reigning premiers UNSW-ES coming third. North Shore qualified first for the grand final, while UNSW-ES eliminated Campbelltown. In the prelim final, St George were held goal-less in the second half and for the 4th year in a row had been defeated in the prelim final. And so the grand final in the league's centenary year, which was played at Monarch Oval in Campbelltown, would involve the same teams that played in the first grand final. And the result was to repeat. North Shore went in as the hottest of favourites, but poor kicking and excellent pressure from the Bulldogs saw them pull off a stunning upset. UNSW-ES 12.10 (82) defeated North Shore 10.16 (76), an exact repeat of the very first Sydney AFL grand final.
2004
In 2004, the Sydney AFL adopted Henson Park as its finals venue. In later years, the Marrickville ground which also hosts the Newtown Jets in the NSW Rugby League would play a bigger role in Sydney football and be the venue for representative fixtures and night matches. North Shore were again front-runners, remaining undefeated until the second half of the season and again losing only 2 home & away games. Tennis ace Patrick Rafter played a few reserve grade games for the Bombers during this season but was never picked in the senior team.
North Shore finished top after the home & away season, with UNSW-ES finishing 2nd. But this time the Bulldogs were to miss out on a grand final berth and instead St George finally broke through the preliminary final hurdle to qualify for the big day. Having lost the previous 2 grand finals the Bombers were nervous, and even more so when St George led by 4 points at half time. But the Bombers pulled away with the wind in the third term and the Crows were unable to respond when they had the win in the last quarter. So it was North Shore who took out the premiership, with a 10.11 (71) to 7.4 (46) victory.
2005
In 2005, the Wollongong Lions were admitted to Premier Division, creating a 9-team league. The Lions are well-run off the field, and proved competitive on it. Western Suburbs and Pennant Hills were the leaders for much of the season, Wests remaining undefeated until round 9 and Pennant Hills until round 10. The round 9 loss was to be Wests' only loss in the home & away season. Pennant Hills lost much of their edge after captain Barnaby Howarth suffered a stroke after training and was unable to play again, but bounced back to finish 2nd after the home & away season. Wests and Pennant Hills were a long way in front of other teams and were widely fancied to play in the grand final. Wests made it through in the major semi-final, but in a stunning upset Pennant Hills went down in the preliminary final to reigning premiers North Shore. The Bombers were to turn on an even more stunning upset in the grand final, getting on top after half-time to record a 13.9 (87) to 6.10 (46) win over Wests and take out back-to-back flags. Premier Reserves: UNSW-ES def East Coast Eagles 1st Division Seniors: Sydney Uni Students def UTS Bats 1st Division Reserves: Sydney Uni Students def UTS Bats 2nd Division: Nor-West Jets 10.10 (70) def Sydney Uni Blue 4.11 (34)
2006
Before the 2006 season, East Coast Eagles recruited heavily in a bid to get to the top. The Eagles had been close to the finals for years without making it into the top 4, but this was to change in 2006 and the Eagles took all before them in an undefeated home & away season. Sydney's drought had a major bearing on this season, with several grounds being hardened dustbowls and the turf on many grounds going out of shape; so that even small amounts of rain caused puddles to form and the grounds to be closed. All clubs faced rising injury tolls due to the ground conditions.
After an undefeated home & away season and an easy win in the major semi-final, East Coast Eagles went into the grand final at Henson Park against Pennant Hills as the hottest of favourites. But this was the day the drought was to break, with conditions more resembling water polo than football. The Eagles' running game was negated by the conditions and by Pennant Hills' pressure tactics, while the Demons' tactic of peppering the goals from a distance and keeping the scoreboard paid dividends. Although the Eagles scored 2 more goals, the constant scoring got Pennant Hills over the line, 5.20 (50) to 7.6 (48). There have been many upsets in recent years in Sydney AFL grand finals, but this one more so than any of the others. Premier Reserves: East Coast Eagles def Pennant Hills 1st Division Seniors: UTS Bats def Sydney Uni Students 1st Division Reserves: UTS Bats def Sydney Uni Students 2nd Division: Nor-West Jets 8.9.(57) def UNSW/ES Bulldogs 6.5 (41)
2007
In 2007, Sydney University was re-admitted to Premier Division, making a 10-team competition. 18 home & away rounds were played, with each team playing each other twice; although the first match between North Shore and Balmain was postponed twice, leading to the two clubs playing each other twice within 4 days. Reigning premiers Pennant Hills finished top of the ladder, and were joined in the finals by St George, North Shore and Campbelltown. But the Demons were upset in the major semi-final after St George got off to a flying start and maintained their lead to qualify first for the grand final. Campbelltown made the finals for the first time since 2003, but were no match for North Shore in the minor semi. North Shore maintained their winning form in the prelim final, comfortably accounting for Pennant Hills – the 5th year in a row the loser of the major semi has again lost in the prelim final. Grand final day was fine and warm, and in ideal conditions at Henson Park North Shore led by 15 points at half-time and extended the lead in the third term. But a determined charge by St George closed the gap to just 4 points at three-quarter time. The Crows looked to have the momentum, but North Shore steadied to score the only two goals in the last quarter and record a 12.15 (87) to 9.12 (66) victory. Ryan Davis was awarded the Podbury Medal for best on ground in the grand final. Premier Reserves: East Coast Eagles 11.7 (73) def Pennant Hills 10.12 (72) 1st Division Seniors: Manly-Warringah Wolves 10.14 (74) def Southern Sharks 9.9 (63) 1st Division Reserves: UTS Bats 9.10 (64) def Manly Warringah Wolves 5.4 (34)
2nd Division: Pennant Hills 10.4 (64) def UNSW/ES Bulldogs 6.4 (40)
2008
2008 commenced with a marathon day at Henson Park, in which all five Premier Division Seniors matches for round 1 were played back to back. Bad weather and construction delays meant that East Coast Eagles were unable to move into their new home ground at Bruce Purser Reserve in 2008, but the Eagles put those frustrations behind them to qualify for the finals. Also returning to finals action in 2008 after missing out in 2007 was UNSW-ES, who finished top of the ladder after the home & away season. A five-team finals series was re-introduced for 2008; and reigning premiers North Shore bounced back from a slow start to the season to qualify for the finals. But the Bombers were to go no further than the first week of the finals. Also qualifying for the playoffs were Pennant Hills and St George.
East Coast finished 4th after the home & away series, but won three finals matches to qualify for the grand final. Their opponent in the grand final was Pennant Hills. All finals matches were again played at Henson Park except for the second semi-final which was played in wet conditions at North Dalton Park. The grand final was played in 33-degree heat, the hottest grand final day in the history of the Sydney AFL competition. After a tight and low-scoring first half, Pennant Hills took complete control after half-time to cruise to a comprehensive 105-point victory. Pennant Hills' Scott Reed was awarded the Podbury Medal as best on ground, and will join Collingwood's rookie list for 2009.
Premier Division Seniors Pennant Hills 20.13 (133) def East Coast Eagles 3.10 (28) Premier Division Reserves East Coast Eagles 12.15 (87) def Sydney University 2.5 (17) U18s Premier Cup North Shore Bombers 15.11 (101) def East Coast Eagles 8.11 (59) 1st Division Seniors UTS Bats 13.16 (94) def. Manly-Warringah Wolves 11.12 (78) 1st Division Reserves UTS Bats 17.12 (114) def. Manly-Warringah Wolves 10.2 (62) U18s Challenge Cup UNSW/Eastern Suburbs Bulldogs 23.18 (156) def. Southern Sharks 4.5 (29) 2nd Division Pennant Hills Demons 18.10 (118) def. Sydney Uni Blue Students 13.5 (83)
2009
2009 saw the introduction of a Divisional structure, with promotion and relegation through the lower divisions (see the Divisional Structure section further down this page). 2009 was also notable for the opening of two new football venues in Sydney. Bruce Purser Reserve was opened in February when it hosted an AFL trial match between the Sydney Swans and the Western Bulldogs, and through the course of the year served as the home ground for East Coast Eagles; as well as a backup venue for wet weather, with Pennant Hills, Western Suburbs and North Shore also playing home games at the venue. The Second Semi-Final was also played there.
And later in the season, Blacktown Olympic Park began operations, firstly as the venue for the Representative fixture where Sydney AFL defeated AFL Canberra. In August the ground held a spectacular opening ceremony, with fireworks and Aboriginal dance as well as a match between Western Suburbs and Pennant Hills. The venue was then the host for all the finals except for the Second Semi Final. On the field, St George returned to tradition; going back to their traditional red and white colours and the Dragons name, but it was to be a tough year on the field as they missed the finals for the second time this decade. Also missing out on finals action for the second time since the turn of the millennium was North Shore.
East Coast Eagles, strengthened by finally having a home ground to call their own, took out the minor premiership and were first to qualify for the Grand Final after a comfortable win over Wests in the Second Semi Final, a match where East Coast's full forward Gus Seebeck kicked his 100th goal for the season.
Campbelltown returned to finals action after missing out in 2008, but were eliminated in the first week of finals action. Week 2 saw the demise of reigning premier Pennant Hills; while the Preliminary Final saw UNSW-ES qualify for the Grand Final at the expense of Wests. The Grand Final was played in perfect weather, but was to be a one-sided contest. East Coast took control of the game early and won every quarter to record a comfortable 54-point win. Gus Seebeck kicked 10 goals for the Eagles to win the Podbury Medal.
Premier Division – East Coast Eagles 22.12 (144) d UNSW-ES 13.12 (90) First Division – UTS 21.10 (136) d East Coast Eagles 5.7 (37)
Second Division – Macquarie Uni 11.15 (81) d UTS 8.5 (53) Third Division – UNSW-ES 9.4 (58) d UTS 6.12 (48)
Fourth Division – Sydney Uni 16.6 (102) d UNSW-ES 8.8 (56) Under 18s Premier – North Shore 8.9 (57) d St George 6.9 (45) Under 18s Challenge – Sydney Uni 16.14 (110) d Southern Power 2.5 (17)
2010
Sydney Uni, on the back of a 14-game winning streak, were minor premiers. Also finishing in the final five were Wests, East Coast, North Shore and Pennant Hills.
East Coast Eagles win back to back premierships, defeating Sydney University in the Grand Final (13.9 – 87) (10.10 – 70).
UTSAFC are admitted to Premier Division.
2011
UTSAFC finished 10th in their first year in the Premier Division winning 3 games. Campbelltown finished last, failing to win a game.
The East Coast Eagles won the minor premiership, joining them in the finals were Balmain, Sydney University, North Shore and Pennant Hills.
Results in the 2011 Finals Series: Qualifying Final: Balmain 14.8 (92) defeated Sydney University 10.12 (72) Elimination Final: North Shore 17.10 (112) defeated Pennant Hills 8.8 (56) Major Semi Final: East Coast 11.12 (78) defeated Balmain 7.18 (60) Minor Semi Final: Sydney University 24.11 (155) defeated North Shore 10.4 (64) Preliminary Final: Balmain 13.7 (85) defeated Sydney University 12.10 (82)
Grand Final: East Coast 17.12 (114) defeated Balmain 10.11 (71)
2012
The same eleven teams competed in Premier Division in 2012, but with East Coast Eagles (now renamed Sydney Hills Eagles) and Sydney Uni joining the NEAFL, the Premier Division teams for those two clubs were their reserves teams. Neither made the finals, and the Eagles' run of premierships ended after their three-peat from 2009 to 2011. UNSW-ES were the form team of the 2012 season, spearheaded by a Phelan Medal performance from Dane Rampe that would result in him being drafted by the Swans. UNSW-ES finished top of the ladder, and would meet Balmain in the Grand Final. Pennant Hills, North Shore and St George completed the top five. The grand final was played as a twilight match at Blacktown International Sportspark. The lead see-sawed for three-quarters, with the Bulldogs leading by four points at the last change. But a run of seven goals to one in the final term saw the Bulldogs run our comfortable 42-point winners; their first premiership since 2003 and condemning Balmain to their second straight grand final defeat.
Premier Division: UNSW-ES 13.11 (89) d Balmain 7.5 (47) Division One – Manly 11.15 (81) d Southern Power 9.2 (56) Division Two – St George 7.8 (50) d UNSW-ES 6.10 (46) Division Three – UTS 15.4 (94) d Blacktown 8.5 (53) Division Four – Penrith 9.16 (70) d Gosford 8.6 (54) Division Five – Sydney Uni 10.6 (66) d UTS 9.7 (61) Under 18s One – Sydney Hills Eagles 14.14 (98) d Illawarra 11.10 (76) Under 18s Two – Southern Power 9.11 (65) d Manly 3.4 (22) Women – Balmain 7.9 (51) d Sydney Uni 2.1 (13)
2013
The 2013 season saw Manly added to Premier Division, making a 12-team competition. This resulted in six games per round in an 18-round home and away season, with not all teams playing each other twice.
Manly, the newcomers to the top division, would make an immediate impact as they won their first nine games in Premier Division; shooting straight to the top of the ladder on their way to the minor premiership.
Sydney Uni and Sydney Hills Eagles fielded teams in the NEAFL in 2013; with their Premier Division teams being the clubs' reserves teams. Neither qualified for the finals in Premier Division; with the Eagles finishing on the bottom of the ladder.
The season was a fall from grace for Balmain. The Dockers, after playing in the last two Grand Finals, crashed down the ladder in 2013; and internal tensions boiled over late in the season as 11 players staged a walk-out after five minutes, causing the club to forfeit a Premier Division clash against Wests.
The walk-out was to be the end of Balmain in Premier Division, as AFL Sydney relegated them to Division One for 2014. Also playing their last season in Premier Division this year was Illawarra, after nine years in the top division without a finals appearance and winning only one game this season.
This season would also be the last for Auburn Tigers as a men's club, after forfeiting several games in Division Two. However, Auburn would continue as a women's club until 2018. Manly finished the regular season as minor premiers, and defeated St George in the Major Semi-Final to be first team through to the Grand Final. Their opponents in the Grand Final would be Pennant Hills, who finished fourth in the regular season but defeated UNSW-ES, North Shore and St George in the finals to make their way through.
The Demons led by eight points at the long break, but the Wolves made the decisive move in the premiership quarter with three goals to one to turn the half time deficit into a six-point lead at three quarter time. The Demons hit the lead early in the last, but the Wolves regained the momentum to regain the lead and take out the Grand Final by eight points; a remarkable achievement in their first season at the top level.
Grand Final winners 2013: Premier Division – Manly 11.14 (80) def Pennant Hills 11.6 (72) Division One – Southern Power 16.9 (105) def UNSW-ES 3.2 (20) Division Two – Sydney Uni 8.14 (62) def Manly 7.6 (48) Division Three – Blacktown 11.11 (77) def Randwick City 10.6 (66) Division Four – Pennant Hills 14.11 (95) def Sydney Uni 4.4 (28) Division Five – Randwick City 13.8 (86) def UTS 6.7 (43) Under 19s Division One – Pennant Hills 10.10 (70) def UNSW-ES 10.7 (67) Under 19s Division Two – Manly 20.24 (144) def Holroyd-Parramatta 3.5 (23)
Women's Division One – Sydney Uni 7.9 (51) def Balmain 3.7 (25) Women's Division Two – Macquarie Uni 7.11 (53) def Southern Power 4.1 (25)
2018
In season 2018 the Camden Cats were promoted to the Men's Premier Division to again bring the number of clubs in Sydney's top flight back to 10 after Campbelltown Blues withdrew at the conclusion of the 2014 season. AFL Sydney continues to grow with thirteen Divisions across men's, women's, U19s and Masters Football.
2019
The 2019 season saw an extra Women's division created to accommodate the rapid grown of Women's football in Sydney. In this division, the St George Dragons finished in 5th place but 4 sudden-death finals win in a row saw them defeat minor premiers, Holroyd-Parramatta Goannas in the Grand Final. Similarly, the St George Dragons Premier Division Reserves team also came from 5th to defeat Minor Premiers, the Pennant Hills Australian Demons. In the Premier Division competition the UNSW-Eastern Suburbs Bulldogs went back-to-back by defeating Sydney University. Macquarie University defeated East Coast Eagles by 6 points to win the Women's Premier Division Grand Final. This season saw the Western Suburbs Magpies change their name to Inner West Magpies to further distinguish between themselves and the South West Sydney Magpies (formerly Moorebank).
2020
The 2020 season was severely disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and due to the NSW Government's restrictions only 9 Home and Away rounds were able to be played before the finals. The finals were played in September–October rather than the traditional August–September. Sydney University won their first Premier Division flag since 1992 with a win over UNSW-Eastern Suburbs Bulldogs at Kanebridge Oval. Manly-Warringah, in their first season in the Women's Premier Division Premiership won the flag by defeating the Inner West Magpies. Southern Power made both the Platinum Division and Platinum Division Reserves Grand Finals at Rosedale Oval but lost to the Penrith Rams and Macquarie University (in a come-from-behind win) respectively. The Newtown Breakways inaugural men's team won the Men's Division 3 Grand Final by defeating North Shore. Grand Finals were played at Rosedale Ovals (for lower grades) and Kanebridge Oval due to the unavailability of Blacktown International Sportspark due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was also the reason there was no Master's Grand Final in 2020.
2021
The 2021 season saw the introduction of a 5th Division of Women's Football known as "Women's Division 4". 7 teams took part in this new division. There was also an additional 12 teams across all Men's and Women's divisions. On the 24th of June, the season was put on hold due to the outbreak COVID-19 Delta variant throughout Greater Sydney. The 2021 season was eventually cancelled on the 16th of August. Accordingly, no premierships, medals or awards were given for 2021 cancelled competitions.
2022
The 2022 season saw a slight reduction in overall teams from 135 to 126. This season also saw the merger of South West Sydney Magpies and Campbelltown Blues to form the South Western Sydney Blues. This proved to be a successful season for the merged entity as they went on to win the Platinum Division Premiership and finish Runners-Up in the Platinum Division Reserves Competition. This wasn't the first time that the clubs had aligned, with the two clubs previously entering a combined U19s side in the Division 2 competition. Other club changes were Nor-West Jets being renamed to Hawkesbury Jets and the North West Sydney Redbacks no longer entering a team in the Masters competition.
2023
The 2023 season saw another reduction in overall teams from 126 to 120. This season also saw the women's programs of the Macquarie University Warriors and Parramatta Goannas clubs merge to form the Macquarie University Goannas. This merged entity entered a team in 4 of the 5 women's divisions. Other notable changes were the 3rd and 4th grades men's sides from Sydney University and North Shore entering teams in the Platinum Division and Platinum Division Reserves competitions respectively. Also in 2023, Randwick City no longer entered teams in the Platinum Division or Platinum Divisions Reserves competition. Another notable change in the women's competitions was Inner West no longer entering a Premier Division side.
Audience
Attendances for the Sydney AFL are very small in comparison to state level leagues elsewhere in Australia, however Grand Final crowds sometimes reach as high as 3,000 though historically they were much higher towards 15,000 .
In 2007, in a first for Australian rules football in Sydney, it was announced that Foxtel would be televising an edited match of the week and a magazine-style segment on the public Television Channel Aurora. The program contained footy news from around NSW/ACT as well as showing highlights from the "Match of the Week". In 2008 the magazine style was dropped in favour of a 1-hour dedicated highlights show of the Match of the Week. Digital Sports Productions continued this format in 2009 and the show is aired on the Main Event Channel each Friday night in NSW and QLD before the AFL Friday night game.
2021 also saw the introduction of a Men's and Women's Premier Division Women's "Match of the Round" being live-streamed on Kayo Sports which could be watched for free.
AFL Sydney Clubs
Current Clubs – Men's Premier Division
Current Clubs – Men's Platinum Division
Current Clubs - Other Divisions
Location of Current Clubs
Uniforms
Men's Premier Division
Men's Platinum Division
Other Men's Divisions
Former Clubs
AFL Sydney Club Songs
Current Club Songs - Men's Premier Division
Current Club Songs - Men's Platinum Division
Current Club Songs - Other Divisions
= Tune for Western Magic's Club Song is borrowed from Port Adelaide Power's Club Song
Club Songs - Former
2023 Men's Divisions
2023 Women's Divisions
First Grade (Men's) Premiers
List of First Grade Men's (currently Premier Division) premiers.
Number of Premierships by Club
First Grade (Women's) Premiers
List of First Grade Women's (currently Women's Premier Division) premiers.
Number of Premierships by Club
Best and fairest awards
The Phelan Medal is an annual award given in the Sydney AFL. It is awarded to best and fairest player of the premier division competition each year. It is seen to be the AFL Sydney equivalent to the Brownlow Medal. The Mostyn Medal is awarded to the best and fairest player in the premier division of the women's league.
References
External links
Australian rules football competitions in New South Wales
Sports competitions in Sydney
1903 establishments in Australia
Sports leagues established in 1903
Professional sports leagues in Australia |
4224582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20whisky | Japanese whisky | Japanese whisky is a style of whisky developed and produced in Japan. Whisky production in Japan began around 1870, but the first commercial production was in 1923 upon the opening of the country's first distillery, Yamazaki. Broadly speaking, the style of Japanese whisky is more similar to that of Scotch whisky than other major styles of whisky.
There are several companies producing whisky in Japan, but the two best-known and most widely available are Suntory and Nikka. Both of these produce blended as well as single malt whiskies and blended malt whiskies, with their main blended whiskies being Suntory , and Black Nikka Clear. There are also many special bottlings and limited editions.
Style
The production of Japanese whisky began as a conscious effort to recreate the style of Scotch whisky. Pioneers like Taketsuru carefully studied the process of making Scotch whisky, and went to great lengths in an attempt to recreate that process in Japan. The location of Yoichi in Hokkaidō was chosen particularly for its terrain and climate, which were in many ways reminiscent of Scotland (although financial constraints resulted in the first distillery actually being built in the more convenient location of Yamazaki on the main island).
By 2024, products labeled as "Japanese whisky" will conform to new regulations. Japanese whisky must be fermented, distilled, aged and bottled in Japan, use some portion of malted grain in its mash, and use water sourced from Japan.
One facet of the style of Japanese whisky comes from the way in which blended whisky is produced, and the differing nature of the industry in Japan. Despite the recent rise of interest in single malt whiskies, the vast majority of whisky sold in the world is still blended. In Scotland, while a particular brand of blended whisky may be owned by a company that also owns one or more distilleries, it is common for blended whisky bottlers to trade single malt whiskies. The components of a blend may involve malt whisky from a number of distilleries, which may be owned by different companies. In Japan, however, the industry is vertically integrated, meaning whisky companies own both the distilleries and the brands of blended whiskies, and do not trade with their competitors. So a blended whisky in Japan will generally only contain malt whisky from the distilleries owned by that same company.
History
Two of the most influential figures in the history of Japanese whisky are Shinjiro Torii and Masataka Taketsuru. Torii was a pharmaceutical wholesaler and the founder of Kotobukiya (later to become Suntory). He started importing western liquor and he later created a brand called "Akadama Port Wine", based on a Portuguese wine which made him a successful merchant. However, he was not satisfied with this success and so he embarked on a new venture which was to become his life's work: making Japanese whisky for Japanese people. Despite the strong opposition from the company's executives, Torii decided to build the first Japanese whisky distillery in Yamazaki, a suburb of Kyoto, an area so famous for its excellent water that the legendary tea master Sen no Rikyū built his tearoom there.
Torii hired Masataka Taketsuru as a distillery executive. Taketsuru had studied the art of distilling in Scotland, and brought this knowledge back to Japan in the early 1920s. While working for Kotobukiya he played a key part in helping Torii establish the Yamazaki Distillery. In 1934 he left Kotobukiya to form his own company—Dainipponkaju—which would later change its name to Nikka. In this new venture he established the Yoichi distillery in Hokkaidō.
The first westerners to taste Japanese whisky were soldiers of the American Expeditionary Force Siberia who took shore leave in Hakodate in September 1918. A brand called Queen George, described by one American as a "Scotch whisky made in Japan", was widely available. Exactly what it was is unknown, but it was quite potent and probably quite unlike Scotch whisky.
The first whisky made in Japan was the Suntory Shirofuda, released in 1929.
From the mid-1950s, the popularity of whisky began to increase, and the three major brands of Suntory, Daikoku Budoshu (later Mercian Corporation), and Nikka fought for the top position, leading to what was called the "whisky wars". From the 1960s, unique Japanese customs concerning whisky began to appear. Drinking whisky with Japanese food became popular, and the "Bottle keep" system took root in bars and izakaya, and drinking mizuwari (:ja:水割り), a whisky diluted with 2 to 2.5 times the amount of water, became popular among the masses.
In 1971, various restrictions on the whisky trade were lifted, allowing Japanese importers to import foreign whisky without any quantity or value limits. 1973 saw Kirin Company enter the whisky business. In 1980, Suntory shipped 12.4 million cases of "Old" and achieved the world's highest annual sales volume for a single brand. After reaching its peak in 1983, whisky consumption in Japan continued to decline, falling well behind Japanese beer, shōchū, and sake, and in 2008, only 20% of the 1983 level was consumed.
However, whisky consumption began to increase again around 2008 due to the highball craze, and the popularity of whisky increased dramatically in 2014 when the life of Nikka founder Masataka Taketsuru was portrayed in the NHK drama Massan (マッサン). In addition, Japanese whisky began winning awards in international competitions, and exports outside of Japan increased. As a result, demand for Japanese whisky has greatly exceeded supply since the 2010s, and production of many products has been halted. There are two reasons why the supply shortage of whisky has not been easily resolved. The first is that from 1983 to 2008, whisky consumption in Japan continued to decline and companies continued to reduce production, resulting in low inventories. The second reason is that whisky must be stored in casks for a long period of time in order to be finished, so even if companies increased the amount of whisky distilled, they would not be able to ship it immediately.
In 2008, Ichiro Akuto (:ja:肥土伊知郎) started operations at the Chichibu distillery. It was the first time in 35 years that the Japanese government had granted a whisky production license to a new company. The Chichibu distillery won many awards at national and international competitions. The success of the Chichibu distillery led to an increase in the number of companies entering the whisky business, and whisky distilleries began to be built all over Japan.
By the 2020s, Japanese distilleries were importing spirits for use in blends. In 2021, the Japan Spirits & Liqueurs Makers Association announced the definition of "Japanese whisky" as the association's voluntary standard. The 82 companies that are members of the association are bound by this rule, and any whisky made in a manner that does not meet this definition cannot have the words "Japanese whisky" or words meaning Japanese whisky on the label. Also, if the label does not clearly state that the whisky does not meet the definition of Japanese whisky, it will not be allowed to depict the name of a place, person, or flag that evokes Japan. The grace period for this rule is until 2024.
As of 2022, the value of Japan's alcoholic beverage exports was approximately 139.2 billion yen, with Japanese whisky in first place at 56.1 billion yen and sake in second place at 47.5 billion yen.
Reputation
Before 2000, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost entirely domestic, though this changed in 2001 when Nikka's 10-year Yoichi single malt won "Best of the Best" at Whisky Magazines awards.
In the blind tasting organized by Whisky Magazine in 2003, the results of which are published in WM #30, the winners of the category "Japanese Whiskies" were:
Hibiki 21 YO 43% (blend)
Nikka Yoichi 10 YO SC 59.9%
Yamazaki Bourbon Cask 1991 60%
Karuizawa 17 YO 40% (pure malt)
In the main ranking (covering all categories of whisky) Hibiki 21 YO made it to rank 9 and Nikka Yoichi 10 to rank 14.
In 2004, the 18-year-old Yamazaki was introduced to the US.
Japanese whiskies have been winning top honors in international competitions, notably Suntory. At the 2003 International Spirits Challenge, Suntory Yamazaki won a gold medal, and Suntory whiskies continued to win gold medals every year through 2013, with all three malt whiskies winning a trophy (the top prize) in either 2012 (Yamazaki 18 years old and Hakushu 25 years old) or 2013 (Hibiki 21 years old), and Suntory itself winning distiller of the year in 2010, 2012, and 2013. The resultant acclaim nudged Japan's distilleries to market overseas.
Japanese whisky has won the world's highest award in some category at the World Whiskies Awards, organized by Whisky Magazine, every year from the inaugural event in 2007 until 2022. Whisky Magazine has organized a series of blind tastings which have included Japanese single malts in the lineup, along with malts from distilleries considered to be among the best in Scotland. On more than one occasion, the results have had Japanese single malts (particularly those of Nikka's Yoichi and Suntory's Yamazaki) scoring higher than their Scottish counterparts.
The whisky produced by Venture Whisky Co., Ltd., which owns Chichibu distillery, was also highly evaluated and won the World's Best Blended Limited Release category for five consecutive years from 2017 to 2021 in a competition organized by Whisky Magazine.
In 2022, the Akkeshi distillery won the top prize in the World's Best Blended category and the Asaka distillery won the top prize in the World's Best Blended Malt category at a competition organized by Whisky Magazine.
The growing popularity of Japanese whisky has driven up prices, especially for rarer products. In August 2018, a 50-year-old Yamazaki first edition went for record $343,000 at a Bonhams auction in Hong Kong. In early 2020, Suntory raffled off 100 bottles of Yamazaki 55-year-old in Japan for three million yen ($20,700) each. One of those bottles sold for about $800,000 at a Hong Kong auction in August of that year; in August 2022, "Joker", a whisky made by Akuto Ichiro (:ja:肥土伊知郎), which operates the Chichibu distillery, using Hanyu distillery's original whisky, sold for HK$500,000.
Distilleries
In 2008, the Chichibu distillery (:ja:ベンチャーウイスキー) began operations. It was the first time in 35 years that the Japanese government had granted a new whisky production license. The success of the Chichibu distillery has prompted companies that make sake and shōchū, as well as companies from other industries, to enter the whisky business, and distilleries are being built all over Japan. In addition, companies that had stopped distilling due to a decrease in demand for whisky resumed distilling or started operating new distilleries. As of 2011, when the Shinshu Mars distillery reopened, there were around nine active whisky distilleries in Japan. As of October 2022, there are 59 whisky distilleries in Japan, including those under construction and planned. The distilleries as of 2022 include:
In operation since before 2008
Yamazaki: owned by Suntory. Located between Osaka and Kyoto on the main island of Honshū.
Hakushu: also owned by Suntory. Located in Yamanashi Prefecture.
Chita: owned by Suntory. Located at the Port of Nagoya Sun Grain facility in Chita, Aichi Prefecture.
Yoichi: owned by Nikka. Located in Yoichi on the northern island of Hokkaidō.
Miyagikyo (formerly Sendai): also owned by Nikka. Located in the north of the main island, near the city of Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture.
Fuji Gotemba: owned by Kirin. Located at the foot of Mount Fuji in Shizuoka Prefecture.
White Oak: owned by . Located in Hyōgo Prefecture.
Operating and re-operating after 2008
Chicibu
Chichibu: near Chichibu in Saitama Prefecture. This is the new Chichibu distillery, founded by Ichiro Akuto (:ja:肥土伊知郎), grandson of the distiller at Hanyu. It opened in 2008.
Chichibu Daini: This is the second distillery run by Ichiro Akuto. The distillation started in 2019.
Akkeshi: owned by Japanese grocery wholesaler Kenten Co. Ltd. Located in rural Akkeshi on the island of Hokkaido, it opened in October 2016.
Asaka: owned by . Located in Fukushima Prefecture. The company began whisky production in 1946, but stopped whisky production in 1989. The distillation restarted in March 2016.
Chiyomusubi (Sakaiminato): owned by . Located in Tottori Prefecture. The distillation started in 2021.
Fujihokuroku: owned by . Located in Yamanashi Prefecture. The distillation started in 2020.
Fujisan: owned by Sasakawa Whisky Co. ,Ltd. Located in Yamanashi Prefecture. The distillation started in 2022.
Hanyu: owned by . Located in Saitama Prefecture. The company began whisky production in 1946, but stopped whisky distillation in 2000. The distillation restarted in 2021.
Helios (Nago): owned by . Located in Okinawa Prefecture. The company began whisky production in the 1980s, but withdrew from the whisky business before 2008. The distillation restarted in 2016.
Ikawa: owned by Juzan Co., Ltd. Located in Shizuoka Prefecture. The distillation started in 2020.
Kaikyo: owned by . Located in Hyōgo Prefecture. The distillation started in 2017.
Kamui (Rishiri): owned by Kamui Whisky K.K. Located in Hokkaido Prefecture. The distillation started in 2022.
Kanosuke: owned by . Located in Kagoshima Prefecture. The distillation started in 2017.
Kiyosuzakura (Kiyosu): owned by . Located in Aichi Prefecture. The distillation started in 2014.
Kobe: owned by GlowStars Inc. Located in Hyōgo Prefecture. The distillation started in October 2022.
Kuju: owned by Tsuzaki Co.,Ltd. Located in Ōita Prefecture. The distillation started in February 2021.
Kurayoshi: owned by . Located in the village of Kurayoshi, in Tottori Prefecture. The distillation started in 2017.
Kyoto Miyako: owned by Kyoto Shuzo Co., Ltd. Located in Kyoto Prefecture. The distillation started in Jule 2020.
Mars
Shinshu Mars: owned by . Located in Nagano Prefecture. The company began whisky production in Kagoshima Prefecture in 1953, in Yamanashi Prefecture in 1960, and at this distillery in 1985, but stopped whisky distillation in 1992. The distillation restarted in 2011.
Tsunuki Mars: owned by Hombo Shuzo Co., Ltd. Located in Kagoshima Prefecture. The distillation started in 2016.
Miyake Honten (Kure): owned by . Located in Hiroshima Prefecture. The distillation started in 2022.
Nagahama: owned by . Located in Shiga Prefecture. The distillation started in 2016. The brand name is "Amahagan".
Niigata Kameda: owned by Niigata Shōkibo Jōryūjo. Located in Niigata Prefecture. The distillation started in September March 2019.
Niseko: owned by . Located in Niigata Prefecture. The distillation started in March 2021.
Nozawa Onsen: owned by Nozawa Onsen distillery. Located in Yamanashi Prefecture. The distillation started in June 2022.
Okayama: owned by . Located in Okayama Prefecture. The distillation started in 2015.
Ontake: owned by . Located in Kagoshima Prefecture. The distillation started in 2019.
Osuzuyama: owned by Kuroki Honten Co. Ltd. Located in Miyazaki Prefecture. The distillation started in 2019.
Rokkosan: owned by . Located in Hyōgo Prefecture. The distillation started in June 2021.
Sakurao: owned by . Located in Hiroshima Prefecture. The distillation started in October 2018.
Shindō: owned by . Located in Fukuoka Prefecture. The distillation started in August 2021.
Shinzato (Okinawa): owned by . Located in Okinawa Prefecture. The distillation started in 2021.
Shizuoka (ja): owned by Gaiaflow Co., Ltd. Located in Shizuoka Prefecture. The distillation started in October 2016.
Takazo: owned by . Located in Ibaraki Prefecture. The company began whisky production in 1952, but withdrew from the whisky business before 2008. The distillation restarted in September 2022.
Tanba: owned by . Located in Hyōgo Prefecture. The distillation started in 2018.
Wakatsuru Saburōmaru: owned by . Located in Toyama Prefecture. The company began whisky production in 1952. The distillery was renovated in 2016 and distilling resumed in 2017.
Yamaga: owned by Yamaga Distillery Co.,Ltd. Located in Kumamoto Prefecture The distillation started in August 2021.
Yasato: owned by . Located in Ibaraki Prefecture. The distillation started in 2020.
Yokokawa: owned by At star kabushiki kaisha. Located in Kagoshima Prefecture. The distillation started in January 2022.
Yoro: owned by . Located in Gifu Prefecture. The company began whisky production in the 1970s, but withdrew from the whisky business before 2008. The distillation restarted in 2018.
Yoshida Denzai: owned by Yoshida Denzai Kogyo Co.,Ltd. Located in Niigata Prefecture. The distillation started in 2022.
Yuwaku owned by Oriental Brewing. Located in Ishikawa Prefecture. The distillation started in August 2022.
Yuza: owned by . Located in Yamagata Prefecture. The distillation started in 2018.
Under construction/before operation
Gakkōgawa: owned by Tatenokawa, inc. Located in Yamagata Prefecture. Distillation is scheduled to begin in September 2023.
Hida Takayama: owned by Funasaka Shuzo. Located in Gifu Prefecture. Distillation is scheduled to begin in April 2023.
Komoro: owned by Karuizawa Distillers Inc. Located in Nagano Prefecture. Distillation is scheduled to begin in 2023.
Kōnosu: owned by Hikari shuzo.,Ltd. Located in Saitama Prefecture. Distillation is scheduled to begin in 2025.
Takebe Orimono (Nanao): owned by Takebe Orimono. Located in Ishikawa Prefecture. Distillation is scheduled to begin in 2023.
Akita: owned by Dreamlink Co. Ltd. Located in Akita Prefecture.
Benizakura: owned by Hokkaido Liberty Whisky Inc. Located in Hokkaido Prefecture.
Karuizawa: owned by Totsuka shuzo Co. Ltd. Located in Nagano Prefecture.
Shinobu: owned by Niigata Beer Co. Ltd. Located in Niigata Prefecture.
Closed
Karuizawa: owned by Mercian (a part of Kirin). Formerly located near the town of Karuizawa in Nagano Prefecture. Folded in 2011.
Consumption
Japanese whisky is consumed either like Scotch whisky or like Japanese shōchū. The bulk of Japanese blended whisky is consumed in cocktails, notably as whisky (similar to shōchū highballs, known as chūhai), while fine whisky is primarily drunk neat or on the rocks, as with Scotch whisky. Advertising for blended whisky generally features it consumed in a highball, and highballs made with Suntory's Kakubin are branded .
In addition to soda (in a highball), Japanese whisky is often drunk mixed with hot water , particularly in winter, or cold water , particularly in summer, as is done with shōchū. Whisky is also commonly drunk with food, particularly in mixed drinks, especially highballs. The prevalence of mixing whisky with soda or water is particularly attributed to the hot, muggy Japanese summer, hence the popularity of long drinks.
See also
Outline of whisky
Izakaya
References
Notes
Bibliography
Articles
Books
External links
Nikka Company – official website
Yamazaki Distillery – official website
Nonjatta – Japanese whisky blog
Dekanta – Buy Japanese whisky Online |
4224754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thevar%20Magan | Thevar Magan | Thevar Magan ( ) is a 1992 Indian Tamil-language drama film directed by Bharathan, and written and produced by Kamal Haasan. It stars Sivaji Ganesan, Haasan, Revathi, Gautami and Nassar; with Kallapart Natarajan, Kaka Radhakrishnan, Sangili Murugan and Vadivelu in supporting roles. The film's story involves a respected village chieftain's son who wants to open a business but his father wants him to help the villagers.
The script of Thevar Magan was completed in seven days; it was written using screenwriting software called Movie Magic. Haasan said The Godfather (1972) and the Kannada film Kaadu (1973) were inspirations for the film. P. C. Sreeram was the cinematographer and N. P. Satish edited the film, which was mostly made in Pollachi, with a few days' filming at Madras and Ooty.
Thevar Magan was released on 25 October 1992 – Diwali day; it received critical acclaim and completed a 175-day run at the box office. It was chosen as India's entry for the Best Foreign Language Film for the 65th Academy Awards but was not nominated. Thevar Magan won five National Film Awards, including Best Tamil Film, Best Supporting Actress for Revathi, and a Special Jury Award for Ganesan, which he declined. It was later remade in Hindi as Virasat (1997) and in Kannada as Thandege Thakka Maga (2006).
Plot
Sakthivel "Sakthi" Thevar returns home to his father Periya Thevar's village after completing his education in London. To his father's annoyance, he brings with him his westernised girlfriend Bhanumathi "Bhanu" to meet his family. Sakthi announces his plan to open a chain of restaurants in Madras, which saddens his father, who wanted his son to help local residents. Periya is a respected village chief whose younger half-brother Chinna Thevar and nephew Maya "Mayan" Thevar hold a grudge against him. The entire village suffers from this long-standing family feud. Mayan always tries to outdo Periya.
Sakthi spends time in the village with Bhanu. They find an old temple that has been closed off on Mayan's orders. Sakthi insists on entering with the help of his friend and servant Isakki. Mayan hears of this and a riot between the two village factions occurs. To quell the situation, Periya contemplates apologising to his opponents. Sakthi feels he or Isakki should apologise instead. When Sakthi asks for Isakki, he learns Mayan has severed Isakki's arm as punishment for opening the temple. To prevent further escalation of the situation, Sakthi, with his father's permission and with the help of his friends in the government, legally opens the temple for all.
Slighted by this, Mayan hires goons to break a dam protecting a part of the village that supports Periya. The goons use explosives to damage the dam, flooding half of the village and resulting in numerous deaths, including infants. This saddens Sakthi, who spots the goon who placed the explosives and gives chase. After capturing the goon, Sakthi hands him over to the police. The goon does not mention Mayan's involvement in fear for his own family's safety. Later, Mayan closes a portion of his land, preventing the public from easily reaching the main road. Sakthi and his father invite them for talks at the village panchayat to resolve the standoff.
In the panchayat, both sides accuse the other. With no evidence, Mayan accuses Periya of orchestrating attacks on his brother's family. Disrespected and broken, Periya returns home and later that night dies from a heart attack. Sakthi takes over his father's duties as the village chieftain. The villagers express concern to Sakthi about having to daily circumnavigate the piece of land belonging to Mayan's side of the village, which causes a much longer travelling time. Sakthi reasons with the landowner Paramasivam to open it up for all villagers. Although understanding and willing, Paramasivam is Mayan's maternal uncle and is afraid of his nephew's backlash, especially because he has a daughter named Panchavarnam.
Sakthi assuages his fear by arranging the marriage between Panchavarnam and a wealthy villager. Everybody involved happily agrees, and Paramasivam opens up the land. On the day of the wedding, however, the groom runs away, fearing Mayan. Paramasivam and Panchavarnam are distraught, and worried if someone marries his daughter, they would live in constant fear. With her father's permission, Sakthi marries Panchavarnam, although he still has feelings for Bhanu. Soon, Bhanu returns and learns about Sakthi's marriage. Although saddened, she understands the situation and leaves. Sakthi starts his new life with Panchavarnam.
Agitated by the land opening, Mayan plants a bomb during a festival, causing deaths on both sides of the village. Enraged, both factions go after Mayan and his family. Sakthi protects the innocent family and helps them escape from the villagers. Appreciative of Sakthi's efforts to protect them, they disclose Mayan's hiding place. Sakthi locates Mayan and asks him to surrender to the police before the villagers kill him but Mayan refuses. Mayan blames Sakthi for his problems and tries to kill him. In the ensuing struggle, Sakthi beheads Mayan. The villagers offer to take the blame for Mayan's death, but Sakthi refuses and surrenders to the police.
Cast
Sivaji Ganesan as Periyasamy Thevar
Kamal Haasan as Sakthivel Thevar
Revathi as Panchavarnam
Gautami as Bhanumathi
Nassar as Mayan Thevar
Kaka Radhakrishnan as Chinnasamy Thevar
Vadivelu as Isakki
Kallapart Natarajan as Paramasivam
Sangili Murugan as Subbiah
Thalaivasal Vijay as Muthuvel Thevar, Sakthivel's elder brother
S. N. Lakshmi as Kannatha, Mayan Thevar's mother
Gandhimathi as Maragatham
Renuka as Lakshmi, Sakthivel's sister-in-law
Madhan Bob as Lawyer Kesavan
Ajay Rathnam as S. Maruthupandi
Neelima Rani as Meena, Mayan Thevar's daughter<ref>{{Cite web |last=ஆனந்தராஜ் |first=கு. |date=14 June 2017 |title=கமல் சார் கழுத்துல அருவாளை வெச்சப்போ...!{{}} நீலிமா ராணி ஃப்ளாஷ்பேக் |url=https://www.vikatan.com/news/miscellaneous/92302-tv-actress-neelima-shares-her-memories-of-acting-with-kamal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200704135200/https://www.vikatan.com/news/miscellaneous/92302-tv-actress-neelima-shares-her-memories-of-acting-with-kamal |archive-date=4 July 2020 |access-date=4 July 2020 |website=Ananda Vikatan |language=ta}}</ref>
Production
Development
In the 1980s, Muktha Srinivasan planned to direct a film based on The Godfather (1972) with Sivaji Ganesan and Kamal Haasan but the project was abandoned after Haasan's associate Ananthu felt it would be a Ganesan-focused film rather than a Haasan film. Haasan later wrote a script, which eventually became Thevar Magan, in seven days, although he said he was challenged to write it in twelve. The film was initially titled Nammavar but was later renamed to its final title. Haasan also said it was inspired by The Godfather and the Kannada film Kaadu (1973). Due to his lack of experience in directing, Haasan approached Bharathan to direct Thevar Magan.
According to Haasan, Thevar Magan is the first film that was written using a screenwriting software called "Movie Magic". In 2016, Gangai Amaran said he was supposed to direct a film titled Adhi Veerapandian starring Haasan but Amaran's brother Ilaiyaraaja advised Haasan against accepting the film, feeling Amaran was "not a good filmmaker", and the film was shelved. Amaran said; "Kamal took the story of Adhi Veerapandian and remade it as Thevar Magan". P. C. Sreeram was the cinematographer and N. P. Satish edited the film. Tirru worked as Sreeram's assistant and actor Tinku worked as assistant photographer.
Casting
According to Haasan, casting was done "against everyone else's suggestion". In portraying Sakthi, Haasan wore colourful, buttoned-up shirts and jeans, and a medium-size beard and a mullet in the first half of the film. He grew a thick handlebar moustache and wore of village dhoti for the part of village head. The unit had originally wanted to cast either Vijayakumar or S. S. Rajendran for the character Periya Thevar but Haasan approached Sivaji Ganesan, who completed his scenes within seven days. Haasan persuaded Ganesan because it was his long-time desire to act in at least one film with him; Ganesan, who had retired from acting, agreed. Haasan described Thevar Magan as a "love story about Sivaji and me. I wanted to become him and he allowed me to become him".
Meena was approached to play the character Panchavarnam; she acted for a few days but due to date issues, she was replaced by Revathi. Gautami played Sakthi's initial lover Bhanu; her voice was dubbed by K. R. Anuradha. Vadivelu, who played Isakki, said;"While shooting of Singaravelan, Kamal asked me to go to his Raaj Kamal office next morning and collect an advance payment for my role in his next film, Thevar Magan. But, I was not ready to wait until the next morning. So I went to his office the same evening after the shoot" and received a cheque for 5,000. Thalaivasal Vijay was cast as Sakthi's elder brother on Haasan's recommendation. Salim Ghouse was the initial choice for the role of the antagonist Maya Thevar which ultimately went to Nassar. Neelima portrayed Maya Thevar's daughter – it was her feature-film debut.
Filming Thevar Magan was mostly filmed at Pollachi in 75 days, and for few days at Madras and Ooty. Some scenes were filmed at a palatial bungalow situated at Singanallur. Haasan has stated the scene in which a truck with a cargo of steel rods jutting out reverses into a car was initially written for Nayakan (1987) but could not be used there because producer Muktha Srinivasan would not let a car be damaged. Writer Kalaignanam suggested the concept of one temple having two locks, which Haasan liked and added. Some scenes were filmd at Mariamman Temple in Sulukkal, Pollachi. Nassar filmed only seven scenes, of which two are major.
Themes and influences
According to Haasan, Thevar Magan was inspired by The Godfather and Kaadu; journalist S. Shiva Kumar said he re-used The Godfathers "crucial emotional core of a reluctant son ascending a throne full of thorns". Baradwaj Rangan said Haasan's screenplay "uses small gestures to say a lot between the lines, without explaining everything in tiresome detail", and that Bhanu is frequently shown boarding and alighting from trains, establishing her status as an outsider.
Soundtrack
Ilaiyaraaja composed the soundtrack of Thevar Magan and the lyrics were written by Vaali. It was released under the label AVM Audio. Embar Kannan performed the violin portions. The soundtrack has eight tracks with two alternatives. Haasan's six-year-old daughter Shruti made her singing debut with this film, singing one version of "Potri Paadadi Penne"; T. K. S. Kalaivanan and Mano sang the other version. "Inji Iduppazhagi" is based on the Hindi song "Yeh Dil Deewana", which was composed by S. D. Burman for Ishq Par Zor Nahin (1970). Haasan wanted Ilaiyaraaja to compose on the lines of the Hindi song; Ilaiyaraaja completed the song within 10 minutes. Haasan credited Gangai Amaran for the idea of "Sandhu Pottu", which was initially intended for Adhi Veerapandian. "Manamagale Manamagale" is set in the Carnatic raga known as Shuddha Saveri, "Maasaru Ponne" is set in Mayamalavagowla, and "Inji Iduppazhagi" is set in Jaunpuri. It was later remixed by Smita for her album Kalakkal. The original song was re-used in Size Zero (2015).
Release Thevar Magan was released on 25 October 1992, Diwali day. The film was dubbed in Telugu as Kshatriya Putrudu. The film became controversial for identifying the Thevar community with glorified violence, and faced competition from other Diwali releases Pandian, Rasukutty, Senthamizh Paattu, Kaviya Thalaivan, Thirumathi Palanisamy, Thai Mozhi and Mangala Nayagan. Despite these, Thevar Magan was commercially successful and ran for 175 days, becoming a silver jubilee film. Dilip Kumar attended the film's silver-jubilee celebration. No print of Thevar Magan has survived but the film is available on home video.
Reception Thevar Magan received critical acclaim. On 25 October 1992, The Indian Express said; "The formidable combination of Kamal Haasan and Sivaji Ganesan, the directorial talent of Bharathan, excellent cinematography of P. C. Sriram and music by the maestro [Ilaiyaraaja], have all gone into producing Thevar Magan". The Tamil magazine Ananda Vikatan in its review dated 8 November 1992 appreciated the film and said its naturalism is greatly enhanced by the giving of equal opportunity to all actors in the film. It rated the film 60 out of 100. K. Vijiyan of New Sunday Times wrote "Devar Magan proved a satisfying experience at the cinema and well worth the wait". C. R. K. of Kalki praised the film for perfectly concentrating on character design, natural dialogues and the screenplay that carries these elements.
Accolades Thevar Magan was chosen as India's entry for the Best Foreign Language Film for the 65th Academy Awards but was not nominated. The film was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival in 1994. Ilaiyaraaja was a strong contender for the National Film Award for Best Music Direction, which he lost to A. R. Rahman for Roja; the award was tied with eight votes each for Ilaiyaraaja and Rahman before the chairman of the jury Balu Mahendra voted in favour of Rahman. Ganesan had been awarded the Special Jury Award – Actor in the same ceremony but he refused to accept the award. Haasan claimed he convinced Ganesan not to accept it.
Remakes
Haasan initially planned to remake Thevar Magan in Hindi with Dilip Kumar in Ganesan's role but according to Haasan, Kumar found the theme "too violent" and refused the offer. Priyadarshan directed the Hindi remake Virasat (1997). S. Mahendar also remade Thevar Magan in Kannada as Thandege Thakka Maga (2006).
Legacy Thevar Magan attained cult status in Tamil cinema. Rajan Krishnan, a scholar in film studies, said; "it was Kamal Hassan who brought that sickle bearing genre", and that "Thevar Magan ... inaugurated the era of the south being represented as primarily a sickle bearing space". Stalin Rajangam, who has extensively written on the caste component and narrative structures of Tamil films, said; "Thevar Magan was first of its kind with stronger idioms of caste and glorification of caste-based practices". Tamil writer S. Ramakrishnan said Thevar Magan captured "the very essence of the south Tamil Nadu's rural culture". Vadivelu called the film a "turning point" in his career.
Directors N. Lingusamy, Mysskin, Gautham Vasudev Menon, and S. J. Suryah called Thevar Magan one of their favourite films. Gauthami also listed it as her one of her favourite films. Sify, in its review of Sandakozhi (2005), compared Rajkiran's character with Ganesan's character in Thevar Magan. The July 2010 edition of magazine South Scope included Haasan's performance in '''Thevar Magan in its list of "Kamal's best performances". Silverscreen in its review of Vetrivel (2016) called the film "pretty much an unsophisticated copy of Thevar Magan".
In 2013, The Hindu listed the song "Potri Paadadi" among lyricist Vaali's songs in the list "Best of Vaali: From 1964 – 2013". Rediff listed the same song alongside "Madhavi Pon Mayilaal" from Iru Malargal (1967) and "Andha Naal Gnabagam" from Uyarndha Manithan (1968).
On Haasan's birthday, 7 November 2015, Latha Srinivasan of Daily News and Analysis considered Thevar Magan to be one of the "films you must watch to grasp the breadth of Kamal Haasan's repertoire". Behindwoods included the scene in which Haasan's character takes over his father's duty as village head in its lists "Top 20 Mass Scenes" and "10 Mass Interval Blocks".
See also
List of submissions to the 65th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1990s Tamil-language films
1992 drama films
1992 films
Best Tamil Feature Film National Film Award winners
Films directed by Bharathan
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress National Film Award-winning performance
Films about feuds
Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja
Films set in Tamil Nadu
Films shot in Ooty
Films shot in Chennai
Films shot in Pollachi
Films shot in Madurai
Films shot in Tamil Nadu
Films that won the Best Audiography National Film Award
Films with screenplays by Kamal Haasan
Indian drama films
Tamil films remade in other languages |
4224812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20Channel%20%28British%20and%20Irish%20TV%20channel%29 | Disney Channel (British and Irish TV channel) | The Disney Channel was a British and Irish children's pay television channel owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company (UK) Ltd.
The channel was broadcast from 1 October 1995 to 1 October 2020. A one-hour timeshift channel called Disney Channel +1 was available on Sky and Virgin Media. At the time of closure, the channel had two sister channels, Disney Junior and Disney XD in the Republic of Ireland, that exist in Ireland and the United Kingdom.
History
Pre-launch
In 1989, Disney Channel UK would have been the first international Disney Channel to launch with the help of Sky Television, and the channel featured much of the promotional material surrounding the launch of Sky Television and the Astra satellite. However, the partnership and a proposed joint venture between The Walt Disney Company and Sky Television went into a lawsuit after the discussion regarding the joint venture took place in November 1988, but The Walt Disney Company felt that it was no longer on equal footing on "decision-making responsibility" in a 50-50 partnership. The Walt Disney Company was supposed to launch two new channels in the UK, but when the talks broke down, Sky filed a lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company, claiming ₤1.5 billion in damages. The Walt Disney Company claimed that it wanted to get more influence over decision-making in the partnership and change the terms of the partnership. The Walt Disney Company was also reluctant to provide its share of funding for The Disney Channel.
The lawsuit was later settled, and then The Walt Disney Company sold its joint-venture interest to Sky Television, and Sky went on to access the Walt Disney Pictures' movie library for 5 years. However, with these 5 years having expired, The Walt Disney Company went on to launch The Disney Channel in the United Kingdom without any interest in Sky, but formed a distribution deal with Sky, offering The Disney Channel for free to cable and satellite subscribers if they had subscribed to Sky's movie package. The Disney Channel was also available as a standalone package without having to subscribe to Sky's movie package.
Post-launch
On 7 December 1994, The Walt Disney Company announced that it had reached an agreement with the British Sky Broadcasting to launch The Disney Channel in the United Kingdom as a subscription service in the autumn of 1995. It was also announced that the channel would be accessible on Sky, and cable operators have already subscribed to the Sky Movies package. The Disney Channel UK will be the first brand with that name. Back in January 1994, The Walt Disney Company also announced its joint venture with CLT Multi Media to launch Super RTL in Germany. The new 50-50 partnership went well in Germany, and Super RTL was launched in April 1995, broadcasting throughout Germany and portions of Austria and Luxembourg.
On 25 August 1995, it was announced that The Disney Channel was set to launch in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 1 October 1995, broadcasting every day from 6 am to 10 pm on channel 26, timesharing with Sky Movies Gold on the Astra 1B satellite service. It was also announced that the channel would be subscription-only and not carry advertising. The track will deliver family entertainment, with all programming aimed at being suitable for all family members. The programming schedule features dramas, comedies, cartoons, documentaries, and feature films from the Disney archives, including the TV premieres of The Jungle Book and Cool Runnings. The advertising agency will be Mellors Reay & Partners during the channel's launch. At the same time, media services will be handled by BBJ Media Services Ltd. The Disney Channel eventually launched in the UK on Sky on 1 October 1995, becoming the second Disney Channel to be found outside the United States, next to Taiwan, which began on 29 March 1995. Its first broadcast was the UKTV premier of the 1967 film The Jungle Book.
Disney Channel UK's studios and broadcast playout facilities were mainly in Teddington Studios (where the defunct ITV franchisee Thames Television was based, which ended its broadcast in 1992, losing their franchise to Carlton), for its first year of broadcasting. Then, in late 1996, they were moved to Stephen Street (where Thames Television had its original headquarters). In 1994, the year before Disney Channel UK launched, Pearson acquired Thames Television's business. In the early years, Pearson also offered playout and transmission services for the Disney Channel.
Within two weeks after the launch of the channel, The Disney Channel had talks with the ITC (Independent Television Commission, now Ofcom) on how Disney's products, attractions, and services are promoted on the channel. The channel said it did not carry advertising at the time, but the ITC has talked about establishing clearly defined breaks for self-promoting its products and services. However, as Disney and ITC agreed, the breaks were signified by the appearance of the on-screen Disney Consumer Arcade motif.
In July 1997, the ITC revealed that Disney Channel's marketing methods were improper because the channel was supplied 'free' to cable customers who were already paying for a minimum of two premium film channels, including Sky Movies and The Movie Channel. Cable companies wanted to be able to supply the channel to subscribers as a standalone channel and as a bonus promotional channel for premium channel subscribers. In September 1997, Disney Channel decided to make more continuity links between programs. However, Corinthian Television permitted Disney Channel to make them at St. John's Wood Studios. After each run of interstitials, this resulted in the creation of the new live block, Disney Channel UK Live. During the same month, Disney Channel began to air more programs than movies, although the latter was still the main focus. Around this time, a preschool block called the "Under-Fives block" began airing, featuring mainly acquired preschool programming.
Following the ITC investigation, Disney Channel became available on Sky and cable operators as a separate premium channel on 2 March 1998. To promote the channel's new availability to cable operators, Disney Channel offered three days of unencrypted programming from 21 to 23 March 1998 as part of its 'Big Free For All' campaign. On 6 December 1998, Disney Channel UK announced that it had appointed Paul Robinson, the former managing director of Talk Radio, as its new managing director and vice president. He was responsible for the channel's day-to-day operations, including all programming and marketing. Paul Robinson took over Tom Wszalek's place, later becoming the senior vice president for Walt Disney Television International's digital TV development.
On 15 February 1999, Disney Channel introduced an evening movie slot that airs different family movies every night at 7 pm. The first movie to air on this new movie slot was The Sword in the Stone. To promote the slot, Disney Channel hired Creative Forager to set up a particular build site at London's Cromwell Road, featuring a lounge set that includes a sofa with Mickey Mouse head-shaped pillows, a lamp, and a TV. At 7 pm every weeknight, a real family would sit on the sofa together to watch the movie. This resulted in a 300% increase in viewing figures for the Disney Channel's new movie slot. On 1 September 1999, Disney Channel was relaunched and rolled out a daily schedule structure that includes the preschool zone (also known as Playhouse Disney) from 9 am to 2 pm, the Children's Zone from 2 pm to 7 pm, and the Family Zone (also known as The Wonderful World of Disney) from 7 pm to 12 am the next day. With the changes, the Playhouse Disney-branded programming block in the UK was the first Playhouse Disney to launch outside the United States.
The lineup for the preschool zone between 9 am to 2 pm will include Winnie the Pooh, and a cookery series Bite Size, which Walt Disney Television International UK produced. The lineup for the Children's Zone consists of an animated adaption of the 1996 TV sitcom Sabrina the Teenage Witch, which was entitled Sabrina: The Animated Series. Buena Vista Productions continued to supply more shows on the Disney Channel UK Live block, such as Microsoap and Crash Zone, which was also being produced by the BBC and the Australian Children's Television Foundation (which in-credit was the Seven Network) respectively. The lineup for the Family Zone will also include the evening movie slot, which already premiered on 15 February of that year at 7 pm
In 2000, Corinthian became part of Thomson Multimedia and was known as Corthinian Television Facilities. However, Corthinian quickly noticed that their company would make a lot more money if they had to look after all the channel requirements, including its post-production and playout, and not just the live studio links. In September 2000, Disney Channel UK launched three additional sister channels on the BSkyB Digital satellite TV service. The three new channels were an separate Playhouse Disney channel, which broadcast 15 hours of preschool content from the 5-hour preschool block of the same name; Toon Disney, which focused on cartoons and behind-the-scenes documentaries; and Disney Channel +1, which was the one-hour timeshift of Disney Channel. Until 2002 and 2003, respectively, these networks were not available on NTL or Telewest, both of which at the time could still only receive Disney Channel. Likely due to this, the Playhouse Disney block remained on the air until July 2004.
Paul Robinson also stated that the new structure helps Disney address the problem of having "different channels in one." A channel consisting of cartoons, preschool programs, and family entertainment in one schedule meant "someone was always upset." With the launch of these two dedicated channels, Disney should throw its whole weight behind each segment while simultaneously meeting the needs of different age groups. Toon Disney was also crucial for Disney's marketing strategy, as it was known for providing a dedicated outlet for the world's best-known animation factory. Before Toon Disney UK's launch in September 2000, Paul Robinson stated that only a third of Disney Channel's broadcast time was spent on cartoons. However, a 24-hour cartoon channel was an obvious decision. While there was much more time to play with the schedule, Disney had to fit in original animations over the cartoon classics it is best known for. Before these two sister channels were launched in September, Disney Channel had 4 million subscribers, a million more than in 1998. However, Disney Channel UK's rivals at the time, Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon, had around 7 million subscribers. Still, these channels were in basic cable or satellite packages, while Disney Channel was a premium channel.
In May 2001, Disney Channel UK introduced a new live block slot entitled Studio Disney UK, airing from 3 pm to 7 pm on weekdays. The programming block featured live links between cartoons, dramas, and comedies. Disney Channel UK had a live block before the launch of the Studio Disney brand, but they decided to rebrand it into "a proper name and identity" and make the show feel "more pacey and quirky." Static Design, the production design arm of Static 2358 (now defunct), had designed the identity of Disney Channel UK's new live block, in addition to an on-screen package including ten idents, stings, on-screen bugs, program menus, and a style guide. Studio Disney UK also featured a team of two to six presenters who did the live links in between programs and also allowed viewers to phone in and win prizes or appear as part of the small studio audience. On 30 June 2001, Disney Channel ceased broadcasting on Sky's analog satellite service. At the time, Disney Channel stated that only 99% of its viewers were digital customers. Switching their services to digital meant more money for their customers to receive new channels, such as Disney's new sister channels and Disney Channel's +1 timeshift service, and viewers who already received Disney Channel got their new additional Sky Movie channels through Sky Digital.
In 2002, Disney Channel's operations were significantly expanded because of an insufficient room at St. John's Wood Studios, so they should have a contract to fulfill; Corinthian took out a lease on a £15m purpose-built facility at West London's Chiswick Park (which was 85,000 ft in size), and the Disney Channel relocated their European operations hub there, with Corinthian responsible for everything in terms of providing broadcasting facilities for the Disney Channel.
Disney Channel's new studio facilities in Chiswick featured two new studios (with control rooms), ten non-linear editing suites, two 3D graphic origination suites, and a multi-control transmission and playout facility (which has six transmission master control facilities and four multi-language audio dubbing suites). The operation was one of the first-ever fully file-based automated environments involving a digital robotic archive storage, digital asset management services, and a server-based automated transmission playout. Two studios, which were not particularly large, were fully utilized, with one being the base for Studio Disney and the other one used regularly for kids gameshows and other shows. This included the talent show Star Ticket.
On 17 August 2004, BSkyB announced its deal with The Walt Disney Company to launch a Disney Channel-branded games service on Sky Gamestar, which is in the Games section of Sky's interactive services on its digital platform. The new service, Disney Channel Play, was available to Sky Digital's 7 million customers. It was also available through all four Disney channels (including Disney Channel, Disney Channel +1, Playhouse Disney, and Toon Disney). All games had free demos, which viewers must pay to extend their playing for longer or on a per-play or per-day basis. On 1 September 2004, Disney Channel expanded its hours to be airing overnight temporary. However, the channel returned to being a 24-hour service permanently on 11 September 2017 until the closure, with the night schedule airing reruns of the German children's TV series Binny and the Ghost (known as Billie and the Ghost in the United Kingdom), the Argentine soap opera Violetta, and their in-house production The Evermoor Chronicles. In November 2004, Corinthian's parent company, Thomson Multimedia, was rebranded as Technicolor after purchasing the American film technology company of the same name. However, Corinthian became part of Technicolor Network Services. However, Technicolor continued to provide playout services for the Disney Channel until its contract expired in 2012.
On 1 July 2005, Studio Disney and other associated spin-off shows, also produced by the studio and co-produced with other studios, ended. However, with the changes, the studios (the home of the finished shows) were mothballed, the production crews working for these shows were made redundant, and the cameras at these studios were removed. Still, some equipment from these same studios was moved into various post-production suites around the building. However, while Disney Channel was the final British children's TV channel to stop operating live studio links during after-school hours, the free-to-air children's TV channel CBBC continued to produce these live-studio links; Disney Channel's rival pay-TV channel Nickelodeon had already stopped doing these; and the children's block on ITV1 and CITV also ended live-studio links a year ago.
On 16 March 2006, changes were made to Disney services in the UK. Disney Channel and Playhouse Disney in the UK stopped being premium add-on channels and operated as part of basic-level subscription packages, joining Jetix. However, this resulted in the "premium" aspect of Disney Channel (which includes Walt Disney Pictures' movies and a selection of Disney-branded animation) being merged with Toon Disney to launch a new channel, Disney Cinemagic, which was a premium channel included as a standalone channel and as a bonus channel as part of Sky's movie packages. Toon Disney was replaced with Disney Cinemagic; Toon Disney closed at 6 am, and Disney Cinemagic launched at 10 am. Disney Channel +1 closed and was replaced with Disney Cinemagic +1. However, Disney Channel +1 subsequently returned in June 2006. During the same month, Disney Channel changed its focus to air more original sitcoms, changing its demographic mostly towards girls. However, these changes did not affect Playhouse Disney and continued its usual preschool programming formula. However, an archive sports channel, ESPN Classic, was also launched on 13 March, which was three days before the launch of Disney Cinemagic in the UK. In October 2006, Disney Channel was added to Top Up TV Anytime, which downloads programming overnight from various channels to a Thomson DTI 6300-16. In 2007, Disney added more On Demand content to Virgin Media's service.
In late 2007, BSkyB announced their plans to launch their pay-TV service on DTT, as well as Freeview's offering, entitled Picnic. However, the purpose of Picnic was to offer a cheaper but limited offering compared to the Sky Digital satellite package for those without a satellite dish. Disney Channel became part of the service, and the channel was supposed to air from 6 am to 6 pm only on the new service. After Disney Channel joined Sky's proposed service, Picnic, Rob Gilby, the managing director of Disney Channel UK, stated, "Our strategy is to make Disney channels available via as many potential platforms as possible. Pay DTT is a natural next step for us, as Disney Channel is an advertising-free, subscription-only service." However, Picnic was cleared by Ofcom for its proposed launch in 2008, but Sky already put Picnic on hold in 2008 due to indecisiveness on Ofcom's part. Picnic became Now TV, an OTT internet streaming service that was launched in July 2012. Before 2016, Disney Channel, Disney Junior, and Disney XD were also part of the service.
In January 2009, Disney Channel UK announced that it would launch an in-house sales team to forge commercial deals for the channel, both online (disney.co.uk) and on-air. It was opened up to allow brands to associate themselves with popular Disney Channel properties, including Hannah Montana and High School Musical, for the first time. This also includes sponsorship around popular Disney Channel shows and movies, support for special events, and integrated campaigns across online and mobile platforms. Despite this change to have sponsorship, Disney Channel UK remained advertising-free.
The channel began broadcasting in 16:9 widescreen in May 2010. A new set of program mini-idents that would play before the program would start were launched in September 2010. In September 2011, a new logo was adopted. The same month, an HD version launched on Sky.
In 2012, Technicolor's playout contract for the Disney Channel across the United Kingdom and Ireland expired, and Encompass became the new playout provider and continued to provide playout services for the Disney Channel until the channel's closure. During the channel's history, Disney has always outsourced its playout operations; thus, it never had an internal in-house process. However, over time, it brought some media functions in-house, such as production.
On 1 July 2013, Disney Channel and Disney Junior (formerly Playhouse Disney) began to carry advertising. During the same month, a new website was launched with On Demand services. However, on 28 March 2013, Disney UK fully exited the premium TV market (except ESPN) with the closure of Disney Cinemagic in the country. Despite the changes, Disney has signed up with Sky for its movie content deal to launch Sky Movies Disney. However, the deal led to Disney's premium offering becoming part of Sky's movie channels and Sky's on-demand service, allowing viewers to access and watch movies from Disney in the same place as other movies from other movie studios. Disney would no longer have the option to launch another premium movie channel and would focus on the essential pay-TV market. Sadly, this resulted in the loss of the children's TV animation programming Disney Cinemagic aired, which would mean Disney might be relinquishing control to Sky (under strict branding rules as part of the licensing agreement) and the loss of the subscription standalone option. Although it is not confirmed, it was likely that Disney's exit from the British premium pay-TV market (with revenue from Disney Cinemagic subscriptions, possibly subsidizing both Disney Channel and Disney Junior) was connected to Disney's plan to introduce advertising on Disney Channel and its sister channel Disney Junior in July 2013.
Disney Channel left the Now TV streaming service in 2016, a few months after the launch of DisneyLife (now Disney+) in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Nat Geo Wild was launched on the Disney Channel's original slot. At the time, the channel was not owned by Disney; it was acquired during the 21st Century Fox acquisition.
Before the relaunch of DisneyLife to Disney+ in March 2020, DisneyLife also offered internet streams of Disney Channel, Disney XD, and Disney Junior, in addition to showing programming on-demand as part of the service. However, DisneyLife's replacement, Disney+, didn't include these streams; it might have been a sign that linear TV channels have such a future.
Closure
On 3 June 2020, it was announced that David Levine, Disney's vice president of kids programming for the British, European, and African channels, and the general manager for Disney Channel UK, would leave the company on 30 June 2020. On 25 June 2020, it was announced that Disney Channel UK would leave the airwaves in favour of Disney+. Disney Channel, along with its sister channels Disney Junior and Disney XD, closed at midnight BST on 1 October 2020. The closure occurred exactly 25 years after the channel launched in 1995. The YouTube channel of the network however, continues to remain active after the closure.
The channels were removed from Virgin Media and Sky, and their content was moved exclusively to Disney+. The final programme to be broadcast before its closure was the 2019 film Descendants 3. It then showed adverts and "I Want This" from Raven's Home, followed by an ident that froze for a few seconds and then cut to an image slide featuring the channel's logo, signalling the channel's closure.
The channels were removed from Virgin Media on September 29, the day before the shutdown, with CBBC and CBeebies taking the network's former Sky EPG slots on 1 October. In November 2020, the broadcast licences of Disney Channel UK, Disney XD UK, and Disney Junior UK were handed back to Ofcom, along with other Disney-branded European children's TV channels' broadcasting licences. Due to Brexit, a lot of these European feeds now have broadcast licences handled in Spain, authorised by the Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (also known as CMNC). Sky Movies Disney closed two months later, on 30 December 2020, which meant that Disney+ became the home of Disney movies in the UK and Ireland. However, Fox UK closed down on 30 June 2021, leaving only National Geographic and BabyTV as the only Disney-owned pay TV channels in the UK.
After the shutdown of Disney Channel UK, Disney vacated the building at Chiswick Park, and the building was handed back to the property's landlord in June 2021. Even at the end of Disney's occupancy, the building still had two attached studios that were installed when Disney moved there. However, the facility was no longer needed due to the move to digital streaming distribution via Disney's streaming platform, Disney+. Disney still has its EMEA headquarters in Queen Caroline Street in Hammersmith, London (which is 3 miles away from their original headquarters).
Programming
The majority of the channel's programming schedule was formed from the syndication of television series from its American counterpart. However, the channel did occasionally act as host for homegrown UK and Irish series, including The Evermoor Chronicles, The Lodge, 101 Dalmatian Street, and Sadie Sparks. Disney Channel UK also produced more shows and many interstitials, including Life Bites (a localised version of Life Bites – Pillole di vita), As the Bell Rings (a localised version of Quelli dell'intervallo), Hannah-Oke (a karaoke series with songs from the hit TV series Hannah Montana), Get the Look, First Class Chefs, Access All Areas, and Royal Ranch.
In March 2014, Disney Channel announced a multi-part movie entitled Evermoor (now a TV series entitled The Evermoor Chronicles) to be filmed in the UK. The mystery adventure film was shot on location in England and became the first long-form British series to be aired on the American version of the Disney Channel. Lime Pictures (known for the British TV series Hollyoaks and The Only Way Is Essex) produced Evermoor along with Disney's EMEA television studio.
On 18 March 2019, Disney Channel UK premiered the new locally produced animated TV series 101 Dalmatian Street. The show was based on a pitch by Finland's Gigglebug Entertainment (owned by Anttu Harlin and Joonas Utti) to Disney's original animation team in London. Both of the Disney's 101 Dalmatians movies (including the animated and live-action versions), both of which were in turn based on Dodie Smith's original 1956 novel of the same name, were referenced as inspirations behind 101 Dalmatian Street. Disney's production team developed the plot, along with Passion Animation Studios for the plot and Atomic Cartoons for the external animation services.
Interactivity
Disney Channel formerly had an interactive television service on Sky, in which viewers were able to press the red button on their Sky remote to access information about their series, character profiles, detailed television listings, quizzes, and messages submitted by viewers.
Website
Disney Channel's website featured information, games, interactive features, contact details, and submission forms. The site had been made entirely in Adobe Flash since 1 May 1999, the same day as the 1999 rebrand. In May 2003, it was redesigned to fit with the other Disney Channels worldwide after the global rebrand. In 2007, it was added to disneychannel.co.uk when the website's homepage was revamped to fit the look of the American site. In 2011, along with the other Disney sites, it was revamped. In September 2011, it was revamped once again due to the new logo.
Presentation
During the channel's launch, The Production Design Company (then part of Pearson Television, now defunct) did title sequences, channel promotions, and channel campaigns for The Disney Channel. The Disney Channel's first international (including the United Kingdom) branding was designed by Lambie-Nairn (founded by Martin Lambie-Nairn, now a part of Superunion). Lambie-Nairn designed the identity, resembling various playful animations that would end up with the iconic simplified Mickey Mouse head silhouette alone on-screen and 'The Disney Channel' text on the bottom. When the Disney Channel expanded to other markets, it also brought its identity with it.
Regarding his first branding work on The Disney Channel, Martin Lambie-Nairn himself stated: "Disney was one of the world's biggest and most powerful brands. When Disney decided to extend their Disney Channel franchise to the UK, they recognised the need to take cultural differences outside the United States into account. The task was to customise the well-known brand for television viewers in the UK and elsewhere. Their solution was simple yet devastatingly effective. Following the success of their branding identity in the UK, Disney proceeded with their plan to use it in other TV territories around the globe."
However, similar to how Lambie-Nairn designed the branding package for Carlton, the third ITV London weekday franchise that debuted in 1993, The Disney Channel UK's launch branding package also made use of the Gill Sans typeface, 2 years before their usage in Lambie-Nairn's new branding package for the BBC, where the font came to be used on-air, including their logos and presentation (up until 2021/2022, when they began to use the in-house Reith typeface).
In July 1997, Disney Channel UK was relaunched following the launch of Disney Channel France. Since then, the splat logo has been used as one of the original launch idents made by Lambie-Nairn. With the new branding made by a French production design company, Jus De Prod, the new idents feature any red and blue objects form the Mickey Mouse head logo. Before the relaunch, the channel was branded "The Disney Channel", but during the rebrand, the name was shortened to "Disney Channel".
On 1 September 1999, Disney Channel UK was relaunched by a French production company, GÉDÉON; the new branding was also applied to almost all of Disney Channel's worldwide networks, except for the United States. The branding was entitled the "Circles" era. The new branding package also focused on the Mickey Mouse head and ears symbol; all the self-promotion kits and idents for the channel start and end with it. According to GÉDÉON, the new logo was described as an "experimental field for animation". More than 30 illustrators, animators, graphic designers, and directors, including Gamma Studios and Velvet mediendesign worked on the project. When the new look was first launched, nine identifications aired on the same day. In addition, when Toon Disney and Playhouse Disney launched in the UK, these channels also followed the same branding scheme "Circles", from the international versions of Disney Channel at the time.
In 2003, Disney Channel UK was rebranded using the American version branding package made by American production company Razorfish (which then became CA Square, now part of Realistic Studio). However, the new branding was also a global rollout, and this was the first time they put the worldwide versions of the channel's presentation in line with the American channel. However, the branding took 12 months to complete, and it was the first time that the international versions had been rebranded its logo for more than 5 years. The new branding also involves a "contemporary combination" of the Walt Disney signature and a three-circle shape symbolising the Mickey Mouse head and ears, with the logo being on the corner commonly seen in bumpers and as an on-screen bug. As stated by Disney, this new branding package also has the flexibility for markets to incorporate local references. It was entitled the "Bounce" era, as the Disney Channel logo mainly bounces during bumpers.
In 2007, Disney Channel UK was rebranded, keeping the Bounce era with a slight refresh. However, the era was entitled the "Ribbon" era. Despite the name, it was often referred to as a ribbon twirling around 3D elements of the idents and bumpers. The branding package was made by New Wave Entertainment, which also developed more than 400 elements for the relaunch. The rebranding project was led by Mary Snyder.
In September 2011, Disney Channel UK was rebranded using the American version branding package that features the smartphone-like version of the Disney Channel logo. The branding package was produced by Pembrook Creative, which also designed Radio Disney's final logo. Pembrook Creative also created the graphics for the Digital Signage to promote the launch of Disney XD in the United States in 2009. At the time, the graphics could be seen at ABC's headquarters in Times Square in New York.
During the "Smartphone App logo" era, Beautiful Creative also designed a movie bumper for the Disney Channel. In addition, Beautiful Creative also provided the branding for the Disney Channel Top 10. The show features the top 10 countdowns of Disney moments, such as the top 10 Disney movies.
During Disney Channel UK's final decade, the branding also had a more seasonal approach, with various studios providing the branding packages for the Disney Channel, including Mainframe for the Summer 2012 branding package, and Modus Operandi (also shortened as Modus) for the Summer 2013 promo branding package.
In 2014, Disney Channel UK was rebranded using a branding package made by BDA Creative. Back in summer 2013, BDA Creative won a contract to produce a branding package for the Disney Channel, which was set to roll out worldwide.
BDA Creative also produced various idents, a generic package, a primetime package, and seasonal packages such as Summer, Autumn and Winter, plus two specials for Monstober and Falalali Days. The rebrand didn't have an official name, so the rebrand also features several curves in its presentation. However, the branding won a Promax North America 2015 Gold award in the Program Informational category.
In February 2017, Disney Channel UK had its final rebrand. Unlike the other branding packages (which were designed by others), the rebrand package was designed in-house at Disney EMEA, led by Paul Noddings (also known as NoddyDog). The branding package was different from the United States, Latin America, and Asia-Pacific branding packages (which were made by MakinÉ Studios and came almost a year after the EMEA branding package), and it was rolled out across websites, social media, advertising, the new Disney Channel app, and also the TV channel. The rebranding package also featured vibrancy and playfulness by using strong, bold colors, eye-popping patterns, and whimsical doodles, which brought out the individual personalities of each Disney Channel show and its stars. A style guide was also produced, providing instructions to each Disney Channel feed in the EMEA on how the rebrand should be implemented.
During Summer 2020, Disney Channel UK had their own final summer look (or a sub-rebrand); the branding package was developed by Philip Knock and Jadane Carey at The Strand Creative Studio (now Level UK) in Derby, England. The summer package also had an 80s-like vaporwave look.
References
External links
Disney television channels in the United Kingdom
British and Irish
Children's television channels in Ireland
Children's television channels in the United Kingdom
English-language television stations in the United Kingdom
English-language television stations in Ireland
Television channels and stations established in 1995
1995 establishments in Ireland
1995 establishments in the United Kingdom
2020 disestablishments in Ireland
2020 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2020
Defunct television channels in the United Kingdom |
4224978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable%20model%20semantics | Stable model semantics | The concept of a stable model, or answer set, is used to define a declarative semantics for logic programs with negation as failure. This is one of several standard approaches to the meaning of negation in logic programming, along with program completion and the well-founded semantics. The stable model semantics is the basis of
answer set programming.
Motivation
Research on the declarative semantics of negation in logic programming was motivated by the fact that the behavior of SLDNF resolution—the generalization of SLD resolution used by Prolog in the presence of negation in the bodies of rules—does not fully match the truth tables familiar from classical propositional logic. Consider, for instance, the program
Given this program, the query will succeed, because the program includes as a fact; the query will fail, because it does not occur in the head of any of the rules. The query will fail also, because the only rule with in the head contains the subgoal in its body; as we have seen, that subgoal fails. Finally, the query succeeds, because each of the subgoals , succeeds. (The latter succeeds because the corresponding positive goal fails.) To sum up, the behavior of SLDNF resolution on the given program can be represented by the following truth assignment:
{| cellpadding=5 style="width:18em"
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|-
|T
|F
|F
|T.
|}
On the other hand, the rules of the given program can be viewed as propositional formulas if we identify the comma with conjunction , the symbol with negation , and agree to treat as the implication written backwards. For instance, the last rule of the given program is, from this point of view, alternative notation for the propositional formula
If we calculate the truth values of the rules of the program for the truth assignment shown above then we will see that each rule gets the value T. In other words, that assignment is a model of the program. But this program has also other models, for instance
{| cellpadding=5 style="width:18em"
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|-
|T
|T
|T
|F.
|}
Thus one of the models of the given program is special in the sense that it correctly represents the behavior of SLDNF resolution. What are the mathematical properties of that model that make it special? An answer to this question is provided by the definition of a stable model.
Relation to nonmonotonic logic
The meaning of negation in logic programs is closely related to two theories of nonmonotonic reasoning—autoepistemic logic and default logic. The discovery of these relationships was a key step towards the invention of the stable model semantics.
The syntax of autoepistemic logic uses a modal operator that allows us to distinguish between what is true and what is known. Michael Gelfond [1987] proposed to read in the body of a rule as " is not known", and to understand a rule with negation as the corresponding formula of autoepistemic logic. The stable model semantics, in its basic form, can be viewed as a reformulation of this idea that avoids explicit references to autoepistemic logic.
In default logic, a default is similar to an inference rule, except that it includes, besides its premises and conclusion, a list of formulas called justifications. A default can be used to derive its conclusion under the assumption that its justifications are consistent with what is currently known. Nicole Bidoit and Christine Froidevaux [1987] proposed to treat negated atoms in the bodies of rules as justifications. For instance, the rule
can be understood as the default that allows us to derive from assuming that is consistent. The stable model semantics uses the same idea, but it does not explicitly refer to default logic.
Stable models
The definition of a stable model below, reproduced from [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1988], uses two conventions. First, a truth assignment is identified with the set of atoms that get the value T. For instance, the truth assignment
{| cellpadding=5 style="width:18em"
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|T
|F
|F
|T.
|}
is identified with the set . This convention allows us to use the set inclusion relation to compare truth assignments with each other. The smallest of all truth assignments is the one that makes every atom false; the largest truth assignment makes every atom true.
Second, a logic program with variables is viewed as shorthand for the set of all ground instances of its rules, that is, for the result of substituting variable-free terms for variables in the rules of the program in all possible ways. For instance, the logic programming definition of even numbers
is understood as the result of replacing in this program by the ground terms
in all possible ways. The result is the infinite ground program
Definition
Let be a set of rules of the form
where are ground atoms. If does not contain negation ( in every rule of the program) then, by definition, the only stable model of is its model that is minimal relative to set inclusion. (Any program without negation has exactly one minimal model.) To extend this definition to the case of programs with negation, we need the auxiliary concept of the reduct, defined as follows.
For any set of ground atoms, the reduct of relative to is the set of rules without negation obtained from by first dropping every rule such that at least one of the atoms in its body
belongs to , and then dropping the parts from the bodies of all remaining rules.
We say that is a stable model of if is the stable model of the reduct of relative to . (Since the reduct does not contain negation, its stable model has been already defined.) As the term "stable model" suggests, every stable model of is a model of .
Example
To illustrate these definitions, let us check that is a stable model of the program
The reduct of this program relative to is
(Indeed, since , the reduct is obtained from the program by dropping the part ) The stable model of the reduct is . (Indeed, this set of atoms satisfies every rule of the reduct, and it has no proper subsets with the same property.) Thus after computing the stable model of the reduct we arrived at the same set that we started with. Consequently, that set is a stable model.
Checking in the same way the other 15 sets consisting of the atoms shows that this program has no other stable models. For instance, the reduct of the program relative to is
The stable model of the reduct is , which is different from the set that we started with.
Programs without a unique stable model
A program with negation may have many stable models or no stable models. For instance, the program
has two stable models , . The one-rule program
has no stable models.
If we think of the stable model semantics as a description of the behavior of Prolog in the presence of negation then programs without a unique stable model can be judged unsatisfactory: they do not provide an unambiguous specification for Prolog-style query answering. For instance, the two programs above are not reasonable as Prolog programs—SLDNF resolution does not terminate on them.
But the use of stable models in answer set programming provides a different perspective on such programs. In that programming paradigm, a given search problem is represented by a logic program so that the stable models of the program correspond to solutions. Then programs with many stable models correspond to problems with many solutions, and programs without stable models correspond to unsolvable problems. For instance, the eight queens puzzle has 92 solutions; to solve it using answer set programming, we encode it by a logic program with 92 stable models. From this point of view, logic programs with exactly one stable model are rather special in answer set programming, like polynomials with exactly one root in algebra.
Properties of the stable model semantics
In this section, as in the definition of a stable model above, by a logic program we mean a set of rules of the form
where are ground atoms.
Head atoms If an atom belongs to a stable model of a logic program then is the head of one of the rules of .
Minimality Any stable model of a logic program is minimal among the models of relative to set inclusion.
The antichain property If and are stable models of the same logic program then is not a proper subset of . In other words, the set of stable models of a program is an antichain.
NP-completeness Testing whether a finite ground logic program has a stable model is NP-complete.
Relation to other theories of negation as failure
Program completion
Any stable model of a finite ground program is not only a model of the program itself, but also a model of its completion [Marek and Subrahmanian, 1989]. The converse, however, is not true. For instance, the completion of the one-rule program
is the tautology . The model of this tautology is a stable model of , but its other model is not. François Fages [1994] found a syntactic condition on logic programs that eliminates such counterexamples and guarantees the stability of every model of the program's completion. The programs that satisfy his condition are called tight.
Fangzhen Lin and Yuting Zhao [2004] showed how to make the completion of a nontight program stronger so that all its nonstable models will be eliminated. The additional formulas that they add to the completion are called loop formulas.
Well-founded semantics
The well-founded model of a logic program partitions all ground atoms into three sets: true, false and unknown. If an atom is true in the well-founded model of then it belongs to every stable model of . The converse, generally, does not hold. For instance, the program
has two stable models, and . Even though belongs to both of them, its value in the well-founded model is unknown.
Furthermore, if an atom is false in the well-founded model of a program then it does not belong to any of its stable models. Thus the well-founded model of a logic program provides a lower bound on the intersection of its stable models and an upper bound on their union.
Strong negation
Representing incomplete information
From the perspective of knowledge representation, a set of ground atoms can be thought of as a description of a complete state of knowledge: the atoms that belong to the set are known to be true, and the atoms that do not belong to the set are known to be false. A possibly incomplete state of knowledge can be described using a consistent but possibly incomplete set of literals; if an atom does not belong to the set and its negation does not belong to the set either then it is not known whether is true or false.
In the context of logic programming, this idea leads to the need to distinguish between two kinds of negation—negation as failure, discussed above, and strong negation, which is denoted here by . The following example, illustrating the difference between the two kinds of negation, belongs to John McCarthy. A school bus may cross railway tracks under the condition that there is no approaching train. If we do not necessarily know whether a train is approaching then the rule using negation as failure
is not an adequate representation of this idea: it says that it's okay to cross in the absence of information about an approaching train. The weaker rule, that uses strong negation in the body, is preferable:
It says that it's okay to cross if we know that no train is approaching.
Coherent stable models
To incorporate strong negation in the theory of stable models, Gelfond and Lifschitz [1991] allowed each of the expressions , , in a rule
to be either an atom or an atom prefixed with the strong negation symbol. Instead of stable models, this generalization uses answer sets, which may include both atoms and atoms prefixed with strong negation.
An alternative approach [Ferraris and Lifschitz, 2005] treats strong negation as a part of an atom, and it does not require any changes in the definition of a stable model. In this theory of strong negation, we distinguish between atoms of two kinds, positive and negative, and assume that each negative atom is an expression of the form , where is a positive atom. A set of atoms is called coherent if it does not contain "complementary" pairs of atoms . Coherent stable models of a program are identical to its consistent answer sets in the sense of [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991].
For instance, the program
has two stable models, and . The first model is coherent; the second is not, because it contains both the atom and the atom .
Closed world assumption
According to [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991], the closed world assumption for a predicate can be expressed by the rule
(the relation does not hold for a tuple if there is no evidence that it does). For instance, the stable model of the program
consists of 2 positive atoms
and 14 negative atoms
i.e., the strong negations of all other positive ground atoms formed from .
A logic program with strong negation can include the closed world assumption rules for some of its predicates and leave the other predicates in the realm of the open world assumption.
Programs with constraints
The stable model semantics has been generalized to many kinds of logic programs other than collections of "traditional" rules discussed above—rules of the form
where are atoms. One simple extension allows programs to contain constraints—rules with the empty head:
Recall that a traditional rule can be viewed as alternative notation for a propositional formula if we identify the comma with conjunction , the symbol with negation , and agree to treat as the implication written backwards. To extend this convention to constraints, we identify a constraint with the negation of the formula corresponding to its body:
We can now extend the definition of a stable model to programs with constraints. As in the case of traditional programs, to define stable models, we begin with programs that do not contain negation. Such a program may be inconsistent; then we say that it has no stable models. If such a program is consistent then has a unique minimal model, and that model is considered the only stable model of .
Next, stable models of arbitrary programs with constraints are defined using reducts, formed in the same way as in the case of traditional programs (see the definition of a stable model above). A set of atoms is a stable model of a program with constraints if the reduct of relative to has a stable model, and that stable model equals .
The properties of the stable model semantics stated above for traditional programs hold in the presence of constraints as well.
Constraints play an important role in answer set programming because adding a constraint to a logic program affects the collection of stable models of in a very simple way: it eliminates the stable models that violate the constraint. In other words, for any program with constraints and any constraint , the stable models of can be characterized as the stable models of that satisfy .
Disjunctive programs
In a disjunctive rule, the head may be the disjunction of several atoms:
(the semicolon is viewed as alternative notation for disjunction ). Traditional rules correspond to , and constraints to . To extend the stable model semantics to disjunctive programs [Gelfond and Lifschitz, 1991], we first define that in the absence of negation ( in each rule) the stable models of a program are its minimal models. The definition of the reduct for disjunctive programs remains the same as before. A set of atoms is a stable model of if is a stable model of the reduct of relative to .
For example, the set is a stable model of the disjunctive program
because it is one of two minimal models of the reduct
The program above has one more stable model, .
As in the case of traditional programs, each element of any stable model of a disjunctive program is a head atom of , in the sense that it occurs in the head of one of the rules of . As in the traditional case, the stable models of a disjunctive program are minimal and form an antichain. Testing whether a finite disjunctive program has a stable model is -complete [ and Gottlob, 1993].
Stable models of a set of propositional formulas
Rules, and even disjunctive rules, have a rather special syntactic form, in comparison with arbitrary propositional formulas. Each disjunctive rule is essentially an implication such that its antecedent (the body of the rule) is a conjunction of literals, and its consequent (head) is a disjunction of atoms. David Pearce [1997] and Paolo Ferraris [2005] showed how to extend the definition of a stable model to sets of arbitrary propositional formulas. This generalization has applications to answer set programming.
Pearce's formulation looks very different from the original definition of a stable model. Instead of reducts, it refers to equilibrium logic—a system of nonmonotonic logic based on Kripke models. Ferraris's formulation, on the other hand, is based on reducts, although the process of constructing the reduct that it uses differs from the one described above. The two approaches to defining stable models for sets of propositional formulas are equivalent to each other.
General definition of a stable model
According to [Ferraris, 2005], the reduct of a propositional formula relative to a set of atoms is the formula obtained from by replacing each maximal subformula that is not satisfied by with the logical constant (false). The reduct of a set of propositional formulas relative to consists of the reducts of all formulas from relative to . As in the case of disjunctive programs, we say that a set of atoms is a stable model of if is minimal (with respect to set inclusion) among the models of the reduct of relative to .
For instance, the reduct of the set
relative to is
Since is a model of the reduct, and the proper subsets of that set are not models of the reduct, is a stable model of the given set of formulas.
We have seen that is also a stable model of the same formula, written in logic programming notation, in the sense of the original definition. This is an instance of a general fact: in application to a set of (formulas corresponding to) traditional rules, the definition of a stable model according to Ferraris is equivalent to the original definition. The same is true, more generally, for programs with constraints and for disjunctive programs.
Properties of the general stable model semantics
The theorem asserting that all elements of any stable model of a program are head atoms of can be extended to sets of propositional formulas, if we define head atoms as follows. An atom is a head atom of a set of propositional formulas if at least one occurrence of in a formula from is neither in the scope of a negation nor in the antecedent of an implication. (We assume here that equivalence is treated as an abbreviation, not a primitive connective.)
The minimality and the antichain property of stable models of a traditional program do not hold in the general case. For instance, (the singleton set consisting of) the formula
has two stable models, and . The latter is not minimal, and it is a proper superset of the former.
Testing whether a finite set of propositional formulas has a stable model is -complete, as in the case of disjunctive programs.
See also
Answer set programming
Logic programming
Negation as failure
Notes
References
Logic programming |
4225440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam%20literature | Sangam literature | The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், caṅka ilakkiyam) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ) connotes the ancient Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India. The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around Madurai and Kapāṭapuram : the first over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years before the start of the common era. Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical. Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era spanned from to 300 CE, while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil, a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and the colophons.
The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in the monasteries of Hinduism, near Kumbakonam, by colonial-era scholars in the late nineteenth century. The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises an Urtext of oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections"), the Pathuppaattu anthology (the "Ten Songs"). The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, after c. 250 CE but before c. 600 CE – is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.
This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature, with Kapilar – the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus. These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long. The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love (akam) and war (puram), with the exception of the shorter poems such as in Paripaatal which is more religious and praise Vishnu and Murugan.
On their significance, Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan, "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius." The Sangam literature also includes Buddhist and Jainist epics.
Nomenclature and tradition
Sangam literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia. The first has roots in the Hindu deity Shiva, his son Murugan, Kubera as well as 545 sages including the famed Rigvedic poet Agastya. The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman. The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the Akattiyam and the Tolkāppiyam survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.
A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend. The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in Tirupputtur Tantakam by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century Tiruvilaiyatal puranam by Perumparrap Nampi. The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of Ettuttokai):
Netuntokai nanuru (400 long poems)
Kuruntokai anuru (400 short poems)
Narrinai (400 Tinai landscape poems)
Purananuru (400 Outer poems)
Ainkurunuru (500 very short poems)
Patirruppattu (Ten Tens)
These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and Classical literature should be used instead. According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the Mahabharata into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam".
According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry". The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as caṅka ilakkiyam or "Sangam age poetry".
Authors
The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous. According to Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers. At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.
Compilations
The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku ("the eighteen greater text series") comprising Ettuthogai (or Ettuttokai, "Eight Anthologies") and the Pattuppāṭṭu ("Ten Idylls"). According to Takanobu Takahashi, this compilation is as follows:
Classification
Sangam literature is broadly classified into akam (, inner), and puram (, outer). The akam poetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. The puram poetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life. Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry is akam themed, and about one fourth is puram.
Sangam literature, both akam and puram, can be subclassified into seven minor genre called tiṇai (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set. These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), pastoral forests; marutam (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; neytal (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; pālai (பாலை) arid. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, for akam poetry, ain-tinai (well matched, mutual love), kaikkilai (ill matched, one sided), and perunthinai (unsuited, big genre) categories are used. The Ainkurunuru – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.
Similar tiṇais pertain to puram poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: vetchi (cattle raid), vanchi (invasion, preparation for war), kanchi (tragedy), ulinai (siege), tumpai (battle), vakai (victory), paataan (elegy and praise), karanthai , and pothuviyal. The akam poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their oral tradition. The puram poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.
Style and prosody
The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse. The two meters found in the early poetry are akaval and vanci. The fundamental metrical unit in these is the acai (metreme), itself of two types – ner and nirai. The ner is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the nirai is the unstressed/short syllable combination (pyrrhic (dibrach) and iambic) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition. The acai in the Sangam poems are combined to form a cir (foot), while the cir are connected to form a talai, while the line is referred to as the ati. The sutras of the Tolkappiyam – particularly after sutra 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.
The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by Kuruntokai:
The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to akaval, also called aciriyam, Sangam meter rule:
A literal translation of Kuruntokai 119:
English interpretation and translation of Kuruntokai 119:
This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza. The metrical patterns within the akaval meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations. The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4). The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in Kalittokai and the mixed Paripatal meter in Paripatal.
Preservation and rediscovery
The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as Arumuka Navalar (1822-1879), C.W. Damodaram Pillai (1832-1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar (1855-1942).
Arumuka Navalar from Jaffna first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition of Tirukkuṟaḷ by 1860. Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize Shaiva Hinduism against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and Shaiva literature to wider attention. He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 (Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai, one of the Ten Idylls). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on Tolkappiyam.
C.W. Damodaram Pillai, also from Jaffna, was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism. These included:
Viracoliyam (1881)
Iraiyanar Akapporul (1883)
Tolkappiyam-Porulatikaram (1885)
Kalittokai (1887) - the first of the Eight Anthologies (Eṭṭuttokai).
Aiyar – a Tamil scholar and a Shaiva pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam, he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted. There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature. Aiyar published his first print of the Ten Idylls in 1889.
Together, these scholars printed and published Kalittokai (1887), Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar Urai (1895), Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai (1868), Manimekalai (1898), Silappatikaram (1889), Pattuppāṭṭu (1889), Patiṟṟuppattu (1889). Puṟanāṉūṟu (1894), Aiṅkurunūṟu (1903), Kuṟuntokai (1915), Naṟṟiṇai (1915), Paripāṭal (1918) and Akanāṉūṟu (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems.
Significance
The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to Sanskrit, and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient Madurai (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil.
The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era Ainkurunuru poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households. The Pattinappalai poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Vishnu, Murugan and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.
Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. One of the early loan words, for example, is acarya– from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as aciriyan (priest, teacher, scholar), aciriyam or akavar or akaval or akavu (a poetic meter).
The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is religious as well as non-religious, except for ththere are several mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of Paripaatal in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Durga and Murugan. Similarly, the 150 poems of Kalittokai – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Krishna, Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata, Kama, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India. One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of Benares", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets. Some of the Paripaatal love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (Magh Mela) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.
Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil Literature. Ancient Tamils Primarily followed Vaishnavism (Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) and Kaumaram (who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According to Kamil Zvelebil, Vishnu was considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and the Supreme god of Tamils where as Skanda was considered young and a personal god of Tamils.
Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam. Tolkappiyar Mentions Mayon first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.The Paripādal (, meaning the paripadal-metre anthology) is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature. According to Tolkappiyam, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of Tamilakam.The Earliest verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Perumal as the Supreme god of Tamils. He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatma) during the Sangam age. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature and considered as the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.
Cēyōṉ "the red one", who is identified with Murugan, whose name is literally Murukaṉ "the youth" in the Tolkāppiyam; Extant Sangam literature works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils." There are no Mentions of Shaivism in Tolkappiyam. Shiva and Brahma are said to be forms Of Maha Vishnu and considers Vishnu as The Supreme god in Paripāṭal.
There are two poems depicted as example of Bhakti in Ancient Tamil Nadu, one in the praise of Maha Vishnu and other of Murugan
To Tirumal (Maha Vishnu):
To Seyyon (Skandha):
The other gods also referred to in the Tolkappiyam are Vēntaṉ "the sovereign" (identified with Indra) and Korravai "the victorious" (identified with Durga) and Varunan "the sea god".
The Sangam literature also emphasized on fair governance by Kings, who were often described as Sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; the king was warned by priests that royal injustice would lead to divine punishment; and handing over of a royal scepter, Sengol denoting decree to rule fairly, finds mention in texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai.
Further, the colophons of the Paripaatal poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.
Modern musical renditions
The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titled Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil by Composer Rajan Somasundaram in collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called a "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.
Sangam poems are often quoted and paraphrased in modern Tamil cinema.
See also
Project Madurai: open access Tamil literature repository
List of historic Indian texts
Tamiḻakam
First Sangam
Second Sangam
Tamil Sangams
List of Sangam poets
Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam
Notes
References
Bibliography
Selby, Martha Ann (2011) Tamil Love Poetry: The Five Hundred Short Poems of the Aiṅkuṟunūṟu, an Early Third-Century Anthology. Columbia University Press,
External links
sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com Sangam poetry with translation in English, Vaidehi Herbert
Indian poetics
Cultural history of Tamil Nadu
Hindu literature
Jain literature
Dravidian languages
Indian poetry |
4225489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector%20de%20Saint-Denys%20Garneau | Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau | {{Infobox writer
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Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau (Montreal, June 13, 1912 - Sainte-Catherine-de-la-Jacques-Cartier, October 24, 1943) was a Canadian poet, writer, letter writer, and essayist, who "was posthumously hailed as a herald of the Quebec literary renaissance of the 1950s". He is mainly recognized for his literary work - in particular, for the only book published during his lifetime, entitled Regards et Jeux dans l'espace, published in 1937 - but he was also a painter. Almost all of his writings are published, without cuts (around 2600 pages), between 1970 and 2020.
Life
Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau was the grandson of the poet Alfred Garneau and great-grandson of the historian Francois-Xavier Garneau. He spent his early years at his family's ancestral manor (which his mother had purchased) in Sainte-Catherine-de-Fossambault (now Sainte-Catherine-de-la-Jacques-Cartier), Quebec, where his cousin Anne Hébert was born in 1916.
Garneau moved to Montréal with his parents in 1923. There, he studied the classics at three Jesuit colleges: Sainte-Marie, Jean de Brebeuf and Loyola.
In 1925, Garneau studied painting at Montreal's Collège des beaux-arts with Paul-Emile Borduas, Jean Palardy, Marjorie Smith and Jean-Paul Lemieux. He won a bronze medal and second prize for a work of art. In 1934, he exhibited some paintings at the Galerie des Arts in Montréal and, in 1937, he presented his painting "Sky Fall" at the Museum of Fine Arts.
Still in his youth, he founded the monthly journal La relève with his friends Paul Beaulieu, Robert Charbonneau, Robert Élie and Jean Le Moyne.
In 1934, Garneau developed a rheumatic heart problem and discontinued his studies. He then devoted his time to writing poems, painting and music. In 1937, Regards et jeux dans l'espace, his collection of poems, was published. [...] he died in 1943 of a heart attack, after canoeing alone."
Poetry
Garneau first achieved some notice as a poet as a boy of 13, when his poem "Le dinosaure" took first prize in a province-wide essay competition. Two years later, he was awarded a prize by the Canadian Authors' Association for his poem "L'automne".
Garneau wrote poetry prolifically between 1934 and 1937; on one day alone (October 22, 1937), he reportedly wrote 13 poems. In his lifetime, though, he published only one slim volume, the 28-poem Regards et jeux dans l'espace. "Radical in its form, with its unrhymed lines of various lengths, its lack of punctuation and its broken syntax.".
Looks and Plays in spaceRegards et Jeux dans l'espace was published in March 1937 and received a rather cold reception from critics, which (we like to believe,) would have deeply shaken the author. However "contrary to what has been said, Garneau is in no way discouraged by the critical reception: What is to be feared here is the silence he wrote. Also, a month after the publication, "he even undertook, which is completely surprising on his part, an advertising 'campaign' to publicize his book and even then, Garneau did not foresee any particular difficulty in terms of critical reception".
De Saint-Denys Garneau constructed the book according to a very meticulous plan: the layout of the titles and sections in no way determines the layout of the poems. Moreover, one must constantly leave the text and its comprehension and jump to the table of contents to know the titles, the numbers or the order of the poems, since in the text some are titled, others not. These choices are not arbitrary, the table of contents of the original edition having been meticulously prepared by de Saint-Denys Garneau. Looks and Plays in space is composed of twenty-eight poems and divided into seven sections, unified, when we add "Accompaniment", unnumbered, at the end of the seventh section, entitled "Untitled". As Romain Légaré underlines: “the book is supported, like a vital necessity, by an indestructible law, that of the unity of opposites”.
For a long time, the “I” of the different speakers (living things, objects and “others”) in this book has been confused with the more erased one of the poet himself. The poems, however, are mystery enough. On the original form of this poetry, François Hébert writes:
"In a very stripped-down speech, the simplest on the surface, but with extremely varied registers, as long as you listen to it, Garneau inlaid a thousand and one surprises [...]: rhymes or assonances and unexpected references ('chaise', double phonetic and semantic contraction of a 'malaise' and a 'chose'), jarring syntax ('living and art'), phonetic gambols (of 'je' to 'jeu', from 'moi' to 'joie' via 'pas'), semantic breaks and leaps (from 'body' to 'soul', from 'self' to 'world'). [...] The verse is mostly odd. And irregular, whimsical even, [...] with its gaps, its variations, its arabesques. [...] Bizarrely laid out on the page (as a staircase, irregularly spaced), the verses abound in unforeseen rhymes, in clever alliterations, placed as if by chance [...]"
Alain Grandbois sums it up: “Garneau's poetry [...] seems to me to provide the most perfect expression of the most astonishing freedom. it unties the chains, escapes and rejoins total emancipation. ". Even if de Saint-Denys Garneau himself would have been disappointed with its reception, Regards et Jeux dans l'espace is today considered one of the most important books of Quebec poetry.
Posthumous works
Letters
The recent declassification of many unpublished letters by Garneau calls for a rereading of all of his correspondence, which can no longer simply be considered as a sideline to the work, as it links all the pieces of it. The letters form the most massive part of his work (920 pages, "well packed"). Garneau likes to write long letters, until physical exhaustion. He discusses his readings, compares such and such a composer, comments on an exhibition of paintings, tells an anecdote, paints a portrait, describes a landscape, etc: each time, he 'walks around what he is among what there is. ', reconstituting with precision “every moment of what he presents as a game in which he is both the witness and the actor”. His story unfolds “before our eyes like a comic strip using simple lines, barely sketches. Moment often “described with a strong, mocking sensuality,” as if the poet took, it is clear, great pleasure in feeling what, ordinarily, “arouses only repulsion [...]. His story corrects the expected impression, contradicts the received idea” (still today) that his atypical career “was one of near horror”. In the private space of the letter, without the restraint imposed by publication, De Saint-Denys Garneau addresses in a very free and down-to-earth way the central question of all his writings: how to be?.
In the quasi-novel that his letters are, the hero is an "I" who constantly questions his relationship to the world, to others and to himself, as if he were never certain of really existing. We rarely see what the object of the Garnelian letter is, so that we forget its immediate aim. Admittedly, its documentary value is far from negligible, but it remains secondary. It is the ontological framework, in reality, "which motivates epistolary writing". Reading his Letters in the form of a continuous text, one manages to grasp the coherence of this character, for whom “being is a fictional activity”, and writing, an absolute. In his letters — and as if his life depended on it — Garneau gives himself entirely, and always questioning the value of this “gift” of oneself, which is writing.
“ The correspondence of the poet de Saint-Denys Garneau is one of the most singular. Whether we compare it to those of letter-writers from here or elsewhere, it is difficult to find a single one that really resembles it. ”
— Michel Biron, 2022
For the editor of the Lettres, Michel Biron, "de Saint-Denys Garneau is proving to be a remarkable letter-writer, both in terms of the quality and the quantity of letters written in barely a dozen years". In 2020, we discover "a fascinating letter writer who puts the best of himself into his letters, but also a complex, funny and endearing character" writes Biron, "so different from the character frozen in the role of victim that [we] attributed to him, also so different from an austere and sad Garneau [...]". His letters are “both a sort of novel […] and a form of essay". They tell "the story of a life with an intensity, a lucidity and an acuity superior to anything that Garneau's friends or commentators on his work have attempted to do" and this life, "vibrates everywhere.".
Texts in prose
De Saint-Denys Garneau lived intensely, especially in the period from 1929 to 1938, during which he threw himself headlong into writing. Although the influence of short studies in philosophy is felt in his articles and essays (Œuvres en prose), his Journal 1929–1939 and his many Letters, "all his studies would be nothing if de Saint-Denys Garneau had done no work of personal training. For him, the "intellectual" quest is based on the ontological quest [that is to say, on a "search for being"], which embraces the spiritual and artistic adventure" writes the editor of the Works in prose Giselle Huot. Also, "his work cannot be "understood" or [worse] "explained" without giving a large part to the ontological adventure, which is, at least as far as de Saint-Denys Garneau is concerned, the alpha and the omega.".
The distinction between writings intended for publication and private writings hardly works in the case of Garneau: the Works brought together in a first edition of 1,320 pages in 1971 had moreover not been published during the author's lifetime, whether it is the "found" poems, the Journal or the Letters. Biron remarks: "Almost all of Garneau's writings, this is an exceptional fact in the history of modern literature, escapes the public sphere.". For François Hébert, de Saint-Denys Garneau “was able to say the essential in a few words, with a terrifying and admirable authenticity” then, “shut it up, to let us find it again. ».
Yvon Rivard observes: “De Saint-Denys Garneau died at the age of thirty-one, in 1943. Since his death, he has known a long purgatory from which he has been slowly emerging for several years [...] Most writers Québécois preferred to De Saint-Denys Garneau's 'bad poor' (cf. Œuvres in prose, p. 623.) works of revolt, liberation, affirmation. [...] It is understandable that many turned away from this poet who refused all the subterfuges and all the consolations that literature, religion or the nation offered him. De Saint-Denys Garneau does not write to affirm his singularity, he writes to try to find an answer to the only question that matters [...] When he stops publishing, it is not out of revolt or disappointment, it is that silence appeared to him as the only way to be. ".
Diary 1929–1939
Between 1929 and 1939, perhaps later, de Saint-Denys Garneau kept his "Journal" consisting of about seven notebooks. According to François Dumont: "The complete edition of the Journal 1929–1939 raised various obstacles until 2012, in particular censorship and the desire of friends to prune and classify the texts according to their aesthetic principles", while de Saint-Denys Garneau himself would have immediately looked for a disorder in his texts. He adds that: "The diversity of the genres practiced and the literary dimension of several of them mean that the word 'diary' does not reflect its particular nature". In attempting to characterize the forms that de Saint-Denys Garneau experimented with in the notebooks that have come down to us—from self-examination, fiction and the letter, to meditations on art, and poetry: "It emerges from this examination that Garneau progressively linked reflective discourse with the openings offered by poetry and fiction: a dynamic develops between the life summary and the sketch, leading to a form of writing that incorporates various aspects of his Diary”.“I would have liked to say: I am not a person who speaks to you, not a person, this disorderly, dispersed being, without a real center. But I hope you would not be wrong in believing that you can still address the center at some point, a small flame perhaps which persists, a remnant of what was ravaged [...], where perhaps persists the place of a possible hope of not being rejected from the Be-ing itself.” — Journal 1929–1939, January 21, 1939
One notices a unity in the diversity of the forms borrowed by de Saint-Denys Garneau: “At the end of his journey, de Saint-Denys Garneau manages to free himself from literary conventions to find a totalizing form (but always fragmentary) by which poetry and fiction are linked to existence”. Dumont notes that while illustrating "dimensions of the writing of the notebook which transform the usual aims of the diary [...]", the notebooks fall under "an erratic and heuristic form which is undoubtedly closer to the essay such as what Montaigne meant than what the word "essay" has come to designate today".
Recognition
After Garneau's death, his unpublished poems were collected by Élie under the title Les Solitudes, and published in 1949 together with Regards... as Poésies complètes: Regards et jeux dans l'espace, Les solitudes. Garneau's "influence only became apparent after the publication of his Poésies complètes in 1949," says the Dictionary of Literary Biography. "Since that time the number of studies on his life and work has multiplied considerably.". No writer has been the object of so much publications in Quebec. Nowaday Garneau is considered the precursor of contemporary French-Canadian literature.
Garneau's 1935-39 diary was published in Montréal in 1954 under the title Journal, edited by Élie and Le Moyne and with a preface by Gilles Marcotte. Glassco published his translation, The Journal of Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau, in 1962.
Also in 1962, the Canadian poet F. R. Scott translated ten of Garneau's poems into English for his book, Saint-Denys Garneau and Anne Hebert. Glassco published his translated Complete Poems of Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau in 1975. Glassco's book won the Canada Council Award for translation that year.
Garneau's poetry has also been translated into Spanish by Luis Vicente de Aguinaga, and was published in 2007 as Todos y cada uno.
Some of Garneau's poems have been set to music by the Canadian contemporary classical composer Bruce Mather, and by the Quebec folk group Villeray.
Awards
Maison Henry Morgan (1926)
Association des auteurs Canadiens / Canadian Authors Association (1928)
Canada Council Award (for English translations) (1975)
Commemorative postage stamp
On September 8, 2003, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the National Library of Canada, Canada Post released a special commemorative series, "The Writers of Canada", with a design by Katalina Kovats, featuring two English-Canadian and two French-Canadian stamps. Three million stamps were issued. The two French-Canadian authors chosen were De Saint-Denys Garneau and his cousin, Anne Hébert.
Public art
De Saint-Denys Garneau, along with Octave Crémazie and Émile Nelligan, is commemorated by a large ceramic mural by Georges Lauda, Paul Pannier and Gérald Cordeau at Crémazie metro station in Montréal. Entitled Le Poète dans l'univers, the work features an excerpt from his poem "Faction".
See also
Quebec literature
List of Canadian writers
References
External links
Archived biography of Garneau at Library and Archives Canada
Regards et jeux dans l'espace on Bibliothèque mobile de littérature québécoise'' (HTML)
Fonds d'archives Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau at Library and Archives Canada
Collection Claude Décarie (Lettres de Saint-Denys Garneau) (R12405) at Library and Archives Canada. The collection includes some letters from Saint-Denys Garneau
1912 births
1943 deaths
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male poets
Canadian modernist poets
Canadian poets in French
French Quebecers
Writers from Montreal |
4225610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Chesshyre | Hubert Chesshyre | David Hubert Boothby Chesshyre (22 June 1940 – 24 December 2020) was a British officer of arms.
Chesshyre served for more than forty years as an officer of arms in ordinary to Queen Elizabeth II and as a member of Her Majesty's Household. He was Clarenceux King of Arms, the second most senior member of the College of Arms and the second most senior heraldic position in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, and several other Commonwealth countries. His other appointments included those of Registrar of the College of Arms, Secretary of the Order of the Garter, and Honorary Genealogist to the Royal Victorian Order. Chesshyre undertook heraldic and genealogical work for high-profile clients such as the former prime minister Sir Edward Heath. He wrote seven books, including the official history of the Order of the Garter.
In October 2015, a jury sitting at Snaresbrook Crown Court found by a unanimous verdict that Chesshyre had committed child sexual abuse offences in the 1990s. He was found to be unfit to plead, and his trial was therefore a trial of the facts. This means that no formal conviction is recorded and Chesshyre was therefore given an absolute discharge.
Early life and family
David Hubert Boothby Chesshyre was born on 22 June 1940, the son of Captain (later Colonel) Hubert Layard Chesshyre (d. 1981), an officer in the Royal Engineers, and his wife Katharine Anne (d. 1995), daughter of Major Basil Tanfield Beridge Boothby. Hubert had adopted the surname Chesshyre in 1938, renouncing his previous surname Isacke; he was the son of Major-General Hubert Isacke and maternal grandson of Sir Charles Layard, the Chief Justice of Ceylon. Among Chesshyre's other ancestors were the Earls of Dundee and Lauderdale, the Boothby baronets and the lawyer Sir John Chesshyre.
Education and early career
Chesshyre was educated at St Michael's Preparatory School, Otford, where he was a contemporary of John Hurt. He went on to The King's School, Canterbury (1954–59).
Chesshyre studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1962, and proceeding by convention to Master of Arts in 1966. After graduating from Cambridge Chesshyre worked for Moët et Chandon and John Harvey & Sons between 1962 and 1965. He then studied at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was awarded a Diploma in Education in 1967.
Chesshyre served in the Honourable Artillery Company from 1964 until 1965.
Heraldic career
College of Arms
Having received his Diploma in Education from Oxford, Chesshyre did not enter the teaching profession, but instead was appointed in 1967 to a position as an assistant at the College of Arms. He was a Green Staff Officer at the Investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969. Appointed a member of the Chapter of the College of Arms the following year, he served as Rouge Croix Pursuivant (1970–78), Chester Herald (1978–95), Norroy and Ulster King of Arms and Principal Herald of the North part of England and of Northern Ireland (1995–97), and Clarenceux King of Arms and Principal Herald for the South, East and West parts of England (1997–2010). From 1971 until 1978 he also served on the staff of Anthony Wagner. He was Registrar of the College of Arms from 1992 until 2000 and was the Founder Secretary of the College of Arms Uniform Fund in 1980, serving in that capacity until 1999. From early in his career Chesshyre from time to time served as a deputy to Garter Principal King of Arms for the purpose of introducing peers into the House of Lords. For example, in 1975 he introduced Baroness Vickers.
As a herald, Chesshyre designed the coats of arms of a number of notable people, including the former Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath, two Speakers of the House of Commons (Baroness Boothroyd and John Bercow), the Archbishop of York David Hope, the businessman Lord Sugar, the musician Sir Paul McCartney, the author Sir Terry Pratchett and the actor Sir John Hurt.
Chesshyre was Secretary of the Order of the Garter from 1988 until 2003, having been trained for the role by his predecessor Walter Verco and by Verco's predecessor-but-one, Anthony Wagner. Upon his resignation Chesshyre had an audience with The Queen at Buckingham Palace, during which he surrendered his badge of office. Following the 1992 Windsor Castle fire Chesshyre was, together with Peter Begent, appointed heraldic consultant for the reconstruction of St George's Hall. Chesshyre was also Honorary Genealogist of The Society of the Friends of St George's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter. He also served for twenty-three years as Honorary Genealogist to the Royal Victorian Order (1987–2010), again, succeeding Walter Verco. As Ulster King of Arms (merged with Norroy) Chesshyre also held the technically extant position of King of Arms, Registrar, and Knight Attendant of the Order of St Patrick. He was therefore briefly one of just two members of the Order of St Patrick, the other member being Queen Elizabeth II, who remained Sovereign of the Order.
Chesshyre retired from the College of Arms on 31 August 2010. His last public duties took place at the State Opening of Parliament on 25 May 2010 and at the Garter Day ceremony on 14 June 2010. Commentating on the State Opening for the BBC, Huw Edwards remarked upon Chesshyre's forty years of service.
Other work
In 1973, Chesshyre completed a report into the missing collar on the tomb of Elizabeth I in Westminster Abbey. He was a member of the Abbey's Architectural Advisory Panel from 1985 until 1998, and then of its Fabric Commission from 1998 until 2003. He was also heraldic advisor for the west window of the Henry VII Lady Chapel, donated by John Templeton and devised by Donald Buttress, which The Queen unveiled in 1995.
Chesshyre served as heraldic advisor to the committee that organised the re-enactment of the funeral of Arthur, Prince of Wales in Worcester on 3 May 2002. On the day of the re-enactment, Chesshyre processed through the streets of Worcester bearing Arthur's crested helm, followed by other heralds bearing his sword, tabard, gauntlets, and spurs.
Chesshyre worked as a freelance lecturer in the United Kingdom and abroad. For many years he lectured for the National Association of Decorative and Fine Arts Societies and Speaker Finders.
Chesshyre has been credited with establishing the probable origins of the common error of using the term crest to refer to the whole achievement. He explains that in the 18th century it was common for smaller items, such as spoons and forks, to be engraved with the crest alone, while the full achievement was reserved for larger items such as salvers. For this reason a number of publications appeared from the late 18th century through to the early 20th century which recorded only crests. Chesshyre later successfully lobbied the chief revise editor of The Times to include an explanation of the precise meaning of the term crest in a new edition of the newspaper's staff manual.
Chesshyre was a choral clerk of Trinity College, Cambridge during his time as an undergraduate at the college. From 1979 until 1993 Chesshyre was a member of The Bach Choir. Chesshyre sang for the London Docklands Singers, which he joined in 2002. He was, from 1980, a member of the Madrigal Society, the oldest musical society in Europe (see Madrigal). He became a Freeman of the Worshipful Company of Musicians in 1994 and a Liveryman of the Company in 1995.
Scholarly publications
The Most Noble Order of the Garter, which Chesshyre co-authored with Peter Begent and Lisa Jefferson, included a foreword by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. One of the book's reviewers, John Goodall, wrote that it was the "most comprehensive" study of the subject since that of Elias Ashmole, and "unlikely to be superseded". Another reviewer, Maurice Keen, wrote that it was "invaluable to scholars whose interests touch on the history of the order, from the widest variety of points of view and period specialisation", and that "Altogether, Peter Begent and Hubert Chesshyre have put together a volume that for its thoroughness, its interest and its physical attraction is a worthy tribute to the longevity of England's highest order of chivalry."
M. K. Ridgway, reviewing The Identification of Coats of Arms on British Silver, wrote that Chesshyre "has the undoubted gift of making a difficult and complicated subject both exciting and interesting".
In the early 1970s Chesshyre met the architect Thomas Saunders when Chesshyre and one of his brothers unsuccessfully competed with Saunders to bid for a property in Bethnal Green, 17 Old Ford Road. Four years after he had purchased the property, Saunders contacted Chesshyre with a commission to write a history of Bethnal Green, with particular reference to the legend of the Blind Beggar. This resulted in The Green, co-authored with A. J. Robinson, which was later described by Victor E. Neuburg as "The best—indeed only—comprehensive account of the subject".
Honours
Chesshyre was appointed a Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order (LVO) in the Queen's Birthday Honours of 11 June 1988 and was promoted to be a Commander of the Order (CVO) in the New Year Honours of 31 December 2003. Chesshyre's appointment to be a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order was cancelled and annulled with effect from Tuesday 15 May 2018.
Chesshyre became a Freeman of the City of London in 1975. He was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1977 and was a member of its heraldry committee, known as the Croft Lyons Committee. Since 1983 he has been a member of the Cocked Hat Club, the senior dining club of the Society of Antiquaries, serving as praeses (president) in 1986. Chesshyre was also a member of the Council of the Heraldry Society from 1973 until 1985, and he was elected a fellow of the Society in 1990. He was vice-president of the Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies (IHGS) and was a Director of the IHGS until 31 December 1993. However, after his sexual offences and the forfeiture of his main honour came to light, The Observer reported that the "trustees promptly removed him as vice-president". Chesshyre has been honoured with the titles of associate member of the Society of Heraldic Arts and honorary member of the White Lion Society. He was also the patron of the now defunct Middlesex Heraldry Society.
In 1998 the Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society appointed Chesshyre to deliver its annual Mountbatten Memorial Lecture. Two years later, Chesshyre was a guest of honour at the CUHAGS Fiftieth Annual Dinner held in the Great Hall of Clare College on 25 March 2000.
Child sexual abuse and honours forfeiture
Chesshyre was charged with offences of child sexual abuse and in October 2015 stood trial before a jury sitting at Snaresbrook Crown Court. The offences pertained to a teenage male, and took place during the 1990s. Chesshyre was determined to be unfit to plead due to a stroke and dementia. The trial therefore went ahead as a trial of the facts. The jury found unanimously that he had committed two of the offences charged against him on the indictment. However, no conviction is formally recorded and the court consequently granted him an absolute discharge. The Honours and Appointments Secretariat, which is part of the Cabinet Office, said in evidence to the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse that it "takes the view that the outcome of the trial holds equivalent weight to a full criminal investigation [and hence a criminal conviction]."
Despite a criminal finding of fact having been made, Sir Alan Reid, Secretary of the Royal Victorian Order, refused to recommend the forfeiture of Chesshyre's appointment to the order, stating that Chesshyre had not technically been convicted and that he had been given an absolute discharge. Following an appeal by the victim's MP, which led to the Prime Minister, Theresa May, seeking to have the original decision reviewed by an independent committee, Reid's decision was overturned and Chesshyre's award was forfeited with effect from 15 May 2018. Unusually, however, the forfeiture was not notified in the London Gazette, normally the standard procedure in such cases. At the time of his death, Chesshyre still held almost all the many other honours conferred upon him throughout his career, despite calls for these, too, to be revoked. The case avoided wide public knowledge, in part because Chesshyre's name was misspelled in court documents throughout his legal process, until March 2019, when it was mentioned at a public hearing of the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse, which led in turn to an article in The Observer newspaper. According to journalist Jamie Doward, "When approached by the Observer, the various societies of which he [Chesshyre] is a member confirmed that they would not be dissociating themselves from him."
In response to calls by a number of its fellows, the Council of the Society of Antiquaries of London subsequently proposed a resolution to revoke Chesshyre's Fellowship. However, the Fellows present at the meeting on 24 October 2019 (109 out of a total of over 3,000) voted by 76 votes to 33 to reject the resolution, and to allow Chesshyre to remain a Fellow. In a statement the Council said that it "regrets that a majority of those present did not see fit to support the resolution", and was said to be "dismayed" by the outcome.
Death
Chesshyre died on 24 December 2020, aged 80.
Coat of arms
List of publications
Books
Carl Alexander von Volborth, Heraldry of the World, ed. D. H. B. Chesshyre, translated into English by Bob and Inge Gosney (London: Blandford Press, 1973)
D. H. B. Chesshyre, The Identification of Coats of Arms on British Silver, drawings by Margaret J. Clark (London: Hawkslure Publications, 1978)
A. J. Robinson and D. H. B. Chesshyre, The Green: A History of the Heart of Bethnal Green and the Legend of the Blind Beggar (1st edn., London: Borough of Tower Hamlets, 1978; 2nd edn., London: London Borough of Tower Hamlets, Central Library, 1986)
D. H. B. Chesshyre and Adrian Ailes, Heralds of Today: A Biographical List of the Officers of the College of Arms, London, 1963–86, with a foreword by the Duke of Norfolk, KG, Earl Marshal of England (Gerrards Cross: Van Duren, 1986)
D. H. B. Chesshyre and Thomas Woodcock, eds., Dictionary of British Arms: Medieval Ordinary vol. 1 (London: Society of Antiquaries of London, 1992)
D. H. B. Chesshyre, Garter Banners of the Nineties (Windsor: College of Arms, 1998)
Peter J. Begent and D. H. B. Chesshyre, The Most Noble Order of the Garter: 650 years, with a foreword by His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh KG and a chapter on the statutes of the Order by Dr Lisa Jefferson (London: Spink, 1999)
D. H. B. Chesshyre and Adrian Ailes, Heralds of Today: A Biographical List of the Officers of the College of Arms, London, 1987–2001, with a foreword by the Earl of Arundel (London: Illuninata, 2001)
Book chapters
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "The Most Noble Order of the Garter", in The Orders of the Thistle and the Garter (Kinross, 1989), pp. 27–46
Anthony Harvey and Richard Mortimer, eds., The Funeral Effigies of Westminster Abbey (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1994; rev. edn. 2003) [contribution]
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "The Modern Herald", in Patricia Lovett, The British Library Companion to Calligraphy, Illumination and Heraldry: A History and Practical Guide (London: British Library, 2000), pp. 257–268
Peter Begent, Hubert Chesshyre, and Robert Harrison, "The Heraldic Windows of St George's Chapel", in A History of the Stained Glass of St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, ed. Sarah Brown (Historical monographs relating to St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, vol. 18; Windsor: Dean and Canons of Windsor, 2005)
Reference work articles
Stephen Friar, ed., A Dictionary of Heraldry (New York: Harmony Books, 1987) (author of articles on "Garter, Order of", pp. 160–2; "Grant of Arms", pp. 171–2; "Pedigrees, Proof and Registration of", pp. 264–5)
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "Sir Edward Walker (1612–1677)", The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)
Journal articles
P. J. Begent and D. H. B. Chesshyre, "The Fitzwilliam Armorial Plate in St George's Chapel, Windsor", The Coat of Arms, NS 4 (1980–82), no. 114, pp. 269–74
P. J. Begent and D. H. B. Chesshyre, "The Spencer-Churchill Augmentations", The Coat of Arms, NS 6 (1984–86), no. 134, pp. 151–5
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "Canting Heraldry", The Coat of Arms, NS 7 (1987–89), no. 138, pp. 29–31
Hubert Chesshyre, "The Heraldry of the Garter Banners", Report of the Society of the Friends of St George's and the Descendants of the Knights of the Garter, vol. VII, no. 6 (1994/5), pp. 245–55
In addition to the above, Chesshyre was also formerly a regular contributor to the journal British History Illustrated
Book reviews
D. H. B. Chesshyre, review of Richard Marks and Ann Payne, eds., British Heraldry from its Origins to c. 1800 (London: British Museum Publications, 1978), The Antiquaries Journal, vol. 59, issue 2 (1979), pp. 460–461
D. H. B. Chesshyre, review of G. D. Squibb, Precedence in England and Wales (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), The Antiquaries Journal, vol. 62, issue 2 (1982), pp. 435–436
Unpublished MSS
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "Number Seventeen, or the History of 17 Old Ford Road, Bethnal Green and the Natt Family" (Unpublished MS, c. 1970–80; Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives L.6160 (class 040))
D. H. B. Chesshyre, "The Restoration of the Regalia to the Tomb of Queen Elizabeth the First in Westminster Abbey: Research into the Identity of the Collar Missing from the Queen's Marble Effigy" (Unpublished MS, 1973; The National Archives SAL/MS/852)
References
People stripped of a British Commonwealth honour
English officers of arms
1940 births
2020 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
People educated at The King's School, Canterbury
British local historians
British medievalists
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
English folklorists
English genealogists
English biographers
British people convicted of child sexual abuse |
4225731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan%20Gurovi%C4%87 | Milan Gurović | Milan Gurović (; born 17 June 1975) is a Serbian former professional basketball player and current basketball coach. During his pro career, he played for numerous clubs from all over Europe. Gurović was also a member of the senior national teams of both FR Yugoslavia / Serbia and Montenegro and Serbia.
Early life
Gurović was born in Novi Sad, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia to Serbian parents. His father Božidar and mother Mara, both hailed from the vicinity of Trebinje, in Herzegovina. Raised in the Novi Sad neighbourhood of Detelinara with a younger brother Veljko, young Milan practiced kung fu before taking up the sport of basketball.
Club career
Early years
After taking up basketball at thirteen years of age with KK Slavija Novi Sad, Gurović quickly moved across town to join the youth system of the more established NAP Novi Sad a.k.a Naftagas Promet under coach Zoran Trivan. Two years later, at age fifteen, he debuted for NAP's first team thus getting a chance to compete against grown men in the Yugoslav Second Basketball League. He simultaneously attended the streamlined Agricultural High School in Novi Sad.
Peristeri
Marking himself out quickly as a talented youngster at NAP, in December 1992, Gurović was noticed by a Greek basketball scout who convinced the 17-year-old teenager's parents to authorize their son's move to Greece. Although initially told by the scout that he'd be joining Olympiakos, the youngster ended up at Peristeri, getting attached to its youth team. He would simultaneously train with the club's first team coached by Kostas Politis.
For five days in the summer of 1994, during his first visit home since moving to Greece, 19-year-old Gurović was attached to the newly-promoted BFC Beočin's training camp in Novi Sad's SPENS arena in order to improve his basketball skills and fitness level. Training for the upcoming 1994-95 YUBA League season, the club's first in FR Yugoslavia's top-tier league, BFC's coaching staff—consisting of head coach Muta Nikolić and his assistant Zoran Trivan (Gurović's old coach at NAP)—decided to accommodate young Gurović, a player not on their roster, in order to help his basketball development.
By the 1994-95 league season, Gurović entered Peristeri's first team permanently. As was the case with many young basketball players from former Yugoslavia at the time (mostly of Serbian ethnicity), he also took Greek citizenship, and thus competed as a domestic player, under the name Milan Malatras.
From summer 1995, for the following two seasons at Peristeri, Gurović was coached by compatriot Dragan Šakota whom the player credits for greatly helping him improve his game and find his footing in a foreign country at such a young age. It was Šakota who moved Gurović to the small forward position having previously been deployed at power forward or even center. Playing alongside another talented Serbian youngster and future star Marko Jarić, who joined the club in 1996, it was not long before Gurović started showing exceptional quality. By his fourth season with the club, 1997–98, he averaged 17.2 points per game.
FC Barcelona
In the summer of 1998, in-demand Gurović moved to FC Barcelona, signing a two-year contract with an optional third year. Brought in by the Barça management as replacement for forward Marcelo Nicola who moved on to Benetton, the Serb's transfer to Barcelona was a big money deal that heightened expectations. Prior to signing with Barcelona, the forward was very close to joining Ettore Messina's Virtus Bologna, even making a trip to Bologna with his agent Rade Filipovich of BDA Sports International agency and interacting with the team's players Radoslav Nesterović and Predrag Danilović.
Joining the roster featuring compatriot Saša Đorđević, Efthimios Rentzias, incoming Derrick Alston and Rodrigo de la Fuente, including up-and-coming youth players Pau Gasol and Juan Carlos Navarro, in the 1998–99 season, Gurović made a valuable contribution to the Barça team that won the Spanish ACB League title and European Korać Cup.
2000–01 season
Rejecting Panathinaikos
Over the summer 2000, Gurović got called up for the FR Yugoslavia national team training camp for the Sydney Olympics before getting cut by the national team's head coach Željko Obradović and thus not included on the final 12-man roster the coach took to Australia. Many years later, Gurović revealed that, following the Olympics, Obradović made him an offer of joining his club side, reigning EuroLeague champion Panathinaikos. However, still mad about not being taken to the Olympics, 25-year-old Gurović rejected the offer, figuring that Obradović was just stroking his ego after cutting him in the national team. Gurović also revealed a later personal realization that rejecting the Panathinaikos offer was a regrettable mistake.
Joining AEK
Still, despite not taking the Panathinaikos offer, return to Greece was on the cards with their city rivals AEK Athens coached by Dušan Ivković with Martin Müürsepp and new acquisition İbrahim Kutluay on the roster. However, after a good start in Euroleague, the club ran into financial issues that resulted in player salaries being late. Not keen on staying at the club under financial uncertainty, Gurović left AEK in late December 2000 after appearing in only 5 Greek League and 4 EuroLeague games.
Finishing the season in Trieste
Gurović transferred to Pallacanestro Trieste of the Italian league where he played out the remainder of the 2000–01 season under head coach Cesare Pancotto.
Back to Spain: CB Málaga
Gurović was on the move again in the summer 2001 transfer season, returning to Spain by joining CB Málaga led by the Serbian coach Božidar Maljković.
In his first season in Andalusia, Gurović averaged 14 points per game over 32 regular season league games as Málaga grabbed the second spot ahead of playoffs. In the playoffs, the team made it to the final, getting swept 3-games-to-0 by the Duško Ivanović-coached Saski Baskonia (TAU Cerámica) featuring Dejan Tomašević, Andrés Nocioni, Luis Scola, and Fabricio Oberto.
Celtics pre-season camp
Summer 2002 would in many ways be the turning point in Gurović's career. Boston Celtics invited him to their pre-season camp during June 2002 where he appeared alongside some 30 players, including fellow Europeans Jaka Lakovič and Darius Songaila. Without much of chance to play in games mostly led by head coach Jim O'Brien's assistants, Gurović left the camp. Later that summer, twenty-six-year-old Gurović made the final FR Yugoslavia 12-man squad for the 2002 FIBA World Championship in Indianapolis. His exceptional performance against the Americans in the quarterfinals capped off with two big three-pointers in the last quarter further cemented his iconic status with Serbian fans, and also gained him a lot of attention internationally. Following the showing against the Americans, specifically the Celtics star Paul Pierce, Gurović was reportedly approached in Indianapolis by the Celtics coach Jim O'Brien, however, no deal was made again as the player had already re-signed with Málaga.
Back in Málaga for a second season, he featured in 30 ACB regular-season games averaging 10.3ppg as well as in sixteen EuroLeague games where his scoring average was 12.7ppg.
2003-04 season
Cancelled pre-contract with Saski Baskonia
During the summer 2003 transfer window, Gurović was involved in a sequence of events and decisions that eventually led to him surprisingly returning home to play for NIS Vojvodina. Initially, the 28-year-old agreed to a pre-contract with the Duško Ivanović-coached Saski Baskonia, however, after further informing himself about coach Ivanović's gruelling training methods, Gurović decided not to join the club due to personal concerns about incurring long-term injuries as a result of Ivanović's rigid practice regiment.
Return home: NIS Vojvodina
After not showing up at Vitoria-Gasteiz following his EuroBasket 2003 participation with the Serbia-Montenegro national team, Gurović had to find a new club on a short notice with most top-team rosters around Europe already filled. He began to be courted by KK Hemofarm from Vršac, however, in a sudden turnaround in late September 2003, he decided to go with NIS Vojvodina from his hometown Novi Sad, citing a desire to be closer to his family and signing a two-year contract featuring an opt-out option following the first year. Saski Baskonia sued Gurović for not honouring his commitment to them, and the case went before FIBA's arbitration committee in Geneva that ruled in Vojvodina's favour.
Joining the roster coached by Nikola Lazić, featuring Kebu Stewart, Predrag Šuput, István Németh, Nenad Čanak, and veteran Dejan Radonjić, Gurović simultaneously competed in the Serbia-Montenegro League and Adriatic League. Midway through the season, in December 2003, he unexpectedly received another offer of potentially making the NBA when the San Antonio Spurs, whose head coach Gregg Popovich had noticed Gurović the previous summer in Indianapolis, wanted the player to join as back-up for Hedo Türkoğlu. However, being under contract with Vojvodina, Gurović was not let out of his contract.
2004–05 season
Aborted transfer to UNICS
Following a season in his hometown, Gurović was on the move again. During late summer 2004, he agreed terms with Russian club UNICS from the Tatarstan federal subject, but after arriving in Kazan with his wife and kids in late August and early September to make living arrangements, he had a change of heart. Though satisfied with the club's organizational structure and basketball facilities, Gurović characterized things outside of basketball in Kazan as being below the level he was used to in Greece, Spain, or Serbia, specifically citing being unhappy with the apartment the club provided him with, lack of an English-language school for his kids, and general dissatisfaction with the city as the reasons not to stay in Kazan. He furthermore mentioned that the television coverage he watched while in Kazan of the unfolding Beslan school hostage crisis thousand kilometres away in another Russian city had a bad psychological effect on him that ultimately also affected his decision not to stay in Tatarstan.
Two months at Partizan
Finally, in late October 2004, Gurović signed for Serbia-Montenegro champions KK Partizan. Playing on three fronts: Serbian league (still in full format), EuroLeague, and regional Adriatic League, Gurović posted a good season. This was the first season that KK Partizan participated in the regional Balkans-wide league after years of pressure to join the competition.
Barely two weeks after signing for Partizan, Gurović became embroiled in controversy launched in the Croatian media regarding his shoulder tattoo of controversial World War II figure Draža Mihailović. Four days before Partizan's mid-November 2004 away game at Cibona, Croatian sports web portal SportNet.hr posted an editorial by Bernard Jurišić headlined "A Chetnik in Partisan Clothing is Coming for a Visit", urging the Croatian public and authorities to "stop a person sporting a tattoo of a Chetnik legend on his arm from entering Croatia". The rest of the Croatian media immediately picked up the story, further whipping up public sentiment against Gurović in the country. What followed was an official state-level reaction, with Croatia's Ministry of the Interior announcing Gurović would be turned away at the border if he tried to enter the country. Due to fears of crowd trouble when Partizan plays away in Croatia, the club decided not to take Gurović on those away trips.
In mid December 2004, less than two months after signing, Gurović and the crno-beli parted company as head coach Duško Vujošević expressed regret about "certain things that have nothing to do with basketball coming to the forefront and affecting the player's life and basketball form". A sizeable portion of the Serbian public saw the behaviour of Partizan's front office as a failure to stick up for their player, however, Gurović himself had only good things to say about his two months at Partizan including praise for the way club management, specifically sports director Dragan Todorić and coach Vujošević, treated him with his only complaints having to do with what he felt to be occasional lack of general support in Serbia from the country's basketball federation and official political circles. But, some two years later, now a member of Partizan's heated cross-town rivals Red Star, Gurović came out saying his Partizan stint was the biggest mistake of his career and that "individuals from Partizan's club management used him for their self-promotion".
Finishing the season at Joventut
In late February 2005, following a two-month layover from playing basketball, Gurović signed with Joventut Badalona thus reuniting with head coach Aíto García Reneses who had previously coached the player at Barcelona from 1998 until 2000.
Crvena zvezda
In early September 2005, Gurović signed a one-year contract with Crvena zvezda thus reuniting with head coach Dragan Šakota who took over the team months earlier. The club also acquired Pero Antić, all of which meant that it entered the season with high hopes and expectations.
Gurović led the team in ULEB Cup (now called EuroCup) during 2005–06.
He especially came into his own throughout fall 2006 at age 31, putting on great scoring displays game after game. At the end of the season Gurović led the ULEB Cup in individual scoring with 25.9 points per game, and he also dominantly won the Adriatic League's scoring title, with 28.6 points per game.
Season in Poland
Over the summer 2007 transfer window, 32-year-old Gurović signed for the Sopot-based Polish club Prokom Trefl, owned and bankrolled by the Polish billionaire . The veteran, naturally, assumed the role of the team leader and memorably led the team to the Polish league title. His year in Poland was not without controversy either as on 25 May 2008, during game 4 of Polish Basketball League 2007–08 Playoff Finals, Gurović got involved in an infamous brawl with two players from opposing team Turów Zgorzelec - Iwo Kitzinger and Thomas Kelati. After the incident authorities of the DBE took the decision that marked him as the fight's instigator and Milan has been suspended for game 5. He was also fined PLN20,000 (about €6,000).
Galatasaray
After reportedly being a transfer target of Russian club Triumph Lyubertsy, on August 8, 2008, it was announced that Gurović signed for the Turkish club Galatasaray together with compatriot Dejan Milojević.
On Tuesday 29 September 2009, Milan Gurović announced his retirement from professional basketball. In 2015, discussing his sixteen-year playing career, Gurović listed Saša Đorđević, Juan Carlos Navarro, Dejan Bodiroga, Peja Stojaković, and Vlade Divac as the best players he's played with.
In late August 2010, following a year on the sidelines, 35-year-old Gurović entertained the idea of a return to playing, even offering his services to Crvena zvezda head coach Mihailo Uvalin. Nothing came of it in the end.
National team career
Due to accepting Greek citizenship when he moved to Peristeri early in his career, Gurović's national team status remained unclear for most of the 1990s. As such, he did not feature in FR Yugoslavia youth national teams.
During summer 1998, as a sought-after player throughout Europe who's about to leave Peristeri for a top European club, 23-year-old Gurović received a Yugoslavia national team call-up from head coach Željko Obradović for the 1998 FIBA World Championship training camp. Two more Yugoslav players from the Greek League with similar legal status—Peja Stojaković and Dragan Tarlać—also received call-ups, however, they, unlike Gurović, opted not to show up due to the unclear situation. Gurović, on the other hand, did show up for the training camp while hoping for the best in terms of administrative and legal matters. In the end, despite completing the entire gruelling two-month training camp, Gurović was not allowed to compete for Yugoslavia at the World Championship due to an intervention by the Hellenic Basketball Federation president George Vassilakopoulos.
A year later, the administrative/legal issue was settled and Gurović made the Yugoslavia team at EuroBasket 1999 under the same head coach Željko Obradović. Making his national team major competition debut, the Barcelona forward had an unremarkable tournament—marked by scant playing time, occasional poor shooting that led to DNPs in subsequent games, with his only two notable outings coming in the second round-robin group games versus Spain and Russia—as the team lost in the semi-final to Boša Tanjević's Italy featuring Carlton Myers and Gregor Fučka before winning bronze medal.
Gurović has gold medals at the EuroBasket 2001 and the 2002 FIBA World Championship. He also took part in the EuroBasket 2003 and the EuroBasket 2005.
Prior to the EuroBasket 2007, he was chosen as the first captain of the newly formed senior Serbian national team, under head coach Zoran Slavnić.
Career statistics
EuroLeague
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2000–01
| style="text-align:left;"| AEK Athens
| 4 || 2 || 21.9 || .452 || .400 || .783 || 2.5 || .3 || .8 || .0 || 13.0 || 9.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001–02
| style="text-align:left;"| Unicaja Málaga
| 11 || 8 || 22.7 || .337 || .320 || .826 || 3.9 || .6 || .3 || .0 || 11.3 || 9.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002–03
| style="text-align:left;"| Unicaja Málaga
| 16 || 8 || 24.1 || .432 || .393 || .820 || 3.4 || .7 || .7 || .1 || 12.7 || 12.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004–05
| style="text-align:left;"| Partizan Belgrade
| 6 || 6 || 27.9 || .273 || .235 || .739 || 2.3 || 1.0 || 1.3 || .0 || 9.2 || 3.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2007–08
| style="text-align:left;"| Prokom Trefl
| 12 || 11 || 29.1 || .377 || .342 || .882 || 4.8 || .9 || .8 || .1 || 15.3 || 14.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:left;"| Career
| style="text-align:left;"|
| 49 || 39 || 25.3 || .377 || .344 || .824 || 3.7 || .7 || .7 || .1 || 12.6 || 11.0
Coaching career
Gurović began organizing basketball clinics for kids in Belgrade's Šumice sports center in December 2011.
Assistant at Red Star
When Milivoje Lazić got named the head coach of Crvena zvezda in July 2012, he selected Gurović to be his first assistant. Lazić got relieved of his duties only two games into the season, but Gurović stayed on in the same role under Lazić's replacement Vlada Vukoičić. Vukoičić wouldn't finish the season either, getting fired just before the Adriatic League Final Four in Laktaši and replaced with Dejan Radonjić. Gurović again continued on as assistant coach, finishing the season in that role, as Crvena zvezda again failed to win either the Adriatic or the Serbian title.
Head coaching debut: KK FMP
In late June 2013, Gurović got named the head coach of FMP, Crvena zvezda's feeder club competing in the Basketball League of Serbia (KLS).
2013–14 season
In his debut season behind the bench, Gurović's FMP team led by a couple of somewhat experienced journeymen — 25-year-old Slobodan Dunđerski and 24-year-old Filip Čović — in addition to talented 19-year-old Nikola Čvorović as well 18-year-olds Đorđe Kaplanović, Marko Gudurić, and Brano Đukanović finished the First League stage of the campaign on top with a 20–6 record, ahead of Crnokosa, Metalac Valjevo, and Borac Čačak, thus qualifying for the Super League stage.
On 7 February 2014 Gurović's FMP pulled out a famous win over favourites KK Partizan in the Serbian Cup quarterfinal: an 85–79 overtime triumph behind Nikola Čvorović's 27 points. The win was still seen as a significant upset despite injury-riddled Partizan fielding a makeshift squad half of which consisted of junior players as proud Gurovic praised his players. In its semifinal versus the Dejan Milojević-coached Mega Basket team, FMP led by 5 at the half on the back of its strong second quarter showing, but collapsed in the third and—despite some improvement in the fourth—lost the game 85–93 as towards the end of the contest Gurović reacted explosively to verbal abuse (he would later reveal consisted of insults against his family) from several spectators behind his bench who were ejected from the arena as a result.
Competing in the eight-team Super League against Serbian clubs from the Adriatic League (Red Star, Partizan, Mega, and Radnički Kragujevac) as well its three First League competitors, FMP managed a 5–9 record that was good enough for 5th spot, just outside a playoff berth. Due to FMP's association with Red Star and Gurović's personal past with Partizan fans as well as FMP's cup win earlier in the season, both of FMP's Super League games against Partizan were especially memorable. The teams met again on 2 June 2014 in Hala sportova with FMP leading throughout the nervy contest and building a 17-point lead heading into the final quarter before Partizan shifted into a higher gear and out shot their opposition 34–13 in the fourth quarter for an 86–82 win. Gurović was targeted throughout the match by Partizan fans and the arena erupted when he pushed Boris Dallo, a move that resulted in an automatic ejection from the sidelines as Partizan coach Duško Vujošević even took to the public address microphone, imploring home fans to calm down.
Personal life
Like a number of Serbian professional basketball players who transferred to the Greek Basket League clubs during the early 1990s—including Dragan Tarlać, Peja Stojaković, Dušan Vukčević, Dušan Jelić, Rasho Nesterović, Miroslav Pecarski, and Marko Jarić—in addition to his native country Serbia, Gurović also holds Greek citizenship, which he obtained for practical reasons of playing without EU administrative restrictions in the Greek Basket League. At the time, Gurović played for Peristeri, where he started his basketball career. In order to get Greek citizenship, his last name was changed; he thus competed under the name Milan Malatras while he was in Greece. The name change was required, as it reflected the citizenship documents submitted. There are rumors that these documents were often falsified, and subject to counterfeiting.
While playing for KK Partizan Gurović was not let in Croatia and Bosnia to play a game because of his tattoo of WW2 Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović on his shoulder. Above that tattoo, he has a tattooed eagle.
Serbian writer Biljana Srbljanović referred to Gurović as "that tattooed fool" in her online exchange with Nebojša Krstić, the adviser to President of Serbia at her blog. When informed and asked by daily tabloid Kurir about Srbljanović's online comments, Gurović responded: "For her information, that 'tattooed fool' speaks, besides Serbian, three foreign languages. I know who this writer is and feel very sorry for her. Women of her age can do or say foolish stuff sometimes if they don't get their portion of cock in the morning. She must've awoken unfucked that day when she said this."
Targeted by Partizan fans
One year prior to signing with Red Star Belgrade in September 2005, Gurović had been a member of their arch-rivals Partizan Belgrade. As a result, once he joined Red Star, he began to be targeted by the Partizan fans, Grobari, who suddenly turned on him having previously supported him strongly during the forward's Croatia entry ban when he was with Partizan. The antagonism culminated during the 2007 Serbian league playoff final when the Grobari chanted insults and provocations from the stands targeting Milan's wife, children and parents. Milan responded and in TV interview said that "Grobari are cattle". In the second game, when Red Star were hosts, incidents occurred on the stands between Red Star fans Delije and police. Gurović tried to calm Red Star supporters and to defend them from police. Delije chanted "You are Zvezda's chetnik Milan" (Serbian : "Ti si Zvezdin Četnik Milane") and Gurović cried. In the third game, Grobari used Milan's tears as provocation. Partizan won the series 3–1, becoming Serbian champions.
Gurović was elected on 5-year term as a member of the Assembly of the Crvena zvezda Basketball Club on 27 December 2021.
See also
List of KK Crvena zvezda players with 100 games played
References
External links
Milan Gurović at acb.com
Milan Gurović at tblstat.net
Milan Gurović at euroleague.net
1976 births
Living people
ABA League players
AEK B.C. players
Basketball League of Serbia players
Baloncesto Málaga players
FC Barcelona Bàsquet players
FIBA EuroBasket-winning players
FIBA World Championship-winning players
Galatasaray S.K. (men's basketball) players
Greek Basket League players
Greek basketball coaches
Naturalised basketball players
Greek men's basketball players
Greek people of Serbian descent
Joventut Badalona players
KK Crvena zvezda players
KK Crvena zvezda assistant coaches
KK FMP coaches
KK Novi Sad players
KK Partizan players
KK Vojvodina Srbijagas players
KK Vršac coaches
Liga ACB players
Members of the Assembly of KK Crvena zvezda
Naturalized citizens of Greece
Pallacanestro Trieste players
Peristeri B.C. players
Asseco Gdynia players
Serbia men's national basketball team players
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Greece
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Italy
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Poland
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Spain
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Turkey
Serbian men's basketball coaches
Serbian men's basketball players
Serbian nationalists
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Small forwards
Basketball players from Novi Sad
Yugoslav men's basketball players
2002 FIBA World Championship players
Serbia and Montenegro men's basketball players
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Serbia and Montenegro expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Greek expatriate basketball people in Italy
Greek expatriate basketball people in Turkey
Greek expatriate basketball people in Poland
Greek expatriate basketball people in Spain |
4225768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie%20Frazer | Willie Frazer | William Frederick Frazer (8 July 1960 – 28 June 2019) was a Northern Irish Ulster loyalist activist and advocate for those affected by Irish republican violence in Northern Ireland. He was the founder and leader of the pressure group Families Acting for Innocent Relatives (FAIR). He was also a leader of the Love Ulster campaign and more recently, the Belfast City Hall flag protests. In 2019, from evidence gained in a police report, journalist Mandy McAuley asserted that the Ulster Defence Association had been supplied weapons, in the late 1980s, by the Ulster Resistance and that Frazer was the point of contact for those supplies. She asserted that multiple sources also confirmed this to be true.<ref>Spotlight On The Troubles: A Secret History; Series 1, Episode 5</ref> Those weapons were linked to at least 70 paramilitary murders.
Background
William Frazer grew up in the village of Whitecross, County Armagh, Northern Ireland, as one of nine children, with his parents Bertie and Margaret. He was an ex-member of the Territorial Army, and a member of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster. He attended a local Catholic school and played Gaelic football up to U14 level. Frazer described his early years as a “truly cross-community lifestyle”. Growing up, he was a fan of the American actor John Wayne and wrestling. His father, who was a part-time member of the British Army's Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) and a council worker, was killed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) on 30 August 1975. The family home had previously been attacked with petrol bombs and gunfire which Frazer claimed were IRA men, due to Bertie's UDR membership. Frazer has stated that his family was well respected in the area including by "old-school IRA men" and received Mass cards from Catholic neighbours expressing their sorrow over his father's killing. Frazer believes an IRA member helped carry the coffin at his father's funeral. Over the next ten years four members of Frazer's family who were members or ex-members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary or British Army were killed by the IRA. An uncle of Frazer's who was a member of the UDR was also wounded in a gun attack.
Soon after his father's death, the IRA began targeting Frazer's older brother who was also a UDR member. Like many South Armagh unionists, the family moved north to the village of Markethill. After leaving school, Frazer worked as a plasterer for a period before serving in the British Army for nine years. Following this he worked for a local haulage company, then set up his own haulage company, which he later sold.
During the Drumcree conflict, Frazer was a supporter of the Portadown Orange Order who were demanding the right to march down the Garvaghy Road against the wishes of local residents. Frazer was president of his local Apprentice Boys club at the time.
For a brief period after selling his haulage firm Frazer ran "The Spot", a nightclub in Tandragee, County Armagh, which closed down after two Ulster Protestant civilians who had been in the club, Andrew Robb and David McIlwaine, were stabbed to death in February 2000 by the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), after one of them had allegedly made derogatory remarks about dead UVF Mid-Ulster Brigade leader Richard Jameson. Frazer was confronted in an interview on BBC Radio Ulster about the murders by the father of one of the victims, Paul McIlwaine. During the Smithwick Tribunal (set up to investigate allegations of collusion in the 1989 Jonesborough ambush) it was alleged by a member of Garda Síochána that Frazer was a part of a loyalist paramilitary group called the Red Hand Commando.Sunday Life, 5 August 2012 I'm No Red Hand, insists Campaigner Frazer denied the allegations, saying they put his life in danger.
Frazer applied for a licence to hold a firearm for his personal protection and was turned down, a chief inspector said, in part because he was known to associate with loyalist paramilitaries.Protection move after court plea BBC News, 27 October 2004
In 2019, the BBC investigative journalism programme Spotlight reported that Frazer distributed assault rifles and rocket launchers from Ulster Resistance to loyalist terror groups who used them in more than 70 murders. A police report on the activities of the former UDA boss Johnny Adair states he was receiving weapons from Ulster Resistance in the early 1990s and his contact in Ulster Resistance was Frazer.
FAIR campaign and related activism
FAIR, founded by Frazer in 1998, claims to represent the victims of IRA violence in South Armagh. It has been criticised by some for not doing the same for victims of loyalist paramilitary organisations or for those killed by security forces. In the past, Frazer had said of loyalist paramilitary prisoners that "they should never have been locked up in the first place", and that he had "a lot of time for Billy Wright" a loyalist who rejected the Good Friday Agreement. He had also defended security force collusion with loyalist paramilitaries, stating in an interview with Susan McKay: "If you were in the UDR and your brother was shot, are you telling me you wouldn't [pass information on to loyalists]? ... See if a Paki comes from India and kills a Provo? I'm going to shake his hand."
In February 2006, Frazer was an organiser of the Love Ulster parade in Dublin that had to be cancelled due to rioting. In January 2007, Frazer protested outside the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis in Dublin that voted to join policing structures in Northern Ireland. He "expressed outrage at the idea that the 'law-abiding population' would negotiate with terrorists to get them to support democracy, law and order."
In January 2007, Frazer dismissed Police Ombudsman Nuala O'Loan's report into security force collusion with loyalist paramilitaries.
In March 2010, he claimed to have served a civil writ on deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness, of Sinn Féin, seeking damages arising from the killing of Frazer's father by the Provisional IRA. Both Sinn Féin and the courts denied that any such writ had been served, but in June 2010 Frazer announced that he would seek to progress his claim in the High Court. There has since been no report of any such litigation. Frazer had previously picketed McGuinness's home in Derry in 2007 to demand support for calls for Libya to compensate victims of IRA attacks. Accompanied by two other men, Frazer attempted to post a letter to the house but was confronted by local residents and verbally abused. When McGuinness stood for election in the 2011 Irish presidential election Frazer announced that he and FAIR would picket the main Sinn Féin election events. He said, "If the people of the South want a terrorist to represent them around the world as their president then heaven help them." In the event, however, no such pickets took place.
In September 2010, the Special EU Programmes Body (SEUPB) revoked all funding to FAIR (more than £800,000 over three years) due to "major failures in the organisation's ability to adhere to the conditions associated with its funding allocation" uncovered following a "thorough audit" of the tendering and administration procedures used by FAIR. In a statement the SEUPB said: "The SEUPB is charged with ensuring the proper use of public money and as such has no option but to revoke all financial assistance, (amounting to approximately £880,000), that has been offered to the organisation... FAIR has been given every opportunity to respond to and address these issues. The decision to revoke and recover all financial assistance given to the project has not been taken lightly, however, given the seriousness of the issues no other recourse is available."
In November 2011, SEUPB announced that it was seeking the return of funding to FAIR and another Markethill victims group, Saver/Naver. FAIR was asked to return £350,000 while Saver/Naver was asked to return £200,000. Former Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) leader Lord Empey demanded that the conclusions about FAIR's finances be released into the public domain.
In January 2012, Frazer announced a protest march to be held on 25 February through the mainly Catholic south Armagh village of Whitecross, to recall the killing of ten Protestant workmen by the South Armagh Republican Action Force in January 1976 in the Kingsmill massacre. He also named individuals whom he accused of responsibility for the massacre. Frazer later announced that the march had been postponed "at the request of the Kingsmills families". A 2011 report by the Historical Enquiries Team (HET) found that members of the Provisional IRA carried out the attack despite the organisation being on ceasefire.
A delegation including Frazer, UUP politician Danny Kennedy and relatives of the Kingsmill families travelled to Dublin in September 2012 to seek an apology from the Taoiseach, Enda Kenny. The apology was being sought for what they described as the Irish government's "blatant inaction" over the Kingmills killings. The Taoiseach said he couldn't apologise for the actions of the IRA but assured the families there was no hierarchy for victims and their concerns were just as important as any other victims' families. The families expressed disappointment although Frazer stated he was pleased to have met the Taoiseach.
On 16 November 2012 Frazer announced that he was stepping down as director of FAIR, after he had reviewed a copy of the SEUPB audit report which, he claimed, showed no grounds for demanding the reimbursement of funding. He added "I will still be working in the victims sector."
Political career
In addition to his advocacy for Protestant victims, Frazer contested several elections in County Armagh. He was not elected, and on most occasions lost his deposit. He ran as an Ulster Independence Movement candidate in the 1996 Forum Elections and the 1998 Assembly elections, and as an independent in the 2003 Assembly elections and a council by-election.
Frazer's best electoral showing was 1,427 votes, 25.9%, in a Newry and Mourne District Council by-election in August 2006, when Frazer had the backing of the local UUP and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). The total votes polled 5,587 (47.6% of the local electorate); it was a two-candidate race for the Fews Area between Frazer and Sinn Féin candidate Turlough Murphy. The combined unionist vote in 2005 in the area had been 2,446.
In the 2010 UK general election, Frazer contested the Newry and Armagh Parliamentary constituency as an independent candidate. He received 656 votes (1.5%). The seat was retained by Sinn Féin's Conor Murphy who received 18,857 votes.
In the 2011 Assembly elections he was listed as a subscriber for the Traditional Unionist Voice candidate for the Newry and Armagh constituency, Barrie Halliday who secured 1.8% of the vote. At Newry Crown Court on Wednesday, June 21, 2017, Pastor Barrie Gordon Halliday was sentenced to nine months in prison, suspended for eighteen months, when he pleaded guilty to seventeen counts of VAT repayment fraud.
In November 2012, Frazer announced his intention to contest the 2013 Mid Ulster by-election necessitated by Martin McGuinness's decision to resign the parliamentary seat to concentrate on his Assembly role. Frazer was quoted in The Irish News in January 2013 as stating that he would not condemn any paramilitary gunman who shot McGuinness.
Despite his earlier advocacy of Ulster nationalism, in 2013 Frazer declared himself in favour of re-establishing direct rule in Northern Ireland.
On 24 April 2013, Frazer and others, including former British National Party fundraiser Jim Dowson and David Nicholl, a former member of the paramilitary-linked Ulster Democratic Party, announced the launch of a new political party called the Protestant Coalition.
Since his death in June 2019, investigative work by BBC's Spotlight has alleged that Frazer had supplied weapons to the loyalist paramilitary group Ulster Resistance which were used in the murder of a number of Irish civilians.
Other activities
In 2004 Frazer invited to South Armagh Larry Pratt of Gun Owners of America, an advocate of the American militia movement, who had admitted links with "the Ku Klux Klan and an Aryan Nation official".
Frazer came to wider attention in October 2005 when he got into a public argument with a Redemptorist priest, Father Alec Reid. Frazer made remarks that Catholics had butchered Protestants during the Troubles. Father Reid likened unionist treatment of Catholics to the treatment of the Jews by the Nazis. Reid later apologised for the remark, saying he had lost his temper. Frazer reported Reid to the police for incitement to hatred, but no legal action ensued.
In October 2011 he attended a protest in Pomeroy against the use of rubble from a demolished police station to level out the playing field of the local GAA club, which hosts an annual tug-of-war event in memory of Seamus Woods, an IRA member killed by the premature explosion of a mortar while attacking the station. The station was the target of many such IRA attacks during the Troubles. Frazer stated that "moving the rubble to the GAA club would cause a lot of heartache for many families. The unionist population is small in Pomeroy and they certainly feel betrayed."
In November 2011, after an apology by UUP MLA John McCallister for "unionist failings" in the past (at a Sinn Féin conference in Newry), Frazer reacted furiously. Frazer stated that people were "appalled" by McCallister's remarks.
In May 2012, after seeing the Italian flag being flown as part of a cultural event held in Donaghmore's St Patrick's Primary School and mistaking it for the Irish Tricolour, Frazer accused the school for 4-to-11-year-old children of being "the junior headquarters of SF/IRA youth", stating on Facebook that "I wounder do they also train the children in how to use weapons, for it seems they can do what they wont."(sic) Concerned for the safety of students and the school's reputation, teachers informed police of the accusations and photographs of the school posted by Frazer were later removed from Facebook.
Frazer expressed outrage after his car was stopped and searched by the PSNI in October 2012 under anti-terror laws. He announced his intention to report the incident to his solicitor and the Police Ombudsman. The incident occurred outside Whitecross and Frazer's wallet and documents were taken away for examination. Unknown to police, he made a voice recording on his mobile phone. He had taken photos of the cars the police were in but police removed the camera from Frazer and deleted the images. Police provided no explanation to Frazer as to why the stop and search procedure was undertaken.
Following the 2013 horse meat scandal Frazer gave an interview to The University Times in which he claimed horse meat had actually been introduced to the food chain by the IRA five years before the scandal broke. He also claimed that republicans were behind "old fat cows that are 30 months old" being sold for food before adding that "a blind eye has been turned to it" and that "this is the kind of thing that's going on that we're sick of".
In September 2013 an illegal mobile abattoir was found in Newry. William stated that his "IRA horse burger" claims were now vindicated.
In March 2014 more illegal abattoirs where found by the FSA in Forkhill and Bessbrook.
Frazer's car was set on fire at his home outside Markethill in the early hours of 10 February 2013. Frazer stated that he was asleep inside the house at the time. A passing police patrol noticed the fire but the car was destroyed. Frazer blamed republicans for the incident and claimed to have received a death threat a few hours before the attack. Frazer posted photos to his Facebook page reportedly showing a bullet that was posted to him, however it was pointed out by the satirical web group LAD that the handwriting on the envelope was the same as his own and that the envelope lacked a sorting office stamp.
In September 2013, when brought before court under the serious crime act of 2007, Frazer arrived to court dressed as radical Muslim cleric and terrorist, Abu Hamza. He claimed that this was an act of protest, as the legislation he was being charged under was one he believed to be designed for the conviction of Muslim extremists, and therefore should not have applied to him.
In 2014 Frazer attacked the BBC for having a supposed Gaelic Athletic Association top on the soap EastEnders'' and that "it glorified terrorism" and the IRA. The top in question turned out to be a PE top from a Ballymena school. When asked if he wanted to apologise for the mistake he refused.
In 2014 Frazer and the Protestant Coalition led a campaign against a teacher at the Boy's Model School when it was revealed she was a member of Sinn Féin, justifying their stance that due to her politics she should not be teaching at the school. She left after weeks of abuse.
In November 2015 he warned of leading a protest at Belfast International Airport, due to a perceived lack of Northern Ireland branded gifts and souvenirs for sale at the airport compared to products advertised as being Irish or from Ireland.
Flag protests
On 3 January 2013 Frazer said that he had contacted the Garda Síochána to inform them that he and some followers would hold a protest in Dublin over the decision by Belfast City Council to reduce the number of days the Union Flag flew above Belfast City Hall. Shortly thereafter he became spokesman of the "interim committee" of the Ulster People's Forum, one of a number of loyalist umbrella groups established to co-ordinate the protests.
On 27 February 2013, Frazer was arrested by the PSNI in his home village of Markethill, for questioning in relation to organising and participating in illegal parades and protests which were centred on the flags issue. Jamie Bryson, who along with Frazer was one of the most prominent spokespersons for the flag protesters, was also later arrested in Bangor after going on the run for several days. Frazer was charged with three counts of participating in unnotified public processions and obstruction of traffic in a public place. Frazer was subsequently released on bail. On 16 July 2013, he was rearrested for alleged breach of bail conditions. The charges against Frazer were later dropped.
George Galloway's lawsuit
In January 2016, George Galloway in the Belfast High Court won leave to sue in the UK the American internet search engine company Google, which owns the internet video posting site YouTube. Material was posted on YouTube by Frazer, who described Galloway as a supporter of terrorist beheadings. Frazer was also being sued. The action is believed to be the first of its kind in Europe.
Death
Frazer died of cancer on 28 June 2019. Traditional Unionist Voice (TUV) leader Jim Allister and DUP Assembly member Jim Wells paid tribute to his memory.
See also
Andrew Robb and David McIlwaine killings
References
External links
FAIR website
1960 births
2019 deaths
People from County Armagh
People of The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
Activists from County Armagh
Place of birth missing
Ulster Independence Movement politicians
Deaths from cancer in Northern Ireland |
4225859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield%2C%20Ashton-under-Lyne%20and%20Manchester%20Railway | Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway | The Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway was an early British railway company which opened in stages between 1841 and 1845 between Sheffield and Manchester via Ashton-under-Lyne. The Peak District formed a formidable barrier, and the line's engineer constructed Woodhead Tunnel, over long. The company amalgamated with the Sheffield and Lincolnshire Junction Railway and Great Grimsby and Sheffield Junction Railway companies, together forming the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in 1847.
In the twentieth century the line carried an exceptionally heavy freight traffic, and it was electrified in 1954; at that time a new Woodhead Tunnel was driven. In 1974 the major part of the route was closed to passenger trains, leaving passenger operation continuing only on the Manchester–Hadfield section, and in 1981 the line east of Hadfield closed completely. The Manchester–Hadfield–Glossop section and a branch to Stalybridge remain in use.
Origins
At the end of the 18th century the need for improved transport links between Manchester and Sheffield, only apart but separated by the upland Peak District, was increasing. The canal route involved a long northwards detour through the Pennines, and the journey took eight days.
In 1826 a land surveyor in Sheffield, Henry Sanderson, put forward a line to Manchester via Edale and a prospectus for a "Sheffield and Manchester Railway" was published in August 1830, with George Stephenson appointed to be the engineer.
There were concerns about the severity of the gradients on this line, which would involve rope-worked inclines. He suggested an alternative route, via Penistone, that would involve less tunnelling, and have gentler gradients which could be worked by locomotives, but this scheme too failed to attract support.
In 1835 Charles Vignoles was asked to examine another route, again via Woodhead and Penistone; and a new provisional company, the "Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway" was formed. This line could be worked by adhesion, and required only a tunnel. Vignoles and Joseph Locke were asked to make independent surveys, and in October met to reconcile any differences, at which time they decided that a longer tunnel at a lower level would reduce the approach gradients involved.
After parliamentary expenses of £18,000 (), the line obtained its authorising Act of Parliament on 5 May 1837. The only opposition came from the Manchester and Birmingham Railway, with whom it was agreed that the line from Ardwick would be shared as it entered a joint station in Manchester at Store Street.
Construction and first opening
The first sod was cut near the western end of the Woodhead Tunnel site on 1 October 1838. The following year the line had been marked out, land purchase was proceeding well, and construction had begun with Thomas Brassey as contractor. However a number of shareholders were defaulting on their payments, and there were concerns about the cost of construction. The Woodhead Tunnel would be built as a single-track bore to reduce costs. The relationship between the board and its engineer, Vignoles, was becoming strained, and Vignoles resigned. Joseph Locke agreed to act as engineer in a consultative capacity only, if the board would appoint resident engineers for the day-to-day supervision of the work.
In 1841 Locke reported that construction of the tunnel would probably cost £207,000 (), about twice the original estimate. Considerable volumes of water were encountered in the headings and more powerful pumps were acquired. In late 1841 the line was ready as far as Godley Toll Bar, a distance of , and the directors made an experimental trip over it on 11 November 1841. The Board of Trade inspecting officer, Sir Frederick Smith, passed the line as safe, and it was opened to the public on 17 November 1841. There was no opening ceremony, but each shareholder was sent a free ticket for travel on that day. The Manchester and Birmingham Railway's temporary station at Travis Street, Manchester, was used, pending the readiness of the Store Street terminal. The route was single track throughout as an economy measure, at first without any intermediate passing places. It shared the final approach from to Travis Street with the M&BR trains, on the M&BR track. Nearly 40% of gross passenger receipts were payable to the M&BR for the use of the short section of their line. Goods traffic was developed much more slowly.
The arrangements for safe working at the junction seem to have been lax, and the Manchester Guardian observed that
Some caution will be requisite here to prevent two trains... coming into contact at this point. This, of course, may be done by arranging the times, or by keeping the rails separate, which is indeed to be the case when the line is completed to the new Manchester station, but at the present, the proper precaution seems to be to stand a watchman there to keep a look-out on both lines, and see that when a train is arriving on one line, there is no train arriving on the other, or if there be, to make the signal to one of them to slacken speed.
Permanent way maintenance was put to contract.
Completion of the line, and a cancelled alliance
The M&BR and SA&MR opened the jointly-owned Store Street station in Manchester on 10 May 1842. The initial opening of a single line only proved impossibly constraining, and installation of double track was ordered early in 1842, together with construction on from Godley to Glossop. The line from Godley to was opened on 10 December 1842, and on to a "Glossop" station, later to be renamed , on 24 December 1842. There were six daily trains to Glossop supplemented by four to Newton & Hyde station. There were four to Glossop on Sundays. By November 1842 the stations were Manchester (Store Street), Ardwick, Gorton, Fairfield, Ashton, Dukinfield, Newton & Hyde, Broadbottom and Glossop. The Dukinfield station (called Dog Lane) was closed in 1845; another station, named simply was opened nearby in 1846, closing in 1847. There was also a Dukinfield station on the Stalybridge branch.
The main line was opened as far as Woodhead in 1844, with stations at Hadfield and Woodhead. Construction of Woodhead Tunnel was the next hurdle, but improved pumping machinery had been installed, enabling better progress.
Alliances and extensions of the network were in the minds of the directors. Encouragement was offered to a proposed Sheffield and Lincolnshire Junction Railway, to run from the SA&MR at Sheffield to Gainsborough. At the same time (1844) friendly relations with the Manchester and Birmingham Railway were further developed, and at length this led to a proposal by the M&BR with the Midland Railway to lease the SA&MR, giving those companies better access to Manchester. This seemed to be going well, and an authorising Act was passed, but the proposal was voted down in May 1845 by shareholders, who were persuaded that their line would be merely a remote satellite of the Midland Railway.
A branch line was being built from Ashton to . However disaster took place: on 19 April 1845 a nine-arch viaduct under construction collapsed: 17 workmen were killed.
On 9 June 1845 a short single line branch to was opened; powers were obtained in the 1846 parliamentary session to take it over from the Duke of Norfolk, who had caused it to be built. The branch joined the main line facing Manchester some distance to the east of the original Glossop station, now renamed Dinting.
The (unconnected) eastern section of the main line was opened on 14 July 1845; there were stations at Dunford Bridge, Penistone, Wortley, Deepcar, Oughty Bridge, Wadsley Bridge and a Sheffield station at Bridgehouses.
Finally on 22 December 1845 Woodhead Tunnel was ready and a ceremonial opening of the entire line, including the Stalybridge branch, took place; the following day it opened to the general public. The tunnel was at the time the longest in the country, at . Two extra stations were added at the site of previous coal sidings at and at .
Besides Woodhead, there were short tunnels at Audenshaw Road, Hattersley (two), Thurgoland and Bridgehouses. Among the bridges the two most notable were the Etherow Viaduct and the Dinting Viaduct, the latter with five central and eleven approach arches.
The completed network consisted of of main line, on the Stalybridge branch and on the Glossop branch.
1845: Expansion
The state of the money market considerably improved in 1844–45, and the Railway Mania took hold. The directors of the SA&MR saw that expansion was the way forward for the company. On 15 April 1845 a shareholders' meeting approved the submission of bills for the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway, which would connect the line to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, and the Barnsley Junction Railway, which would run from near Penistone to Barnsley and connect with the North Midland Railway at Royston. The Sheffield and Lincolnshire Junction Railway, from Sheffield to Gainsborough, was already approved. Supplementing this list were proposals for lines from Wortley through Thorncliffe to Chapeltown, and from Dukinfield to New Mills and on to a junction with the Buxton line of the Manchester and Birmingham Railway. The Barnsley Junction Railway might be extended to Pontefract, and exploratory meetings were opened with the promoters of a Boston, Newark and Sheffield Railway, and of a Hull and Barnsley Junction Railway. Not all of these lines were later authorised.
Of greatest significance was a meeting on 5 September 1845 between the SA&MR, the promoters of the Sheffield and Lincolnshire Junction Railway, and the Great Grimsby and Sheffield Junction Railway; the Grimsby Docks Company was included. The outcome was agreement to amalgamate the three concerns, forming a single railway connecting Manchester to Grimsby on the North Sea coast. The idea was developed and approved by Parliament on 27 July 1846, to be effective on 1 January 1847. The combined company would be named the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway.
Part of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway
On the first day of existence of the new company, a connecting line from Bridgehouses station to the Sheffield station of the Midland Railway. It had originally been opened as the terminus of the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway; it was known as Sheffield Wicker station from 1852. The short steeply graded line was enclosed within a tunnel for almost its entire length, and was known locally as the Fiery Jack. It was used for wagon transfer purposes.
The through line required a better Sheffield station: a station was built, and opened on 15 September 1851, and named Victoria station.
An express passenger train service was run from Manchester to London, from 1857, in association with the Great Northern Railway. A timing of 5 hours 20 minutes was operated, the same time as on the rival London and North Western Railway (successor of the Manchester & Birmingham Railway), although that company soon accelerated its services to a speed that the MS&LR and GNR service could not match. For a time there was bitter hostility from the LNWR with some underhand tactics employed by it to discourage use of the rival service.
Woodhead Tunnel
There were a number of viaducts on the original line, although few survived into the 20th century in their original form. The principal engineering feature was Woodhead Tunnel. At in length it was the longest tunnel in the United Kingdom when built, and still the longest on the LNER system in 1947. It was originally planned to build a double-track tunnel, but to economise a single-track bore was made. The track rose at 1 in 201 towards the east.
No less than 157 tons of gunpowder were used for blasting and eight million tons of water were pumped out, whilst the total quantity of excavation was , about half of this being drawn up the shafts. It was completed at a cost in the region of £200,000. The formal opening of the Woodhead tunnel and of the whole line between Manchester and Sheffield took place on 22 December 1845, more than seven years after the first ground had been broken.
Special precautions were taken to ensure against accidents during operation through the tunnel. An SA&MR pilot engine was stationed at the tunnel and attached to the front of every train that passed through. On the front of the engine was fixed an argand lamp, with a large polished metal disc for reflection, so that a powerful beam of light was thrown forward on the track ahead. A contemporary newspaper account also stated that "Cooke & Wheatstone's patent magnetic telegraph was being fixed in the tunnel with an index, etc., at the stations at each end, capable of being worked by the station clerks."
The single line through the Woodhead tunnel soon proved to be an acute bottleneck and in 1847 (after the formation of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway) work upon a second bore was begun. This new tunnel, which was to accommodate the up road (towards Manchester), was driven alongside the original one, it opened on 2 February 1852.
After the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire
The Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway was renamed the Great Central Railway on 1 August 1897.
In 1923 most of the main line railways of Great Britain were "grouped" in to one or other of four new large companies. The Great Central Railway was a constituent of the new London and North Eastern Railway.
In 1936 the LNER approved a scheme for electrifying the whole line from Manchester via Sheffield to , together with the branches from to , from to and from to and – a total of . The system chosen was 1,500 V DC with overhead wires. All freight as well as passenger traffic was to be hauled by electric traction. For many years about 80 trains travelled through the tunnel each way, each day, of which 90% were loaded or empty coal workings and ventilation was a major problem. The decision to electrify was made as much to increase line capacity as any other consideration. Electrification work was well in hand before the advent of war in 1939 stopped it. In 1946–47 each bore of Woodhead Tunnel in turn was closed for 9 months for major repairs. However, following the nationalisation of railways in 1948, it was decided to close them permanently and bore a new double-track tunnel alongside, with enough clearance for the overhead electrification catenary. The new tunnel was long. It was opened by the Minister of Transport on 3 June 1954. The two old tunnels were later sealed off, and they were later purchased by the Central Electricity Generating Board to carry power cables through the Pennines.
On 5 January 1970 the passenger service between and over the Woodhead route was withdrawn; the electric commuter service from Manchester to Glossop and Hadfield continued in operation. Freight trains were withdrawn on the Woodhead route on 18 July 1981 and the line between Hadfield and Penistone was then closed completely. The line between Penistone and Sheffield remained in use by diesel Sheffield–Huddersfield trains, but with all intermediate stations including Sheffield Victoria having closed, trains had to reverse at Nunnery Junction to enter Sheffield Midland station. On 13 May 1983 these trains were diverted via and the ex-Midland route; the track between Penistone and was lifted, however the line from Deepcar to Nunnery Junction remains, single track, to serve the Fox steelworks.
On 10 December 1984, Manchester to Glossop and Hadfield electric trains started running at 25 kV AC (the same system as used on the West Coast Main Line which it adjoined) following conversion from the old 1500 V DC system. The system continues in use at the present day. The Stalybridge branch remains in use by local and express trains from Manchester Piccadilly to and .
Station list
Main line
Manchester Store Street (or "Bank Top"); opened jointly with the Manchester and Birmingham Railway 10 May 1842; named Manchester London Road from 1844; renamed 12 September 1960; still open;
Travis Street; temporary terminus opened by the M&BR 4 June 1840; served by SA&MR trains from 17 November 1841; closed 10 May 1842;
; opened 20 November 1842; still open;
; opened July 1855; still open;
; opened 23 May 1842; still open;
Fairfield; opened 17 November 1841; re-sited to the east 2 May 1892; still open;
Ashton & Hooley Hill; opened 17 November 1841; renamed 1845; still open;
Dukinfield (Dog Lane); opened 17 November 1841; closed 23 December 1845; reopened nearby as 1 May 1846; closed 1 November 1847;
(; opened 13 May 1985; still open;)
Newton; opened 17 November 1841; from 1848; still open;
; opened 17 November 1841 as temporary terminus; closed 11 December 1842;
Godley Junction; opened 1 February 1866; renamed Godley 6 May 1974; renamed 7 July 1986; closed after last train on 27 May 1995;
(; opened 7 July 1986; still open;)
Broadbottom; opened 11 December 1842; renamed Mottram 1845; Mottram & Broadbottom 1 July 1884; Broadbottom for Charlesworth 1 January 1954; 1955; still open;
Glossop; opened 25 December 1842; renamed Dinting 9 June 1845; closed 1 February 1847; see next;
Glossop Junction; opened 9 June 1845; renamed Dinting February 1847; renamed Glossop & Dinting 10 July 1922; renamed 26 September 1938; still open;
Hadfield; opened 8 August 1844; renamed Hadfield & Tintwistle between 1862–63 and 1880–81; Hadfield for Hollingworth 12 October 1903; from 1955;
; opened 1 July 1861; closed 4 February 1957;
; opened 8 August 1844; closed 27 July 1964;
; opened 14 July 1845; closed 5 January 1970;
; opened 1 May 1846; closed 1 November 1847; reopened January 1849; closed 6 March 1950;
; opened 14 July 1845; relocated at junction with the L&YR 1 February 1874; still open;
; opened 5 December 1845; closed 1 November 1847;
; probably opened soon after 5 December 1845; closed 1 November 1847;
; opened 14 July 1845; closed 2 May 1955;
; opened 14 July 1845; closed 15 June 1959;
Oughtibridge or opened 14 July 1845; closed 15 June 1959;
; opened 14 July 1845; closed 15 June 1959;
; opened 1 July 1888; closed 28 October 1940;
Sheffield (); opened 14 July 1845; closed 15 September 1851 (when station was opened by the amalgamated MS&LR).
Stalybridge branch
(as above);
Dukinfield; opened 23 December 1845; resited to south west March 1863; renamed 1954; closed 4 May 1959;
Park Parade or ; opened 23 December 1845; closed 5 November 1956;
; opened 23 December 1845; junction with LNWR from 1848; still open.
Glossop branch
(as above);
; opened 1 July 1845; renamed Glossop Central 10 July 1922; renamed Glossop 6 May 1974; still open.
Chief officers
Chairman
James Stuart-Wortley, 1st Baron Wharncliffe 1837–1840
John Parker MP 1840–1846
John Chapman 1846
Deputy Chairman
William Sidebottom 1837–1843
John Chapman 1843–1846 (then Chairman)
Secretary
Thomas Asline Ward 1837–1838
Charles Thompson 1838–1841
John Platford 1841–1845
James Meadows 1846
Engineer-in-Chief
Charles Blacker Vignoles 1838–1839
Joseph Locke 1840–1846
Alfred Stanistreet Lee 1846
Resident Engineer
Alfred Stanistreet Lee 1840–1846
John Bass 1846
Notes
References
Early British railway companies
Defunct companies based in Sheffield
Railway lines in Yorkshire and the Humber
Railway companies established in 1837
Railway lines opened in 1841
Railway companies disestablished in 1846
Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway
Woodhead Line
British companies established in 1837
British companies disestablished in 1846 |
4225979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%20%28band%29 | D (band) | is a Japanese visual kei metal/rock band formed in 2003 by Asagi, Ruiza and Sin, after their previous band Syndrome disbanded. D's music includes heavy guitar songs, as well as melancholic ballads and even medieval music and folk dance from around the world. Their lyrics focus on love, human nature and esoteric themes, such as spirituality and the relationship between persons and nature, and their costumes are closely related to the stories they tell. Their styling matches their music: fantastical, gothic and elegant.
History
2003–2005: Formation and The Name of the Rose
In March 2003, D was formed with their initial lineup of vocalist Asagi, guitarist Ruiza, drummer Hiroki, guitarist Sin, and bassist Rena. They released their first EP, New Blood on July 18. Shortly before the release, Sin quit D, and not long after, Ruiza had to leave the band due to undisclosed health issues. D went on a short pause of activities from that point, however Asagi and Hiroki continued to play concerts under the name "Night of the Children" with a support guitarist, Tetsu. Meanwhile, Sin decided to leave the music scene and Hiroki called a former band member, Hide-Zou, to fill in. Once Ruiza was released from the hospital on September 27, D officially resumed activities with Hide-Zou replacing Sin on guitar. Two months after their reunion, they recorded their first single "Alice" which was given away for free at only one show in Tokyo that November. "Alice" was released as a single on November 27. On January 7 of the following year, they released their second EP: Paradox, which reached 13th place on the Oricon indies chart.
During 2004, D released another EP Yume Narishi Kuuchuu Teien, as well as a single entitled "Mayutsuki no Hitsugi", which was only for sale at three concerts in November, in Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka. They also released a remastered version of their first EP, with a previously unreleased track "Gareki no Hana". New Blood: Second Impact was released on December 8 of that year, quickly followed by their fourth single, "Mahiru no Koe: Synchronicity".
In 2005, Rena remained in the band long enough to release one more single and promotional video, "Yami Yori Kurai Doukoku no a Capella to Bara Yori Akai Jounetsu no Aria". On July 27, after finishing the recording of the forthcoming album, Rena left the band and Hide-Zou recorded bass for that release. They released their first full album titled The Name of the Rose on September 28 in two versions, each packaged with a DVD containing a different promotional video. D launched their own publication called Mad Tea Party Magazine on August 7.
2006–2007: New lineup, Tafel Anatomie and Neo culture: Beyond the world
On December 5, 2005, Tsunehito joined as the new bassist. The band re-released their first full album: The Name of the Rose, with re-recorded bass tracks by Tsunehito. The updated album contained three extra tracks: "Shiroi Yoru", "Tsukiyo no Renka", and "Mayutsuki no Hitsugi". Keeping with the trend of remastering their old albums, in 2006 D re-released their EPs Paradox and Yume Narishi Kuchuu Teien. The latter came with two additional tracks that were previously unreleased. Their seventh single, "Taiyou wo Okuru Hi", was released in two types: a limited edition with the promotional video for the title track, and a regular edition with an instrumental version of the title track. Two months later they released their second album, Tafel Anatomie on October 18, which ranked 36th on the Oricon weekly chart.
In 2007, D launched an official fan club, Ultimate Lover, and released their first DVD of live concert footage, Tafel Anatomie: Tour 2006 Final on March 14. Soon after, the band announced in-store events and a three-date tour in Osaka, Nagoya, and Tokyo on their website to support their "Dearest You" single to be released on April 25. In the summer, D had a dual single release campaign, with "Ouka Sakisomenikeri" released on July 18 and "Schwarzschild" on August 15. On November 7, they released their third full-length album Neo culture: Beyond the world with an expanded version of their usual multiple-version marketing tactic; buyers could choose from two special editions each containing a DVD with different promotional video, and a regular edition with a thirty-six page booklet.
2008–2010: Major label debut, Genetic World and 7th Rose
D signed with the major record label Avex Trax in 2008. Their last indies tour was called "Follow Me", and a DVD of footage from the final concert was released later in July. Their first major single called "Birth" was released on May 7. Their second major single, "Yami no Kuni no Alice/Hamon", was released on September 3. The title track was used as the theme for the movie Twilight Syndrome: Dead-Go-Round, and the b-side track "Hamon" was used as the ending theme for the Nintendo DS game Twilight Syndrome. Their first major label-sponsored concert entitled "Birth: Sora e no Kaiki" was held on August 8, followed by their year's end "Alice in Dark Edge" tour.
Their first activity of 2009 was the release of their third major single, "Snow White". Then on February 25, they released their fourth full-length album titled Genetic World. In the months following, they released a special combination concert photo book and live album "D Tour 2008: Alice in Dark Edge Final", and a live DVD: D Tour 2008: Alice in Dark Edge in March.
D's tour for Genetic World kicked off in April 2009 and ended that May. In September, Asagi opened a website for his company Rosen Kranz (God Child Records). Soon they announced the revival of Mad Tea Party Magazine, and it was decided that the eleventh volume and eighth special edition photo book would be released on October 13. D's fourth major single "Tightrope" was released on September 23. A previously unreleased song "Day by Day" was soon announced to be the theme song for a dating simulation game for Japanese mobile phones called LoveφSummit, part of the Neo Romance series from KOEI, as well as the title track of a new single that was to be released on December 2.
The band's first single of 2010, "Kaze ga Mekuru Peji", was used as the opening theme for the television drama Shinsengumi Peacemaker, aired on TBS and MBS, and was scheduled for sale on March 10. Their fifth album, titled 7th Rose in honor of their seven years of activity, was released later that month. A compilation DVD: D 1st Video Clips containing footage from their short television program Bara no Yakata, and several promotional videos from their independent and major releases was also released on March 31.
Their single, "In the Name of Justice", was released on November 17, 2010. It featured two special editions, one carrying the song's PV, other packing "the making of" the title track, also including "Grand Master", and a regular edition featuring "Yoru no Me to Ginyushijin".
2011–2012: World tour and Vampire Saga
On January 12, 2011, D released their sixth album called Vampire Saga. D covered Malice Mizer's song "Gekka no Yasoukyoku" for the compilation: Crush! -90's V-Rock Best Hit Cover Songs-. The album was released on January 26, 2011, and features current visual kei bands covering songs from bands that were important to the '90s visual kei movement.
In the spring of 2011, D did its first overseas tour through Torpedo Productions, in May the group visited Europe and played with the tour name "VAMPIRE SAGA in Europe - 'Path of the Rose'". They visited France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, England and Finland, and were at Project A-Kon 2011 in Texas. After returning to Japan, they released the single "Torikago Goten ~L'Oiseau bleu~" and created their official Facebook page.
On November 21 the same year, the band released their new mini album titled Huang Di ~Yami ni Umareta Mukui~, the release was limited and sold out quickly thanks to the group's expanding fanbase and popularity.
On April 20, 2012, was the first stop of D's second European tour. To promote their new single "Dying Message" and also to again feel the energy of their western fans. Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Poland, Italy, Austria, Russia and Finland was on the tour schedule. Last show was May 9 in Russia. Following this, they embarked on their first South American Tour (Chile, Brazil and Argentina) in May. After the tour the group released the single "Dying Message" on May 30, 2012. On July 18, D released the single "Danzai no Gunner". In the PV to "Danzai no Gunner", Asagi (vocal) used a gun for the first time to save Tsunehito (bass) from a mad doctor. From July to August the band did a promotion tour called "Danzai no Gunner". On October 18, the band released a documentary DVD about their visit in Europe "Dying message ~2012 Overseas Odyssey Tour Documentary & Off-Shot".
On November 4, the band appeared on YouTube on the Online TV-show (visual kei)Viju Love Cafe, where they promoted their latest PV for "Namonaki Mori no Yumegatari". On November 14, the band released their latest EP called Namonaki Mori no Yumegatari with songs including "Hikari no Niwa", "Canis Lupus" and "Like a Black Cat - Mujitsu No Tsumi". The musicians are still in their infant years, reaching out into the world and broadening the visual kei stage.
2013–2014: 10th Anniversary and Kingdom
In April 2013, around the celebration of their 10th anniversary, D released news about joining the major label Victor Entertainment. They released Treasure box, a greatest hits album which includes songs from their times under God Child Records label. Later that year, they released Bloody Rose "Best Collection 2007-2011", which includes material from their Avex Trax era.
In May 2013, the band started their 10th anniversary tour. Between May 1 till 5th each band member had a show where their played their personal favorites from the band's many songs. The next 5 dates each had a show for each big record the band had released during their 10 years of performing. The band has expressed interest for a new tour in Europe.
In July 2013, the band began touring Japan and visiting each of the members home towns in celebration of their major label signing with a new visual for "Rosenstrauss", focusing the theme of the tour on the character "Rosalie" of their vampire story. Hiroki collaborated with many musicians on Dead End's tribute album, specifically on the song "Dress Burning".
On March 26, 2014, the band released new Best of album titled D Vampire Chronicle: V-Best Selection. Their seventh full-length album titled Kingdom was released on November 12, 2014. This album, it will continue D's popular vampire story, but is also described as a musical biography of the band: "beautiful, violent and transcending genre boundaries". D has announced that they went on an activity pause next year after finishing their 47-prefectures live tour due to worsening of vocalist Asagi's temporomandibular joint disorder.
2015–present: Wonderland Savior
D's hiatus ended in mid 2015. On December 9, 2015, they released a new single "Master Key". This single continues the "Alice in Wonderland" theme that also ran through D's previous single "Happy Unbirthday", which was released in September. D held a tour also named "MASTER KEY" starting from November, they held the tour final at Akasaka Blitz (with the guests: Hello Kitty and My Melody) on December 11.
On April 27, 2016, Asagi released a major debut solo single titled "Seventh Sense/屍の王者/アンプサイ". It features many well-known artists, including Hiro and Shuse of La'cryma Christi, Sakura of Zigzo, Hitoki of Kuroyume, Keiichi Miyako of Sophia, Ken Morioka of Soft Ballet, Sakito of Nightmare, Shinya of Dir En Grey, Shinya of Luna Sea, K-A-Z of Sads and many more. On October 26, D released their first album after their return from hiatus. They released their eighth album called Wonderland Savior.
Members
, born on August 29, 1974, in Noshiro, Akita, is the vocalist, lyricist, and one of the main songwriters of D. Previously in the bands Balsamic (1994–1997), Je*Reviens (1998–2001), and Syndrome (2001–2002), he was also in a side project called Kochou with Tinc's drummer Takuma, formerly known as Shion in Syndrome. He founded the company record label God Child Records in 2006, under which D released most of their independent era works. He released a solo single that year entitled "Corvinus", and also developed a perfume of the same name, under the God Child subsidiary Rosen Kranz.
, D's guitarist and other main songwriter, was born on February 18, 1979, in Itami, Hyougo. He was previously in the bands Distray (1996–1999), Laybial (1999–2000), and Syndrome. Ruiza has also released three solo EPs: Ao no Hahen in 2002,amenity gain in 2006 and abyss in 2012 (the latter two stylized without capitals).
, born in Kanagawa on November 19, 1977, is the second guitarist of D. He was previously in the bands Lapis (1995–1997), Clair de Lune (1997–2000), As'Real (2000–2002), and S to M (2002–2003).
, D's current bass player, was born on March 5, 1984, in Yokohama, Kanagawa. His previous bands include Relude (2001–2003), Givuss (2003–2004), and Scissor (2004–2005).
was born on July 20, 1975, in Gunma, and is the drummer of D. He was previously in the bands Overtaker (1998–2000), Michiru Project (2001–2001), Aioria (2001–2002), and S to M (2002–2003).
Timeline
Influence
Asagi said that X Japan, Luna Sea, Malice Mizer, L'Arc~en~Ciel, and Buck-Tick are the Japanese bands that influenced them the most. Asagi's favorite singers are women, naming Enya, Björk, and Amy Lee of Evanescence. Hiroki's favorites bands are Skid Row and Dream Theater, while Ruiza picked X Japan and Dream Theater, and Hide-Zou chose Luna Sea. Tsunehito's favorite Japanese bands are Kuroyume and Buck-Tick. Ruiza and Hide-Zou stated that they were influenced by Kouichi from Laputa.
Discography
Singles
"Alice" (November 27, 2003)
"Yume Narishi Kuuchuu Teien" (夢なりし空中庭園) (May 12, 2004)
"Mayutsuki no Hitsugi" (繭月の棺) (November 4, 2004)
"Mahiru no Koe ~Synchronicity~" (真昼の声 ~Synchronicity~) (January 12, 2005)
"Shiroi Yoru" (白い夜) (February 17, 2005)
"Yami Yori Kurai Doukoku no Acapella to Bara Yori Akai Jounetsu no Aria" (闇より暗い慟哭のアカペラと薔薇より赤い情熱のアリア) (June 22, 2005) Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 81
"Taiyou wo Okuru hi" (太陽を葬（おく）る日) (August 3, 2006)
"Dearest You" (April 25, 2007), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 43
"Ouka Saki Some ni Keri" (桜花咲きそめにけり) (July 18, 2007)
"Schwarzschild" (August 15, 2007)
"Birth" (May 7, 2008), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 8
"Yami no Kuni no Alice/Hamon" (闇の国のアリス/波紋) (September 3, 2008), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 9
"Snow White" (January 21, 2009), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 6
"Tightrope" (September 23, 2009), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 9
"Day by Day" (December 2, 2009), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 16
"Kaze ga Mekuru Page" (風がめくる頁) (March 10, 2010), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 22
"Akaki Hitsuji ni Yoru Bansankai" (赤き羊による晩餐会) (July 28, 2010), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 24
"In the name of justice" (November 17, 2010), Oricon Weekly Singles Top Position: 22
"Torikago Goten ~L'Oiseau Bleu~" (鳥籠御殿 ~L’Oiseau bleu~) (July 28, 2011)
"Huang Di ~Yami ni Umareta Mukui~" (皇帝 ~闇に生まれた報い~) (November 21, 2011)
"Nyanto-shippo "De"!?" (February 13, 2012)
"Ultimate lover" (February 13, 2012)
"Dying Message" (May 30, 2012)
"Danzai no Gunner" (断罪の銃士) (July 18, 2012)
"Bon Voyage!" (April 12, 2013)
"Rosenstrauss" (August 28, 2013)
"Dark wings" (December 11, 2013)
"Taiyou o Se ni Shite" (太陽を背にして) (December 15, 2013)
"Tsuki no Sakazuki" (月の杯) (July 23, 2014)
"Dandelion" (December 13, 2014)
"Happy Unbirthday" (September 16, 2015)
"Master Key" (December 9, 2015)
"Himitsu kessha K club" (秘密結社 K倶楽部) (July 16, 2016)
Mini albums
Studio albums
The Name of the Rose (September 28, 2005) Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 85
The Name of the Rose – Remastered Edition (February 8, 2006), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 83
Tafel Anatomie (October 18, 2006), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 36
Neo Culture: Beyond the World (November 7, 2007), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 31
Genetic World (February 25, 2009), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 11
7th Rose (March 24, 2010), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 37
Vampire Saga (January 12, 2011), Oricon Weekly Albums Top Position: 29
Kingdom (November 12, 2014)
Wonderland Savior (October 26, 2016)
Live albums
Tour 2008: Alice in Dark Edge Final (March 18, 2009)
Compilation albums
Treasure Box (April 7, 2013)
Bloody Rose "Best Collection 2007-2011" (August 21, 2013)
D Vampire Chronicle: V-Best Selection (March 26, 2014)
DVDs
Tafel Anatomie: Tour 2006 Final (March 14, 2007)
Last Indies Tour 2008 Final: Follow Me (July 30, 2008)
Tour 2008: Alice in Dark Edge Final (March 18, 2009)
D 1st Video Clips (March 31, 2010)
In the Name of Justice Tour Final 2010 (April 27, 2011)
D Tour 2011 Vampire Saga ~Path of the Rose~ (October 20, 2011)
Dying message: 2012 Overseas Odyssey Tour Documentary & Off-Shot (October 18, 2012)
D 10th Anniversary Special Premium Live 2013 "Bon Voyage!" (October 30, 2013)
D Tour 2013 Rosenstrauss Documentary DVD (October 7, 2014)
47 Todoufuken Tour Final At Maihama Amphitheater (March 18, 2015)
Ultimate lover Dai Nijyu-ichi ya (Ultimate lover 第二十一夜) (April 29, 2015)
D Tour 2015 Master Key Tour Document & 3songs Live (April 6, 2016)
Happy Unbirthday 2015.8.29 Akasaka BLITZ (April 6, 2016)
References
External links
Mad Tea Party official website
CJ Victor Entertainment artists
Gan-Shin artists
Visual kei musical groups
Japanese hard rock musical groups
Musical groups established in 2003
Musical groups from Kanagawa Prefecture
Japanese progressive metal musical groups
Japanese symphonic metal musical groups
Japanese gothic metal musical groups |
4226489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muckhart | Muckhart | Muckhart () commonly refers to two small villages in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, Pool of Muckhart () and Yetts o' Muckhart. Muckhart is one of the Hillfoots Villages, situated on the A91 around northeast of Dollar. The Gaelic name, Muc-àird, comes from muc ("pig") + àird ("height"), and may derive from the fact that the surrounding fields may once have been used for pig farming.
Previously Muckhart, together with Glendevon, formed the southernmost tip of Perthshire. It was transferred to Clackmannanshire in a reorganisation of boundaries in 1971.
The parish boundary is somewhat eccentric and extends to the outer edge of Dollar, some west. Due to this fact, the primary school is somewhat oddly located (the 1876 Act required the school to be at the centre of the parish) and lies over west of the outer edge of the main village. It is also some considerable distance from the main road. This can be explained in that it lies on the old coach road to Dollar. This is now just a dirt track to the school (locally known as the Cinder Path). West of the school the old coach route is very hard to follow.
The famed, historic Rumbling Bridge across Rumbling Bridge Gorge of the River Devon in Kinrosshire is about south of the Muckhart Golf Course on the A823.
Pool of Muckhart
Pool of Muckhart () lies slightly east of the centre of the parish of Muckhart (see above). Pool of Muckhart lies in the strath of the River Devon, near the entrance to Glen Devon.
The village lies at the eastern end of the "Hillfoot towns" which skirt the southern edge of the Ochil Hills. The last in the range, standing as a backdrop to the village to its north side is "Seamab".
Of note in the village is the Muckhart Inn, an early 18th-century coaching inn, lying at the point where the old coach road and modern road unite. Whilst the building was always low, this effect has been emphasised due to the raising of the road level (normal when ancient routes were macadamed in the early 19th century).
The main mansion in the parish is Ballilisk, which lies north of the A91 between the Pool and the Yetts. In pre-Reformation times it served as a rectory to the adjacent chapel. It was birthplace and home of Bishop Paton in the 16th century. It was replaced by a new manse (to its west) around 1750 and then went into secular use. Rebuilt around 1800 it was home to the Izatt family for almost two centuries.
The war memorial, on the western edge of the village by the main road, is by local sculptor George Henry Paulin, son of Muckhart's then minister, Rev George Paulin.
A church in Muckhart is mentioned as early as 1470, when its "rector" is listed as John Andrew under the Diocese of St Andrews Cathedral.
The final pre-Reformation priest seems to have survived without replacement,
John Sempill being in place from 1555 to 1565, being then replaced by James Paton of Ballilisk who later went on to be Bishop of Dunkeld. Henry (Harry) Colville took over from Paton in 1579 and was
the first person termed "minister". Colville stayed less than a year before being translated to Orphir in Orkney.
Rev Robert Sharp served 1677 until 1697 and is noteworthy for having had his property robbed in 1679 and for being removed from his position in 1697 for "contumacy" (disobedience). He was succeeded by Rev John Gib (father of Adam Gib). Andrew Ure served 1703 to 1717 before translating to Fossoway. In 1734 Rev Archibald Rennie of Easter Ballilisk began a very controversial tenure during which he rarely appeared. He died in 1786 and was replaced by Rev Andrew Gibson who served until 1830. Rev James Thomson served the Church of Scotland 1832 to 1843 then served the Free Church of Scotland from 1843 to 1863. From 1843 to 1864 the Free Church was located at Shelterhall, midway between Muckhart and Dollar (possibly in a timber building) before moving to a permanent structure in Dollar.
The post Disruption church was served by Rev Alexander Moorhead 1843 to 1869 and was replaced by Rev George Paulin. He was replaced by Rev John Edgar Cairns of County Mayo in 1907.
The ruins of the pro-Reformation church lie to the north-east of the current church. The Post-Reformation church was run by the Presbytery of Auchterarder until 1856.
The current parish church dates from the 18th century but is a plain Scots box chapel in style. In the churchyard is the family monument to the Christies of Cowden (a large estate west, see below).
This estate was famed for its Japanese garden which has now returned to nature, having been abandoned c.1960. Its Japanese gardener, Mat Su, is buried at the end of the Christie lair. The Japanese garden is now under renovation.
Muckhart Golf Club
Muckhart Golf Club lies on the School Road (Drumbum Road) south of the village. Set on a series of low rocky hills it includes several challenging holes. There are three nine-hole courses, named Arndean, Cowden, and Naemoor. The nine-hole Cowden course was opened by Miss Ella Christie, who provided of land, on 28 May 1908. The course fell into disrepair during World War II, when it was used for the grazing of sheep. The course was restored after the war. A second nine-hole course, the Ardean course was added in the late 1960s on land leased from Colonel (later Sir) Robert Christie Stewart, then Lord-Lieutenant of the county. A third nine-hole course named Naemoor was opened on 25 July 1998.
Yetts o' Muckhart
This hamlet lies around further east of Pool of Muckhart. A tollhouse was established here in the early 19th century on a road used by cattle drovers and coaches. Yett is a Scots word for "gate", also used in reference to hill passes.
For various reasons, the name of this hamlet causes some amusement. Its name comes up in several comedy programmes, supposedly used for "comic effect", notably Channel 4's production Absolutely.
Lees of Muckhart
Not always recognised as the third and final part of the village group, this area is now in single use as a farm. It lies just west of Muckhart Primary School on the old coach road to Dollar (the southern section of this road is barely discernible).
Baldiesburn
Somewhat depleted in size, this small hamlet on the main road west of the Pool of Muckhart now has only two houses. It has lost several buildings but was previously a small industrial centre. Of interest, the sheds still attaching the eastern building were built as a blacksmith's c. 1700. The building to the west was a carpenter's, but most of its sheds are now gone. The buildings on the south side of the road were removed when the main road was straightened c.1970. Also obliterated by this roadworks, the village curling pond stood some further west.
Cowden estate
Early history
The Cowden estate lies just to the south of the higher ground known as the Ochil Hills, on the main road (A91) just over west of the Pool of Muckhart. The estate formerly focussed around Cowden Castle, a traditional Scottish stone-built castle of various dates, originating around 1500. This was demolished in 1950. Some of the early outbuildings, such as the sawmill range and bell-tower from the 17th century, still survive.
Archbishop Lambert built a house named "Castleton" on the property in 1320. The Bruces of Clackmannanshire owned the estate from 1758.
John Christie era
John Christie FRSE (b. 4 July 1822, d. 19 August 1902) was the only son of Alexander Christie (born 1789, died 1859) and Isabella Robertson (b. about 1792) of Struan and the nephew of Mrs Isabella Christie (Hill). Alexander Christie was laird of Milnwood in Lanarkshire, where he operated three coal mines, . and possessed of a considerable fortune from industry, which descended to John Christie. In addition, John Christie had two collieries in Edinburghshire.
John Christie purchased Cowden (then known as Castleton), which contained about , in 1865. Mrs. Bruce sold the Cowden estate, a property of about , which contained a large three-storey, rambling, sandstone house, to Mr. John Christie in 1866 who renamed the property "Cowden Castle". Traditionally the estate focused upon woodland management and the raising of deer and pheasants. Cowden Castle became the seat of the Christie family. Mr. Christie later had a coat-of-arms created and placed over the entrance door. John Christie was reported to own in 1873.
Mr. Christie collected a wide variety of artefacts during his many trips to the European continent. He filled Cowden Castle with many unrelated objects, which resulted in a very eclectic style.
John married Alison Philp (b. about 1817), daughter of Alison Coldwells and William Philp, of Stobsmills, Midlothian (the home of her uncle John Coldwells) on 27 April 1859. John and Alison Philp Christie had three children. The first, a boy, John Coldwells Christie, (born 1860) died before he was twelve. Isabella (Ella) Robertson Christie was born 21 April 1861 at Millbank, Cockpen, Edinburgh (John Christie's home near Edinburgh). The third-born child was Alice Margaret Christie (b. about 1863). The girls' mother, Alison Philp Christie, was in poor health and Isabella Thornburn, an elderly woman, was their nurse. Later Miss Townsend served as the governess of the two teenage girls. John Christie believed that travel was the best education for girls so he took the girls on many trips to Europe. Ella was taken to Paris at the age of twelve.
Alice Christie married Robert King Stewart, KBE, of Murdostoun in 1881, when she was seventeen and left to live at Murdostoun Castle in Lanarkshire. After Alice married, only Ella accompanied her father on trips.
Mr Christie had an attack of pernicious anæmia about 1887. Although he recovered his health, his illness caused him to become difficult, secretive, and eccentric for the remainder of his life.
In 1893 the castle was extended by the prodigious Glasgow architects Honeyman and Keppie, probably at the request of Ella, given her father's health.
Mr Christie founded Christie Homes (later Lothian Homes Trust) in 1889, a charity which opened several orphanages for girls in and around East Lothian. A Christie Home was opened at Portobello in 1892. Tenterfield, in Haddington, was opened in 1898. Mr Christie caused an orphanage to be created at Catlaw Head. He concealed his support of orphanages from his family.
Mrs Christie, who was a bit older than her husband, died in 1894 at the age of about 76. Mr Christie refused to purchase a casket for his wife's burial, so Ella had to use her funds to purchase a casket for her mother.
As Mr Christie's illness progressed he became increasing secretive and paranoid. In 1895, medical doctors advised Mr. Christie to take a trip to Egypt for health reasons. His daughter, Ella, as caretaker to her father, accompanied him on his trip. While in Egypt he suddenly decided to return home and abandoned his daughter in Egypt. When in his late seventies, Mr. Christie dyed his moustache and proposed marriage to a woman fifty years younger.
Ella Christie found Mr. Christie dead at the age of 80 years in his townhouse at 19 Buckingham Terrace, Edinburgh on 19 August 1902. At the time of his death, he owned estates at Milnwood in Lanarkshire, Arndean now in Perth and Kinross, Glenfarg and Easterton in Perthshire, and Carnbo in the county of Kinross, in addition to his estate at Cowden.
Ella Christie era
The morning after John Christie died, a stranger arrived at 19 Buckingham Terrace and informed Miss Christie that her father had executed a will that left all his property to his orphanages and she and her sister were to get nothing. Miss Christie would have been homeless and penniless, however, Lady Stewart would have her husband on whom she could depend.
Miss Christie resolved to contest the will. She was told by solicitors that the "dead hand would prevail", however, she eventually located a firm which would take her case.
Miss Christie ordered a stained glass window erected in honour of her father removed from Muckhart Church and she moved to 19 Buckingham Terrace for the duration of the trial.
The trial was held in the Law Courts in Parliament Square in July 1903. Dr T. S. Clouston, president of the college of physicians and an expert in diseases of the brain, introduced medical evidence from the British Medical Journal and gave his expert opinion that pernicious anæmia adversely affected the brain. Several witnesses provided an abundance of testimony regarding Mr. Christie's bizarre behaviour in the years after his illness and the unfairness of the will. All of the evidence supported the conclusion that Mr. Christie was not of sound mind at the time of his execution of his will.
This evidence put the defendants in a state of despair and persuaded them to agree to an out-of-court compromise settlement in which the Christie daughters received the bulk of the estate, while the orphanages received a sum sufficient for their needs. The press gave a value of £250,000 as the value of the estate – a vast sum in the years before the currency inflation of World War I.
Miss Isabella (Ella) Robertson Christie (born 1861, died 1949), daughter of John (born 1822, died 1902) and Alison Philp Christie (died 1894), famed for her foreign travels and accounts thereof., succeeded her father as laird of the Cowden Castle estate. She then preferred to be known as "Miss Christie of Cowden". There were many times when Miss Christie was not in residence because of her extended travels abroad. Miss Christie travelled with a lady's maid and a bearer.
Miss Christie travelled in India, Ceylon, and Tibet in 1904. She arrived first in Bombay, where she was a guest of Lord and Lady Lamington, who provided her with a bungalow at Government House. Miss Christie visited many places, both on and off the beaten path, while in India.
Miss Christie, like other lady travellers, preferred to maintain her independence, by avoiding travelling with a companion. When Miss Christie encountered Miss Jane Ellen Duncan on the plain of Ladakh, they pitched their tents as far apart as possible and agreed to travel on different days so as to avoid travelling together. Nevertheless, Miss Christie and Miss Duncan were friends.
Miss Christie was a skilled photographer with the Kodak camera. She recorded her trips on film. She allowed Miss Duncan to use many of her photographs in her book about her travels.
Miss Christie travelled in China and Japan in 1907.
Cowden Castle received telephone service in 1910.
Miss Christie travelled in Central Asia in 1910 and 1912.
Miss Christie was elected a fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in 1911. She was elected vice-president of the Society in 1934. She was elected a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1913.
Miss Christie toured America with a side trip to Havana, Cuba in 1914. She sailed on the Carmania in February. While in New York City, she met the Vanderbilts, and lunched with Mrs. Franklin Roosevelt. In Washington, D. C., she toured the White House and Arlington, the former home of Robert E. Lee. In the South, she visited Richmond, Virginia and Charleston, South Carolina before leaving for Havana and Camagüey in Cuba. She then returned to the United States and visited New Orleans before moving on to Baton Rouge, where she was the guest of her second cousin, Miss Katherine Marion Hill (b. 25 December 1856, d. 25 February 1949) at her mansion on Lafayette Street, and met her American cousins, the descendants of John Hill. Moving west, she visited the Grand Canyon, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara, California, where she met the widow of Robert Louis Stevenson. Starting back to the east, she stopped off at Yellowstone National Park before arriving in Chicago. After Chicago, she stopped at Niagara Falls, and then moved on to Massachusetts, where she visited Plymouth, a community of the Shakers, and the homes and graves of her favourite American authors. After a visit to Yale University, she returned to New York and went up to West Point on 22 June 1914 to attend the graduation of her Louisiana cousin, John Hill Carruth, a cadet who fainted while on parade during her visit. Miss Christie returned home on the Mauretania in June 1914, just in time for the World War.
Miss Christie did her part in the Great War. In 1916, she was offered the Directorship of a canteen in Bar-sur-Aube, France by the French Red Cross Committee, which she accepted. The canteen was called in French, Cantine des Dames Anglaises. She did this for a year and then returned to Cowden. In 1918, she once again went to France to direct a canteen at Mulhouse, Alsace until 1919, when the need for a canteen ended.
Miss Christie published a book about her travels in central Asia, Through Khiva to Golden Samarkand, in 1925.
Miss Christie and her sister, Lady Alice Christie King Stewart, published a reminiscence of their lives entitled A Long Look at Life by Two Victorians in 1940. Miss Christie's sister died at Claghorn House in South Lanarkshire on 5 September of that same year.
Miss Christie died of leucæmia in Edinburgh on 29 January 1949 at the age of 87 years. Funeral services were held at Muckhart Parish Church on Wednesday, 2 February. Miss Christie was the last surviving Christie. She is buried in the family plot, to the east of the church. The estate passed to her great-nephew, Colonel Stewart of Arndean.
Miss Christie's Japanese Garden
Miss Christie, after her visit to Japan in 1907, caused a Japanese garden, designed by Taki Handa, a student at Doshisha University, Japan who was studying at Studley College, around 1908, to be planted at Cowden on a site, which she named Shah-rak-uenor, meaning place of 'pleasure and delight'. Queen Mary visited the garden in 1932. The garden was maintained by a Japanese man named Matsuo until his death in 1936, after which Miss Christie maintained the garden until her death in 1949. The garden then fell into disrepair and was closed permanently in 1955.
Although the Japanese garden fell into ruin, it supported hundreds of rhododendrons, brought over from the Himalayas to brighten up the estate in the 19th century. In 2013, Christie's great-niece Sara Stewart began restoring the Japanese garden.
Recent history
Cowden Castle, burned in 1950 and was pulled down in 1952. Much of the valuables from the house survived and were removed to Arndean. Many items of furniture were distributed among the many estate houses. Thereafter the estate was merged into the Arndean Estate, the seat of the Stewart family. (Ardean lies about southwest of the Cowden estate.) Still surviving are Cowden's stables and the east and west lodges (the east lodge is now off the main road due to the straightening). A faded dollar sign painted on a wall near the lodge marks a humorous direction sign to the town of Dollar to the west, but due to the road moving now serves no function.
Of great interest, the estate sawmill buildings still survive amid the woods. These date from the mid 18th century. They had adjacent ponds to float larger logs into the saws to cleverly avoid weight problems. Several modern houses have been built within the estate, many hidden in its wooded grounds.
The Japanese Garden was rebuilt and reopened in 2019. It bears little resemblance to the original garden but is located around the same pond. It is open to the public.
Muckhart Mill
Slightly to the south-west of the Cowden estate, well off the current main road, lies Muckhart Mill at the confluence of Hole Burn, which powered the Mill, and the River Devon. In more recent years this was connected to the Elmhirst family who were directly linked to the Elmhirsts of Dartington Hall, Devon, and to the Haggard family by marriage. Rider Haggard was the author of the infamous novel "She".
Records of Muckhart Mill date back to 16 October 1560 on a deed. as witnessed by "Henry Douglas of Muckhart Mill" for Lady Margaret Douglas of Lochleven (née Lady Margaret Erskine), mistress of King James V of Scotland, widow of Sir Robert Douglas of Lochleven, mother of Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, to whose custody Queen Mary was committed in his castle at Lochleven on 17 June 1567.
Later on, the Douglas family sold the mill to Bishop James Paton text who subsequently passed ownership of the farm to Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll in about 1571.
The Mill is category B listed and described as a "complex building of several dates: M.I.M. 1666, 1717, 1727 (internally) 1770 and 19th-century alterations, including ashlar facing of wheel-pit. Comprises three blocks at different angles, all pantiled, disused 20' overshot wheel at N., wooden arms, cast-iron outer frame. Workings and kiln gutted, renovated as children's holiday home 1967."
It is believed to have one of Scotland's largest overshot waterwheels which was renovated into working condition by the current owner several years ago but is no longer in operation. It is even rarer a building as there is evidence of a smaller waterwheel, possibly on the same axle as the main one, but on the other side of the building. There you can find a second water channel running alongside the building which exits under a small bridge and into the River Devon
There is an inscription on the side wall of the Mill house "M.I.M. 1666" as identified by local postie and amateur historian, Alan Ritchie on 6/9/14.
A masonic mark is visible downstream of the bridge, facing the bridge.
Similar masonic markings (bottom right row) can be found on the records on 22/3/10 at Rosslyn Chapel, when the barrel vaulted ceiling renovated.
As featured by Lyndsay Cooper in her internship there in 2010
Robert Burns
It is believed that Robert Burns would have passed by Muckhart Mill on 27 August 1787 while staying at Harvieston as recorded in his diary:
"Monday.—Go to Harvieston. Go to see Caudron Linn, and Rumbling Brig, and Deil’s Mill Return in the evening."
While staying at Harviestoun Burns wrote two poems, "The Banks of the Devon" and "Fairest Maid on Devon Bank". Burns fell for the charm and beauty of Charlotte Hamilton but she was more attracted to Burns' friend, Adair whom she later married.
Muckhart Mill Farmhouse
Adjacent to the mill lies Muckhart Mill Farmhouse, a category B listed property described as a house of "single-storey and attic with swept dormers dated (17)80; later wooden porch: steading single-storey, partly with loft, pantiled and white-washed".
Muckhart Mill was a children's holiday home and the owners often get visitors who used to stay here over the summer, riding ponies and swimming in the river.
YouTube has some old film footage from the 1960s of the Forth Valley Pony club and other clips which contain shots of The Mill.
Muckhart Mill Lime Kiln
Further up the farm track lies a category B listed Limekiln. Described as "Mid 19th century. Very large, about 35' high, square plan, stone-built with battered walls, three arched fireholes; operated by the Carron Company." The Carron Company was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom and who built the Carron iron Works in 1759 that Burns attempted to visit on "Sunday, August 26.—Camelon, the ancient metropolis of the Picts, now a small village in the neighbourhood of Falkirk. Cross the Grand Canal to Carron." He attempted to visit the iron works but, being a Sunday, was refused entrance. Both travellers instead withdrew to the Carron Inn opposite. They dined on the second floor of the Inn and Burns later recorded the event briefly in his journal of the tour—Carron-breakfast. However, he also vented his anger, by scoring a few lines of prose on one of the Inn's windows. He used a diamond-tipped stylus which had earlier been presented to him in Edinburgh by James Cunningham, 14th Earl of Glencairn:
<blockquote><poem>
At Carron Ironworks
We cam na here to view your warks,In hopes to be mair wise,
But only, lest we gang to hell,It may be nae surprise:
But when we tirl'd at your doorYour porter dought na hear us;
Sae may, shou'd we to Hell's yetts come,Your billy Satan sair us!</poem></blockquote>
The Mill is listed as "Blairbane" in the 1st edition of the OS 6-inch map (Fife and Kinross 1855, sheet xxi
Bridge at Muckhart Mill
The bridge has a masonic eye painted on the right hand side of the upstream facing part. It is head high, about 6" in width and is clearly visible to this day. It is painted in green.
The bridge is a listed building.
The Vicar's Bridge murder
In the same locale lies Vicar's Bridge. The historic bridge was replaced by a modern structure in the 1960s. Of note here, was a murder in the late 19th century by Joe Bell of a passer-by. A tree known as "Joe Bell's tree" had the letters JB carved on it and allegedly were carved whilst he waited for a victim. This could of course have been added after the event for dramatic purposes. Joe Bell had the unfortunate claim to fame of being the last man publicly hanged in Scotland (in Perth) for shooting a baker
Utterly destitute, with not a penny in the world to buy a piece of bread, poacher Joseph Bell, 29, borrowed a shotgun and next day turned highwayman, waylaying farmer Alexander McEwan, 40, on his horse and cart at Blairingone in Perthshire. He blasted the farmer to death and then relieved him of his wallet, containing £5 10s.
Bells footprints were found at the scene, and so was the murder weapon. When he was arrested he had exactly £5. 10s. on him. He strongly denied ever having been involved, but was tried at Perth on 24 April and hanged a month later on Tuesday, 22 May 1866, on a gallows brought from Aberdeen and placed outside Perth Prison.
A full account of the trial and execution can be found in an article in The Alloa Advertiser here:
Alloa Advertiser: walk past vicars bridge murder
Back on the main road to Dollar the small farm known as Shelterhall was bought in a derelict state by the Longmuir brothers of Bay City Rollers fame in the late 1970s and temporarily became a place of "pilgrimage" for some years during the period of "Rollermania", which was rife at that time. Alan Longmuir owned and ran the "Castle Campbell Hotel" in Dollar to the west.
Public rights-of-way
The Clackmannanshire Council has confirmed the recognition of public rights-of-way in the Muckhart area including the ancient coach road section known as the Cinder Path, linking the village to the primary school.
Transport
Muckhart is situated on the A91. Muckhart has never been served by rail, the nearest station is Rumbling Bridge. It was formerly served by the 23 Stirling–St Andrews bus route. Following the withdrawal of that route it was served by the X53 Stirling–Kinross, however this route has also been withdrawn..
Notable residents of Muckhart
Dr Grace Cadell (1855–1918), militant suffragette and Scotland's first female surgeon; lived her final years at Mosspark, Yetts of Muckhart
Isabella (Ella) Robertson Christie (1861–1949), Victorian lady traveller
John Christie (1822–1902), landowner
Sholto Johnstone Douglas (1871–1958), artist
Rev Adam Gib (1714–1788)
George Alexander Gibson (1854–1913), physician, medical author and amateur geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Chief Physician at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary
Alexander Izat and his son, James Rennie Izat, railway engineers in India
George Henry Paulin (1888–1962), sculptor and artist
Ministers of Muckhart
James Paton of Ballilisk, later Bishop of Dunkeld, post Reformation until 1580
Alexander Fotheringhame from 1615 to 1638
Rev John Govan (1660s)
Rev James Thomson of Ormiston (1800-1871) minister of the parish from 1832. Left the established church in the Disruption of 1843 and became minister of the Free Church of Dollar and Muckhart (sited in Dollar).
Rev Alexander M. Ferguson minister from 1843 to 1869.
Rev George Paulin (1870-1907)
See also
River Devon, Clackmannanshire
Rights of way in Scotland
List of listed buildings in Muckhart, Clackmannanshire
References
Further reading
Christie, Ella R. Khiva to Samarkand. Coventry: Trotamundas Press, Ltd., 2009 (Reprint of Christie, Ella. Through Khiva to Golden Samarkand. London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd., 1925)
Christie, Ella R. & Stewart, Alice Margaret Christie King. A Long Look at Life, by Two Victorians. London: Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd., 1940.
Stewart, Averil. Alicella. London: John Murray, 1955.
Birkett, Dea. Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Explorers. New York: Dorset Press, 2001. .
Day, John Percival. Clackmannan and Kinross. Nabu Press, 2010 (Reproduction of a book published before 1925).
Barbieri, M. A Descriptive and Historical Gazetteer of the Counties of Fife, Kinross and Clackmannan: With Anecdotes, Narratives and Graphic Sketches, Moral, Political, Commercial and Agricultural''. Nabu Press, 2010.
External links
Clackmannanshire Council - Population Breakdown by Ward 2003
Google Maps - Muckhart
ClacksNet - Clackmannanshire's Community Network
Muckhart - Visit Scotland
Villages in Clackmannanshire
Hillfoots Villages
zh:杜拉 |
4226634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Brunner | Thomas Brunner | Thomas Brunner (April 1821 – 22 April 1874) was an English-born surveyor and explorer remembered for his exploration of the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island.
Brunner was born in April 1821 in Oxford. When he was fifteen, he began to learn architecture and surveying. In 1841, he joined the New Zealand Company in its venture to establish a settlement in the north of the South Island of New Zealand, to be called Nelson. As well as working as an apprentice surveyor and laying sections and roads for the new settlement, he explored the interior, seeking pastoral land for a growing colony. In 1846 he undertook extensive journeys with Charles Heaphy and a Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri tohunga named Kehu towards and along the West Coast.
In December 1846, Brunner commenced an expedition, accompanied by four Māori including Kehu, which began from Nelson. The party travelled down the Buller River and along the West Coast reaching as far south as Tititira Head, near Lake Paringa before returning to Nelson via the Arahura River. This arduous journey, which at one stage saw one of his legs paralysed, took him 550 days. He received honours from the Royal Geographical Society and the Société de Géographie (French Geographic Society). He continued to work as a surveyor and in 1851 was appointed Government Surveyor. He surveyed the sites, which he and Heaphy had scouted on previous explorations, for what would become the towns of Westport and Greymouth. He retired in 1869 and died of a stroke on 22 April 1874.
Early life
Thomas Brunner was born in Oxford, England, in April 1821, and baptised four months later on 22 August. He was the oldest son of William Brunner, an Oxford attorney who was also the county coroner. He was of Swiss descent, his father's parents having emigrated to England at the time of the French Revolution. The Brunner family were active in the Oxford community, Thomas' parents raising him and his siblings to appreciate cultural and charitable activities. In 1836, at the age of fifteen, Brunner was apprenticed to an architect, Thomas Greenshields, to learn architecture and surveying. Over the next five years, he became proficient in both skills.
Service with the New Zealand Company
In 1841, Brunner's father put his son's name forward to the New Zealand Company, which was seeking prospective emigrants for its proposed settlement in the South Island of New Zealand. The company wanted to populate its new settlement with well educated young men of excellent character and with leadership potential. Furthermore, apprentice surveyors, at the time known as "improvers", were in particular demand and Brunner, aided by character references from his employer and other notable residents of Oxford, was duly selected to join the company. In addition to his work as an improver, he was to assist the settlement's principal surveyor, Frederick Tuckett.
Brunner joined a party of six other young improvers which left England on 27 April 1841 aboard the Whitby. During the voyage to New Zealand, the improvers received further instruction and were tested by having to prepare draft layouts for the new settlement, Brunner's plan being the best of these. On 18 September, the Whitby arrived at Port Nicholson, the New Zealand Company's first settlement. The approximate site for the new settlement had yet to be finalised; initially intended for Banks Peninsula, this location was vetoed by the Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson. Instead, it was to be located at the top of the South Island, at Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere. Early the following month a convoy of the company's ships, with Brunner aboard one them, crossed the Cook Strait to Tasman Bay. After scouting the area for three weeks, a site adjacent a deep and sheltered natural harbour was identified as being suitable for the settlement.
For the next two years Brunner assisted in the laying out of the settlement, which was to be called Nelson. A drawback with the Nelson settlement was its lack of pasture and the colony began to appropriate more and more of the plains in the nearby Wairau Valley, much to the displeasure of local Māori. Several personnel of the company, including Arthur Wakefield, the senior official of the company in Nelson, were killed in the Wairau Affray in June 1843. The New Zealand Company was forced to look south for more farming land. Brunner was sent to scout the Motueka Valley but failed to penetrate far due to poor weather. From local Māori he heard of a large plain to the south and passed on his findings to Tuckett. In August 1843, Tuckett dispatched Brunner to confirm the reports. Brunner, accompanied by Kehu, a Māori he had befriended, was again defeated by poor weather.
Life in Nelson was hard for the colonists. The company had limited finances and tightened its expenditure which affected the salaries of its employees. In 1844, it had to halt its operations for a time. Although Nelson had 300 landowners, nearly two-thirds were absentee owners and only 80 actually lived in the town. Brunner lived at Riwaka, a nearby village, and, in addition to carrying out survey work along the Motueka River, helped in the design and building of houses in the area. He ended his service with the company in August 1844.
Exploring the West Coast
In February 1846, Brunner and Kehu, accompanied by Charles Heaphy and William Fox, undertook an expedition southwest of Nelson. Fox was the resident agent for the New Zealand Company in Nelson and provided the equipment and provisions for the party in addition to paying a salary to Brunner and Heaphy. Land in Nelson for farming was still scarce but it was hoped that beyond the steep hills to the southwest, good pastoral land would be found. Difficult terrain faced them; high mountain ranges topped with snow and ice, steep bush, numerous rivers and gorges. Food sources included roots and berries; birds could be snared and eels caught from streams. Along the coast, shellfish and gull eggs added to the diet.
The party, each carrying a load of , trekked to Lake Rotoiti and then climbed the high ranges that backed onto the lake. On 11 February, they saw Lake Rotoroa and made their way to its shores and spent two days exploring the area. They gained the Buller River on 18 February and walked its banks as far as the Maruia River. Here, believing themselves to be only 20 miles from the coast, dwindling provisions prevented them proceeding to the mouth of the Buller River. Guided by Kehu, the party traversed the Hope Saddle on their way back to Nelson, which they reached on 1 March.
Brunner was keen for further exploration and Fox persuaded him to scout along the West Coast to the mouth of the Buller River in the hope of finding suitable land for farming. Brunner, Kehu and Heaphy left Nelson on 17 March on what became a five-month expedition tracing the western coast of South Island as far south as what is now known as Hokitika. Their journey began from Golden Bay, and they made their way to West Wanganui where Brunner hired a local Māori, Etau, as a porter for the party. The expedition hit a snag when the local chief barred their journey south but Brunner and Heaphy mollified him with some tobacco. They continued along the coast, climbing sometimes steep cliffs and fording rivers as they went. Their movements would be held up at times due to rain and high tides. At night, they would shelter in small caves augmented with a screen of Nikau palm leaves. They crossed the Karamea River on 20 April and reached the Buller River ten days later. This had to be crossed using an old canoe that was repaired by Kehu and Etau. After safely getting across, they stayed at the local pā (village). In early May, they sighted the Southern Alps. At the Arahura River (a tributary of the Grey River), the southernmost point of the expedition, they were hosted by the local Ngāi Tahu tribe at Taramakau Pā. Poor weather plagued their return trip back along the coast but they reached Nelson on 18 August.
The Great Journey
On 3 December 1846, Brunner began what became his longest and most arduous expedition. He planned to follow the Buller River to the sea and then trek down the West Coast as far south as Milford Sound. During his previous expedition, he had been told of the existence of a route through the Southern Alps by the Māori at the Arahura River. He hoped to discover this route and use it to cross the Southern Alps and reach Canterbury. He was accompanied once again by Kehu, who brought along his wife. Another Māori, Pitewate, a friend of Kehu's, also joined the venture, accompanied by his wife. Brunner provided clothing and shoes for his companions. The wives proved problematic during the journey as they quarrelled, sometimes supported by their husbands, and Brunner would have to mediate.
Stocked with provisions that included two guns, of tobacco, of flour, salt and pepper, biscuits and tea, the party travelled by mules and canoe for the first two weeks until they reached Buller River. They then followed the path of the river down to the coast. The journey was difficult; the party was constantly bothered by sandflies and rain and they had to ford the river several times. They settled into a routine of trekking for a week then camping for the same period to restock their provisions, living off freshwater fish and cabbage- and fern-tree roots. By May 1847, they were at the final reaches of the Buller but food was becoming so scarce to find, they had to kill Brunner's dog. He noted its flesh was "... something between mutton and pork. It is too richly flavoured to eat by itself." This incident led to him being nicknamed Kai Kuri (dog eater).
Brunner was disappointed at the condition of the land along the banks of the Buller River as it neared the coast. He had briefly scouted the area on his previous journey and believed it had potential for pastoral farming. He now found it too damp and mossy to be cultivated. The party reached the mouth of the Buller on 1 June and made their way to the pā that Brunner and Heaphy had stayed at on their last journey but on arrival, found that it had been abandoned. They continued on down to the Arahura River and reached the Taramakau Pā where they stayed for three months over the worst of the winter months. On 12 October, Brunner continued south with some local Māori. He went as far south as Tititira Head, near Lake Paringa where in December he severely sprained his ankle. After recovering, he decided to make his way back to Taramakau Pā. From here he along with his companions, journeyed up the Arahura River and in late January 1848, discovered the coalfield and lake which now bears his name. He wanted to continue on this route to Canterbury but Kehu and Pitewate would have none of it. The party began to make their way back to Nelson.
They travelled north via a tributary of the Arahura River which eventually met the Buller River, which they reached in March. In April, while making his way up the Buller Gorge, Brunner suffered paralysis of his leg. The party had to lay up for a week for Brunner to recover some use of his body. With the aid of Kehu (Pitewate and his wife abandoned the party when Brunner became ill), he was able to reach Nelson in June 1848, thus ending after 550 days what he described as his 'Great Journey'.
In Nelson, many people had thought Brunner dead and he readily recognised that he would not have survived his endeavours without the aid of Kehu, writing: "... I found my native Ekehu of much use – invaluable indeed, but the other three rather an encumbrance – I could have made better progress without them; but to Ekehu I owe my life – he is a faithful and attached servant." As well as further information about the West Coast, Brunner informed the colony that coal was to be found in the Grey River valley. However, he also considered, mistakenly, that "there is nothing on the West Coast worth incurring the expense of exploring."
Reports of Brunner's endeavours on the West Coast soon spread to Wellington and England. He wrote an account of his journey which was first published by Charles Elliott, the editor of the local newspaper the Nelson Examiner, and later, in 1850, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1851, the Royal Geographical Society awarded Brunner a 25 guinea prize for 'his explorations of the Middle Island of New Zealand', and appointed him a Fellow of the Society. His exploits were also recognised in France, the Société de Géographie (French Geographic Society) awarding him a diploma in 1852.
Later life
Brunner's constitution was considerably impaired by his exertions and his health never fully returned. Despite this, after a period of recovery he set out in November 1848 with three companions, including Kehu, to discover a quicker route between Nelson and Wairau. This involved travelling the paths of the Maitai and Wairoa Rivers to their headwaters. The weather was poor throughout the six-week trip and Brunner was in discomfort for much of the ultimately unsuccessful venture, which determined that the existing route to Wairau was the fastest.
Apart from a short period doing contract surveying for the New Zealand Company in March 1849, Brunner remained unemployed and wrote numerous letters to his contacts. His former travelling companion, William Fox, and Dillon Bell, chief agent of the New Zealand Company, also sought to find him a job and through them, he was able to find work as a clerk with the Canterbury Association between September 1849 and February 1850. He returned to Nelson in May 1850 and secured full-time employment as a surveyor with the New Zealand Company, but with the proviso that he would be able to take on private work which did not interfere with his duties. To supplement his income Brunner began to take on architectural commissions.
In 1851, the New Zealand Company was still struggling financially and eventually transferred its land to the New Zealand Government. Brunner's employment with the company ceased and he, after writing a letter soliciting for surveying work, was appointed the Government Surveyor with an annual salary of £100 (2014 approximation £8,000). This was still a low salary for a professional and Brunner was allowed to continue with his architectural commissions, working from an office he had purchased in Nelson. He was kept busy for the next several years; in addition to carrying out and supervising survey work in the area, he took on responsibility for some public works. He drew up plans for roading, bridges and botanical gardens.
On 11 October 1855, Brunner married Jane Robson, the 26-year-old daughter of a labourer who had brought his family to New Zealand the previous year. It was a respectable match for Jane as Brunner was considered a particularly eligible bachelor in Nelson, one of around 45 professionals working in the town of about 1600 people. His salary had increased to £300 (£24,000) and he was now Chief Surveyor for the Nelson Province, the local returning officer and the Commissioner of Native Reserves for Nelson. He also owned three properties, including his Nelson office.
Brunner returned to the mouth of the Buller River in March 1861 but this time aboard a ship. Working in much greater comfort than on his last visit to the area in 1848, with other members of his staff he surveyed and laid out sections for what would become the town of Westport. Later that month he did the same for Greymouth. The work was soon completed and the party returned to Nelson in April 1861.
Brunner designed St Michael's Church in Waimea West in 1866, which was probably New Zealand's first memorial church. It commemorates Captain Francis H. Blundell, an early settler who died in 1865 and is buried here. The previous church on the site from 1843 was the first church in the Nelson Province. On 5 April 1984, St Michael's was registered with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (now Heritage New Zealand) as a Category I structure with registration number 248.
Retirement and death
Brunner retired in 1869 at the relatively young age of 46. He remained employed by the Nelson Provincial Council as a consultant surveyor and was also head of the Nelson Survey Department. His administration skills were not up to the latter role and many of the surveys produced under his supervision were of poor quality. He also continued to seek private work and contributed to a report on the suitability of the Buller region for settlement and this was published in early 1873. On his retirement in 1869 he had retained his offices of sheriff, returning officer and registration officer but was relieved of these in 1872 in cost-cutting measures by the Nelson Provincial Council. This did not meet with the approval of locals.
In late 1873, Brunner suffered a paralysis of his left side which prevented him from working. By mid-April 1874, he had sufficiently recovered to begin soliciting the provincial government for suitable employment. However, on the morning of 22 April he suffered a stroke and died few hours later. His funeral service was held at Nelson Cathedral and was attended by several hundred people. A large Māori contingent, including his long-time friend Kehu, was also present. Brunner was buried at Wakapuaka Cemetery. He was survived by his wife, who moved to England soon after his death. She lived with her brother until her death in 1895. The couple had no children.
Honorific eponyms and memorials
Several geographic features are named for him. Brunner, originally called Brunnerton, is a small settlement on the Grey River inland from Greymouth where he first found coal. It is the site of the former Brunner Mine, best known for New Zealand's worst mine disaster in 1896. Lake Brunner is located some by road from here, upstream along the Arnold River; Brunner went there after his coal discovery. Another feature named for him is the Brunner Range, which is located east of the valley through which the Inangahua River flows. Brunner Peninsula extends into Lake Rotoiti at Saint Arnaud. A plaque to his memory lies in the Nelson Cathedral and another is mounted onto a memorial stone in the Buller Gorge adjacent to State Highway 6.
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Narrated slide show by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage covering the Great Journey
Nelson Examiner and New Zealand Chronicle 1848 account of the Great Journey - 30 Sep, 7 Oct, 14 Oct, 21 Oct
Explorers of New Zealand
New Zealand explorers
English surveyors
New Zealand surveyors
1821 births
1874 deaths
History of the West Coast, New Zealand
Fellows of the Royal Society of New Zealand
Burials at Wakapuaka Cemetery
Sheriffs of New Zealand |
4226883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photopolymer | Photopolymer | A photopolymer or light-activated resin is a polymer that changes its properties when exposed to light, often in the ultraviolet or visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These changes are often manifested structurally, for example hardening of the material occurs as a result of cross-linking when exposed to light. An example is shown below depicting a mixture of monomers, oligomers, and photoinitiators that conform into a hardened polymeric material through a process called curing.
A wide variety of technologically useful applications rely on photopolymers; for example, some enamels and varnishes depend on photopolymer formulation for proper hardening upon exposure to light. In some instances, an enamel can cure in a fraction of a second when exposed to light, as opposed to thermally cured enamels which can require half an hour or longer. Curable materials are widely used for medical, printing, and photoresist technologies.
Changes in structural and chemical properties can be induced internally by chromophores that the polymer subunit already possesses, or externally by addition of photosensitive molecules. Typically a photopolymer consists of a mixture of multifunctional monomers and oligomers in order to achieve the desired physical properties, and therefore a wide variety of monomers and oligomers have been developed that can polymerize in the presence of light either through internal or external initiation. Photopolymers undergo a process called curing, where oligomers are cross-linked upon exposure to light, forming what is known as a network polymer. The result of photo-curing is the formation of a thermoset network of polymers. One of the advantages of photo-curing is that it can be done selectively using high energy light sources, for example lasers, however, most systems are not readily activated by light, and in this case a photoinitiator is required. Photoinitiators are compounds that upon radiation of light decompose into reactive species that activate polymerization of specific functional groups on the oligomers. An example of a mixture that undergoes cross-linking when exposed to light is shown below. The mixture consists of monomeric styrene and oligomeric acrylates.
Most commonly, photopolymerized systems are typically cured through UV radiation, since ultraviolet light is more energetic. However, the development of dye-based photoinitiator systems have allowed for the use of visible light, having the potential advantages of being simpler and safer to handle. UV curing in industrial processes has greatly expanded over the past several decades. Many traditional thermally cured and solvent-based technologies can be replaced by photopolymerization technologies. The advantages of photopolymerization over thermally cured polymerization include higher rates of polymerization and environmental benefits from elimination of volatile organic solvents.
There are two general routes for photoinitiation: free radical and ionic. The general process involves doping a batch of neat polymer with small amounts of photoinitiator, followed by selective radiation of light, resulting in a highly cross-linked product. Many of these reactions do not require solvent which eliminates termination path via reaction of initiators with solvent and impurities, in addition to decreasing the overall cost.
Ionic mechanism
In ionic curing processes, an ionic photoinitiator is used to activate the functional group of the oligomers that are going to participate in cross-linking. Typically photopolymerization is a very selective process and it is crucial that the polymerization takes place only where it is desired to do so. In order to satisfy this, liquid neat oligomer can be doped with either anionic or cationic photoinitiators that will initiate polymerization only when radiated with light. Monomers, or functional groups, employed in cationic photopolymerization include: styrenic compounds, vinyl ethers, N-vinyl carbazoles, lactones, lactams, cyclic ethers, cyclic acetals, and cyclic siloxanes. The majority of ionic photoinitiators fall under the cationic class; anionic photoinitiators are considerably less investigated. There are several classes of cationic initiators, including onium salts, organometallic compounds and pyridinium salts. As mentioned earlier, one of the drawbacks of the photoinitiators used for photopolymerization is that they tend to absorb in the short UV region. Photosensitizers, or chromophores, that absorb in a much longer wavelength region can be employed to excite the photoinitiators through an energy transfer. Other modifications to these types of systems are free radical assisted cationic polymerization. In this case, a free radical is formed from another species in solution that reacts with the photoinitiator in order to start polymerization. Although there are a diverse group of compounds activated by cationic photoinitiators, the compounds that find most industrial uses contain epoxides, oxetanes, and vinyl ethers. One of the advantages to using cationic photopolymerization is that once the polymerization has begun it is no longer sensitive to oxygen and does not require an inert atmosphere to perform well.
Photolysis
M = Monomer
Cationic photoinitiators
The proposed mechanism for cationic photopolymerization begins with the photoexcitation of the initiator. Once excited, both homolytic cleavage and dissociation of a counter anion takes place, generating a cationic radical (R), an aryl radical (R') and an unaltered counter anion (X). The abstraction of a lewis acid by the cationic radical produces a very weakly bound hydrogen and a free radical. The acid is further deprotonated by the anion (X) in solution, generating a lewis acid with the starting anion (X) as a counter ion. It is thought that the acidic proton generated is what ultimately initiates the polymerization.
Onium salts
Since their discovery in the 1970s aryl onium salts, more specifically iodonium and sulfonium salts, have received much attention and have found many industrial applications. Other less common onium salts include ammonium and phosphonium salts.
A typical onium compound used as a photoinitiator contains two or three arene groups for iodonium and sulfonium respectively. Onium salts generally absorb short wavelength light in the UV region spanning from 225300 nm. One characteristic that is crucial to the performance of the onium photoinitiators is that the counter anion is non-nucleophilic. Since the Brønsted acid generated during the initiation step is considered the active initiator for polymerization, there is a termination route where the counter ion of the acid could act as the nucleophile instead of a functional groups on the oligomer. Common counter anions include , , and . There is an indirect relationship between the size of the counter ion and percent conversion.
Organometallic
Although less common, transition metal complexes can act as cationic photoinitiators as well. In general, the mechanism is more simplistic than the onium ions previously described. Most photoinitiators of this class consist of a metal salt with a non-nucleophilic counter anion. For example, ferrocinium salts have received much attention for commercial applications. The absorption band for ferrocinium salt derivatives are in a much longer, and sometimes visible, region. Upon radiation the metal center loses one or more ligands and these are replaced by functional groups that begin the polymerization. One of the drawbacks of this method is a greater sensitivity to oxygen. There are also several organometallic anionic photoinitiators which react through a similar mechanism. For the anionic case, excitation of a metal center is followed by either heterolytic bond cleavage or electron transfer generating the active anionic initiator.
Pyridinium salts
Generally pyridinium photoinitiators are N-substituted pyridine derivatives, with a positive charge placed on the nitrogen. The counter ion is in most cases a non-nucleophilic anion. Upon radiation, homolytic bond cleavage takes place generating a pyridinium cationic radical and a neutral free radical. In most cases, a hydrogen atom is abstracted from the oligomer by the pyridinium radical. The free radical generated from the hydrogen abstraction is then terminated by the free radical in solution. This results in a strong pyridinium acid that can initiate polymerization.
Free radical mechanism
Nowadays, most radical photopolymerization pathways are based on addition reactions of carbon double bonds in acrylates or methacrylates, and these pathways are widely employed in photolithography and stereolithography.
Before the free radical nature of certain polymerizations was determined, certain monomers were observed to polymerize when exposed to light. The first to demonstrate the photoinduced free radical chain reaction of vinyl bromide was Ivan Ostromislensky, a Russian chemist who also studied the polymerization of synthetic rubber. Subsequently, many compounds were found to become dissociated by light and found immediate use as photoinitiators in the polymerization industry.
In the free radical mechanism of radiation curable systems, light absorbed by a photoinitiator generates free-radicals which induce cross-linking reactions of a mixture of functionalized oligomers and monomers to generate the cured film
Photocurable materials that form through the free-radical mechanism undergo chain-growth polymerization, which includes three basic steps: initiation, chain propagation, and chain termination. The three steps are depicted in the scheme below, where R• represents the radical that forms upon interaction with radiation during initiation, and M is a monomer. The active monomer that is formed is then propagated to create growing polymeric chain radicals. In photocurable materials the propagation step involves reactions of the chain radicals with reactive double bonds of the prepolymers or oligomers. The termination reaction usually proceeds through combination, in which two chain radicals are joined, or through disproportionation, which occurs when an atom (typically hydrogen) is transferred from one radical chain to another resulting in two polymeric chains.
Initiation
Propagation
{RM^\bullet} + M_\mathit{n} -> RM^\bullet_{\mathit{n}+1}
Termination
combination
{RM^\bullet_\mathit{n}} + {^\bullet M_\mathit{m}R} -> RM_\mathit{n}M_\mathit{m}R
disproportionation
{RM^\bullet_\mathit{n}} + {^\bullet M_\mathit{m}R} -> {RM_\mathit{n}} + M_\mathit{m}R
Most composites that cure through radical chain growth contain a diverse mixture of oligomers and monomers with functionality that can range from 2-8 and molecular weights from 500 to 3000. In general, monomers with higher functionality result in a tighter crosslinking density of the finished material. Typically these oligomers and monomers alone do not absorb sufficient energy for the commercial light sources used, therefore photoinitiators are included.
Free-radical photoinitiators
There are two types of free-radical photoinitators: A two component system where the radical is generated through abstraction of a hydrogen atom from a donor compound (also called co-initiator), and a one-component system where two radicals are generated by cleavage. Examples of each type of free-radical photoinitiator is shown below.
Benzophenone, xanthones, and quinones are examples of abstraction type photoinitiators, with common donor compounds being aliphatic amines. The resulting R• species from the donor compound becomes the initiator for the free radical polymerization process, while the radical resulting from the starting photoinitiator (benzophenone in the example shown above) is typically unreactive.
Benzoin ethers, Acetophenones, Benzoyl Oximes, and Acylphosphines are some examples of cleavage-type photoinitiators. Cleavage readily occurs for the species, giving two radicals upon absorption of light, and both radicals generated can typically initiate polymerization. Cleavage type photoinitiators do not require a co-initiator, such as aliphatic amines. This can be beneficial since amines are also effective chain transfer species. Chain-transfer processes reduce the chain length and ultimately the crosslink density of the resulting film.
Oligomers and monomers
The properties of a photocured material, such as flexibility, adhesion, and chemical resistance, are provided by the functionalized oligomers present in the photocurable composite. Oligomers are typically epoxides, urethanes, polyethers, or polyesters, each of which provide specific properties to the resulting material. Each of these oligomers are typically functionalized by an acrylate. An example shown below is an epoxy oligomer that has been functionalized by acrylic acid. Acrylated epoxies are useful as coatings on metallic substrates and result in glossy hard coatings. Acrylated urethane oligomers are typically abrasion resistant, tough, and flexible, making ideal coatings for floors, paper, printing plates, and packaging materials. Acrylated polyethers and polyesters result in very hard solvent resistant films, however, polyethers are prone to UV degradation and therefore are rarely used in UV curable material. Often formulations are composed of several types of oligomers to achieve the desirable properties for a material.
The monomers used in radiation curable systems help control the speed of cure, crosslink density, final surface properties of the film, and viscosity of the resin. Examples of monomers include styrene, N-Vinylpyrrolidone, and acrylates. Styrene is a low cost monomer and provides a fast cure, N-vinylpyrrolidone results in a material that is highly flexible when cured and has low toxicity, and acrylates are highly reactive, allowing for rapid cure rates, and are highly versatile with monomer functionality ranging from monofunctional to tetrafunctional. Like oligomers, several types of monomers can be employed to achieve the desired properties of the final material.
Applications
Photopolymerization has wide-ranging applications, from imaging to biomedical uses.
Dentistry
Dentistry is one field in which free radical photopolymers have found wide usage as adhesives, sealant composites, and protective coatings. These dental composites are based on a camphorquinone photoinitiator and a matrix containing methacrylate oligomers with inorganic fillers such as silicon dioxide. Resin cements are utilized in luting cast ceramic, full porcelain, and veneer restorations that are thin or translucent, which permits visible light penetration in order to polymerize the cement. Light-activated cements may be radiolucent and are usually provided in various shades since they are utilized in esthetically demanding situations.
Conventional halogen bulbs, argon lasers and xenon arc lights are currently used in clinical practice. A new technological approach for curing light-activated oral biomaterials using a light curing unit (LCU) is based on blue light-emitting diodes (LED). The main benefits of LED LCU technology are the long lifetime of LED LCUs (several thousand hours), no need for filters or a cooling fan, and virtually no decrease of light output over the lifetime of the unit, resulting in consistent and high quality curing. Simple depth of cure experiments on dental composites cured with LED technology show promising results.
Medical uses
Photocurable adhesives are also used in the production of catheters, hearing aids, surgical masks, medical filters, and blood analysis sensors. Photopolymers have also been explored for uses in drug delivery, tissue engineering and cell encapsulation systems. Photopolymerization processes for these applications are being developed to be carried out in vivo or ex vivo. In vivo photopolymerization would provide the advantages of production and implantation with minimal invasive surgery. Ex vivo photopolymerization would allow for fabrication of complex matrices and versatility of formulation. Although photopolymers show promise for a wide range of new biomedical applications, biocompatibility with photopolymeric materials must still be addressed and developed.
3D printing
Stereolithography, digital imaging, and 3D inkjet printing are just a few 3D printing technologies that make use of photopolymerization pathways. 3D printing usually utilizes CAD-CAM software, which creates a 3D computer model to be translated into a 3D plastic object. The image is cut in slices; each slice is then reconstructed through radiation curing of the liquid polymer, converting the image into a solid object. Photopolymers used in 3D imaging processes require sufficient cross-linking and should ideally be designed to have minimal volume shrinkage upon polymerization in order to avoid distortion of the solid object. Common monomers utilized for 3D imaging include multifunctional acrylates and methacrylates, often combined with a non-polymeric component in order to reduce volume shrinkage. A competing composite mixture of epoxide resins with cationic photoinitiators is becoming increasingly used since their volume shrinkage upon ring-opening polymerization is significantly below those of acrylates and methacrylates. Free-radical and cationic polymerizations composed of both epoxide and acrylate monomers have also been employed, gaining the high rate of polymerization from the acrylic monomer, and better mechanical properties from the epoxy matrix.
Photoresists
Photoresists are coatings, or oligomers, that are deposited on a surface and are designed to change properties upon irradiation of light. These changes either polymerize the liquid oligomers into insoluble cross-linked network polymers or decompose the already solid polymers into liquid products. Polymers that form networks during photopolymerization are referred to as negative resist. Conversely, polymers that decompose during photopolymerization are referred to as positive resists. Both positive and negative resists have found many applications including the design and production of micro-fabricated chips. The ability to pattern the resist using a focused light source has driven the field of photolithography.
Negative resists
As mentioned, negative resists are photopolymers that become insoluble upon exposure to radiation. They have found a variety of commercial applications, especially in the area of designing and printing small chips for electronics. A characteristic found in most negative tone resists is the presence of multifunctional branches on the polymers used. Radiation of the polymers in the presence of an initiator results in the formation of a chemically resistant network polymer. A common functional group used in negative resists is epoxy functional groups. An example of a widely used polymer of this class is SU-8. SU-8 was one of the first polymers used in this field, and found applications in wire board printing. In the presence of a cationic photoinitiator photopolymer, SU-8 forms networks with other polymers in solution. Basic scheme shown below.
SU-8 is an example of an intramolecular photopolymerization forming a matrix of cross-linked material. Negative resists can also be made using co-polymerization. In the event that two different monomers, or oligomers, are in solution with multiple functionalities, it is possible for the two to polymerize and form a less soluble polymer.
Manufacturers also use light curing systems in OEM assembly applications such as specialty electronics or medical device applications.
Positive resists
Exposure of a positive resist to radiation changes the chemical structure such that it becomes a liquid or more soluble. These changes in chemical structure are often rooted in the cleavage of specific linkers in the polymer. Once irradiated, the "decomposed" polymers can be washed away using a developer solvent leaving behind the polymer that was not exposed to light. This type of technology allows the production of very fine stencils for applications such as microelectronics. In order to have these types of qualities, positive resists utilize polymers with labile linkers in their back bone that can be cleaved upon irradiation, or use a photo-generated acid to hydrolyze bonds in the polymer. A polymer that decomposes upon irradiation to a liquid or more soluble product is referred to as a positive tone resist. Common functional groups that can be hydrolyzed by a photo-generated acid catalyst include polycarbonates and polyesters.
Fine printing
Photopolymers can be used to generate printing plates, which are then pressed onto paper-like metal type. This is often used in modern fine printing to achieve the effect of embossing (or the more subtly three-dimensional effect of letterpress printing) from designs created on a computer without needing to engrave designs into metal or cast metal type. It is often used for business cards.
Repairing leaks
Industrial facilities are utilizing light-activated resin as a sealant for leaks and cracks. Some light-activated resins have unique properties that make them ideal as a pipe repair product. These resins cure rapidly on any wet or dry surface.
Fishing
Light-activated resins recently gained a foothold with fly tiers as a way to create custom flies in a short period of time, with very little clean up involved.
Floor refinishing
Light-activated resins have found a place in floor refinishing applications, offering an instant return to service not available with any other chemical due to the need to cure at ambient temperatures. Because of application constraints, these coatings are exclusively UV cured with portable equipment containing high intensity discharge lamps. Such UV coatings are now commercially available for a variety of substrates, such as wood, vinyl composition tile and concrete, replacing traditional polyurethanes for wood refinishing and low durability acrylics for VCT.
Environment Pollution
Washing the polymer plates after they have been exposed to ultra-violet light may result in monomers entering the sewer system, eventually adding to the plastic content of the oceans. Current water purification installations are not able to remove monomer molecules from sewer water. Some monomers, such as styrene, are toxic or carcinogenic.
References
Polymers
Photochemistry
Adhesives |
4227281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s%20Royal%20Regiment%20%28West%20Surrey%29 | Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) | The Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) was a line infantry regiment of the English and later the British Army from 1661 to 1959. It was the senior English line infantry regiment of the British Army, behind only the Royal Scots in the British Army line infantry order of precedence.
In 1959, the regiment was amalgamated with the East Surrey Regiment, to form a single county regiment called the Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment which was, on 31 December 1966, amalgamated with the Queen's Own Buffs, The Royal Kent Regiment, the Royal Sussex Regiment and the Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own) to form the Queen's Regiment. Following a further amalgamation in 1992 with the Royal Hampshire Regiment, the lineage of the regiment is continued today by the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires).
Titles
The regiment was raised in 1661 by Henry Mordaunt, 2nd Earl of Peterborough as The Earl of Peterborough's Regiment of Foot on Putney Heath (then in Surrey) specifically to garrison the new English acquisition of Tangier, part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry when she married King Charles II. From this service, it was also known as the Tangier Regiment. As was usual at the time, it was also named after its current colonel, from one of whom, Percy Kirke, it acquired its nickname Kirke's Lambs. It was withdrawn along with the rest of the Tangier Garrison when Charles II abandoned the colony.
In 1685, it was given the Royal title the Queen Dowager's Regiment of Foot (after Queen Catherine, widow of Charles II) and in 1703 became The Queen's Royal Regiment of Foot. In 1715, it was renamed The Princess of Wales's Own Regiment of Foot after Caroline of Ansbach, then Princess of Wales, and was re-designated The Queen's Own Regiment of Foot in 1727 when the Princess became Queen. It was ranked as 2nd Foot in the clothing regulations of 1747, and was renamed 2nd (The Queen's Royal) Regiment of Foot by Royal warrant in 1751.
In the Childers reforms of 1881 it became the county regiment of West Surrey, named The Queen's (Royal West Surrey) Regiment. In 1921, its title was slightly altered to The Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey). By 1950 it was known as The Queen's Royal Regiment. In 1959, it was amalgamated with the East Surrey Regiment, to form the Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment.
History
Early years
The regiment shipped to Tangier where it remained until the port was evacuated in 1684, when it returned to England. It took part in the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion, fighting at the Battle of Sedgemoor, where it earned a widespread (but probably exaggerated) reputation for brutality. After the Glorious Revolution, it fought in Ireland for the new king, William III, defending the besieged Derry in 1689 and at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. From 1692 to 1696 it fought in Flanders in the Nine Years' War, at the Battle of Landen and the recapture of Namur in 1695.
During the War of Spanish Succession it served in the Iberian campaign, at Cadiz, Vigo, the sieges of Valencia de Alcantara, Alburquerque, Badajoz, Alcantara and Ciudad Rodrigo, and was virtually destroyed in the disastrous Battle of Almansa. In the campaign in the Low Countries in 1703, it defended Tongres against overwhelming odds, giving Lord Overkirk time to re-group his forces, until it was eventually captured. It was for this action that it was awarded its Royal title and its mottoes. It spent most of the remainder of the 18th century on garrison duty, being one of the regiments involved in putting down the Gordon Riots.
French and Napoleonic Wars
On the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, detachments were in the West Indies and acting as marines in the Channel Fleet, notably at the battle of the Glorious First of June in 1794, where they served on Howe's flagship, Queen Charlotte and also on board Russell, Defence, Royal George and Majestic. In recognition of the regiment's service, it was granted the distinction of wearing a Naval Crown superscribed 1 June 1794 on its colours.
The regiment was then reunited and sent to the West Indies where it took part in the capture of Guadeloupe in 1794, although the occupation was short-lived owing to outbreaks of disease, particularly yellow fever, among the troops, and the capture of Trinidad in 1797. A second battalion was formed in 1795 and stationed in Guernsey before being shipped to Martinique, where it was disbanded in 1797, its personnel being absorbed by 1st Battalion.
The regiment was transferred to Ireland in 1798 where it helped put down the Irish rebellion and then took part in the unsuccessful 1799 Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. In 1800, it was part of the abortive expedition to Belle Isle, from which it sailed to Egypt where it fought at the Battle of Alexandria, the Siege of Fort Julien and the Siege of Alexandria.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the regiment first fought in the Peninsular War at the battles of Vimeiro and Corunna. It then took part in the disastrous Walcheren Campaign before returning to the Peninsula to fight at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro, the second Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, the Battle of Salamanca and the unsuccessful Siege of Burgos. By the winter of 1812, the regiment was so depleted by casualties and disease that four companies were amalgamated with the equally weakened 2nd Battalion, 53rd Foot, to form the 2nd Provisional Battalion. Six cadre companies returned home to re-form. As part of the 4th Division, the Provisional Battalion took part in the Wellington's triumph at the Battle of Vittoria on 21 June 1813, followed by the Siege of San Sebastián and, 1814, the battles of Orthes and Toulouse.
The Victorian era
The regiment was on garrison duty in Baluchistan when the First Afghan War broke out in 1839. It formed part of the force that attacked the previously impregnable city of Ghazni, taking the city by storm because the army lacked siege equipment, and opening the way to Kabul. It returned to India in November 1839, storming the city of Khelat en route, and avoiding destruction along with the rest of Elphinstone's army.
The regiment was shipped to the Cape Colony during the Eighth Xhosa War in 1851. On 25 February 1852 a detachment of 51 men under the command of Ensign Boyland were aboard HMS Birkenhead travelling from Simon's Town to Port Elizabeth when the ship struck rocks. The troops were assembled on deck and remained at attention to afford the embarked women and children time to take their place in the lifeboats. Shortly after this the ship broke up and the vast majority of the troops on board were either drowned or fell victim to sharks. The bravery of the troops, made up of cadres from ten different regiments, led to the naming of the Birkenhead Drill. It once again became the 1st Battalion when the 2nd Battalion was reformed in 1857, and went to China in 1860 at the time of the Second Opium War, fighting at the Third Battle of Taku Forts and the capture of Beijing. It was stationed in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda from 1864 to 1866. Although too far North for yellow fever to establish itself in perpetuity, the disease was introduced to Bermuda several times during the 19th century by mail boats from the West Indies, causing endemics that resulted in many deaths, most particularly among members of the armed forces. Under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel F. L. O. Attye, the battalion arrived at the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda (aboard HMS Orontes from Gibraltar, via Madeira) on the 15 July 1864, in the midst of one of these epidemics and its losses in Bermuda included Assistant Surgeon James Murray Chalk at St. George's Garrison on 8 February 1865 and Douglas James Mounteny Rose, the five-year-old son of Lieutenant-Colonel Rose, who died the following day. The battalion lost fifty-two officers and men in the epidemic. The battalion departed Bermuda for Cork, Ireland, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Werge, aboard HMS Orontes on the 3 November 1866.
The regiment was not fundamentally affected by the Cardwell Reforms of the 1870s, which gave it a depot at Stoughton Barracks in Guildford from 1873, or by the Childers reforms of 1881 – as it already possessed two battalions, there was no need for it to amalgamate with another regiment. Under the reforms it became The Queen's (Royal West Surrey) Regiment on 1 July 1881. In 1897–98, a battalion took part in the Tirah Expedition on the North-West Frontier.
The 1st battalion was stationed at Malta from 1891, then in India where it was posted at Rawalpindi until late 1902 when it moved to Peshawar near the historic Khyber Pass on the border to Afghanistan. The 2nd Battalion fought in the Third Anglo-Burmese War from 1886 to 1888 and in South Africa from 1899 to 1904 including during the Second Boer War (1899–1902). From 1912 through 1914 it was stationed in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, as the regular infantry battalion of the Bermuda Garrison. While in Bermuda, the Edison Studios filmed The Relief of Lucknow and For Valour there, and was provided extensive support from the garrison, with parts of Prospect Camp providing sets, and personnel from the 2nd Battalion appearing as extras.
A 3rd (Militia) Battalion was formed from the former 2nd Royal Surrey Militia, with headquarters at Guildford. The Battalion was embodied in December 1899 to provide troops for the Second Boer War, 550 men embarked for South Africa in February 1900; and returned to the United Kingdom in May 1902, when it received a public welcome and reception at Guildford.
Under the Childers Reforms, two battalions of the Volunteer Force were attached to the regiment in 1883. These had originally been raised in 1859–60 in response to an invasion scare. The 1st Volunteer Battalion (VB) was formed from the 2nd Surrey Rifle Volunteer Corps (RVC), at the Old Barracks, Mitcham Road, Croydon, while the 2nd VB was formed from the 4th Surrey RVC at Reigate Both Volunteer Battalions contributed to service companies of volunteers who served alongside the regulars during the Second Boer War, and received the battle honour for the campaign.
Under the Haldane Reforms of 1908 the Militia became the Special Reserve and the Volunteers became part of the Territorial Force (TF). The regiment now had the 3rd Battalion (Special Reserve), with the 4th Battalion (TF) at the Old Barracks in Croydon and the 5th Battalion (TF) at Sandfield Terrace in Guildford (since demolished).
The First World War
Regular Army
The 1st Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 3rd Brigade in the 1st Division in August 1914, and spent the entire war on the Western Front. The battalion saw action at the Battle of Mons, the Battle of the Marne, the Battle of the Aisne, the Battle of Ypres, the Battle of Aubers Ridge, the Battle of Festubert, Battle of Loos, The Hindenburg Line, the Battle of Bellecourt, the Battle of Broodseinde, the Battle of Passchendaele and the Battle of Arras.
The 2nd Battalion was in South Africa when war broke out and landed at Zeebrugge as part of the 22nd Brigade in the 7th Division in October 1914 for service on the Western Front. It fought at the Battle of Ypres, Battle of Aubers Ridge, Battle of Festubert, Battle of Loos and the Battle of the Somme until November 1917, when it was sent to the Italian Front, taking part in the battles of the Piave and Vittorio Veneto.
Territorial Force
The 1/4th Battalion moved to India as part of the Surrey Brigade in the Home Counties Division in October 1914 and remained there throughout the war, serving on the North West Frontier, and was afterwards involved in the Third Afghan War in 1919. The 1/5th Battalion also went to India with the Home Counties Division, but then transferred to Mesopotamia in December 1915.
As soon as the 1st-Line Territorials had gone overseas, the Territorial Associations started raising 2nd- and 3rd-Line battalions, designated the 2/4th, 2/5th etc. The 4th Queen's was unusual in sending its 3rd-Line battalion overseas, so a 4/4th Bn was raised to train recruits; eventually it absorbed the 3/5th Bn as the 4th Reserve Battalion.
The 2/4th Battalion saw more varied service than any of the other Queen's TF battalions, in the Gallipoli Campaign, in Egypt, and Palestine, all as part of the 53rd (Welsh) Division, before being sent back as reinforcements to the Western Front where it served in 34th Division under French command before taking part in the final advance to victory in November 1918.
The 3/4th Bn was sent to the Western Front as reinforcements in August 1917, where it joined 21st Division and fought at Broodseinde and Cambrai. It was broken up to provide drafts in February 1918.
There were also 19th and 20th TF Battalions formed from the Home Service men of the regiment.
New Army
The Queen's also formed a number of battalions of the New Army, or 'Kitchener's Army'
6th (Service) Bn – served in 12th (Eastern) Division on the Western Front
7th (Service) Bn – served in 18th (Eastern) Division on the Western Front
8th (Service) Bn – served in 24th Division on the Western Front
9th (Reserve) Bn – served in the UK training recruits
10th (Service) Bn (Battersea) – formed by the Metropolitan Borough of Battersea and served in 41st Division on the Western Front
11th (Service) Bn (Lambeth) – formed by the Metropolitan Borough of Lambeth and also served in 41st Division
12th (Reserve) Bn – served in the UK training recruits
Other battalions
13th (Labour) Bn – served on the Western Front
14th (Labour) Bn – served in Salonika
15th (Labour) Bn – served on the Western Front
16th (Home Service) Bn – served in the UK
17th (Labour) Bn – served in the UK
18th (Labour) Bn – served in the UK
Returning prisoners of war were awarded a "Welcome Home Medal" at a reception in Guildford in January 1919. The medal has the regimental badge on one side and the inscription, "Prisoners of War The Queens Regiment Welcome Home" on the reverse and is dated MCMXVIII.
Between the wars
The 1st Battalion spent the inter-war years on garrison duty, both in Britain and overseas. The 2nd Battalion took part in the Waziristan campaign of 1919–1920, attempting to pacify the tribal areas during the unrest following the Third Afghan War. It was in Palestine during the Insurgency of 1936–1939.
The 4th and 5th Battalions were both reformed in the Territorial Army, assigned to the 131st (Surrey) Infantry Brigade, alongside the 5th and 6th battalions of the East Surrey Regiment. However, in the reorganisation of the Territorial Army's infantry in the late 1930s, the 4th Queen's was transferred to the Royal Artillery and converted into the 63rd (Queen's) Searchlight Regiment.
The regiment was also reassigned the 22nd and 24th (County of London) battalions of the London Regiment, which disbanded in 1938. These battalions became the 6th (Bermondsey) and 7th (Southwark) battalions of the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) and joined the 5th Battalion in 131st Brigade.
Second World War
The 1st Battalion was serving in British India on the outbreak of the Second World War but did not see action until 1942 against the Imperial Japanese Army. The 1st Queens fought in the Burma Campaign throughout the war as part of the 33rd Indian Infantry Brigade, 7th Indian Infantry Division, of the British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William "Bill" Slim.
The 2nd Battalion, initially commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Ross until April 1940, spent the early years of the war in the Middle East and Syria before also going out to the Far East. They were part of the 16th Brigade, 6th Infantry Division which was later redesignated as the 70th Infantry Division and were involved in Operation Thursday, the second Chindits campaign. The Chindits were the creation of Brigadier Orde Wingate. After suffering heavy casualties in the Chindits campaign, 2nd Queen's reverted to being an ordinary infantry battalion, nicknamed PBI (Poor Bloody Infantry), and served with 29th Infantry Brigade, part of 36th Infantry Division from May 1945 onwards.
The 1/5th, 1/6th, and 1/7th were all 1st Line Territorial Army battalions that were serving in the 131st Infantry Brigade, which was a part of the 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division, a 1st Line Territorial Army division. The brigade was sent, along with the rest of the division, to France in 1940 to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and were quickly involved in the Battle of France and subsequent Dunkirk evacuation. They arrived in England and the division was led for a while by Major-General Brian Horrocks. The division was later sent to North Africa in mid-1942 to join the British Eighth Army and fought in the Battle of Alam el Halfa and later in the Second Battle of El Alamein where the 131st Brigade was assigned to the 7th Armoured Division and would remain with them for the rest of the war. The brigade participated in the Tunisian and Italian Campaigns and the North West Europe Campaign. In December 1944, due to heavy casualties and a shortage of infantrymen in the British Army, the 1/6th and 1/7th Battalions were replaced by 2nd Battalion, Devonshire Regiment and 9th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, both from the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division. The 1/6th and 1/7th would spend the rest of the war as training units with the 50th Infantry Division. Meanwhile the 1/5th were detached from 131 Brigade to 22nd Armoured Brigade mounted in Kangaroos in April 1945 for the final weeks of the war and the fighting towards Hamburg.
The regiment also raised the 2/5th, 2/6th, and 2/7th which were all 2nd Line Territorial Army battalions serving in the 35th Infantry Brigade of the 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division, a 2nd Line Territorial Army duplicate of the 44th (Home Counties) Division. They were also sent to France in 1940 and were involved in the Battle of Dunkirk where they suffered heavy casualties due to the men having very little training. The division was disbanded shortly after returning to England and the 35th Brigade was later redesignated the 169th Infantry Brigade. The 169th Brigade was to serve with the 56th Division for the rest of the war in the Italian Campaign in battles at Salerno, Anzio and in the final Allied offensive in Italy, Operation Grapeshot.
In January 1944 Lieutenant Alec George Horwood of the 1/6th Battalion was awarded the Victoria Cross whilst fighting in the Burma Campaign whilst attached to the 1st Battalion, Northamptonshire Regiment.
63rd (Queen's) Searchlight Regiment served in Anti-Aircraft Command during the Battle of Britain and the Blitz, then converted into 127th (Queen's) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery and manned Bofors guns to protect the Mulberry harbour after D-Day, and then defended Antwerp late in the war.
The regiment raised many other battalions during the war, mainly for home defence or as training units. None of these units saw active service, they remained in the United Kingdom for the duration of war. They fulfilled a role of supplying the battalions overseas with trained infantrymen or were converted into other roles. For example, the 13th Battalion, raised in 1940, was assigned–in an infantry capacity–to the 80th Infantry (Reserve) Division. The 14th Battalion was raised in Dorchester in early July 1940 commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Wilkinson. and in October the battalion was assigned to the 201st Independent Infantry Brigade (Home) and commenced anti-invasion duties. On 1 December 1941 the battalion was converted into the 99th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery, and it subsequently served in Italy.
Post-war service and amalgamation
The 2nd Battalion was disbanded in 1948 and its personnel transferred to 1st Battalion (which had previously been reduced to nil strength in 1947). The 1st Battalion served in Berlin during the blockade to 1949 then Iserlohn in BAOR (British Army of the Rhine) part of 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division (Crossed Keys) until 1953. The 1st Battalion fought the Communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency from 1954 to 1957. In 1957, it returned to Germany, where, in 1959, it was amalgamated with 1st Battalion, East Surrey Regiment, to form the 1st Battalion, Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment (less Territorials). When the QRSs merged into the new larger Queen's Regiment, the battalion became the 1st (Queen's Royal Surreys) Battalion, but this subtitle was omitted on 1 July 1968. Today the regiment's successors can be traced to the 1st Battalion, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment.
Regimental museum
The Surrey Infantry Museum was based at Clandon Park House, near Guildford until it was destroyed in a fire in April 2015.
Battle honours
The regiment's battle honours were as follows:
Tangier 1662–80, Namur 1695, Ushant, Egypt, Vimiera, Corunna, Salamanca, Vittoria, Pyrenees, Nivelle, Toulouse, Peninsula, Ghuznee 1839, Khelat, 1839, South Africa 1851-2-3, Taku Forts, Pekin 1860, Burma 1885–87, Tirah, Relief of Ladysmith, South Africa 1899–1902
The Great War (25 battalions): Mons, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914 '18, Aisne 1914, Ypres 1914 '17 '18, Langemarck 1914, Gheluvelt, Aubers, Festubert 1915, Loos, Somme 1916 '18, Albert 1916 '18, Bazentin, Delville Wood, Pozières, Guillemont, Flers-Courcelette, Morval, Thiepval, Le Transloy, Ancre Heights, Ancre 1916 '18, Arras 1917 '18, Scarpe 1917, Bullecourt, Messines 1917, Pilckem, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Passchendaele, Cambrai 1917 '18, St. Quentin, Bapaume 1918, Rosières, Avre, Villers Bretonneux, Lys, Hazebrouck, Bailleul, Kemmel, Soissonais Ourcq, Amiens, Hindenburg Line, Épéhy, St. Quentin Canal, Courtrai, Selle, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Piave, Vittorio Veneto, Italy 1917–18, Suvla, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Rumani, Egypt 1915–16, Gaza, El Mughar, Jerusalem, Jericho, Tell 'Asur, Palestine 1917–18, Khan Baghdadi, Mesopotamia 1915–18, N W Frontier India 1916–17
Afghanistan 1919
The Second World War: Defence of Escaut, Villers Bocage, Mont Pincon, Lower Maas, Roer, North-West Europe 1940 '44–45, Syria 1941, Sidi Barrani, Tobruk 1941, Tobruk Sortie, Deir el Munassib, El Alamein, Advance on Tripoli, Medenine, Tunis, North Africa 1940–43, Salerno, Monte Stella, Scafati Bridge, Volturno Crossing, Monte Camino, Garigliano Crossing, Damiano, Anzio, Gothic Line, Gemmano Ridge, Senio Pocket, Senio Floodbank, Casa Fabri Bridge, Menate, Filo, Argenta Gap, Italy 1943–45, North Arakan, Kohima, Yenangyaung 1945, Sittang 1945, Chindits 1944, Burma 1943–45
4th, 5th Battalions: South Africa 1900–02
Victoria Cross
The following members of the Regiment were awarded the Victoria Cross:
Lieutenant (later Brigadier-General) Wallace Duffield Wright, Kano-Sokoto Expedition
Captain (temporary Lieutenant Colonel, later Lieutenant-General) Bernard Cyril Freyberg, Great War
2nd Lieutenant (acting Captain) Clement Robertson, Great War
Lance Corporal John William Sayer, Great War
Captain (temporary Lieutenant Colonel) Christopher Bushell, Great War
Lieutenant Alec George Horwood, Second World War
Regimental Colonels
References
Sources
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Volume I, 1984: Microform Academic Publishers, Wakefield, United Kingdom. .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 3a: New Army Divisions (9–26), London: HM Stationery Office, 1938/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 3b: New Army Divisions (30–41) and 63rd (R.N.) Division, London: HM Stationery Office, 1939/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, .
Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: The Years of Defeat: Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1988/London: Brasseys, 1996, .
Jock Haswell, Famous Regiments Series: The Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) (The 2nd Regiment of Foot), London: Hamish Hamilton, 1967.
N.B. Leslie, Battle Honours of the British and Indian Armies 1695–1914, London: Leo Cooper, 1970, .
Brig N.W. Routledge, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55, London: Royal Artillery Institution/Brassey's, 1994, .
Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, .
Ray Westlake, British Regiments at Gallipoli, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, .
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
External links
The Queen's Royal Surrey Regiment (official site)
The Queen's Royal Regiment Living History Group
Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment Re-enactment Society
The World War One Letters of Major Hugh J.C. Peirs, 8th Battalion, The Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment
The Drill Hall Project
Stepping Forward: A Tribute to the Volunteer Military Reservists and Supporting Auxiliaries of Greater London
Military units and formations established in 1661
Regiments of the British Army in World War I
Regiments of the British Army in World War II
History of Tangier
Military units and formations in Surrey
Military units and formations in Guildford
1661 establishments in England
1959 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
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Military units and formations disestablished in 1959
Caroline of Ansbach |
4227607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Thailand | LGBT rights in Thailand | Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Thailand face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal in Thailand, but same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are not eligible for the same legal protections available to opposite-sex couples. About eight percent of the Thai population, five million people, are thought to be in the LGBT demographic.
In 2013, the Bangkok Post said that "while Thailand is viewed as a tourist haven for same-sex couples, the reality for locals is that the law, and often public sentiment, is not so liberal." A 2014 report by the United States Agency for International Development and the United Nations Development Programme said that LGBT people "still face discrimination affecting their social rights and job opportunities", and "face difficulty gaining acceptance for non-traditional sexuality, even though the tourism authority has been promoting Thailand as a gay-friendly country".
Changes in attitudes and public policy towards LGBT issues began to occur in Thailand during the 1990s and, in particular, the early part of the 21st century. In 2015, Thailand enacted a comprehensive anti-discrimination law, which covered sexual orientation and gender identity. As of 2022, a group of bills is being considered in the Thai parliament that will grant either civil partnerships or full marriage for same-sex couples.
In 2017, Bangkok was named the second-most gay-friendly city in Asia, after Tel Aviv, Israel, due to its LGBT dating scene, nightlife, openness and safety. The Tourism Authority of Thailand has launched a global project entitled "Go Thai Be Free", to encourage LGBTQ+ tourists from around the world and raise its international profile as an LGBTQ+ friendly country.
Legality of same-sex sexual activity
Private, adult, consensual, and non-commercial sodomy was decriminalized in Thailand in 1956. However, same-sex attraction and transgender identities were still seen as socially unacceptable. Through the Penal Code Amendment Act of 1997 (), the age of consent was set at fifteen years regardless of gender or sexual orientation.
In 2002, the Ministry of Health announced that homosexuality would no longer be regarded as a mental illness or disorder.
In 2007, the Thai Government expanded the definition of a sexual assault and rape victim to include both women and men. The government also prohibited marital rape, with the law stipulating that women or men can be victims.
Recognition of same-sex relationships and marriage
Thailand does not recognize same-sex marriages, civil unions, domestic partnerships, unregistered cohabitations, or any other form of same-sex unions.
In September 2011, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and the Sexual Diversity Network, an NGO, proposed draft legislation on same-sex marriage and sought the Thai Government's support for the law. Instead, in December 2012, the Government formed a committee to draft legislation providing legal recognition for same-sex couples in the form of civil partnerships. On 8 February 2013, the Rights and Liberties Protection Department and the Parliament's Committee on Legal Affairs, Justice, and Human Rights held a first public hearing on the civil partnership bill, drafted by the committee's chairman, Police General Viroon Phuensaen.
In September 2013, the Bangkok Post reported that an attempt in 2011 by Natee Teerarojjanapong, president of the Gay Political Group of Thailand, to register a marriage certificate with his male partner had been rejected.
By 2014, the civil partnership bill had bipartisan support, but was stalled due to political unrest in the country. In the second half of 2014, reports emerged that a draft bill called the "Civil Partnership Act" would be submitted to the junta-appointed Thai Parliament. It would give couples some of the rights of heterosexual marriage, but was criticized for increasing the minimum age from 17 to 20 and omitting adoption rights.
Thai opinion polls have consistently favoured legal recognition of same-sex marriages.
In 2017, Thai government officials responded favourably to a petition signed by 60,000 people calling for civil partnerships for same-sex couples. Pitikan Sithidej, director-general of the Rights and Liberties Protection Department at the Justice Ministry, confirmed she had received the petition and would do all she could to get it passed as soon as possible. The Justice Ministry convened on 4 May 2018 to begin discussions on a draft civil partnership bill, titled the "Same Sex Life Partnership Registration Bill". Under the proposal, same-sex couples would be able to register themselves as "life partners" and will be granted some of the rights of marriage. The bill was discussed in public hearings between 12 and 16 November, where a reported 98% expressed support for the measure. On 25 December 2018, the Cabinet approved the bill.
On 8 July 2020, the Cabinet approved a new draft of the bill. It will now be introduced in the National Assembly.
In June 2020, Move Forward Party deputy Tunyawat Kamolwongwat introduced a bill to legalize same-sex marriage. The public consultation on the bill was launched on 2 July.
In 2021, the Constitutional Court ruled that Section 1448 of the Civil and Commercial Code interpreting marriages as only between women and men is constitutional, but after the release of full ruling, one phrase mentioned that members of the LGBTQ community cannot reproduce, as it is against nature, and they are unlike other animals with unusual behaviours or physical characteristics. The verdict cites LGBTQ as a different "species" that needs to be separated and studied as it is incapable of creating the "delicate bond" of human relationships. The text was criticised by the LGBT community as homophobic and politically incorrect.
In 2022, a group of bills concerning same-sex unions passed their first readings in the Thai parliament. These include the Marriage Equality Bill proposed by the opposition Move Forward Party, which would amend the current marriage law to include couples of any gender, and the government-proposed Civil Partnership Bill, which would instead introduce civil partnerships as a separate category, granting some but not all rights given to married couples.
On 14 February 2023, Bangkok's Dusit district became the first jurisdiction in Thailand to issue partnership certificates, which are legally non-binding, to same-sex couples.
Adoption and parenting
Only married couples may adopt in Thailand with the exception of single women, who are allowed to petition for the adoption of a special-needs child (Thai law on what qualifies a child as special-needs remain unclear). The draft legislation working its way through the Thai bureaucracy in late 2018 would ensure only property and inheritance rights and some other rights of same-sex couples, but not their rights to public welfare, tax benefits or child adoption.
Thailand had long been a popular destination for surrogacy arrangements. In 2015, however, the Thai Parliament passed a law banning foreigners from travelling to Thailand to have commercial surrogacy arrangements. Only married couples as Thai residents are allowed to make commercial surrogacy contracts. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is restricted to married couples.
Discrimination protections
None of the various Thai constitutions has mentioned sexual orientation or gender identity. Natee Theerarojnapong, of the Human Rights Commission, and Anjana Suvarnananda, a lesbian rights advocate, campaigned unsuccessfully for the inclusion of "sexual identity" in the Interim Constitution of 2006 and the Constitution of 2007. The 2007 Constitution did contain a broad prohibition of "unfair discrimination" based on "personal status" and promises to respect various civil liberties in accordance with "state security" and "public morality".
The Gender Equality Act B.E. 2558 () was passed on 13 March 2015 and came into force on 9 September 2015. This act bans discrimination based on gender identity and sexual orientation, and was the first law in Thailand to contain language mentioning LGBT people. Under the law, discrimination against a male, female or "a person who has a sexual expression different from that person's original sex" is punishable by up to six months in prison and a fine of up to 20,000 baht. However, the law specified an exception for "education, religion and the public interest", which was strongly criticised by women's rights groups. According to a 2021 Human Rights Watch report, implementation of the law has been spotty and inadequate. A 2019 UNDP report found that only 44% of LGBT respondents knew about this law, compared to 50% of non-LGBT respondents.
Gender identity and expression
Sex reassignment operations have been performed in Thailand since 1975, and Thailand is among the most popular destinations globally for patients seeking such operations.
Transgender people are quite common in Thai popular entertainment, television shows and nightclub performances, however, transgender people lack various legal rights compared to the rest of the population, and may face discrimination from society.
Transgender people face substantial barriers to employment, including full-time work, executive positions or promotions, according to 2015 research for the International Labour Organization. Discrimination in job applications also often discourages transgender people from seeking further employment opportunities or entering the job market. The research also found that they are faced with "daily discrimination and humiliation" which often cuts short their careers. An editorial in the Bangkok Post in 2013 noted that "we don't find transgenders as high-ranking officials, doctors, lawyers, scientists, or teachers in state-run schools and colleges. Nor as executives in the corporate world. In short, the doors of government agencies and large corporations are still closed to transgender women."
In 2007, the Thai National Assembly debated allowing transgender people to legally change their names after having a sex change operation. The legislature passed a law named Persons' Name Act which created an avenue for transgender people to change their names but not their legal gender. Approval of the request for name change is not guaranteed, as it is up to the discretion of individual administrators.
Post-operation male-to-female transgender government employees are not granted the right to wear female uniforms at work, and are still expected to perform military service. Specific cases of inequality include a hospital which refused to allow a transgender woman to stay in a woman's ward, even though she had undergone sex reassignment surgery.
In 2014, a Matthayom 1 textbook was criticized for discrimination and lack of gender sensitivity, due to a description of transgender people as suffering from gender confusion, khon long phet (คนหลงเพศ), and illustrations in the textbook featuring performances by transgender dancers. Critics argued that the word long (หลง: 'confused') had negative connotations, and that "transgender" or kham phet (ข้ามเพศ) was more suitable. It was reported that officials at the Ministry of Education would investigate the matter.
In July 2019, a proposal to regulate sex changes for transgender individuals was presented to the National Assembly. Among others, the proposed bill would allow those who have undergone sex reassignment surgery to change their legal gender on official documents. It also covers name changes, marriage rights and military conscription.
Military service
In Thailand, both men and women are allowed to serve in the army. In 2005, the Thai Armed Forces lifted their ban on LGBT people serving in the military. Prior to this reform, LGBT people were exempted as suffering from a "mental disorder".
All Thai citizens aged 21 and over who were assigned male at birth are required to participate in military conscription. Unless exempt, they must either volunteer to serve between six months and a year, or participate in a lottery drawing that determines who will serve from one to two years. Conscripts have been reported to sometimes face harassment, violence, and even human rights violations, and conscription is viewed with anxiety by many. Transgender women are exempt from conscription on the basis of having "gender identity disorder", but only if they can "prove" their gender. If a trans woman has undergone at least some gender-affirming medical procedures, such as hormone replacement therapy or breast augmentation, she has a high chance of being exempt after going through a medical examination which can be stressful and humiliating to some. Those who have not are required to submit to extensive psychological evaluation.
Blood donation
In Thailand, transgender women who have not had sex with a male partner, as well as women who have sex with women are allowed to donate blood, but men who have sex with men (MSM) are not. In May 2009 and October 2021, the Thai Red Cross reaffirmed its ban on MSM becoming blood donors, despite campaigns to change this policy. In 2021, the organization stated that "it is not yet ready to relax the strict criteria for blood donors" for MSM because of the higher risk of HIV. The rate of HIV in first-time blood donors is 10 times higher than the same rate in other Asian countries. The Thai Red Cross defended this ban as practical as opposed to discriminatory. It also stated that the rate of HIV among donors must fall below 1 in 100,000 before the criteria for donations by MSM are relaxed.
Living conditions
LGBT lexicon
The Thai word for "gay" or "queer" is เกย์ (). The term katoey or kathoey (; ) refers to transgender women or effeminate gay men. Thai society perceives kathoeys as belonging to a third gender alongside male and female. The term dee (ดี้) alludes to homosexual or bisexual women. Thai has also adopted the word "lesbian" from English: (; ).
The Thai language recognises several other gender and sexual identities, including tom (ทอม), from the English "tomboy", which refers to women who dress, act, and speak in a masculine fashion. Toms are not necessarily lesbian or bisexual, but may be perceived as such by others. Other identities include angees, kathoeys who are attracted to toms, and adams, men who are attracted to toms.
Homophobia, biphobia, transphobia and violence
In 2016, Paisarn Likhitpreechakul, a board member of the Sogi Foundation, wrote an op-ed in the Bangkok Post warning of so-called corrective rape being widely used to "cure" lesbians of their sexual orientation, highlighting the case of a father in Loei who confessed to raping his 14-year-old daughter for four years to stop her from socialising with tomboys. Paisarn expressed further concern that such practices were being normalised in Thai society, and that the true number of such cases was far higher, as many murders of Thai LGBTs are categorised as crimes of passion, because the Thai legal system does not include the concept of "hate crimes". The United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights identified murder, beatings, kidnappings, rape and sexual assault against LGBT people as examples of homophobic and transphobic violence and noted that violence against LGBT people "tends to be especially vicious compared to other bias-motivated crimes".
A 2019 UNDP survey showed that 53% of LGBT respondents had faced verbal harassment, 16% have been sexually assaulted, and 42% have pretended to be straight in order to be accepted in various settings. 47.5% of the respondents had experienced at least one form of discrimination from within their family. As a result of stigma and discrimination, 49% of the LGBT respondents said that they have contemplated suicide, and 17% that they had attempted to take their lives. Despite their high need for mental health services, LGBT respondends reported difficulty in finding access to them, as well as discrimination in health care. Two LGBT community subgroups reported the highest levels of discrimination: trans women and bisexual men. 61% of trans women reported verbal abuse, 22% shared they had been sexually assaulted, 11% faced physical abuse, and 8% reported police harassment. Among bisexual men, 14% reported having lost friends because of their sexuality, and 9% have lost their homes because of it.
The same report found that 32% of trans women surveyed faced discrimination in the workplace. The number was 10% for the LGBT community overall.
Education
On 26 December 1996, in a report in the Bangkok Post, the Rajabat Institute Council, the collective governing body of all of Thailand's colleges, declared that it would bar homosexuals from enrolling in any of its teacher training schools, the idea of Deputy Education Minister Suraporn Danaitangtrakul. The announcement was strongly criticised by human rights groups and many others, who urged the repeal of the policy. On 25 January 1997, Danaitangtrakul proposed that the Institute set new criteria to bar people with "improper personalities", but not specific groups such as homosexuals.
According to a 2014 UNDP report, LGBT youth can face significant barriers to education because of their identities. A third of surveyed LGBT students had been physically harassed, a quarter sexually. Bullying of LGBT students ranged from verbal to severe physical or sexual abuse. The 2015 Gender Equality Act B.E. 2558 makes exceptions for discrimination in educational settings. Toms (masculine women) appeared to be one of the most harassed groups.
The report found that there was no mandatory education on sexual orientation or gender identity. Sexual health education was also found to be inadequate, which can contribute to unsafe sex prevalence and the spread of HIV among the LGBT community. Some SexEd textbooks contained references to homosexuality as "abnormal". Furthermore, most Thai schools require uniforms, and students are expected to wear a gendered uniform according to the sex they were assigned at birth. This discriminatory policy leads to discomfort and mental trauma for transgender students and many drop out of school. A lack of educational qualifications leads many LGBT Thais to "sex work or other forms of high-risk behaviour and risky employment in order to make ends meet."
Prisons
For several years, the official policy of Thai prisons has been to respect and recognize sexual diversity, placing inmates in cells based on their stated gender and sexual orientation. Homosexual male prisoners, like all male prisoners, have their heads shaved. Female inmates are not allowed to wear make-up, but gay male inmates are. A prisoner's gender is "verified" by a prison doctor, meaning that only trans women or kathoey (transgender women or effeminate gay men) who have transitioned medically are placed with other women. However, kathoeys who have not transitioned medically can request to be placed with other kathoeys like them which, according to a 2016 interview, can be safer. According to the Department of Corrections, there were 4,448 LGBT prisoners in the country in 2016. Of these, 1,804 were katoey, 352 were gay (เกย์), 1,247 were tom (ทอม; female with masculine characteristics), 1,011 were dee (ดี้; female homosexual with feminine characteristics), and 34 were male-to-female transgender people.
In 2016, the Department of Corrections had plans to build a central prison for only LGBT inmates. However, plans were delayed because of concerns about placing LGBT inmates away from their hometowns and relatives.
Politics
Ahead of the 2019 general election, several political parties expressed support for same-sex marriage and LGBT rights. The Future Forward Party called for the legalisation of same-sex marriage and amendments to the official school curriculum "so that it no longer propagates stereotypes and prejudice against the LGBTQ community". The Mahachon Party, the Thai Local Power Party, the Polamuang Thai Party, the Thai Liberal Party, the Puea Chat Party, the Commoners' Party and the Democrat Party all expressed support for same-sex marriage. The Pheu Thai Party, the largest party in Parliament, also supports same-sex marriage. The Thai Raksa Chart Party, banned in March 2019 due to the involvement of Princess Ubol Ratana, stated that it supported civil partnerships for same-sex couples.
In March 2019, transgender filmmaker Tanwarin Sukkhapisit of the Future Forward Party was elected to the Thai Parliament, becoming its first ever transgender MP. Three other transgender candidates from the same party, Tunyawaj Kamonwongwat, Nateepat Kulsetthasith, and Kawinnath Takey, were also elected.
LGBT life
Thailand has long had a reputation of tolerance when it comes to LGBT people; there are many LGBT nightclubs and bars in the country and the first Thai LGBT magazine, Mithuna, began publication in 1983.
However, in 1989, LGBT activist Natee Teerarojjanapongs described the situation as more complicated; although LGBT citizens do not face direct repression from the state, instead "it is a question of subtle negation through invisibility and a lack of social awareness about homosexual people", and although people acknowledge the existence of homosexuality, "they are still not used to the idea of openly gay people. Even fewer have any understanding of the notion of lesbian and gay rights".
This began to change in the 1990s with more public events, such as LGBT pride festivals that were held every year from 1999 to 2007 in Bangkok, until internal disputes within the LGBT community and arguments with the festival's financial backers prevented future events from being held. Bangkok Pride was expected to take place again in November 2017, the first time in 11 years, but was postponed due to the national one year mourning period for King Bhumibol Adulyadej.
In the city of Phuket, pride events have been held annually since 1999. The second parade in the northern city of Chiang Mai in 2009 stirred such hostility that it had to be canceled. As participants were preparing to march, a local political group surrounded the compound where they had gathered, shouting insults through megaphones and throwing fruit and rocks at the building. However, ten years later, more than 500 people including some politicians marched in the Chiang Mai Pride parade on 21 February 2019.
Songkran is the Thai New Year's national holiday. Songkran falls on 13 April every year, but the holiday period extends from 14 to 15 April. It has taken on particular meaning in recent years for LGBT residents and visitors, as it is held simultaneously to the Songkran Bangkok Gay Circuit Party, considered the largest such gay celebration in Asia. The event celebrated its 14th anniversary in 2019.
Media
Since the 1980s, many LGBT-themed publications have been available in Thailand. LGBT characters in Thai films have also been common since the 1970s, often as comic relief, although it was not until the new wave of Thai cinema in the late 1990s that Thai films began to examine LGBT characters and issues in more depth. Since 2014, and especially since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a significant rise in the popularity and number of Thai LGBT television shows, also known as Boys' Love (BL) or Y series, which depict positive and diverse stories of male-male, and sometimes female-female, romance. While some of the shows touch on issues of inequality like same-sex marriage, discrimination, and violence, the genre has also faced criticism for presenting "a soft-focus version" of the realities of life for Thai queer people.
Censorship does not affect LGBT-related media directly, but pornography and sex toys are illegal in Thailand.
Demographics
According to 2018 estimates from LGBT Capital, there were about 4.2 million LGBT people in Thailand.
Public opinion
According to a 2015 opinion poll, 89% of Thais would accept a colleague who is gay or lesbian, 80% would not mind if a family member was LGBT, and 59% were in favour of legalizing same-sex marriage.
According to a 2019 YouGov poll of 1,025 respondents, 63% of Thais supported the legalisation of same-sex partnerships, with 11% against and 27% preferring not to answer. 69% of people aged 18 to 34 supported civil partnerships, with 10% opposed. Legalisation was supported by 56% of those aged between 35 and 54 (33% opposed), and 55% of those aged 55 and over (13% opposed). 66% of those with university degrees were in favour (10% opposed), and 57% of those without university degrees (12% opposed). 68% of those with a high income supported civil partnerships (7% opposed), and 55% of those with a low income (13% opposed). 68% of women responded in favour (7% opposed), and 57% of men (14% opposed).
A 2019 report by the UNDP found that non-LGBT people had favourable attitudes towards LGBT people as a whole, but that the level of support they have for LGBT rights and access to services drops the closer the LGBT person in question is to them (e.g. family member of coworker). As a whole, significant levels of support for inclusive laws and policies were found, but some topics, like changing gender markers, were more controversial and less supported than others, like equal rights to services.
According to a 2022 poll by the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), 93% of Thais accepted LGBT friends or colleagues, 91% would accept a LGBT person as a family member, and 80% supported same-sex marriage.
Summary table
See also
LGBT history in Thailand
Human rights in Thailand
LGBT rights in Asia
Kathoey
Anjaree
References
Discrimination against transgender people
Law of Thailand
Thailand
Human rights in Thailand
Kathoey
LGBT rights in Thailand |
4227961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20slug | Black slug | The black slug (also known as black arion, European black slug, or large black slug), Arion ater, is a large terrestrial gastropod mollusk in the family Arionidae, the round back slugs. Many land slugs lack external shells, having a vestigial shell. Most slugs retain a remnant of their shell, which is usually internalized, unlike other terrestrial mollusks (such as snails) which have external shells. Without such shells, slugs produce mucus, that may also contain toxins—to deter predators. Terrestrial slugs produce two other forms of mucus that facilitate locomotion and prevent death from drying. Such mollusks are hermaphroditic. Slugs most often function as decomposers but are also often omnivores. Arion ater is one such slug, decomposing organic matter, preying on other organisms, and consuming vegetative matter including agricultural crops. Native to Europe, the black slug is an invasive species in Australia, Canada (British Columbia, Newfoundland, Quebec), and the United States (Pacific Northwest).
Description
Arion ater varies from , reaching maturity at about and moves at a speed of up to
The black slug is generally deep black, with some adults being brown or even white. Generally, pigmentation darkens directly with increasing latitude. Young specimens tend to be brown or ivory whitish, turning to grey before becoming characteristically black at maturity. Rust-brown individuals are arguably classified as a separate species Arion rufus (Red Slug). The two can only be distinguished by dissecting the reproductive anatomy.
The foot-fringe is black, the tubercles are large and elongate, and the sole is blackish grey. The atrium and vagina (genitalia) are considerably narrower than is the spermatheca (organ for storing sperm). The oviduct is narrow while the spermatheca is spherical.
The black slug is omnivorous, and its diet includes fungi, carrion, earthworms, leaves, stems, dead plant material and dung. The food is shredded into tiny pieces by the radula and is then digested by enzymes.
Like other terrestrial slugs, the black slug is a hermaphrodite, preferring to find a mate—often several—but can self-fertilize. After mating, the black slug seeks a dark, moist environment such as beneath mosses—occasionally within topsoil—to lay its eggs about in diameter. Between August and October, an individual slug lays up to 150 eggs every one to three weeks—clutches diminishing to 20 eggs late in the season. Juveniles hatch after at least twenty-seven days, hatching later under cold temperatures. Maturation takes up to nine months, enabling mating in early summer. Black slugs die shortly after laying its last clutch, rarely surviving into a second year.
The ovotestis (gonad or hermaphrodite gland) produces gametes at the proximal end of the reproductive system. The hermaphrodite duct runs forward, connecting to the albumen gland and the common duct (spermoviduct). The male and female gametes separate before entering the common duct. The male portion of the reproductive tract contains the vas deferens and the epiphallus. Arion slugs lack a penis. The vas deferens connects the spermoviduct to the epiphallus. The epiphallus then opens to the genital atrium. The spermathecal duct (bursa copulatrix duct) is a sac for storing spermatozoa and also enters the atrium. The female portion contains the oviduct, transferring eggs from the common duct to the atrium. The atrium is further subdivided into an upper and lower atrium. A stimulating organ (ligula) can also be found in the atrium. Finally, the atrium opens through the genital pore. The genital pore is located on the animal slightly behind and below the right upper tentacle on the head.
Like other members of the family Arionidae, the black slug has a pneumostome (breathing hole) on the right side of its mantle through which it breathes. This mantle is the part in snails that secretes a shell, but in the black slug, the mantle contains a resilient protective structure of calcareous granules.
Arion ater produces three forms of mucus. The first two aid the animal in locomotion, with a thinner mucus coating the animal laterally, and a thicker, more viscous mucus secreted along the length of the slug. This combination facilitates wave like contractions of the foot that propel the animal forward. The third type of mucus is a vile-tasting substance which helps deter predation. All three forms of mucus help protect the slug from dehydration, as well as to locate and identify other slugs to mate with, or even prey upon.
Distribution
This species is found in northern Europe (including Great Britain and Ireland), Canada, the Pacific Northwest, and most recently in Australia and some Caribbean countries:
Great Britain: often found in habitats more wooded and less human-dense than those in which A. rufus occurs
Maladeta Mountains, Spain: often an agricultural pest
Ireland, Italy, Germany, Scandinavia, and Gerês, Portugal
Canada [invasive]: first document in 1941, established pest by 1960
British Columbia
Newfoundland
Quebec (specifically on Mont Bellevue in Sherbrooke)
United States [invasive]: Within its native habitats, this species functions as a decomposer/consumer and often becomes an agricultural pest. This species is well-established in Washington and Oregon, and it is considered to represent a potentially serious threat as a pest, an invasive species which could negatively affect agriculture, natural ecosystems, human health or commerce. Therefore, it has been suggested that this species be given top national quarantine significance in the USA.
Australia [invasive]: The Museum Victoria reports the black slug to have been first documented in Australia in 2001 with multiple reports of these slugs in cultivated gardens and farms since, but as of 2009, the species was still not considered to be an established species in Australia.
Ecology
The black slug is mainly nocturnal and avoids exposure to sunlight, although in introduced areas, it has been observed to be active all parts of the day and night. It is omnivorous, eating carrion, fungi, animal feces, algae, lichen, and vegetation (living or decaying). These slugs prefer to eat on cloudy days or at night when temperatures are above 10 degrees Celsius. Mucus-production necessitates moist habitats, such as among leaf-litter, mosses, or fallen trees. Consequently, the black slug becomes most active after rainfall. A 1976 study compared black slug assimilation rates to that of similar slugs in the UK. The study determined the black slug feeds at similar rates to other European slugs (in terms of biomass), suggesting the black slug is an equally important decomposer/consumer in forest systems. The study theorized these high assimilation rates might result from abundant enzymes in slug digestive systems: amylase, invertase, cellulase, xylanase, and chitinase. The last might be especially indicative of how these slugs can consume large quantities of fungi such as Armillaria mellea. Microbiota within black slug digestive systems produce these enzymes—such as the bacteria that produce cellulose—enabling the slugs to break down lignocellulose. A recent study further explored Arion ater’s gut microbiome and discovered the black slug to have far more bacteria within its gut than did neighboring, northern European insects, including members of the orders Coleoptera, Isoptera, Orthoptera, and Diptera. This study learned the black slug’s gut microbiome to be functional at a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, and its results suggest that the mycobacterial culture may be uniform throughout the black slug’s gut and that Gammaproteobacteria composes most of this culture. This study contrasted its results to studies of North American black slugs that presented higher levels of cellulolytic activity at a narrower pH range. In summary, Arion ater can digest diverse food material such as cellulose because gut bacteria produce digestive enzymes.
As decomposers/consumers, slugs engage an important niche, contributing to ecosystem health. A 2005 study looked at another Arion slug species and concluded slugs may promote plant biodiversity. This study suggested that slugs promote plant—especially forb—species diversity and that slugs support annual plant species’ fitness, reducing rates of successional change. Additionally, slugs help disperse seeds and spores through their waste, and slugs facilitate nutrient cycling by being an omnivorous consumer (especially a decomposer) and by leaving behind their mucus, which also facilitates decomposition.
Slugs are common agricultural and horticultural pests. They consume abundant vegetative matter, especially seedlings. Additionally, many people find slugs to be unsightly.
Most animals prefer not to prey upon the black slugs because of the taste of its mucus and because this mucus can make them slippery and consequently difficult to capture; however, this slug does have some natural predators, including the hedgehog, badger, shrew, mole, mouse, frog, toad, snake, carnivorous beetle, and some birds. When picked up or touched, the black slug will contract to a hemispherical shape and begin to rock from side to side. This defensive behavior confuses predators, and is unique in the family Arionidae.
Invasive species
Arion ater has been introduced to southeastern Australia and to North America, where it occurs in Newfoundland, southern British Columbia, the Pacific Northwest of the United States and some parts of Alaska. In the past two decades, its mating with the non-native (at northern latitudes) pest species Arion vulgaris (or Spanish slug) has resulted in a more resilient hybrid exhibiting increased tolerance to cold.
These slugs might endanger sensitive ecosystems, especially as an invasive species, and it is yet unclear how drastically these slugs might alter plant community compositions. The black slug is a voracious seedling predator. Terrestrial slugs are considered to be especially dangerous because they alter plant species abundance, adult plant fecundity, and the production of plant defensive compounds. Black slugs are of special concern in fragmented ecosystems and areas with high shrub and tree cover. In Alaska, the black slug threatens seedling populations of lilies and orchids after already having diminished sensitive populations of deltoid balsamroot and yellow montane violet in BC Canada.
There is much debate concerning black slug effect upon plant species diversity. Slug impacts change over successional stages, and Alaska conservationists observed the black slug's impact on species diversity depends upon community composition. If a system is composed of sensitive species, the black slug will likely have a negative impact by pressuring said species. If a system presents more evenness with less sensitive species, the black slug may promote species diversity and encourage healthy succession rates.
Around the 1970s, the black slug came to Alaska via nursery plants, potting soil, or among shipments containing wood pallets. The Alaska National Heritage Project published an invasive ranking for the black slug, providing a recent case study of the species as an invasive. They ranked the species based upon distribution, biological characteristics, ecological impacts, and feasibility of control. These categories were assigned points, and Arion ater received a 62/100, awarding it a qualitative score of “moderately invasive.” This report stated the black slug can often be found in disturbed soils or areas with well-irrigated soils such as lawns. Frequent sightings along roads suggest the black slug might move more easily along human traffic corridors; however, the black slug is believed to migrate little during its one-year life span. Arion ater’s biology awarded it its highest risk factor. Again, the black slug is a prolific, omnivorous consumer, capable of inhabiting a wide range of conditions with high fecundity. Its effect upon local ecology received a moderate score; while the black slug puts pressure on native systems, it does not appear to catalyze entire regime shifts within the habitats where it has invaded. Greatest concern appears to be its possible pressure on early successional plants and native slugs. The black slug often feeds upon seedlings, diminishing plants’ reproductive success, but the black slug does not appear to be feeding selectively, endangering one plant species over another. And the black slug's effect on native-Alaska slugs is unknown, but the black slug might be displacing the banana slug in BC, Canada; however, such displacement might not have implications beyond those for the banana slugs. Slugs facilitate seed and spore dispersal through fecal matter. The black slug facilitates nutrient cycling by decomposing decaying and fecal matter; additionally, slug mucus left behind in the soil helps cycle nutrients, and Arion ater may merely step into this niche in place of native slugs. Arion ater has spread in Alaska in the following places: Anchorage, Cordova, Yakutat, Gustavus, Juneau, Sitka, Tenakee Springs, Ketchikan, and Kodiak Island, and in some of these areas, the black slug threatens lilies and orchids. It is unlikely complete removal can be achieved given high fecundity, but fencing and educating the public to hand pick black slugs might mitigate associated invasion risks.
Conservationists within the Pacific Northwest and BC Canada are concerned about competition between Arion ater and native slugs such as the banana slug (Ariolimax californicus, A. columbianus, and A. dolichophallus). The University of British Columbia's zoology department published a study on this interaction in 2015. They determined the two slugs to be functionally different but proposed further studies to determine whether black slugs are displacing native slugs. Their study found black slugs were more abundant and consumed a greater quantity of mushrooms than native banana slugs but could not determine reasons for differences in population sizes. They theorized the greater abundance of black slugs could be because the black slug displaced banana slugs or because the black slug might be invading areas with previously low banana slug numbers; however, there is no data for banana slug population sizes prior to the arrival of Arion ater. This complicates determining whether alien slugs have a negative or negligible effect upon native slug numbers. Additionally, this study could not determine whether high fungi-consumption resulted from dietary preference or from higher concentrations of alien slugs amidst Douglas fir forests, which promote fungal growth. The study also concluded that black and banana slugs compete for under-story berries. The study demonstrated neither native nor alien slugs consume conifer or fern seedlings. It also demonstrated no significant difference between metabolic rates. However, they concluded the black slug may eat more because of its shorter life span (one compared to several years), requiring faster consumption rates to reach sexual maturity. The study demonstrated both slugs benefit ecosystems by dispersing seeds and spores. This study demonstrates the two slugs to be functionally different; however, this study proposed further research on the following to determine if black slugs are displacing banana slugs: interactions between Arion ater and fungal communities and comparative studies looking at seed dispersal rates to determine their effect on native, fruit-bearing plant communities.
Control strategies
The Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team suggests the following control strategies, stating chemical controls should only be used as a last resort in protecting endangered species or critical habitat. Hand collecting is most effective at dusk or dawn when slugs feed most actively. Traps are also effective. Commercial traps can be used, or homemade traps can be made using beer. Fences can be used to protect small areas and can be commercial (often electrical) or easily homemade with sawdust, crushed eggshells, ground oyster shells, soap, cinders, or diatomaceous earth. Such fences are especially effective at protecting important seedlings or home gardens. European nematodes (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) parasitize slugs, and in European agriculture, these nematodes have been mass-produced as a biological control; however, European nematodes are neither native to North America nor commercially available. In addition to nematodes, there may be other biological control methods. Sciomyzids (marsh flies) larvae kill slugs and live in environments similar to slugs. Additionally, carabid beetles consume slug eggs. Large carabid beetles, such as Abax parallelepipedus predate slugs.
The slug mite, Riccardoella limacum, is known to parasitize several dozen species of mollusks, including many slugs, such as Agriolimax agrestis, Arianta arbustrum, Arion ater, Arion hortensis, Limax maximus, Milax budapestensis, Milax gagates, and Milax sowerbyi. Any use of beneficial organisms presents risks of new invaders or of disrupting native population dynamics. Again, conservation groups like the GOERT view chemical treatments as an effective last resort. For example, metaldehyde baits are very effective, but such baits are toxic to humans and native slugs. Iron phosphate baits are less toxic than metaldehyde and carbonyl baits. Iron phosphate, however, degrades rapidly and must be reapplied regularly.
Alaska conservations (as previously mentioned) believe widespread watch programs to be crucial. By informing the public and by funding conservation efforts, we might be able to slow the spread of invasive slugs, preventing any possible competition between native and invasive slugs and protecting sensitive species from seedling predation.
Human use
Arion ater was used as grease to lubricate wooden axle-trees or carts in Sweden. This use is documented since at least the 18th century.
Black slugs are edible but rarely consumed by humans; they taste horrible, may bioaccumulate pesticides, and potentially carry French heartworm (Angiostrongylus vasorum).
Researching the black slug has provided human and ecological value. For example, a 1996 study investigated the bioaccumulation of mercury in black slugs and determined these slugs could be used to monitor levels of heavy metals in terrestrial systems—similar to how ecologists use aquatic mollusks. And a 2014 study researched the black slug gut's microbiology in hopes of catalyzing other studies of cellulolytic activity that could improve biofuel technology.
References
External links
Arion ater at Animalbase taxonomy,short description, distribution, biology,status (threats), images
Arion ater at Encyclopedia of Life images (3 pages)
"European black slug", Alan Watson Featherstone, Species profile, Trees for Life website, accessed 23 July 2011
Arion (gastropod)
Gastropods described in 1758
Articles containing video clips
Molluscs of Europe
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
4228118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20tournament | 2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament | The 2007 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament involved 65 teams playing in a single-elimination tournament to determine the national champion of men's NCAA Division I college basketball as a culmination of the 2006–07 basketball season. Team selections were announced on March 11, 2007, and the tournament began on March 13, 2007, with the opening round game and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia.
Both of the finalists from the year before returned to the Final Four as Florida, who returned its entire starting lineup from the year before, and UCLA advanced. They were joined in the Final Four by Ohio State, who was making its first appearance since their 1999 appearance (later vacated), and Georgetown, appearing for the first time since their national runner-up finish in 1985.
Florida successfully defended their title by defeating Ohio State in the championship 84–75. This marked the second time in 2007 that a Florida team beat an Ohio State team to win a national championship, as Florida's football team won the BCS National Championship Game over Ohio State in January. Florida's Corey Brewer was named the Most Outstanding Player. Florida became the first team to repeat since Duke in 1992. , the 2007 Gators are the last team to repeat as national champions.
This tournament was notable because it featured significantly fewer upsets than prior years. There were only 12 games in which a lower-seeded team defeated a higher-seeded team, and eight of these "upsets" were by teams ranked only one seed lower than their opponent. As of 2023, this is the last tournament in which no team seeded 12 or lower won a round of 64 game, while No. 7-seed UNLV was the lowest-seeded team to make it to the Sweet Sixteen. This marked the second time since the tournament expanded to at least 64 teams that no team seeded No. 8 or lower played in the Sweet Sixteen; the other instance was in 1995. Southland Conference champion Texas A&M-Corpus Christi made their first NCAA appearance.
This was the first Tournament since 2003 that regional sites were designated as "East", "West", "South", and "Midwest", rather than by the names of the host cities.
Tournament procedure
A total of 65 teams entered the tournament. Of that total, 30 of the teams earned automatic bids by winning their conference tournaments. The automatic bid of the Ivy League, which did not conduct a post-season tournament, went to its regular season champion, Penn. The remaining 34 teams were granted "at-large" bids, which are extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
The initial game on March 13 officially named the opening round game, but popularly called the "play-in game", had Niagara, winner of the Mid-Atlantic Athletic Conference tournament, facing Florida A&M, who won the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference tournament, for a chance to play top seed Kansas in the first round of the Tournament. Niagara defeated Florida A&M, 77–69, to advance to play Kansas.
All teams are seeded 1 to 16 within their regionals, while the Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 65.
Schedule and venues
The following are the sites that were selected to host each round of the 2007 tournament:
Opening Round
March 13
University of Dayton Arena, Dayton, Ohio (Host: University of Dayton)
First and Second Rounds
March 15 and 17
HSBC Arena, Buffalo, New York (Hosts: Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference, Canisius College and Niagara University)
ARCO Arena, Sacramento, California (Host: University of the Pacific)
Rupp Arena, Lexington, Kentucky (Host: University of Kentucky)
Lawrence Joel Veterans Memorial Coliseum, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (Host: Wake Forest University)
March 16 and 18
United Center, Chicago, Illinois (Host: Big Ten Conference)
Nationwide Arena, Columbus, Ohio (Host: Ohio State University)
Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena, Spokane, Washington (Host: Washington State University)
New Orleans Arena, New Orleans, Louisiana (Host: Tulane University)
Regional semifinals and finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
March 22 and 24
South Regional, Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas (Host: University of Texas at San Antonio)
West Regional, HP Pavilion at San Jose, San Jose, California (Host: San José State University)
March 23 and 25
East Regional, Continental Airlines Arena, East Rutherford, New Jersey (Host: Rutgers University)
Midwest Regional, Edward Jones Dome, St. Louis, Missouri (Host: Missouri Valley Conference)
National semifinals and championship (Final Four and championship)
March 31 and April 2
Georgia Dome, Atlanta, Georgia (Host: Georgia Tech)
Qualifying teams
Automatic bids
The following teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2007 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference's tournament (except for the Ivy League, whose regular-season champion received the automatic bid).
Here are the top seeded teams in each regional and their overall seeds.
Midwest Regional (St. Louis) (top seed: Florida; top overall seed)
West Regional (San Jose) (top seed: Kansas; fourth overall seed)
East Regional (East Rutherford) (top seed: North Carolina; second overall seed)
South Regional (San Antonio) (top seed: Ohio State; third overall seed)
Listed by region and seeding
Bracket
(*) – Number of asterisks denotes number of overtimes.
Opening Round game – Dayton, Ohio
Winner advances to West Regional vs. No. (1) Kansas.
Midwest Regional – St. Louis, Missouri
West Regional – San Jose, California
East Regional – East Rutherford, New Jersey
South Regional – San Antonio, Texas
Final Four – Georgia Dome, Atlanta, Georgia
Game summaries
Unless otherwise specified, all games were on CBS, except for the play-in game, which aired on ESPN and two additional games. Those games were broadcast on CSTV except in the natural areas of the teams involved, as those were broadcast on CBS. Times listed are US EDT (UTC−4).
Team names are those listed on the NCAA's scoreboard for the play-in game and first-round matchups. Only UNLV and UCLA use abbreviations; all other names are unabbreviated except for the common abbreviation "A&M".
Opening rounds
First round upsets, close games, and other facts
The two major upsets of the first round were #11 Virginia Commonwealth's win over #6 Duke (West Regional), and #11 Winthrop's win over #6 Notre Dame (Midwest Regional). VCU beat Duke, 79–77, on a shot by Eric Maynor with 1.8 seconds left, sending Duke out for the first time in the first round since 1996. Winthrop's highly touted offense built a 21-point second-half lead before surviving a late Notre Dame rally to win, 74–64, earning their first tournament victory in school history. The only overtime game of the first round was in the South Regional, between #7 Nevada and #10 Creighton, ending 77–71 in favor of the Nevada Wolf Pack. Other close games included #3 Oregon squeaking by #14 Miami (Ohio), 58-56 (Midwest Regional), #5 Virginia Tech's win over #12 Illinois 54-52 (West Regional), and #9 Xavier's win over #8 BYU, 79-77 (South Regional). The highest score accumulated by a team in the 2007 tournament went to Tennessee's 121 points over Long Beach State (South Regional), which set a school record. This was the first year since 1993 that a #10 seed did not advance to the second round. It was also only the second time in the last 17 years that a #12 seed failed to advance against a #5 seed. #15 Texas A&M-Corpus Christi had leads of 10-0 and 25–7 in the first half against the #2 Wisconsin Badgers but Wisconsin prevailed 76–63.
Second round upsets, close games, and other facts
The two biggest upsets of the second round were #6 Vanderbilt's win over #3 Washington State (East Regional) and #7 UNLV's win over #2 Wisconsin (Midwest Regional). Vanderbilt won a heart-stopper, 78–74, in double overtime. UNLV won by six points, 74–68, in their biggest win since the 1990s. Other overtime games included #1 Ohio State's 78–71 win over #9 Xavier (South Regional) and #3 Pittsburgh's 84–79 overtime victory over #11 Virginia Commonwealth (West Regional). Ohio State's Ron Lewis hit a three-pointer with two seconds remaining to force overtime against Xavier, and Pittsburgh fought Virginia Commonwealth's comeback from 19 points down to come up with the victory. The Ohio State win over Xavier had a controversial ending as prior to Lewis's game-tying shot, Buckeye Greg Oden shoved a Xavier player, Justin Cage, in the back and onto the floor. Had an intentional foul been called, Xavier would have been awarded two foul shots and ball possession. Instead, a regular personal foul was called. Subsequently, Xavier missed the second free throw, allowing Lewis to shoot the game-tying 3. Other close games were #3 Texas A&M winning over #6 Louisville, 72-69 (South Regional); #5 Butler's victory over #4 Maryland, 62-59 (Midwest Regional); and #5 Tennessee defeating #4 Virginia, 77-74 (South Regional). This tournament marked the first time since 1995 that a double-digit seeded team did not advance to the Sweet 16 (Midwest #7 seed UNLV was the lowest team in the Sweet 16).
Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen) upsets, close games, other facts
No upsets or overtime games occurred in this round of the tournament, although there were several very close games. In the South Region, #2 Memphis barely defeated #3 Texas A&M as Aggie senior Acie Law, after a solid performance for most of the game, missed an open layup with under a minute left. A controversial clock situation with 3.1 seconds left added to the emotion. #1 Ohio State sneaked past #5 Tennessee, coming back from 20 points down to win, 85–84, with a blocked shot by Buckeye Greg Oden with 0.2 seconds left. In the East Region, #2 Georgetown won possibly the most controversial game of the tournament, beating #6 Vanderbilt, 66–65, on a shot by Jeff Green with 2.5 seconds left. The play was controversial as Green appeared to travel, despite fans and analysts claiming it was a clean drop step.
Regional Finals (Elite Eight)
The seeds of the Elite Eight teams were four #1s, three #2s, and one #3. This was the lowest combination of seeds in an Elite Eight since seeding began in the NCAA tournament.
South Regional Final
Although Ohio State star freshman Greg Oden got into early foul trouble, a close game at the half turned into a blowout as the Buckeyes went on a 20–8 run to win. Game leaders were Memphis' Jeremy Hunt with 26 points, and Robert Dozier with 11 rebounds. This ended Memphis' 25-game win streak, previously the longest in the nation.
West Regional Final
After a tight first-half, the Bruins slowly put away the top-seeded Jayhawks in the second-half using their 2006 national championship game experience, along with a strong defense. Shooting percentage was a key factor in the game as UCLA shot 53% to Kansas's 41%. UCLA's Arron Afflalo led all scorers with 24 points while Brandon Rush of Kansas led the Jayhawks with 18. UCLA and Kansas combined for 35 steals, breaking the previous tournament record of 28.
East Regional Final
North Carolina led for most of the game and the entire second half, but Georgetown rallied from ten points down with six minutes remaining to force overtime. The Tar Heels were outscored 15–3 in the extra session, missing 22 of their final 23 field goal attempts. Georgetown reached its first Final Four since 1985, when John Thompson III's father John Thompson (Jr.) was coach—and Thompson III became the first coach to succeed his father in coaching a team to the Final Four. With North Carolina's loss in the regional final, this marked the first time since the tournament field expanded to 64 teams that no ACC team made it to the Final Four for two consecutive years. The last time that no ACC team made it to the Final Four in consecutive years was in 1979 and 1980.
Midwest Regional Final
In what was actually a close game for most of regulation, Florida's three-point shots, along with a 20–9 run in the second half, amounted to a Gator win. Florida player Lee Humphrey led his team with seven three-pointers, and added up a total of 23 points. In one of the more odd moments of the tournament, Humphrey shot a three-pointer through the side of the net, causing a 10-minute delay as the net was repaired.
Final Four
All of the 2007 Final Four teams had participated in the 2006 tournament. Ohio State was knocked out in the second round by Georgetown, who would lose to Florida in the Minneapolis Regional semifinals. Florida would go on to defeat UCLA in the championship game. The four teams were all previous champions as well—Ohio State (1960), Georgetown (1984), UCLA (several), and Florida (2006)—marking the fourth time that all of the Final Four teams were past champions (joining 1993, 1995 and 1998 Final Fours). Also, it was the first time in nine years that no two Final Four teams were from the same conference.
South-East National semifinal
Ohio State proved to be too much for the Hoyas, even with Ohio State's phenom center Greg Oden sitting most of the game due to foul trouble.
Midwest-West National semifinal
In the beginning, Florida struggled with UCLA's swarming defense, but ten minutes into the game they took a double-digit lead, and Lee Humphrey, in a performance reminiscent of the previous year's national title game, blew the game open in the second half hitting three consecutive three-pointers. Humphrey's shots proved too much to overcome and UCLA never threatened in the second half.
National Championship
A rematch of a regular season meeting, won 86-60 by Florida in Gainesville, The Gators survived 25 points and 12 rebounds from Buckeyes center Greg Oden with stellar play from guards Lee Humphrey and Taurean Green with inside contributions coming from Al Horford (18 points) and tourney Most Outstanding Player Corey Brewer. Billy Donovan became the third-youngest coach (at age 41) to win two titles. Only Bob Knight (at Indiana) and San Francisco's Phil Woolpert both won two titles at the age of 40.
The Gators are the first team ever to hold the NCAA Division I college football and basketball titles in the same academic year (2006–07) and calendar year (2006 and 2007). Coincidentally, Florida also beat Ohio State (by a score of 41–14) in the College Football Championship, the first time in college sports history that identical matchups and results have occurred in both football and basketball championships. This was also the first time in NCAA D-I men's basketball history that exactly the same starting five were able to win back-to-back titles (Joakim Noah, Corey Brewer, Lee Humphrey, Al Horford, Taurean Green). Florida's Lee Humphrey also set the all-time NCAA Tournament record for three-point field goals made with 47. Humphrey surpassed Bobby Hurley's record of 42.
Record by conference
The America East, Atlantic Sun, Big Sky, Big West, Ivy, MEAC, Mid-American, Mid-Continent, Northeast, Ohio Valley, Patriot, Southern, Southland, Sun Belt, SWAC, and WCC all went 0–1.
* The MAAC went 1-1 since Niagara won the Play-in Game.
Media
Television
CBS Sports
For the 26th consecutive year, CBS Sports telecast the tournament, and for the 17th consecutive year, broadcast every game from the first round to the championship, with Jim Nantz and Billy Packer calling the Final Four. Nantz was in a stretch in which he would broadcast Super Bowl XLI, the Final Four, and The Masters golf tournament all in a 10-week period.
The complete list of announcing teams follows:
Jim Nantz, Billy Packer and Sam Ryan (she was only used as Sideline Reporter for the Final Four and NCAA Championship game) – First & Second Round at Chicago, Illinois; East Regional at East Rutherford, New Jersey; Final Four at Atlanta, Georgia
Dick Enberg and Jay Bilas – First & Second Round at Winston-Salem, North Carolina; West Regional at San Jose, California
Verne Lundquist and Bill Raftery – First & Second Round at New Orleans, Louisiana; South Regional at San Antonio, Texas
James Brown and Len Elmore – First & Second Round at Sacramento, California; Midwest Regional at St. Louis, Missouri
Gus Johnson and Dan Bonner – First & Second Round at Lexington, Kentucky
Ian Eagle and Jim Spanarkel – First & Second Round at Spokane, Washington
Kevin Harlan and Bob Wenzel – First & Second Round at Buffalo, New York
Tim Brando and Mike Gminski – First & Second Round at Columbus, Ohio
Greg Gumbel once again served as the studio host, joined by analysts Clark Kellogg and Seth Davis.
Other television
CSTV, owned by CBS, telecast the George Washington-Vanderbilt and the Virginia-Albany contests (in addition to the local CBS affiliates nearest to the participating teams in those games, and those using their digital subchannels for simulcasting). Those games served as the first-ever live tourney telecasts on CSTV, which also provided a highlights show after each day of competition.
For the first three rounds of the tournament, games were also shown on DirecTV through the Mega March Madness pay-per-view service and on March Madness on Demand, a broadband Internet video streaming service that was a joint venture between CBS SportsLine (now known as CBSSports.com) and the NCAA.
The opening round game was broadcast on ESPN for the sixth consecutive year.
Radio
Westwood One once again had the live radio coverage. Kevin Harlan once again served as the play-by-play man at the Final Four with Bill Raftery and John Thompson on color. Thompson the elder is the father of current Georgetown coach John Thompson III.
Basketball courts
During the first- and second-round games in New Orleans, as part of the continuing recovery process from Hurricane Katrina, the NCAA allowed an additional floor decal recognizing the work of Habitat for Humanity's Collegiate Challenge and the NCAA Home Team program through the subregional's host institution, Tulane University. This marked the first time that a logo other than that of the NCAA or an NCAA member school has been allowed at an NCAA-sanctioned championship event. In addition, Tulane student athletes and athletic department personnel built a new house, valued at $75,000 (US), which was paid for by the NCAA and their corporate partner Lowe's, on Girod Street between the New Orleans Arena, site of the games, and the Louisiana Superdome, which has hosted four Final Fours.
Also, for the first time, custom-made, identical courts were used at all four regional sites in San Jose, St. Louis, San Antonio and East Rutherford. Starting in 2010, all tournament games would have the same identical courts.
See also
2007 NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament
2007 NCAA Division III men's basketball tournament
2007 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament
2007 NCAA Division II women's basketball tournament
2007 NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament
2007 National Invitation Tournament
2007 Women's National Invitation Tournament
2007 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament
2007 NAIA Division II men's basketball tournament
2007 NAIA Division I women's basketball tournament
2007 NAIA Division II women's basketball tournament
Bracketology
References
Ncaa
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
Basketball competitions in Atlanta
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
College basketball tournaments in Georgia (U.S. state) |
4228120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20NCAA%20Division%20I%20men%27s%20basketball%20tournament | 2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament | The 2008 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament involved 65 schools playing in a single-elimination tournament to determine the national champion of men's NCAA Division I college basketball as a culmination of the 2007–08 basketball season. The 70th annual edition of the tournament began on March 18, 2008, and concluded on April 7 at the Alamodome in San Antonio.
For the first time (and only time through the 2023 tournament) since seeding began in 1979, all four of the top seeds advanced to the Final Four. These were Memphis, the winner of the South region, UCLA, the winner of the West region making their third consecutive Final Four appearance, Kansas, the winner of the Midwest region, and overall number one seed and East region winner North Carolina, back in the Final Four for the first time since their 2005 national championship.
Memphis and Kansas advanced to the national championship game, with Memphis's victory in the semifinals giving them a record-setting 38 for the season, beating the mark set by Duke in 1999 (Kentucky later matched this record in 2012 and 2015). Kansas, however, spoiled their national championship hopes by handing the Tigers their second loss of the season, winning the game in overtime, 75–68. Memphis's entire season was later vacated by the NCAA due to eligibility concerns surrounding freshman guard Derrick Rose.
Entering the tournament on March 18, the top ranked team was North Carolina in both the AP Top 25 and the ESPN/USA Today Coaches' Polls, followed by Memphis, UCLA and Kansas.
American University (Patriot), UMBC (America East), Texas–Arlington (Southland), and Portland State (Big Sky) all entered the tournament for the first time in their school's history. Another school, Coppin State, won the MEAC Tournament to become the first 20-loss school to make the field. Georgia, a team that otherwise would not have advanced to the tournament, won the SEC tournament to qualify, and were awarded a #14 seed, the lowest by a major conference team in the tournament.
Whereas the 2007 tournament did not see many upsets, the 2008 tournament was full of them. The sub-regional pod played at the St. Pete Times Forum in Tampa, Florida, featured four games where a double digit seed won. #5 seeds Drake and Clemson fell to #12 seeds Western Kentucky and Villanova while the #4 seeds in that same pod, Vanderbilt and Connecticut, were defeated by #13 seeds Siena and San Diego. Western Kentucky advanced to the West regional in Phoenix, where they lost to UCLA while Villanova was one of two double digit seeds to advance to the Midwest regional. The other was #10 seed Davidson, who rode the hot shooting of Stephen Curry to defeat Gonzaga, Georgetown, and Wisconsin before nearly upsetting Kansas in the regional final. The Midwest region alone saw four of its double digit seeds advance, as in addition to Villanova, Siena, and Davidson, #11 seed Kansas State knocked off #6 seed USC.
The total tournament attendance of 763,607 set a record for highest total tournament attendance, breaking the record set during the 1999 tournament.
Tournament procedure
The NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Championship is an annual single-elimination tournament featuring 65 teams representing all Division I Conferences in the nation. A "play-in" game determined which of the two lowest seeds would play in the first round of 64 against a top seed team. The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 65 within four regionals of 16 teams; Mount St. Mary's, as the winner of the play-in game, automatically received a 16 seed.
Schedule and venues
The following are the sites that were selected to host each round of the 2008 tournament:
Opening round
March 18
University of Dayton Arena, Dayton, Ohio (Host: University of Dayton)
First and second rounds
March 20 and 22
Honda Center, Anaheim, California (Host: Big West Conference)
Pepsi Center, Denver, Colorado (Hosts: Colorado State University, Mountain West Conference)
Qwest Center Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska (Hosts: Creighton University, Missouri Valley Conference)
Verizon Center, Washington, D.C. (Host: Georgetown University)
March 21 and 23
BJCC Arena, Birmingham, Alabama (Host: Southeastern Conference)
Alltel Arena, North Little Rock, Arkansas (Hosts: University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Sun Belt Conference)
RBC Center, Raleigh, North Carolina (Host: North Carolina State University)
St. Pete Times Forum, Tampa, Florida (Host: University of South Florida)
Regional semifinals and finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
March 27 and 29
East Regional, Charlotte Bobcats Arena, Charlotte, North Carolina (Host: University of North Carolina at Charlotte)
West Regional, US Airways Center, Phoenix, Arizona (Host: Arizona State University)
March 28 and 30
Midwest Regional, Ford Field, Detroit, Michigan (Hosts: University of Detroit Mercy, Horizon League)
South Regional, Reliant Stadium, Houston, Texas (Hosts: University of Houston, Rice University)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
April 5 and 7
Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas (Host: University of Texas at San Antonio)
Qualifying teams
Automatic bids
The following teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2008 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference's tournament (except for the Ivy League, whose regular-season champion received the automatic bid).
Listed by region and seeding
A total of 31 teams received automatic bids for winning their conference tournament championship. Since the Ivy League does not hold a tournament, its regular season champion received the automatic bid. This left 34 at-large bids to be decided from the rest of the field by the NCAA Selection Committee. The at-large bids, along with the seeding for each team in the tournament, were announced on Sunday, March 16. Coppin State was the first team to make the tournament with 20 losses. Maryland-Baltimore County, American, Texas–Arlington, and Portland State all received their first tournament bids in school history. Four teams returned after absences from the NCAA Tournament of 20 years or more—Drake (last appearing in 1971), Cal State Fullerton (1978), Cornell (1988), and Baylor (1988).
# Both USC and Memphis later vacated all wins from the season, leaving their official records at 0–11 and 0–1, respectively.
Bracket
* – Denotes overtime period
Opening Round game – Dayton, Ohio
Winner advances to 16th seed in East Regional vs. (1) North Carolina.
East Regional – Charlotte, North Carolina
Midwest Regional – Detroit, Michigan
South Regional – Houston, Texas
West Regional – Phoenix, Arizona
Final Four – Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas
Bracket Source
# – Memphis' entire 2007–08 schedule results were vacated due to NCAA sanctions involving the eligibility of Derrick Rose. Unlike forfeiture, a vacated game does not result in the other school being credited with a win, only with Memphis removing the wins from its own record.
Game summaries
East Region
First round
Top seed North Carolina defeated the play-in game winner Mount St. Mary's 113–74. Their high scoring tied the mark for second most in North Carolina tournament history, aided by Tyler Hansbrough and Ty Lawson's 21 points each. They met Arkansas in the second round, a ninth seed who defeated eighth-seed Indiana 86–72. Indiana had struggled with several tough losses late in the season after a coaching scandal. Sonny Weems had a career-high 31 points despite Indiana having two AP All-Americans, D.J. White and Eric Gordon. Fifth seed Notre Dame advanced to the second round with a 68–50 win over 12th seed George Mason. George Mason had two starters from the 2006 final four team, but were unable to come back after a surge by the Irish early in the first half. In the same pod, fourth seeded Washington State defeated 13th-seed Winthrop 71–40, holding them to 11 points in the second half and leaving them far behind after a 25–1 run. In Birmingham, Alabama, the sixth seed Oklahoma defeated 11-th seeded St. Joseph's 72–64, led by David Godbold, a senior not normally known as a team leader who surprised many with his 25 points. Later in the evening, third seeded Louisville defeated WAC champion and 14th seed Boise State 79–61, sending the Broncos home for the second straight time. They had defeated Boise St. in the 1994 tournament as well, the last time the WAC team came to the tournament. In the afternoon session at Birmingham, seventh seeded Butler defeated tenth seed South Alabama in an 81–61 blowout, setting a school record for 30 wins in one season, and number two seed Tennessee survived a brief scare at the hands of 15th-seeded American, 72–57. American's star player, Garrison Carr, led his team with 26 points, tying the game at 40 with 11 minutes to go before Tennessee went on a 10–0 run to score the win.
Second round
Washington State, the region's fourth seed, was first to earn a spot in the Charlotte, North Carolina East Regional by handily beating fifth-seeded Notre Dame, 61–41 in Denver, Colorado. The rout came as a shock to many sportscasters, who expected Notre Dame's offense, which was averaging about 80 points a game, to outdo the Cougars. Instead, Notre Dame shot 24% from the field, their worst offensive effort since 1983 and the fifth-worst in the history of the NCAA tournament's opening rounds. Washington State's win brought them to their first-ever trip to the Sweet 16. Top-seeded North Carolina will challenge the Cougars after defeating Arkansas, the ninth seed, 108–77. The win marked only the third time the Tar Heels had won their first two tournament games by more than 20 points. The other two UNC teams to do this, in 1993 and 2005, went on to win the championship. With the win, North Carolina also set a school record for wins in a season, with 34. Second-seeded Tennessee survived an upset bid from number seven seed Butler, winning in overtime 76–71. Butler was behind throughout regulation, but managed to keep the game close and bring it to overtime, where they gained their first lead, 68–66, about 2 minutes into overtime. Some key defensive stands and free throws by the Volunteers, however, pulled them ahead. They will play third seed Louisville, who beat sixth seed Oklahoma, 78–48. Sooner star Blake Griffin had trouble scoring against Louisville's double-teams, and Louisville's 30-point win was the school's best tournament win since 1968.
Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen)
Top-seeded North Carolina defeated fourth seeded Washington State 68–47. Washington State was held to 47 points, the least allowed by a Tar Heel team in the tournament since 1946. Tyler Hansbrough struggled in the first half, but North Carolina's other players stepped to give the team a 14-point lead at halftime. In the second half, he led the team with 16 points, contributing to what was at one point in the half a 26-point lead. Third-seeded Louisville went on to face the Tar Heels in the East finals after defeating the second-seeded Tennessee Volunteers, 79–60. Earl Clark scored 17 points, 13 of them coming in the second half, and had 12 rebounds to lead the Cardinals. The Volunteers were held to 34% shooting and Louisville coach Rick Pitino improved to 8–0 in Regional semifinal games.
Regional final (Elite Eight)
In the East Regional finals in their home state, against third-seed Louisville, Tyler Hansbrough of the top-seeded Tar Heels carried the team with a 28-point performance, including five straight points after the Cardinals tied UNC midway through the second half to lead UNC to an 83–73 win. The Cardinals came close as the game neared its end, but a Ty Lawson 3 broke a 59–59 tie. Defensive stands combined with 8 for 8 free throw shooting down the stretch gave the Tar Heels the victory. Hansbrough was named the East Region's Tournament MVP.
Midwest Region
First round
The Midwest Region featured upsets knocking off the fourth through seventh seeds. Among these was the first upset of the tournament with 11th seed Kansas State's win over the sixth seeded Southern California Trojans 80–67 in Omaha, Nebraska. The media had focused a lot of attention on the freshman stars of both teams, the Wildcats' Michael Beasley and the Trojans' O. J. Mayo. In reality, while Beasley and Mayo did well, it was the other K-State players who made the difference, applying a strong defense to the Men of Troy's attack and coming up with the school's first tournament win since 1988. Also in the Midwest Region, #10 seed Davidson defeated seventh seeded Gonzaga 82–76 in Raleigh, North Carolina. Stephen Curry led the Wildcats with 40 points, 30 of them in the second half. His 40 points are the fifth most in NCAA tournament history, and gave Davidson their first tournament win since 1969. In the same region, 13th seed Siena upset fourth seed Vanderbilt 83–62 in Tampa, Florida. Future Harlem Globetrotter Tay Fisher made all six of his 3-point attempts, the Saints never trailed and became the first MAAC team to advance since 2004. The Midwest's first-round play ended with 12th seed Villanova's upset of fifth seed Clemson, 75–69, also in Tampa. Behind by eighteen late in the first half, the Wildcats came back, taking the lead at about the twelve-minute mark and holding it for the win. The Wildcats have won more games as an underdog in the tournament since seedings began in 1979 than any other team. With Villanova's win, the Forum saw a tournament record four upsets in one day. Earlier in the day, WKU, San Diego, and Siena defeated Drake, UConn, and Vanderbilt, to set the record.
Earlier that day in Omaha, ninth seed Kent State tied an NCAA Tournament record for scoring lows with their 10 points in one half against UNLV. Eighth-seed UNLV won the game 71–58. Top seed Kansas defeated 16th seed Portland State 85–61, thoroughly dominating both inside and outside with the win. Second-seed Georgetown defeated fifteenth seed Maryland-Baltimore County 66–47 in their first-round game, holding them to 31% shooting as compared to their 51%, and third seed Wisconsin stopped an upset threat from 14th seed Cal State Fullerton. The Titans' Josh Akognon scored 31 points, tying a career high, and Fullerton held the lead early in the second half, but were unable hold the lead under the Badgers' offensive pressure.
Second round
The third-seeded Badgers from the University of Wisconsin defeated Kansas State, 72–55 to become the first school to advance to Detroit, Michigan, and the Midwest Regional. KSU freshman star Michael Beasley was again dominant with 23 points and 14 rebounds, though he struggled in the second half with only six points due to the Badger defense. Top-seeded Kansas also advanced to the Sweet 16 by defeating eighth-seed UNLV 75–56. Four Jayhawks scored in double figures and the team shot 58% from the field while holding the Rebels to 26.7%. The following afternoon, the 12th-seeded Villanova Wildcats defeated the 13th-seeded Siena Saints in a 12-seed versus 13-seed Cinderella match-up by a score of 84–72 to reach their third Sweet 16 in four years. The Wildcats took an early lead and never trailed the entire game. Tenth-seeded Davidson became the second double-digit seed to advance to the Sweet Sixteen hours after Villanova's victory, ousting second-seeded Georgetown 74–70, to play Wisconsin in the other regional semifinal. Davidson won on the back of another tour-de-force performance in the second half by Stephen Curry. Curry singlehandedly outscored the Hoyas over the final 14:24, putting up 25 points to Georgetown's 22.
Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen)
Stephen Curry scored 33 points to lead Davidson to a 73–56 victory over Wisconsin. Davidson, the 10-seed, advanced to the Elite Eight for the first time since the 1969 tournament. Curry became only the fourth player in history to score 30 or more points in his first three tournament games. The Wisconsin defense, best in the nation at points allowed with 53.9, remained close until early in the second half, when some key steals and Davidson threes pulled the Wildcats far ahead.
In the night game, top-seeded Kansas defeated # 12 Villanova, 72–57. The Jayhawks went on a 14–2 run early and never faltered—Villanova never getting within six. Brandon Rush, Russell Robinson, and Mario Chalmers each scored 16, 15, and 14 points, respectively.
Regional final (Elite Eight)
Kansas completed the first all top-seeded Final Four in NCAA Tournament history as they defeated tenth seeded Davidson 59–57. The outcome remained in doubt down to the final seconds. Kansas' Sherron Collins missed a shot with 21 seconds left, giving Davidson the final shot. Sophomore star Stephen Curry was double teamed, couldn't find a shot, and passed to Jason Richards, whose three-point shot missed. It was head coach Bill Self's first regional final win. The Wildcats' 25-game winning streak, the longest in the nation, was broken with the loss. Davidson's Stephen Curry scored 25 points and was chosen as the Midwest Region's Most Outstanding Player.
South Region
First round
Top seed Memphis took on Texas–Arlington, the region's 16th seed, and went on to win their opening-round contest, 87–63, in North Little Rock, Arkansas. Memphis went on to meet Mississippi State, an eight seed which came back from 13-down early in the second half against Oregon to rally for the win, 76–69. Fifth-seed Michigan State handily defeated # 12 Temple, 72–61, and fourth-seed Pittsburgh defeated 13th seed Oral Roberts 82–63, leaving the Golden Eagles behind after an 18–0 run in the first half. Sixth-seeded Marquette won its first tournament game since 2003 with a 74–66 win over #11 Kentucky in Anaheim. Kentucky got to within two points with 22 seconds remaining, but two Marquette free throws and a late steal handed the Wildcats an early tournament loss. They met third seed Stanford in the next round, who handily defeated 14th-seeded Cornell 77–53, never trailing the entire game, and never allowing the Big Red to get closer than 18 points in the second half. Miami (Florida), the seventh seed, defeated tenth seed Saint Mary's (California) 78–64, led by Jack McClinton and his 38 points. Their next opponent was second seed Texas, who never trailed in their 74–54 win over 15th seed Austin Peay, a game with four Longhorns scoring in double-figures.
Second round
Third-seeded Stanford saw Brook Lopez make the difference in overtime with a basket with 1.3 seconds left to beat Marquette 82–81 and advance to Houston, Texas. Stanford coach Trent Johnson was ejected in the first half, and Stanford had to fight a six-point deficit at halftime to come back for the win. Michigan State became the first lower seed to win in the region, with a 65–54 victory over Pittsburgh. The game was extremely physical and hard-fought, with the Panther coming back from 10 down to take the lead in the middle of the second half, only to see it vanish in the final minutes with help from eight straight points from the Spartan's Drew Neitzel. The Spartans would go on to play Memphis, the region's top seed after the Tigers beat eighth seed Mississippi State, 77–74. In their game, Memphis had four players scoring in double figures in what was a physical, defensive game—unlike what the games the Tigers were used to playing. Mississippi State gave them a late scare by coming to within two with four seconds left, but a free throw by Chris Douglas-Roberts of Memphis followed by a missed three on Mississippi's end gave the Tigers the win. Texas, the second seed, played the Cardinal in their home state after a 75–72 victory over seventh-seed Miami (Florida). Leading 66–50 with 4:15 left in the game, the Longhorns saw their lead melt in the face of a strong Hurricane rally and a hostile Arkansas crowd. Two key free throws by A. J. Abrams with 9.5 seconds left carried them to a three-point lead which held to the end of regulation.
Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen)
Tens of thousands of Texas fans turned out to Reliant Stadium in Houston and saw the second seeded Longhorns defeat the number three seeded Stanford Cardinal, 82–62. The unlikely defensive star of the game was Texas' Dexter Pittman. Normally not even a starter, Pittman was effective on the court, throwing his size against the tall Lopez twins, high-scorers at Stanford. On the offensive end, D. J. Augustin scored twenty-three points to combine with Damion James' 18 for the win. Stanford made things close at about the 13 minute mark of the second half, bringing it to within one at 52–51, but Texas went on a 16–2 run and turned the game into a rout. Later in the day, top-seeded Memphis defeated fifth seed Michigan State, 92–74. Memphis entered the game as the favorite but with several commentators pointing to them as the top seed most likely to lose. Instead, the Tigers went into halftime with a 30-point lead. Derrick Rose led his team with 27 points, and Chris Douglas-Roberts followed with 25, while Spartan star Drew Neitzel was held to just six.
Regional final (Elite Eight)
Top seeded Memphis defeated the Texas Longhorns to earn the third pass into the Final Four for the first time in 23 years with a convincing 85–67 win. Memphis spread the floor and used every man on the field to win. Texas star D J Augustin scored 16 points, but struggled with four turnovers in the second half. Derrick Rose won the Region's Most Outstanding Player award.
West Region
First round
In the West Region, with a pod in Tampa as well, WKU entering as the 12th seed, defeated fifth seeded Drake in overtime 101–99. Drake had come back from sixteen down in the final eight minutes, bringing the game to overtime, and were ahead with 5.7 seconds left. Ty Rogers' three-pointer at the buzzer, the NCAA record-setting 30th three-point basket gave the Hilltoppers the walk-off victory. Also in the West, 13th seeded San Diego upset fourth seed Connecticut 70–69 in another overtime game. The Huskies struggled throughout the game, compounded by the loss of leading scorer A.J. Price to a torn ACL, and De'Jon Jackson's long jumper with 1.2 seconds remaining in the bonus period pulled the Toreros ahead for their first-ever tournament victory, and handed UConn their earliest egress from the tournament since 1979 as well as the first under coach Jim Calhoun. As regards to close games and record-breakers, West Region 15th seed Belmont nearly upset second-seeded Duke in Washington, D.C., but a Gerald Henderson layup with 11.9 seconds left, together with a steal off the inbounds by DeMarcus Nelson in the final seconds, lifted the Blue Devils to victory. This would have been only the fifth time a 15 seed beat a 2 seed. The top seeded UCLA Bruins set several records in their win against 16th-seeded Mississippi Valley State at Anaheim, California, holding them to 29 points in a 70–29 victory. This was the lowest score in the first round in tournament history, and the lowest overall since 1946, before the shot clock rule was introduced. The Delta Devils' 19.7% shooting set another record for lowest shooting percentage in a game in tournament history.
Elsewhere in the West, third seed Xavier avoided an upset by 14th-seeded Georgia, coming back from nine down at the half to win 73–61. They were to play sixth-seeded Purdue next, who scored their tenth-straight first-round win by defeating the 11th seeded Baylor 90–79. Brigham Young, an eighth seed, lost to ninth-seeded Texas A&M 67–62. The Cougars suffered early, not scoring until about the 14-minute mark, but managed to bring the game to a tie at the half. Twenty-six points by Aggie forward Josh Carter, however, made the difference in Texas A&M's win. Lastly, West Virginia, seventh seed in the region, defeated tenth seed Arizona 75–65, scoring 11 three-point shots. With the win, the Mountaineers broke Arizona's streak of twenty straight 20-win seasons, previously the longest streak in the nation.
Second round
Seventh-seeded West Virginia began the second round of the tournament by defeating Duke, the second seed, 73–67. The Mountaineers trailed until about eight minutes into the second half, when they took a 43–40 lead. They outrebounded the Blue Devils 47–27, which, combined with several three-point shots, aided in the win. This loss marked Duke's second consecutive loss before the Sweet Sixteen round. West Virginia's Sweet Sixteen opposition in Phoenix, Arizona, was #3 Xavier, who defeated Purdue, 85–78. Xavier trailed as late as the 5:30 mark of the second half, but a widespread showing of talent from the Musketeers proved too difficult to stop, as four Xavier players scored in double figures, with two more tied at eight points each. Later that day, the top-seeded UCLA Bruins defeated ninth-seeded Texas A&M, 51–49. The Bruins trailed by as much as ten early in the first half, but slowly chipped away at the lead as the half progressed. The winning basket was scored with 9.5 seconds left on a lay-up by Darren Collison. Texas A&M had one final chance to tie it, but Donald Sloan's drive to the basket was stopped by two UCLA players (pictures show that they both appear to be grabbing Sloan, in what could have been a foul called on UCLA). The ensuing dunk by UCLA's Russell Westbrook was later waved off by officials as occurring after time had expired, making the final score 51–49. The Bruins then played WKU, a #12 seed who beat #13 seed San Diego by a 73–62 score. San Diego trailed by as much as 15 in the second half, but an 18–2 run gave them a one-point lead with minutes remaining. WKU, however, managed to pull ahead once again for the win, making this tournament only the third in history to feature at least two 12-or-lower seeds in the Sweet 16.
Regional semifinals (Sweet Sixteen)
Xavier, the third seed in the West, defeated seventh seed West Virginia, 79–75 in overtime thanks to two B.J. Raymond three-pointers in the final 78 seconds. Raymond scored all eight of his points in the bonus round after being held scoreless in regulation, and poor free-throw shooting by the Mountaineers, missing four out of six free throws, sealed the victory. Josh Duncan led the Musketeers in scoring with a career-high 26 points, followed by Joe Alexander's 18 points and 10 rebounds. Xavier led by as much as 18 during the game, but trailed six late in OT, counting on Raymond's threes to give them the victory. Number one seed UCLA would play the Musketeers in the final, after outlasting 12th seeded WKU, 88–78. WKU came to within four late in the game, taking advantage of several sloppy Bruin mistakes. Kevin Love led UCLA with 29 points and 14 rebounds, aided by James Keefe's 18 points and 12 rebounds and Russell Westbrook's 14 and 11. Trailing 41–20 at the half, WKU came out of the locker room determined to win, as evidenced by Hilltopper star Tyrone Brazelton's 31 points, 25 of which came in the second half. A. J. Slaughter missed a crucial three-point shot that would have brought them to within one, and a UCLA run left them nine points behind only two minutes later.
Regional final (Elite Eight)
UCLA was the first team to advance to the Final Four in San Antonio, Texas, the third straight year and the 18th time in school history they have done it, with a 76–57 victory over Xavier. Kevin Love led the Bruins with 19 points and ten rebounds, tied as high scorer with Darren Collison. Luc Richard Mbah a Moute contributed 13 points and 13 rebounds. Derrick Brown led the Musketeers with 13 points. Overall, Xavier was held to 36% shooting from the floor while UCLA shot 56.8%. Love was picked as the West Region's MOP.
Final Four
For the first time (and currently the only time) since the current seeding system started in 1979, all four #1 seeds made it to the Final Four.
Memphis vs. UCLA
Memphis became the first team ever to win 38 games in one season by defeating UCLA 78–63 (Kentucky would match that record in 2012 and 2015). Chris Douglas-Roberts, who scored a game-high of 28 points, combined with Derrick Rose to score a total of 53 of Memphis' 78 points. UCLA star Kevin Love was held to 12 points, and the Bruins lost their second straight Final Four game. Memphis had lost to Ohio State in the Alamodome in the 2007 tournament, and had made it a goal to win in the arena in this year's tournament.
Kansas vs. North Carolina
The second semifinal was a highly anticipated matchup between North Carolina Head Coach Roy Williams and the team he had coached for 15 years before leaving to go to UNC. The game itself could be divided up as if it were three different games. The Jayhawks took a 40–12 lead in the first 15 minutes, causing CBS analyst Billy Packer to declare that the game was over. North Carolina narrowed the deficit to 17 at halftime on a 15–4 run and opened the second half on a 23–10 run to close to within 4 points with 11 minutes to play. After the teams traded baskets for a few minutes, Kansas pulled away, closing on a 20–7 run for an 84–66 victory. After Kansas went out to the 40–12 lead, North Carolina never held the ball with a chance to take the lead. Brandon Rush led the Jayhawks with 25 points. AP Player of the Year Tyler Hansbrough scored 17 points and had 9 rebounds, both below his season averages. The Tar Heels were led by Wayne Ellington's 18 points.
National Championship Game
The National Championship Game pitted Memphis against Kansas. The head coaches (KU's Bill Self and Memphis' John Calipari) had both been on the coaching staff of Kansas' 1986 Final Four team. Neither had garnered a national championship to this point in their head coaching careers. Memphis guard Chris Douglas-Roberts had been the leading scorer in the tournament, averaging 23.6 points per game. Memphis became the first team currently from a conference other than the six majors to play in the championship game since 1998. Utah advanced to the championship game in 1998, and UNLV was the last team from a non-major conference to win the national title in 1990.
On the day of the game, the betting lines set by Las Vegas casinos Las Vegas Hilton, Station Casinos, and The Mirage made Memphis the favorite by a spread of 2 points.
The first half was back-and-forth as Kansas led for 7:37 minutes and Memphis led for 6:51 minutes. Kansas led 33–28 at halftime, the first second-half deficit that Memphis faced in the entire tournament. Memphis scored the first five points of the second half to tie the score at 33 with 18:57 left in regulation. After that Kansas maintained a small lead from the 16:04 mark until Memphis retook the lead with 8:11 remaining. Memphis then went on a 10–0 run to build a seven-point lead with 5:10 remaining and increased it to nine points with 2:12 remaining in regulation.
Kansas strategically fouled Memphis—an extremely poor free throw shooting team all season—which missed four of its final five free throws in regulation while Kansas furiously scored 12 points in the final two minutes of regulation. During that stretch Kansas made 100% of their shots going 2 for 2 from two-point range, 2 for 2 from three-point range and 2 for 2 from the free throw line. When Memphis failed to foul, which arguably would have all but assured a victory for the Tigers, Kansas guard Mario Chalmers hit a three-point basket with 2.1 seconds remaining to tie the game at 63, sending the game into overtime. Kansas fans now refer to this shot as Mario's Miracle. At the end of regulation, the Jayhawks had led the score a total of 17:55 minutes and Memphis 15:51 minutes.
In overtime, Kansas scored the first six points en route to a 75–68 win. They continued the blistering stretch they started in regulation, going 4 of 6 from the field and 4 of 4 from the line in overtime. It was KU's third NCAA title since the modern tournament began in 1939 (fifth national title overall, including two Helms decisions). It was also the first national championship for the program since the 1988 team.
This was the seventh overtime National Championship Game in NCAA Division I tournament history and first since 1997. It also represented the first national title for the Big 12 Conference.
The national championship appearance by Memphis would later be vacated as a result of NCAA rules infractions.
Record by conference
* Mount St. Mary's won the opening round game.
The columns R32, S16, E8, F4, CG, and NC respectively stand for the round of 32, Sweet Sixteen, Elite Eight, Final Four, Championship Game, and National Champion.
Sixteen conferences—America East Conference, Atlantic Sun Conference, Big Sky Conference, Big South Conference, Big West Conference, Colonial Athletic Association, Ivy League, MAC, MEAC, Missouri Valley Conference, Ohio Valley Conference, Patriot League, Southland, SWAC, Summit League and WAC—went 0–1.
Source:
Media
Television
CBS Sports
For the 27th consecutive year, CBS Sports telecast the tournament, and for the 18th consecutive year, broadcast every game in the main bracket from the first round to the championship, as Jim Nantz and Billy Packer called the Final Four. ESPN carried the 64th-seed opening-round game between Coppin State and Mount St. Mary's on March 18, with Brent Musburger, Steve Lavin and Erin Andrews serving as the announcing team, as the network has done the opening-round game since 2002.
The complete list of announcing teams follows:
Jim Nantz, Billy Packer and Sam Ryan (she was only used as Sideline Reporter for the Final Four and NCAA Championship game) – first & second round at Raleigh, North Carolina; South Regional at Houston, Texas; Final Four at San Antonio, Texas
Dick Enberg/Carter Blackburn and Jay Bilas – Blackburn Thursday afternoon; Enberg Thursday night, First & Second round at Anaheim, California; East Regional at Charlotte, North Carolina
Verne Lundquist and Bill Raftery – first & second round at Birmingham, Alabama; West Regional at Phoenix, Arizona
Gus Johnson and Len Elmore – first & second round at Denver, Colorado; Midwest Regional at Detroit, Michigan
Kevin Harlan and Dan Bonner – first & second round at Omaha, Nebraska
Ian Eagle and Jim Spanarkel – first & second round at Little Rock, Arkansas
Craig Bolerjack and Bob Wenzel – first & second round at Washington, D.C.
Tim Brando and Mike Gminski – first & second round at Tampa, Florida
Greg Gumbel once again served as the studio host, joined by analysts Clark Kellogg and Seth Davis. For the first time since the rights were acquired, the host team spent the entire tournament at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and did not travel to the Final Four site. CBS cited budget cutbacks ordered by the parent company, CBS Corporation. This would be Billy Packer's 35th and final tournament as a broadcaster, ending a streak that began in 1975; in July 2008, it was announced that Kellogg would replace Packer as Nantz's color man in 2009.
Several affiliates showed additional games on digital subchannels, and once, the Los Angeles area had simultaneous telecasts on two stations: On March 20, UCLA vs. Mississippi Valley State was shown on KCBS and Cal State Fullerton vs. Wisconsin was on independent station KDOC at the same time. (KCBS has a duopoly with KCAL, but KCAL was unavailable because of a third basketball game, one between the Los Angeles Lakers and the Utah Jazz in Salt Lake City.)
CBS College Sports Network
Sibling cable network CBS College Sports Network (now known as CBS Sports Network) picked up one CBS TV broadcast on each of the first two days of the tournament. It aired the Stanford-Cornell contest from Anaheim on March 20, and the St. Joseph's-Oklahoma game on March 21.
Unlike CBS Sports on the broadcast side, CBS College Sports Network did send a team to San Antonio, with Blackburn anchoring coverage and hosting the postgame highlights show, called the NCAA March Madness Highlights Show. Earlier, Greg Amsinger had hosted the postgame program from the network's studios at Chelsea Piers in lower Manhattan. Analysts included Steve Lappas, Greg Anthony, and Jay Williams.
Radio
Radio broadcasts were once again being handled again by CBS subsidiary Westwood One, hosted by Tommy Tighe.
Opening-round game
Bill Rosinski and Steve Lappas – at Dayton, Ohio
First/second round
Dave Sims and Bill Frieder – at Anaheim, California
Ted Robinson and Mike Montgomery – at Denver, Colorado
Kevin Kugler and Reid Gettys – at Omaha, Nebraska
Mark Champion and Glenn Consor – at Washington, D.C.
Joey Wahler and Pete Gillen – at Birmingham, Alabama
Spencer Ross and Kyle Macy – at Little Rock, Arkansas
Brad Sham and John Thompson – at Raleigh, North Carolina
Wayne Larrivee and Kevin Grevey – at Tampa, Florida
Regionals
Ian Eagle and Bill Frieder – East Regional at Charlotte, North Carolina
Wayne Larrivee and John Thompson – Midwest Regional at Detroit, Michigan
Brad Sham and Reid Gettys – South Regional at Houston, Texas
Kevin Kugler and Pete Gillen – West Regional at Phoenix, Arizona
Final Four
Kevin Kugler, John Thompson and Bill Raftery – at San Antonio, Texas
Kugler called his first Final Four replacing Harlan, with Raftery and Thompson on color commentary and Jim Gray as sideline reporter.
Other media
DirecTV once again offered NCAA Mega March Madness as a pay-per-view package for one payment of US$69. This allowed access to all tournament games in the first three rounds of the main draw not shown on the local CBS station in the viewer's area. This package was exclusive to DirecTV and not available to Dish Network, fiber optic, or cable subscribers.
Online, CBSSports.com and NCAA.com teamed up for NCAA March Madness on Demand. Computer users with broadband connections were able to watch all tournament games from the first round to the championship game for free, thanks to advertiser support from Coca-Cola, AT&T Mobility, Pontiac, and various other companies. The ads were not the same as those shown on television, and there was a separate halftime show hosted by Jason Horowitz joined by analysts including St. John's head basketball coach Norm Roberts.
See also
2008 NCAA Division II men's basketball tournament
2008 NCAA Division III men's basketball tournament
2008 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament
2008 NCAA Division II women's basketball tournament
2008 NCAA Division III women's basketball tournament
2008 National Invitation Tournament
2008 Women's National Invitation Tournament
2008 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament
2008 NAIA Division II men's basketball tournament
2008 NAIA Division I women's basketball tournament
2008 NAIA Division II women's basketball tournament
2008 College Basketball Invitational
2007–08 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball season
References
Tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament
Basketball competitions in San Antonio |
4228754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20National%20Grid | United States National Grid | The United States National Grid (USNG) is a multi-purpose location system of grid references used in the United States. It provides a nationally consistent "language of location", optimized for local applications, in a compact, user friendly format. It is similar in design to the national grid reference systems used in other countries. The USNG was adopted as a national standard by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) of the US Government in 2001.
Overview
While latitude and longitude are well suited to describing locations over large areas of the Earth's surface, most practical land navigation situations occur within much smaller, local areas. As such, they are often better served by a local Cartesian coordinate system, in which the coordinates represent actual distance units on the ground, using the same units of measurement from two perpendicular coordinate axes. This can improve human comprehension by providing reference of scale, as well as making actual distance computations more efficient.
Paper maps often are published with overlaid rectangular (as opposed to latitude/longitude) grids to provide a reference to identify locations. However, these grids, if non-standard or proprietary (such as so-called "bingo" grids with references such as "B-4"), are typically not interoperable with each other, nor can they usually be used with GPS.
The goal of the USNG is to provide a uniform, nationally consistent rectangular grid system that is interoperable across maps at different scales, as well as with GPS and other location based systems. It is intended to provide a frame of reference for describing and communicating locations that is easier to use than latitude/longitude for many practical applications, works across jurisdictional boundaries, and is simple to learn, teach, and use. It is also designed to be both flexible and scalable so that location references are as compact and concise as possible.
The USNG is intended to supplement—not to replace—other location systems such as street addresses. It can be applied to printed maps and to computer mapping and other (GIS) applications. It has found increasing acceptance especially in emergency management, search and rescue, and other public safety applications; yet, its utility is by no means limited to those fields.
Description and functioning
The USNG is an alpha-numeric reference system that overlays the UTM coordinate system. A number of brief tutorial references explain the system in detail, with examples. . Briefly, an example of a full USNG spatial address (grid reference) is:18S UJ 23371 06519(This example used by the FGDC is the full one-meter grid reference of the Jefferson Pier in Washington DC.)
This full form (15 characters) uniquely identifies a single one-meter grid square out of the entire surface of the earth. It consists of three parts (each of which follows a "read-right-then-up" paradigm familiar with other "X,Y" coordinates):
Grid Zone Designation (GZD); for a world-wide unique address. This consists of up to 2 digits (6-degree longitude UTM zone) for West to East, followed by a letter (8-degree latitude band) from South to North; in this example, "18S".
100,000-meter (100 km) Square Identification; for regional areas. This consists of two letters, the first West to East, the second South to North; in this example, "UJ".
Grid Coordinates; for local areas. This part consists of an even number of digits, in this example, 23371 06519, and specifies a location within the 100 km grid square, relative to its lower-left corner. Split in half, the first part (here 23371), called the "easting", gives the displacement east of the left edge of the square; the second part (here 06519), called the "northing"), gives a distance north of the bottom edge of the containing square.
Users determine the required precision, so a grid reference is typically truncated to fewer than the full 10 digits when less precision is required. These values represent a point position (southwest corner) for an area of refinement:
Ten digits..... 23371 06519 ..Locating a point within a 1 m square
Eight digits..... 2337 0651 ...Locating a point within a 10 m square
Six digits......... 233 065 .....Locating a point within a 100 m square
Four digits......... 23 06 .......Locating a point within a 1000 m (1 km) square
Two digits........... 2 0 .........Locating a point within a 10000 m (10 km) square
Note that when going from a higher- to a lower-precision grid reference, it is important to truncate rather than round when removing the unneeded digits. Because one is always measuring from the lower-left corner of the 100 km square, this ensures that a lower-precision grid reference is a square that contains all of the higher-precision references contained within it.
In addition to truncating references (on the right) when less precision is required, another powerful feature of USNG is the ability to omit (on the left) the Grid Zone Designation, and possibly even the 100 km Square Identification, when one or both of these are unambiguously understood; that is, when operating within a known regional or local area. For example:
Full USNG: 18S UJ 23371 06519 (world-wide unique reference to 1 meter precision)
Without Grid Zone Designation: UJ 2337 0651 (when regional area is understood; here to 10 meter precision)
Without 100 km Square Identification: 233 065 (when local area is understood; here to 100 meter precision)
Thus in practical usage, USNG references are typically very succinct and compact, making them convenient (and less error prone) for communication.
History
Rectangular, distance-based (Cartesian) coordinate systems have long been recognized for their practical utility for land measurement and geolocation over local areas. In the United States, the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), created in 1785 in order to survey land newly ceded to the nation, introduced a rectangular coordinate system to improve on the earlier metes-and-bounds survey basis used earlier in the original colonies. In the first half of the 20th century, State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS) brought the simplicity and convenience of Cartesian coordinates to state-level areas, providing high accuracy (low distortion) survey-grade coordinates for use primarily by state and local governments. (Both of these planar systems remain in use today for specialized purposes.)
Internationally, during the period between World Wars I and II, several European nations mapped their territory with national-scale grid systems optimized for the geography of each country, such as the Ordnance Survey National Grid (British National Grid). Near the end of World War II, the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system extended this grid concept around the globe, dividing it into 60 zones of 6 degrees longitude each. Circa 1949, the US further refined UTM for ease of use (and combined it with the Universal Polar Stereographic system covering polar areas) to create the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS), which remains the geocoordinate standard used across the militaries of NATO counties.
In the 1990s, a US grass-roots citizen effort led to the Public X-Y Mapping Project, a not-for-profit organization created specifically to promote the acceptance of a national grid for the United States. The Public XY Mapping Project developed the idea, conducting informal tests and surveys to determine which coordinate reference system best met the requirements of national consistency and ease of human use. Based on its findings, a standard based on the MGRS was adopted and brought to the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) in 1998. After an iterative review process and public comment period, the USNG was adopted by the FGDC as standard FGDC-STD-011-2001 in December 2001.
Since then, the USNG has seen gradual but steadily increasing adoption both in formal standards and in practical use and applications, in public safety and in other fields.
Advantages over latitude/longitude
Users encountering the USNG (or similar grid reference systems) sometimes question why they are used instead of latitude and longitude coordinates, with which they may be more familiar. Proponents note that, in contrast to latitude and longitude coordinates, the USNG provides:
Coordinate units that represent actual distances on the ground
Equal distance units in both east–west and north–south directions
An intuitive sense of scale and distance, across a local area
Simpler distance calculation (by Pythagorean Theorem, rather than spherical trigonometry)
A single unambiguous representation instead of the three (3) formats of latitude and longitude, each in widespread use, and each having punctuation sub-variants:
degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS): N 38°53'23.3", W 077°02'11.6"
degrees-minutes-decimal minutes (DMM or DDM): 38°53.388' N, 077°02.193' W
decimal degrees (DDD or DD): 38.88980°, -077.03654°
This format ambiguity has led to confusion with potentially serious consequences, particularly in emergency situations.
References comprising only alphanumeric characters (letters and positive numbers). (Spaces have no significance but are allowed for readability.)
No negative numbers, hemisphere indicators (+, -, N, S, E, W), decimal points (.), or special symbols (°, ′, ″, :).
A familiar "read right then up" convention of XY Cartesian coordinates.
An explicit convention for shortening references (at two levels) when the local or regional area is already unambiguously known.
A reference to a definite grid square with variable, explicit precision (size), rather than to a point with (usually) unspecified precision implicit in number of decimal places.
All of the above also lead to USNG references being typically very succinct and compact, with flexibility to convey precise location information in a short sequence of characters that is easily relayed in writing or by voice.
Limitations
As with any projection that seeks to represent the curved Earth as a flat surface, distortions and tradeoffs will inevitably occur. The USNG attempts to balance and minimize these, consistent with making the grid as useful as possible for its intended purpose of efficiently communicating practical locations. Since the UTM (the basis for USNG) is not a single projection, but rather a set of 6-degree longitudinal zones, there will necessarily be a local discontinuity along each of the 'seam' meridians between zones. However, every point continues to have a well-defined, unique geoaddress, and there are established conventions to minimize confusion near zone intersections. The six-degree zone width of UTM strikes a balance between the frequency of these discontinuities versus distortion of scale, which would increase unacceptably if the zones were made wider. (UTM further uses a 0.9996 scale factor at the central meridian, growing to 1.0000 at two meridians offset from the center, and increasing toward the zone boundaries, so as to minimize the overall effect of scale distortion across the zone breadth.) The USNG is not intended for surveying, for which a higher-precision (lower-distortion) coordinate system such as SPCS would be more appropriate. Also, since USNG north-south grid lines are (by design) a fixed distance from the zone central meridian, only the central meridian itself will be aligned with "true north". Other grid lines establish a local "grid north", which will differ from true north by a small amount. The amount of this deviation, which is indicated on USGS topographic maps, is typically much less than the magnetic declination (between true north and magnetic north), and is small enough that it can be disregarded in most land navigation situations.
Adoption and current applications
Standards
Since its adoption as a national standard in 2001, the USNG has itself been incorporated into standards and operating procedures of other organizations:
In 2011, the US Government's National Search and Rescue Committee (NSARC) released Version 1.0 of the Land Search and Rescue Addendum to the National Search and Rescue Supplement to the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual. This document specifies the US National Grid as the primary standard coordinate reference system to be used for all land-based search and rescue (SAR) activities in the US.
In 2015, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) issued FEMA Directive 092–5, "Use of the United States National Grid (USNG)":
"POLICY STATEMENT: FEMA will use the United States National Grid (USNG) as its standard geographic reference system for land-based operations and will encourage use of the USNG among whole community partners."
A number of state and local Emergency Management agencies have also adopted the USNG for their operations.
Other organizations including the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have incorporated the USNG into specific standards issued by those organizations.
Gridded maps
The utility of almost every large or medium scale map (paper or electronic) can be greatly enhanced by having an overlaid coordinate grid. The USNG provides such a grid that is universal, interoperable, non-proprietary, works across all jurisdictions, and can readily be used with GPS receivers and other location service applications.
In addition to providing a convenient means to identify and communicate specific locations (points and areas), an overlaid USNG grid also provides an orientation, and—because it is distance based—a scale of distance that is present across the map.
USGS topographic maps have for decades been published with 1000-meter UTM tick marks in the map collar, and sometimes with full grid lines across the map. Recent editions of these maps (those referenced to the North American datum of 1983, or NAD83) are compatible with USNG, and current editions also contain a standard USNG information box in the collar which identifies the GZD(s) (Grid Zone Designator(s) and the 100 km Grid Square ID(s) covering the area of the particular map. USNG can now be found on various pre-printed and custom-printed maps available for purchase, or generated from various mapping software packages.
Software applications
A growing number of software applications incorporate or refer to the US National Grid. See the External Links section below for links to some of these, including The National Map (USGS). These applications include conventional mapping applications with overlaid USNG grid and/or coordinate readouts, and several 'you-are-here' mobile applications which give the user's current USNG coordinates, such as USNGapp.org and FindMeSAR.com.
Mission Manager, the most widely used incident management software tool for first responders, integrates the USNG in its functionality.
Search and rescue (SAR)
As noted above under Standards, since 2011 the USNG has been designated by the US Government's National Search and Rescue Committee (NSARC) as the primary coordinate reference system to be used for all land-based search and rescue (SAR) activities in the US. (Latitude and longitude [DMM variant] may be used as the secondary system for land responders; especially when coordinating with air and sea based responders who may use it as their primary system, and USNG as secondary.)
The National Association for Search and Rescue (NASAR) is moving its education and certification testing programming towards USNG. Other organizations such as the National Alliance for Public Safety GIS (NAPSG) also provide USNG SAR training.
FEMA Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) task forces including Florida Task Force 4 (FL-TF4) and Iowa Task Force 1 (IA-TF1) have incorporated the USNG into their training and operations.
Emergency Location Marker (ELM)
Responders are often faced with significant geolocation issues when a responding to an emergency without a street address. This is particularly true in the recreational trail environment:
34% of U.S. response calls go to a location without a street address – recreational trails are a leading category.
Trails with location signs typically employ an approach unique to that park or trail system, and
Locally unique marking systems have no value to responders unless those locations are readily available via dispatch and response systems.
In response to these issues, in 2009, a project funded by the nonprofit SharedGeo and University of Minnesota/Minnesota Department of Transportation Local Operational Research Assistance (OPERA) grant program got underway which had the following objectives:
Develop a standardized Emergency Location Marker (ELM) which can be used anywhere in the nation in a variety of scenarios,
Align the marking system with established federal and state cartographic and signage standards,
Ensure the format leverages GPS instead of requiring constant updating of Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD) systems,
Use a consistent approach which over time will become instantly recognizable by the public, and
Involve multiple stakeholders during development to ensure a "Best Practices" outcome.
After three years of field research and vetting by multiple focus groups of trail users, responders, and geospatial experts, a design based on USNG was adopted.
This format, which can be used anywhere in the United States, was originally offered in three sizes to conform to federal, state and local signage standards:
6" x 9" (15 cm x 23 cm) -- for non-motorized trails
9" x 12" (23 cm x 30 cm) -- for motorized trails
12" x 12" (30 cm x 30 cm) -- for trail heads and huts
In the years since introduction, the USNG ELM program now includes vertical ELM versions for breakaway scenarios (e.g. mountain bike trails), ELM information signs, ELM stickers to retrofit trail posts, and corresponding apps such as USNGapp.org.
USNG ELM implementations can be found in Minnesota, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, and other states.
First responders
The USNG can increase the effectiveness of all types of emergency response, ranging from missing persons searches to off-road medical responses. In Lake County MN, with 900 miles of recreational trails, dispatchers and first responders have been provided the tools and training to use USNG as their primary means of geo-location. The goal of this education for responders and the public is to "Take the 'Search' out of 'Search and Rescue.'"
In addition to ELM signs, notices at trailheads encourage hikers and off-road vehicle operators to "Download this USNG App" on their cell phones. Trail maps including USNG grid lines allow responders to interpolate locations from 911 callers who give their coordinates from ELMs or GPS apps. Cell phones also provide responders the opportunity to counsel lost or injured persons to determine their location by downloading USNG apps on the spot. This saves time and effort for responders and patients alike who are not on roads or addressed locations. When multiple teams of responders are working in close vicinity, such as during woods searches for lost individuals, communicating with USNG allows them to truncate their coordinate string to eight digits, giving their location within 10 meters without the use of decimals, special symbols or unit descriptors, and intuitively estimate the distance and direction between teams for better coordination.
Emergency management
Emergency managers coordinate response to and recovery from all types of natural hazards and man-made threats. In large scale events, where responders may be imported from many jurisdictions, coordination of geo-location formats is mandatory. The USNG is used to reduce confusion and improve efficiency in response to wildfires, floods and hurricanes and other events.
As noted above, In 2015, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) issued FEMA Directive 092–5, "Use of the United States National Grid (USNG)":"POLICY STATEMENT: FEMA will use the United States National Grid (USNG) as its standard geographic reference system for land-based operations and will encourage use of the USNG among whole community partners." "Lessons learned from several large-scale disasters within the past three decades highlight the need for a common, geographic reference system in order to anticipate resource requirements, facilitate decision-making, and accurately deploy resources. ... Decision support tools that apply the USNG enable emergency managers to locate positions and identify areas of interest or operations where traditional references (i.e., landmarks or street signs) may be destroyed, damaged, or missing due to the effects of a disaster."The USNG is also seen as a tool for enhancing situational awareness and facilitating a common operating picture in emergency scenarios.
The Department of Defense also has recognized the role of the civil USNG standard for the Armed Forces in support of homeland security and homeland defense.
Asset identification and mapping
Organizations such as public utilities, transportation departments, emergency responders, and others own or rely upon fixed, field-based assets which they need to track, inventory, maintain, and locate efficiently when needed. Examples include fire hydrants, overhead utility poles, storm drains, roadside signs, and many others.
Assigning unique identifiers is a common method for identifying and referencing particular assets. A strategically assigned asset identifier can include location information, thereby assuring both that the name is unique and that the location of the asset is always known. The USNG offers a method to locate any place or any object in the world with a brief alphanumeric code, which can be shortened depending on the known service area, and enhanced with a prefix code to identify the type of asset. Organizations have successfully fielded this type of USNG-based asset naming recently:"The Mohawk Valley Water Authority serves 40,000 customers in the Greater Utica Area in Central New York. We have 700+ miles of pipe, 28 storage tanks, 21 pump stations, and numerous fire hydrants. We communicate hydrant status information internally and with many fire departments. We need to name these items meaningfully. We have tried several naming conventions—both sequential and hierarchical—with confusing and disappointing results. We converted to USNG asset naming and have used this successfully for over 4 years!" -- Elisabetta T. DeGeronimo, Watershed/GIS Coordinator at Mohawk Valley Water Authority, Utica, New York
--
"Hundreds of thousands of roadside assets—culverts, drains, signs on ground mounts, signs on overhead support structures, signs on span wires, and guide rails—are found along the routes maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation. In the past, the existence of these assets was only recorded in construction plans and the minds and memories of dedicated career staff. Our new asset naming convention, based upon the U.S. National Grid, benefits the entire department and particularly the field forces." -- Mary Susan Knauss, Senior Transportation Analyst, Office of Transportation Management, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany, New York These and other contributors at Florida State University and elsewhere have collaborated to produce a manual to guide GIS users and others through the practical steps of naming assets using the USNG.
Recreation and other uses
There has been a concerted outreach to educate the public in the uses and advantages of USNG. Sharing USNG maps and apps with friends and families encourages them to keep each other informed of their locations when traveling off-road (i.e., in wilderness or on the water) for work or recreation. In addition, USNG can be used to mark and communicate locations in busy or remote urban areas, including where to meet friends in a wooded park, locating a car in a mall parking lot, or requesting help inside a large warehouse or business complex. One doesn't even need compass directions.
Scientific research fieldwork can also benefit.
Future direction and initiatives
The USNG has seen steady but gradually increasing adoption and use since the standard was approved in 2001. Formal adoption by other standards bodies has taken place, while practical adoption in actual use has been more uneven in achieving its full potential. In 2018, the USNG Institute (UGNGI) was established "to study and report on USNG implementation efforts taking place across the United States" , as was a USNG Implementation Working Group (USNG IWG) to help assist and coordinate implementation efforts.
Further adoption of USNG for public safety and the Emergency Location Marker (ELM) system may depend in part on greater coordination of USNG adoption at Public Safety Answering Points (PSAPs, or 911 centers), in their procedures and Computer-Aided-Dispatch (CAD) systems. Currently such implementations, being generally under local control, have been more fragmented than some national adoption initiatives.
Proponents of the USNG envision many other ways in which it could play roles in improving safety, convenience, and quality of life.
See also
Cartesian coordinate system
Grid reference
Ordnance Survey National Grid (British National Grid)
Irish national grid reference system
Spatial Reference System
List of National Coordinate Reference Systems
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (UTM)
Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)
Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)
Public Land Survey System (PLSS)
State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)
References
Further reading
A Quick Guide to Using USNG Coordinates (MapTools)
How to Read US National Grid (USNG) Coordinates (FGDC/NGA)
How to Read USNG Spatial Addresses (FGDC)
A Quick Guide to the USNG (NAPSG via USNG Center)
United States National Grid Standard (FGDC-STD-011-2001) (FGDC, official standard)
FEMA Directive 092-5: Use of the United States National Grid (USNG) (FEMA policy directive)
Implementation Guide to the USNG (NAPSG)
Emergency Location Marker (ELM) system (USNG Florida on Medium)
Hikers, Know Your Grid! (USNG Florida on Medium)
911 Caller Location Solutions (USNG Florida on Medium)
Why PSAPs Should Be Using The U.S. National Grid To Find 911 Callers (Kova Corp)
An Introduction to Standards-Based GIT and the US National Grid
Instructions for GIS Asset Naming Using the U.S. National Grid (USNG)
External links
General information sites about the USNG:
U.S. National Grid Information Center
USNG home page at the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)
USNG resources at the NAPSG Foundation
USNG resources at ESRI
USNG Florida
USNG Iowa
USNG resources at Florida Division of Emergency Management
USNG resources at Minnesota Geospatial Information Office
USNG resources at Dakota County (MN)
USNG resources at Clinton County (OH)
Online mapping and coordinate conversion sites:
USNGapp.org and FindMeSAR.com (mobile applications that give the user's current coordinates, e.g., for relay on calls for help)
GISsurfer (a general purpose web map with a USNG overlay and more)
GISsurfer: USNG and MGRS Coordinates (documentation, including "Why are USNG coordinates important?")
NAPSG Situational Awareness Viewer (select Grid Overlay button in toolbar for USNG)
The National Map Viewer (USGS; set coordinate display to USNG)
NOAA/NWS Enhanced Data Display (EDD) (with USNG coordinate display enabled)
Utility to convert latitude and longitude to USNG (NOAA/NGS)
Programmer resource: JavaScript utility for converting between lat/long and MGRS/USNG
Emergency Location Marker (ELM) system brief introductory videos:
Cook & Lake Counties (MN) (49s)
Cobb County (GA):
"Cobb County Expands Trail Marker Program" (1m 59s)
"Cobb's Trail Marker Program EXPLAINED!" (3m 20s)
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4228818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Scalise | Steve Scalise | Stephen Joseph Scalise ( ; born October 6, 1965) is an American politician who has served as the House Majority Leader since 2023 and the U.S. Representative for since 2008. A member of the Republican Party, he served as the House Majority Whip from 2014 to 2019 and the House Minority Whip 2019 to 2023.
Before his election to Congress, Scalise served four months in the Louisiana State Senate and three terms in the Louisiana House of Representatives. He was the chair of the House Republican Study Committee from 2013 to 2014. On June 19, 2014, Scalise's Republican colleagues elected him majority whip of the United States House of Representatives. He assumed office on August 1. He is the first Louisianian to serve as majority whip since Hale Boggs of Louisiana's 2nd congressional district held the position from 1962 to 1971. In 2017, Scalise became the dean of the Louisiana congressional delegation upon Senator David Vitter's retirement. Scalise's district includes most of New Orleans's suburbs, such as Metairie, Kenner, and Slidell, as well as a portion of New Orleans itself.
On June 14, 2017, during practice for that year's Congressional Baseball Game, Scalise was shot and seriously wounded by an anti-Trump domestic terrorist who was targeting Republicans. Scalise underwent treatment for several months, returning to Congress on September 28.
On October 11, Scalise defeated Jim Jordan to win the Republican nomination for the October 2023 Speaker of the House election following the removal of Kevin McCarthy. However, he withdrew a day later after failing to consolidate the necessary votes.
Early life and education
Scalise was born in New Orleans, one of three children of Alfred Joseph Scalise, a real estate broker who died on October 8, 2015, at the age of 77, and Carol Schilleci. His siblings are Glenn and Tara Scalise.
Scalise's great-grandparents immigrated to the United States from Italy in the late 1800s. He graduated from Archbishop Rummel High School in Metairie in Jefferson Parish and earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Louisiana State University (LSU) in Baton Rouge with a major in computer science and a minor in political science. At LSU, Scalise was a member of the Acacia Fraternity. He serves on the board of the American Italian Renaissance Foundation, servicing the American Italian Cultural Center.
Louisiana Legislature
Republican (formerly Democratic) State Representative Quentin Dastugue made an unsuccessful bid for Governor of Louisiana in 1995, dropping out before the nonpartisan blanket primary. Scalise was recruited by state Republicans to run for Dastugue's District 82 seat in the Louisiana House of Representatives, winning his election bid. Scalise was re-elected to the seat in 1999 and 2003, serving until 2007.
Scalise was elected in the October 20, 2007 nonpartisan blanket primary to the District 9 seat in the Louisiana Senate vacated by the term-limited Ken Hollis of Metairie. Scalise received 19,154 votes (61 percent) in a three-way contest. Fellow Republican Polly Thomas, an education professor at the University of New Orleans who subsequently won a special state House election in 2016, polled 8,948 votes (29 percent). A Democrat, David Gereighty, polled 3,154 votes (10 percent) in the heavily Republican-oriented district. Scalise, who was term-limited out of the House, was succeeded in the state House by his aide, Cameron Henry of Metairie.
In the special election on November 4, 2008, to fill the remaining three and one-half years in Scalise's state Senate term, Conrad Appel defeated Polly Thomas, 21,853 (52.1 percent) to 20,065 (47.9 percent). Thomas had also lost the race for the seat in 2007 to Scalise.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
2008 special election
In 2004, Scalise announced that he would run for the 1st congressional district, but deferred to the preference of party leaders and supported Bobby Jindal, who won the position vacated by the successful U.S. senatorial candidate, David Vitter.
In 2007, when Jindal was elected to the governorship of Louisiana, Scalise announced his intentions to seek the House seat again. This time he received Republican party backing.
Scalise was sworn in on May 7, 2008.
2008 general election
In the regularly scheduled election, Scalise was reelected over Democrat Jim Harlan, 66 percent to 34 percent.
2010
Scalise defeated the Democratic nominee, Myron Katz, and an Independent, Arden Wells, in his 2010 bid for reelection.
2012
In his own 2012 congressional race, Scalise prevailed with 193,490 votes (66.6 percent) over four opponents, the strongest of whom was the Democrat M. V. "Vinny" Mendoza, who finished with 61,979 votes (21.3 percent). A second Republican, Gary King, received 24,838 votes (8.6 percent). Independent Arden Wells ran again and received 4,285 votes (1.5 percent) in his second race against Scalise.
Committee assignments
Committee on Energy and Commerce
Subcommittee on Communications and Technology
Subcommittee on Energy and Power
Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations
Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis (Ranking Member)
Caucus memberships
Congressional Western Caucus
Republican Study Committee
Tenure
In 2011, Scalise became a co-sponsor of Bill H.R. 3261, otherwise known as the Stop Online Piracy Act (withdrawn January 23, 2012). As chairman of the Republican Study Committee, Scalise dismissed Derek Khanna, a committee staffer, in December 2012 because of pressure from content industry lobbyists after the study committee published a memo advocating copyright reform.
In 2013, Scalise voted against reauthorizing the Violence Against Women Act. Also in 2013, Scalise sponsored a bill called the FCC Consolidated Reporting Act. The bill makes the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) consolidate several of their reports into one report.
In December 2017, Scalise voted in favor of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. Scalise says that the bill will "put more money in the pockets of hard-working families."
Scalise was the ranking Republican on the House Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis during the May 19, 2021, hearings involving Emergent BioSolutions founder Faud El-Hibiri and its CEO Robert G. Kramer.
Leadership race
In the aftermath of Rep. Eric Cantor's unexpected defeat by Dave Brat on June 10, 2014, Scalise launched a campaign to replace Rep. Kevin McCarthy in the position of Majority Whip of the House; McCarthy himself would replace Cantor as House Majority Leader. Scalise's ascent to leadership built on his "come-from-behind win in 2012 to become chairman" of the Republican Study Committee. Scalise subsequently won a three-way race for whip, winning on the first ballot despite the efforts of fellow candidates Peter Roskam and Marlin Stutzman. He came under fire for using the assistance of a federal lobbyist, John Feehery, when hiring staff for the Majority Leader's Press Office.
Congressional baseball shooting
On June 14, 2017, at 7:09am EDT, Scalise and three other people were shot and wounded by James Hodgkinson, a left-wing extremist with a record of domestic violence, who opened fire with a rifle during a baseball practice of the Republican team for the annual Congressional Baseball Game. The practice was taking place at the Eugene Simpson Baseball Fields in the Del Ray neighborhood of Alexandria, Virginia. Scalise, the only member of Congress to be hit, was shot in the hip. Representative Mo Brooks, who was also at the practice, witnessed the attack and said he saw someone with a rifle behind the third base dugout. Brooks then heard Scalise scream from second base. Scalise crawled into right field, bleeding. Senator Jeff Flake and Representative Brad Wenstrup, a former podiatrist, ran to assist Scalise after Hodgkinson was shot. Senator Rand Paul, also a witness, said he heard "as many as 50 shots".
Initially conscious, Scalise went into shock while being taken to MedStar Washington Hospital Center in critical condition, where he underwent immediate surgery. He was hit by a single rifle bullet that "travelled across his pelvis, fracturing bones, injuring internal organs, and causing severe bleeding". Dr. Jack Sava at the MedStar Washington Hospital Center said that "when he arrived, he was in critical condition with an imminent risk of death". By June 16, although still in critical condition, Sava said, "We have controlled internal bleeding and his vital signs have stabilized." On June 17, it was announced that his condition had improved to "serious" and he was responsive enough to talk with his family. On June 21, the hospital issued a press release stating: "Congressman Steve Scalise continues to make good progress. He is now listed in fair condition and is beginning an extended period of healing and rehabilitation."
On July 5, 2017, Scalise returned to the intensive care unit after becoming ill with an infection related to the shooting.
On July 13, 2017, it was reported that Scalise had undergone additional surgery and that his condition had been upgraded to fair. He was discharged from the hospital on July 26 and went through a period of inpatient rehabilitation. On September 28, to applause and cheers, he returned to the House of Representatives, where he gave a speech about his experience related to the traumatic events.
Hodgkinson, 66, was killed by police at the scene. He was married and lived in Belleville, Illinois, where he owned a small business doing home inspections, mold testing, and air-quality testing. He had encounters with police involving violence or firearms in 2006 and 2017; he was registered as a firearms owner in Illinois. In January 2017 he closed down his business. In the months before the shooting he was living in a car near the Alexandria baseball field and regularly visited a nearby YMCA. He was a Bernie Sanders supporter and volunteer, and a fierce critic of Trump and the Republican Party on social media, in letters to the editor, and in phone calls to his representative. Virginia Attorney General Mark Herring concluded Hodgkinson was "fueled by rage against Republican legislators" and the shooting was "an act of terrorism."
House Minority Whip
The Republicans lost their majority in the 2018 House of Representatives elections, and Scalise was elected as House Minority Whip, with Kevin McCarthy of California as Minority Leader. While as Majority Whip he was the third-ranking House Republican behind Speaker Paul Ryan and McCarthy, as Minority Whip he is second in command behind McCarthy.
2020 presidential election and aftermath
On January 6, 2021, Scalise voted to de-certify President-elect Biden's victories in Arizona and Pennsylvania.
Scalise condemned the Capitol attack as terrorism and compared it to the Congressional baseball shooting. "It would ... be naive to think the [2017] shooter arrived at his decision in a vacuum", Scalise said, adding, "It would be equally naive to think that the Capitol rioters arrived at their decisions in a void. Violent rhetoric helps radicalize people. Republicans and Democrats alike must have the moral clarity to call this language out whenever it is spoken, not only when it comes from the other side of the political aisle."
In February 2021, more than a month after Joe Biden's inauguration, Scalise refused to acknowledge that the election was not stolen or fraudulent. In May 2021, he called for the ouster of Liz Cheney as House Republican Conference Chair due to her vote to impeach Trump for inciting a mob to attack the U.S. Capitol. On May 19, 2021, Scalise and the seven other House Republican leaders voted against establishing a national commission to investigate the January 6, 2021, attack on the United States Capitol Complex. Thirty-five House Republicans and all 217 Democrats present voted to establish such a commission.
In October 2021, Fox News anchor Chris Wallace interviewed Scalise. In the aftermath of controversy surrounding the 2020 presidential election, Scalise refused to acknowledge the loss of president Donald Trump. His refusal to admit Trump's loss was viewed as fear of Trump's vindictiveness and willingness to kowtow to Trump in order to avoid being targeted by Trump.
House Majority Leader
The House Republican Conference elected Scalise to serve as Majority Leader during the 118th Congress. Scalise was unopposed for the position.
2023 Speaker of the House election
On October 3, 2023 Kevin McCarthy was removed as Speaker of the House. Days later, House Republicans chose Scalise over Jim Jordan as their candidate for Speaker of the House, by a margin of 113 to 99. After failing to consolidate the necessary 217 Republican votes to become the Speaker of the House, Scalise withdrew his name from consideration as a nominee for the Speakership.
Political positions
Immigration
Scalise supported President Donald Trump's 2017 executive order temporarily banning citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries from entering the U.S. He stated, "It's very prudent to say, 'Let's be careful about who comes into our country to make sure that they're not terrorists.'"
Health care
Scalise opposes the Affordable Care Act. Scalise applauded a Texas district court ruling the Affordable Care Act was unconstitutional in its entirety.
Gun law
Scalise has been an opponent of gun control and was given an "A+ rating" and endorsed by the NRA Political Victory Fund. After being shot, and in the wake of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Scalise said on Meet the Press that he is still a gun rights supporter: "Don't try to put new laws in place that don't fix these problems. They only make it harder for law-abiding citizens to own a gun." Scalise has described the Second Amendment as "unlimited".
In 2018, Scalise co-sponsored a bill to "strengthen school safety and security", which required a two-thirds vote for passage given that it was brought up under an expedited process known as Suspension of the Rules. The House voted 407–10 to approve the bill, which would "provide $50 million a year for a new federal grant program to train students, teachers and law enforcement on how to spot and report signs of gun violence". Named STOP (Students, Teachers, and Officers Preventing) School Violence Act, it would "develop anonymous telephone and online systems where people could report threats of violence." At the same time, it would authorize $25 million for schools to improve and harden their security, such as installing new locks, lights, metal detectors and panic buttons. A separate spending bill would be required to provide money for the grant program.
Cannabis
Scalise opposes the legalization of marijuana, which he deems a gateway drug for other drugs. He has a "D" rating from National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws for his voting history regarding cannabis-related causes.
LGBT rights
According to the Washington Blade, Scalise has one of "the most anti-LGBT reputations of any lawmaker". He opposed the repeal of the US military's Don't Ask Don't Tell policy, stating "military leaders we've spoken with feel strongly that this policy should not be repealed" and including sexuality under hate crime legislation, voting against the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act. He also opposes same-sex marriage, having praised the 2014 Robicheaux v. Caldwell ruling. Scalise condemned the Supreme Court decision Obergefell v. Hodges, which held that same-sex marriage bans violate the constitution. Scalise's voting record has a zero rating from the LGBT advocacy group Human Rights Campaign.
Environment
Scalise rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He has on multiple occasions claimed that the scientific community predicted global cooling in the 1970s,
which is not true.
Other events
Speech at white nationalist convention
In 2002, Scalise was a speaker at a convention for the European-American Unity and Rights Organization (EURO), a group which was founded by David Duke. This became known in 2014 after political blogger Lamar White, Jr. uncovered anonymous comments from 2002 on Stormfront, a white supremacist website, which made reference to Scalise as a 2002 speaker at the convention. Scalise confirmed that he had spoken at the EURO conference in 2002 and stated at the time he did not know of the "racist nature of the group". Scalise said he spoke about state tax legislation and that EURO was "one of the many groups that I spoke to regarding this critical legislation," further stating that this is a group "whose views I wholeheartedly condemn." Scalise apologized for speaking to the group, saying, "It was a mistake I regret, and I emphatically oppose the divisive racial and religious views groups like these hold." After Scalise's attendance at the conference was publicized in 2014, journalist Stephanie Grace alleged that Scalise had once called himself "David Duke without the baggage".
Various Louisiana politicians, including Republican Governor Bobby Jindal and Democratic Congressman Cedric Richmond, defended Scalise's character. Speaker of the House John Boehner voiced his continued confidence in Scalise as Majority Whip saying that he had "made an error in judgment" and was "a man of high integrity and good character." Several Democratic members of Congress, as well as Mo Elleithee, a spokesperson for the Democratic National Committee (DNC), criticized Scalise and challenged his statement that he was not aware of the group's affiliation with racism and anti-Semitism. Mark Potok of the Southern Poverty Law Center called upon Scalise to step down from his leadership position as Majority Whip.
Ady Barkan video
In 2020, Scalise spread a video that was doctored to depict the political activist Ady Barkan, who is disabled and uses a speech-generating device, asking 2020 presidential candidate Joe Biden whether he supported defunding police, to which Biden appeared to reply in the affirmative. Barkan asked Scalise to delete the video, which was flagged by Twitter as manipulated media, and apologize. Scalise deleted the video; his spokesperson said that editing the video in this manner was "common practice." NowThis News posted the interview section on Police Reform on YouTube showing in fact Barkan asked Biden about police reform, including defunding them and Biden agreed stating he proposed that kind of reform.
Personal life
A Roman Catholic, Scalise married Jennifer Ann Letulle on April 9, 2005. They have two children.
Health
On August 29, 2023, Scalise announced he had been diagnosed with multiple myeloma. He said the cancer was detected early and was "very treatable".
On September 14, Scalise returned to work, having begun chemotherapy, and reported that his treatment was "going well."
See also
List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office
References
External links
Congressman Steve Scalise official U.S. House website
Republican Whip official website
Steve Scalise for Congress
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1965 births
21st-century American politicians
21st-century Roman Catholics
Archbishop Rummel High School alumni
American shooting survivors
American people of Italian descent
American Roman Catholics
Catholics from Louisiana
Italian-American culture in Louisiana
Living people
Republican Party Louisiana state senators
Louisiana State University alumni
Republican Party members of the Louisiana House of Representatives
People from Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
Politicians from New Orleans
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana
Majority leaders of the United States House of Representatives
20th-century American politicians |
4228976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20Dickinson | Edwin Dickinson | Edwin Walter Dickinson (October 11, 1891 – December 2, 1978) was an American painter and draftsman best known for psychologically charged self-portraits, quickly painted landscapes, which he called premier coups, and large, hauntingly enigmatic paintings involving figures and objects painted from observation, in which he invested his greatest time and concern. His drawings are also widely admired and were the subject of the first book published on his work. Less well known are his premier coup portraits and nudes, his medium-sized paintings done entirely from imagination or incorporating elements from one of his drawings or done from observation over several days or weeks, including still lifes, portraits of others, both commissioned and not, and nudes.
His style of painting, which eschewed details in favor of close attention to the relationships between masses of color, was strongly influenced by the example of his teacher Charles W. Hawthorne. The strange juxtapositions and perplexing hints of narrative in his large compositions have been compared to Surrealism, and his premier coups often approach abstraction, but Dickinson resisted being identified with any art movement.
History
Early life and art training
Dickinson was born and raised in Seneca Falls, New York, in the Finger Lakes area; his family moved to Buffalo in 1897. The death of his mother from tuberculosis in 1903, the suicide in 1913 of his older brother, Burgess, his father's remarriage in 1914 to a much younger woman, and the death of a close friend in combat have all been cited as influences on the themes of his later work. As a boy Dickinson had assumed he would become a minister, like his father, but his brother's suggestion of a career in the navy proved more to his liking. After failing the entrance exam of the U.S. Naval Academy twice, in 1911 he enrolled at the Art Students League, where he studied under William Merritt Chase. In the summers of 1912 and 1913 he stayed in Provincetown, Massachusetts, where he studied with Charles W. Hawthorne, and continued there year-round from 1913 to the summer of 1916, working as Hawthorne's assistant in 1914. From late summer 1916 through year's end Dickinson investigated the possibilities of printmaking in Provincetown with fellow painter Ross Moffett, and made further attempts in the 1920s and '30s, but felt his time was better spent painting.
Hawthorne, who had himself been a student of Chase and perpetuated some of his ideas, had a strong influence on Dickinson's painting methods and ideas, many of which he retained in his later teaching. Dickinson's Self-Portrait of 1914 is what Hawthorne's students called a "mudhead," a back-lit figure built up in color patches, working outward from the center, rather than filling in contours. Hawthorne had his students use palette knives and even fingers, "as if painting had been just invented" and preventing them from trying to paint details instead establishing relationships between "spots" (i.e., patches) of color. From Hawthorne, Dickinson learned to look for the unexpected and to paint without formulas, to squint to determine value relationships, and to believe that a painting will be better if one leaves off when inspiration wanes, no matter how much is done. Dickinson's use of Hawthorne's ideas in his teaching has been described by one of his former students, Francis Cunningham.
World War I and European trip
Dickinson spent time teaching painting in Buffalo and working as a telegrapher in New York City until his naval service from late 1917 to 1919. War had interrupted Dickinson's plans to visit Europe with his close friend and fellow painter, Herbert Groesbeck, and while Dickinson served in the navy off the coast of New England Herbert traveled to Europe as a soldier and died in the Argonne Forest in one of the last battles of the war. His death seemed to reawaken Dickinson's pain over earlier losses of his mother and brother and to affect subsequent paintings. A trip to Paris to study art followed between December 1919 and July 1920, financed by a gift from Groesbeck's widow and parents of the insurance money paid on his death. Dickinson made a side trip to visit his grave in northern France and then to Spain; two paintings by El Greco in Toledo he declared the best he had ever seen, an admiration that persisted throughout his life. The subject of one was especially meaningful to Dickinson, having visited Groesbeck's grave so recently, The Burial of Count Orgaz.
Years of struggle
The early recognition awarded to a few of Dickinson's works (most notably Interior, which was exhibited at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington in 1916 and three other major venues, and Old Ben and Mrs. Marks, 1916, which was shown in New York in 1917 and in the Luxembourg Museum in Paris in 1919, where Dickinson saw it) did not continue after his return from Europe. Despite the financial support of a patron, Esther Hoyt Sawyer, Dickinson struggled to earn enough from his work to live on. He hit bottom in 1924 after an inheritance from his mother and some money from his father ran out. He was unable to sell An Anniversary, a major painting on which he had worked steadily for thirteen months, and two commissioned portraits, one of his illustrious uncle, Charles Evans Hughes, and one of Charles D. Walcott, painted during an eight-week stay in Washington the previous year, were rejected. The sale of another major painting (The Cello Player, 1920–21) to a friend, for $500 in installments, was not enough to enable him to continue as an artist. The crisis was resolved in July 1924 when Esther's husband arranged to pay Dickinson a monthly salary in exchange for the right to choose paintings of his equivalent in value. This arrangement continued for twenty-one years, ending only when Dickinson secured steady teaching jobs at the Art Students League and Cooper Union in 1945.
In 1928 Dickinson married Frances "Pat" Foley, shortly after the completion of The Fossil Hunters, an painting on which he spent 192 sittings and that achieved considerable notoriety when exhibited at the Carnegie International of 1928, because it was hung sideways, a mistake perpetuated by subsequent exhibitions in 1929 at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (where the error was caught before the opening) and in New York at the National Academy of Design, where it created an even greater uproar by winning a prize in its disoriented condition.)
Esther Sawyer arranged for the sale of Dickinson's works, especially drawings, portraits, and landscapes to her wealthy friends, and in 1927 she and her husband purchased the important Dickinson painting An Anniversary, 1920–21, and donated it to the Albright-Knox Art Gallery. Dickinson devoted more time to his landscapes in the 1930s because they were easier to make and sell than his larger works, which he was having greater difficulty exhibiting in major exhibitions.
In a letter to Esther in 1933 he wrote that he hoped to live by the landscapes he was painting. In February 1934, he was invited to participate in the first Depression-era program for artists, the half-year Public Works of Art Project, which offered him weekly pay and an exhibition of the painting in Washington in May. He finished the work on time by reworking an abandoned painting, one of a small group done from imagination on a favorite subject, polar exploration, and changing its title to Stranded Brig. The major paintings of this period were Woodland Scene, 1929–1935, which Esther purchased and gave to Cornell University, and Composition with Still Life, 1933–1937, which the Sawyers gave to the Museum of Modern Art in 1952.
A second trip to Europe with his family followed in 1937–38, where he painted landscapes in southern and northern France and visited Rome, Florence, and Venice until concerns about Hitler cut short his stay. While still abroad Dickinson had his first one-person show in New York City at the Passedoit Gallery. It included The Cello Player, The Fossil Hunters, Woodland Scene, Stranded Brig, the recently completed Composition with Still Life (exhibited under its original title, Figures and Still Life), fifteen landscapes sent from France, and fifteen other paintings. It was well covered by art critics, with a generally favorable response. A year after the family's return Dickinson bought a house on Cape Cod in Wellfleet, where they stayed when not teaching in New York.
The period from 1943 to 1958
Between 1936 and 1942 Dickinson exhibited annually in the Passedoit Gallery in New York City. This was made possible because he painted no large, time-consuming works between the time he left off work on Composition with Still Life in 1937 and began work on Ruin at Daphne January 1, 1943. The relationship ceased because Dickinson, still struggling to support his family, did not generate enough income from sales and needed to find "earning work." In 1944 he moved the family to New York in the belief that it would help him secure a teaching job, but during the first year he had to get by with some commercial work, including drawings for a French magazine that were rejected and a copy of a photograph of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-Shek. But Pat found employment at the Hewitt School that lasted until her retirement in 1966, and in 1945 Edwin was hired to teach at three schools and began a period of teaching that lasted until his retirement, also in 1966. The other reason for discontinuing the connection with Passedoit was that he wanted time to work on a new painting, Ruin at Daphne, on which he continued to paint, with periodic interludes and lapses in enthusiasm, until 1953, for a total of 447 sittings (about 1341 hours). A donor purchased Ruin at Daphne and gave it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1955. The Whitney Museum of American Art purchased The Fossil Hunters in 1958, and in 1988 the M. H. de Young Museum purchased The Cello Player, the last major painting of Dickinson's to enter a museum (and, along with Ruin at Daphne, one of the few Dickinson paintings usually on view to the general public). In 1948 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1950.
Later years
Dickinson remained active as a teacher into the 1960s, by which time his painting output had sharply diminished following the removal of a tubercular lung in 1959 and the increased demands imposed by his growing reputation. These included participation in numerous one-person and group shows, the most important of which were a large retrospective of his work in Boston in 1959, another in New York in 1961 that included 157 works and was reviewed by thirteen critics, followed by an exhibition of his work organized by the Museum of Modern Art that traveled to twelve venues in eleven states, another retrospective at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1965, covered by nine critics, and inclusion in the American exhibition at the 34th Venice Biennale, where he was the featured painter. Various honors, awards, interviews, and lecture requests followed. There is no record of his having painted after 1963. By 1970 he was displaying symptoms indicative of Alzheimer's disease and died in Provincetown on December 2, 1978.
His art characterized, interpreted, and evaluated
Dickinson's art, always grounded in representation, has been compared to Surrealism, but the resemblance is superficial. His sensibility and emotional ties lie closer to Romanticism and Symbolism, and he was included in the Museum of Modern Art's 1943 exhibition Romantic Painting in America. But Dickinson generally avoided being grouped in any art movement, which contributed to his being somewhat marginalized, and he adamantly refused to take sides in the controversies between traditional representational painters and the avant-garde artists of the New York School, both groups of whom respected him. The tendency of his larger works toward monochrome, as well as the darkness of many of them, have also contributed to some observers' bewilderment and disapproval. Another complaint was that the strange juxtapositions and imagery in these works hint at underlying narratives or situations but their purpose is unclear, and Dickinson generally avoided explanation except to describe procedures, technical problems and formal concerns. Even when he mentioned the underlying subject or theme of a painting or identified figures or objects in it, he acted mystified about some of its particulars. But if some observers were frustrated and put off by the elusive character of the large paintings' content others have been moved by them and have attempted explanations to account for the power they experienced. The frequently voiced view among critics, museum directors, and artists that Dickinson deserved greater recognition, led one critic to call him "perhaps America's best-known, underknown artist."
Notable artists who studied under Dickinson include Lennart Anderson, Francis Cunningham, and Denver Lindley.
Art works
The Rival Beauties
The earliest of what John Driscoll calls Dickinson's "major symbolical paintings," The Rival Beauties, 1915, resembles Ashcan School paintings such as George Bellows's Cliff Dwellers in the crowded humanity that swarms through the space. But in Dickinson's picture many particulars are not brought to completion, and curving lines break free from descriptive duties with their own rhythmic life, most notably the left contour of the white skirt in the foreground that continues upward in the trousers of a doorman standing at attention and in the radically incomplete figure standing before a piano in the left foreground. The piano, inexplicable in an exterior scene, used by a cellist to tune his instrument, seem to signify a tacit approval of Hawthorne's advice: "Real painting is like real music, the correct tones and colors next to each other; the literary and sentimental factors add nothing to its real value." The intentionality of this reference is confirmed by the fact that Hawthorne was himself a cellist. Yet already, in the picture's strange assortment of subjects, including what he intended as a dead horse, Dickinson takes Hawthorne's statement, voicing an idea that was widely accepted in this period, as permission to sabotage narrative coherence by including imagery that defies the observer to account for its presence, a practice that he continued in many of his larger studio paintings.
Driscoll noted that the artist's notation on the back of an old photograph of the painting—"Ref.: Lascado Hern and the Swedish girl friend"—referred to the writer Lafcadio Hearn and argued that it offered a clue to the picture's symbolical content. Ward discovered several entries in Dickinson's journals that identify the Swedish girl friend as Alie Mörling, a fellow art student Dickinson sometimes dined with, who admired Hearn's writings and, as his notation of 3 March 1966 indicates, sent him a note upon Burgess's death, perhaps quoting Hearn. Ward suggests that the picture's title may refer to an essay of Hearn's, "Fair Women and Dark Women," in which he contrasted "the beauty of the Druidess and of the Viking's daughter" with the dark-eyed beauty of the women of Spain, Israel and India. In Dickinson's picture the pair of fair-skinned girls in the center play off against a Latin pair, suggestive of the mixed race Portuguese women of Provincetown, another pair of women in white dresses in the distance, one a redhead and one dark-skinned, and a fourth pair, less distinct, to the left of them with bowed heads that Ward sees as Japanese.
Interior
In Interior, 1916, Dickinson's most ambitious and successful painting to this point, he again shows the influence of Hawthorne, particularly in his use of the "Hawthorne stare," in which the eyes look toward the viewer but seemed unfocused, as if dreaming, and in the prominently placed bowl, in keeping with Hawthorne's advice to paint white china. But the combination of images defies understanding as a coherent naturalistic description, with six figures packed together in a tight, vertical mass topped by a man in a green mask yelling at a cat he holds up, an action at odds with the introspective mood of the other figures, all of whom, despite their proximity, seem emotionally disconnected from one another. The picture's title does not relate to its setting, but, as Driscoll notes, is almost certainly taken from the title of a play by Maurice Maeterlinck, performed in New York in 1915, and refers, as does his, to the inner feelings of the characters. Driscoll observes that Maeterinck's play deals with a suicide, and the shared title supports the view that Dickinson's picture is about the death of his brother, represented by the guitarist and also by the screaming figure behind him, who embodies Burgess's interior doubts and uncertainty. Ward suggests that this exploration of psychological states may have been indebted to Edvard Munch and Ibsen, whose play "Ghosts" he read sometime between 1913 and 1915 and may well have associated with his brother's suicide.
Inland Lake
Although Inland Lake, 1919, is the darkest picture that Dickinson had yet painted, it appears to represent a happy band of women, children, and men—four in sailor's uniforms—at sunset. But the whimsical incident scattered through the picture is offset by a partially merged group or stack of three women to the right of the picture's center, a device not unlike the arrangement and effect of the figures in Interior and one that creates a similarly haunting presence, although embedded in a context that demands greater attention. He painted it two months after his discharge from the navy at war's end at the family cottage at Sheldrake, on Cayuga Lake, where, according to a journal entry written after a visit on leave in 1918, he had had a "happy time." Like The Rival Beauties, it was painted entirely from imagination.
Driscoll did not include it among the major symbolical paintings, and it received little attention until O'Connor and Ward each independently identified it as having symbolic characteristics. Ward points to the contrasting women, one in light-colored clothes welcoming the viewer into the scene, a second, in black, turning away to the left. He sees this pair as representing Dickinson's mother as both alive and dead, leading to a scene both present and remembered. A third woman is visible behind the brightly lit one, seen in right profile, but her contours, hues, and values fit the surrounding context so closely that she seems to disappear and may suggest the dematerialized aura of Dickinson's mother, felt in the surroundings rather than directly observed. Memories of his mother would have been aroused by his return home. By 1922 there is evidence that Dickinson had developed an interest in Marcel Proust, probably in Paris in 1920. While Proust's ideas must have influenced Dickinson's thinking in his later works, his initial enthusiasm was probably aroused because he recognized ideas in the French writer's explorations of memory that already played an important part in his own work.
An Anniversary
The title of An Anniversary, 1920–21, suggests an event, as do the gestures of the old man and the man with his arm outstretched at the top of the pyramid formed by the picture's three principal figures. But, as in Interior, the densely packed figures appear unaware of each other and the gestures do not contribute to a unified narrative. Only the young, seated woman appears aware of the viewer. Likewise, the objects strung across the bottom of the painting have no narrative purpose. By undermining any coherent narrative, Dickinson frees the observer to experience the picture in terms of its mood and formal interplay and its suggestion of memories evoked by the title (anniversaries were important to Dickinson, who conscientiously noted in his journals the anniversaries of births and deaths of relatives, dear friends, and persons he greatly admired—including Beethoven, Bach, and Proust), as well as Civil War battles and other major events).
The dark moodiness of the picture suggests an anniversary of a death to Driscoll, who thought it was intended as a memorial to Herbert Groesbeck, the second anniversary of whose death occurred only three weeks after Dickinson began the painting—on his own birthday. He believes that the picture's content may have been colored, if not inspired, by Thomas Hardy's poem "An Anniversary," which declares anniversaries to be "the saddest days of the year" and by Milton's "Lycidas", a poem Dickinson memorized about this time and often quoted. Milton's subject was the death of a young friend of great promise, as was Dickinson's brother Burgess, and the fear of dying before one's work is done, which Driscoll identifies as also the underlying meaning of Dickinson's painting. The presence of sheet music on the floor and stringed instruments—a violin held by the right hand of the man behind the old man's head and a violin or viola (both of which Dickinson played) held behind his head in the left hand of the standing man—again suggest that Dickinson felt an equivance in the play of forms to musical rhythms and harmonies. The instruments are not being played; the suggestion of music in the painting is expressed through the visual play of form.
O'Connor sees an overriding theme, pertaining to his father's remarriage to a much younger woman following his mother's death, in the symbolical pictures from 1920 to 1928 and in one begun the following year. He interprets the old man in An Anniversary, Two Figures II, The Cello Player, and The Fossil Hunters, and the androgynous woman in Woodland Scene as his aged father, associated in four of the paintings with a young woman and with the cello substituting for a woman in the fifth. The underlying idea that O'Connor proposes is that Edwin, unable in his poverty to marry until 1928, envies his father's happiness and sees him as a rival symbolically laid to rest in The Fossil Hunters by his own new love and marriage less than two months after work on the painting ended. O'Connor argues that the psychological resolution that Dickinson found in The Fossil Hunters he is unable to achieve in Woodland Scene because the symbolic references in it "are to old oedipal states once powerful enough to unify a painting, but now dissipated by his own new and fruitful life."
Two Figures II
The same model posed for the man in An Anniversary and Two Figures II, 1921–23, again accompanied by a young woman, here appearing more mannikin-like because of her smoothed-out hair and features and her Hawthorne stare. Once again the proximity of the figures, now bunched up on the right side of the picture, sharpens the feeling of their psychological separation from each other that their exclusion from the visual field of their partner's gaze creates. Ward suggests that this lack of interaction, the age difference, the placement of the woman behind the man and to the side of the picture, combined with the contrast between the man's depiction in color and the woman's in monochrome may signify that she is the image of a remembered love, perhaps triggered by the smell of a rose that recalls the remembered smell of one she once held (a hard-to-see stem connects it to her hand). Similarly, the strongly lit head of the old man in An Anniversary and the placement of the other figures behind him may indicate that they are people recollected from his past, seen as they were remembered. If so, the age difference may be because of recollected youth. When Dickinson was seventy, he noted in his journal that he had dreamed of his mother as a young woman.
Polar pictures
Between 1924 and 1926 Dickinson painted four pictures (one now lost) growing out of his keen interest in polar exploration. His involvement in the subject began with reading Arctic explorer Donald B. MacMillan's book Four Years in the White North. MacMillan was a Provincetown native and Dickinson knew him well. In at least two of the paintings the feeling of melancholic lassitude evident in his larger paintings is gone, replaced by a coherent narrative or scene rooted not in recollection but in the excitement of adventure. However, in one of the paintings, Bible Reading Aboard the Tegetthoff, 1925–26, Ward believes the imagery is more personal. He sees the tipsy, shadowy figures as embroiled in a Manichean struggle between darkness and light, centered on the Bible reader, whom he identified with Dickinson's father, a Presbyterian minister who conducted daily Bible readings at home. He suggests that the feet protruding from a long, curving, cylindrical, dark form descending over them may represent his mother about to be enveloped by death.
The Cello Player
The fourth of Dickinson's paintings that Driscoll identified as major and symbolical, The Cello Player, 1924–1926, took the longest to paint of works to that date. Again, the dominant figure is an old man, ostensibly playing a cello in a room littered with objects and seen from above, so that the space tips up to a horizon well above the picture top. The progressive tipping and enclosure of space can be observed in the sequence of works leading up to this one, a strategy that parallels modernist tendencies toward pictorial abstraction accompanied by spatial flattening. Nevertheless, the figure and objects in this picture give up none of their volume or tactile presence as objects. Music from a Beethoven quartet in the foreground, and two keyboard instruments at the right, suggest again the equation of painting and music, although the picture's narrative coherence is undermined, with objects positioned not for use but to create visual rhythms and harmonies.
Driscoll sees the painting as a tribute to Beethoven, the composer Dickinson honored above all others, and, through him, to his brother Burgess, pianist and composer, whom his fellow students at Yale had nicknamed "Beethoven."
Girl on Tennis Court
A medium-sized painting from imagination with uncharacteristic general use of relatively saturated color, Girl on Tennis Court, 1926, has received little written discussion. It represents a young woman striding boldly forward through patches of shadow that fall across her body and seem to menace her from below. The pose is similar to that of the Nike of Samothrace (with the legs reversed), which he had seen in the Louvre six years earlier and done a drawing of. In 1949 Dickinson tried including the Nike in his Ruin at Daphne (but changed it to a column fragment), and bought a reproduction of the sculpture. Ward notes that Dickinson first describes the picture he is beginning as "comp. of Sheldrake tennis ct" and believes that the inspiration for the painting may have been his sight of a girl at that location, moving in a pose that recalled his memory of the ancient Nike.
The Fossil Hunters
The Fossil Hunters, 1926–1928, contains the most explicit references to Dickinson's roots and loved ones. The title refers to the fossils that Dickinson had searched for as a child in Sheldrake, and again while visiting in the summer of 1926 before starting work on the painting. Dickinson may well have intended the painting to be a means of "rescuing" his brother Burgess through art: a death mask of Beethoven is depicted, but with eyes open, unlike the actual death mask. Dickinson opened the eyes in his painting, and in so doing, not only immortalized his brother, but gave him back the life he remembered him having.
Adler sees the old man as holding a stick (a symbolic paintbrush) to the grindstone as expressing the artist's "'labor' to give birth to something eternal", and the reference to a hunt for fossils referring to this desire to leave behind remains that will survive death. Dickinson himself admitted that the desire to make something as lasting as the work of the old masters was manifested in the size of the work (at 96½ inches high it was the largest painting he had done).
Andrée's Balloon (The Glen)
Ward is the only writer to publish an interpretation of Andrée's Balloon, 1929–1930. The picture is a curious one, begun on his honeymoon at the Dickinson cottage in Wellfleet, yet remarkably menacing for a happy bridegroom to paint. It is not obvious what changes Dickinson made to the picture in the seventeen months he worked on it, but the prolonged time—five months longer than it took him to paint An Anniversary, despite being only 30¼ × 25 3/16 inches—indicates the importance he gave it—and the struggle he had with finishing it to his satisfaction. Originally titled The Glen, it was renamed after the body and diary of the Swedish polar explorer Salomon August Andrée was found in 1930, but not before 1933, when he still referred to the picture by its original title and identified it as "[t]he one with the balloon at the top." The presence of the balloon in the originally titled painting Dickinson explains as referring to a memory of a balloon ascent from his childhood evidently awakened by his stay with his new bride at the family cottage. Ward points out that the terrain is that of the region, has nothing to do with the arctic environment where Andrée's party perished, and the picture was renamed without being repainted. He compares it with another painting of the balloon ascent, The Finger Lakes, 1940, and contrasts the soft, romantic mood and style of that painting with the menacing character of the earlier work, with shadows that appear to rise from the earth and the wildly swinging gondola of the balloon. Ward interprets the character of The Glen as arising from the conflict between his incomplete mourning for his mother and his love for his bride, which he is able to resolve in the later painting.
Woodland Scene
The struggle to bring a picture to completion experienced in The Glen continued in Woodland Scene, 1929–1935, on which he spent nearly four hundred sittings and twice changed the dimensions of (the seam attaching a strip of canvas on the left is just visible to the left of the inverted figure's shoulder; another strip he attached at the top was later removed and the right side was narrowed by 3¼ inches). Driscoll believed Dickinson's dissatisfaction with the picture, which he finally finished for his patron, made complete interpretation difficult. The one he offered links the sitter's stoic acceptance of her difficult situation after her husband's death with passages from Thomas Hardy's book The Woodlanders and his poem "In a Wood," in which Hardy portrays nature as engaged in a death struggle. Driscoll believes that Dickinson identifies with the subject's inner strength in facing disappointment and adversity. Ward cautions against trying to interpret the picture in terms of the sitter's biography; he notes that another sitter had originally posed for the seated figure, and both worked as models that Dickinson had used before.
Ward observes that this painting, like The Fossil Hunters, suggests the imagery of a dream, with its darkness, its floating figure, and the strange, mouthless figure who confronts the viewer. Ward suggests that the mouthless women that appear in several Dickinson paintings may refer to his mother, whom he can visualize, but cannot hear from. One is also struck by the contrast between the heavy coat on this figure and the nudity of the figure on the right who, except for her breast and right upper leg, is largely blanketed in smoke from a fire burning where her head would be, a contrast that Ward relates to the "burning passion of youth and the cold loneliness of old age." In the original picture, with more canvas on the right and less on the left, these figures would have been balanced against each other, and Ward believes, as in The Glen, that the picture represented Dickinson's struggle to reconcile the mourning he continued to do for his mother with the love he felt for his bride, a conflict that contributed to his inability to finish the painting in a way that satisfied him even after almost six years. He interprets the floating figure as the mother as he remembers her, with the rose, equated with a breast as a symbol of motherly love, and visually connected to the old woman's loins by the plow handle, as if it traced the path of her resurrection.
Stranded Brig (Loss of the Tegethoff)
According to Ward Dickinson's painting for the PWAP, Stranded Brig, 1934, had begun life as Loss of the Tegethoff, the third painting of a series on the subject of the stranding of that ship in polar ice, left off after about 15 sittings in the fall of 1930. In the final version the ice has disappeared and upended rocks resembling those he had painted in The Glen are present. The picture also contains the skeleton of a whaleboat in the foreground, along with an improbable weasel caught in a trap (lower left), falling rocks (left side), and a dangling walkway and steps. These details reinforce the idea of a situation without escape. Biographical events may have contributed to Dickinson's feelings: he had a bout with ulcers in 1933; he experienced back pains bad enough to wear a back brace from June 1931 until after Stranded Brig was complete; and on July 1, 1934 he entered the hospital for a battery of tests. The tests were inconclusive, but Dickinson's daughter believes the problem was depression, a family problem that had led to the death of his brother, and was perhaps exacerbated by his still-unresolved struggle with Woodland Scene, on which he had at that time spent five and a half years.
Shiloh
In the summer of 1932 Dickinson took a break from painting Woodland Scene and began a painting of a Civil War subject, Shiloh, 1932–33; revised 1940, 1963, the title already decided upon (but not the dimensions, which were later reduced from 50 × 40 inches to 36 × 32 inches). The painting originally contained two figures, the artist, sporting a beard grown for the occasion) and Bruce McCain, who was shown beneath a blanket except for his head and shoes, but the head (and a shoe, if McCain's memory is accurate) disappeared, evidently when the painting's size was reduced (although the top is the only original edge). As in The Fossil Hunters, the blanket was introduced at least in part for the formal play of its folds and has nothing to do with the subject, an especially bloody battle. The painting is the first indication of Dickinson's interest in the Civil War, a subject that his brother Howard had a great interest in, as did Edwin thereafter. Dickinson posed for his head lying on his back and looking at an overhead mirror. But the body was painted from a lay figure dressed in the uniform.
Adler observed that "to paint oneself as dead means to identify with the dead," and compared Dickinson's head in Shiloh to that of Count Orgaz in El Greco's painting. The visual resemblance is not strong, but in 1949 Dickinson told Elaine de Kooning, "When I saw the Burial of Count Orgaz, I knew where my aspirations lay." Consequently, it is entirely plausible that he may have thought of that painting in planning a picture dealing directly with death. Ward suggests that Dickinson very likely identified with the death of his brother, whose body he discovered when looking out his apartment window, or that of Herbert Groesbeck, with whom he had tried to enlist in World War I. He notes that the painting indicates no interest in the specifics of the historical battle. Although perhaps inspired by photographs of dead Civil War soldiers that his brother may have shown him, Dickinson transformed his subject into highly personal statement about death.
Composition with Still Life
In November 1933 Dickinson decided to put aside Woodland Scene, which he had been unable to bring to a satisfactory resolution, and began a new painting—his largest—that he eventually gave the neutral name of Composition with Still Life, 1933–1937. Work progressed steadily in 1934, except for the period Dickinson worked on Stranded Brig, followed by his hospitalization, and for two months at the beginning of 1935, when he finished up work on Woodland Scene at Esther's request. Dickinson put the painting aside in June 1935, after receiving word that his eldest brother, Howard, had been murdered in Detroit. He did little work on the painting until May 1936, and finished it November 1, 1937.
Adler found Composition with Still Life especially difficult to interpret, but thought it suggested "a picture of journey's end or of the last harbor". Driscoll recognizes water symbolism suggestive of disaster and death at sea in the imagery and relates it to shipwrecks that occurred in Provincetown, some of which he witnessed. Ward suggests that Composition with Still Life is the Dickinson work most explicitly presented as a dream through the combination of solid, detailed forms with passages that melt into gaseous substances or dissolve into one another.
Portraits
Dickinson painted portraits throughout his career, ranging from the self-portrait of 1914 to a portrait of Susanne Moss that he began in 1963 (remarkably, the only carefully delineated feature of either painting is the right eye, recalling Hawthorne's advice to "stop while it is still right, ... no matter how little ... is done"). The painted portraits he painted on commission tended not to be well received; even the charming portrait of Esther Sawyer's children was accepted only after he repainted "Sister." As a result, he did not attempt many of them. In 1930 and 1931 Esther arranged for Dickinson to draw portraits of about a dozen persons, all of which seem to have been accepted, but none of which have been reproduced or exhibited, in contrast to the one he did at this time of her daughter as a surprise gift to her. Some of the portraits, such as Barbara Brown, 1926, and one of his fiancé, Portrait of Francis Foley, 1927, involved numerous sittings. Others, such as Evangeline, 1942, or Carol Cleworth, 1959, were done in fewer sittings and were left off with parts not fully delineated, but at a point when he believed that they would not improve with further work. Still others, such as Martha, 1942, and Shirley, 1945, were treated as premier coups, done in one sitting.
Dickinson told Carol Gruber in 1957-58 that he had done about 28 self-portraits over the span of his career, of which most had been lost or destroyed. Only eleven self-portraits (including Shiloh) are known to exist at present; Self-Portrait [Nude Torso], 1941, Self-Portrait, 1923 (charcoal on paper), and Self-Portrait in Homburg Hat, 1947, are known from photographs; a self-portrait (La Grippe), painted in 1916 while ill, burned up in a fire; a self-portrait 20 × 16 inches is known only from a journal entry of 19 September 1943; another is noted in his journal as having been scraped off to reuse the canvas for a painting of a beach house, which he painted out after two days in favor of the architectural fantasy that eventually became Ruin at Daphne. No record exists of the others he mentioned, some of which may have been lost or beginnings that he scraped off, or he may have exaggerated the number. But even the sixteen self-portraits that can be substantiated as having been attempted constitute a body of work comparable with that of artists known for their self-portraits, such as Dürer, Rembrandt, and Van Gogh. Of the documented self-portraits, nine were painted in the period 1940-43.
Dickinson thought that Self-Portrait (1941), with a French villa in the background, a black stovepipe framing his right shoulder, and a dark cloud engulfing, but not darkening his head, was his best. The cry he lets out recalls the yell of the figure in the green mask in Interior and seems to reflect his emotional condition—less healthy and optimistic than usual—as he later admitted. The financial struggle to subsist, combined with his helpless feeling that the nation was being drawn into a war he strongly opposed contributed to his emotional state. Dickinson's interest in the Civil War certainly suggested the uniform in Self-Portrait in Uniform, 1942. But the entry of the United States into World War II less than one month before the painting was begun was probably its impetus. Ward sees the gaze, which addresses the observer, as a reproach for allowing the nation to slide into a new war, and the uniform a reminder of the terrible toll the Civil War took on the nation. At the same time, the inclusion of the American flag is a declaration that he is a loyal American, and the uniform is a reminder of his own service. His daughter relates that, because he was bearded and was seen drawing and painting on the beach, rumors spread in 1941 that he was a German spy mapping the terrain, an idea that was not yet squelched in 1943, despite an appeal to the American Legion to intervene on his behalf. The absence of a weapon is notable, especially in light of the fact that four days before beginning the painting he listed in his journal his collection of six army rifles of roughly World War I vintage. Ward suggests that, since he served as a telegraph operator in the Navy, the bugle acts as an equivalent means of sending a message, specifically the message of his distress as a loyal American over our being drawn into a new World War.
During the period in which Dickinson painted the greatest number of self-portraits, he also painted Still Life with Microscope, 1941. Little known or reproduced, it has the uncanny presence of a ghostly self-portrait. As Ward observes, the microscope floats in a dark envelope that in shape and position approximates Dickinson's head as it appears in portraits such as Self-Portrait in Uniform and Self-Portrait in Gray Shirt, 1943, while the darker areas that set off the bottom of the picture sit beneath this shape like a supporting torso, turned toward the right. The microscope, purchased at the same time he read Microbe Hunters, serves as the figure's symbolic eyes, and its orientation reinforces the perceived rotation of the figure's head and shoulders. The darkness in which the microscope hovers also relates to the dark pool in which Dickinson's head sits in the Self-Portrait with French villa, also of 1941 and the darkness of his Self-Portrait head of 1914.
Dickinson's Self-Portrait of 1949 differs from his others in being a profile portrait, achieved by the use of two mirrors. It was painted to give to the National Academy of Design as a condition of his admission to associate membership, and its character reflects that purpose. Ward suggests that Dickinson presents himself as an academician, the profile view indicative of the timeless essence of the man, with a perspective diagram behind him demonstrating command of the rules of pictorial space construction, and his arm raised in the creation of the picture in which he appears (uniquely among his self-portraits). But small patches of paint destabilize depicted surfaces as if to suggest that the perceived world is in continuous flux as the mind structures shifting perceptions. Self-Portrait, 1950, is a remnant of a half-length, nude self-portrait that once included a vase he cut out and gave to the National Academy of Design when they granted him full membership. The frontal head, dramatically lit, partially obscured by a shingle, with mouth open as if speaking, beard windswept, furrowed brow, and with a body seemingly confined, appears overpowered by circumstances beyond his control. No events in his life can be related with certainty to the expressive effect of this picture, but a notation in his journal links a life-threatening fall of his aged father to concerns about his own changing condition. These concerns were realized in 1953, when Dickinson spent most of the summer in the hospital, where he was operated on for an abscess followed by a bout with undulant fever. His wife was operated on in January 1954, and three weeks later and three days before the anniversary of his brother's death, he began his last Self-Portrait. As in the portrait of 1950, his arms appear confined, but in place of the flashing eye and teeth in the earlier work these openings are shown as dark holes, and a heavy ledge appears to bear down on his head. The image is of a heroic figure suffering anguish and defeat.
Ruin at Daphne
Dickinson's major painting of the 1940s, a work that he worked on between 1943 and 1953, was Ruin at Daphne, inspired by the Roman ruins that had impressed him on his European visit. Dickinson wanted to dedicate the picture to his brother Burgess, an intention he had harbored long before the painting began. On a canvas covered with a red-brown ground, he began a detailed perspective drawing in pencil that he then modeled with three values of the red-brown paint. He was excited about the challenge posed by having to invent the buildings, which permitted him compositional freedom to indulge in a complex interplay of form much like that permitted to a purely abstract painter.
In 1949, Elaine de Kooning wrote an article on the painting for ARTnews, illustrated with photographs documenting its progression through various alterations and transformations. The article had a significant role in gaining wider recognition for Dickinson. Only in early 1952 did Dickinson finally begin to overpaint the preliminary reds and pinks in which he had worked out the picture's design. Working from the center outwards, he had only painted perhaps 30 per cent of the canvas in the new, off-gray color when, in 1954, while the painting was being moved to an exhibition, a gust of wind caught it, knocking over the men who were carrying it and tearing a hole in the lower right corner. A restorer repaired the hole but applied a coat of heavy varnish to the entire painting that interfered with further work.
South Wellfleet Inn
Dickinson worked on one final major painting, South Wellfleet Inn, 1955–1960. In later years Dickinson gave 1950 as the date for the painting's beginning, but on August 2, 1955, he wrote in his journal, "Began a 44⅝ × 33¼ of the South Wellfleet Inn," giving, as he usually did, the measurement of the width first. Based on a drawing that he had made of the building in 1939 before it burned down, and a premier coup that he painted in 1951 of a scene that included part of the painting of the scene, with a second canvas with a depiction of the scene visible on the first depicted canvas. South Wellfleet Inn carries this idea further: it depicts the inn partially obscured by a canvas on which is painted a series of diminishing canvases and inns collapsing in upon themselves in infinite regress, slipping backward on the left and twisting downward at an accelerated rate on the right. Remarkably, the inclusion of the painting in the depicted scene sets off a chain reaction in which the apparently objective pictorial record has the effect of reenacting the hotel's collapse in fire sixteen years earlier. It has been suggested that the picture's imagery also symbolically reenacts the death of his mother and the brother whom he idolized, who jumped from Dickinson's sixth-floor apartment window. This idea is also supported by the photograph of a "cure cottage" such as the one in which his mother died at the Saranac Lake tuberculosis sanatarium behind the grimly forbidding windows of the upper story, a memory of which may have been awakened by the inn's upper windows.
Smaller works
Examples of very small premier coup paintings exist from Dickinson's student days, both in Chase's still life class, such as The Book, 1911, and from his study with Hawthorne, such as O'Neil's Wharf, 1913. But the average size of his paintings increased in the 1920s and '30s—even the premier coups, which represent a much smaller part of his output in the 1920s and early 1930s—to somewhere between 20 × 25 inches to 30 × 35 inches (excluding his large studio paintings). Landscapes of this size, often premier coups, increased in the 1930s, with the greatest production occurring in France in 1937–38, when he was not working on a large painting.
The style of his works varies in relation to size and date, with the smallest or the earliest done du premier coup more to train his eye and to learn to paint without preconception, as Hawthorne advised, or to get down information to use in a larger work; the somewhat larger ones he tended to work on longer and bring to a higher state of resolution. But this generalization is breached, for example, in the carefully composed Bulkhead Brace, 1913, 12 × 16 inches, which, despite both an early date and small size (most often associated, as in that work, with heavy impasto applied with a palette knife), appears fully resolved. An exception on the other end of the size range is Toward Mrs. Driscoll's, 1928, 50 × 40 inches, which is a premier coup. The impastoed paintings of 1913–1914, such as House, Mozart Avenue, 1913, and Self-Portrait, 1914, with occasional notes of fully saturated hues, are indebted to Hawthorne's teaching, but impasto, bright notes of color, and the sense of urgency in execution is still evident in paintings such as View from 46 Pearl Street, 1923, and Back of Harry Campbell's Studio, 1924. Dickinson continued the use of a palette knife, even in the large paintings, but gradually made greater use of brushes and thinner paint. In 1938 he wrote from France that many of the paintings he did then were painted "with the hand only." This practice continued in his later paintings. Denver Lindley, a student of Dickinson in the mid-1950s, said "His favorite tool was the little finger of his right hand. His smock was covered with paint on the right side because he wiped his finger on it."
Dickinson painted some more fully finished, somewhat larger landscapes in the later 1920s, such as Cliffs Longnook, 1927, and Parker's Cliffs, 1929, the former a gift to his sister Antoinette (Tibi), and the latter to his father and his second wife, Louise (Luty). But toward the middle of the 1930s a blurring of edges, softening of forms, and often greater luminosity can be observed throughout his work, including his drawings. This change occurs in works that are done quickly and with great urgency, which increase in number, including landscapes and marine pieces such as Rocks and Water, La Cride, 1938, and some of his portraits, such as Evangeline, 1942. But it may also be observed in drawings such as South Wellfleet Inn, and Roses, both 1939, and in his larger studio paintings, where blurred areas are combined with more resolved details, as in the 40 × 50 inch Stranded Brig, 1934, and the large Composition with Still Life, 1933–37.
Over time, Dickinson's small paintings and drawings tended to converge in style. Premier coup paintings evolve from early works with forms constructed in thick impasto to later ones with a generally thinner use of paint and hazier forms, but he continued the practice of building forms in paint patches rather than first drawing contours. By contrast, Dickinson's early drawings rely on firm contours and subtly nuanced shading to define clearly articulated forms, a style that gains greater economy and power from his study in Paris, as seen in Nude (Standing Nude, Hips and Legs), 1920, and in Esther Hill Sawyer, 1931, and then softens in the drawings of the 1930s (Nude #3, 1936). The drawings and premier coup paintings of this period, apparently so different from his large, time-consuming studio paintings, often share with them the quality of the Freudian uncanny that Iverson found in Edward Hopper's work, a quality to which the hazy luminosity contributes. Examples are the premier coups Villa in the Woods, 1938, White Boat, 1941, and the drawing Nude No. 5, Shoulder, 1936, and from 1950, Rock, Cape Poge.
Dickinson's paintings of the 1940s are on average substantially smaller than in any period since his student days, and even in the 1950s most are no large than 23 × 20 inches. This was done partly with the idea that they could be sold more cheaply (and thus more often) and were easier to carry in the field, partly because he was giving much of his time to painting Ruin at Daphne and teaching, and in the 1950s because he was limited by health problems. In some of his later work, in particular Ruin at Daphne, South Wellfleet Inn, the 12 × 14½ inch Carousel Bridge, Paris, 1952, and his Self-Portrait of 1949, Dickinson showed a greater interest in perspective construction and careful execution. But he still painted pictures du premier coup, including Through Two Cottage Windows, 1948, and his painting perhaps most difficult to perceive as anything but abstract shapes, Quarry, Riverdale, 1953.
Notes
References
Abell, Mary Ellen and Helen Dickinson Baldwin. Edwin Dickinson: The Provincetown Years, 1912–1937. Exhibition catalogue, The Provincetown Art Association and Museum, 2007.
Adler, Eliot. "Observations on Edwin Dickinson." Edited with notes by Matthew Baigell. Arts Magazine, 56, no 8 (April 1982): 124-126.
Baldwin, Helen Dickinson. "Chronology," in Douglas Dreischpoon et al. Edwin Dickinson: Dreams and Realities. Exhibition catalogue, New York: Hudson Hills Press in association with the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, 2002.
Carmean Jr., E.A., Eliza E. Rathbone, Thomas B. Hess. American Art at Mid-Century: The subjects of the Artist. Exhibition catalogue, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1978.
de Kooning, Elaine. "Edwin Dickinson Paints a Picture," ARTnews 48 no. 5 (September 1949): pp. 26–28, 50-51.
---------. "The Modern Museum's Fifteen: Dickinson and Kiesler," ARTnews 81, no. 8
(October, 1982): pp. 20–23; 66-67.
Dickinson, Edwin. Interview by Dorothy Seckler, 22 August 962. Archives of American Art, Washington, DC.Transcript of audiotape.
---------. Journals, 1916–1971. Unpublished . Syracuse University, George Arents Research Library for Special Collections. Microfilm of years 1916–1962 available through Archives of American Art: reels D93-96.
---------. Letters to Esther Hoyt Sawyer. Esther Hoyt Sawyer Letters, 1916–1945. Archives of American Art. microfilm reel 901.
Dreishpoon, Douglas et al. Edwin Dickinson: Dreams and Realities. New York: Hudson Hills Press, 2002.
Driscoll, John. "Edwin Dickinson: South Wellfleet Inn," in Charles Brock, Nancy Anderson, with Harry Cooper, American Modernism: The Schein Collection, Exhibition Catalogue. National Gallery of Art, 2010, pp. 46–51.
---------. "Edwin Walter Dickinson: An Iconological Interpretation of the Major Symbolical Paintings," Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1985.
Geske, Norman A. Venice 34. The Figurative Tradition in Recent American Art. 34th International Biennial Exhibition of Art, Venice, Italy, 1968. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968, pp. 43–70.
Goodrich, Lloyd. Edwin Dickinson, New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1966. Exhibition catalogue.
--------- The Drawings of Edwin Dickinson, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1963.
Gruber, Carol S. "The Reminiscences of Edwin Dickinson," interviews conducted between November 1957-January 1958. Columbia University Oral History Research Office Collection. Available on microfilm.
Hawthorne, Charles W. Hawthorne on Painting. edited by Mrs. Charles W. Hawthorne from student notes. Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, 1960.
Kahan, Mitchell D. "Subjective Currents in American Painting of the 1930s." Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1983. Unpublished.
Kuh, Katharine. The Artist's Voice. New York: Harper and Row, 1960.
Kuspit, Donald. "American Romantic." Art in America 71, no. 2 (February 1983): pp. 108–11.
O'Connor, Francis V. "Allegories of Pathos and Perspective in the Symbolical Paintings and Self-Portraits of Edwin Dickinson," in Dreishpoon, et al. 2002, pp. 51–75.
Schwartz, Sanford. "New York Letter." Art International, 6, no. 9 (November 1972, pp. 43–46).
Shannon, Joe. Edwin Dickinson: Selected Landscapes. Exhibition catalogue, Hirschhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1980.
Soby, James Thrall. "Romantic Painting in America," In James Thrall Soby and Dorothy C. Miller, Romantic Painting in America. Exhibition catalogue, New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1943.
Tillim, Sydney. Month in Review." Arts 35, no. 6 (March 1961): pp. 46–48.
Waldman, Diane, "Dickinson: Reality of Reflection." ARTnews 64, no.7 (November 1965): pp. 28–31; 70.
Ward, John L. Edwin Dickinson: A Critical History of His Paintings. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2003.
External links
Collection of works in the Hirshhorn museum
Auction results and paintings
1891 births
1978 deaths
American draughtsmen
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Art Students League of New York faculty
Art Students League of New York alumni
Artists from Buffalo, New York
People from Seneca Falls, New York
Brooklyn Museum Art School faculty
20th-century American male artists
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters |
4229235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna%20of%20Madagascar | Fauna of Madagascar | The fauna of Madagascar is a part of the wildlife of Madagascar.
Madagascar has been an isolated island for about 70 million years, breaking away from Africa around 165 million years ago, then from India nearly 100 million years later. This isolation led to the development of a unique endemic fauna.
Before humans arrived about 2,000 years ago, there were many large and unusual animals living there, descended from species that were originally present when Madagascar became an island, or from species that later crossed the sea to Madagascar. Ecological niches were often filled by animals with quite different histories from those on the African mainland, often leading to convergent evolution. A large proportion of these endemic Malagasy animals have died out since the arrival of humans, most particularly the megafauna.
Despite this, and massive deforestation, Madagascar is still home to an incredible array of wildlife, the vast majority of which is unique in the world. Madagascar is a primary spot for ecotourism, with more than fifty national parks and other protected reserves.
There are believed to have been only four colonization events of terrestrial mammals from mainland Africa. They brought to Madagascar the ancestors of its tenrecs, lemurs, carnivorans and nesomyine rodents. The other mammalian colonizations were those of the amphibious hippopotamuses (now extinct) and bats.
Mammals
The lemurs are the best known of Madagascar's mammals. They can only be found on Madagascar. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. The tenrecs are another group of mammals characteristic of Madagascar. Most of the world's species of these small to medium-sized insectivores are found on the island. Rodents are poorly represented on the island with only a handful of native species, all belonging to the subfamily Nesomyinae. They include the large, endangered Malagasy giant rat. Due to their ability to fly, a greater variety of bats have reached the island. However, only about a third of these are endemic, a lower proportion than in other groups of land mammals. There are eight members of the Carnivora on the island, all now classified in the endemic family Eupleridae. The cat-like fossa is the largest of these.
Malagasy living mammals
Lemurs: As of 2008, there are officially 99 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which have been described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. Of the 51 species that were evaluated by the IUCN that year, 43 were categorized as threatened to some degree, with six species being classified as "Critically Endangered", the designation of highest risk. The evaluations became considerably more pessimistic in 2012.
Eupleridae: Primary among these malagasy carnivores is the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), an animal similar in appearance to a feline. Other Malagasy carnivores include the fanaloka (Fossa fossana), which, despite its scientific name, should not be confused with the fossa. Nor should it be confused with the very similarly named falanouc (Eupleres goudotii), also known as the Malagasy small-toothed civet. Five species of mongoose are also found in Madagascar, as is the small Indian civet, one of the carnivores believed to have been introduced to the island.
Tenrecidae: Three species of tenrec (the otter shrews) are found on the African mainland. The majority of tenrecs, around 30 species, are found in Madagascar. They have radiated into many different niches. For example, web-footed tenrecs (Limnogale mergulus) resemble river otters in appearance and behaviour. The lesser hedgehog tenrec (Echinops telfairi) resembles its namesake the hedgehog.
Rodents: About 30 species of indigenous rodent are known from Madagascar, three of which are now extinct. They are all members of the muroid subfamily Nesomyinae. These have also radiated into various niches, with vole-like forms, arboreal mice, fossorial varieties, and rabbit-like forms.
Bats: Approximately 69 species of bat are known from Madagascar, more than half of which are endemic to the island (see List of bats of Madagascar).
Malagasy extinct mammals
Plesiorycteropus (P. germainepetterae, P. madagascariensis): One or two species of mysterious aardvark-like tenrec relatives that may have gone extinct about 1000 years ago.
Giant lemurs: At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since man arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species. They include the giant aye-aye, three to five times as heavy as the extant species. Megaladapis, which had three species, reached the size of orangutans. The eight sloth lemurs show evolutionary convergence with the South American sloths; Palaeopropithecus was chimpanzee-sized, while Archaeoindris grew to over 200 kg, more massive than a silverback gorilla.
Giant fossa (Cryptoprocta spelea): The fossil record of Madagascar has yielded the remains of a recently extinct fossa which was about a quarter larger than the living species, making it close to the size of an ocelot. This species was believed to have preyed upon the larger lemurs that inhabited Madagascar until the island was settled by man.
Malagasy hippopotamuses: There are thought to have been three species of dwarf or pygmy hippopotamus in Madagascar, the last of which died out no earlier than 1,000 years ago, probably as a result of human settlement of the island.
Birds
About 280 species of bird have been recorded on Madagascar and about 200 of these breed. Although these are relatively low numbers for a large tropical island, there is a high degree of endemism. Over 100 bird species are endemic and 49 of these are restricted-range endemics with a range of less than 50,000 km2. There are five bird families unique to Madagascar or shared only with the Comoro Islands: the mesites, the ground-rollers, the cuckoo-roller, the asities and the vangas. In addition, recent studies suggest that several songbirds should be grouped together in a new endemic family: the Malagasy warblers.
Elephant birds (e.g. Aepyornis maximus) were flightless ratites up to over three metres tall and half a tonne in weight. Genetic studies have revealed that their closest living relatives are the kiwi of New Zealand, rather than the nearby ostriches of Africa; i.e., their presence on the island appears to be due to long-range dispersal rather than vicariance. They are thought to have become extinct within the last millennium, as a result of human activity. Other endemic birds that have disappeared since human settlement of the island include the Malagasy lapwing and Malagasy shelduck.
Reptiles
Relatively few families and genera of reptile have reached Madagascar but they have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90% of these being endemic. The chameleons are very well represented with two-thirds of the world's species found there. The other lizard groups on Madagascar are the geckoes, skinks, girdle-tailed lizards and iguanids. Over 60 different snakes occur on the island; none of these are harmful to man. There are six land tortoises species, five endemics and one introduced species (Bell's hinge-back tortoise). Land based turtles include the African helmeted turtle, yellow-bellied mud turtle and East African black mud turtle. The shores are used for nesting by the loggerhead sea turtle, green sea turtle and hawksbill sea turtle while the olive ridley sea turtle forages here. Madagascar's largest reptile is the Nile crocodile which has become very rare due to hunting for its skin. Endemic voay (V. robustus) became extinct.
Madagascar is a stronghold for a wide diversity of endemic species of chameleons and is considered the radiation point for day geckos. The two genera of iguanas present have a basal relationship to other iguanas and are believed to have been present on the island since it separated from Africa. The Madagascar big-headed turtle, spider tortoise, flat-backed spider tortoise, radiated tortoise and ploughshare tortoise are endangered species.
Chameleon genera found in Madagascar: Calumma, Furcifer and Brookesia
Iguanian (or iguanid) lizard genera of Madagascar: Chalarodon and Oplurus
Amphibians
There are more than 290 amphibian species in Madagascar with new species being found regularly. Nearly all of these are endemic and the majority are restricted to primary forest. Examples of well-known amphibian species found in Madagascar include tomato frog and golden mantella frog.
Freshwater fish
Madagascar has a rich freshwater fish fauna with a very high rate of endemics. The full diversity is unclear, as new species are being described regularly and species may have disappeared before even being discovered; estimates suggest the island has between 135 and 150 native fish species that are restricted to freshwater (this number grows significantly if including widespread euryhaline species). Among these are two families entirely restricted to Madagascar, the anchariid catfish and the Madagascar rainbowfish. Additionally, several genera are endemic to Madagascar, including cichlids (Katria, Oxylapia, Paratilapia, Paretroplus, Ptychochromis and Ptychochromoides), round herrings (Sauvagella and Spratellomorpha), Old World silverside (Teramulus), sleeper gobies (Ratsirakia and the troglobitic Typhleotris), and aplocheilid killifish (Pachypanchax – strictly speaking near-endemic, as there is a single species from the Seychelles). There are endemic species from other genera (notably Ambassis, Arius, Eleotris, Glossogobius, Kuhlia, Mesopristes, Ophiocara, Pantanodon and Sicyopterus), but these also have other species found elsewhere.
The geographic history of Madagascar (long isolated, but part of Gondwana) has resulted in unusual biogeographic patterns, comparable to those seen in other animal and plant groups of the island. For example, the closest relatives of the Madagascar rainbowfish are the "true" rainbowfish of New Guinea and Australia,<ref>Sparks; and Smith (2004). 'Phylogeny and biogeography of the Malagasy and Australasian rainbowfishes (Teleostei: Melanotaenioidei): Gondwanan vicariance and evolution in freshwater. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33(3): 719–734.</ref> while the killifish Pachypanchax and the cichlids Paretroplus have their closest relatives in South Asia.
The freshwater fish fauna in Madagascar has declined drastically due to habitat loss (pollution, siltation following deforestation, damming and alike), overfishing and introduced species (tilapia, Nile perch, African arowana, blotched snakehead, green swordtail and many other), with some suggesting that only a remnant of the natives can be saved. Among species already believed to be extinct are Pantanodon madagascariensis and Ptychochromis onilahy.
Invertebrates
Oligochaeta
Thirty-eight species of earthworms are recorded in seven families, i.e. the Megascolecidae, Kynotidae (giant earthworms; endemic family with a single genus), Acanthodrilidae, Eudrilidae, Ocneodrilidae, Octochaetidae and Glossoscolecidae. Among the species reported 59% are endemic.
Insects
Madagascar is home to huge variety of insects, the majority of which are endemic. Thousands of species are present in some groups such as the beetles and moths. There are approximately 100,000 species of insects and counting in Madagascar. Distinctive species include the long-necked giraffe weevil, the huge comet moth and the butterfly-like Madagascan sunset moth. About 80 species of stick insect occur; the Achrioptera species are large and colourful while others are small and very well-camouflaged. Many of the island's praying mantises are also well-camouflaged, mimicking dead leaves or bark. There are over 100 cockroaches, including the large hissing cockroaches.
The mosquitoes of Madagascar include 235 species, among which 138 (59%) are endemic and 64 (27%) have a known medical or veterinary interest because they can transmit diseases.
Beetles: Various species of beetles. For example, various tiger beetles (Cicindelidae): 109 species from genus Pogonostoma, 65 species from genus Physodeutera.
Madagascar is home to the smallest bee in the World, Liotrigona bitika (Brooks & Michener 1988) with a body length of less than 2 mm, and to several other species of Meliponini.
Spiders
Darwin's bark spider was discovered in 2009. It is famous for making the strongest and largest spider webs (ranging from 900 – 28000 square centimetres). The silk produced by this spider is twice as strong as other common spider silk.
Molluscs
Freshwater crustaceans
Madagascar is home to several endemic freshwater crustaceans, including 17 species of potamonautid crabs (Boreas, Foza, Hydrothelphusa, Madagapotamon, Malagasya, Marojejy and Skelosophusa), 7 species of parastacid crayfish (Astacoides), and atyid shrimp.Cumberlidge (2008). Insular species of Afrotropical freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Potamonautidae and Potamidae) with special reference to Madagascar and the Seychelles. Contributions to Zoology 77(2): 71–81.Cumberlidge, Klaus, Meyer & Koppin (2015). New collections of freshwater crabs from northern Madagascar, with the description of a new species of Foza Reed & Cumberlidge, 2006 (Brachyura, Potamonautidae), and comments on their conservation status. European Journal of Taxonomy 109: 1–15.
Marine life
The seas around Madagascar host a high diversity of wildlife, including invertebrates. There is a still a large area of mangrove swamp around the coast, particularly in the west, and there are extensive coral reefs around the island. Thousands of fish species occur, including the rare coelacanth. Four species of sea turtle breed on the beaches, but many are taken for food by local people. For whales, humpback whales breed off the south-western coasts such as at Île Sainte-Marie, Omura's whales notably around Nosy Be, pygmy blue whales on the Madagascar Plateau, and southern right whales slowly increasing along Malagasy coasts.
Malagasy faunal names
Fish
Selected Malagasy fish names:Bauchot, M-L. & G. Bianchi 1984. Guide de poisons commerciaux de Madagascar (espèces marines et d’eaux saumâtres). Rome : FAO.Richmond, M.D. 2002. A field guide to the seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean islands (2nd ed). Milan: SIDA/SAREC – University of Dar es Salaam.
gogo: Arius spp.
mahalogy: Caesio spp.
tsenaby: Cheilio inermislemeleme: Coris formosalanora: Elagatis bipinnulataalovo: Epinephelus fasciatus, Epinephelus coeruleopunctatusangoa, vohy: Euthynnus affinistserakantsiva: Fistularia petimbaambariake: Gerres oyenasoavahindriaka: Hippocampus cf. borboniensisndwaro: Istiophorus platypterusfiambondis (?): Labroides dimidiatustapaporoha: Lethrinus harakambitsy: Lethrinus nebulosusromanjia: Lethrinus variegatustsivaravana: Lutjanus boharamposama: Lutjanus fulviflammafiamasika: Lutjanus kasmirandwaro: Makaira indicakipela, talatala: Monodactylus argenteusamgelika: Monotaxis grandoculisdangiara, filao papango: Platax orbicularisfiandolo, lafalovo: Plotosus lineatusbodoloha: Pseudanthias squamipinnislemilemy: Pseudochromis dutoitisabonto: Rastrelliger kanagurtasoroboa: Rhynchobatus djiddensismaro taobana: Sardinella albellalamatra, talafeta: Scomberomorus commersonlamatra: Scomberomorus plurilineatusakihoviko: Sphyrna spp.
drihy, tsarabora: Terapon jarbualemeleme: Thalassoma hebraicumsampramale, vivano: Variola loutifiam'akoho: Zanclus cornutusMammals
Extinct megafauna
Birds
Vorompatra: AepyornisLemurs
Tratratratra, tretretretre: probably Palaeopropithecus (a type of sloth lemur)
Tokandia: probably Megaladapis (koala lemur)
Kidoky: Hadropithecus or Archaeolemur (monkey lemurs, baboon lemurs)
Others
Kilopilopitsofy, tsomgomby, railalomena: Malagasy hippopotamus
Antamba: Cryptoprocta spelea or similar
Habitat loss
Most of Madagascar's habitats are in danger; they are being threatened by today's demands and growing needs. Environmental damage has been especially severe for humid forests. Fauna and Flora International, abbreviated as FFI is one of the organizations that supports Madagascar's habitats.
In popular culture
As a part of conservation efforts, the Wildlife Conservation Society has recently opened a Madagascar! exhibit at the Bronx Zoo.
The 2005 animated film Madagascar'' featured a number of animals of Madagascar as cartoon characters.
See also
Madagascar Fauna Group
List of mammals of Madagascar
Wildlife of Madagascar
References
External links
Large database of local names of fauna of Madagascar with English and scientific names
Moravec J. (2010): Tiger Beetles of the Madagascan Region (Madagascar, Seychelles, Comoros, Mascarenes, and other islands) Taxonomic revision of the 17 genera occurring in the region (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae),430 pp.
Madagascar and other Islands: Human Settlers Invade Paradise
New York Academy of Sciences Podcast |
4229853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Lagos | History of Lagos | Lagos is the largest city of the West-African country of Nigeria, and its former capital; it is the third largest city in Africa in terms of population with about 15.3 million people. It is also the 4th largest economy in Africa.
Historical names
Lagos means "lakes" in Portuguese, the language of the first Europeans to arrive at the land already inhabited by the Awori who are a sub-ethnic group of the Yoruba people. To the Awori, the area was initially known as "Oko" or "Eko". The Portuguese would refer to it as "Onim" and later "Lagos".
To differentiate the modern settlement from the older kingdom in the area, the name "Onim" has been applied to the latter by some historians such as Toby Green.
Beginnings
Lagos was originally inhabited by the Awori subgroup of the Yoruba people in the 15th century and Binis in the 16th century. The Awori moved to an island now called Iddo and then to the larger Lagos Island. Their ruler Olofin divided the island among his ten sons. One of them, Aromire, planted pepper on the nearby island of Lagos. The palace of the Oba (king) of the Yoruba, Iga Idunganran, which was later built on this site, is therefore literally translated as "pepper farm palace".
During a dispute between Olofin and a wealthy woman named Aina, the Oba of Benin tried to mediate in these affairs of Iddo Island. The Oba sent envoys to comply with Aina's request to investigate the dispute. The men, who arrived in a canoe, believed the fishing paraphernalia on the shore to be signs of readiness for war from a distance. When they returned to the Oba, they told him of their findings and he sent them back to the battle with military support, accepting a challenge. Aseru, a war chief who was part of these reinforcements, stayed behind on the island of Iddo after the defeat and capture of Olofin. He went on to war against other neighbouring towns and got as far as Iseri, where he eventually died. A certain Asipa then brought his body back to Benin. For his deed, the Oba rewarded him by appointing him ruler of Iddo Island. Asipa was also given the royal drum (Gbedu), which is beaten by the Obas of Lagos to this day. His son Ado became the first king of Lagos and his lineage continues the line of the Obas of Lagos to this day.
Arrival of Europeans
In 1472, Portuguese explorers arrived, and began to trade, eventually followed by other Europeans. Lagos (Portuguese for "lakes") was a name given to the settlement by the Portuguese. Throughout history, it was home to a number of warring ethnic Yoruba groups who had settled in the area. Following its early settlement by the Awori nobility, the state first came to the attention of the Portuguese in the 15th century.
Portuguese explorer Rui de Sequeira visited the area in 1472, naming the area around the city Lago de Curamo, which means Lake of Curamo. It's also probable that the city was named after the homonymous coastal town of Lagos, Portugal, in the Algarve region, where sailors and settlers would have departed.
The area fell under the domain of Benin in the 16th century. By 1600, it served as a frontier town, and Benin limited its local presence to soldiers led by four military commanders. This military presence as well as the exchange with European traders resulted in economic growth, as locals would travel along the coast and from further inland to Lagos Island for trade; at this point, clothes were the main item sold at and exported from the island as well as Benin as a whole.
In the 17th century, the trade with the Portuguese also began to increase, as Onim became a center of the Atlantic slave trade. The local obas (kings) developed good relations with the Portuguese.
By the early 19th century, it was a small kingdom and a tributary to the Oyo Empire. Like many West African states, Onim developed strong diplomatic as well as economic links to South America. It sent embassies to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, and became one of the first countries to recognize the independence of Brazil in 1823. Meanwhile, the Oyo Empire had begun to collapse. This allowed Lagos to assume the leading economic position regionally, becoming the most important market in the Yoruba territories as well as growing substantially.
British influence
In Britain's early 19th-century fight against the transatlantic slave trade, its West Africa Squadron or Preventative Squadron as it was also known, continued to pursue Portuguese, American, French, and Cuban slave ships and to impose anti-slavery treaties with West African coastal chiefs with so much doggedness that they created a strong presence along the West African coast from Sierra Leone all the way to the Niger Delta (today's Nigeria) and as far south as Congo.
From the crowning of Ado as its Oba, Lagos (then called Eko) had served as a major center for slave-trade, from which then Oba of Benin and all of his successors for over two centuries supported — until 1841, when Oba Akitoye ascended to the throne of Lagos and attempted to ban slave trading. Local merchants strongly opposed the intended move, and deposed and exiled the king, and installed Akitoye's brother Kosoko as Oba. Exiled to Europe, Akitoye met with British authorities, who had banned slave trading in 1807, and who therefore decided to support the deposed Oba to regain his throne.
In 1849, Britain appointed John Beecroft Consul of the Bights of Benin and Biafra, a position he held (along with his governorship of Fernando Po) until his death in 1854. John Duncan was appointed Vice Consul and was located at Whydah. At the time of Beecroft's appointment, the Kingdom of Lagos (under Oba Kosoko) was in the western part of the Consulate of the Bights of Benin and Biafra and was a key slave trading port.
In 1851 and with pressure from liberated slaves who now wielded political and business influence, Britain intervened in Lagos in what is now known as the Bombardment of Lagos or Capture of Lagos resulting in the installation of Oba Akitoye and the ouster of Oba Kosoko. Oba Akitoye then signed the Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos abolishing slavery. The signing of the 1852 treaty ushered in the Consular Period in Lagos's history wherein Britain provided military protection for Lagos.
The Royal Navy originally used the port of the Spanish island of Fernando Po (now Bioko, Equatorial Guinea) off Nigeria as an extraterritorial base of operations. In 1855, Spain claimed this port for itself. The Royal Navy therefore had to find another naval base. Lagos was the most attractive option.
Colonial Lagos
Following threats from Kosoko and the French who were positioned at Whydah, a decision was made by Lord Palmerston (British Prime Minister) who noted in 1861, "the expediency of losing no time in assuming the formal Protectorate of Lagos". William McCoskry, the Acting Consul in Lagos with Commander Bedingfield convened a meeting with Oba Dosunmu on 30 July 1861 aboard HMS Prometheus where Britain's intent was explained and a response to the terms were required by August 1861. Dosunmu resisted the terms of the treaty but under the threat to unleash a bombardment on Lagos by Commander Bedingfield, Dosunmu relented and signed the Lagos Treaty of Cession on 6 August 1861.
Lagos as colony
Lagos was declared a colony on 5 March 1862 but governed by the Gold Coast, modern day Ghana. In 1886, Lagos became a separate colony from the Gold Coast under Governor Cornelius Alfred Moloney. Navy port Lagos became an essential trading centre as traders realised they could count on the protection of the Royal Navy to protect them from pirates, for example.
Lagos quickly became a destination for immigration. Along with migrants from all over Nigeria and other West African nations were the returnee ex-slaves known as Creoles, who came from Freetown, Sierra Leone, Brazil, and the West Indies to Lagos. The Creoles contributed to Lagos's modernization and their knowledge of Portuguese architecture can still be seen from the architecture on Lagos Island. Since the 19th century, Lagos gradually transformed into a melting pot of Africans and Europeans.
In 1869, the Cathedral Church of Christ was established in Lagos. Five years earlier, Samuel Ajayi Crowther had become the first African bishop of the Anglican Church.
Lagos as capital
The central importance of Lagos for Nigeria can be traced back to General Lugard, who advanced far north with British troops after 1900 and, as governor, made Lagos the capital of the south and later of the entire country.
In 1906, Lagos was merged with the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and became its capital. In Lekki, near Lagos, the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation under businessman John Simon Bergheim found oil during test drilling in 1908.
On January 1st 1914, Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were united into a single state, the "Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria"; Lagos became the capital. However, the British ruled northern and southern Nigeria in different ways, which continues to have an impact to the present day. In the north, "indirect rule" was practised, which left the traditional, partly centuries-old ruling structures largely intact. In the south, like Lagos, the British ruled directly and tried to impart European achievements to the local inhabitants. This includes the "Nigerian Council" of the Clifford Constitution of 1922, a kind of parliament with 46 representatives among which four locals, including three from Lagos. Northern Nigerians were not represented.
Modernisation
The Lagos Government Railway began construction of a Cape Gauge railway line from Lagos to Ibadan in 1896, which was opened on 4 March 1901. The line was later extended to Nguru via Oshogbo, Ilorin, Kaduna, Zaria and Kano, making a total length of about 1360 km. From 1902, the LGR also operated the Lagos steam tramway.
Telephone cables connecting Lagos to London had been established by 1886.
Electrification was implemented in Lagos on 19 September 1898, 17 years after its introduction in England. The total generation at that time was 60 kilowatts (kW). The power line supplied the Lagos marina from the Government House to the north side of the island.
In 1901, the first bridge was built between Lagos Island and the mainland, the Carter Bridge, named after the governor from 1891 to 1898.
In 1913, the Lagos Port was commissioned.
Mailboat connection, "Boat Express"
Since 1 February 1914, a regular mailboat service ran between Lagos and Great Britain (Liverpool). The first mail steamer of this line was the S/S Akoko. The contact of the colony of Nigeria with Great Britain was mainly maintained by such mail ships before the beginning of air transport (1945). Once a month, a mail steamer of the Elder Dempster Lines from Liverpool docked in the capital Lagos/Apapa and in Calabar/Port Harcourt. These were alternately the MS Apapa and her sister ship, the MS Accra. In addition to letters and parcels, they also carried cargo and about 100 passengers and also stopped in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gold Coast (Ghana). This was how colonial officials, colonial army officers, business travellers and globetrotters reached the West African colonies of the Commonwealth or home. Travellers from mail steamers could board the "Boat Express" waiting next to the steamer and reach Kano in far northern Nigeria within 43 hours in sleeping and dining cars. Such passengers were predominantly the officers of the colonial army in the first class compartment.
In 1935, the railway network in colonial Nigeria reached its maximum expansion. It comprised 3,056 km of track at that time. In 1916, a 550 m railway bridge over the Niger River and in 1932 (or 1934) a bridge over the Benue River had connected the three parts of the rail network. 179 mainline and 54 shunting locomotives were in use. The maintenance and repair workshop in Ebute Metta employed 1,500 locals. High school graduates could be trained by the railway company as locomotive drivers or technicians in six-year courses - during which they worked in the workshop mentioned above and in the construction department, for example. During this training, the apprentices were paid and received an annual salary of £480 (about £48,000 in today's money, significantly more than the average Nigerian income today) upon completion of the training. For the trainees in Lagos, the railway company had specially provided a discarded but still functioning steam locomotive, which they could use to learn how it worked.
Second World War
During the Second World War, in 1942, Lagos played a role in "Operation Postmaster". In an adventurous way, British special agents on the nearby but Spanish and thus neutral island of Bioko captured Italian and German supply ships for U-boats in the South Atlantic and brought them to the home port of Lagos. The incident - in which no shot was fired - almost led to Franco's Spain entering the war alongside the Third Reich and fascist Italy.
In June 1945, railway workers in Lagos initiated a nationwide general strike. It was the first of its kind in the nation, growing to comprise 200,000 workers and seventeen labor unions. In 1946, the commission increased wages of workers. The strike served as a focal point for criticism of British rule of Nigeria. It has been cited as a "turning point" in Nigerian labor relations. An article on the strike in the Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria declared its main legacy to be "the need for mutual sobriety." Nigeria did not have another general strike for nineteen years.
Independence
Lagos maintained its status as capital when Nigeria obtained its independence from Britain in 1960. Lagos experienced rapid growth throughout the 1960s and 1970s as a result of Nigeria's economic boom. This continued through the 1980s and 1990s up to the present date.
Split into 13 LGA's
Before 27 May 1967, Lagos had been administered directly by the Federal Government as a Federal Territory through the Federal Ministry of Lagos Affairs, while the Lagos City Council (LCC) governed the city. Lagos, along with the towns from the then Western region (Ikeja, Agege, Mushin, Ikorodu, Epe and Badagry), were eventually merged to create Lagos State. Lagos city was split into the present day seven Local Government Areas (LGAs), while the other towns now make up 13 LGAs in the state. Lagos played the dual role of being the State and Federal Capital until 1976 when the state capital was moved to Ikeja. Lagos was adversely affected during Nigeria's military rule.
Music Industry, McCartney's "Band on the Run"
Lagos has been a centre of the music industry since the seventies. International stars like Beyoncé also record their hits in Lagos.
The pioneer in this respect was Paul McCartney, who recorded the album "Band on the Run" with his then band Wings at the EMI studio on 7 Wharf Road in Apapa, Lagos, from August to October 1973. Among other things, the ex-Beatle hoped for inspiration from the exotic location. "Band on the Run" is still (2023) McCartney's most successful album, which is also praised by critics.
The cement armada
One of the strangest chapters in the history of Lagos is that of the "cement armada". Due to corruption and incompetence of the central government under General Gowon, hundreds of ships with ordered cement deliveries - half of the world supply - were lying outside the port in 1974, causing chaotic scenes.
Volkswagen plant in Lagos
Volkswagen of Nigeria began assembling the VW 1300 in Lagos on 21 March 1975. In 1976, it produced over 16,000 vehicles, including the Passat and the Audi 100. In 1982, the Shagari government reacted to Nigeria's lack of foreign currency by imposing import restrictions, which hampered production in Lagos in the 1980s.
In March 1990, the Volkswagen Group decided to withdraw from the Nigeria business. Negotiations on a sale to a Nigerian group of companies, which began in 1992, failed to reach a conclusion because of internal political power struggles. In 1994, Volkswagen withdrew the last German employees. Since then, production has been at a standstill. The district where the production plant was located is still called "Volkswagen".
FESTAC 77
From January to February 1977, the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) took place in Lagos (and in Kaduna). FESTAC 77 is believed to be the largest cultural event held in Africa in the 20th century. It included events and exhibitions on African art, film, music, literature, dance and religion. The site on the Badagry Expressway in the west of the city is still called "Festac town" today.
Visit of Jimmy Carter
From 31 March to 3 April 1977, the then US President Jimmy Carter visited Lagos. To date, it is the only visit by a US president to the city (as of 2023).
Not Nigerias capital anymore
In 1991, Ibrahim Babangida, the Military President and other government functions moved to the newly built capital Abuja. This was as a result of intelligence reports on the safety of his life and what was later to be termed his hidden agenda, which was the plan to turn himself into a civilian president. He finished what was started by the Murtala/Obasanjo regime. The change resulted in Lagos losing some prestige and economic leverage. However, Lagos remains the financial center of the country, and also grew to become the most populous conurbation in the country.
New millennium
The rise of Nollywood
After 2000, the centre of the Nigerian film industry, commonly referred to as Nollywood, developed in the Surulere district. Lagos itself has since been the location and setting for many films. The 2016 film "Captain America: Civil War" contains a scene set in Lagos. The Spanish police series "La unidad" (2020 - 2023), the British drama "The Last Tree" (2019) and the US-Spanish drama "The Way, Chapter 2" with Martin Sheen (2023 still in development) also use Lagos as a filming location. The film "93 days" (2016) with Danny Glover is a somewhat melodramatic but fact-based account of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in Lagos and was filmed on original locations. Since the success of the Nigerian thriller "The Figurine", Nigerian film has increasingly focused on high-quality productions that are also commercially successful. This in turn has led to ever new records in box office takings in Nigeria (2009: "The Figurine", 2013: "Half of a Yellow Sun", 2016: "The Wedding Party").
Emergency situations
On 27 January 2002, explosions occurred at a barracks site in the city. According to military sources, the cause was the spread of a fire from a street market. It led to about 30 explosions in an ammunition depot, which affected adjacent buildings. People fled in panic. The disaster emanating from the ammunition depot cost at least a thousand lives. Many families were left homeless as their homes were destroyed. Impacts occurred within a seven-kilometre radius of the explosion site. Many children drowned in a sewer as they fled.
In 2012, 163 people were killed when a McDonnell Douglas MD-83 crashed into a local furniture works and printing press building.
On 1 November 2021, a 21-storey high-rise building under construction in the affluent Ikoyi district collapsed (full article here). 44 people were killed, including the owner and the construction manager who were investigating problems in the structure on site at the time of the collapse. According to witnesses, a pillar on the first floor showed cracks. The owner, Femi Osibona, demanded that the contractor replaced this pillar with a new, intact one and offered the construction workers breakfast for the extra work. Shortly afterwards, the building had collapsed. The building permit had only allowed 15 storeys and the original contractor had withdrawn from the project a year earlier because of the deliberate deviations from the building plan. For example, after two identical buildings were built in close proximity, a different concrete mix had been used. - The construction disaster is the largest of its kind in Lagos (as of 2023); multi-storey buildings often collapse in the metropolis of Lagos, but the number of storeys and fatalities are quite a bit lower than in the above case.
Narrow escape: Ebola in Lagos
On 20 July 2014, a traveller from Liberia infected with Ebola arrived at the airport in Lagos and was diagnosed after being admitted to a private hospital. This patient may have infected 72 people at the airport and hospital. The patient died on 25 July; as of 24 September, there were 19 laboratory-confirmed Ebola cases and one probable case in two states, with 894 contacts identified and followed up as part of the response. No new cases had emerged since 31 August, suggesting that the Ebola outbreak in Nigeria may be contained. The rapidly established Emergency Operations Centre, which used an Incident Management System (IMS) to coordinate response and consolidate decision-making, was instrumental in containing the outbreak in Nigeria at an early stage and avoiding a disaster scenario.
Tech Hub in Yaba, Zuckerberg visit
On 30 August 2016, Mark Zuckerberg visited tech startups in the Yaba district, in particular CcHUB and IT instructor Andela. During his surprise visit, Zuckerberg spoke to children who are learning programming languages during their summer holidays, among other things. In October 2017, Facebook established the first African SME Council in Nigeria to support small and medium-sized enterprises.
Infrastructure measures
On 10 June 2021, Lagos received a standard gauge railway link with Nigeria's third largest city, Ibadan, including a modern central station, Mobolaji Johnson. While other sub-Saharan African countries continue to use or decommission railway networks from the colonial era, Nigeria is expanding its rail network with Chinese assistance. In 2022, the Nigerian Railway Corporation reported profitable operation of the Lagos-Ibadan line despite restrictions due to Covid epidemic.
In January 2023, the new deep-sea port of Lekki was opened to relieve traffic at the more centrally located but congested and shallower ports of Apapa and Tin Can Island.
On 4 September 2023, the first section, the blue line, of the Lagos suburban railway went into operation.
Obas (Kings) of Onim / Lagos
Ashipa (1600–1630)
King Ado (1630–1669) first King of Lagos
King Gabaro (1669–1704)
King Akinsemoyin (1704–1749)
Eletu Kekere (1749)
King Ologun Kutere (1749–1775)
Adele Ajosun (1775-1780 & 1832-1834)
Eshilokun (1780–1819)
Oba Idewu Ojulari (1819–1832)
King Oluwole (1836–1841)
King Akintoye (1841-1845 & 1851-1853)
Oba Kosoko (1845–1851)
King Dosunmu [Docemo] (1853–1885)
Oba Oyekan I (1885–1900)
Oba Eshugbayi Eleko (1901-1925 & 1932)
Oba Ibikunle Akitoye (1925–1928)
Oba Sanusi Olusi (1928–1931)
Oba Falolu Dosunmu (1932–1949)
Oba Adeniji Adele (1949–1964)
Oba Adeyinka Oyekan II (1965–2003)
Oba Rilwan Akiolu (2003–present)
See also
Timeline of Lagos
Oba of Lagos
References
Works cited
Further reading
Victorian Lagos: Aspects of Nineteenth Century Lagos Life by Michael J. C.Echeruo. London: Macmillan 1977. |
4229946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil%20contamination | Soil contamination | Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical substance. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapour from the contaminants, or from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting clean ups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.
In North America and Western Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Developing countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization.
Causes
Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list) :
Microplastics
Oil spills
Mining and activities by other heavy industries
Accidental spills may happen during activities, etc.
Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents)
Acid rain
Intensive farming
Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
Petrochemicals
Industrial accidents
Road debris
Construction activities
Exterior lead-based paints
Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil
Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war
Waste disposal
Oil and fuel dumping
Nuclear wastes
Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil
Discharge of sewage
Landfill and illegal dumping
Coal ash
Electronic waste
Contaminated by rocks containing large amounts of toxic elements.
Contaminated by Pb due to vehicle exhaust, Cd, and Zn caused by tire wear.
Contamination by strengthening air pollutants by incineration of fossil raw materials.
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.
Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
Historical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrial processes such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized before about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury). Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste", defined in the US as containing more than 5 mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1 mg/kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.
Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a "fertilizer". As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.
In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land. The volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due to the high nitrogen and phosphate content. In 1990/1991, 13% wet weight was sprayed onto 0.13% of the land; however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by 2005. Advocates say there is a need to control this so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses and to ensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the top soil.
Pesticides and herbicides
A pesticide is a substance used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other organisms.
Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2:4 D and 2:4:5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highly toxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.
Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage. As with fungicides, the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g. Paris Green and other compounds of arsenic. Nicotine has also been used since 1690.
There are now two main groups of synthetic insecticides –
1. Organochlorines include DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and BHC. They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent. DDT was used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used 1970. Then usage fell as the harmful environmental effects were realized. It was found worldwide in fish and birds and was even discovered in the snow in the Antarctic. It is only slightly soluble in water but is very soluble in the bloodstream. It affects the nervous and endocrine systems and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable. It is thought to be responsible for the decline of the numbers of birds of prey like ospreys and peregrine falcons in the 1950s – they are now recovering. As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get it through their gills. As it has low water solubility, it tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there are most affected. DDT found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, but the levels found in the liver, kidney and brain tissues was less than 1 ppm and in fat was 10 ppm, which was below the level likely to cause harm. However, DDT was banned in the UK and the United States to stop the further buildup of it in the food chain. U.S. manufacturers continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensive replacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides.
2. Organophosphates, e.g. parathion, methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl-parathion is less so and Malathion is generally considered safe as it has low toxicity and is rapidly broken down in the mammalian liver. This group works by preventing normal nerve transmission as cholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.
Agents of war
The disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods. There is little published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed by governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort. However, mustard gas stored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up to 50 years and the testing of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon contaminated the whole island of Gruinard.
Human health
Exposure pathways
Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants that have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above-ground contamination. Toxic metals can also make their way up the food chain through plants that reside in soils containing high concentrations of heavy metals. This tends to result in the development of pollution-related diseases.
Most exposure is accidental, and exposure can happen through:
Ingesting dust or soil directly
Ingesting food or vegetables grown in contaminated soil or with foods in contact with contaminants
Skin contact with dust or soil
Vapors from the soil
Inhaling clouds of dust while working in soils or windy environments
However, some studies estimate that 90% of exposure is through eating contaminated food.
Consequences
Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, the pathway of attack, and the vulnerability of the exposed population. Researchers suggest that pesticides and heavy metals in soil may harm cardiovascular health, including inflammation and change in the body's internal clock.
Chronic exposure to chromium, lead , and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with a higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbonates can cause a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes, and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated through soil.
The Scottish Government has commissioned the Institute of Occupational Medicine to undertake a review of methods to assess risk to human health from contaminated land. The overall aim of the project is to work up guidance that should be useful to Scottish Local Authorities in assessing whether sites represent a significant possibility of significant harm (SPOSH) to human health. It is envisaged that the output of the project will be a short document providing high level guidance on health risk assessment with reference to existing published guidance and methodologies that have been identified as being particularly relevant and helpful. The project will examine how policy guidelines have been developed for determining the acceptability of risks to human health and propose an approach for assessing what constitutes unacceptable risk in line with the criteria for SPOSH as defined in the legislation and the Scottish Statutory Guidance.
Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil from erosion. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.
Potential effects of contaminants to soil functions
Heavy metals and other soil contaminants can adversely affect the activity, species composition and abundance of soil microorganisms, thereby threatening soil functions such as biochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen. However, soil contaminants can also become less bioavailable by time, and microorganisms and ecosystems can adapt to altered conditions. Soil properties such as pH, organic matter content and texture are very important and modify mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants in contaminated soils. The same amount of contaminant can be toxic in one soil but totally harmless in another soil. This stresses the need for soil-specific risks assessment and measures.
Cleanup options
Cleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzing transport and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments There are several principal strategies for remediation:
Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds containing toxins.
Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)
Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatilize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSP.
Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.
Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.
Mycoremediation, or using fungus to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy metals.
Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles.
Surfactant leaching
Interfacial solar evaporation to extract heavy metal ions from moist soil
By country
Various national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs), the U.S. EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.
People's Republic of China
The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The Ministry of Ecology and Environment believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mu (100,000 square kilometres) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mu (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan ($2.57 billion USD). Recent survey shows that 19% of the agricultural soils are contaminated which contains heavy metals and metalloids. And the rate of these heavy metals in the soil has been increased dramatically.
European Union
According to the received data from Member states, in the European Union the number of estimated potential contaminated sites is more than 2.5 million and the identified contaminated sites around 342 thousand. Municipal and industrial wastes contribute most to soil contamination (38%), followed by the industrial/commercial sector (34%). Mineral oil and heavy metals are the main contaminants contributing around 60% to soil contamination. In terms of budget, the management of contaminated sites is estimated to cost around 6 billion Euros (€) annually.
United Kingdom
Generic guidance commonly used in the United Kingdom are the Soil Guideline Values published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output.
Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has been formally withdrawn by DEFRA, for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.
The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as "intervention values". These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered; see Dutch standards.
Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely
residential (with and without plant uptake)
allotments
commercial/industrial
It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. The CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.
To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.
Canada
As of February 2021, there are a total of 2,500 plus contaminated sites in Canada. One infamous contaminated sited is located near a nickel-copper smelting site in Sudbury, Ontario. A study investigating the heavy metal pollution in the vicinity of the smelter reveals that elevated levels of nickel and copper were found in the soil; values going as high as 5,104ppm Ni, and 2,892 ppm Cu within a 1.1 km range of the smelter location. Other metals were also found in the soil; such metals include iron, cobalt, and silver. Furthermore, upon examining the different vegetation surrounding the smelter it was evident that they too had been affected; the results show that the plants contained nickel, copper and aluminium as a result of soil contamination.
India
In March 2009, the issue of uranium poisoning in Punjab attracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused by fly ash ponds of thermal power stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in the Faridkot and Bhatinda districts of Punjab. The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit. In 2012, the Government of India confirmed that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50% above the trace limits set by the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO). Scientific studies, based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60 times the WHO limits, but only 50% above the WHO limit in 3 locations. This highest concentration found in samples was less than those found naturally in ground waters currently used for human purposes elsewhere, such as Finland. Research is underway to identify natural or other sources for the uranium.
See also
Contamination control
Dutch pollutant standards
Environmental policy in China#Soil pollution
GIS in environmental contamination
Groundwater pollution
Habitat destruction
Index of waste management articles
Land degradation
Landfill
List of solid waste treatment technologies
List of waste management companies
Litter
Pesticide drift
Plasticulture
Plastic-eating organisms
Remediation of contaminated sites with cement
Triangle of death (Italy)
Water pollution
References
Panagos, P., Van Liedekerke, M., Yigini, Y., Montanarella, L. (2013) Contaminated Sites in Europe: Review of the Current Situation Based on Data Collected through a European Network. Journal of Environmental and Public Health In Press. doi:10.1155/2013/158764
External links
Portal for soil and water management in Europe Independent information gateway originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land, soil and water management.
European Soil Portal: Soil Contamination At EU-level, the issue of contaminated sites (local contamination) and contaminated land (diffuse contamination) has been considered by: European Soil Data Centre (ESDAC).
Article on soil contamination in China
Arsenic in groundwater Book on arsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society
Environmental chemistry
Environmental issues with soil
Pollution
Soil chemistry |
4230217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camogie%20All%20Stars%20Awards | Camogie All Stars Awards | The Camogie All Star Awards are awarded each November to 15 players who have made outstanding contributions to the Irish stick and ball team sport of camogie in the 15 traditional positions on the field: goalkeeper, three full backs, three half-backs, two midfields, three half-forwards and three full-forwards. They were awarded for the first time in 2003 as an independent initiative sponsored by a hotel group and accorded official status by the Camogie Association in 2004.
In 2004 a team of the century was also chosen to commemorate the centenary of the sport. O'Neill's are the present title sponsors of the awards. The leading awards winner is Gemma O'Connor of Cork with eleven awards.
Past winners
2000s
2003 (unofficial)
Jovita Delaney (Tipperary), Rose Collins (Limerick), Una O'Dwyer (Tipperary), Stephanie Dunlea (Cork), Mary O'Connor (Cork), Ciara Gaynor (Tipperary), Therese Brophy (Tipperary), Vera Sheehan (Limerick), Jane Adams (Antrim), Emer Dillon (Cork), Clare Grogan (Tipperary), Eileen O'Brien (Limerick), Eimear McDonnell (Tipperary), Deirdre Hughes (Tipperary), Fiona O'Driscoll (Cork)
2004
Aoife Murray (Cork), Suzanne Kelly (Tipperary), Una O'Dwyer (Tipperary), Áine Codd (Wexford), Mary Leacy (Wexford), Ciara Gaynor (Tipperary), Therese Brophy (Tipperary), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Máirín McAleenan (Down), Claire Grogan (Tipperary), Ann Marie Hayes (Galway), Deirdre Hughes (Tipperary), Sinéad Millea (Kilkenny)
List of nominees
2005
Jovita Delaney (Tipperary), Sinéad Cahalan (Galway), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford), Julie Kirwan (Tipperary), Anna Geary (Cork), Mary O'Connor (Cork), Therese Maher (Galway), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Ciara Lucey (Dublin), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Rachel Moloney (Cork), Clare Grogan (Tipperary), Eimear McDonnell (Tipperary), Catherine O'Loughlin (Clare), Emer Dillon (Cork)
List of nominees
2006
Jovita Delaney (Tipperary), Regina Glynn (Galway), Suzanne Kelly (Tipperary), Rena Buckley (Cork), Philly Fogarty (Tipperary), Mary O'Connor (Cork), Anna Geary (Cork), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Joanne Ryan (Tipperary), Briege Corkery (Cork), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Imelda Kennedy (Kilkenny), Louise O'Hara (Dublin), Veronica Curtin (Galway)
List of nominees
2007
Mags Darcy (Wexford); Eimear Brannigan (Dublin), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford), Rose Collins (Limerick); Rena Buckley (Cork), Mary Leacy (Wexford) Cathriona Foley (Cork); Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Philly Fogarty (Tipperary); Veronica Curtin (Galway), Aisling Diamond (Derry), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork); Kate Kelly (Wexford), Clare Grogan (Tipperary), Una Leacy (Wexford)
List of nominees
2008
Aoife Murray (Cork), Cathriona Foley (Cork), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford), Trish O'Halloran (Tipperary), Michaela Morkan (Offaly), Sinéad Cahalan (Galway), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Briege Corkery (Cork), Orla Cotter (Cork), Jessica Gill (Galway), Therese Maher (Galway), Aoife Neary (Kilkenny), Síle Burns (Cork), Rachel Moloney (Cork), Jane Adams (Antrim)
List of nominees
2009
Aoife Murray (Cork), Regina Glynn (Galway), Cathriona Foley (Cork), Jacqui Frisby (Kilkenny), Ann Marie Hayes (Galway), Mary O'Connor (Cork), Elaine Aylward (Kilkenny), Briege Corkery (Cork), Ann Dalton (Kilkenny), Katie Power (Kilkenny), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Therese Maher (Galway), Aoife Neary (Kilkenny), Grainne McGoldrick (Derry), Rachel Moloney (Cork)
List of nominees
2010s
2010
Mags D'Arcy (Wexford), Claire O'Connor (Wexford), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Regina Glynn (Galway), Mary Leacy (Wexford), Anna Geary (Cork), Orla Kilkenny (Galway), Ann Dalton (Kilkenny), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Una Leacy (Wexford), Brenda Hanney (Galway), Katrina Parrock (Wexford), Ursula Jacob (Wexford), Aislinn Connolly (Galway).
List of nominees
2011
Susan Earner (Galway); Claire O'Connor (Wexford), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford); Lorraine Ryan (Galway), Ann Marie Hayes, (Galway), Therese Maher (Galway); Anna Geary (Cork), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Jill Horan (Tipperary), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Una Leacy (Wexford), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Katrina Parrock (Wexford), Ursula Jacob (Wexford), Brenda Hanney (Galway).
List of nominees
2012
Aoife Murray (Cork), Claire O'Connor (Wexford), Catherine O'Loughlin (Wexford), Sheila O'Sullivan (Offaly), Pamela Mackey (Cork), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Deirdre Codd (Wexford), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Niamh McGrath (Galway), Briege Corkery (Cork), Katriona Mackey (Cork), Ursula Jacob (Wexford), Katrina Parrock (Wexford).
List of nominees
2013
Susan Earner (Galway), Mairead Power (Kilkenny), Sarah Dervan (Galway), Lorraine Ryan (Galway), Edwina Keane (Kilkenny), Therese Maher (Galway), Chloe Morey (Clare), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Katie Power (Kilkenny), Niamh McGrath (Galway), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Shelly Farrell (Kilkenny), Elaine Dermody (Offaly), Ailish O'Reilly (Galway).
List of nominees
2014
Aoife Murray (Cork), Joanne O'Callaghan (Cork), Máire McGrath (Clare), Sarah Dervan, (Galway), Eimear O’Sullivan (Cork), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Collette Dormer (Kilkenny), Rena Buckley (Cork), Ann Dalton (Kilkenny), Jennifer O'Leary (Cork), Orla Cotter (Cork), Briege Corkery (Cork), Michelle Quilty (Kilkenny), Ursula Jacob (Wexford), Katriona Mackey (Cork).
List of nominees
2015
Aoife Murray (Cork), Pamela Mackey (Cork), Sarah Dervan (Galway), Heather Cooney (Galway), Rena Buckley (Cork), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Lorraine Ryan (Galway), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Ashling Thompson (Cork), Orla Cotter (Cork), Niamh McGrath (Galway), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Briege Corkery (Cork), Molly Dunne (Galway), Ailish O'Reilly (Galway).
List of nominees
2016
Emma Kavanagh (Kilkenny), Pamela Mackey (Cork), Sarah Dervan (Galway), Collette Dormer (Kilkenny), Rebecca Hennelly (Galway), Ann Dalton (Kilkenny), Meighan Farrell (Kilkenny), Orla Cotter (Cork), Miriam Walsh (Kilkenny), Denise Gaule (Kilkenny), Julieanne Malone (Kilkenny), Aoife Donohue (Galway), Michelle Quilty (Kilkenny), Kate Kelly (Wexford), Katriona Mackey (Cork)
List of nominees
2017
Aoife Murray (Cork), Rena Buckley (Cork), Catherine Foley (Kilkenny), Laura Treacy (Cork), Gemma O'Connor (Cork), Ann Dalton (Kilkenny), Eimear O'Sullivan (Cork), Meighan Farrell (Kilkenny), Ashling Thompson (Cork), Katriona Mackey (Cork), Katie Power (Kilkenny), Orla Cotter (Cork), Ailish O'Reilly (Galway), Aisling Maher (Dublin), Aoife Donohue (Galway)
List of nominees
2018
List of nominees
2019
Sarah Healy (Galway), Shauna Healy (Galway), Sarah Dervan (Galway), Edwina Keane (Kilkenny), Heather Cooney (Galway), Claire Phelan (Kilkenny),
Lorraine Bray (Waterford), Aoife Donohue (Galway), Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Niamh Mulcahy (Limerick), Denise Gaule (Kilkenny), Amy O’Connor (Cork), Michelle Quilty (Kilkenny), Ailish O’Reilly (Galway), Beth Carton (Waterford).
List of nominees
2020s
2020
Áine Slattery (Tipperary); Shauna Healy (Galway), Claire Phelan (Kilkenny), Mary Ryan (Tipperary); Hannah Looney (Cork), Karen Kennedy (Tipperary), Davina Tobin (Kilkenny); Chloe Sigerson (Cork), Grace Walsh (Kilkenny); Niamh Rockett (Waterford), Orla Cronin (Cork), Denise Gaule (Kilkenny); Orlaith McGrath (Galway), Miriam Walsh (Kilkenny), Anne Dalton (Kilkenny).
2021
Sarah Healy (Galway); Shauna Healy (Galway), Sarah Dervan (Galway), Davina Tobin (Kilkenny); Megan Farrell (Kilkenny), Laura Treacy (Cork), Laura Hayes (Cork); Niamh Kilkenny (Galway), Hannah Looney (Cork); Aoife Donohoe (Galway), Katie Nolan (Kilkenny), Denise Gaule (Kilkenny); Siobhan McGrath (Galway), Orlaith McGrath (Galway), Ailish O' Reilly (Galway)
2022
Aoife Norris (Kilkenny); Libby Coppinger (Cork); Grace Walsh (Kilkenny); Shauna Healy (Galway); Laura Murphy (Kilkenny); Claire Phelan (Kilkenny); Saoirse McCarthy (Cork); Aisling Thompson (Cork); Lorraine Bray (Waterford); Denise Gaule (Kilkenny); Beth Carton (Waterford); Julianne Malone (Kilkenny); Katie Nolan (Kilkenny); Katriona Mackey (Cork).
Soaring Stars
Soaring Star Camogie Awards introduced in 2009 recognises outstanding players from the Junior camogie championship grades.
2009
Audrey Kennedy (Offaly), Fiona Stephens (Offaly), Eimear Moynan (Laois), Karen Brady (Offaly), Karen Tinelly (Down), Michaela Morkan (Offaly), Louise Donoghue (Meath), Louise Mahony (Laois), Niamh Coyle (Roscommon), Arlene Watkins (Offaly), Catherine McGourty (Down), Áine Lyng (Waterford), Susie O'Carroll (Kildare), Karen Kelly (Waterford), Elaine Dermody (Offaly).
2010
Caroline Connaughton (Roscommon), Rhona Torney (Antrim), Shona Curran (Waterford), Regina Gorman (Kildare), Fionnuala Carr (Down), Jennie Simpson (Waterford), Bernie Murray (Armagh), Kerrie O'Neill (Antrim), Michaela Convery (Antrim), Áine Lyng (Waterford), Shannon Graham (Antrim), Sarah Anne Fitzgerald (Laois), Jane Adams (Antrim), Jane Dolan (Meath).
2011
Aisling O'Brien (Waterford), Emma Hannon (Waterford), Jennie Simpson (Waterford), Orla Maginn (Down), Áine Keogh (Meath), Fionnuala Carr (Down), Gráinne Kenneally (Waterford), Patricia Jackman (Waterford), Pamela Greville (Westmeath), Catherine McGourty (Down), Nicola Morrissey (Waterford), Jane Dolan (Meath), Colette McSorley (Armagh), Karen Kelly (Waterford), Niamh Mallon (Down),
2012
Emily Mangan (Meath), Karen Tinnelly (Down), Claire Coffey (Meath), Fiona O'Neill (Meath), Lisa McCrickard (Down), Sarah Ann Fitzgerald (Laois), Aoife Thompson (Meath), Catherine McGourty (Down), Kristina Troy (Meath), Susie O'Carroll (Kildare), Jane Dolan (Meath), Aileen Donnelly (Meath), Niamh Mallon (Down), Sinead Hackett (Meath), Sarah Louise Carr (Down)
2013
Laura Dunne (Laois), Karen Tinnelly (Down), Aoife Trant (Kildare), Kate Aherne (Offaly), Aishling Dunphy (Laois), Sarah Ann Fitzgerald (Laois), Angela Lyons (Kildare), Carol Ann Canning (Dublin, Orla Bambury (Kildare), Clodagh Flanagan (Kildare), Siobhan Hurley (Kildare), Louise Mahony (Laois), Denise McGrath (Westmeath), Susie O'Carroll (Kildare), Niamh Dollard (Laois).
2014
Laura Dunne (Laois), Karen Tinnelly (Down), Ciara McGovern (Down), Deirdre Johnstone (Dublin) Eimear Delaney (Laois), Lisa McAliskey (Down), Fionnuala Carr (Down), Dinah Loughlin (Westmeath), Karen McMullan, (Down), Annette McGeeney (Roscommon), Sarah-Anne Fitzgerald (Laois), Catherine McGourty (Down), Niamh Mallon (Down), Niamh Dollard (Laois), Kelley Hopkins (Roscommon)
2015
Susan Spillane (Roscommon), Rachel Fitzmaurice (Roscommon), Laura-Marie Maher (Laois), Louise Mahony (Laois), Sarah-Anne Fitzgerald (Laois), Pamela Greville (Westmeath)
2016
Ciara Donnelly (Armagh), Bernie Murray (Armagh), Eleanor Tracey (Carlow), Ciara Quirke (Carlow), Kelley Hopkins (Roscommon), Dinah Loughlin (Westmeath)
2017
Laura Doherty (Westmeath), Caoimhe McCrossan (Westmeath), Aoife Bugler (Dublin)
2018
Deirdre Johnstone (Dublin), Caragh Dawson (Dublin)
2022
Áine Graham (Antrim)
2. Ciara Hickey (Galway)
3. Ciara Donohue (Galway)
4. Ashling Moloney (Cork)
5. Katie Manning (Galway)
6. Lisa Casserly (Galway)
7. Gráinne McNicholl (Derry)
8. Jennifer Hughes (Galway)
9. Emma Laverty (Antrim)
10. Joanne Casey (Cork)
11. Katie Gilchrist (Galway)
12. Aoife Minogue (Meath)
13. Dervla Cosgrove (Antrim)
14. Niamh McPeake (Galway)
15. Lauren Homan (Cork)
Intermediate Soaring Stars
2010
Elaine Dermody (Offaly), Michaela Morkan (Offaly), Ciara O'Connor (Wexford).
2011
Ciara O'Connor (Wexford), Frances Doran (Wexford), Jane Adams (Antrim).
2012
Sinead Cassidy (Derry), Katie McAnenly (Derry), Sarah Noone (Galway)
2013
Rebecca Hennelly (Galway), Niamh Mulcahy (Limerick), Paula Kenny (Galway)
2014
Niamh Mulcahy, (Limerick), Caoimhe Costelloe, (Limerick), Catherine Foley (Kilkenny)
2015
Susie O'Carroll (Kildare), Melissa Lyons (Kildare), Lorraine Bray (Waterford), Beth Carton (Waterford), Patricia Jackman (Waterford), Jane Dolan (Meath)
2016
Jenny Clifford (Kilkenny), Ciara Holden (Kilkenny), Linda Collins (Cork), Chloe Sigerson (Cork), Aisling Burke (Laois), Jane Dolan (Meath)
2017
Emily Mangan (Meath), Sarah Harrington (Cork), Claire Coffey (Meath), Niamh Ní Chaoimh (Cork), Emma Brennan (Carlow), Sarah Buckley (Cork), Emer Reilly (Kildare), Megan Thynne (Meath), Keeva McCarthy (Cork), Amy Gaffney (Meath), Aoife Minogue (Meath), Jane Dolan (Meath)
2018
Amy Lee (Cork), Leah Weste (Cork), Sarah Harrington (Cork), Alannah Savage (Down), Fionnuala Carr (Down), Jennifer Barry (Cork), Katelyn Hickey (Cork), Paula Gribben (Down), Jenny Grace (Tipperary), Saoirse McCarthy (Cork), Niamh Mallon (Down), Sara-Louise Carr (Down), Caitríona Collins (Cork)
Team of the Century
Eileen Duffy-O'Mahony (Dublin), Liz Neary (Kilkenny), Marie Costine-O'Donovan (Cork), Mary Sinnott-Dinan (Wexford), Bridie Martin-McGarry (Kilkenny), Sandie Fitzgibbon (Cork), Margaret O'Leary-Leacy (Wexford), Mairéad McAtamney-Magill (Antrim), Linda Mellerick (Cork), Sophie Brack (Dublin), Kathleen Mills-Hill (Dublin), Una O'Connor (Dublin), Pat Moloney-Lenihan (Cork), Deirdre Hughes (Tipperary), Angela Downey-Browne (Kilkenny)
Other awards
Player of the Year (Various Sponsors)
The Irish Independent sports star of the week, selected by newspaper sports staff, was traditionally accorded to a camogie player once each year on the week of the All Ireland final. Annual Cúchulainn All Star awards were introduced as part of the first Gaelic Weekly All-star awards scheme, initiated by a group of sportswriters led by Mick Dunne and awarded on the same selectorial basis as the Gaelic football and hurling all stars are today, though without a major sponsor. They were awarded to two camogie players in 1964–7, reduced to one in 1968–9. The camogie selectors for 1964 were Maeve Gilroy, Kathleen Mills and Lil O'Grady and those of 1965 were Kathleen O'Duffy, Síghle Nic an Ultaigh and Eithne Neville. In the 1970s the GAA Player of the month scheme, awarded one of its monthly awards, usually in November, to a camogie player. The scheme, initiated by sports journalist and historian David Guiney and also selected by sportswriters, became an effective player of the year award under three successive sponsors, B+I Line, Irish Nationwide and Eircell. The camogie player of the year was revived as part of the Powerscreen all star award scheme in and an official player of the year award was introduced in 2005.
1963 Úna O'Connor (Dublin)
1963 Deirdre Sutton (Cork)
1964 Alice Hussey (Dublin)
1964 Teresa Murphy (Cork)
1965 (Joint) Mairéad McAtamney (Antrim)
1965 (Joint) Claire Hanrahan (Kilkenny)
1966 (Joint) Mary Connery (Kilkenny)
1966 (Joint) Maeve Gilroy (Antrim)
1967 Úna O'Connor (Dublin)
1968 Margaret O'Leary (Wexford)
1973 Marie Costine (Cork)
1974 Helena O'Neill (Kilkenny)
1975 Bridget Doyle (Wexford)
1976 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1977 Bridie Martin (Kilkenny)
1978 Pat Moloney (Cork)
1979 Mairéad McAtamney (Antrim)
1980 Marion McCarthy (Cork)
1981 Liz Neary (Kilkenny)
1982 Mary O'Leary (Cork)
1983 Claire Cronin (Cork)
1984 Yvonne Redmond (Dublin)
1985 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1986 Ann & Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1987 Breda Holmes (Kilkenny)
1988 Biddy O'Sullivan (Kilkenny)
1989 Ann & Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1991 Ann Downey (Kilkenny)
1992 Sandie Fitzgibbon (Cork)
1993 Linda Mellerick (Cork)
1995 Sandie Fitzgibbon (Cork)
1998 Linda Mellerick (Cork)
1999 Deirdre Hughes (Tipperary)
2000 Jovita Delaney (Tipperary)
2001 Ciara Gaynor (Tipperary)
2002 Fiona O'Driscoll (Cork)
2005 Gemma O'Connor (Cork)
2006 Mary O'Connor (Cork)
2007 Kate Kelly (Wexford)
2008 Aoife Murray (Cork)
2009 Ann Dalton (Kilkenny)
2015 Gemma O'Connor (Cork)
2016 Denise Gaule (Kilkenny)
2017 Rena Buckley (Cork)
2018 Ann Dalton (Kilkenny)
2019 Niamh Kilkenny (Galway)
2020 Denise Gaule (Kilkenny)
Young Player of the Year
The first attempt at a young player of the year award was the Elvery's Cup for “Miss Camogie”, as much in the tradition of pageants as sports star awards, awarded to UCD Ashbourne Cup winning captain Patricia Morrissey in 1971. Another short-lived young player of the year award, sponsored by Levi's was awarded to Cork player Claire Cronin in 1976. It was established on an official basis in 2004.
1971 Patricia Morrissey (Clare)
1976 Claire Cronin (Cork)
1977-2003 No award
2004 Stephanie Gannon (Galway)
2005 Colette McSorley (Armagh)
2006 Marie Dargan (Kilkenny)
2007 Niamh Mulcahy (Limerick)
2008 Carina Roseingrave (Clare)
2009 Denise Gaule (Kilkenny)
2010 Laura Mitchell (Galway)
Intermediate player of the year
2016 Ciara Holden (Kilkenny)
2017 Claire Coffey (Meath)
2018 Saoirse McCarthy (Cork)
2019 Pamela Greville (Westmeath)
2020 Niamh Mallon (Down)
Junior player of the year
Sponsored by AIB for the best player in the junior grade.
1982 Vivienne Kelly (Louth)
1983 Lillian Zinkant (Cork)
1984 Patricia Fitzgibbon (Cork)
1985 Deirdre Costello (Galway)
1986 Maura McNicholas (Clare)
1987 Miriam Malone (Kildare)
2016 Eleanor Treacy (Carlow)
2017 Aoife Bugler (Dublin)
2018 Caragh Dawson (Dublin)
Manager of the Year
2005 John Cronin (Cork)
2006 Peter Lucey (Dublin)
2007 (Joint) Stellah Sinnott (Wexford)
2007 (Joint) Liam Dunne (Wexford)
2007 (Joint) Stephen Dormer (Kilkenny)
2009 Denise Cronin (Cork)
2010 Joachim Kelly (Offaly)
2011 JJ Doyle (Wexford)
2012 JJ Doyle (Wexford)
2013 Tony Ward (Galway)
2014 Joe Quaid (Limerick)
2015 Paudie Murray (Cork)
2016 Ann Downey (Kilkenny)
2017 Paudie Murray (Cork)
2018 Paudie Murray (Cork)
Gradam Tailte
A skills competition in which players competed in a variety of skills. The Poc Fada competition, winners listed elsewhere, also has a camogie section.
(Awarded 1982-88 for skill tests)
1982 Josephine McClements (Antrim)
1983 Claire Cronin (Cork)
1984 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1985 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1986 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
1987 Bernie Farrelly (Kildare)
1988 Bernie Farrelly (Kildare)
Texaco Award for Camogie
Selected by the sports editors of national newspapers in 10 nominated sports each year.
1966 Úna O'Connor (Dublin)
1967 Sue Cashman (Antrim)
1986 Angela Downey (Kilkenny)
2003 Eimear McDonnell (Tipperary)
2004 Una O'Dwyer (Tipperary)
2008 Briege Corkery (Cork)
International player of the year
(Awarded in 2004, discontinued). 2004 Annette McGeeney from Roscommon and Sligo IT. The other nominees were Róisin O'Neill (Britain) and Rosie O'Reilly (USA).
See also
GAA All Stars Awards Past Winners (Football)
GAA All Stars Awards Past Winners (Hurling)
GAA All Stars Awards Past Winners (Ladies Football)
GAA All Stars Awards
References
External links
Full list of nominated players in 2004. 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011
Camogie.ie Official Camogie Association Website
On The Ball Official Camogie Magazine Issue 1 and issue 2
2003 establishments in Ireland
Awards established in 2003
Camogie awards |
4230582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Melbourne%20Student%20Union | University of Melbourne Student Union | The University of Melbourne Student Union (UMSU) is one of two student organisations at the University of Melbourne, Australia. UMSU, incorporated as University of Melbourne Student Union, Inc. (UMSU) provides representation and services for all current students and the University of Melbourne.
Following the liquidation of its predecessor, The Melbourne University Student Union (MUSU), UMSU was incorporated on 17 November 2005, following approval by the Council of the University of Melbourne in October of that year. Its first elections were held in October 2005 under the transitional clauses of the constitution.
Culture
There is a long history of student activities at the University of Melbourne. The Union Band Comp has kick-started the careers of several well-known Australian bands, and an annual comedy review once produced the Working Dog crew. Several Members of Parliament were active within the MUSU, including Sir Robert Menzies (former Australian Prime Minister), Lindsay Tanner (Member for Melbourne) and Sophie Mirabella (Former Member for Indi).
Theatres
The Union Theatre, also known as the Union House Theatre, was founded around 1953, along with the Union Theatre Repertory Company. A large number of notable Australian performers, writers and other notable people did some of their earliest work there, including Cate Blanchett, Barry Humphries, Steve Vizard, Barrie Kosky, Graeme Blundell, and Germaine Greer. It is on the ground floor of the Student Union.
The Guild Theatre is on Level 1.
Student clubs and Societies
Over 200 student-run clubs and societies are affiliated to UMSU, which supports these organisations though financial grants and administrative assistance. The groups affiliated with UMSU range from the Fotoholics - Photography Club to the Pirates, but the largest and most notable of these societies are the faculty clubs (Arts' Students Society & Science Students' Society) which have the largest balls and parties on campus.
Theatre clubs
Union House Theatre is the facilitator of student theatre at the Parkville campus, and runs two theatre spaces available for use by student theatre groups. Student theatre groups include the Melbourne University Absurdist Theatre Society (MUATS), the University of Melbourne Music Theatre Association (UMMTA), the Throwback Players and the Union Players, as well as groups for the Colleges. Faculty theatre clubs include the Law and Medical Revues. Theatre clubs from culturally diverse backgrounds include Chinese and Sri Lankan theatre groups.
Faculty clubs
There are seven notable faculty clubs at the University of Melbourne: The Melbourne Arts Students' Society, The Science Students' Society, The Engineering Students' Club, The Commerce Students' Society, The Biomedicine Students' Society, The Environments Students' Society (ENVi), and the Music Students' Society (MSS). All clubs run events throughout the year aimed at integrating new students into university life, running social activities and liaising between the faculties and the current students to enable and encourage their studies and enable opportunities for future employment.
Political clubs
Political clubs in 2020 include Melbourne International Relations Society (MIRS) Liberals, the ALP Club (Labor Left), Labor (Labor Right), Greens, Socialist Alternative and Solidarity, as well as clubs representing Amnesty International and the Political Interest Society.
A number of activist campaign groups are affiliated to the student union, including the Campus Refugee Rights Club and the Australian Youth Climate Coalition.
Cultural and linguistic clubs
As of 2023, there are 43 cultural and linguistic clubs. Out of those, there are 29 Asian cultural and linguistic clubs, 4 Middle Eastern cultural and linguistic clubs, 5 European cultural and linguistic clubs, 1 African club and 4 broader cultural and linguistic clubs.
Debating society
The Melbourne University Debating Society is one of Victoria's oldest student organisations, founded in 1876. MUDS holds weekly debating competitions, as well as larger annual invitational competitions for other universities in the lead-up to the World Universities Debating Championships, and the Australasian Intervarsity Debating Championships. Historically, the University of Melbourne has been very successful, hosting the 1993 World Universities Debating Championship, and making it to the Grand Final of the 2003 WUDC. Additionally, MUDS were the champions of the 2019 Australasian Intervarsity Debating Championships. The Society also hosts Public Debates, and is one of the largest student groups on campus.
Special Interest
As of 2021, there are 35 special interest clubs including Unimelb Love Letters and the Bullet Journal and Stationery Club.
Funding
The student union had been funded by compulsory Amenities and Services Fees since 1911. The introduction of VSU saw a significant loss of funding for the union, as the ASF was no longer charged from 1 July 2006. On 11 October 2011 the SSAF was introduced which led to a large increase in funding to the Union, though not as high as in the pre-VSU era. In 2014 the Union was allocated just under $4.5 Million by the University, or 34% of the total SSAF revenue collected.
The union funds a range of services including: the Rowden White library; the Student Union Advocacy and Legal Service; the campus information centre; the Union House Theater, Clubs and Societies, Farrago, Student Representation and common areas in Union House. This allocation also covers staff salaries, and office bearer honorariums. UMSU additionally collects a small amount of revenue from event ticket sales, AV and BBQ hire, sponsorship and other sources.
History
The University of Melbourne Union was founded in 1884 to promote the common interests of students and assist in social interactions between its members. The Melbourne University Students’ Representative Council was formed as an independent unincorporated association at a special general meeting called by the Sports Union Council on 19 September 1907.
The Associations Incorporation Act (1981) allowed incorporation of student bodies, among others. The Students’ Association in 1987 as the Melbourne College of Advanced Education Students’ Association-Carlton Incorporated, and the Students’ Representative Council was incorporated in 1988 as Melbourne University Students’ Representative Council Incorporated. In October 1988 the two merged to form Melbourne University Student Union Incorporated (MUSUi).
Relocation to New Student Precinct
After over 100 years in Union House, UMSU was relocated to the New Student Precinct in 2022. UMSU is now housed across neighbouring buildings in the Precinct, with most of the organisation residing in Building 168 (formerly Doug McDonell Building). Union House Theatre and George Paton Gallery are now located in the Arts & Cultural Building, while the Rowden White Library can be found in the Student Pavilion.
Voluntary liquidation
From 2002, some of the union's unprofitable commercial services were terminated, including U-Bar, and a property deal was entered into with Optima Property Development Group. A draft report from auditor PricewaterhouseCoopers warned in June 2003 that this could potentially create obligations beyond MUSUi's capacity to pay. The deal was for MUSUi to sublease student apartments to international students from the Optima Group. It did not proceed.
On 30 September 2003, Vice-Chancellor Alan Gilbert informed MUSUi that the University was terminating the 2003 Funding Agreement, effectively stripping it of any future money, citing "evidence of breaches by MUSUI of its obligations under the Agreement", (the agreement being "providing facilities, services or activities of direct benefit to students at the institution"). He also cited a "serious breakdown in governance, financial management and accountability structures within MUSU".
On 6 February 2004, the Union was placed into liquidation by the Supreme Court of Victoria after a vote by the Student Union Executive. MUSU's liquidator, Dean Royston McVeigh, said in his provisional liquidator's report, that the Union owed debts of $4.3 million (mainly to the University of Melbourne) but only had assets of $3.5 million. McVeigh acknowledged that these "debts" were the result of creative accounting by the University, with the University ultimately relinquishing any claim to such "debts". As a result, it was no longer student-controlled (a prerequisite for affiliation to NUS) and was in any case unable to pay affiliation fees. A new constitution was approved.
Master Ewart Evans, who was presiding over the hearings of the liquidators' examination until his retirement in 2005, was critical of the "somewhat precipitative" timing of civil court proceedings, which McVeigh quickly settled out of court after much adverse publicity about his own fees and expenses believed to total more than $8 million prior to producing a Liquidator's Report and convening a meeting of creditors. The downfall of MUSU was satirised by the Union Players in the play Friday Night at the Union in 2004.
Recent political history
Following the 2004 annual election, a coalition between the Liberal Club and the Labor right was defeated by a cooperative left, made up of National Labor Students (ALP Club), Socialist Alternative and a group of progressive students who are not involved in other politics called Activate. The positions won by the left groups were for an interim student representative committee established by the University to oversee student representation and advocacy until the incorporation of UMSU.
UMSU saw few changes in its power dynamic from 2005-07. In 2007 National Labor Students held the President, Secretary and Education (Academic) Offices. The makeup of the 2007 Student Council had no ALSF presence (due to the Liberal Student tickets withdrawing from the annual elections prior to the opening of the ballot). The 2007 UMSU budget, due to funding cuts caused by VSU, was reduced from just over $2m in 2006 to $1.23m in 2007. This resulted in reductions in funding for departments, particularly those which traditionally have been considered high, such as the Activities, Clubs and Societies and Media Departments.
In 2008, the National Labor Students and Grassroots tickets, running as StandUp! and Activate respectively, won most of the paid positions in the Student Union. Their tenure in 2009 was highlighted by difficulties in passing budgetary support towards the National Union of Students and Students for Palestine organizations.
2009 saw nearly all major elected positions won by a Labor Right-Liberal coalition called Synergy. On Student Council, Synergy were elected to four positions (two Liberals and two Student Unity) and five positions were won by iUnion, a newly established ticket run by international students and former StandUp! office bearers.
2012 saw the union criticised for the decision to not lay a $200 wreath at the ANZAC dawn service, with President Mark Kettle stating that "participating in the ANZAC Day service would be ‘glorifying war’". There was also a publication in a major daily newspaper that student resources had been were used to support "a live and extreme sex show performed on campus for "sex education" purposes."
2013 again saw the union criticised, when they passed a motion to unreservedly celebrate the death of Margaret Thatcher, resulting in media coverage from the Herald Sun and a large student backlash against the union over Facebook.
Presidents
Affiliation to NUS
UMSU is an affiliate to Australia's peak representative body for students, the National Union of Students (NUS). With the University of Melbourne having over 30,000 students of an Equivalent full-time student load (EFTSL), UMSU is the largest union to affiliate to NUS. Due to this, at the yearly National Conference of NUS in December, UMSU is the most represented student organisation. UMSU holds 7 delegate positions, and a grand total of 182 votes on conference floor. The election of NUS Delegates is undertaken during the general elections in early September of each year.
Initial constitution
The Constitution of UMSU was drafted by a Student Representative Working Group, members of whom were elected in 2004 by electronic ballot; the University Secretary was appointed Returning Officer. The University was closely involved in the drafting process and provided free legal advice to the Working Group.
These student Working Group members consisted of both undergraduate and post-graduate members, and the overall composition of the Working Group was factionally diverse, with the incumbent Student Unity/ALSF coalition being reduced to opposition status. Due to a large number of inquorate meetings, the Working Group instituted a drop-off rule.
The Working Group persisted until mid-2005, when the final draft of the Constitution was presented to the Council of the University. In September 1052 out of 1240 students voted in favour of accepting the new constitution.
The Constitution itself was largely based on the MUSU Constitution, with a number of innovations, including affirmative action provisions, pay-parity and strict accountability mechanisms curbing the powers of the President and Secretary in particular. It also created the Clubs & Societies Department (which in the past had been a part of the Activities Department) and the Indigenous Department.
Paid officers
UMSU has a number of paid officers, which include: the President; the General Secretary; Media Officers; Education (Academic Affairs) Officer; Education (Public Affairs) Officers; Activities Officers; Creative Arts Officers; Clubs and Societies Officers; Welfare Officer; Environment Officers; Indigenous Officers; Disabilities Officers; Queer Officers; Women's Officers; People of Colour Officers; the Burnley Campus Coordinator; the Southbank Campus Coordinators; the Southbank Activities Officer, and the Southbank Education Officer.
Aside from the positions of President, General Secretary, the campus coordinator of Burnley, the Southbank Activities Officer and the Southbank Education officer, all other offices can be shared between two people. The Media Office must be shared between three or four people.
UMSU has a pay parity provision in its constitution which stipulates that all full-time officers must be paid an equal wage and that all part-time officers be paid at a .6 fraction of the full-time rate of pay. The Burnley Campus Coordinator is paid at .5 fraction of the full-time rate of pay and the Southbank Activities and Southbank Education Officers are paid at .6 fraction of the full-time rate of pay.
Elections and current factions
Elections
Elections for positions within UMSU are determined through direct election during the first week of September each year. This sees the election of 32 paid office bearers of 17 representative departments, as well as 21 students who sit on UMSU's peak decision body, Students Council. The election of representatives onto department committees and seven NUS delegates also occurs at this time, with the election of a student representative onto the University's Council occurring every two years.
As of the 2016 election, the UMSU constitution has applied Affirmative Action to the election of positions held by more than one representative. This mandates that in all Office Bearer positions, at least 50% of elected representatives must identify as a woman, with the Women's Department having to elect at least one officer that identifies as a Woman of Colour. This is extended to Students Council and department committees, which must elect women into 50%+1 of all positions. In the election of roles within autonomous departments, as well as the election of restricted autonomous positions on Students Council, only those who identify with the represented group are eligible to run.
The Students' Council, the peak body for the union, is made up of 21 student representatives. There are 15 General Representatives, plus 6 for special constituencies – Queer, Indigenous, International, Graduate, Students with Disabilities and Students of Colour.
2022 election results
At the 2022 election, no nominations were received for the position of Indigenous Representative.
2021 election results
Notable associations
Several Members of Parliament were active within Melbourne University student life, including Sir Robert Menzies (former Australian Prime Minister), Gareth Evans (former Australian Foreign Minister), Lindsay Tanner (former Member for Melbourne), Michael Danby (former Member for Melbourne Ports), Richard Marles (Deputy Prime Minister of Australia), Alan Tudge (Member for Aston), and Sophie Mirabella (former Member for Indi).
Notable past presidents include:
Robert Menzies (1916-17)
Evan Thornley (1987)
Richard Marles (1988)
Andrew Landeryou (1991)
Alan Tudge (1991)
External links
University of Melbourne Student Union Website
References
Students' unions in Australia
University of Melbourne
Organizations established in 1884
1884 establishments in Australia
Culture of Melbourne |
4230598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20flat | Optical flat | An optical flat is an optical-grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both sides, usually within a few tens of nanometres (billionths of a metre). They are used with a monochromatic light to determine the flatness (surface accuracy) of other surfaces, whether optical, metallic, ceramic, or otherwise, by interference. When an optical flat is placed on another surface and illuminated, the light waves reflect off both the bottom surface of the flat and the surface it is resting on. This causes a phenomenon similar to thin-film interference. The reflected waves interfere, creating a pattern of interference fringes visible as light and dark bands. The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the gap is changing more rapidly, indicating a departure from flatness in one of the two surfaces. This is comparable to the contour lines one would find on a map. A flat surface is indicated by a pattern of straight, parallel fringes with equal spacing, while other patterns indicate uneven surfaces. Two adjacent fringes indicate a difference in elevation of one-half wavelength of the light used, so by counting the fringes, differences in elevation of the surface can be measured to better than one micrometre.
Usually only one of the two surfaces of an optical flat is made flat to the specified tolerance, and this surface is indicated by an arrow on the edge of the glass.
Optical flats are sometimes given an optical coating and used as precision mirrors or optical windows for special purposes, such as in a Fabry–Pérot interferometer or laser cavity. Optical flats have uses in spectrophotometry as well.
Flatness testing
An optical flat is usually placed upon a flat surface to be tested. If the surface is clean and reflective enough, rainbow colored bands of interference fringes will form when the test piece is illuminated with white light. However, if a monochromatic light is used to illuminate the work piece, such as helium, low-pressure sodium, or a laser, then a series of dark and light interference fringes will form. These interference fringes determine the flatness of the work piece, relative to the optical flat, to within a fraction of the wavelength of the light. If both surfaces are perfectly the same flatness and parallel to each other, no interference fringes will form. However, there is usually some air trapped between the surfaces. If the surfaces are flat, but a tiny optical wedge of air exists between them, then straight, parallel interference fringes will form, indicating the angle of the wedge (i.e.: more, thinner fringes indicate a steeper wedge while fewer but wider fringes indicate less of a wedge). The shape of the fringes also indicate the shape of the test surface, because fringes with a bend, a contour, or rings indicate high and low points on the surface, such as rounded edges, hills or valleys, or convex and concave surfaces.
Preparation
Both the optical flat and the surface to be tested need to be extremely clean. The tiniest bit of dust settling between the surfaces can ruin the results. Even the thickness of a streak or a fingerprint on the surfaces can be enough to change the width of the gap between them. Before the test, the surfaces are usually cleaned very thoroughly. Most commonly, acetone is used as the cleaning agent, because it dissolves most oils and it evaporates completely, leaving no residue. Typically, the surface will be cleaned using the "drag" method, in which a lint-free, scratch-free tissue is wetted, stretched, and dragged across the surface, pulling any impurities along with it. This process is usually performed dozens of times, ensuring that the surface is completely free of impurities. A new tissue will need to be used each time, to prevent recontamination of the surfaces from previously removed dust and oils.
Testing is often done in a clean-room or another dust-free environment, keeping the dust from settling on the surfaces between cleaning and assembly. Sometimes, the surfaces may be assembled by sliding them together, helping to scrape off any dust that might happen to land on the flat. The testing is usually done in a temperature-controlled environment to prevent any distortions in the glass, and needs to be performed on a very stable work-surface. After testing, the flats are usually cleaned again and stored in a protective case, and are often kept in a temperature-controlled environment until used again.
Lighting
For the best test-results, a monochromatic light, consisting of only a single wavelength, is used to illuminate the flats. To show the fringes properly, several factors need to be taken into account when setting up the light source, such as the angle of incidence between the light and the observer, the angular size of the light source in relation to the pupil of the eye, and the homogeneity of the light source when reflected off of the glass.
Many sources for monochromatic light can be used. Most lasers emit light of a very narrow bandwidth, and often provide a suitable light source. A helium–neon laser emits light at 632 nanometres (red), while a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser emits light at 532 nm (green). Various laser diodes and diode-pumped solid-state lasers emit light in red, yellow, green, blue or violet. Dye lasers can be tuned to emit nearly any color. However, lasers also experience a phenomenon called laser speckle, which shows up in the fringes.
Several gas or metal-vapor lamps can also be used. When operated at low pressure and current, these lamps generally produce light in various spectral lines, with one or two lines being most predominant. Because these lines are very narrow, the lamps can be combined with narrow-bandwidth filters to isolate the strongest line. A helium-discharge lamp will produce a line at 587.6 nm (yellow), while a mercury-vapor lamp produces a line at 546.1 (yellowish green). Cadmium vapor produces a line at 643.8 nm (red), but low pressure sodium produces a line at 589.3 nm (yellow). Of all the lights, low pressure sodium is the only one that produces a single line, requiring no filter.
The fringes only appear in the reflection of the light source, so the optical flat must be viewed from the exact angle of incidence that the light shines upon it. If viewed from a zero degree angle (from directly above), the light must also be at a zero degree angle. As the viewing angle changes, the lighting angle must also change. The light must be positioned so that its reflection can be seen covering the entire surface. Also, the angular size of the light source needs to be many times greater than the eye. For example, if an incandescent light is used, the fringes may only show up in the reflection of the filament. By moving the lamp much closer to the flat, the angular size becomes larger and the filament may appear to cover the entire flat, giving clearer readings. Sometimes, a diffuser may be used, such as the powder coating inside frosted bulbs, to provide a homogenous reflection off the glass. Typically, the measurements will be more accurate when the light source is as close to the flat as possible, but the eye is as far away as possible.
How interference fringes form
The diagram at right shows an optical flat resting on a surface to be tested. Unless the two surfaces are perfectly flat, there will be a small gap between them (shown), which will vary with the contour of the surface. Monochromatic light (red) shines through the glass flat and reflects from both the bottom surface of the optical flat and the top surface of the test piece, and the two reflected rays combine and superpose. However, the ray reflecting off the bottom surface travels a longer path. The additional path length is equal to twice the gap between the surfaces. In addition, the ray reflecting off the bottom surface undergoes a 180° phase reversal, while the internal reflection of the other ray from the underside of the optical flat causes no phase reversal. The brightness of the reflected light depends on the difference in the path length of the two rays:
If the gap between the surfaces is not constant, this interference results in a pattern of bright and dark lines or bands called "interference fringes" being observed on the surface. These are similar to contour lines on maps, revealing the height differences of the bottom test surface. The gap between the surfaces is constant along a fringe. The path length difference between two adjacent bright or dark fringes is one wavelength of the light, so the difference in the gap between the surfaces is one-half wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is so small, this technique can measure very small departures from flatness. For example, the wavelength of red light is about 700 nm, so the difference in height between two fringes is half that, or 350 nm, about 1/100 the diameter of a human hair.
Mathematical derivation
The variation in brightness of the reflected light as a function of gap width can be found by deriving the formula for the sum of the two reflected waves. Assume that the z-axis is oriented in the direction of the reflected rays. Assume for simplicity that the intensity A of the two reflected light rays is the same (this is almost never true, but the result of differences in intensity is just a smaller contrast between light and dark fringes). The equation for the electric field of the sinusoidal light ray reflected from the top surface traveling along the z-axis is
where is the peak amplitude, λ is the wavelength, and is the angular frequency of the wave. The ray reflected from the bottom surface will be delayed by the additional path length and the 180° phase reversal at the reflection, causing a phase shift with respect to the top ray
where is the phase difference between the waves in radians. The two waves will superpose and add: the sum of the electric fields of the two waves is
Using the trigonometric identity for the sum of two cosines: , this can be written
This represents a wave at the original wavelength whose amplitude is proportional to the cosine of , so the brightness of the reflected light is an oscillating, sinusoidal function of the gap width d. The phase difference is equal to the sum of the phase shift due to the path length difference 2d and the additional 180° phase shift at the reflection
so the electric field of the resulting wave will be
This represents an oscillating wave whose magnitude varies sinusoidally between and zero as increases.
Constructive interference: The brightness will be maximum where , which occurs when
Destructive interference: The brightness will be zero (or in the more general case minimum) where , which occurs when
Thus the bright and dark fringes alternate, with the separation between two adjacent bright or dark fringes representing a change in the gap length of one half wavelength (λ/2).
Precision and errors
Counterintuitively, the fringes do not exist within the gap or the flat itself. The interference fringes actually form when the light waves all converge at the eye or camera, forming the image. Because the image is the compilation of all converging wavefronts interfering with each other, the flatness of the test piece can only be measured relative to the flatness of the optical flat. Any deviations on the flat will be added to the deviations on the test surface. Therefore, a surface polished to a flatness of λ/4 cannot be effectively tested with a λ/4 flat, as it is not possible to determine where the errors lie, but its contours can be revealed by testing with more accurate surfaces like a λ/20 or λ/50 optical flat. This also means that both the lighting and viewing angle have an effect on the accuracy of the results. When lighted or viewed at an angle, the distance that the light must travel across the gap is longer than when viewed and illuminated straight on. Thus, as the angle of incidence becomes steeper, the fringes will also appear to move and change. A zero degree angle of incidence is usually the most desirable angle, both for lighting and viewing. Unfortunately, this is usually impossible to achieve with the naked eye. Many interferometers use beamsplitters to obtain such an angle. Because the results are relative to the wavelength of the light, accuracy can also be increased by using light of shorter wavelengths, although the 632 nm line from a helium–neon laser is often used as the standard.
No surface is ever completely flat. Therefore, any errors or irregularities that exist on the optical flat will affect the results of the test. Optical flats are extremely sensitive to temperature changes, which can cause temporary surface deviations resulting from uneven thermal expansion. The glass often experiences poor thermal conduction, taking a long time to reach thermal equilibrium. Merely handling the flats can transfer enough heat to offset the results, so glasses such as fused silica or borosilicate are used, which have very low coefficients of thermal expansion. The glass needs to be hard and very stable, and is usually very thick to prevent flexing. When measuring on the nanometre scale, the slightest bit of pressure can cause the glass to flex enough to distort the results. Therefore, a very flat and stable work-surface is also needed, on which the test can be performed, preventing both the flat and the test-piece from sagging under their combined weight, Often, a precision-ground surface plate is used as a work surface, providing a steady table-top for testing upon. To provide an even flatter surface, sometimes the test may be performed on top of another optical flat, with the test surface sandwiched in the middle.
Absolute flatness
Absolute flatness is the flatness of an object when measured against an absolute scale, in which the reference flat (standard) is completely free of irregularities. The flatness of any optical flat is relative to the flatness of the original standard that was used to calibrate it. Therefore, because both surfaces have some irregularities, there are few ways to know the true, absolute flatness of any optical flat. The only surface that can achieve nearly absolute flatness is a liquid surface, such as mercury, and can sometimes achieve flatness readings to within λ/100, which equates to a deviation of only 6.32 nm (632 nm/100). However, liquid flats are very difficult to use and align properly, so they are typically only used when preparing a standard flat for calibrating other flats.
The other method for determining absolute flatness is the "three-flat test." In this test, three flats of equal size and shape are tested against each other. By analyzing the patterns and their different phase shifts, the absolute contours of each surface can be extrapolated. This usually requires at least twelve individual tests, checking each flat against every other flat in at least two different orientations. To eliminate any errors, the flats sometimes may be tested while resting on edge, rather than lying flat, helping to prevent sagging.
Wringing
Wringing occurs when nearly all of the air becomes forced out from between the surfaces, causing the surfaces to lock together, partly through the vacuum between them. The flatter the surfaces; the better they will wring together, especially when the flatness extends all the way to the edges. If two surfaces are very flat, they may become wrung together so tightly that a lot of force may be needed to separate them.
The interference fringes typically only form once the optical flat begins to wring to the testing surface. If the surfaces are clean and very flat, they will begin to wring almost immediately after the first contact. After wringing begins, as air is slowly forced out from between the surfaces, an optical wedge forms between the surfaces. The interference fringes form perpendicular to this wedge. As the air is forced out, the fringes will appear to move toward the thickest gap, spreading out and becoming wider but fewer. As the air is forced out, the vacuum holding the surfaces together becomes stronger. The optical flat should usually never be allowed to fully wring to the surface, otherwise it can be scratched or even broken when separating them. In some cases, if left for many hours, a block of wood may be needed to knock them loose. Testing flatness with an optical flat is typically done as soon a viable interference pattern develops, and then the surfaces are separated before they can fully wring. Because the angle of the wedge is extremely shallow and the gap extremely small, wringing may take a few hours to complete. Sliding the flat in relation to the surface can speed up wringing, but trying to press the air out will have little effect.
If the surfaces are insufficiently flat, if any oil films or impurities exist on the surface, or if slight dust-particles land between the surfaces, they may not wring at all. Therefore, the surfaces must be very clean and free of debris to get an accurate measurement.
Determining surface shape
The fringes act very much like the lines on a topography map, where the fringes are always perpendicular to the wedge between the surfaces. When wringing first begins, there is a large angle in the air wedge and the fringes will resemble grid topography-lines. If the fringes are straight; then the surface is flat. If the surfaces are allowed to fully wring and become parallel, the straight fringes will widen until only a dark fringe remains, and they will disappear completely. If the surface is not flat, the grid lines will have some bends in them, indicating the topography of the surface. Straight fringes with bends in them may indicate a raised elevation or a depression. Straight fringes with a "V" shape in the middle indicate a ridge or valley running across the center, while straight fringes with curves near the ends indicate edges that are either rounded-off or have a raised lip.
If the surfaces are not completely flat, as wringing progresses the fringes will widen and continue to bend. When fully wrung, they will resemble contour topography-lines, indicating the deviations on the surface. Rounded fringes indicate gentle sloping or slightly cylindrical surfaces, while tight corners in the fringes indicate sharp angles in the surface. Small, round circles may indicate bumps or depressions, while concentric circles indicate a conical shape. Unevenly spaced concentric circles indicate a convex or concave surface. Before the surfaces fully wring, these fringes will be distorted due to the added angle of the air wedge, changing into the contours as the air is slowly pushed out.
A single dark-fringe has the same gap thickness, following a line that runs the entire length of the fringe. The adjacent bright-fringe will indicate a thickness which is either 1/2 of the wavelength narrower or 1/2 of the wavelength wider. The thinner and closer the fringes are; the steeper the slope is, while wider fringes, spaced further apart, show a shallower slope. Unfortunately, it is impossible to tell whether the fringes are indicating an uphill or downhill slope from just a single view of the fringes alone, because the adjacent fringes can be going either way. A ring of concentric circles can indicate that the surface is either concave or convex, which is an effect similar to the hollow-mask illusion.
There are three ways to test the surface for shape, but the most common is the "finger-pressure test." In this test, slight pressure is applied to the flat, to see which way the fringes move. The fringes will move away from the narrow end of the wedge. If the testing surface is concave, when pressure is applied to the center of the rings, the flat will flex a little and the fringes will appear to move inward. However, if the surface is convex, the flat will be in point-contact with the surface in that spot, so it will have no room to flex. Thus, the fringes will remain stationary, merely growing a little wider. If pressure is applied to the edge of the flat something similar happens. If the surface is convex the flat will rock a little, causing the fringes to move toward the finger. However, if the surface is concave the flat will flex a little, and the fringes will move away from the finger toward the center. Although this is called a "finger" pressure test, a wooden stick or some other instrument is often used to avoid heating the glass (with the mere weight of a toothpick often being enough pressure).
Another method involves exposing the flat to white light, allowing rainbow fringes to form, and then pressing in the center. If the surface is concave, there will be point-contact along the edge, and the outer fringe will turn dark. If the surface is convex, there will be point-contact in the center, and the central fringe will turn dark. Much like tempering colors of steel, the fringes will be slightly brownish at the narrower side of the fringe and blue on the wider side, so if the surface is concave the blue will be on the inside of the rings, but if convex the blue will be on the outside.
The third method involves moving the eye in relation to the flat. When moving the eye from a zero-degree angle of incidence to an oblique angle, the fringes will appear to move. If the testing surface is concave, the fringes will appear to move toward the center. If the surface is convex, the fringes will move away from the center. To get a truly accurate reading of the surface, the test should usually be performed in at least two different directions. As grid lines, the fringes only represent part of a grid, so a valley running across the surface may only show as a slight bend in the fringe if it is running parallel to the valley. However, if the optical flat is rotated 90 degrees and retested, the fringes will run perpendicular to the valley and it will show up as a row of "V" or "U" shaped contours in the fringes. By testing in more than one orientation, a better map of the surface can be made.
Long-term stability
During reasonable care and use, optical flats need to maintain their flatness over long periods of time. Therefore, hard glasses with low coefficients of thermal expansion, such as fused silica, are often used for the manufacturing material. However, a few laboratory measurements of room temperature, fused-silica optical-flats have shown a motion consistent with a material viscosity on the order of 1017–1018 Pa·s. This equates to a deviation of a few nanometres over the period of a decade. Because the flatness of an optical flat is relative to the flatness of the original test flat, the true (absolute) flatness at the time of manufacture can only be determined by performing an interferometer test using a liquid flat, or by performing a "three flat test", in which the interference patterns produced by three flats are computer-analyzed. A few tests that have been carried out have shown that a deviation sometimes occurs on the fused silica's surface. However, the tests show that the deformation may be sporadic, with only some of the flats deforming during the test period, some partially deforming, and others remaining the same. The cause of the deformation is unknown and would never be visible to the human eye during a lifetime. (A λ/4 flat has a normal surface-deviation of 158 nanometres, while a λ/20 flat has a normal deviation of over 30 nm.) This deformation has only been observed in fused silica, while soda-lime glass still shows a viscosity of 1041Pa·s, which is many orders of magnitude higher.
See also
Newton's rings
Optical contact bonding
Gauge block, another type of component designed for flatness
Surface plate
References
Optical devices |
4231519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriott%20School%20of%20Business | Marriott School of Business | The Marriott School of Business is the business school of Brigham Young University (BYU), a private university owned by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and located in Provo, Utah. It was founded in 1891 and renamed in 1988 after J. Willard Marriott, founder of Marriott International, and his wife Alice following their $15 million endowment gift to the school.
The school is housed in the N. Eldon Tanner Building and supports 137 full-time faculty and approximately 200 adjunct, part-time or visiting faculty, full-time staff and students who teach. It has approximately 2,100 undergraduate and 1,200 graduate students, and approximately 62 percent of its student body are bilingual. As of 2019, its alumni base numbers 55,000.
Description
Going by several different names since its inception in 1891, the business school at BYU had been known as the Marriott School of Management since 1988, when Marriott International founders J. Willard and Alice Marriott made a $15 million (equivalent to $ million in ) donation to the school. In 2017, the name was changed to the Marriott School of Business. The Marriott School is housed in the N. Eldon Tanner Building and offers five undergraduate and six graduate degrees.
Ethical decision-making is strongly emphasized at the school: undergraduate students are required to complete 14 hours of religion coursework for graduation, all Marriott School students must take at least one course in management ethics, and both students and faculty must commit to abide by the university's honor code. The school also exhibits a unique culture because the majority of its student and faculty are members of the LDS Church.
Many Marriott School students obtain a level of foreign language proficiency while serving as LDS missionaries. (Sixty-five percent of the student body is bilingual.) Consequently, the Marriott School sponsors high-proficiency business language courses in 11 languages. The school claims over 53,000 alumni and is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business.
History
In 1891, Brigham Young Academy, the predecessor to BYU, formed the Commercial College, which offered coursework in business education. A decade later (1901), the college began offering its first four-year degree program. After Brigham Young Academy was separated into Brigham Young High School and Brigham Young University in 1903, the college was renamed the College of Commerce and Business Administration as part of the university. The next decade was tough for the college, as "BYU struggled through the World War I, a flu epidemic [that] closed the school during the fall term of 1918, and school indebtedness that resulted in the 1918 LDS purchase of both BYU's assets and debts." Starting in 1921, the college was housed in the Maeser Building, where it would remain for 13 years.
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 significantly depleted LDS Church funds, which caused the church to consider closing BYU. However, "the transference of a number of church junior colleges allowed BYU to remain in operation." By 1935 the church regained its financial footing and provided more aid to BYU, the school growing slowly over the next ten years. The business college subsequently began offering master's degrees in 1939; however, the programs were hit hard beginning in 1941 when its enrollment (particularly that of men) dropped due to U.S. involvement in World War II. But later that decade, U.S. military veterans returned to school, and in 1945 enrollment doubled. William F. Edwards oversaw the college's growth over the next several years until 1957, when the school was re-branded as the College of Business and Weldon J. Taylor was appointed as its first dean. A year later (1958) the business school held its first management conference, and in 1960 the school was moved to the newly completed Jesse Knight Building.
A Master of Business Administration (MBA) program was added in 1961, and the school formed its National Advisory Council in 1966. In 1973, the school bestowed its first International Executive of the Year Award on AT&T president Robert D. Lilley. Bruce B. Orton served as interim dean of the school for a year until 1975, when Merrill J. Bateman was recruited from a management position at candy-maker Mars, Inc. to become the dean. That same year, the school was separated into the School of Management for undergraduate studies and the Graduate School of Management, which grouped together the MBA, MPA, MOB, and MAcc programs. A year later (1976), the business school created a School of Accountancy within its jurisdiction and printed its first issue of Exchange magazine (now Marriott Alumni Magazine). In 1977, the BYU Management Society was organized.
In 1979, William G. Dyer became dean of the school. Dyer oversaw the construction of the N. Eldon Tanner Building, which was dedicated in 1982. In 1983, an Executive MBA program was added, and in 1984 Paul H. Thompson was appointed dean of the school. Two years later (1986), the International Student Sponsor Program was started, which continues to provide financial assistance to married LDS international students to this day. In 1988, the name of the school was changed to Marriott School of Management in honor of its benefactors—Marriott International founders J. Willard and Alice Marriott—following their $15 million donation to the school. That same year, the Army and Air Force ROTC programs became a part of the Marriott School.
In 1989, K. Fred Skousen became dean of the school. In that year, the school's endowment exceeded $10 million, and the school was awarded a Center for International Business Education and Research (CIBER) grant by the U.S. Department of Education. In 1993, the Organizational Leadership and Strategy Department was created, and a year later the school instituted a limited-enrollment policy. Also in 1994, the school began offering a minor in management. By 1998, the school's endowment had reached $40 million and the Institute of Public Management was renamed in honor of George W. Romney, who during his lifetime served as chairman of American Motors Corporation, Governor of Michigan, and U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. That same year, Ned C. Hill was named dean of the Marriott School.
The Melvin J. Ballard Center for Social Impact was formed in 2003, and the Information Systems Department was created in 2005. That same year the CESR also participated in the production of the microcredit documentary Small Fortunes, which aired nationwide on October 27, 2005, on PBS. In 2006 the school's worldwide initiatives were organized under the Kay and Yvonne Whitmore Global Management Center, named for former Kodak CEO Kay Whitmore and his wife.
In 2006, members of the school's faculty were involved in controversy surrounding the U.S. Republican Party presidential primaries. On October 9, Dean Hill and Associate Dean W. Steve Albrecht sent an e-mail to 50 BYU Management Society members and 100 members of the school's National Advisory Council asking them to support Mitt Romney's bid for the U.S. presidency. Hill and Albrecht signed the message with their official BYU titles, sent the e-mail from a BYU e-mail address, and began the message "Dear Marriott School Friend." Both the LDS Church and BYU, as tax-exempt, nonprofit organizations, are prohibited by federal law from endorsing a particular candidate or political party. Albrecht said that he should not have sent it in his capacity as a BYU dean: "It wasn't something BYU did, it wasn't something I probably should have done, and it was bad judgment."
By 2007, the school's endowment reached $130 million, and in 2008, the Tanner Building Addition was dedicated. For 2013, the endowment reached $182.1 million. Also during this year, the Finance Department was formed in an effort to strengthen curriculum and placement; the Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology was created in honor of former Dell CEO Kevin Rollins and his wife Debra; and administrators announced the addition of a Recreation Management and Youth Leadership (RMYL) Department to the school. The latter department was formerly under BYU's College of Health and Human Performance and comprises the academic disciplines of leisure services management, therapeutic recreation, Scouting administration, non-profit management, and youth leadership. In 2017, the Recreation Management program was converted to the Experience Design & Management program, and the Therapeutic Recreation emphasis was retired.
In August 2017, BYU announced the name would be changed from the Marriott School of Management to the Marriott School of Business.
In May 2018, Brigitte C. Madrian, a behavioral economist from the faculty at the Harvard Kennedy School, was named the ninth dean of the Marriott School of Business and is the first female to serve as dean.
Campus
The Marriott School is located on the campus of BYU, which is situated in the urban, Wasatch Front area of Provo, Utah. The school is principally housed inside the N. Eldon Tanner Building (TNRB). At the building's construction announcement in 1980, BYU president Dallin H. Oaks said that the Board of Trustees named it in honor of N. Eldon Tanner (a Canadian politician and counselor to four LDS Church presidents) because he was known in Canada as "Mr. Integrity"—a title wished upon every Marriott School graduate. At the groundbreaking for the building on November 8, 1980, "explosives that were used to remove the soil showered unsuspecting spectators with dust and pebbles." The Tanner Building was completed in late 1982 and dedicated on April 5, 1983, by Gordon B. Hinckley. Today, the seven-story, granite building houses Marriott School classrooms as well as professor and administration offices. A addition, costing $43 million and funded by donations, was dedicated on October 24, 2008, by alumnus Thomas S. Monson. The addition increased the building's capacity by 53 percent and provides 10 tiered classrooms, one network teaching room, one large assembly room, and 39 study rooms.
The Tanner Building is located directly west of central campus. To its immediate north is the Gordon B. Hinckley Alumni and Visitors Center and on-campus housing Helaman Halls. Its western and southern sides are covered by athletic facilities. Close by is also the newly renovated Jesse Knight Building (JKB), where some business school classes are held. Additionally, a parking garage is located adjacent to the Tanner Building.
Academics
Organization and research
As part of the larger institution of BYU, the Marriott School is ultimately administered by BYU's President and Board of Trustees. Under them, the school is directly managed by a Dean (currently Brigitte C. Madrian), who is advised by three associate deans and the school's National Advisory Council. The school has nine academic departments, each overseen by a department chair. The Marriott School student body has its own student council, which serves an umbrella organization for Marriott School clubs. The school houses student chapters for national associations including the Society for Human Resource Management, the Collegiate Entrepreneurs' Organization, Rotaract, and Net Impact. There is also a chapter of the honorary association Beta Alpha Psi.
Faculty are grouped in one or more of seven "academic areas": accounting, business management (including management communication, business law, and international business), finance, information systems, organizational leadership and strategy, public management, and experience design and management. The school is also home to four research centers that organize research in different fields of business administration and establish liaisons between the Marriott School and the corporate world. Both undergraduate and graduate students may be invited to work as teaching and research assistants, and some MAcc students teach accounting classes during the spring or summer terms, as well as at the BYU's Salt Lake Center. However, research productivity is hampered by the fact that the Marriott School has no doctoral programs, and therefore, no doctoral students focused on research. The Marriott School faculty was ranked #64 nationally and #71 globally in 2008 for its research productivity in the UTD Top 100 Business School Research Ranking.
The Marriott School oversees two perennial publications: Economic Self-Reliance (a semi-annual, practitioner-focused publication that highlights research and best practices) and Marriott Alumni Magazine (a tri-annual publication that showcases innovative business research and ideas as well as news from the school and alumni). Marriott School students and faculty are serviced by the Business and Economics Library within the Harold B. Lee Library, which houses an accounting lab and several Bloomberg Terminals. The MSM is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business.
Curriculum and degrees offered
The Marriott School offers ten Bachelor of Science degree programs: Accounting, Finance, Information Systems, Global Supply Chain Management, Marketing, Human Resource Management, Strategic Management, Entrepreneurial Management, Experience Design and Management, and Business Management. Seven minors are also offered: Business, Entrepreneurship, Global Business and Literacy, Healthcare Leadership, Information Systems, Global and Community Impact, and Strategy.
The school offers six graduate degrees: the MAcc, MBA, EMBA, EMPA, MISM, and MPA. MBA students choose a major (Finance, Marketing, Supply Chain Management, OBHR, or Product Development) and a minor (Entrepreneurship, International Business, Strategy) if desired. MAcc students choose either audit, tax, or PhD Prep.
Matriculation into the Marriott School as an undergraduate requires an application independent from normal acceptance to BYU. Once in the program, students go through a one-semester "core" where students in the block are in the same classes together as teams. All undergraduates must also complete a one-semester mentoring program where each student selects a Marriott School alumnus to converse with over the course of the semester. The Marriott School's class schedules mirror those of the university: two 16-week semesters (fall and winter) and two terms over the summer break (spring and summer). Students must carry 12 credit hours in order to be considered a full-time student, and 18 credit hours is the maximum unless permission is granted to take more.
About 70% of student tuition is funded by LDS Church tithing funds, making tuition less expensive for church members than at similar private universities. Students not members of the church pay double the LDS tuition rate. For the 2014–2015 school year, Marriott School tuition for full-time LDS undergraduates is $2,500 per semester; for Marriott School graduate students, it is $5,810 per semester. All Marriott School students may apply for several school-specific and university-wide financial aid opportunities. Some are program-specific, others are need-based. The Hawes Scholars program is the highest scholarship distinction given to MBA students at the school. The program awards $10,000 to second-year students who are nominated by students or faculty, and who are then selected based on academic performance, leadership maturity, and a commitment to high ethical standards.
All Marriott School students may also earn the Global Management Certificate. To earn the certificate, students are required to take a business language course, pertinent international business classes, and participate in an international field study or study abroad program. Undergraduate students may also qualify for graduation honors. University Honors is the highest distinction BYU awards its graduates. Overseen by Honors Program, the distinction requires students to complete an honors curriculum requirement, a Great Works requirement, an Advanced Languages requirement, a service requirement, an honors thesis requirement, a graduation portfolio that summarizes the student's honors experiences—all while maintaining at least a 3.5 GPA. The Marriott School designates a faculty member as its honors coordinator, who aids students in finding faculty with whom to begin honors thesis research. The university also awards Latin scholastic distinctions: summa cum laude, top 1 percent; magna cum laude, top 5 percent; and cum laude, top 10 percent.
Rankings, awards, and admissions
Many of the Marriott School's degree programs have received high rankings from independent sources. In 2014, the Marriott School's undergraduate programs were ranked #13 by BusinessWeek. The Marriott School's MBA program received rankings from several sources for 2016–2017: #23 ranking by BusinessWeek, #17 by Forbes, and #27 by U.S. News & World Report. Among regional schools the program was ranked #1 by The Wall Street Journal's most recent ranking (2007); and among business schools worldwide the MBA program was ranked #93 for 2014 by Financial Times. The undergrad program was also ranked #2 for return on investment (BusinessWeek, 2013) and #2 for its emphasis on ethics (The Wall Street Journal, 2007).
The Marriott School's accounting program is the only program in the country to receive the American Accounting Association's Innovation in Accounting Education Award twice. The first award, received in 1993, was for the development of an integrated approach to teaching accounting. The second award, received in 2007, was for the development of a PhD Prep Track to prepare MAcc students to enroll in a PhD program after graduation. For 2013, the bachelor's degree in the School of Accountancy received two #3 rankings, one by Public Accounting Report and the other by U.S. News & World Report. The same two reporting agencies also ranked the school's MAcc program #2 and #7 in the nation, respectively.
The Information Systems department was ranked #26 in the nation in 2003 for research, and its MISM program was ranked "among the top ten" by TechRepublic in 2008.
The Marriott School is one of the few colleges at BYU that requires application from undergraduate students post-matriculation to the university itself. In addition to essays and pre-baccalaureate academics, students are evaluated on performance in 13 credit hours of "pre-management" coursework at BYU. For 2008, the MSM admitted 69 percent of undergraduate applicants, comprising a class of 1,783 students.
Applicants to the MBA program are evaluated based on commitment to the mission of BYU and the LDS Church, undergraduate academic performance, Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) standardized test scores, essays, work experience, recommendations, written applications, and interviews, if applicable. For 2009, the MBA program admitted 51 percent of applicants or 478 students. The class averaged 672 on the GMAT, 3.54 GPA, and 45 months of work experience post-baccalaureate.
People
Students
The Marriott School student body comprises approximately 1,900 undergraduate and 1,100 graduate students. Nearly 75 percent of the students are bilingual and about 30 percent speak a third language, most having lived abroad while serving a mission for the LDS Church. Approximately 16 percent of students are international students, 66 percent are married, and whites (non-Hispanic) comprise 91 percent of the student body as of 2009. Eighty-seven percent of domestic students hail from the West. The mean and median ages of undergraduate students is 23, 21 percent of whom are female. Female MBA students only account for 13 percent of the graduating class.
The Marriott School embodies a distinct culture due to its affiliation with the LDS Church. "Membership in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is not required for admittance into the [school], but an understanding of and a commitment to support the Church's mission is necessary." All students must adhere to the university's honor code, which prescribes standards of morality, dress and grooming, academic honesty, and drug and alcohol non-consumption. Undergraduate students must also take 14 credit hours of religion courses in order to fulfill the university's religious education requirement for graduation.
Students find diversion in clubs sponsored by the MSM and in university-wide intramural sports. Students interested in careers in academia can participate in the Marriott School of Management Pre-doctoral Student Organization. Students also compete in academic competitions at various campuses and venues. A BYU student team placed #1 at the University of Arizona's annual ethics competition (Duel in the Desert) in 2006 and 2007, and a team of undergraduate accounting students placed #1 in the 2007 Deloitte Tax Case Competition—marking BYU's seventh consecutive first- or second-place finish in this division. The BYU chapter of the Collegiate Entrepreneurs Organization also received three first-place national chapter awards at the organization's national conference in Chicago, including "Best in Teaching Entrepreneurship" and "Best Chapter Marketing." Additionally, a BYU student team was #3 at the 2007 International Venture Capital Investment Competition finals, finishing behind MIT and the University of Virginia.
Faculty
The Marriott School has 130 full-time faculty with more than 90 percent holding PhDs. Faculty have included former Academy of Management president David Whetten, WordPerfect co-founder Alan Ashton, FranklinCovey co-founder Stephen Covey, University of Oxford professor Teppo Felin, and Steve Albrecht, former President of the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners and of the American Accounting Association.
Several Marriott School faculty have been awarded for their efforts in teaching and research, as well as in the community. Kevin Stocks was awarded the 2007 Joseph A. Silvoso Faculty Award of Merit by the Federation of Schools of Accountancy for displaying excellence in accounting education, and Warner Woodworth received the 2007 Faculty Pioneer Award in External Impact from The Aspen Institute's Center for Business Education in recognition for the integration of social issues in research and teaching. Gary Cornia also received the 2006 Stephen D. Gold Award from the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management, while Chyleen Arbon was appointed to the Utah Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.
Alumni
Numbering 55,000, graduates from the Marriott School have been deemed "first among recruiters" by BusinessWeek in 2008. Top recruiters include Ernst & Young, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Deloitte & Touche, KPMG, HP, Intel, Cisco, and Goldman Sachs. For 2009, MBA graduates averaged $87,769 in post-graduation salary, MPA graduates $48,294, MAcc graduates $51,900, MISM graduates $58,785, and management undergraduates $48,995.
There is also a strong contingency of Marriott School alumni who pursue a career in academia, with BYU being ranked #8 nationally for the number of students who go on to earn PhDs. This is due in part to the MAcc PhD Prep Track and the BYU Honors Program.
Alumni of the Marriott School of Management who are prominent in business include Citigroup CFO Gary Crittenden 1976, former Dell CEO Kevin Rollins 1984, former Intermountain Health Care CEO Bill Nelson '67, and Krispy Kreme president Jeffrey B. Welch '84. In education, Alison Davis-Blake '82 is president of Bentley University, John Grout '84 is Dean of the Campbell School of Business at Berry College. Alumni in other fields include Thomas S. Monson '74, former president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and chairman of the BYU Board of Trustees, violinist Lindsey Sterling '15, and three-time NFL Super Bowl champion Bart Oates '82.
Many alumni also choose to participate in the BYU Management Society, which was founded in 1977 by Dean Merrill J. Bateman. The organization is an alumni association "with inclusivity", inviting non-alumni to join as well. The fourfold mission of the society is networking, career development, supporting BYU and the Marriott School, and community service. The Society membership is now at 6,000 members in 40 U.S. cities and 10 countries.
See also
List of United States business school rankings
List of business schools in the United States
List of deans of the Marriott School of Management
References
External links
Brigham Young University
Brigham Young University
Business schools in Utah
Universities and colleges established in 1891
Universities and colleges established in 1961
University subdivisions in Utah
1891 establishments in Utah Territory |
4231578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbie%20Hewett | Herbie Hewett | Herbert Tremenheere Hewett (25 May 1864 – 4 March 1921) was an English amateur first-class cricketer who played for Somerset, captaining the county from 1889 to 1893, as well as Oxford University and the Marylebone Cricket Club. A battling left-handed opening batsman, Hewett could post a large score in a short time against even the best bowlers. Capable of hitting the ball powerfully, he combined an excellent eye with an unorthodox style to be regarded at his peak as one of England's finest batsmen.
Hewett was educated at Harrow School, won a blue at Oxford in 1886 and played for Somerset from 1884. As an inconsistent middle-order batsman he made little impact during this period. Even so, he was appointed captain of Somerset in 1889. Over the next two years, his leadership and performances as an opening batsman were instrumental in the county regaining first-class status and admission to the County Championship in 1891. He remained Somerset captain for a further three seasons, usually opening the batting with Lionel Palairet. In 1892, they shared a partnership of 346 for the first wicket, of which Hewett scored 201. The stand remains the county's highest first-wicket partnership. In that season, Hewett made 1,405 runs at an average of more than 35, and was named as one of the "Five Batsmen of the Year" by Wisden. His highest accolade was being selected to play for the Gentlemen against the Players at Lord's in 1894. A disagreement over whether play should take place on a sodden pitch in the match against the Australians in 1893 led to Hewett's departure from Somerset at the end of that season.
He played first-class cricket for three more years, during which time he scored centuries against both Oxford and Cambridge Universities, appearing for a variety of amateur and representative sides. Having been selected to captain an "England XI" at Scarborough in 1895, Hewett was involved in another incident caused by a wet pitch. Feeling insulted by shouts of derision from the crowd, he left the match at lunch-time on the first day. Hewett made only one further first-class appearance: playing for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Oxford University in 1896. Hewett practised as a barrister, having been called to the bar at the Inner Temple.
Early life
Herbert Tremenheere Hewett was born at Norton Court in Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton on 25 May 1864, the only son of William Henry and Frances M. Hewett. Although he was the couple's only son, they had at least four daughters; in 1871 two older sisters, Emily Louisa and HelenG. Hewett are listed in the census, along with one younger sister, Florance Ethel Hewett. By 1891, Mary W. Hewett is also listed as a younger sister, although by this date both older sisters are no longer registered at the address nor their father William Henry. He was initially educated at Hillside, Godalming where he was captain of the cricket and rugby teams. On leaving Hillside in 1879 he went to Harrow School. In 1881 he had a trial for the school cricket eleven mainly on the strength of his bowling, having taken all ten wickets for 22 runs in a house match. Hewett was part of the school's cricket first eleven in 1882 and 1883, and appeared in the annual contest against Eton College in both years, but did little on either occasion, his highest score being six, made in the first-innings in 1882. In all matches for Harrow he had a batting average of just 7.4 in 1883 and 9.5 in 1884 while his bowling average in 1884 was 32.10. Hewett also appeared in the school association football eleven in 1883. On completion of his studies at Harrow, he attended Trinity College, Oxford. In his reminiscences, W. G. Grace suggests that Hewett "first won some little renown in Public School and 'Varsity cricket, but it was not until he joined Somersetshire that he forced himself to a prominent place in County Cricket."
Oxford and Somerset (1884–1888)
After appearing in The Freshman's Match in 1884, during which he scored zero and eight and took two wickets, Hewett made little impact in his first season at Oxford and was not selected for the university eleven. His debut in first-class cricket came later that season for Somerset County Cricket Club at Tunbridge Wells, when he was 20 years old. Against Kent in late August, he scored 14 and0 batting as part of the middle order, and claimed his only two wickets in first-class cricket. He made one other appearance in 1884, against Lancashire.
In 1885 Hewett played in a trial match at Oxford without success. He did, however, play in four of Somerset's six first-class matches that summer. In his first game of the season for Somerset, in mid-July, Hewett scored his maiden half-century; he remained 50 not out in the second-innings of a five-wicket victory over Hampshire. He passed 50 for Somerset on two more occasions during 1885, and finished the season with 247 runs at a batting average of 35.28, one of seven seasons in which his average was in excess of 30.
He started the 1886 season well, scoring 151 for his college and 164 not out for Perambulators against Etceteras. An 1893 write-up in Wisden Cricketers' Almanack said: "early in the season of 1886 [Hewett] showed signs of the brilliant hitting which has since made him famous". Although he top-scored in the Seniors Match, he was not selected for the eleven until the university's third game. He made scores of 49 and 77 in successive matches for Oxford University against Lancashire and gained his blue, scoring 0and7 in the University Match against Cambridge. He finished the season fourth in the Oxford University batting averages with his 160 runs being scored at 22.85, and was described in James Lillywhite's Cricketers' Annual as being: "Sometimes a most dashing left-handed hitter, but not at all dependable; hard-working field."
Poor results in 1885 saw Somerset lose their first-class status for the following seasons. Somerset played just six matches in 1886 of which Hewett played two, top-scoring with 69 against Devon. An injury to his hand prevented him from playing all but one match for the university in his final year at Oxford, 1887, when "he would have had a good chance of retaining his place in the University eleven", according to Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, although he was fit enough to score a century with a broomstick in a college match. During 1887, in a second-class match for Somerset against Warwickshire, Hewett scored 98 to help Somerset to an innings victory, scoring the first 92 runs in less than an hour, an unusually high rate of scoring.
The next year, 1888, he scored successive half-centuries for Somerset early in the season against Warwickshire and Staffordshire before making his debut for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). Facing Oxford University, Hewett made zero and eight for the London club. The same summer, Hewett was selected to play for an England XI against the touring Australians, and in a ten wicket win for the tourists, he scored 12 and 1. Between 1884 and 1888 Hewett had limited success at the first-class level, establishing a reputation as a useful, if erratic, hard-hitting middle-order batsman. He played a lot of club cricket, being a regular for Harrow Wanderers, and scoring 201 not out for Senior Common Room against Christ Church in 1888.
Captaining Somerset
Second-class county
Hewett's appearances for Somerset in 1889 were more successful. Having previously appeared in the middle-order, Hewett switched to opening the innings at the start of the season, and took on the captaincy. He scored three half-centuries in the season: two against Warwickshire, and one against Staffordshire. He comfortably headed the Somerset batting with an average of 38 in matches against the other second-class counties. In his history of Somerset cricket, Sunshine, Sixes and Cider, David Foot describes Hewett's selection policy as captain as being one that was more dependent on the cricketing ability of the player than "of [the player's] social charm and ability to drink into the early hours"—unlike some of his predecessors.
In 1890, his side were unbeaten against county opposition, winning the "Second-class County Championship". In an early season first-class appearance for A. J. Webbe's XI, Hewett scored his maiden first-class century, reaching 114 against Cambridge University. Later in May, for the MCC against Oxford University, he scored 71. Hewett top-scored with 65 in the second-innings of Somerset's opening county match of 1890, and two matches later scored 64 during a first-wicket partnership of 115 with Lionel Palairet against Leicestershire. A string of lower scores followed for just under a month before Somerset hosted Staffordshire at Taunton. Having dismissed the visitors for 43, Hewett remained 203 not out when he declared the Somerset innings closed, scored in four hours, "a remarkable display of powerful and well-timed hitting". He did not pass 100 again that season, but came close during the Scarborough Festival, being bowled for 99 in the second-innings for the Gentlemen of England. Hewett led Somerset's batting averages in 1890, during which the club won twelve and tied one of their thirteen matches against county opposition. Due to this record the county were admitted to the County Championship for 1891 after a unanimous vote, regaining their first-class status.
While Red Lillywhite assessed him as "a dangerous left-hand bat, very free, but somewhat uncertain; good point", after the 1889 season, a year later he was described as "one of the very best left-hand bats in England, hitting hard all round; excellent point. Captain in 1889–1890, which post he filled with wonderful judgement." At the end of the 1890 season he was presented with a handsome silver flask by members of Somerset County Cricket Club.
County Championship cricket
Hewett led his side in their first County Championship match starting on 18 May 1891. Although the club had played first-class cricket a few years earlier, the championship had only been formed the previous season. Their debut in the competition was interrupted by rain and finished a draw; Hewett top-scored in Somerset's only innings with 31. Somerset's next match was against reigning county champions Surrey. Lionel Palairet, Bill Roe and Sammy Woods were all missing for various reasons, leaving Hewett with a depleted side and only two real bowlers; Ted Tyler and George Nichols. Surrey reached 449, and then bowled Somerset out twice, for 37 in each innings. When Surrey travelled to Taunton later that season, most likely expecting an easy win to secure a second consecutive championship, Hewett top-scored for his team with 55 in the first-innings as Somerset reached 194. Woods, Nichols and Tyler then secured a 40 run first-innings lead for the home side who added another 331 runs in their second-innings, Hewett contributing 42. The same trio of Somerset bowlers proceeded to bowl the champions out for a second time, the final wicket falling two minutes from the close of play, and their team recorded a 130-run victory. Hewett had a quiet season with the bat, in addition to his 55 against Surrey he passed 50 on only one other occasion; against Middlesex two weeks later. He totalled 514 runs during the season at an average of 19.76; his lowest average when playing eight or more innings in a season.
Touring North America
Following the close of the 1891 County Championship, Hewett was part of Lord Hawke's party which toured North America, playing six matches in the United States and two in Canada. Sammy Woods wrote that Hewett, along with Charles Wreford-Brown and George Ricketts, became very seasick on the journey there. The first two matches were first-class fixtures against the Gentlemen of Philadelphia. Hewett scored 30 and 49 in the first, an eight wicket loss which Woods blamed on taking place too soon after their arrival, saying the team "had hardly found our land-legs." The first match had yielded an aggregate of 861 runs, the second contained only 352, of which Hewett scored 10 and 29. His captain, Lord Hawke, was the only other batsman to reach double figures in both innings as the touring side won by four wickets. None of the remaining fixtures on the tour had first-class status, and not all were eleven-a-side contests. Hewett scored 113 against the sixteen man All New York on Staten Island, a match in which he was standing in as captain due to Lord Hawke being ill. Woods rated Hewett, along with Lord Hawke and Brown, as the best batsmen on the tour.
Batsman of the Year
Hewett's first three matches of the 1892 season were for representative sides against the universities. He reached double figures in each of his six innings, and scored a half-century for the Gentlemen of England against Cambridge. On returning to Somerset, he did not score a half-century until his third match, making 54 against Oxford University. He passed 50 on twelve occasions during the season, the most during any season of his career. In late August, playing Yorkshire, Hewett scored 201 out of a partnership of 346, establishing a record for the first wicket in first-class cricket, surpassing W. G. Grace and Bransby Cooper's 1869 total of 283. Although their record has since been beaten in first-class cricket, it remains Somerset's record partnership for the first wicket. Their partnership was described as "Pure grace at one end, sheer force at the other", in H. S. Altham and E. W. Swanton's A History of Cricket. At the time, The Daily Telegraph reported that the pair remained together for three and half hours, during which Hewett scored 30 fours.
Hewett finished the season with 1,047 runs for Somerset, making him the only batsman in England to score 1,000 runs in county matches. In total he scored 1,407 first-class runs, the most by any batsman, and was third in the amateur batting averages. He was named as one of the Five Batsmen of the Year by the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack in 1893, in which it was claimed that "had it been necessary last August [1892] to put a representative England eleven into the field, Hewett would undoubtedly have been given a place." Under Hewett's captaincy, Somerset won eight, drew three and lost five matches in 1892, finishing third in the County Championship, which would remain their highest position for over 100 years, until the county were runners-up in the competition in 2001. The Times praised the county's achievements during the year, and reserved special praise for Hewett; "Somerset's many brilliant feats, and the fine play of Messrs. Hewett and Palairet in particular, were a marked feature of this year's cricket." After the close of the County Championship, Hewett appeared in three representative matches, captaining the West to victory over the East, and appearing under the captaincy of W.G. Grace for both the South and the Gentlemen vPlayers.
Departure from Somerset
Hewett began the 1893 season in good form, reaching his half-century in each of his first three matches for the county, including a total of 94 against Oxford University in late May. Hewett missed most of the match against Kent shortly after, returning to Taunton due to the death of his brother-in-law, during which time George Wood replaced him as a substitute. In July 1893, the touring Australians played Somerset at Taunton for the first time since 1882, when both the ground and the county team were barely established. After the success of the 1892 season, and because talented, Australian-born Sammy Woods was playing for Somerset, the match was eagerly anticipated. Thousands arrived in Taunton for the match, but after overnight torrential rain, the umpires inspected the pitch at 11:00 and abandoned play for the day. In his history of the county club, Roebuck suggest that they may have been put under pressure by the Australians or by Hewett himself. The Somerset fans and members were angry at the decision, but the Australians packed picnic baskets and after exchanging strong words with the locals, departed for the Quantock Hills. Hewett, along with Woods and Vernon Hill, arranged to play golf in Minehead. The crowd continued to show their dismay at the decision, and eventually the Somerset officials asked the umpires to take another look at the ground. Woods supported this decision in his reminiscences, claiming that "the decision not to play was premature." At 14:00, after their second inspection, the umpires retracted their previous decision and announced that play could start. Hewett reacted angrily, and argued unsuccessfully against the decision with the Somerset committee. The Australian players were recalled from their picnic, and play began at 16:00, although neither team particularly wanted to play. Roebuck recorded that "Hewett, in particular, was in high dudgeon and... he threw away his wicket for 12 runs, having been dropped once." David Foot offered a more tempered opinion, saying simply that Hewett's "mind wasn't on the game." No play was possible on the second day, and on the third, Australia won the match by six wickets. Hewett felt let down by the Somerset committee, who he felt had undermined his authority, prompting him to say that "if a captain can't lead at Taunton, this is no place for him." Although friends thought he was overreacting, he declared that he would resign from the captaincy and the club at the end of the season. Both Foot and Roebuck suggested that Hewett reacted in an over-sensitive and extreme manner, but that his lack of self-control may have limited his long-term captaincy prospects.
In his five further games for Somerset before the end of the season Hewett hit two centuries. He reached 120 runs against Nottinghamshire and against Gloucestershire, on his final appearance for the county, he scored 112 runs in just under two hours; according to James Lillywhite's Cricketers' Annual, it "was a splendid display". He scored 1,092 runs in total during 1893, of which his 669 for Somerset in the championship were scored at an average of 31.85, topping the county's batting charts. During his five seasons of first-class cricket for Somerset, he played 51 matches and scored 2,592 runs at an average of 30.85.
Later cricket career and life
After leaving Somerset, Hewett did not continue in county cricket at all, opting to play first-class cricket only for amateur and representative sides. At the tail-end of the 1893 season, he played three times for the South, scoring two half-centuries. In July 1894, Hewett made the second of his two appearances for the Gentlemen against the Players. Unlike his first appearance, made at Hastings, the match was played at Lord's Cricket Ground, which was generally considered to be the more prestigious Gentlemen v Players fixture of the season, being the more representative. These matches were keenly contested during the 1890s, and were considered to be second in prestige only to gaining a Test cap. Batting at number three, Hewett scored 12 runs out of the Gentlemen's total of 254, before Stanley Jackson and Hewett's former Somerset colleague, Sammy Woods, bowled the Players out for 108 and 107. He appeared 11 times in 1894, scoring 579 runs at an average of 34.05, higher than the previous season. Woods described Hewett as being "in splendid form" when he played, and lamented that he was no longer playing for Somerset. He scored his only century of the season for A. J. Webbe's XI, reaching 110 after opening the innings against Oxford University. He continued his form with the bat into 1895, twice scoring centuries for the Gentlemen against the universities, making 109 against Cambridge, and 102 against Oxford. During this season Hewett appeared in his first match for the amateur side I Zingari, who had strong links with both Harrow School and Somerset president Sir Spencer Ponsonby-Fane.
Hewett played all three matches of the 1895 Scarborough Festival; he opened the innings for the MCC against Yorkshire, and then captained the South in their loss against the North. In the third match, Hewett was named captain of an England XI, a compliment for the former Somerset captain. However, rain meant the start was delayed. Unlike a couple of years earlier, Hewett was happy to ignore the puddles in the field and start the match at the scheduled time. The umpires disagreed with him, and the crowd, wanting cricket, blamed Hewett for the delay and lack of sport. When he belatedly led his side onto the field, the spectators threw insults at him until the Yorkshire captain, Lord Hawke, angrily shouted "Keep quiet or I'll think about calling the game off". Hewett did not bother with such threats, and left the field, got changed and departed from the ground, taking no further part in the game. Fred Spofforth replaced him in the match which the England side went on to win by nine wickets.
During the English winter of 1895–96, Hewett once again toured with Lord Hawke, travelling to South Africa. Arriving too late to take part in the first match of the tour, he then played the next four matches, but was summoned back to England by important business. The tour included three matches against a South African national team which were deemed to be Tests, but by this stage of the tour Hewett had left South Africa, and he thus completed his cricket career without any Test appearances. He played his final first-class match in 1896, scoring 86 for the MCC against Oxford University. In this match, for unknown reasons, he appeared as "Mr. H Herbert".
When Mr 'Herbert' came in to bat... many of the spectators in the free seats did not recognise him, but after he had sampled an over or two, an old gentleman, who had shown some knowledge of the game, hit the nail on the head when he remarked: I don't remember to have seen this Mr 'Erbert' before but he's 'class'. He continued to play cricket for the Harrow Wanderers, MCC and I Zingari until 1901. At the time of the 1901 Census, Hewett was living in Westminster. He was listed as head of the household, the only other resident being a servant.
Hewett practised as a barrister, having trained at the Inner Temple, where he passed at least one exam in 1890. During the First World War, he served in the Territorial Force Reserve as an Assistant Provost Marshal, an appointment which he held from 7September 1915 until 24 May 1918. He died in Hove, Sussex, on 4March 1921, and his funeral was held in Norton Fitzwarren four days later. His obituary in The Times describes only Hewett's cricket career, and does not give any details about his later life. It does not mention a spouse or any children. The notice of his funeral in the same paper says: "The whole village [of Norton Fitzwarren] was in mourning and among those present at the graveside were Mr H. E. Murray Anderdon, president, and Mr S. M. J. Woods, secretary of the Somerset Cricket Club."
Personality and style
When Hewett was named as one of the Five Batsmen of the Year by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack in 1893, the publication described him as "the finest left-handed batsman in England". He played in an unorthodox but attractive fashion, which prompted W.G. Grace to praise "his dashing and fearless hitting", while remarking that he had an awkward style. In Somerset, Cider and Sixes, David Foot described that he was "possessed of an eagle eye, considerable meat and the ability to make his forcing shots attractive." In Peter Roebuck's From Sammy to Jimmy, he offered a similar portrait of Hewett's batting style, adding that "he saw it as his task to conquer". Hewett's batting received praise in H. S. Altham and E. W. Swanton's A History of Cricket, where he is described as a "singularly determined and venomous" batsman who "hit the ball in unexpected and demoralizing directions." He frequently scored his runs rapidly, as described by the Reverend R. S. Holmes, who wrote of his batting against Nottinghamshire; "the Captain scored at his usual rate – three out of four runs notched, represent his pace. Against Surrey he got 61 out of 81, this time 60 out of the same total. That's the kind of example every captain should set – a run a minute, or thereabouts." In summary of the 1892 season The Cricket Annual notes that "the Somerset player, in fact, had established the reputation of being the most punishing batsman and rapid scorer of the day, and on last season's form no representative eleven could be considered complete without him." Sammy Woods claimed that Hewett disliked fielding, but offered the view that he was good at point. Woods also related how Hewett would chew on a toothpick, which he always had in his mouth when fielding, when his team was losing.
As evidenced by the manner in which Hewett left Somerset and walked off during the Scarborough Festival of 1895, he possessed a short fuse. Teammate Frederic John Poynton characterised his captain as a player who suffered "from a deep, difficult nature, which once upset, took long to recover". He was a strong leader who was both respected and feared by his colleagues. In 1885, Somerset County Cricket Club had failed to field eleven players for some of their first-class contests, and in most of their other matches were a poor side. Hewett took on the county captaincy in 1889, and in his second year led his side unbeaten against fellow county opposition to win the 'Second-class County Championship', and gain re-admission to the first-class game. Hewett's batting and captaincy were aided by the emergence of Woods and Palairet, both of whom were named as Wisden Cricketers of the Year between 1889 and 1893. In 1891, Somerset finished joint fifth among the nine first-class counties, while the subsequent year they rose to third. Hewett's final season at Somerset was the county's least successful under his captaincy; they won just four of their sixteen matches to finish in eighth.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
1864 births
1921 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
English cricketers
Gentlemen cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
Members of the Inner Temple
North v South cricketers
People educated at Harrow School
Oxford University cricketers
People from Norton Fitzwarren
Somerset cricket captains
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
I Zingari cricketers
Gentlemen of the South cricketers
West of England cricketers
Non-international England cricketers
Gentlemen of England cricketers
Lord Hawke's XI cricketers
C. I. Thornton's XI cricketers
Lord Londesborough's XI cricketers
A. J. Webbe's XI cricketers
Cricketers from Somerset |
4231611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden%20Grammar%20School | Borden Grammar School | Borden Grammar School is a grammar school with academy status in Sittingbourne, Kent, England, which educates boys aged 11–18. A small number of girls have also been admitted to the Sixth Form. The school holds specialist status in sports.
History
Plans for a boys' school in Borden began in 1875, as a new way of using some of the accumulated funds from the Barrow Trust, established from the estate of William Barrow (d. 1707), a local farmer, for the benefit of the poorer inhabitants of the village. The trustees of the Barrow Trust became the new school's governors, and they began organising a suitable sum of money to allow the project to go ahead. Within a few years, they had amassed £9,500 and the building of the school began on a seven-acre site in Riddles Road, which belonged to the trust. The Barrow Boys' School, Borden, was to be an independent day and boarding school, designed to have some fifty boarders and some 150 day pupils. The school formally opened in October 1878, with just twenty-three pupils (nine of them from the village of Borden) and one full-time member of staff (the headmaster, Rev. William Henry Bond). A full-time assistant master was recruited in 1880, followed by a second full-time assistant master in 1883.
In 1893, Rev. Bond left to become headmaster of Churcher's College, and was replaced by James Williamson Thurnham, who was keen to increase the number of boarders at the school, which by now was known as Barrow School, Borden. Boarders came from all parts of the country and, indeed, the world, with some hailing from France, Spain, India and Jamaica. Thurnham left to establish New College, Herne Bay in 1906, and took most of the 120 boarders and the majority of the school's staff with him, leaving the next headmaster, William Murdock, with the difficult task of building up numbers once more. Soon after Murdock's appointment, the school began to be referred to as Borden Barrow's Boys' School and was taken into the state education system in 1906. The school now became known as Borden School, a name that had appeared as part of the school badge since at least 1885, but, by 1910, there were six annual scholarships to 'Borden Grammar School', the name by which the school has been known ever since. Up until the 1914, there had still been a few boarders at the school but, after the First World War, it became a day grammar school.
In the early summer of 1929, the school moved to its present site on the Avenue of Remembrance, Sittingbourne, not only because of the rising maintenance costs of the original premises and the fact that it was no longer possible to attract suitable numbers of boys with the school being so far from the centre of Sittingbourne. The new building was formally opened by George, Lord Harris in October 1929, but the school retained its original name despite no longer being located in Borden. The old school building was used for a time as an agricultural college, and is now an Adult Education Centre.
In January 1931, work began on the construction of a cricket pavilion as a memorial to all those Old Bordenians who were killed in the First World War, most of the money being provided by the Old Bordenian Association. The original pavilion was replaced by a modern structure in 2004, which continues to serve as a memorial to all those old boys who were killed in the First World War.
In May 1940, the Government announced that a number of towns on the Southeast Coast were to have their children evacuated: Sheerness was one such town, and some sixty-five pupils from Borden, accompanied by three masters, were evacuated to Pengam, South Wales, where the boys were to attend the Lewis School. Meanwhile, air raid shelters were built on the east side of the school site in Sittingbourne and, later, to the north of the cricket pavilion. In May 1949, a clock tower was unveiled by the Bishop of Dover as a memorial to all those Old Bordenians who lost their lives in the Second World War, the funds once again being provided by the Old Bordenian Association.
The word 'Grammar' was removed from the school's name in 1972, in accordance with a change in the local education system, and there were fears that Borden might be turned into a Sixth Form college. These fears were, however, not realised, and Borden remained a selective school, admitting pupils at thirteen rather than after the 11+ Examination. In 1982, the word 'Grammar' was restored to the school's name, and entry at eleven resumed in 1994.
In 1979, a new teaching block, the Hardy Block (named for the school's fifth headmaster, George Hardy), was opened by Commander John Bostock, DSC, RN, chairman of governors. The first phase of another new teaching block, the Short Block (named for the school's sixth headmaster, Bryan Short), was opened in 1995 and completed in 1998; the finished building was formally opened by Robin, Lord Kingsdown, the great-grandson of the school's first chairman of governors, Sir Edward Leigh Pemberton. One of the science laboratories, the Hooker Advanced Physics Laboratory, was named for and opened by Sir Stanley Hooker, an Old Bordenian and aeronautical engineer.
The School looks forward to the sesquicentenary of its foundation, and the centenary of relocating to its present site, both in 2028.
Modern School
On 1 September 2006 the school was awarded Specialist status for Sports and Modern Foreign Languages. With this status and an associated increase in funding, the school has built many new facilities, including a multi use games area (MUGA) and the William Barrow Library. In 2011 the school also received a sports bursary, with which it used to construct a climbing wall in the gym.
In 2011, three updated war memorials were installed in the school vestibule, commemorating all those Old Bordenians known to have given their lives in the conflicts of the twentieth century (forty casualties in the First World War, sixty casualties in the Second World War, and single casualties in the Boer War, Korean War and Northern Ireland).
Borden became an academy in 2012, which changed the flexibility of the curriculum able to be taught at the school as well as increased funding.
The school, along with other Sittingbourne-based secondary schools, Fulston Manor School and Highsted Grammar School for Girls, maintain a close community and share teaching responsibilities of specialised subjects at A-Level, with Borden teaching Economics and Psychology.
School badge, motto and song
The school's badge, which in heraldic terms is blazoned as 'azure, a chevron or between three crescents of the last', is believed to have been derived from the coat of arms of William Barrow; however, no proof of this connection has been uncovered, despite extensive efforts in the 1930s. Some sources fancifully state that the three crescents represent successive generations of pupils at the school, but the badge was in use as early as 1885, when the school was still in its infancy. The gold border that surrounds the shield is believed to have been added when a navy blazer became part of the school uniform, so that the blue field of the shield would stand out.
The school has a Latin motto, 'Nitere Porro', which translates as 'Strive Forward'. Adopted during the headmastership of William Claydon, it was taken from a speech by Julius Caesar quoted in Horace's Epistles.
'Forty Years On' was also adopted as the school song under William Claydon. This replaced an earlier school song, which began with the words 'Borden, you merit all our praise, Our home through countless happy days.'
Houses
In common with many secondary schools in England, Borden has long had a house system. At the time of the First World War, the houses were 'Blue', 'Buff' and 'Red'.
These were later replaced with 'Barrow', 'Borden' and 'School', to which 'Swale' was added in the 1930s. Aside from the references to the school's location and benefactor, the etymology of 'Swale' can be explained by reference to the local stretch of water, The Swale, which runs between Sittingbourne and the Isle of Sheppey and also lends its name to the local Borough Council.
This house system was brought to an end by headmaster Stephen Wright in 2002.
The house system was reinstated at the start of the school year beginning September 2007, under Harold Vafeas. The new house names are Lord's, Wimbledon, Wembley and Twickenham, named after the homes of cricket, tennis, football and rugby in England; ironically, the school predates the namesakes of two of its houses, Wembley and Twickenham.
With the loss of Barrow House, there is no longer any reference to the school's founding benefactor, William Barrow.
Uniform
No formal uniform existed for the first few decades of the school's existence. Prior to the First World War, some pupils wore a cap that carried a metal badge depicting the school shield; this badge later became embroidered. In the 1920s, pupils wore a tie with horizontal stripes in navy blue and gold, the school's colours. Members of the school's Cadet Corps wore khaki military uniform. By the end of the Second World War, a uniform was in place that continues to be worn, with minor modifications, to the present day: navy blazer with the school shield on the left breast pocket; grey trousers; white shirt; and tie with diagonal stripes in navy blue and gold. This tie was formerly worn by all pupils in Lower and Middle school; members of the Sixth Form wore a navy blue tie with small representations of the school shield arranged diagonally, while prefects wore a plain red tie. However, following the introduction of lounge suits for the Sixth Form in 2002, the former Sixth Form tie was adopted by Middle School and the former Lower and Middle School tie adopted by Lower School only. The school scarf is navy blue in colour with two narrow yellow stripes.
Old Bordenian Association
The Old Bordenian Association (OBA) is a charitable association, open to all former pupils and staff of Borden Grammar School.
The OBA was established in 1912 and re-established in 1925, following a period of abeyance during the First World War. The Association's badge is similar to the School badge, but with three crescents on a maroon rather than blue background.
The Association supports the School financially by funding extra-curricular enrichment, and practically with the skillset of its membership. In recent years, the OBA has provided a minibus for the School, and contributed toward the costs of refurbishing the school's William Barrow Library and the foundation of a well-being garden, in addition to offering career mentoring to current pupils and recent leavers.
The OBA has long honoured the memory of the School's military casualties. In 1931, a brick-and-timber sports pavilion was constructed and dedicated to the fallen Old Bordenians of the First World War; this was replaced by a modern brick building, which was rededicated in 2004. The School's clock tower was unveiled in 1949, and commemorates the fallen Old Bordenians of the Second World War. In 2011, the OBA funded two war memorials that record the names of all those Old Bordenians who fell in armed conflict in the Twentieth Century. Since then, wooden plaques have been placed over the entrances to individual classrooms within the School and commemorate the names of the Old Bordenians killed in the First World War. The OBA formerly held a Remembrance Service on the Saturday closest to Remembrance Sunday, honouring all those Old Bordenians who have lost their lives in the armed conflicts of the Twentieth Century.
The Association's annual journal, The Maroon, was first published in 1937 and replaced by a website, the eMaroon in 2009. The origin of the name ‘Maroon’ is unclear: the first edition of the magazine suggests that it might have been derived from a signal rocket of that name, used to summon crew or assistance, or simply from the colour that was already in use by the Association.
The OBA holds an annual reunion dinner each spring, held inside the Old Hall. The OBA maintains the Old Bordenian Football Club and retains a strong association with the Sittingbourne Hockey Club (formerly the Old Bordenian Hockey Club), which has a clubhouse and pitch onsite.
Cadet Corps
The school's first cadet corps was formed in 1903, affiliated to 4th Volunteer Battalion, The Queen's Own (Royal West Kent Regiment) and commanded by one of the masters. The Cadet Corps was removed from the Army List in 1906, following the transfer of the headmaster, James Thurnham, and most of the school's staff and boarders, to New College, Herne Bay. It was then revived in 1917, this time affiliated to 4th The Buffs (East Kent Regiment) and commanded by the then headmaster, William Murdock. It appears to have been finally wound up by the time the school moved to the Avenue of Remembrance in 1928.
Headmasters
1878-1893: (15 years service) Rev. William Henry Bond, MA (Cantab.) – Left to become headmaster of Churcher's College.
1893-1906: (13 years service) James Williamson Thurnham, MA (Cantab.) – Left to become headmaster of New College, Herne Bay.
1906-1936: (30 years service) William Murdock, MA (Oxon.), BSc (London) – retired.
1936-1941: (5 years service) William Arthur Claydon, MA (Oxon.) – Left to become headmaster of Maidstone Grammar School. Appointed CBE, 1956.
1941-1968: (27 years service) George Ernest Hardy, BSc (Hons.) (Birmingham) – retired. Appointed OBE, 1969.
1968-1998: (30 years service) Bryan Richard Short, MA (Oxon.) – retired.
1998-2004: (6 years service) Stephen Neill Wright, MA (Cantab.) – Left to become headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood.
2004-2013: (9 years service) Harold Sofronios Vafeas, MA (Cantab.) – retired.
2013-2019: (6 years service) Jonathan R[?]. Hopkins, BA (Hons.) (unknown university), NPQH – Left to become headmaster of Barton Court Grammar School, Canterbury.
2020–present: Ashley Tomlin, BSc (Hons.) (Kent), NPQH
Notable former pupils
Lloyd Amsdon, Matthew Bowling and Stuart Hennell, founders of Watchfinder
Francis Baker, CBE, Governor of St. Helena, 1984–88; chief secretary to the Government of the Falkland Islands, 1979–84 (including the Argentine invasion of 1982)
Geoff Beynon, trade union leader
James Bostock, RE, ARCA, painter and engraver
Steve Brown, Paralympian
Peter Butler, FRS, FInstP, physicist
Frank Cassell, CB, UK Executive Director of the IMF and World Bank, 1988-90
Roger Chapman, professional golfer
Brigadier John Clemow, late Royal Artillery, director of guided weapons projects, Ministry of Supply
Trevor Dadson, FBA, Emeritus Professor of Hispanic Studies, Queen Mary University of London; encomienda del Orden de Isabel la Católica
Admiral Sir Kenneth Eaton, GBE, KCB, Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, 2001–07, and Third Sea Lord, 1989–94
Brigadier Ernest Goode, CBE, late Royal Army Service Corps, attached Sudan Defence Force, 1935–43; ADC to The Queen, 1959-62
John Hale, Oscar-nominated and Golden Globe-winning screenwriter, whose work includes Anne of the Thousand Days and Mary, Queen of Scots
Major William Hayward, farmer and political figure in British Columbia
Simon Honey, known as Ben Dover, pornographic actor and director
Sir Stanley Hooker, CBE, FRS, FRAeS, aeronautical engineer who designed the early jet engines, culminating with the Rolls-Royce Pegasus
Adrian Howells, performance artist
Kevin Keohane, CBE, Professor of Science, Chelsea College of Science and Technology 1967-76; rector, Roehampton Institute of Higher Education, 1976-88
Sir Alexander King, 6th Baronet of Charlestown, Co. Roscommon
Sir Peter Kitcatt, CB, intelligence officer and secretary to the Speaker of the House of Commons, 1986-93
Air Vice-Marshal Ronald Knott, CB, DSO, DFC, AFC and Bar, RAF, Station Commander of RAF Gütersloh, 1959–61
Jason Lee, field hockey coach and former international player
Commodore Douglas Littlejohns, CBE, RN, submarine commander, adviser to Tom Clancy's Red Storm Rising and former CEO of Red Storm Entertainment
Colonel Brian Luck, CMG, DSO, late Royal Artillery, Commander Royal Artillery Gibraltar, 1925-26
Hon. Brigadier-General Cyril Montagu Luck, CMG, DSO, late Royal Engineers, director-general of Inland Water Transport, France, 1917-19
Sean McGinty, professional footballer
Peter Millican, philosopher
Brigadier Noel Muddiman, CBE, late Royal Corps of Transport, Commander Transport and Movements, First Gulf War; former director of Motability
Sir Alfred Road, CBE, Chief Inspector of Taxes, Inland Revenue, 1952-56
Nicholas Sims-Williams, FBA, Emeritus Professor of Iranian and Central Asian Studies, SOAS
Patrick Sims-Williams, FBA, Emeritus Professor of Celtic Studies, Aberystwyth University
Michael Smith, author
Nicholas Vincent, FBA, FRHistS, FSA, professor of Medieval History, University of East Anglia
Edward Wakeford, geometer
Sir Cecil Wakeley, 1st Baronet of Liss, KBE, CB, FRCS, president of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1949–54; Surgeon Rear-Admiral, Royal Navy
George Zucco, character actor
Notable former staff
Robert Ladds (ex-Chemistry staff), Bishop of Whitby, 1999-2008
Notable people associated with Borden Grammar School
Sir Edward Leigh Pemberton, KCB, JP, DL, first chair of governors
References
External links
Educational institutions established in 1878
Boys' schools in Kent
Sittingbourne
Grammar schools in Kent
1878 establishments in England
Academies in Kent |
4231622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior%20temporal%20gyrus | Inferior temporal gyrus | The inferior temporal gyrus is one of three gyri of the temporal lobe and is located below the middle temporal gyrus, connected behind with the inferior occipital gyrus; it also extends around the infero-lateral border on to the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where it is limited by the inferior sulcus. This region is one of the higher levels of the ventral stream of visual processing, associated with the representation of objects, places, faces, and colors. It may also be involved in face perception, and in the recognition of numbers and words.
The inferior temporal gyrus is the anterior region of the temporal lobe located underneath the central temporal sulcus. The primary function of the occipital temporal gyrus – otherwise referenced as IT cortex – is associated with visual stimuli processing, namely visual object recognition, and has been suggested by recent experimental results as the final location of the ventral cortical visual system. The IT cortex in humans is also known as the Inferior Temporal Gyrus since it has been located to a specific region of the human temporal lobe. The IT processes visual stimuli of objects in our field of vision, and is involved with memory and memory recall to identify that object; it is involved with the processing and perception created by visual stimuli amplified in the V1, V2, V3, and V4 regions of the occipital lobe. This region processes the color and form of the object in the visual field and is responsible for producing the "what" from this visual stimuli, or in other words identifying the object based on the color and form of the object and comparing that processed information to stored memories of objects to identify that object.
The IT cortex's neurological significance is not just its contribution to the processing of visual stimuli in object recognition but also has been found to be a vital area with regards to simple processing of the visual field, difficulties with perceptual tasks and spatial awareness, and the location of unique single cells that possibly explain the IT cortex's relation to memory.
Structure
The temporal lobe is unique to primates. In humans, the IT cortex is more complex than their relative primate counterparts. The human inferior temporal cortex consists of the inferior temporal gyrus, the middle temporal gyrus, and the fusiform gyrus. When looking at the brain laterally – that is from the side and looking at the surface of the temporal lobe – the inferior temporal gyrus is along the bottom portion of the temporal lobe, and is separated from the middle temporal gyrus located directly above by the inferior temporal sulcus. Additionally, some processing of the visual field that corresponds to the ventral stream of visual processing occurs in the lower portion of the superior temporal gyrus closest to the superior temporal sulcus. The medial and ventral view of the brain – meaning looking at the medial surface from below the brain, facing upwards – reveals that the inferior temporal gyrus is separated from the fusiform gyrus by the occipital-temporal sulcus. This human inferior temporal cortex is much more complex than that of other primates: non-human primates have an inferior temporal cortex that is not divided into unique regions such as humans' inferior temporal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, or middle temporal gyrus.
This region of the brain corresponds to the inferior temporal cortex and is responsible for visual object recognition and receives processed visual information. The inferior temporal cortex in primates has specific regions dedicated to processing different visual stimuli processed and organized by the different layers of the striate cortex and extra-striate cortex. The information from the V1 –V5 regions of the geniculate and tectopulvinar pathways are radiated to the IT cortex via the ventral stream: visual information specifically related to the color and form of the visual stimuli. Through comparative research between primates – humans and non-human primates – results indicate that the IT cortex plays a significant role in visual shape processing. This is supported by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data collected by researchers comparing this neurological process between humans and macaques.
Function
Receiving information
The light energy that comes from the rays bouncing off of an object is converted into chemical energy by the cells in the retina of the eye. This chemical energy is then converted into action potentials that are transferred through the optic nerve and across the optic chiasm, where it is first processed by the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. From there the information is sent to the primary visual cortex, region V1. It then travels from the visual areas in the occipital lobe to the parietal and temporal lobes via two distinct anatomical streams. These two cortical visual systems were classified by Ungerleider and Mishkin (1982, see two-streams hypothesis). One stream travels ventrally to the inferior temporal cortex (from V1 to V2 then through V4 to ITC) while the other travels dorsally to the posterior parietal cortex. They are labeled the "what" and "where" streams, respectively. The Inferior Temporal Cortex receives information from the ventral stream, understandably so, as it is known to be a region essential in recognizing patterns, faces, and objects.
Single-cell function in the inferior temporal gyrus
The understanding at the single-cell level of the IT cortex and its role of utilizing memory to identify objects and or process the visual field based on color and form visual information is a relatively recent in neuroscience. Early research indicated that the cellular connections of the temporal lobe to other memory associated areas of the brain – namely the hippocampus, the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex, among others. These cellular connections have recently been found to explain unique elements of memory, suggesting that unique single-cells can be linked to specific unique types and even specific memories.
Research into the single-cell understanding of the IT cortex reveals many compelling characteristics of these cells: single-cells with similar selectivity of memory are clustered together across the cortical layers of the IT cortex; the temporal lobe neurons have recently been shown to display learning behaviors and possibly relate to long-term memory; and, cortical memory within the IT cortex is likely to be enhanced over time thanks to the influence of the afferent-neurons of the medial-temporal region.
Further research of the single-cells of the IT cortex suggests that these cells not only have a direct link to the visual system pathway but also are deliberate in the visual stimuli they respond to: in certain cases, the single-cell IT cortex neurons do not initiate responses when spots or slits, namely simple visual stimuli, are present in the visual field; however, when complicated objects are put in place, this initiates a response in the single-cell neurons of the IT cortex. This provides evidence that not only are the single-cell neurons of the IT cortex related in having a unique specific response to visual stimuli but rather that each individual single-cell neuron has a specific response to a specific stimuli. The same study also reveals how the magnitude of the response of these single-cell neurons of the IT cortex do not change due to color and size but are only influenced by the shape. This led to even more interesting observations where specific IT neurons have been linked to the recognition of faces and hands. This is very interesting as to the possibility of relating to neurological disorders of prosopagnosia and explaining the complexity and interest in the human hand. Additional research from this study goes into more depth on the role of "face neurons" and "hand neurons" involved in the IT cortex.
The significance of the single-cell function in the IT cortex is that it is another pathway in addition to the lateral geniculate pathway that processes most visual system: this raises questions about how does it benefit our visual information processing in addition to normal visual pathways and what other functional units are involved in additional visual information processing.
Information processing
The information for color and form comes from P-cells that receive their information mainly from cones, so they are sensitive to differences in form and color, as opposed to the M-cells that receive information about motion mainly from rods. The neurons in the inferior temporal cortex, also called the inferior temporal visual association cortex, process this information from the P-cells. The neurons in the ITC have several unique properties that offer an explanation as to why this area is essential in recognizing patterns. They only respond to visual stimuli and their receptive fields always include the fovea, which is one of the densest areas of the retina and is responsible for acute central vision. These receptive fields tend to be larger than those in the striate cortex and often extend across the midline to unite the two visual half fields for the first time. IT neurons are selective for shape and/or color of stimulus and are usually more responsive to complex shapes as opposed to simple ones. A small percentage of them are selective for specific parts of the face. Faces and likely other complex shapes are seemingly coded by a sequence of activity across a group of cells, and IT cells can display both short or long-term memory for visual stimuli based on experience.
Object recognition
There are a number of regions that work together within the ITC for processing and recognizing the information of "what" something is. In fact, discrete categories of objects are even associated with different regions.
The fusiform gyrus or Fusiform Face Area (FFA) deals more with facial and body recognition rather than objects.
The Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA) helps differentiate between scenes and objects.
The Extrastriate Body Area (EBA) helps differentiate body parts from other objects.
And the Lateral Occipital Complex (LOC) is used to determine shapes vs. scrambled stimuli.
These areas must all work together, as well as with the hippocampus, in order to create an array of understanding of the physical world. The hippocampus is key for storing the memory of what an object is/what it looks like for future use so that it can be compared and contrasted with other objects. Correctly being able to recognize an object is highly dependent on this organized network of brain areas that process, share, and store information. In a study by Denys et al., functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) was used to compare the processing of visual shape between humans and macaques. They found, amongst other things, that there was a degree of overlap between shape and motion sensitive regions of the cortex, but that the overlap was more distinct in humans. This would suggest that the human brain is better evolved for a high level of functioning in a distinct, three-dimensional, visual world.
Clinical significance
Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia, also called face blindness, is a disorder that results in the inability to recognize or discriminate between faces. It can often be associated with other forms of recognition impairment, such as place, car, or emotional recognition. A study conducted by Gross et al. in 1969 found that certain cells were selective for the shape of a monkey hand, and they observed that as the stimulus they provided began to further resemble a monkey hand, those cells became more active. A few years later, in 1972, Gross et al. discovered that certain IT cells were selective for faces. Although it is not conclusive, 'face-selective' IT cortex cells are assumed to play a large role in facial recognition in monkeys. After the extensive research into the result of damage to the IT cortex in monkeys, it is theorized that lesions in the IT gyrus in humans result in prosopagnosia. Rubens and Benson's 1971 study of a subject in life with prosopagnosia reveals that the patient is able to name common objects on visual presentation flawlessly, however she cannot recognize faces. Upon necropsy conducted by Benson et al., it was apparent that a discrete lesion in the right fusiform gyrus, a part of the inferior temporal gyrus, was one of the main causes of the subject's symptoms.
A more in depth observation can be seen with the example of patient L.H. in the study conducted by N.L. Etcoff and colleagues in 1991. This 40-year-old man was involved in an automobile accident when he was 18, which resulted in severe brain injury. Upon recovery, L.H. was unable to recognize or discriminate between faces, or even recognize faces that were familiar to him before the accident. L.H. and other patients with prosopagnosia are often able to live relatively normal and productive lives despite their deficit. L.H. was still able to recognize common objects, subtle differences in shapes, and even age, sex, and "likeability" of faces. However, they use non-facial cues, such as height, hair color, and voice to differentiate between people. Non-invasive brain imaging revealed that L.H.'s prosopagnosia was a result of damage to the right temporal lobe, which contains the inferior temporal gyrus.
Deficits in semantic memory
Certain disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and semantic dementia, are characterized by a patient's inability to integrate semantic memories, which results in patients being unable to form new memories, lacking awareness of time period, as well as lacking other important cognitive processes. Chan et al 2001 conducted a study that used volumetric magnetic resonance imaging to quantify the global and temporal lobe atrophy in semantic dementia and Alzheimer's disease. The subjects were selected and confirmed to be in the middle of the spectrum of their respective disorders clinically, and then further confirmation came from a series of neuropsychological tests given to the subjects. The study treated the inferior temporal cortex and the middle temporal cortex as one and the same, because of the, "often indistinct," border between the gyri.
The study concluded that in Alzheimer's disease, deficits in inferior temporal structures were not the main source of the disease. Rather, atrophy in the entorhinal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus was prominent in the Alzheimer's inflicted subjects of the study. With respect to semantic dementia, the study concluded that "the middle and inferior temporal gyri [cortices] may play a key role" in semantic memory, and as a result, unfortunately, when these anterior temporal lobe structures are injured, the subject is left with semantic dementia. This information shows how, despite often being grouped in the same category, Alzheimer's disease and semantic dementia are very different diseases, and are characterized by marked differences in the subcortical structures they are associated with.
Cerebral achromatopsia
Cerebral achromatopsia is a medical disorder characterized by the inability to perceive color and to achieve satisfactory visual acuity in high light levels. Congenital achromatopsia is characterized the same way, however it is genetic, while Cerebral Achromatopsia occurs as a result of damage to certain parts of the brain. One part of the brain that is particularly integral to color discrimination is the inferior temporal gyrus. A 1995 study conducted by Heywood et al. was meant to highlight the parts of the brain that are important in achromatopsia in monkeys, however, it obviously sheds light on the areas of the brain related to achromatopsia in humans. In the study, one group of monkeys (group AT) received lesions in the temporal lobe anterior to V4 and the other group (group MOT) received lesions to the occipito-temporal area that corresponds in cranial location to the lesion that produces cerebral achromatopsia in humans. The study concluded that group MOT had no impairment of their color vision while the subjects in group AT all had severe impairments to their color vision, consistent with humans diagnosed with cerebral achromatopsia. This study shows that temporal lobe areas anterior to V4, which includes the inferior temporal gyrus, play a large role in patients with Cerebral Achromatopsia.
Additional images
See also
Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition
Face perception
Neural processing for individual categories of objects
Visual cortex
References
External links
Image at University of Utah
Gyri
Temporal lobe |
4231796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Abejas | Las Abejas | Las Abejas () is a Christian pacifist civil society group of Tzotzil Maya formed in Chenalhó, Chiapas in 1992 following a familial property dispute that left one person killed. When members of the community took the injured man to the nearest town for medical attention, they were accused of attacking him themselves and jailed. When family members realized what had happened, they began a pilgrimage on foot to San Cristóbal de las Casas. Along the way, Christian pacifists in other villages joined the group, which is dedicated to peace, justice, and anti-neoliberalism. Las Abejas freed their companions and grew as an organization.
As the Zapatista Army of National Liberation uprising took place in 1994, Las Abejas stood in solidarity with Zapatista ends and principles, but not their violent means. Las Abejas paid a high price for their support when the December 1997 massacre in Acteal killed 45 members praying in a church.
Origins
Roots
The catalyst for the formation of Las Abejas was a land dispute that occurred in 1992, but the roots of the organization go back to the work of the progressive Roman Catholic Church in Chiapas, particularly under the leadership of Bishop Samuel Ruiz. Bishop Ruiz, who was influenced by liberation theology and in particular by the meeting of Latin American bishops (the Latin American Episcopal Conference) in Medellín, Colombia in 1968. The Catholic Church and its pastoral workers, under Bishop Ruiz's leadership, began to focus on defending the dignity of the poor, with an emphasis on encouraging peasants to find in the Bible a message of liberation from oppression. The pastoral workers introduced the language of human rights as a way to denounce what many saw as systems of oppression.
Las Abejas also began in a distinct political context. Chenalhó, the municipality where Las Abejas was formed, had long been a stronghold of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, or PRI), but economic difficulties in the 1970s and even more so in the 1980s gave other political parties the opportunity to strengthen. Several peasant organizations, some allied with particular political parties, also formed during this time.
Several events in the months preceding the formation of Las Abejas were also important. The Xi'Nich' March for Human Rights of the Indigenous Peoples was a march of about 700 indigenous people from Palenque, Chiapas to Mexico City. The march, which began on March 7, 1992, was to protest government corruption, political repression, and cuts in spending in rural areas that affected indigenous populations. A second march, from various indigenous areas to San Cristóbal de las Casas, occurred on October 12, 1992, attracting as many as 10,000 participants concerned about indigenous rights. Protesters toppled a statue of Diego de Mazariegos, the Spanish conquistador who had founded the colonial city. Beyond the many participants in the two marches, likely including many from Chenalho, the attention which the marches attracted led many indigenous people to consider the power of nonviolent protest for indigenous rights.
Land dispute
Las Abejas emerged in this setting in response to a dispute over a 120-hectare plot of land in Tz'anhem-Bolom, near the town of Tzajal-ch'en in the municipality of Chenalhó, Chiapas. According to researcher Christine Kovic, the original owner of the property is unclear. Some say that the land was communally-owned and farmed, while others say it was private property, jointly held by the earlier owner's three children: Catarina, Agustin, and Maria Hernandez Lopez. The governmental Department of Agrarian Reform was not helpful in resolving the dispute, despite requests from both sides of the disagreement, according to Kovic.
The disagreement arose at least in part because Agustin Hernandez Lopez did not want to share the inherited land with his two sisters. There was also a political element to the disagreement, as Agustin was affiliated with the PRI (and thus was supported by the PRI-dominated municipal government of Chenalho), while his nephew, Nicolas Gutierrez Hernandez, who led those who did not believe that his uncle had the right to full ownership of the land, was affiliated with the Teacher-Peasant Solidarity Movement (Solidaridad Campesina Magisterial, or SOCAMA), which was affiliated with the national teachers' union and was in frequent conflict with the PRI.
The community of Tz'anhem-Bolom considered the dispute and ordered that the three siblings share the land equally. Agustin, who did not agree with their decision, instead "kept 60 hectares for himself and gave the 60 remaining hectares to his political supporters in a number of Chenalho hamlets rather than to his sisters." The situation led many people in the community to rally to one side or the other of the dispute and call for or use violence. Others people insisted upon a nonviolence. This group, representing 22 different communities and committed to dialogue and nonviolence, formed Las Abejas on December 9, 1992, as an independent organization under the auspices of the Society of Coffee Producers of Tzajal-ch'en.
The name "Las Abejas" (Spanish for "the bees") was chosen, according to one member of the organization, because "like the bees we want to build our houses together, to collectively work and enjoy the fruit of our work. We want to produce 'honey' but also to share with anyone who needs it... We know that, like the little bees, the work is slow but the result is sure because it is collective." Another member of the organization notes a political element in the choice of the name: "The bee is a very small insect that is able to move a sleeping cow when it pricks. Our struggle is like a bee that pricks, that is our resistance, but it's non-violent."
The very next day, on December 10, 1992, violence escalated. Supporters of Agustin shot at his nephews Nicolas, Vicente, and Lorenzo, ultimately killing Vicente. Some residents of Tzajal-ch'en contacted the (PRI-affiliated) municipal authorities in Chenalho to request an ambulance so as to transport the wounded men to the hospital in San Cristóbal de las Casas. When the men trying to help the injured reached the road, they were met not by the ambulance but the police, who arrested five of the men without warrant. The municipal authorities accused the five men of having participated in the attacks and they were brought to the Centro de Readaptacion Social 5 jail in San Cristóbal de las Casas. Those arrested and detained included Felipe Hernandez Perez, Mariano Perez Vasquez, Sebastian Perez Vasquez, and Manuel Perez Gutierrez. (The fifth detainee, according to a report from the Centro de Investigaciones Economicas y Politicas de Accion Comunitaria, or CIEPAC, was Antonio Perez Gutierrez).
The members of the newly formed Las Abejas were very upset by what they considered to be the unjust detention of these individuals. Their complaints to the municipal authorities proved futile. The State's Attorney General, Rafael Gonzales Lastra, sought to apprehend other members of Las Abejas, ostensibly in relation to the violence done to Vicente, Nicolas, and Lorenzo Gutierrez Hernandez. Supporters of Agustin Hernandez Lopez also attacked the wives of the three wounded men, raping one of them, but there was no response to the attacks even after the women filed a formal complaint.
Frustrated by the injustices committed by the municipal authorities, the members of Las Abejas organized a 41-kilometer march to San Cristóbal de las Casas on December 21, 1992, where they staged a sit-in in front of San Cristóbal 's cathedral to protest the violence and the unjust arrests. 200 indigenous Tzotzil people began the march, and by December 24, as many as 5,000 indigenous people joined in a march to the prison where the five men were being held. After an additional protest event on January 4, 1993 drew 800 indigenous people from Chenalho as well as from seven other municipalities, the state's attorney finally released the five prisoners on January 7 because of "'disappearance of evidence,' meaning that the evidence offered in the case could not be considered legally valid, perhaps because it had been fabricated in the first place."
Alternate version of the origins of Las Abejas
While most scholars, and, based on their research, members of Las Abejas themselves seem to generally agree that the organization was officially founded in December 1992 as the result of the land dispute described above, the organization may have existed in some form a year earlier. In an interview on November 4, 1997, some members of Las Abejas told SIPAZ (the International Service for Peace) that the organization was formed in 1991, when a group of people organized to demand the release of five Catholic catechists from the El Cerezo I prison in San Cristóbal de las Casas. According to the SIPAZ interview, the group "made a pilgrimage with music, fireworks, and prayers" and "issued several bulletins and magazines" in Chenalho. After the release of the five imprisoned catechists, those that had organized around their release adopted the name "Las Abejas." It is not entirely clear whether this is a different version of the story of the release of the five imprisoned men who sought to help those wounded in the land dispute, with some discrepancy on the date of the event, or if this account refers to a separate event that preceded the land dispute.
Religious commitments
Las Abejas is a Christian organization, with faith central to the organizational identity. One member of Las Abejas explains the origin of their name (Las Abejas, or The Bees) saying that "a bee has a queen... The queen signifies the Kingdom of God... The queen, God, wants neither injustice nor violence nor imprisonment but liberty for all human beings."
Ecumenicism
While most members of Las Abejas identify themselves as Roman Catholic, and the organization has been strongly influenced by Roman Catholic Bishop of Chiapas Samuel Ruiz, there are members of several different religious traditions included as members of Las Abejas. About five percent of Las Abejas are Presbyterians and about ten percent are costumbristas, individuals baptized as Catholics but who only follow traditional Mayan religious practices. There are also a small number of Las Abejas who are a part of a Pentecostal church. According to Marco Tavanti, "inclusion of different religious denominations and experiences is one of the specific aspects of Las Abejas religious identity."
Commitment to prayer, fasting, and scripture
Las Abejas is firmly committed to prayer, and their decisions are generally made after a great deal of prayer and fasting. For example, when Pablo Romo, a Catholic priest working for the Fray Bartolome de Las Casas Human Rights Center, visited Las Abejas shortly after the illegal arrests that occurred in 1992, he asked how he could help, expecting that he might use his title and position to help in writing a letter or informing international human rights organizations of the situation. The response from Las Abejas surprised him: "Father," they told him, "We want to pray, and we want you to pray with us." They proceeded to pray for the entire night, seeking God's direction. For Las Abejas, public prayers, fasting, and processions are "nonviolent means to seek social change."
Las Abejas also places a strong emphasis on reading and reflecting upon the Bible (the Palabra de Dios, or the Word of God, as they refer to it). Bishop Samuel Ruiz describes Las Abejas as "a movement inspired by the Word of God." Under Bishop Ruiz's leadership, catechists of the Catholic Church encourage collective reflections on the Scriptures (as opposed to the top-down teaching method that had been used prior to the 1970s) in which communities find biblical motivation to struggle against injustice and repression, in the tradition of Latin American liberation theology. One of the founders of Las Abejas says that the members of the organization identify strongly with the story of the Israelites being liberated from slavery in the Old Testament, saying that "these stories of liberation and salvation are alive in today's stories of people searching for freedom and justice." Based on their understanding of Scripture, Las Abejas place a strong emphasis on caring for orphans and providing hospitality to strangers, and their strict pacifism is also founded, at least in part, in their understanding of the Bible.
Indigenous theology
The Christianity practiced by most of Las Abejas is strongly influenced by indigenous theology. Following the leading of Bishop Samuel Ruiz, the Catholic Church in Chenalho and elsewhere in Chiapas has sought to inculturate the Roman Catholic faith into the indigenous context. A Tzotzil Catholic priest explains that "indigenous theology always involves a certain degree of syncretism between popular indigenous Mayan religion with Christian rituals and beliefs. The inculturation of the gospel is therefore a dialogue and an encounter between two religions and cultural systems." Indigenous theology, as practiced among many of Las Abejas, places a strong emphasis on Mayan medicine, dance, music, and dress integrated into the Christian faith.
While adapting many traditional indigenous customs, Las Abejas have specifically rejected other customs based upon their religious commitments. For example, Las Abejas forbids the consumption of alcohol, even though this is an important element of some Mayan religious ceremonies.
Another area where Las Abejas' religious identity has led them in ways counter to traditional practices has been in empowering women. Women play a very important role in the activities of Las Abejas, as the work of the Coordinating Body of Diocesan Women (CODIMUJ) of the Catholic Church has led many of Las Abejas women "to question many of the 'traditional' practices that excluded them from political participation."
Forgiveness and reconciliation
Particularly in light of violent massacre in Acteal in 1997, the spirituality of Las Abejas has directed them toward forgiveness and reconciliation, while not withdrawing their demands for justice. In general, the members of Las Abejas have followed the lead of Bishop Samuel Ruiz, who at the funeral of those killed in the massacre encouraged Las Abejas "that they should not seek vengeance, but that Christianity offers forgiveness as the path of peace." Antonio Gutierrez, one of the founding members of Las Abejas, has often recounted the Christ-like forgiveness of Alonso Vasquez Gomez, a catechist in the community and one of those killed in the massacre, who, after seeing his wife and child murdered, reportedly asked God's forgiveness of the killers, since they did not know what they were doing. The commitment to forgiveness and reconciliation is consistent with Las Abejas' commitment to nonviolence.
Political affiliation
Las Abejas, since its founding, has been focused on denouncing unjust governmental activities and demanding justice and human rights for indigenous people; as such, it is inherently involved in politics.
Ideology
The political ideology of Las Abejas, which is connected to its religious identity, is opposed to neoliberalism, which they believe keeps them economically oppressed, and militarism. The resistance of Las Abejas is characterized by nonviolence, which distinguishes it from other groups, particularly the EZLN, which have used armed revolution as a means to obtain their demands. While sympathetic to the EZLN, Las Abejas has maintained its independence from the EZLN as well as from all political parties and, particularly, from the Mexican government.
Much of the advocacy of Las Abejas has focused on their right to continue their agricultural work, which they feel has been threatened by national policies and by international trade agreements. Land is central to the identity of the members of Las Abejas. "The land," one member of Las Abejas told researcher Mario Tavanti, "is our life and our freedom." The land is closely tied, in their minds, to their dignity as indigenous people.
Relationship to the PRI
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominated Mexican politics for many decades, including the municipal government of Chenalho. Las Abejas was founded to be an independent voice for dialogue, in response to violence and unfair detentions by the PRI-dominated municipal government and its supporters. As such, there has always been a tension between Las Abejas and the PRI.
Relationship to the EZLN
Las Abejas have sometimes been accused of being a part of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), but they have always maintained their independence, saying that while they agree with much of the ideology of the EZLN (in support of indigenous rights and opposed to neoliberalism and imperialism), they oppose their violent methods. Since they refuse to fully identify with the Zapatistas, however, Las Abejas have sometimes been viewed suspiciously and harassed by the EZLN.
The Acteal massacre
Leading up to the Acteal massacre
After the Zapatista Revolution was declared on January 1, 1994, the Mexican military established a strong presence throughout the region "in order to neutralize and, if possible, destroy the EZLN." Shortly thereafter, counter-insurgency paramilitary groups appeared, particularly in northern Chiapas and in the Highlands of Chiapas, which were usually loyal to the PRI.
Acteal, a town in the municipality of Chenalho that was the site of a massacre of 45 members of Las Abejas in 1997, was particularly affected by the tension between the Zapatistas and the PRI-affiliated paramilitary groups. Acteal is divided into three distinct areas, one dominated by the Zapatistas, one by the PRI, and one by Las Abejas. The area affiliated with the PRI, whose residents also tend to be affiliated with the Presbyterian Church in this area, is also known as Acteal Alto (Higher Acteal). The area dominated by the Zapatistas, which they consider to be an autonomous community, is known as Acteal Bajo, or Lower Acteal. Members of Las Abejas occupy a third area of Acteal, in between the other two; the organization "has identified this geographic position as a reflection of their mission of intermediation and identity as nonviolent peacemakers." Although the commitment to pacifism of Las Abejas firmly distinguished them from the Zapatistas, those affiliated with the PRI in Higher Acteal suspected Las Abejas of being allied with the Zapatistas. The EZLN, conversely, suspected that they may be allied with the PRI-istas. As a result, Las Abejas "were pressured and harassed from both Zapatista and Priista sides."
The tension between the Zapatistas and the PRI-istas in Acteal intensified in 1996, when the Zapatistas took control of a sand mine in Majomut that had previously benefited a PRI-affiliated peasant organization. As tensions escalated between the two sides—and with Las Abejas in between—there were a series of ambushes and murders. Between September 1996 up until the time of the Acteal Massacre, eighteen people affiliated with the PRI and twenty-four people affiliated with the EZLN were killed in the Chenalho municipality. As the violence escalated, both the PRI-istas and the Zapatistas began to expel from the territories that they controlled anyone who would not align themselves with their respective causes. Las Abejas were expelled from several communities, including La Esperanza, Tzajalucum, and Queshtic, and many arrived in the area of Acteal dominated by Las Abejas, where the massacre would take place.
December 22, 1997
Las Abejas drew international attention when, on December 22, 1997, a paramilitary group killed 45 of its members who were praying in a chapel in the community of Acteal. That morning, as was a common practice, many members of Las Abejas had gone to the small, wooden, dirt-floored chapel at about 6:00 AM to pray, sing, organize, and talk. Several had been participating in a fast to pray for peace, and they had come to break the fast. They prayed until about 10:30 AM, when they heard shots.
According to witnesses, the shooters were identified as members of a PRI-affiliated paramilitary group known as mascara roja(Máscara Roja), or Red Mask, and were transported by Public Security Police pickup trucks. The shooting continued for a full six hours. According to researcher Alejandro Nadal, who was in Chiapas at the time of the massacre, At 11:30, the camp was surrounded on three sides by approximately 60 gunmen, most carrying AK-47s, their faces partially concealed by bandannas. The attack started from below the lower embankment, with the first shots fired at the makeshift church.
In the commotion that followed, men, women, and children tried to escape. Some stumbled down into the ravine through thick foliage. Three men hid in a small crevasse. A large group huddled together against a furrow on one side of the embankment, with nowhere to go. The killers had time to position themselves and fire at will.
In all, forty-five people were killed: 15 children, 21 women, and 9 men, with an additional 25 injured. As the massacre was occurring, "public security police officers were present on the road only 200 meters from the scene of the crime; they stayed at the local school all the time the massacre was taking place." The Fray Bartolome de Las Casas Human Rights Center, based in Chiapas, claims that they received reports of the massacre soon after the shooting began and notified several governmental authorities, but they "did not consider the complaint important." Workers from the Red Cross arrived on the scene but were not allowed to enter until the authorities had arrived.
When the governmental authorities finally arrived, more than six hours after the shooting began and five hours after they had been notified, they began, under orders from Governor Julio Cesar Ruiz Ferro, to remove the corpses and transport them to Tuxtla Gutiérrez, the capital of Chiapas, for autopsies, despite strong objections by Las Abejas, the Catholic Church, and by the Fray Bartolome de Las Casas Human Rights Center, who thought that the scene should be preserved for a proper investigation.
The funeral
The bodies were returned to Acteal a few days later for a Christmas Day funeral ceremony, presided over by Bishop Samuel Ruiz. Bishop Ruiz, profoundly affected by the massacre, told those at the funeral: "We want to say to you we are keeping you company on this Christmas Day, the saddest Christmas Day of our lives... And we ask our Father Jesus that you remain faithful in your hearts to his word, and that you do not stumble on the stone of temptation of hatred and violence."
Post-Acteal
Seeking justice
In response to international attention, the government of Mexico ordered an investigation into what had occurred at Acteal. The report cited what were, at best, egregious errors made by governmental officials at various levels, including Governor of Chiapas Julio Cesar Ruiz Ferro, who "spurned repeated pleas for help with the escalating violence from Indian community leaders in the weeks before the killings, even when they came from members of his own political party."
While committed to forgiveness, reconciliation, and nonviolence, Las Abejas has also been clear in its demands for justice in light of the massacre at Acteal. While many have been arrested in connection with the massacre, there are many others whom members of Las Abejas say were involved in the massacre who have not been brought to justice, including those whom they consider the intellectual masterminds of the massacre.
Even in 2007, at the tenth anniversary of the massacre, members of Las Abejas reported that some of the killers have not been brought to justice. Diego Perez Jimenez, then president of Las Abejas, expressed his frustration with those who claim that justice has already been served, or that some who have been prosecuted ought not to be imprisoned: "They tell so many lies," he says. "These guys in jails were killers, and there are more killers out there. That's the truth," he insists. Many of those imprisoned, however, insist that they are not guilty, such as Agostin Gomez Perez, who has been imprisoned for more than a decade. "What happened in Acteal is very sad," he says, "But I wasn't involved in it. I didn't kill a soul." Some human rights groups say that many of the arrested have been innocent scapegoats, and that successive governments have protected the real perpetrators and the masterminds behind the massacre.
Pillar of Shame
In 1999, a Danish artist named Jens Galschiøt installed a statue known as the Columna de Infamia, or the Pillar of Shame, as a reminder of the massacre of members of Las Abejas that had occurred at Acteal. Researcher Christine Kovic suggests that the statue, which was not requested by the community and which focuses on the infamy of the massacre, "is not consistent with Las Abejas's public discourse of forgiveness, healing, and hope."
In 1992, Las Abejas began a coffee collaborative known as Maya Vinic, which is Tzotzil for "Mayan Man." The collaborative consists of about 700 small-scale coffee farmers throughout several municipalities in the Highlands of Chiapas. The collaborative produces certified fair trade and organic coffees for export to the United States and Europe, with the aim of providing coffee producers (many of whom are members of Las Abejas) with a slightly higher wage than the international market might otherwise provide. In the United States, Maya Vinic coffee is commercialized by Higher Grounds Trading Company based in Traverse City, Michigan, Just Coffee Cooperative based in Madison, WI, and others in the Cooperative Coffees network.
References
Nonviolent resistance movements
Catholic lay organisations
Chiapas
Liberation theology |
4231828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirburn%20Castle | Shirburn Castle | Shirburn Castle is a Grade I listed, moated castle located at the village of Shirburn, near Watlington, Oxfordshire. Originally constructed in the fourteenth century, it was renovated and remodelled in the Georgian era by Thomas Parker, the first Earl of Macclesfield who made it his family seat, and altered further in the early nineteenth century. The Earls of Macclesfield remained in residence until 2004, and the castle is still (2022) owned by the Macclesfield family company. It formerly contained an important, early eighteenth century library which, along with valuable paintings, sculptures, and other artifacts including furniture, remained in the ownership of the 9th Earl and were largely dispersed at auction following his departure from the property; notable among these items were George Stubbs's 1768 painting "Brood Mares and Foals", a record setter for the artist at auction in 2010, the Macclesfield Psalter, numerous rare and valuable books, and personal correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton.
On account of its "fairy tale" external appearance and unmodernised interior, the castle has been used on occasion for film and television settings and is possibly best known to the outside world via that route, since it remains in private hands, no roads pass it, and it is generally not open to the public for visiting. In addition, any history of the castle is somewhat obscured by lack of permitted access to scholars of medieval architecture over the past one (to two) hundred years as well as by conflicting statements in available published accounts; these include that the present castle has Norman origins and/or is on the site of a Norman precursor (not supported by any evidence), that the castle is an early example of brick construction (based on a mis-interpretation), and that the castle was badly damaged during the English Civil War prior to its rebuilding in the eighteenth century (no evidence exists for this assertion). A further piece of apparently deliberate misinformation was a claim that "Shirburn Castle" was visited by a tutor of Dante at the end of the thirteenth century, before the present structure was known to exist; the 1802 document upon which this assertion was based was subsequently shown to be a forgery.
Description and history
Eleventh to thirteenth centuries
The land on which Shirburn resides was part owned the Norman nobleman Robert D'Oyly who accompanied William the Conqueror on his conquest of England in 1066. Various nineteenth century sources, stemming in the main from a short "History of Shirburn Castle" compiled by Lady Macclesfield in 1887, state that D'Oyly constructed a castle there, which was described as having been surrendered to Empress Matilda (or Maud) in 1141 as part of a ransom negotiation. Later one Warin(e) de Lisle (or de Insula), apparently possessed the estate; this Warin was executed at York in 1322 for taking part in an insurrection. Subsequently, his widow was pardoned and her late husband's lands restored; whether these included a Norman castle at Shirburn, or whether such a structure even existed in that form, has not been verified by subsequent researchers and may in fact simply reflect a desire of the then occupants to claim a more ancient origin for the castle than was actually the case; the relevant chapter of the Victoria County History notes only the previous existence of a manor (West Shirburn, which together with its counterpart at East Shirburn formed the twin manors of the district), which belonged in the 13th century to Robert de Burghfield, "likely to have been on the site" of the present castle. A supposed account of a pre-1300 visit to a "castle" at Shirburn by Brunetto Latini, the tutor of Dante, also quoted in nineteenth century sources, was revealed as a forgery per a book published in 1948 (see relevant section of the Victoria County History, footnote 18).
1377-1716 (de Lisle/Quatremain/Fowler/Chamberlain/Gage era)
A "licence to crenellate" (generally interpreted as permission to build) the present castle was granted to the earlier Warin's grandson, Warin de Lisle in 1377, with actual construction taking place around 1378. The present, still moated, two-to-three storey building has a quadrangular form with four rounded corner towers. Rendered on the exterior (although the covering has now disappeared in places), it has been stated as being the earliest brick building in Oxfordshire, however this appears to be based on a misconception: Emery, cited below, believes that the original construction was probably built entirely in limestone, with the brick "casing" added only when the castle was remodelled in 1720 in the Georgian style. Emery writes:
Emery also compares and contrasts de Lisle's castle at Shirburn with that constructed a few years later by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge at Bodiam in Sussex, noting similarities in original architectural features but also that Shirburn "seems to have had less of a martial air than the castle at Bodiam", in particular that the "formidable twin-towered gate-house" at Bodiam presents a stronger front than its equivalent at Shirburn.
After de Lisle's death in 1382, the castle passed to his daughter, who married Lord Berkeley, and then to her daughter who married Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, whose principal residence was Warwick Castle. Later it was owned or occupied by successive families including the Talbots, Quartremayes [Quatremains] and Fowlers and eventually sold to the Chamberlain family, commencing with Edward Chamberlain, whose mother took out a lease on the Shirburn estate from her brother in 1505 and who died there in 1543. The castle's next owner was Sir Leonard Chamberlain (or Chamberlayne), d.1561, who was also the Governor of Guernsey from 1553. An account survives from 1559 documenting something of the internal layout of the rooms at that time, specifically: "the wardrobe, the entry, the great chamber at the lower end of the hall, the inner chamber, 'the brusshynge howse', the hall and the chamber over the parlour, and an inner chamber there; there was also a cellar, buttery, chambers each for the butler, priest, horse-keeper, cook, and chamberlains, an additional chamber, a low parlour, a kitchen larder, boulting house, fish-house, garner, brew-house, and other outhouses". During the 1642–1651 English Civil War Shirburn was held by Richard Chamberlain for the King, but was surrendered to Sir Thomas Fairfax for the Parliamentarian cause in 1646, apparently without damage.
After the end of the Civil War, the castle remained in (or was returned to) the Chamberlain family. The last male of the line, John Chamberlain, died in 1651, leaving no sons but two co-heirs, his daughters Elizabeth, wife of John Neville, Lord [A]bergavenny, and Mary, who was married first to Sir Thomas Gage of Firle, Sussex, and later to Sir Henry Goring. Elizabeth and Lord Abergavenny (d. 1662) possessed the manorial rights there until Elizabeth's death (date not known); by 1682 both Elizabeth and Mary had died and the castle passed to Joseph Gage (1652–1700), Mary's fourth son by her first husband, Thomas Gage.
The appearance of the castle prior to its sale to Parker in 1716 is not known in detail from contemporary accounts or illustrations; it does appear (as a small icon) on Robert Plot's 1677 "Map of Oxfordshire" (relevant portion reproduced at right), similar to the castle of today, although whether this is intended to be a "stock" castle representation or an actual likeness is unclear. Emery, 2006, suggests that many features of its original external and likely internal appearance probably would have resembled its near-contemporary at Bodiam in Sussex; unlike Bodiam and many other castles of the era, Shirburn appears to have survived the Civil War relatively unscathed, the Victoria County History stating that it was never besieged but surrendered at the time after appropriate terms had been negotiated.
The Gage family outfitted the castle with an armoury in the late seventeenth–early eighteenth century, containing among other items suits of armour and weapons such as broadswords and "pistols and muskets all marked to Gage family ... typical of those used by a Household Militia force in the event of social unrest or more likely, at that time, of French invasion"; according to later illustrations, this armoury was retained as a feature of the post-1716 remodelling of the castle by Thomas Parker (refer next section), and can be glimpsed in the 1823 engraving by J. Skelton entitled "Ancient Entrance Hall of Shirburn Castle" (refer "external links").
The castle continued as the seat of that branch of the Gage family until 1714, when the eldest son, another Thomas Gage succeeded his wife Elizabeth's late father to the estate of High Meadow, a property in Gloucestershire, and associated "considerable fortune". He then decided to sell Shirburn.
1716-c.1800 (Parker era, first part)
In 1716 the castle was acquired by Thomas Parker (1666–1732), Baron (later to be the first Earl) of Macclesfield and subsequently Lord Chancellor of England from 1718 to 1725, the purchase price (for Shirburn plus another property, Clare manor) being £25,696 8s. 5d. (more than £2 million in recent money); Mowl and Earnshaw, cited below, state that according to "a manuscript note made by Parker", the portion of the purchase price actually allocated to the castle exclusive of the grounds was £7,000, and that he also spent an additional £42,297 on the land needed for the park. From this date the castle became the seat of the Earls of Macclesfield (and/or their associated family company), until the present time. The then very wealthy, soon-to-be first Earl was responsible for extensive renovations to the castle (considered by most authors to be a substantial rebuild, see below), costing a further £5,000, and also started to accumulate the castle's extensive and important library, which survived intact for almost 300 years until its dispersal. Thomas Parker's son George, later to inherit the earldom and castle upon his father's death, set out for Italy on the "Grand Tour" in 1719 for a trip lasting almost three years, during which time he was commissioned by his father to acquire "important works" for the castle, the fruits of which included numerous plaster busts (casts of antique originals) plus at least 13 similar bronzes. Additions to the library were continued by the 3rd Earl, and by the latter's death in 1795 "the six collections for which the library is famous had been brought together, and 12,700 or so printed books and 260 manuscripts had been assembled ... [including] many first editions of early English books, including two Caxtons, and among its most valuable manuscript possessions is the unique Liber de Hida."
The Earls of Macclesfield are (or at least were) protective of their privacy, allowing few visitors to see the inside of the castle and denying requests for access for an examination to scholars of medieval architecture, with the result that Anthony Emery wrote in 2006: "Shirburn Castle has a well deserved reputation for being barred to all students of architecture ...Consequently, the castle has never been studied in detail ...The list [of persons denied entry] extends from Lord Torrington in 1775 to Nikolaus Pevsner, the architectural staff of Country Life, and the Department of the Environment recorders 200 years later. ...Not surprisingly, Shirburn has been ignored by all writers on castles except for the summaries of ownership by Sir James Mackenzie, The Castles of England, 1 (1897) 163-5 and Sir Charles Oman, Castles (1926) 46-9". (It should also be noted that the list of excluded persons also included Emery himself, who was unable to report further on the interior.) The medieval entrance hall, a surviving room from the pre-eighteenth century castle, was previously illustrated by J. Skelton "after F. Mackenzie" and published in Skelton's Antiquities of Oxfordshire in 1824 (see "external links").
Emery postulates that after Thomas Parker purchased the castle in 1716, the latter's renovations probably affected more than three-quarters of the building, with the result that what stands at Shirburn today is "essentially an eighteenth-century interpretation of the medieval castle, following its original plan", although he allows that survivals from the original fourteenth-century structure include a "reasonable amount of the west range" (which would include the bulk of the main gate tower), the lower stages of two corner towers, and "possibly some ground-level walling internally", although he was unable to inspect the latter in person. The Victoria County History also suggests that: "The present south range may represent the medieval south range, with new windows inserted and with another range of rooms added to the south, outside the original outer wall." In a 1981 paper discussing the architecture of the present castle, authors Timothy Mowl and Brian Earnshaw suggest that the eighteenth-century rebuild intentionally incorporated round-arched, or neo-Norman, expressions of medievalism, "probably to assert a link with a supposed Norman foundation." The same authors also point to Vanbrugh Castle, a London house designed and built by John Vanbrugh in 1719 for his own family, as a similar expression of neo-medievalism of around the same date, again with rounded windows, in contrast to the more pointed windows associated with the mid-18th century "Gothick" style of a few decades later. The rounded window style appears to have been used consistently in the Parker-era rebuild or renovation, including in all of the surviving inward-facing walls surrounding the courtyard, although from 1830, the effect was masked by the incorporation of more "standard" segmental-headed sash windows in the new external additions along several frontages. Considering all of the accounts presently available, it would seem to be the case that, at a time when his contemporaries had most recently been constructing their new country houses in the English Baroque style (or even neo-medieval, in the case of Vanbrugh Castle), Parker decided to purchase an actual, habitable 14th-century castle and construct his new residence entirely within it, at the same time adding new windows to the surviving medieval walls and towers in the Georgian style.
Among the household of Thomas Parker, the 1st Earl, was his friend, the Welsh mathematician William Jones (1675–1749), close friend of Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley, who acted as tutor to Parker's son George, the future second Earl. Jones had earlier acquired the extensive library and archive of the mathematician John Collins (1625–1683), which contained several of Newton's letters and papers written in the 1670s, and later edited and published many of Newton's manuscripts. His collection of books and papers eventually passed into the Earl's library and was passed down through the Parker family until the 2000s; the Newton-associated items were ultimately sold to the Cambridge University Library (see below).
George Parker, the 2nd Earl of Macclesfield (c.1695–1764) resided at Shirburn and inherited the earldom and the castle upon his father's death in 1732. He was celebrated as an astronomer and spent much time conducting astronomical observations at Shirburn, where he built an observatory and a chemical laboratory. The observatory was "equipped with the finest existing instruments" and the 2nd Earl used it from 1740. In 1761 the astronomer Thomas Hornsby observed the transit of Venus from the castle grounds. A 1778 mezzotint by James Watson, a copy of which is now in the National Maritime Museum, shows the 2nd Earl's two astronomical assistants, Thomas Phelps and John Bartlett, at work in the observatory.
c.1800-current (Parker era, second part)
In the early years of the 19th century, additional works were carried out, among them the (re)construction of the west access stairway and addition of the fine Regency drawbridge, (visible by 1818 in the engraving by J. Neale) and the roofing over of the courtyard at a low level, providing additional internal ground floor and basement space. The Victoria County History entry for the castle states: "In 1830 a fairly extensive modernization was undertaken—a drawing-room and library over it were added on the north side; the old north library over the hall was converted into a billiard room; the former drawing-room which had been over the dining-room on the east side was converted into a larger bedroom and a dressing-room; and the baths on the ground floor on the north side were removed. In 1870 the red-brick water tower adjoining the laundry was built and in 1873 the warder's room in the north-west tower and the low entresol above it were thrown into one to make a smoking-room." It is also apparent that the 19th century additions involved construction of extended outer sections of the north, east and south facades, which now display numerous rectangular sash windows of the Victorian style as opposed to the rounded Georgian windows of the 18th century makeover (the latter can still be seen to be present on the walls facing the internal courtyard, however, as evidenced by the aerial footage shown in the "external links" section).
J.P. Neale, in his 1847 "Mansions of England" work, had to rely for his description of the interior on an account by J.N. Brewer from 1813, who wrote:
At least one Victorian visitor, the library scholar Edward Edwards, was granted access to the library (in fact two libraries, North and South) around 1860, resulting in a comprehensive—but unfortunately never published—catalogue of the contents (refer Quarrie, 2006), and also a shorter account of its principal contents in the relevant chapter of his 1864 publication Libraries and Founders of Libraries, together with the activities of the Earls of Macclesfield up to that date (refer Bibliography). Fortunately for scholars of the Anglo-Saxon period, Edwards also transcribed and translated one of the library's most important manuscripts (which happened to deal with that period), the fifteenth century Liber Monasterii de Hyda, which he reproduced in published form in 1866. Later, the ballad scholar Andrew Clark was permitted to view and transcribe the "Shirburn Ballads", an early seventeenth century manuscript collection of mostly earlier published ballads (many of the originals since lost), resulting in his publication of The Shirburn Ballads 1585-1615 in 1907; some occasions of a small number of other visits to the library by additional scholars for particular purposes are also detailed in Quarrie's 2006 paper.
An early 20th-century photograph showing the interior of the South Library while it still contained its complement of books is reproduced in Mark Purcell's 2019 book, "The Country House Library", which also covers the content of the library in some more detail, while a 2009 article by David Wilson, otherwise concerned with one particular piece of sculpture (a plaster bust of the 1st Earl by John Michael Rysbrack), also reproduces as its Figure 12 a quite detailed 2004 interior view of one of the libraries prior to the dispersal of the collection.
One other record of a successful 19th century visit survives, in the form of Walter Money's report "A Walk to Shirburn Castle", from the Journal of the British Archaeological Association for December 1895, which describes the interior in some detail from p. 290 onwards, especially with regard to some particular items of interest in the armoury, plus an extensive list of the more important portraits and other pictures to be seen in various rooms, together with a description and illustration of a Roman sarcophagus originally found in the garden, being used as a pedestal. A more recent, detailed account is contained in the 2003 litigation of Macclesfield v. Parker, and is included in full below.
The external gatehouse, providing vehicular access to the castle from Castle Road, is stated as being a nineteenth century creation, in the gothic style, and is Grade II listed.
With the exception of the 5th Earl, who was blind and chose to remain at his early home at Eynsham Hall, subsequent earls all resided at the castle, including Thomas Parker, the 3rd Earl (1723–1795), a Fellow of the Royal Society; George Parker, the 4th Earl (1755–1842), Comptroller of the Royal Household, Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard and a Fellow of the Royal Society; Thomas Augustus Parker, the 6th Earl (1811–1896), George Loveden Parker, the 7th Earl (1888–1975) and George Roger Parker, the 8th Earl (1914–1992), culminating with his son Richard Timothy George Mansfield Parker, 9th Earl of Macclesfield (b. 1943).
Ownership and occupancy issues and dispute, and sale of contents
To reduce future tax liabilities, in 1922 ownership of the castle was transferred from the Seventh Earl, George Loveden Parker to the Beechwood Estates Company (the Macclesfield family estate management company), with equity divided among the family members. Unfortunately for the succession, however, this had the result of decoupling ownership and the automatic right to occupy the castle from inheritance of the title, and in the early 21st century, following a long-running and acrimonious court battle, Richard Timothy George Mansfield Parker, the 9th Earl of Macclesfield and last member of the family to reside at the castle, was evicted from the family seat by the other family members, departing in 2005: the 9th Earl contending that a "draft lease" gave him the right to occupy the whole of the castle—or at least a portion of it—for his lifetime in exchange for an appropriate rent payable to the family company (of which the terms were yet to be agreed), however this was contested, ultimately successfully, by the company who contended that he was "no more than [a] tenant at will [of the company]", whose tenancy could therefore be terminated. The 9th Earl lost the occupancy of the house, but retained ownership of the contents (gifted to him in 1967 by his grandfather, the Seventh Earl) including three libraries containing many rarities among their more than 30,000 volumes, largely assembled by the first two Earls of Macclesfield in the first part of the 18th century.
Following his departure from the castle, the 9th Earl made the decision to sell the contents of the libraries, as well as some other items from the castle's holdings. The library items were prepared for a series of auctions, and were catalogued for the first time by staff from Sotheby's in 2004; among the most notable items discovered were a first edition of Copernicus's 1543 landmark work "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres", annotated by the celebrated 17th-century Oxford mathematician John Greaves, which sold at auction for £666,400, and a unique and superbly illustrated 252-page 14th-century illuminated manuscript, the Macclesfield Psalter, now in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. Other items originally forming part of the library were a collection of Welsh material which went to form part of the foundation collections of the National Library of Wales, correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and other scientific papers which were sold to Cambridge University Library, and manuscripts including the original of the "Shirburn Ballads" (previously transcribed and published in 1907), the Liber de Hyda and the Macclesfield Alphabet Book, these items purchased by the British Library. The breaking up and dispersal by auction of the library was lamented by some, including Roger Gaskell and Patricia Fara, who in 2005 wrote: "Now, without any public discussion, the Macclesfield Library is being broken up. Far more than simply a collection of old books belonging to one man, it is a fabulous treasure trove containing many of the most significant books, owned and annotated by several leading British figures in the history of European science... Formed in the 17th and 18th centuries, this is a coherent collection that was the working library of an intellectual and scientific powerhouse." On completion of the initial round of 6 sales of the scientific portion of the collection, Sotheby's issued a 2005 press release indicating that the sale process had thus far realised in excess of £14 million (not including The Macclesfield Psalter, which sold separately for £1,685,600), representing "the highest total ever for any sale of scientific books and manuscripts". Additional parts of the library sold by Sotheby's between 2006 and 2008, under the general heading "The Library of the Earls of Macclesfield, Removed from Shirburn Castle", comprised "Bibles 1477-1739" (part 7), "Theology, Philosophy, Law, and Economics" (part 8, which realised £1.3 million), "Voyages Travel and Atlases" (part 9), "Applied Arts and Sciences, including Military and Naval Books" (part 10), "English Books and Manuscripts" (part 11) and "Continental Books and Manuscripts" (part 12, which realised £1.8 million). Further selections from the library were offered at auction by Maggs Brothers, U.K. in 2010 and 2012. A set of 328 bound theology volumes acquired from the Macclesfield collection sale now forms part of the Kinlaw Library at Asbury University, a private Christian university in Wilmore, Kentucky, U.S.A.
The castle contents also included a number of fine paintings, one of which, George Stubbs's 1768 masterpiece "Brood Mares and Foals", subsequently sold at auction in 2010 for £10,121,250, a record price for the British artist. This painting was visible, in passing, on the wall in a room at the castle used for filming in the 1992 episode "Happy families" of the Inspector Morse TV series (see below). Previously, a 1740 William Hogarth portrait of the second Earl's tutor and mathematician William Jones, was sold at auction in 1984 for £280,000, and is now in the National Portrait Gallery. Earlier in 1998, an extremely fine Georgian silver wine set, the only known complete example of its era to survive, had been sold by Christies and is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, its purchase assisted by a £750,000 grant from the National Heritage Memorial Fund. The Shirburn collection of sculptures, described in a Christie's lot essay as "one of the most important English collections of sculpture to be assembled in the 18th century", appears to have been mainly dispersed by sale at auction in 2005, as per a Christie's auction catalogue "The Macclesfield Sculpture", Sale 7104A, 1 December 2005, containing 132 lots, full details of which are not publicly available although some (but apparently not all) can be viewed as a subset of the sale details online, as Lots 50 through 80 which include a number of plaster busts, a dozen bronzes, a marble and a terracotta figure, and (as lot 63) an impressive Roman marble Cinerarium which sold for £43,200. Two bronzes from this sale that do not appear on the cited Christie's page, "Dancing Faun" and "Medici Venus" by Pietro Cipriani, both copies of original antique statues in the Uffizi Gallery, are now in the Getty Museum in the U.S.A.; some other items from that sale have since appeared again on the auction market.
Two other items of cultural interest, a c.1721-22 marble sculpture of Hebe plus a second of Ganymede and the Eagle, both by the Italian sculptor Antonio Montauti, acquired by Parker circa 1723-25 and located since then at Shirburn, subsequently thought "lost" but stated in 2009 to be "the property of a lady", sold at auction for £79,250 each in 2009. In 2022, a fine portrait of the Second Earl by Sebastiano Conca also appeared on the market, described as "the property of a nobleman", after being "in the North Library at Shirburn Castle, Oxfordshire, and by descent to the current owner", selling at Christie's for £378,000. The contents of the early eighteenth century armoury, including items from both the Gage and Parker eras, were also sold following the 9th earl's departure. A privately produced account of the armoury was written by Alan Brett in 2007.
Another two items of interest from the collection were two superbly illustrated botanical albums consisting of original paintings of plants, by Mary Countess of Macclesfield (wife of the Third Earl) and her daughter Lady Elizabeth Parker, dating from the period 1756–1767; both ladies were instructed by Georg Dionysius Ehret, the pre-eminent botanical artist of the day and their paintings follow his style closely. These were sold at auction by Maggs Bros. in 2022 for £225,000 and now reside in the Huntington Library in the U.S.A.
Since the departure of the 9th Earl, the castle appears to have remained largely vacant and, at that time, in need of substantial repairs (estimated as "some £2.6 million" in 2003). Subsequently, the owners have started to address this aspect, commissioning replacement of a number of sections of the roof and treatment of associated timbers, as documented by the contractors concerned. Although its name is not mentioned, the castle is also recognisably one of several offered as "castle" film locations as described via the Location Works agency.
The park
The castle sits within extensive grounds (Shirburn Park, itself Grade II listed), which is described in more detail at the relevant "Historic England" listing, with the brief description "Later C18 and early C19 garden and pleasure grounds around a late C14 castle, remodelled 1720s and early C19, set in a landscape park incorporating the remains of an early to mid C18 formal layout." It incorporates a rotunda and a former orangery, the latter now derelict. Mowl and Earnshaw note that the development of the gardens was probably unfinished on account of Thomas Parker's well known downfall and financial troubles from 1725 onwards, and that further developments were likely undertaken by the second Earl in a classical style, forming a stylistic contrast with what they characterise as the neo-Medieval nature of the first Earl's renovated castle.
Use as film location
On account of its "fairy tale" appearance, romantic setting, and near-original condition Georgian/Victorian interior, the castle has been used as a film location on a number of occasions, including external, and some internal shots as the Balcombe family home in the 1992 episode "Happy Families" of the Inspector Morse TV series, internal rooms, the gatehouse entrance and the church as Midsomer Priory for a 2011 episode "A Sacred Trust" of the Midsomer Murders TV series (although exterior shots of the "priory" house feature Greys Court, another Oxfordshire location), as well as an exterior shot of Mycroft Holmes's country estate for the 2011 film Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows. The location has also been used in 2 episodes of Poirot, namely "Third Girl" (2008) and "Curtain: Poirot's Last Case" (2013); in Annie: A Royal Adventure! (1995 TV movie), Philomena (2013), in the TV serial London Spy (2015) and—with a certain amount of digital manipulation to remove post-medieval alterations—in The Old Guard (2020). A 2016 Burberry commercial, "The Tale of Thomas Burberry" was also mainly filmed at Shirburn Castle. In the 2011 Midsomer Murders Episode "A Sacred Trust", the coat of arms of the fictitious Vertue family, Lords of the Manor and as represented in the supposedly local pub "The Vertue Arms", is constructed almost identically to that of the (real) Parker family, Earls of Macclesfield and owners of the film location for the fictitious priory at Shirburn Castle.
Bibliography
Edwards, Edward (1864): Libraries and Founders of Libraries. Chapter X. The Life of Thomas Parker, Earl of Macclesfield; - The Life of Nicholas Joseph Foucault; - and the Library at Shirburn Castle in Oxfordshire (p. 327 ff.). Available at https://books.google.com/books?id=7SYCAAAAQAAJ
Gaskell, Roger & Fara, Patricia (2005): Selling the silver: country house libraries and the history of science. Endeavour 29(1): 14-19. . doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2005.01.005
[Victoria County History]: 'Parishes: Shirburn', in A History of the County of Oxford: Volume 8, Lewknor and Pyrton Hundreds, ed. Mary D Lobel (London, 1964), pp. 178–198. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/oxon/vol8/pp178-198 [accessed 18 October 2022].
Notes
References
External links
Shirburn Castle and Village in 1736 - simplification of part of an estate map by William Burgess. Illustration from relevant Victoria County History entry at Parishes: Shirburn | British History Online.
A 1787 engraving of the exterior of the castle, published in the series "Harrison's Seats", reproduced on www.rareoldprints.com
J. Skelton, "Shirburn Castle, Oxfordshire" (engraving published in Skelton's Antiquities of Oxfordshire 1824) - reproduction on Sanders of Oxford Antique Prints and Maps website
J. Skelton, "Ancient Entrance Hall of Shirburn Castle" (engraving published in Skelton's Antiquities of Oxfordshire 1824) - reproduction on B.B. Williams "Antique Prints & Maps" website
Shirburn Castle (exterior) in 1900 - image at Country Life Picture Library
Another early 20th century photograph of the castle on Flickr (further details unknown)
A 1969 photograph of the castle, showing a different view of the drawbridge, and the appearance of the west front before the deterioration of the external render
Album of exterior photographs by Matthew Emmett in 2014 on flickr.com
Shirburn Castle - aerial view via Google Maps
A fine aerial view of the castle taken in 2010, posted on Flickr by AirFrame Photography
Helifilms Video flypast/aerial view of Shirburn Castle available via Getty Images
The Daily Telegraph, 20 February 2004: "Feud forces sale of 'intellectual time capsule'" (subscription required)
The rotunda and the derelict orangery in the castle grounds, photographed in August 2019 (photograph by Tom Cowell)
Blog post on Shirburn Castle, from the series "Handed On" (handedon.wordpress.com/)
Filming locations for the 1992 Inspector Morse episode "Happy Families", including some external and internal views of the castle plus this external view of the castle taken in 1898 submitted by a subscriber
Filming locations for the 2013 movie "Philomena" - some taken on the Shirburn estate
Filming locations used for "London Spy", including a number of exterior and interior shots of the castle
Shirburn Castle as it appears as a location backdrop in the 2020 movie "The Old Guard"; the rounded, 18th-century windows in the towers, plus their rectangular later equivalents in the connecting walls have been digitally replaced by smaller openings more appropriate to the medieval period; for their actual appearance compare this photograph.
Astronomical observatories in England
Castles in Oxfordshire
Grade I listed houses in Oxfordshire
Grade I listed castles |
4231834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon%20Davis | Vernon Davis | Vernon Davis (born January 31, 1984) is an American former professional football player who was a tight end in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Maryland Terrapins, and was drafted by the San Francisco 49ers sixth overall in the 2006 NFL Draft. In 2009, Davis co-led the NFL in touchdown receptions and consequently earned his first of two career Pro Bowl selections.
In the 2011–12 NFL playoffs with the 49ers, Davis caught the game-winning touchdown pass from Alex Smith against the New Orleans Saints, referred to as "The Catch III". In 2015, he was traded to the Denver Broncos, where he won Super Bowl 50 with the team over the Carolina Panthers. Davis then signed with the Washington Redskins in 2016, where he played until his retirement following the 2019 season.
Early life
Davis attended Truesdell Elementary in Washington, D.C., and later attended Paul Public Charter School for middle school. However, Paul did not have a football team, and thus Davis played for neighboring MacFarland Middle School. He went on to attend Dunbar High School in Washington. He was a letterman in football, basketball, and track & field. Rated as a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Davis was listed as the fourth-best tight end prospect of the class of 2003. At Dunbar, he was teammates with future Cleveland Browns kick return specialist and wide receiver, Josh Cribbs.
In track & field, Davis recorded a personal best of 10.7 seconds in the 100 meters, and was the DCIAA champion in the high jump with a jump of . He was also a member of the 4 × 100 m (43.68s) relay squad.
High school football career
Davis played tight end and safety, but he also played wide receiver, kick returner, linebacker, and defensive end for Dunbar High School. In his senior season, he caught 21 passes for 511 yards and five touchdowns, despite missing three games with a deep bone bruise below his knee. He also caught three two-point conversions and returned two kick offs and two punts for touchdowns. As a junior, he had 35 receptions for 385 yards.
Selected to play in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl
A member of SuperPrep's Elite 50
A Mid-Atlantic all-region pick by SuperPrep
Second team All-USA by USA Today
Ranked as the fourth-best tight end in the nation by Rivals.com
Gatorade Player of the Year for the District of Columbia
College career
Davis enrolled in the University of Maryland, where he majored in studio art and played for the Maryland Terrapins football team. In 2003, Davis saw the most consistent action of any true freshman, playing in all thirteen contests. He had five receptions for 87 yards (11.8 avg) and led the kickoff coverage unit with eight solo tackles.
In 2004, he played in every game, starting at H-back against Northern Illinois, Duke, Georgia Tech, Clemson, Virginia Tech, and Wake Forest. He finished second on the team with 27 catches for 441 yards and had 16.3 avg and three touchdowns.
In 2005, Davis was a Consensus All-American and All-Atlantic Coast Conference first-team selection. He was a finalist for the Mackey Award, given to the nation's top tight end. He started every game, leading the team with 51 receptions and the conference with 871 receiving yards (17.1 avg). His six touchdown catches rank tenth on the school's season-record list. His 51 receptions also rank tenth on Maryland's annual record chart while his 871 yards rank fifth. He was graded 82.5% for blocking consistency as he registered 67 knockdowns, including 18 blocks down field and had eight touchdown-resulting blocks.
Davis was heavily involved with working out in college. He set school strength records (in spring of 2005) for a tight end in the bench press (460 pounds), power-clean (380 pounds), index (824 pounds) and squat (685 pounds). He finished his college career with 1,371 yards on 83 receptions for 16.5 yards per catch, the best average of any first round tight end ever and more yards than other previous high first round tight ends such as Tony Gonzalez, Jeremy Shockey, Kyle Brady, and Kellen Winslow II.
College statistics
Professional career
San Francisco 49ers
2006 NFL Draft
Davis was selected sixth overall in the first round of the 2006 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers. He joined Kellen Winslow Jr. as the fourth highest tight end ever drafted after Ron Kramer, (Green Bay, fourth overall in 1957) Mike Ditka (Chicago, fifth overall in 1961), and Riley Odoms (Denver, fifth overall in 1972). He was the top tight end prospect in the 2006 NFL Draft, partially due to a strong performance at the scouting combine. He ran the 40-yard dash in 4.38 seconds. Davis also broad-jumped 10'08", nearly a foot farther than the next-best tight end, Marcedes Lewis.
2006 season: Rookie year
Vernon's first reception in the NFL was a 31-yard touchdown catch from quarterback Alex Smith, against the Arizona Cardinals in Week 1 on September 10, 2006. He added a career-long 52-yard touchdown against the Green Bay Packers on December 10 with a short catch followed by a long run. Davis played in ten games in the 2006 season due an injury he suffered on September 24, 2006. He sustained a hairline fracture to his left fibula, on a non-contact play against the Philadelphia Eagles, but returned on November 19 against the Seattle Seahawks. For his rookie season, Davis had 265 yards receiving on 20 catches, averaging 13.2 yards per reception. He had three receiving touchdowns.
2007 season
In Week 3 of the 2007 season, Davis was injured while attempting to catch a pass from Smith against the Pittsburgh Steelers. Davis sprained his right knee and missed the next two games. Despite his injury and the 49ers' offensive ineptitude, Davis bettered most of the numbers from his rookie season. Even though his yards per reception diminished, he finished the 2007 season with 52 receptions for 509 yards and four touchdowns.
2008 season
During October 2008, after catching a seven-yard pass in the third quarter against the Seahawks, Davis slapped Seahawks safety Brian Russell in the facemask, resulting in a 15-yard penalty, causing head coach Mike Singletary to bench him and then send him to the locker room for the game's remainder. After the game, Singletary then spoke his famous "I want winners" rant. This resulted in Davis changing his attitude from himself, to the team. The following game against the Cardinals, Davis leaped over a Cardinal defender and caught a pass from quarterback Shaun Hill resulting in a touchdown, his first of the season. He started all 16 regular season games, and finished the season with 31 receptions for 358 yards and two touchdowns.
2009 season
Through Week 11 of the 2009 season, Davis led the NFL with nine touchdown receptions, tied with wide receivers Larry Fitzgerald and Randy Moss. In the final game of the season, he tied the all-time record for most touchdown receptions for a tight end in a single season with 13, sharing the record set by Antonio Gates of the San Diego Chargers in 2004; that record stood until 2011, when it was broken by Rob Gronkowski of the New England Patriots. He was selected to appear in his first Pro Bowl.
2010 season
Before the 2010 season, he was awarded a five-year contract extension for $37 million with $23 million guaranteed. The deal made Davis the league's highest paid tight end. Against the Oakland Raiders in Week 6, he recorded his third straight game with a touchdown. Davis finished the season with 56 catches and 914 yards, resulting in 16.3 yards per catch. He was ranked 88th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.
2011 season
Davis had 67 receptions for 792 yards with six touchdowns during the 2011 season, helping the 49ers win the NFC West division and make the postseason for the first time since 2002. In the playoffs in the Divisional Round against the New Orleans Saints, he had seven receptions for 180 yards, breaking Kellen Winslow's record (166) for most yards by a tight end in a playoff game. He scored two touchdowns, and on the game-winning drive, he had a critical 47-yard reception that put the 49ers in a position to tie the game. With nine seconds remaining, Davis caught the game-winning touchdown pass from Alex Smith, now referred to as "Vernon Post". Davis caught three passes for 112 yards and another two touchdowns against the New York Giants in the NFC Championship, but the 49ers lost 20–17 in overtime. He was ranked 43rd by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012.
2012 season
During the 2012 season, Davis caught 41 passes for 548 yards and five touchdowns.
In the NFC Championship, Davis had five receptions for 106 yards and a touchdown in the 28–24 victory over the Atlanta Falcons. In Super Bowl XLVII, Davis had six catches for 104 yards in the narrow 34-31 loss to the Baltimore Ravens. He was ranked 38th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013.
2013 season
Davis began the 2013 season much like the 2012 playoffs ended: as a trusted and reliable target for quarterback Colin Kaepernick, catching his first touchdown pass of the season in the first quarter of the first game, at Candlestick Park on September 8, 2013, against the Green Bay Packers. He finished the 2013 season with 52 receptions for 850 receiving yards and 13 receiving touchdowns.
Davis added two touchdown receptions in the Playoffs, one coming against the Green Bay Packers in a Wild Card Round victory, and another in a Divisional Round victory against the Carolina Panthers. He was named to the Pro Bowl. He was ranked 51st by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014.
2014 season
During the 2014 season, Davis had 26 receptions for 245 yards and two touchdowns, both of which occurred in Week 1 against the Dallas Cowboys. He was dealing with ankle and back issues, which hindered him most of the time during the season.
Denver Broncos
On November 2, 2015, Davis and a 2016 seventh-round draft pick were traded from the San Francisco 49ers to the Denver Broncos for sixth-round picks in 2016 and 2017. His first game as a member of the Broncos was against his brother Vontae and the Indianapolis Colts. With Brock Osweiler as the starting quarterback, he had four receptions for 69 yards in a 17–15 win over the Chicago Bears. He added a combined four receptions for 35 yards in wins against the New England Patriots and San Diego Chargers. Davis had a season-high seven catches for 74 yards in a 15–12 loss to the Oakland Raiders. On February 7, 2016, Davis won his first Super Bowl championship after the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers by a score of 24–10 in Super Bowl 50. Despite ending the Super Bowl with no receptions, Davis made a key block downfield during a crucial 34-yard run by teammate C. J. Anderson, the longest rush of the game.
Washington Redskins
2016 season
On March 31, 2016, Davis signed a one-year contract with his hometown Washington Redskins. In a Week 6 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Davis caught his first touchdown pass in over two years, helping the Redskins win their fourth straight game of the season. Davis had started the game in replacement of an injured Jordan Reed and finished with two receptions for 50 yards and a touchdown. The following week, he earned his third start in a row and finished with six receptions for 79 receiving yards in a 17–20 loss to the Detroit Lions. On October 30, 2016, Davis caught five passes for 93 yards in a 27–27 tie with the Cincinnati Bengals. During a Week 9 matchup with the Minnesota Vikings, he caught three passes for 66 yards and caught a 38-yard touchdown reception from quarterback Kirk Cousins during the Redskins' 26–20 victory. He finished the 2016 season with 44 receptions for 583 receivnig yards and two receiving touchdowns.
2017 season
On March 8, 2017, Davis signed a three-year contract extension with the Redskins. Overall, in the 2017 season, Davis finished with 43 receptions for 648 yards and three touchdowns.
2018 season
Davis recorded his first touchdown reception of the 2018 season in Week 6 against the Carolina Panthers. He finished the 2018 season with 25 receptions for 367 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns.
2019 season
In the season-opener against the Philadelphia Eagles, Davis caught four passes for 59 yards including a 48-yard touchdown. He was placed on injured reserve on November 22, 2019, after missing most of the season with a concussion.
Retirement
Davis announced his retirement via a Fox NFL skit prior to Super Bowl LIV on February 2, 2020.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
Postseason
Personal life
Davis has a fiancée named Kayla. Davis's younger brother, Vontae Davis, is a retired cornerback that played for the Miami Dolphins & Indianapolis Colts, and infamously retired during halftime as a member of the Buffalo Bills. Davis's brother, Michael Davis, was arrested in the Petworth area of Washington, D.C., on Thursday, April 27, 2012, for two counts of assault with intent to kill while armed. Michael is suspected of three similar attacks for which there is an investigation but no charge.
Davis is an avid curling fan. He hosted an event for his charity in San Jose, California, in which the event was curling. Davis was named honorary captain of the Men's U.S. Olympic Curling team for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.
In late 2010, Davis founded Modern Class Design (MCD) with business partner Antone Barnes. Modern Class Design is a full-service fine arts and interior design company that offers comprehensive design services for homes and commercial spaces including interiors and landscape architecture. Davis also owns a chain of Jamba Juice franchises.
In December 2012, Davis opened Gallery 85 on Santana Row in San Jose, California. Gallery 85 is an art gallery for new and emerging artists giving them access to high-end exposure.
In October 2013, it was reported that Davis would be offering stock in his future earnings via a venture with Fantex as part of a new financial instrument being sold by Fantex. Davis planned to offer a 10% share of all future earnings from his brand marketing company to Fantex, which would then turn around and divide it into shares of a tracking stock that can be traded within their own exchange. In January 2014, the stock offering was confirmed. The proposed offering was 421,100 shares, valued at $10 per share, for a total proposed valuation worth $4.2 million.
Media appearances
In 2013, Davis made a cameo appearance in the music video for the song "Get Lo" by Ron Artest and Mike Jones.
Davis made an appearance on Pretty Wild, and Whose Line is it Anyway? in 2015.
Davis hosted the reunion and behind-the scenes special for MTV's The Challenge: Total Madness, both of which aired in July 2020. In September 2020, Davis was announced as one of the celebrities competing in the 29th season of Dancing with the Stars. He partnered with Peta Murgatroyd and was the fifth couple eliminated from the competition, lasting six weeks.
On April 28, 2021, Davis returned as the host for the two-part reunion of The Challenge: Double Agents.
In March and April 2022, Davis served as a judge for Season 1 of Domino Masters on Fox.
Davis also starred in the crime thriller The Ritual Killer as "Randoku", which was released on March 10, 2023. The movie is about a detective hunting for an international murderer committing ritualistic killings in a small Mississippi town. The movie stars Morgan Freeman and Cole Hauser.
Vernon Davis on backing AI sports prediction platform Smart Picks. Smart Picks is a sports prediction platform that will utilize artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict outcomes. https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Articles/2023/08/14/vernon-davis.aspx SmartPicks.ai
In 2022, it was announced that Davis would star in the comedy film Plan B, alongside Jon Heder, Tom Berenger, and Shannon Elizabeth.
References
External links
Maryland Terrapins bio
1984 births
African-American players of American football
American football tight ends
Denver Broncos players
Living people
Maryland Terrapins football players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
Players of American football from Washington, D.C.
San Francisco 49ers players
Unconferenced Pro Bowl players
Washington Redskins players
Dunbar High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people |
4231933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Ocean%20Strategy | Blue Ocean Strategy | Blue Ocean Strategy is a book published in 2004 written by W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne, professors at INSEAD, and the name of the marketing theory detailed on the book.
They assert that these strategic moves create a leap in value for the company, its buyers, and its employees while unlocking new demand and making the competition irrelevant. The book presents analytical frameworks and tools to foster an organization's ability to systematically create and capture "blue oceans"—unexplored new market areas. An expanded edition of the book was published in 2015, while two sequels entitled Blue Ocean Shift and Beyond Disruption are published in 2017 and 2023, respectively.
Book layout and concepts
The book is divided into three parts:
The first part presents key concepts of blue ocean strategy, including Value Innovation – the simultaneous pursuit of differentiation and low cost – and key analytical tools and frameworks such as the strategy canvas and the four actions framework. The four actions framework aids in eliminating the trade-off between differentiation and low cost within a company. The four actions framework consists of the following:
Raise: This questions which factors must be raised within an industry in terms of product, pricing or service standards.
Eliminate: This questions which areas of a company or industry could be completely eliminated to reduce costs and to create an entirely new market.
Reduce: This questions which areas of a company’s product or service are not entirely necessary but play a significant role in your industry, for example, the cost of manufacturing a certain material for a product could be reduced. Therefore, it can be reduced without completely eliminating it.
Create: This prompts companies to be innovative with their products. By creating an entirely new product or service, a company can create their own market through differentiation from the competition.
The second part describes the four principles of blue ocean strategy formulation. These four formulation principles address how an organization can create blue oceans by looking across the six conventional boundaries of competition (Six Paths Framework), reduce their planning risk by following the four steps of visualizing strategy, create new demand by unlocking the three tiers of noncustomers and launch a commercially viable blue ocean idea by aligning unprecedented utility of an offering with strategic pricing and target costing and by overcoming adoption hurdles. The book uses many examples across industries to demonstrate how to break out of traditional competitive (structuralist) strategic thinking and to grow demand and profits for the company and the industry by using blue ocean (reconstructionist) strategic thinking. The four principles are:
how to create uncontested market space by reconstructing market boundaries,
focusing on the big picture,
reaching beyond existing demand and supply in new market spaces
getting the strategic sequence right.
The third and final part describes the two key implementation principles of blue ocean strategy including tipping point leadership and fair process. These implementation principles are essential for leaders to overcome the four key organizational hurdles that can prevent even the best strategies from being executed. The four key hurdles comprise the cognitive, resource, motivational and political hurdles that prevent people involved in strategy execution from understanding the need to break from status quo, finding the resources to implement the new strategic shift, keeping your people committed to implementing the new strategy, and from overcoming the powerful vested interests that may block the change.
Proposition
In the book the authors draw the attention of their readers towards the correlation of success stories across industries and the formulation of strategies that provide a solid base to create unconventional success – a strategy termed as "blue ocean strategy". Unlike the "red ocean strategy", the conventional approach to business of beating competition derived from the military organization, the "blue ocean strategy" tries to align innovation with utility, price and cost positions. The book mocks the phenomena of conventional choice between product/service differentiation and lower cost, but rather suggests that both differentiation and lower costs are achievable simultaneously.
The authors ask readers "What is the best unit of analysis of profitable growth? Company? Industry?" – a fundamental question without which any strategy for profitable growth is not worthwhile. The authors justify with original and practical ideas that neither the company nor the industry is the best unit of analysis of profitable growth; rather it is the strategic move that creates "blue ocean" and sustained high performance. The book examines the experience of companies in areas as diverse as watches, wine, cement, computers, automobiles, textiles, coffee makers, airlines, retailers, and even the circus, to answer this fundamental question and builds upon the argument about "value innovation" being the cornerstone of a blue ocean strategy. Value innovation is necessarily the alignment of innovation with utility, price and cost positions. This creates uncontested market space and makes competition irrelevant. The new chapters in the expanded edition of the book deal with the issues of how to develop and align the three strategy propositions of value, profit and people, how to sustain and renew blue ocean strategy at both the business level and the corporate level, and how to avoid red ocean traps that keep organizations anchored in existing market space even as they attempt to create new market space. The following section discusses the concept behind the book in detail.
Concept
The metaphor of red and blue oceans describes the market universe.
Red oceans represent all the industries in existence today – the known market space. In the red oceans, industry boundaries are defined and accepted, and the competitive rules of the game are known. Here companies try to outperform their rivals to grab a greater share of product or service demand. As the market space gets crowded, prospects for profits and growth are reduced. Products become commodities or niche, and cutthroat competition turns the ocean bloody; hence, the term "red oceans".
Blue oceans, in contrast, denote all the industries not in existence today – the unknown market space, untainted by competition. In blue oceans, demand is created rather than fought over. There is ample opportunity for growth that is both profitable and rapid. In blue oceans, competition is irrelevant because the rules of the game are waiting to be set. Blue ocean is an analogy to describe the wider, deeper potential of market space that is not yet explored.
The cornerstone of blue ocean strategy is "value innovation", a concept originally outlined in Kim & Mauborgne's 1997 article "Value Innovation - The Strategic Logic of High Growth". Value innovation is the simultaneous pursuit of differentiation and low cost, creating value for both the buyer, the company, and its employees, thereby opening up new and uncontested market space. The aim of value innovation, as articulated in the article, is not to compete, but to make the competition irrelevant by changing the playing field of strategy. The strategic move must raise and create value for the market, while simultaneously reducing or eliminating features or services that are less valued by the current or future market. The Four Actions Framework is used to help create value innovation and break the value-cost trade-off. Value innovation challenges Michael Porter's idea that successful businesses are either low-cost providers or niche-players. Instead, blue ocean strategy proposes finding value that crosses conventional market segmentation and offering value and lower cost. Educator Charles W. L. Hill proposed a similar idea in 1988 and claimed that Porter's model was flawed because differentiation can be a means for firms to achieve low cost. He proposed that a combination of differentiation and low cost might be necessary for firms to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.
Many others have proposed similar strategies. For example, Swedish educators Jonas Ridderstråle and Kjell Nordström in their 1999 book Funky Business follow a similar line of reasoning. For example, "competing factors" in blue ocean strategy are similar to the definition of "finite and infinite dimensions" in Funky Business. Just as blue ocean strategy claims that a red ocean strategy does not guarantee success, Funky Business explained that "Competitive Strategy is the route to nowhere". Funky Business argues that firms need to create "sensational strategies". Just like blue ocean strategy, a sensational strategy is about "playing a different game" according to Ridderstråle and Nordström. Ridderstråle and Nordström also claim that the aim of companies is to create temporary monopolies. Kim and Mauborgne explain that the aim of companies is to create blue oceans, that will eventually turn red. This is the same idea expressed in the form of an analogy. Ridderstråle and Nordström also claimed in 1999 that "in the slow-growth 1990s overcapacity is the norm in most businesses". Kim and Mauborgne claim that blue ocean strategy makes sense in a world where supply exceeds demand.
Blue ocean vs. red ocean
Kim and Mauborgne argue that while traditional competition-based strategies (red ocean strategies) are necessary, they are not sufficient to sustain high performance. Companies need to go beyond competing. To seize new profit and growth opportunities they also need to create blue oceans. The authors argue that competition based strategies assume that an industry's structural conditions are given and that firms are forced to compete within them, an assumption based on what academics call the structuralist view, or environmental determinism. To sustain themselves in the marketplace, practitioners of red ocean strategy focus on building advantages over the competition, usually by assessing what competitors do and striving to do it better. Here, grabbing a bigger share of the market is seen as a zero-sum game in which one company's gain is achieved at another company’s loss. Hence, competition, the supply side of the equation, becomes the defining variable of strategy. Here, cost and value are seen as trade-offs and a firm chooses a distinctive cost or differentiation position. Because the total profit level of the industry is also determined by structural factors, firms principally seek to capture and redistribute wealth instead of creating wealth. They focus on dividing up the red ocean, where growth is increasingly limited.
Blue ocean strategy, on the other hand, is based on the view that market boundaries and industry structure are not given and can be reconstructed by the actions and beliefs of industry players. This is what the authors call the reconstructionist view. Assuming that structure and market boundaries exist only in managers’ minds, practitioners who hold this view do not let existing market structures limit their thinking. To them, extra demand is out there, largely untapped. The crux of the problem is how to create it. This, in turn, requires a shift of attention from supply to demand, from a focus on competing to a focus on value innovation – that is, the creation of innovative value to unlock new demand. This is achieved via the simultaneous pursuit of differentiation and low-cost. As market structure is changed by breaking the value/cost tradeoff, so are the rules of the game. Competition in the old game is therefore rendered irrelevant. By expanding the demand side of the economy, new wealth is created. Such a strategy therefore allows firms to largely play a non–zero-sum game, with high payoff possibilities.
History of the concept
The concept was initially developed in the 1990s when W. Chan Kim was taking part in a consulting project for Philips, headed by the management scholar C.K. Prahalad. Working with consultants from the Mac Group (a consulting company that was later bought by Capgemini), he developed strategy tools leading to the publication of a series of articles in the Harvard Business Review, and then in 2005 of the Blue Ocean Strategy book.
Nintendo's Wii video game console, first released in 2006, has been often considered an example of the blue ocean concept. Instead of trying to compete with the high performance and computational power of the consoles from Sony and Microsoft, Nintendo designed the Wii's hardware to focus on innovative gameplay, incorporating the use of motion controls atypical of video games. These changes brought new gameplay ideas to the system as well as reduced the cost of the console compared to its competitors. As a result, the Wii sold more than 100 million units over its lifetime, far outselling the competitors.
Reception
Since Blue Ocean Strategy was published in 2005 it has been translated into 43 languages and has sold over 3.5 million copies. The book was named a bestseller by the Wall Street Journal, BusinessWeek, and Amazon.com. It was selected as one of the “Best Books of 2005” by Fast Company magazine, won “The Best Business Book of 2005” Prize at the Frankfurt Book Fair, and achieved bestselling book of the decade status by 800-CEO-READ (2000-2010). Strategy+Business magazine selected it as #1 strategy book of 2005.
In 2009, Blue Ocean Strategy was selected by the China Daily and the China Research Institute as one of the 40 most influential books in the History of the People's Republic of China (1949-2009) along with Adam Smith’s ″The Wealth of Nations″ under the category of ″Economics and Finance.″ In 2010, Polish group ThinkTank selected Blue Ocean Strategy as one of the Top 20 books that have shaped Polish Leaders. Blue Ocean Strategy won the Thinkers50 2011 Strategy Award for Best Business Book of the decade and in the same year, it was introduced to the Fast Company Leadership Hall of Fame. In 2013, the book received the GoodBooks Award in the Management category by the Vietnamese Institute for Research on Education Development (IRED), was selected as one of the 15 Best Business Books of the last decade in Russia by the Kommersant.ru magazine, and selected as one of the top three best management books in Japan by the Diamond Harvard Business Review.
The Wall Street Journal recommends Blue Ocean Strategy for the top manager. Forbes calls it one of the ten business trends for 2013 and argues that "blue ocean strategies are more influential than ever." BusinessWeek says that "Blue Ocean Strategy will have you wondering why companies need so much persuasion to stay out of shark-infested waters." The Business Strategy Review said the book "challenges everything you knew about strategy", and the Business Times called on firms to "adopt blue ocean strategy to stay ahead." Marketplace magazine recommends Blue Ocean Strategy as a book "you need to read." In addition, the book has received many positive reviews from various publications that include Chicago Tribune, Daily Herald, Credit Union Journal, Vancouver Sun, Association Meetings, Strategy & Leadership, and Business First, among many others.
Criticisms
While Kim and Mauborgne propose approaches to finding uncontested market space, at the present there are few success stories of companies that have actively applied their theories. One success story that does exist is Nintendo, who applied the blue ocean strategy to the Nintendo DS, Wii, and Nintendo Switch.
With just one case study, however, this hole in their data persists despite the publication of value innovation concepts dating back to 1997. Hence, a critical question is whether this book and its related ideas are descriptive rather than prescriptive. The authors present many examples of successful innovations, and then explain from their Blue Ocean perspective – essentially interpreting success through their lenses.
The research process followed by the authors has been criticized on several grounds. Criticisms include claims that no control group was used, that there is no way to know how many companies using a blue ocean strategy failed and the theory is thus unfalsifiable, that a deductive process was not followed, and that the examples in the book were selected to "tell a winning story". Meanwhile, several attempts at empirical validations and conceptual extensions of the blue ocean strategy have been published.
The Blue Ocean strategy is based on the idea that firms can restructure market boundaries, and yet it lacks clear parameters to determine what constitites the boundaries of each market. For instance, research shows that market boundaries are porous and are continuously made and remade through boundary work.
Additionally, blue ocean strategy cannot be identified as true causation for success. The authors cite the strategies used by NYPD Commissioner Bratton as a key example of Blue Ocean applied in the public sector. They defined this success as a significant drop in crime in the City of New York after Bratton took office in 1994. Many social scientists would disagree that it was Bratton's policies that led to crime reduction: rather, the city was simply part of a nationwide trend in decreasing crime.
Brand and communication are taken for granted and do not represent a key for success. Kim and Maubourgne take the marketing of a value innovation as a given, assuming the marketing success will come as a matter of course.
It is argued that rather than a theory, blue ocean strategy is an extremely successful attempt to brand a set of already existing concepts and frameworks with a highly "sticky" idea. The blue ocean/red ocean analogy is a powerful and memorable metaphor, which is responsible for its popularity. This metaphor can be powerful enough to stimulate people to action. The concepts behind the Blue Ocean Strategy (such as the competing factors, the consumer cycle, non-customers, etc.) are not new, however. Many of these tools are also used by Six Sigma practitioners and proposed by other management theorists.
Many of the book's key concepts were previously covered in Competing For The Future by Gary Hamel and C.K. Prahalad, which was published in 1996. The authors encouraged managers to stake out new marketing space, which they termed white space, in order to "create and dominate emerging opportunities".
See also
Co-opetition
Disruptive innovation
Economics of Strategy
Thinking Strategically
References
External links
Blue Ocean Strategy book website
Business books
2004 non-fiction books
2015 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Collaborative non-fiction books
Harvard Business Publishing books |
4232075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandy%20Salter | Mandy Salter | Mandy Salter is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Nicola Stapleton. Introduced on 12 March 1992 by producer Leonard Lewis, Mandy was portrayed as a teenage tearaway. She was featured in storylines about teenage homelessness, child abuse and recreational drug taking. Her relationship with Aidan Brosnan (Sean Maguire) was one of the prominent storylines featured in 1993. Due to the character's antagonistic behaviour, it has been suggested that Mandy was one of the most hated characters on television during her initial tenure. The character appeared in a special episode of Doctor Who in 1993, which was set in the fictional soap setting of Walford. Stapleton left the role and Mandy departed on-screen on 13 January 1994. Stapleton returned to the role for a nine-month stint on 29 August 2011, and left again on 31 May 2012.
Following Mandy's initial exit, Stapleton claimed that she was asked to reprise the role on several occasions; she turned these offers down until producer Bryan Kirkwood negotiated her comeback in 2011. After a 17-year hiatus, Mandy reappeared from 29 August 2011 and began a relationship with the long-running character, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt). Mandy's return storylines focused on her dysfunctional relationship with her mother Lorraine (now played by Victoria Alcock), her unconventional engagement to Ian, and her fuelling conflict with Ian's teenage daughter Lucy (Hetti Bywater). On 4 April 2012, it was announced that Stapleton would be leaving EastEnders for a second time. Mandy and Ian were not given a happy ending; their relationship dissolved and Mandy departed in the episode broadcast on 31 May 2012.
Storylines
1992–1994
Mandy arrives in Albert Square in March 1992 when her hospitalised mother, Lorraine (Linda Henry), leaves her in Pat Butcher's (Pam St. Clement) care. She makes friends with Sam Butcher (Danniella Westbrook) but eventually leaves the Butchers as she feels unwanted by Pat's husband, Frank (Mike Reid). She then begins squatting.
Mandy is a troublesome teenager. She blackmails Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt), threatening to divulge that he visits prostitutes unless he employs her. Ian does not succumb, so Mandy survives by stealing, conning people and relying on charity. After Mandy is evicted from her squat, Kathy Beale (Gillian Taylforth) allows her to live with her, but Mandy is eventually thrown out when she is caught spreading rumours that Kathy has been abusing her. Mandy ends the year homeless and sleeping in a makeshift shanty. Mark Fowler (Todd Carty) and Steve Elliot (Mark Monero) eventually let Mandy stay with them, but Mandy's stirring contributes to the demise of Steve's relationship with Hattie Tavernier (Michelle Gayle); Mandy and Hattie maintain an antagonistic relationship throughout their time together in Walford. On Christmas Eve 1992, Mandy receives a Christmas card from her mother, telling her she is visiting. However, Lorraine never arrives, so on Christmas Day, Mandy returns to Lorraine's flat but finds her mother's abusive boyfriend Gary (Thomas Craig) instead. He is mean to Mandy and starts beating her, until she is rescued by Mark.
Mandy meets Irish football trainee Aidan Brosnan (Sean Maguire) in 1993. They begin dating, but Mandy is a bad influence on Aidan and encourages him to skip football practice, get drunk and use ecstasy. This results in an intoxicated Aidan falling and damaging his knee, and following a subsequent injury, Aidan is told that his career in professional football is over. The loss of his dream hits Aidan badly, but by now Mandy has fallen for him in a big way, and when he returns to Ireland, she follows him. Both soon return, having had a poor reception from Aidan's family. The young lovers are unable to find work so they begin sleeping on the streets and squatting. To get money, Mandy and Aidan beg and occasionally do odd jobs. It is on one such occasion that Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp) leaves his wife Sharon Mitchell's (Letitia Dean) pet poodle, Roly, in Mandy's care. However, Mandy loses control of Roly and he dies after running straight into an oncoming truck, devastating Sharon. Mandy later cleans Dr Legg's (Leonard Fenton) GP surgery, but after stealing prescription slips and selling them to drug dealers, she is sacked. She then turns to 'clipping', acting as a prostitute then running off with the customer's money without performing the sexual service. However, the other prostitutes in Kings Cross beat Mandy and after she is arrested, Aidan makes her promise to stop.
When Richard Cole (Ian Reddington) starts a smear campaign against them, accusing them of being behind a series of robberies around the Square, everyone turns on them. Aidan becomes depressed and on Christmas Day 1993 he attempts to commit suicide by threatening to jump off the top of a tower block. Mandy manages to stop him but Aidan realises that Mandy is bad for him, and he returns to his family in Ireland.
Mandy is distraught at losing Aidan. Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) takes sympathy and allows her to stay with her; Mandy sees New Year 1994 in, huddled and sobbing on the Fowlers' couch. Early in 1994, Mandy turns to Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen) for comfort and they have a one-night stand. However, this only makes Mandy realise how much she misses Aidan, and she rejects Ricky's further advances. All alone, Mandy leaves Albert Square in January 1994, repaying the Fowlers' kindness by stealing Pauline's purse and hitching a ride with a lorry driver, who is heading west on the M11.
2011–2012
Mandy is not seen again for 17 years until Ian stumbles across her being thrown out of a strip club by a man Mandy claims is her abusive ex-boyfriend; however, it transpires the man is her employer at the strip club from whom Mandy has stolen £5,000. Ian allows her to stay with him in Walford and a friendship develops as Mandy bonds with Ian's son Bobby (Alex Francis) and helps Ian discover his frivolous side. Ian develops romantic feelings for Mandy and she accepts his impromptu marriage proposal. However, when Mandy meets her old friend Ricky, they reminisce, take drugs and have sex. This causes Mandy to rethink marriage to Ian; she decides not to attend the wedding ceremony but Ian pleads with her to change her mind and the wedding is rearranged.
In January 2012, Ian discovers Ricky and Mandy's tryst; the revelation ends Ricky's marriage to Bianca Butcher (Patsy Palmer). Mandy confesses to Ian that she became pregnant with Ricky's child in January 1994 and gave birth to a premature daughter, Kira, who died. She suggests she had sex with Ricky because of unresolved feelings for her dead daughter. Ian forgives Mandy but further problems arise when Ian's daughter Lucy (Hetti Bywater) returns to Walford and takes a dislike to Mandy. Lucy attempts to turn Ian against Mandy by setting her up, poisoning Bobby's mind against her and sabotaging Mandy's wedding plans. When Lucy discovers Mandy texting someone called "L Stevens", she suspects Mandy is having an affair and arranges for "L" to visit, not realising "L" stands for Lorraine, Mandy's estranged, alcoholic mother (now played by Victoria Alcock). Seeing an opportunity to make use of Ian's resources, Lorraine convinces him that she wants to bond with Mandy, but when he is absent she verbally and physically abuses Mandy. Lorraine's true nature is eventually revealed and Ian sends her away, but her stirring nearly causes Mandy and Ian's relationship to end. When a sickly Lorraine returns to Walford, Ian forbids Mandy from caring for her. Secretly, Mandy visits Lorraine in hospital and they briefly bond, but Lorraine turns nasty again when Mandy disobeys her, telling her that she has never loved or wanted her. A few weeks later, Mandy is devastated to learn that Lorraine has died. Ian, who is going through financial difficulties and is behaving erratically, refuses to let Mandy grieve and goes ahead with his plans to bring their wedding forward. On their wedding day, Mandy is perturbed by Ian's increasingly strange behaviour and refuses to marry him, revealing that she has been forcing herself to love him. Ian begs her to stay but Mandy leaves as a devastated Ian shouts her name. Ian suffers a breakdown and absconds shortly after without telling his family where he is going. When Lucy discovers Ian's credit card being used in a Rochester hotel a week later, she and Phil Mitchell (Steve McFadden) go in search of him. They find Mandy, who has been using Ian's credit card to pay for her mother's funeral. Mandy denies knowing where Ian is. She vows to make a success of her life, stating it is "time to grow up".
Creation and development
Introduction (1992)
Mandy was one of several introductions to the cast of EastEnders in 1992. Executive producer Leonard Lewis took a tentative approach to introducing new characters in 1992. Most were introduced gradually, making an initial appearance and then joining the programme full-time a couple of months later. This allowed the producers and writers to create new characters and see them brought to life by the actors before committing them to a longer contract. Mandy first appeared in March 1992 as a school girl aged 15, abandoned by her mother in Pat Butcher's care. She left the series temporarily a few weeks later; in the storyline she went back to her mother's flat, but she returned by the summer of 1992 as a regular character, squatting in the soap's setting of Albert Square.
Mandy was portrayed as a troublesome teenager, with an underpinning storyline of child abuse and abandonment. Nicola Stapleton, 17 at the time, was cast in the role. During her initial stint in the soap, the character was featured in storylines about child and drug abuse, homelessness, blackmail, theft and prostitution (in the form of clipping).
Characterisation
In his 2005 book, Eastenders: 20 Years in Albert Square, author Rupert Smith classified Mandy as a "lost girl". He described her as "poisonous [...] the daughter of a dodgy old lush that Pat had picked up in a hostess bar, and she arrived in Walford to work out some grudge she held against the entire world." He added that "she lied, cheated and stole", suggesting that "there have been very few characters as entirely loathesome as Mandy Salter [...] The serpent in an East End eden." Author of EastEnders: Who's who?, Kate Lock, suggested that, "You wanted to feel sorry for homeless waif Mandy but her deviousness made it hard to even like her."
She has been described as a "manipulative force of nature" with a "spiteful streak". In 2011, the executive producer of EastEnders, Bryan Kirkwood, described Mandy as outrageous, uncompromising and pragmatic. He added, "although she's the result of a life on the streets, she's a survivor and isn't down on her luck. Mandy knows what to do to get by". Discussing Mandy in 2011, Stapleton said that Mandy only relies on herself and is "the sort of person who uses what she's got to get by." She described Mandy as minxy and incredibly flirty; someone who dresses skimpily and uses her body to get what she wants.
Homelessness and relationship with Aidan Brosnan
A lone character without family in the serial, Mandy was essentially homeless, and when she was unable to squat or rely on the kindness of strangers, she slept rough on the streets. This storyline came at a time when homelessness in London was a topical subject in the British media, partly due to the continued concern regarding Cardboard City, an area near Waterloo station that attracted a high proportion of homeless people who slept in cardboard boxes. Because of her involvement in this story arc, actress Nicola Stapleton became so affected by the plight of young homeless people that she joined the charity 'Countrywide', who raise money for the homeless. In January 1993 she told Inside Soap, "I have always thought the homeless situation was terrible, but through my research into playing Mandy, I have realised just how many young people it affects. I think it is really tragic that we have teenagers in this country sleeping out on the streets. And it isn't a problem that will go away. I just hope that by drawing attention to the problem in EastEnders more people will be willing to help [...] It is important that people realise that anyone can end up homeless. If you lose your flat or your job, you can end up in a downward spiral that will dump you on the streets. We can't shut our minds to this situation, because it could happen to any of us. I know how fortunate I am, and therefore I know that I am in a position to help, which is why I have got involved with the [charity]."
With regard to Mandy, Stapleton believed that, in 1993, she was her "own worst enemy" and that some of her misfortune was associated to her upsetting other characters: "Mandy is constantly rubbing people up the wrong way, and upsetting them. Of course she has had a hard life, but she doesn't do herself any favours either. I would like to see her get a break and a chance to finally make something of herself."
In 1993, the character was paired romantically on-screen with Aidan Brosnan, played by Sean Maguire. Aidan and Mandy's romance was dubbed by EastEnders''' scriptwriter Colin Brake as one of 1993's "major storylines", which ran throughout the year. Depicted as shy, naïve and impressionable, Aidan was quickly led astray by Mandy. In the storyline, Mandy introduced Aidan to alcohol and drugs and a swift decline for the couple culminated in them becoming homeless and sleeping on the streets or in abandoned squats. Aidan slipped into a depression, culminating in a suicide attempt, when in the Christmas Day 1993 episodes, he decided to jump off the top of a tower block. The producers' original plan had been for Aidan to succeed in his suicide bid; however, in the book EastEnders: The First Ten Years, author Colin Brake has revealed that "the powers-that-be" at the BBC intervened in the storyline. They felt that a suicide on Christmas Day would be "too depressing even for EastEnders", so they ordered for the scripts to be revised. In the revised version, Mandy arrived just in time to stop Aidan jumping to his death, her love for him convincing him not to end his life. 23 million viewers tuned in on Christmas Day 1993 to witness Aidan's suicide attempt; it was the highest rated television programme of the day, trumping its biggest rival Coronation Street by 3 million viewers.
Departure (1994)
The homelessness storyline spelt the end of the couple in the soap, Sean Maguire having chosen to leave to pursue other projects. During the episode that aired on 28 December 1993, Aidan — resenting Mandy for her role in his misfortune — left to return to Ireland alone. Heartbroken, Mandy fled several weeks later, in January 1994.
In reality, Stapleton had grown tired of all the attention she received from being in such a high-profile show, and despite being offered a contract to continue, she quit the role. In an interview in 2005 Stapleton commented: "Working on EastEnders was so high-profile it put me off working on soaps for a while[...] I've been asked a number of times to go back but I've done a lot of really credible stuff in theatre, and I thought, 'It took me a long time get here. I'm not ready to go back to Mandy just yet' [...] The publicity with something regarding EastEnders is huge and sometimes you end up feeling like a famous person rather than an actress — I wanted my work to be more fulfilling than that."
In a 2009 interview with Walford Gazette, Stapleton said, "[EastEnders] always left the door open for Mandy to return. [But] at the moment I'm quite happy to be doing what I'm doing." She told the Daily Record that same year, "It doesn't bother me that I'm still recognised as Mandy from EastEnders. It means I made an impression with the character. I would never say never to going back. I don't think the show is as fabulous as it was 10 years ago but it's still pretty fantastic and you have to go where the work is."
Return (2011)
On 9 June 2011, it was confirmed that Stapleton would reprise her role as Mandy after 17 years, in autumn 2011. Stapleton revealed that she was approached about returning by executive producer Bryan Kirkwood in February 2010, after she was invited to watch the live episode of EastEnders that was transmitted for its 25th anniversary. Stapleton said, "It had been discussed before but as soon as Bryan Kirkwood started telling me all these storylines he wanted to do with Mandy, I was buzzing." Kirkwood, the producer overseeing Mandy's return, stated, "I love Nicola Stapleton, having worked with her elsewhere, and Mandy is going to be like a breath of fresh air when she arrives back". It was reported that Mandy had grown up slightly, but that she was still fun, chaotic and wild and she was tipped to cause trouble for at least one of Walford's well-known residents. Stapleton said of her return "I'm looking forward to playing Mandy again—it will be interesting to see what she's been up to all this time. I'm excited to be coming back and working with some old friends." Stapleton had always envisaged that Mandy would return to EastEnders at some stage; however, as time passed she began to doubt Mandy would return, so she was "thrilled" that she and the producers were able to make it happen.
Her return aired on 29 August 2011. Stapleton revealed that she deliberately did not watch EastEnders prior to her return as she did not want to know what any of the characters were involved in; she wanted to have the same inquisitiveness that Mandy would have when she returned to filming. However, she did re-watch old episodes from the 1990s featuring Mandy to get back into character. In January 2012, Stapleton revealed that she had enjoyed her second stint on EastEnders more than her initial stint.
Relationship with Ian Beale
In her return storyline, Mandy is found working as a lap dancer by Ian Beale, who offers her a place to stay back in Walford. Discussing her character's return storyline and involvement with Ian Beale, Stapleton said, "Mandy has got her eye on every man in the Square — but with Ian it's just a friendship. She lifts his spirits and has a big effect on his life." She added, "I think [Mandy] is the most exciting thing that has happened to Ian in a long time. There's banter between them and she has a real energy that lifts his spirits. They have fun and Ian agrees to put her up [...] When we meet [Mandy] she's very much on her own living hand-to-mouth. I think there's a part of her that wants to be maternal as she gets on really well with [Ian's son] Bobby, who becomes her little mate." Stapleton suggested that Mandy and Ian's friendship involves bantering with one another and having fun, Mandy being a female presence in Ian's life following his separation from his wife Jane (Laurie Brett). Stapleton added, "people can affect other people's lives in different ways. Mandy is a full-on person, and I think that energy either rubs off on someone or aggravates them. It's quite interesting, because it kind of does both with Ian!".
Despite initially suggesting that Ian and Mandy's relationship was platonic, the storyline evolved, Ian confessing his feelings for Mandy after witnessing her flirting with other men. Through plot dialogue, the characters reveal their mutual desire to be loved, leading Ian to propose spontaneously to Mandy. Stapleton suggested that Mandy made Ian more frivolous. According to Stapleton, both were using each other: Mandy's motive being to gain security, and Ian's motive being to possess an attractive female. Although Stapleton suggested that the common discourse was that Mandy was using Ian for his money, she protested that there was a common connection between them.
Viewers were left guessing as to whether Mandy would go through with the wedding following a tryst with her former lover, Ricky Butcher (Sid Owen). In the end, Mandy was unable to go through with the wedding, but she remained engaged to Ian despite his discovery in the New Year's Day 2012 episode, that Mandy and Ricky had sex. Delving into events that occurred in Mandy's history during the years she was off-screen, it is revealed that Mandy fell pregnant with Ricky's baby when she departed in 1994, but the baby died shortly after being born. Discussing Mandy's revelation, Stapleton said, "Being close to Ricky was more about being close to the daughter she lost". She suggested that deep down, Mandy was looking for a family of her own and wants to be part of the Beale family.
Stapleton suggested that although Mandy's relationship with Ian was not portrayed as an immediate and big love affair, she believed the relationship could develop into love or fondness over time. Addressing the perceived differences between Ian and Mandy, Stapleton suggested that it gave them much "juicy" storyline material to work with. Stapleton also suggested that although she thought it would be nice for Mandy and Ian to have a happy ending, she was unsure that they would ever get married as she did not deem it necessary for them and felt it would change their relationship.
Acrimonious relationships
Mandy and Ian's storyline progressed with the reintroduction of Ian's daughter Lucy Beale (Hetti Bywater) in January 2012 who, taking a dislike to Mandy, tries to set her up. Stapleton revealed, "[Mandy's] desperate to win Lucy over but gets it all wrong [...] because she doesn't want Lucy to see her as the wicked stepmother she behaves like an older sister. Mandy gets drunk and Lucy gets her to buy some drugs. She does it because she thinks it's going to win her points with Lucy. Mandy passes out and wakes up to find the pills are gone. It's only later she discovers Lucy's planned it so [Ian's young son] Bobby finds the drugs." However, according to Stapleton, Mandy is capable of outwitting Lucy.
Lucy's vendetta against Mandy leads to the reintroduction of Mandy's estranged mother Lorraine, who appeared from March 2012. Linda Henry played Lorraine originally from 1991 to 1992 but Henry was already appearing in EastEnders as a different character, Shirley Carter, so the role of Lorraine was recast to actress Victoria Alcock. Described as a bad mother who allowed Mandy to "run wild on the streets" in her teenage years, it was suggested that Lorraine had not altered and remained a "brash" character. Lorraine's return was scripted to cause problems in Mandy's relationship with Ian and, according to Alcock, it was also intended to give viewers an insight into why Mandy turned out the way she had. Discussing Lorraine and Mandy's relationship Alcock said, "We've obviously seen Mandy go through hell and back. She's had her moments, and once you meet her mother, you understand how this poor girl has ended up like she is. Poor little love didn't stand a chance with a mother like [Lorraine]". Alcock added, "Many Albert Square residents didn't think there was a bigger leech than Mandy, but we see where she gets it from now. She has no qualms and she's proud of it. Allegedly she let some awful things happen to Mandy, which may come out in time. I think viewers are interested in the broken shells of a character and she's definitely a broken shell. You're not just made that way, something happens to make you like that. I reckon she was abused, and the abused often then become the abuser, and unfortunately that vicious circle has not been broken. I've tried to play her with a few levels." Stapleton added that "Lorraine puts on a big act for Ian. Mandy can see straight through her, but Ian doesn't understand why she's getting her knickers in a twist. When Lorraine's alone with Mandy, she's really cruel and cold. But she's very careful how she acts in front of everyone else." Stapleton was unsure whether this storyline would ultimately change viewer perception of Mandy: "When you play a really prickly character like Mandy, it's nice to take a look at why they behave like that. Whether it'll make viewers warm to her, I don't know. People love Mandy when she's awful!". Stapleton suggested that Mandy was petrified of Lorraine and she described scenes between the characters as dark and violent. Scenes airing in May 2012 where Lorraine informs Mandy that she never loved her were described by Stapleton as challenging and emotional to film. The storyline ended bleakly with Lorraine dying before Mandy could make amends with her mother.
Departure (2012)
On 4 April 2012, it was reported on the website Digital Spy that Mandy would be leaving EastEnders in mid-2012. Viewers were kept guessing as to whether she and Ian would marry. Mandy's departure circled around Ian's fragile emotional and mental state resulting from financial ruin and his brother Ben's confession that he murdered Heather Trott. During these events, Ian decided to bring his wedding to Mandy forward, despite her reservations following the death of her mother. Additionally, Ian's daughter Lucy tries everything she can to stop the ceremony, canceling the venue, throwing the wedding rings away, and finally giving Ian an ultimatum to choose her or Mandy. In the storyline, when Lucy forced Ian to pick between her and Mandy, he chose Mandy. Racked with guilt about being picked over Lucy and realizing that she never truly loved Ian, Mandy left the square, leaving a pleading Ian begging her to marry him. Mandy's exit proved the final straw for Ian's parlous emotional state, causing him to have a nervous breakdown; Ian is shown walking down a motorway, barefoot in his pajamas at the end of the episode, leaving his family and viewers unsure of where he had gone.
Of her decision to leave EastEnders Stapleton commented, "I've had a great time at EastEnders, working with friends old and new. Who knows whether Mandy will return? Let's hope it doesn't take another 17 years!". A spokesperson added that "EastEnders bosses kept Nicola on for longer than expected as they are building up to a big storyline for Ian." The culmination of the storyline was scripted to coincide and facilitate actor Adam Woodyatt's temporary break from the soap opera, with his character Ian being off-screen for approximately six weeks following his breakdown. Of Mandy's return arc, Stapleton commented: "I don't want to play someone who's normal and boring — I want somebody who's feisty and spicy. I love Mandy. She's got layers, I think — she's deep and she's troubled. It's been really nice, actually, with the last few storylines that I had with Vicky Alcock who played my mum. It's fine to put a character on the telly and say, 'Oh, what a horrible person', but it's nice to explain why people might be like that. I think they tackled those storylines really well. It's been a nice journey with her this time round because it's been a lot more explanatory. As I say, it's had a lot more layers so I've really enjoyed it". When asked whether she would return as Mandy, Stapleton said, "It's always open, so you never know — never say never. I never said last time that I would never go back. I enjoyed it so much more than I really thought I was going to. It was lovely meeting the new people and cast that I hadn't worked with before."
Other appearances
Mandy was featured in a special episode of the popular science fiction series, Doctor Who, which was entitled Dimensions in Time (1993). The episode was specially screened as part of BBC's annual fund-raising event, Children in Need. Viewers were asked to phone in and vote which EastEnders character, Mandy or 'Big' Ron (Ron Tarr), would appear in the show and save the Doctor from certain death. Two versions were filmed for each voting outcome, but the Mandy version won with 56% of the vote.
Reception
Mandy won the award for Soap's Biggest Bitch at the 1993 Inside Soap TV Awards. According to Josephine Monroe, author of The EastEnders Programme Guide, Mandy Salter was one of the most hated characters on television during her reign; a "teenager from hell". Stapleton has alleged that some viewers hated Mandy so much, due to her despicable deeds on-screen, that she was subjected to taunts in the street and her car was regularly vandalised.
Underpinning the character of Mandy was a storyline about child abuse, and Stapleton has revealed that she received "a lot" of letters from children in the same situation. She commented, "You want to help but all you are really permitted to do is say this is Childline's number and encourage them to talk to someone."
Mandy's return in 2011, after a 17-year hiatus, was well received by Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror. Simon stated, "For an all-too-brief time in the 90s [Mandy] was the Square’s number-one troublemaker [...] it’s great to have her back." In October 2011, Stapleton suggested that viewers had reacted positively to Mandy's return. Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap'' said that she was not convinced by Mandy and Ian's relationship. She predicted that it would only take six months before Mandy ran away with a younger male. Kate White from the same magazine was sad because Mandy was leaving in 2012; she said Mandy had been "wasted in the endless on-off-on-off-on-off-zzzzz romance with Ian". She hoped that Mandy would return in the future "as a proper bitch" with a "proper plot".
See also
List of EastEnders characters (1992)
List of soap opera villains
References
External links
EastEnders characters
Television characters introduced in 1992
Fictional waiting staff
British female characters in television
Fictional erotic dancers
Fictional prostitutes
Female villains
Teenage characters in television |
4232526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20tracker | Solar tracker | A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the Sun. Payloads are usually solar panels, parabolic troughs, Fresnel reflectors, lenses, or the mirrors of a heliostat.
For flat-panel photovoltaic systems, trackers are used to minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel, sometimes known as the cosine error. Reducing this angle increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power-generating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it was predicted in 2008–2009 that trackers could be used in at least 85% of commercial installations greater than one megawatt from 2009 to 2012.
As the pricing, reliability, and performance of single-axis trackers have improved, the systems have been installed in an increasing percentage of utility-scale projects. According to data from WoodMackenzie/GTM Research, global solar tracker shipments hit a record 14.5 gigawatts in 2017. This represents growth of 32 percent year-over-year, with similar or greater growth projected as large-scale solar deployment accelerates.
In concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications because such systems collect the sun's energy with maximum efficiency when the optical axis is aligned with incident solar radiation.
Basic concept
Sunlight has two components: the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the solar energy and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder – the diffuse portion is the blue sky on a clear day, and is a larger proportion of the total on cloudy days. As the majority of the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the Sun to be visible to the panels for as long as possible. However, on cloudier days the ratio of direct vs. diffuse light can be as low as 60:40 or even lower.
The energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle between the incoming light and the panel. In addition, the reflectance (averaged across all polarizations) is approximately constant for angles of incidence up to around 50°, beyond which reflectance increases rapidly.
Notes
For example, trackers that have accuracies of ± 5° can capture more than 99.6% of the energy delivered by the direct beam plus 100% of the diffuse light. As a result, high-accuracy tracking is not typically used in non-concentrating PV applications.
The purpose of a tracking mechanism is to follow the Sun as it moves across the sky. In the following sections, in which each of the main factors are described in a little more detail, the complex path of the Sun is simplified by considering its daily east-west motion separately from its yearly north-south variation with the seasons of the year.
Solar energy intercepted
The amount of solar energy available for collection from the direct beam is the amount of light intercepted by the panel. This is given by the area of the panel multiplied by the cosine of the angle of incidence of the direct beam (see illustration above). Put another way, the energy intercepted is equivalent to the area of the shadow cast by the panel onto a surface perpendicular to the direct beam.
This cosine relationship is very closely related to the observation formalized in 1760 by Lambert's cosine law. This describes that the observed brightness of an object is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of the light illuminating it.
Reflective losses
Not all of the intercepted light is transmitted into the panel; some is reflected at its surface. The amount reflected depends on both the refractive index of the surface material and the angle of incidence of the incoming light. The amount reflected also differs depending on the polarization of the incoming light. Incoming sunlight is a mixture of all polarizations, with equal amounts in direct sunlight. Averaged over all polarizations, the reflective losses are approximately constant at angles of incidence up to around 50°, beyond which they increase rapidly. See for example the accompanying graph, appropriate for glass.
Solar panels are often coated with an anti-reflective coating, which is one or more thin layers of substances with refractive indices intermediate between those of silicon and air. This causes destructive interference in the reflected light, diminishing the reflected amount. Photovoltaic manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings and with textured glass.
Daily east-west motion of the Sun
The Sun travels through 360° east to west per day, but from the perspective of any fixed location, the visible portion is 180° degrees during an average half-day period (more in summer, slightly less in spring and fall, and significantly less in winter). Local horizon effects reduce this somewhat, making the effective motion about 150°. A solar panel in a fixed orientation between the dawn and sunset extremes will see a motion of 75° to either side, and thus, according to the table above, will lose over 75% of the energy in the morning and evening. Rotating the panels to the east and west can help recapture those losses. A tracker that only attempts to compensate for the east-west movement of the Sun is known as a single-axis tracker.
Seasonal north-south motion of the Sun
Due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, the Sun also moves through 46° north and south during a year. The same set of panels set at the midpoint between the two local extremes will thus see the Sun move 23° on either side. Thus according to the above table, an optimally aligned single-axis tracker (see polar aligned tracker below) will only lose 8.3% at the summer and winter seasonal extremes, or around 5% averaged over a year. Conversely a vertically- or horizontally-aligned single-axis tracker will lose considerably more as a result of these seasonal variations in the Sun's path. For example, a vertical tracker at a site at 60° latitude will lose up to 40% of the available energy in summer, while a horizontal tracker located at 25° latitude will lose up to 33% in winter.
A tracker that accounts for both the daily and seasonal motions is known as a dual-axis tracker. Generally speaking, the losses due to seasonal angle changes are complicated by changes in the length of the day, increasing collection in the summer in northern or southern latitudes. This biases collection toward the summer, so if the panels are tilted closer to the average summer angles, the total yearly losses are reduced compared to a system tilted at the spring/fall equinox angle (which is the same as the site's latitude).
There is considerable argument within the industry about whether the small difference in yearly collection between single- and dual-axis trackers makes the added complexity of a two-axis tracker worthwhile. A recent review of actual production statistics from southern Ontario suggested the difference was about 4% in total, which was far less than the added costs of the dual-axis systems. This compares unfavorably with the 24–32% improvement between a fixed-array and single-axis tracker.
Other factors
Clouds
The above models assume uniform likelihood of cloud cover at different times of day or year. In different climate zones cloud cover can vary with seasons, affecting the averaged performance figures described above. Alternatively, for example in an area where cloud cover on average builds up during the day, there can be particular benefits in collecting morning sun.
Atmosphere
The distance that sunlight travels through the atmosphere increases as the sun approaches the horizon, as the sunlight travels diagonally through the atmosphere. As the path length through the atmosphere increases, the solar intensity reaching the collector decreases. This increasing path length is referred to as the air mass (AM) or air mass coefficient, where AM0 is at the top of the atmosphere, AM1 refers to the direct vertical path down to sea-level with Sun overhead, and AM greater than 1 refers to diagonal paths as the Sun approaches the horizon.
Even though the sun may not feel particularly hot in the early mornings or during the winter months, the diagonal path through the atmosphere has a less than expected impact on the solar intensity. Even when the sun is only 15° above the horizon the solar intensity can be around 60% of its maximum value, around 50% at 10° and 25% at only 5° above the horizon. Therefore, if trackers can follow the Sun from horizon to horizon, then their solar panels can collect a significant amount of energy.
Solar cell efficiency
The underlying power conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic cell has a major influence on the end result, regardless of whether tracking is employed.
Temperature
Photovoltaic solar cell efficiency decreases with increasing temperature, at the rate of about 0.4%/°C. For example, there is about 20% higher efficiency at 10 °C in early morning or winter than at 60 °C in the heat of the day or summer. Therefore, trackers can deliver additional benefit by collecting early morning and winter energy when the cells are operating at their highest efficiency.
Summary
Trackers for concentrating collectors must employ high-accuracy tracking so as to keep the collector at the focus point.
Trackers for non-concentrating flat-panel do not need high accuracy tracking:
low power loss: under 10% loss even at 25° misalignment
reflectance consistent even to around 50° misalignment
diffuse sunlight contributes 10% independent of orientation, and a larger proportion on cloudy days.
The benefits of tracking non-concentrating flat-panel collectors flow from the following:
power loss rises rapidly beyond about 30° misalignment
significant power is available even when the Sun is very close to the horizon, e.g. around 60% of full power at 15° above the horizon, around 50% at 10°, and even 25% at only 5° above the horizon – of particular relevance at high latitudes and/or during the winter months
photovoltaic panels are around 20% more efficient in the cool of the early mornings as compared with during the heat of the day; similarly, they are more efficient in winter than summer – and effectively capturing early morning and winter sun requires tracking.
Types of solar collector
Solar collectors may be non-concentrating flat-panels, usually photovoltaic or hot-water, or concentrating systems, of a variety of types.
Solar collector mounting systems may be fixed (manually aligned) or tracking. Different types of solar collector and their location (latitude) require different types of tracking mechanism. Tracking systems may be configured as a fixed collector / moving mirror – a Heliostat – or as a moving collector
Non-tracking fixed mount
Residential and small-capacity commercial or industrial rooftop solar panels and solar water heater panels are usually fixed, often flush-mounted on an appropriately-facing pitched roof. Advantages of fixed mounts over trackers include the following:
Mechanical Advantages: Simple to manufacture, lower installation and maintenance costs.
Wind-loading: it is easier and cheaper to provision a sturdy mount; all mounts other than fixed flush-mounted panels must be carefully designed having regard to wind loading due to greater exposure.
Indirect light: approximately 10% of the incident solar radiation is diffuse light, available at any angle of misalignment with the Sun.
Tolerance to misalignment: effective collection area for a flat panel is relatively insensitive to quite high levels of misalignment with the Sun – see the table and diagram at Basic concept section above – for example even a 25° misalignment reduces the direct solar energy collected by less than 10%.
Fixed mounts are usually used in conjunction with non-concentrating systems; however, an important class of non-tracking concentrating collectors, of particular value in the third world, are portable solar cookers. These use relatively low levels of concentration, typically around 2 to 8 Suns and are manually aligned.
Trackers
Even though a fixed flat panel can be set to collect a high proportion of available noon-time energy, significant power is also available in the early mornings and late afternoons when the misalignment with a fixed panel becomes too excessive to collect a reasonable proportion of the available energy. For example, even when the Sun is only 10° above the horizon, the available energy can be around half the noon-time energy levels (or even greater depending on latitude, season, and atmospheric conditions).
Thus the primary benefit of a tracking system is to collect solar energy for the longest period of the day, and with the most accurate alignment as the Sun's position shifts with the seasons.
In addition, the greater the level of concentration employed, the more important accurate tracking becomes, because the proportion of energy derived from direct radiation is higher, and the region where that concentrated energy is focused becomes smaller.
Fixed collector / moving mirror
Many collectors cannot be moved, such as high-temperature collectors where the energy is recovered as hot liquid or gas (e.g. steam). Other examples include direct heating and lighting of buildings and fixed in-built solar cookers, such as Scheffler reflectors. In such cases it is necessary to employ a moving mirror so that, regardless of where the Sun is positioned in the sky, the Sun's rays are redirected onto the collector.
Due to the complicated motion of the Sun across the sky, and the level of precision required to correctly aim the Sun's rays onto the target, a heliostat mirror generally employs a dual axis tracking system, with at least one axis mechanized. In different applications, mirrors may be flat or concave.
Moving collector
Trackers can be grouped into classes by the number and orientation of the tracker's axes. Compared to a fixed mount, a single-axis tracker increases annual output by approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an additional 10–20%.
Photovoltaic trackers can be classified into two types: standard photovoltaic (PV) trackers and concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) trackers. Each of these tracker types can be further categorized by the number and orientation of their axes, their actuation architecture and drive type, their intended applications, their vertical supports, and foundation.
Floating mount
Floating islands of solar panels are being installed on reservoirs and lakes in the Netherlands, China, the UK, and Japan. The sun-tracking system controlling the direction of the panels operates automatically according to the time of year, changing position by means of ropes attached to buoys.
Floating ground mount
Solar trackers can be built using a "floating" foundation, which sits on the ground without the need for invasive concrete foundations. Instead of placing the tracker on concrete foundations, the tracker is placed on a gravel pan that can be filled with a variety of materials, such as sand or gravel, to secure the tracker to the ground. These "floating" trackers can sustain the same wind load as a traditional fixed mounted tracker. The use of floating trackers increases the number of potential sites for commercial solar projects since they can be placed on top of capped landfills or in areas where excavated foundations are not feasible.
Motion-Free Optical Tracking
Solar trackers can be built without the need for mechanical tracking equipment. These are called motion-free optical tracking. Renkube pioneered a glass based design to redirect light using motion-free optical tracking technology.
Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackers
Photovoltaic panels accept both direct and diffuse light from the sky. The panels on standard photovoltaic trackers gather both the available direct and diffuse light. The tracking functionality in standard photovoltaic trackers is used to minimize the angle of incidence between incoming light and the photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of energy gathered from the direct component of the incoming sunlight.
The physics behind standard photovoltaic trackers works with all standard photovoltaic module technologies. These include all types of crystalline silicon panels (either mono-Si, or multi-Si) and all types of thin film panels (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, microcrystalline).
Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) trackers
The optics in CPV modules accept the direct component of the incoming light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to maximize the energy collected. In low-concentration applications, a portion of the diffuse light from the sky can also be captured. The tracking functionality in CPV modules is used to orient the optics such that the incoming light is focused to a photovoltaic collector.
CPV modules that concentrate in one dimension must be tracked normal to the Sun in one axis. CPV modules that concentrate in two dimensions must be tracked normal to the Sun in two axes.
Accuracy requirements
The physics behind CPV optics requires that tracking accuracy increases as the system's concentration ratio increases. However, for a given concentration, nonimaging optics provide the widest possible acceptance angles, which may be used to reduce tracking accuracy.
In typical high-concentration systems, tracking accuracy must be in the ± 0.1° range to deliver approximately 90% of the rated power output. In low concentration systems, tracking accuracy must be in the ± 2.0° range to deliver 90% of the rated power output. As a result, high-accuracy tracking systems are typical.
Technologies supported
Concentrated photovoltaic trackers are used with refractive and reflective concentrator systems. There are a range of emerging photovoltaic cell technologies used in these systems. These range from conventional, crystalline-silicon-based photovoltaic receivers to germanium-based triple junction receivers.
Single-axis trackers
Single-axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation of single-axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms. There are several common implementations of single-axis trackers. These include horizontal single-axis trackers (HSAT), horizontal single-axis tracker with tilted modules (HTSAT), vertical single-axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single-axis trackers (TSAT), and polar-aligned single-axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance.
Horizontal
Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT)
The axis of rotation for a horizontal single-axis tracker is horizontal with respect to the ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal single-axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost. This type of solar tracker is most appropriate for low-latitude regions. Field layouts with horizontal single-axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping all of the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Appropriate spacing can maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, with this being dependent upon local terrain and shading conditions and the time-of-day value of the energy produced. Backtracking is one means of computing the disposition of panels. Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. In single-axis horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north-south line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the Sun through the day.
Horizontal single-axis tracker with tilted modules (HTSAT)
In HSATs, the modules are mounted flat at 0°, while in HTSATs, the modules are installed at a certain tilt. It works on the same principle as HSAT, keeping the axis of tube horizontal in north-south line and rotates the solar modules from east to west throughout the day. These trackers are usually suitable in high-latitude locations but do not take as much land space as vertical single-axis trackers (VSATs). Therefore, it brings the advantages of VSATs in a horizontal tracker and minimizes the overall cost of solar project.
Vertical
Vertical single-axis tracker (VSAT)
The axis of rotation for vertical single-axis trackers is vertical with respect to the ground. These trackers rotate from east to west over the course of the day. Such trackers are more effective at high latitudes than horizontal single-axis trackers are. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize land use. Als, optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of the shading over the course of a year. Vertical single-axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
Tilted
Tilted single-axis tracker (TSAT)
All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted single-axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease the elevated end height. With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axes of rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axes of rotation is limited by the tilt angle and the latitude. Tilted single-axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.
Dual-axis trackers
Dual-axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary axis. There are several common implementations of dual-axis trackers. They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two common implementations are tip-tilt dual-axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-altitude dual-axis trackers (AADAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual-axis trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation. Dual-axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the Sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the Sun is in the sky, dual-axis trackers are able to angle themselves to point directly at the Sun.
Tip-tilt
A tip-tilt dual-axis tracker (TTDAT) is so named because the panel array is mounted on the top of a pole. Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the array around the top of the pole. On top of the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array. The posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a tip-tilt dual axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower installation costs.
Other such TTDAT trackers have a horizontal primary axis and a dependent orthogonal axis. The vertical azimuthal axis is fixed. This allows for great flexibility of the payload connection to the ground mounted equipment because there is no twisting of the cabling around the pole.
Field layouts with tip-tilt dual-axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally the trackers would have to be positioned at fairly low density to avoid one tracker casting a shadow on others when the Sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for this by tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-Sun shading and therefore maximize the total power being collected.
The axes of rotation of many tip-tilt dual-axis trackers are typically aligned either along a true north meridian or an east-west line of latitude.
Given the unique capabilities of the tip-tilt configuration and the appropriate controller, totally-automatic tracking is possible for use on portable platforms. The orientation of the tracker is of no importance and can be placed as needed.
Azimuth-altitude
An azimuth-altitude (or alt-azimuth) dual axis tracker (AADAT) has its primary axis (the azimuth axis) vertical to the ground. The secondary axis, often called elevation axis, is then typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of the pole, AADAT systems can use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a series of rollers. The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of the array is distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. Unlike the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the diameter of the ring, which may reduce the system density, especially considering inter-tracker shading.
Construction and (Self-)Build
As described later, the economic balance between the costs of panels and trackers. The steep drop in cost for solar panels in the early 2010s made it more challenging to find a sensible solution. As can be seen in the attached media files, most constructions use industrial and/or heavy materials unsuitable for small or craft workshops. Even commercial offers may have rather unsuitable solutions (a big rock) for stabilization. For a small (amateur/enthusiast) construction, the criteria that must be met include economy, stability of end product against elemental hazards, ease of handling materials, and joinery.
Tracker type selection
The selection of tracker type is dependent on many factors including installation size, electric rates, government incentives, land constraints, latitude, and local weather.
Horizontal single-axis trackers are typically used for large distributed generation projects and utility scale projects. The combination of energy improvement, lower product cost, and lower installation complexity results in compelling economics in large deployments. In addition, the strong afternoon performance is particularly desirable for large grid-tied photovoltaic systems so that production will match the peak demand time. Horizontal single-axis trackers also add a substantial amount of productivity during the spring and summer seasons when the Sun is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of their supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also result in high reliability which keeps maintenance costs low. Since the panels are horizontal, they can be compactly placed on the axle tube without danger of self-shading and are also readily accessible for cleaning.
A vertical-axis tracker pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonally) adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the Sun traveling through a long arc.
Dual-axis trackers are typically used in smaller residential installations and locations with very high government feed in tariffs.
Multi-mirror concentrating PV
This device uses multiple mirrors in a horizontal plane to reflect sunlight upward to a high-temperature system requiring concentrated solar power. Structural problems and expense are greatly reduced since the mirrors are not significantly exposed to wind loads. Through the employment of a patented mechanism, only two drive systems are required for each device. Because of the configuration of the device, it is especially suited for use on flat roofs and at lower latitudes. The units illustrated each produce approximately 200 peak DC watts.
A multiple-mirror reflective system combined with a central power tower was employed at the Sierra SunTower, located in Lancaster, California. This generation plant, operated by eSolar, operated from 2009 to 2014. This system, which used multiple heliostats in a north-south alignment, used pre-fabricated parts and construction as a way of decreasing startup and operating costs.
Drive types
Active tracker
Active trackers use motors and gear trains to perform solar tracking. They can use microprocessors and sensors, date-and-time-based algorithms, or a combination of both to detect the position of the sun. To control and manage the movement of these massive structures, special slewing drives are designed and rigorously tested. The technologies used to direct the tracker are constantly evolving and recent developments at Google and Eternegy have included the use of wire-ropes and winches to replace some of the more costly and more fragile components.
Counter-rotating slewing drives sandwiching a fixed-angle support can be applied to create a "multi-axis" tracking method which eliminates rotation relative to longitudinal alignment. This method, if placed on a column or pillar, will generate more electricity than fixed PV, and its PV array will never rotate into a parking lot drive lane. It will also allow for maximum solar generation in virtually any parking lot lane/row orientation, including circular or curvilinear.
Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats – movable mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power station. As each mirror in a large field will have an individual orientation, these are controlled programmatically through a central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary.
Light-sensing trackers typically have two or more photosensors, such as photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be omnidirectional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will cause the steepest part of their cosine transfer functions to balance at the steepest part, which translates into maximum sensitivity. For more information about controllers, see active daylighting.
Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary. So instead of a continuous motion, the heliostat is moved in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some threshold, there would not be enough power generated to warrant reorientation. This is also true when there is not enough difference in light level from one direction to another, such as when clouds are passing overhead. Consideration must be made to keep the tracker from wasting energy during cloudy periods.
Passive tracker
The most common Passive trackers use a low-boiling-point compressed gas that is driven to one side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is an imprecise orientation, it is unsuitable for certain types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the Sun, which can take some hours, depending on shading conditions. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tiedown that positions the panel slightly past the zenith (so that the fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tiedown in the evening. (A slack-pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.)
A newly emerging type of passive tracker for photovoltaic solar panels uses a hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells so that sunlight passes through the transparent part of the module and reflects on the hologram. This allows sunlight to hit the cell from behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the panel does not have to move since the hologram always reflects sunlight from the correct angle towards the cells.
Manual tracking
In some developing nations, drives have been replaced by operators who adjust the trackers. This has the benefits of robustness, having staff available for maintenance, and creating employment for the population in the vicinity of the site.
Rotating buildings
In Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, Rolf Disch built the Heliotrop in 1996, a residential building that is rotating with the sun and has an additional dual-axis photovoltaic sail on the roof. It produces four times the amount of energy the building consumes.
The Gemini house is a unique example of a vertical axis tracker. This cylindrical house in Austria (latitude above 45 degrees north) rotates in its entirety to track the Sun, with vertical solar panels mounted on one side of the building, rotating independently, allowing control of the natural heating from the Sun.
ReVolt House is a rotating, floating house designed by TU Delft students for the Solar Decathlon Europe competition in Madrid. The house was completed in September 2012. An opaque façade turns itself towards the Sun in summer to prevent the interior from heating up. In winter, a glass façade faces the Sun for passive solar heating of the house. Since the house is floating frictionlessly on water, rotating it does not require much energy.
Disadvantages
Trackers add cost and maintenance to the system – if they add 25% to the cost, and improve the output by 25%, then the same performance can be obtained by making the system 25% larger, eliminating the additional maintenance. Tracking was very cost effective in the past when photovoltaic modules were expensive compared to today. Because they were expensive, it was important to use tracking to minimize the number of panels used in a system with a given power output. But as panels get cheaper, the cost effectiveness of tracking vs using a greater number of panels decreases. However, in off-grid installations where batteries store power for overnight use, a tracking system reduces the hours that stored energy is used, thus requiring less battery capacity. As the batteries themselves are expensive (either traditional lead acid stationary cells or newer lithium ion batteries), their cost needs to be included in the cost analysis.
Tracking is also not suitable for typical residential rooftop photovoltaic installations. Since tracking requires that panels tilt or otherwise move, provisions must be made to allow this. This requires that panels be offset a significant distance from the roof, which requires expensive racking and increases wind load. Also, such a setup would not make for an aesthetically pleasing install on residential rooftops. Because of this (and the high cost of such a system), tracking is not used on residential rooftop installations, and is unlikely to ever be used in such installations. This is especially true as the cost of photovoltaic modules continues to decrease, which makes increasing the number of modules for more power the more cost-effective option. Tracking can (and sometimes is) used for residential ground mount installations, where greater freedom of movement is possible.
Tracking can also cause shading problems. As the panels move during the course of the day, it is possible that, if the panels are located too close to one another, they may shade one another due to profile angle effects. As an example, if one has several panels in a row from east to west, there will be no shading during solar noon, but in the afternoon, panels could be shaded by their west neighboring panel if they are sufficiently close. This means that panels must be spaced sufficiently far to prevent shading in systems with tracking, which can reduce the available power from a given area during the peak Sun hours. This is not a big problem if there is sufficient land area to widely space the panels. But it will reduce output during certain hours of the day (i.e. around solar noon) compared to a fixed array. Optimizing this problem with math is called backtracking.
Further, single-axis tracking systems are prone to becoming unstable at relatively modest wind speeds (galloping). This is due to the torsional instability of single-axis solar tracking systems. Anti-galloping measures such as automatic stowing and external dampers must be implemented.
See also
Air mass coefficient
Heliostat
Solar energy
Sun path
References
Solar energy
Tracking
Photovoltaics |
4232959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsmill%2C%20Virginia | Kingsmill, Virginia | Kingsmill is a geographic area in James City County, Virginia, that includes a large planned residential community, a resort complex, a theme park, a brewery, and a commercial park.
The Kingsmill area is between the north bank of the James River just east (downstream) of the site where the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown was established in 1607 and Interstate Highway 64. Highway access to most of the area's businesses and attractions is from U.S. Route 60 between the eastern city limits of Williamsburg and the adjacent community of Grove, or from Virginia State Route 199, which forms a semi-circular beltway of sorts around Williamsburg's southern side.
History
Kingsmill Plantation
A prominent member of the Virginia Company, Richard Kingsmill, became the namesake of the Kingsmill Plantation. The Virginia Company was a for-profit organization chartered in England which was charged with the founding and settlement of Virginia under the reign of King James I. Richard Kingsmill was given one of the first land grants of in the southwest area of what later became a much larger plantation. Elizabeth Kingsmill married Col William Tayloe and he inherited the land from her father. After his death in 1655, the administrator for his estate Col William Tayloe sold 1,200 acres to Lewis Burwell II in 1693. In the mid-1730s, British Colonel Lewis Burwell III established a plantation which he named Kingsmill Plantation. It included a mansion, outbuildings and garden. He was the colonial customs inspector for the upper James River. Along the river, Burwell's Landing, site of his inspection station, also featured a tavern, storehouse, warehouse, and ferry house. Quarterpath Road extended between Burwell's Landing and Williamsburg.
The Kingsmill area saw action during the American Revolutionary War. The house burned in 1843. Only the office and the kitchen still stand; they are among the earliest brick dependencies still extant in Virginia.
American Civil War
Action during the American Civil War (1861–65) also skirted Kingsmill Plantation lands. In 1862, Union troops under Major General George B. McClellan engaged in a failed attempt to seize the Confederate capital of Richmond. Slowly and carefully, much to the frustration of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, McClellan assembled huge naval forces and a massive siege train of land-based troops, arms and supplies around a staging area based at the union stronghold of Fort Monroe at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula, where the harbor of Hampton Roads had been under federal control via siege for about a year already.
Forces under McClellan for what has become known as the Peninsula Campaign dwarfed all previous American expeditions at the time, transporting 121,500 men, 44 artillery batteries, 1,150 wagons, over 15,000 horses, and tons of equipment and supplies. An English observer remarked that it was the "stride of a giant."
McClellan's plan initially was to utilize the James and York rivers, especially the former, which was known to be navigable to Richmond, in combination with his land-based forces, to attack simultaneously and overwhelm the unknown resources of the rebels at Richmond. However, even as several months were spent through the winter of 1862 training new troops and bringing these many Union assets into position, the portion of the scheme which depended upon control of the James River ran into trouble. In March, the Battle of Hampton Roads between the first ironclad warships took place. Although the conflict between the two ships was inconclusive, the new technologies were to change naval warfare dramatically, and control of the harbor of Hampton Roads was brought into serious question.
Although the Union never lost control of the entrance to the harbor, and was able to retake Norfolk and Norfolk Naval Shipyard at Portsmouth shortly thereafter, Union ships were unable to move past heavily defended Drewry's Bluff east of Richmond along the James River. It appeared unlikely that situation would improve. McClellan realized that his plan to take Richmond would almost certainly depend upon his land forces alone.
In early April 1862, McClellan's massive siege train began moving cautiously westerly up the Peninsula toward the Confederate citadel. Throughout the campaign, McClellan was convinced (erroneously) that he was facing much larger opposing forces than he was. At times, he even estimated these forces to greatly outnumber his own, frequently and bitterly complaining to Lincoln (his Commander-in-Chief), who had withheld from McClellan a much smaller force of federal troops to maintain a defensive position around Washington, D.C.
The Confederate strategy of the early portion of the Peninsula Campaign became one of delays, providing vital time for defenses to be built outside Richmond. The advancing Union forces were confronted with a series of three defensive lines erected across the Peninsula, which were manned primarily by greatly outnumbered forces led by General John B. Magruder. The first, about north of Fort Monroe, contained infantry outposts and artillery redoubts, but was insufficiently manned to prevent any Union advance. Its primary purpose was to prevent the Union from learning much about the second line. Known as the Warwick Line, this second, and by far largest of the three defensive lines, was about a dozen miles east of Williamsburg, along the Warwick River. It was anchored by Yorktown on the north and Mulberry Island on the south. It consisted of redoubts, rifle pits, and fortifications behind the Warwick River. By enlarging two dams on the river, the Confederates developed the river as a significant military obstacle in its own right. The third defensive line was a series of forts just east of Williamsburg, which waited unmanned for use by the army if it had to fall back from Yorktown.
Although greatly outnumbered, defenders along the first and second lines under former thespian "Prince" John Magruder took advantage of the poor visibility due to the seasonally heavy undergrowth of the naturally-wooded and swampy terrain. They used elaborate ruse tactics and guerrilla raids to intimidate McClellan and his leaders into thinking they were facing far larger forces, which increased their caution and greatly slowed their progress westward. Stephen Sears, the author of the To The Gates of Richmond, described Magruder's having his troops march back and forth behind the lines with great fanfare to appear to be a larger force, as "performances of the Prince John Players." Magruder's efforts appeared successful, as the ever-cautious McClellan moved very slowly with his forces. These were substantially larger than those of the Confederate defenders, even when the latter were reinforced by the arrival of the Army of Northern Virginia under General Joseph E. Johnston. Meanwhile, the Confederates built their long defensive line outside Richmond.
While there were several armed conflicts with loss of life, after finally overtaking the first line and meeting minimal resistance, McClellan chose to carefully amass his troops and plan a major offensive, taking the better part of 30 days to do so. He had huge cannons brought up the York River by ship and installed in a position favorable for his planned assault of Yorktown. The night before McClellan was finally positioned to launch his major offensive against Warwick Line, the Confederate troops quietly withdrew and retreated toward Richmond via Williamsburg. Discovering only empty works and Quaker gun in the abandoned fortifications on May 3, McClellan sent his cavalry racing after the escaping Confederates. He also loaded a division of infantry aboard ships to sail up the York River to the west in an attempt to outflank the Confederates' apparent retreat toward Richmond.
Only two roads led from the abandoned Warwick Line to be used by the massive equipment and numerous troops of the Union siege train in pursuing the fleeing Confederates, who had a head start. These were the Williamsburg-Yorktown Road and the Williamsburg-Lee's Mill Road. They converged about east of Williamsburg. The weather had been rainy, and both armies slogged along the dirt roads of the sandy terrain. These undoubtedly became deeper in mud and more difficult to traverse.
The Williamsburg Line was the third line of defensive fortifications across the Peninsula. It was anchored by College Creek, a tributary of the James River, on the south and Queen's Creek, a tributary of the York River on the north. Under the leadership of local planter Benjamin S. Ewell, president of the College of William and Mary, a series of 14 redoubts were built along the line. Named Fort Magruder, Redoubt Number 6, was the center of the convergence of the roads from Yorktown and Lee's Mill. It was shaped as an elongated pentagon, with walls high and nine feet thick. The earthworks were protected by a dry moat nine feet deep. It mounted eight guns. Several of the redoubts were just east of the Quarterpath Road, which lead from Williamsburg to the landing for Kingsmill Plantation on the James River.
Despite the significant head start of the southern forces, cavalry forces from each side met, and began skirmishing on May 4. Union General George Stoneman's cavalry encountered and began skirmishing with Brig. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry, the Confederate's rearguard. Learning of this, and frustrated by the slow progress of his own forces which were passing through Williamsburg, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston detached a portion of his troops to confront the advancing Union troops. On May 5, 1862, the single-day Battle of Williamsburg took place. During the day, several groups of Union troops battled with Confederates near the Williamsburg line, with much of the action at or near Fort Magruder. Confederate casualties, including the cavalry skirmishing on May 4, were 1,682. Union casualties were 2,283.
Although McClellan claimed a Union victory in his reports, and he took the Williamsburg Line within slightly more than 24 hours, most historians rate the Battle of Williamsburg as a Confederate victory. The Williamsburg Line had served its intended purpose. The primary goal of the defenders had been to enable the retreat of the main Confederate force to the defenses of Richmond, and this was accomplished.
Those Union forces sent up the York River by McClellan met limited success in stopping fleeing rebels. Their conflict on May 7 became known as the Battle of Eltham's Landing. That conflict in New Kent County was little more than a heavy skirmish, resulting in 194 Union casualties and 48 Confederate. The remaining battles of McClellan's campaign were fought either outside the gates of Richmond or during his later retreat to the protection of the Union Navy at Harrison's Landing (better known in modern times as Berkley Plantation).
In the areas along the Williamsburg Line, including the Quarterpath Road north of modern-day Virginia State Route 199 and along U.S. Route 60, portions of the redoubts were preserved. This includes the core of Fort Magruder (in James City County on today's Penniman Road). Several additional preserved redoubts remain along the Colonial Parkway north of Fort Magruder.
Williamsburg: the closest center of commerce
Located along a ridge of higher ground along the Virginia Peninsula midway between the York and James rivers, Williamsburg had been established in the early 17th century as a fortified settlement known as Middle Plantation. During the American Revolutionary War, under the leadership of Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson, the capital of Virginia was relocated many miles inland to Richmond, at the fall line on the James River.
Although the Quarterpath Road led to the James River at Burwell's Landing, (as did the old Jamestown Road), to reach the landings and the river were significant distances in the era before railroads or motor vehicles. Also, in differing directions by land from Williamsburg, and at a shorter distance, persons could get to other landings on the College Creek or Queen's Creek, which led to the very navigable portions of the James and York rivers, respectively. The distances to navigable water from Williamsburg were obstacles that inhibited trade and put the town into lesser position compared to communities with better water access.
An early plan to establish a relatively short canal to enable shipping to Williamsburg from either or both of the navigable waterways a dozen or less miles nearby was initiated. Some construction was undertaken, but was never completed. The proposed canal instead became a little-known footnote in Williamsburg's history.
As the town did not have ready access to a major waterway nor transportation pathway, throughout the formative years of the United States, Williamsburg did not develop as a major center of commerce of any great significance. For at least 140 years after 1781, Williamsburg was best known as the home of the often struggling College of William and Mary (established by Royal Charter by England's only joint monarchy in 1693). It also had the first mental asylum in what became the United States, a pioneering institution which modern successor became known as Eastern State Hospital. Williamsburg seemed somewhat forgotten and "passed by," and was the subject of occasional humor along those lines. On June 26, 1912, the Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper ran an editorial which dubbed the town 'Lotusburg' for "Tuesday was election day in Williamsburg but nobody remembered it. The clerk forgot to wake the electoral board, the electoral board could not arouse itself long enough to have the ballots printed, the candidates forgot they were running, the voters forgot they were alive."
In the early 1880s, through the vision and efforts of railroad builder and industrialist Collis P. Huntington and his associates, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) had been extended from Richmond through Williamsburg to reach Newport News Point, at the confluence of the James and the Elizabeth rivers in Warwick County, where coal shipping facilities were established. Soon, a town quickly developed as the City of Newport News in 1896. A great shipyard, which became Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company was also established there.
The railroad had been built primarily as a transportation line to enable shipping of bituminous coal from the rich coalfields of southwestern Virginia and southern West Virginia. But it also connected Williamsburg, as well as James City and Warwick counties, with the expanding transcontinental railroads of the country. Passenger and freight services were provided, and stations were built along the line, including one at Grove Station, a few miles north and east of Kingsmill near the adjacent Carter's Grove Plantation at Grove, Virginia.
Carter's Grove Plantation and Carter's Grove Wharf were the next major feature immediately east of Kinsgmill along the north bank of the James River. Carter's Grove was still an active plantation in the early 20th century, but the Kingsmill Plantation and surrounding properties had fallen into ruins and disuse. With much of it primarily both wooded and hilly, the land at Kingsmill was not particularly well-suited to agriculture. It stood largely vacant and unused as major changes began at Williamsburg and the nearby region beginning in 1926.
Colonial Williamsburg
In the first half of the 20th century, much of the property in the area of the old Kingsmill Plantation was acquired by Standard Oil heir John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his associates and by Colonial Williamsburg.
Championed initially by the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin, who was affiliated with both Bruton Parish Church (which he helped restore in 1907 in time for the Jamestown Exposition), and working with the College of William and Mary's president at the time, J.A.C. Chandler, the Colonial Williamsburg project was funded and endowed by John D. Rockefeller Jr., along with his wife, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. The Rockefellers officially developed Colonial Williamsburg to celebrate the patriots and the early history of the United States. Many of the missing Colonial structures were reconstructed on their original sites during the 1930s. Others were restored to estimates of 18th-century appearance, with traces of later buildings and improvements removed. Dependency structures and animals add to the ambiance. Most buildings are open for tourists, with the exception of buildings serving as residences for Colonial Williamsburg employees.
Notable structures include the Capitol and the Governor's Palace, each recreated and landscaped as to what is known of their late 18th-century condition, as well as Bruton Parish Church and the Raleigh Tavern. The Wren Building on the campus of William and Mary was one of the first buildings to be restored.
The Rockefellers had many homes in New York and Maine. However, it was not long before the couple came to regard Williamsburg as their favorite and the town as one in which they felt "at home" according to statements to that effect made by their children and grandchildren. This is also evidenced by many of their actions as well as those of their family and other members of the patriarch of the Rockefeller family who have continued the sentiment. Their love and concern for the citizenry of the area may be shown in many ways which extend beyond the principal missions and direct accomplishments of Colonial Williamsburg.
Notable among these was Abby's efforts to facilitate educational opportunities for persons of African-American heritage during a very difficult period for such efforts in Virginia, notably her role with the establishment of the Bruton Heights School complex, which went far to equalize educational opportunities for blacks in the Greater Williamsburg community many years before judicial rulings and governmental mandates brought similar efforts elsewhere.
At the urging of Dr. Goodwin, John and Abby Rockefeller made their home at Bassett Hall, between the northern end of the historic Quarterpath Road and the southeastern edge of the Historic District. Their funds helped acquire vast tracts of land throughout the area, including property which extended east to include the old Kingsmill Plantation. It has been said that they had dreams of acquiring one of the old working James River plantations still extant in their lifetimes, but that goal eluded them.
In the late 1920s Rockefeller had attempted to acquire Shirley, long the seat of the Carter family, halfway between Richmond and Williamsburg, that he felt was the ideal plantation with which to supplement the historical messages of the colonial capital he was restoring. Though its owners were much reduced in circumstances, the plantation wasn't for sale. The Carters did, however, agree, in 1928, to sell a Charles Willson Peale portrait of General Washington that they owned to Rockefeller for the sum of $75,000 (equal to approximately $1 million in 2015).
After Abby and John D. Rockefeller Jr. had each died, beginning in the 1960s, their son Winthrop Rockefeller served as chairman of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. He was also governor of the state of Arkansas. During his dual tenures, he became aware of an opportunity to acquire Carter's Grove Plantation, adjacent to Colonial Williamsburg's extensive holdings near the old Kingsmill Plantation lands, and still extant as both a home and working farm. Also established by a Burwell (in 1755), Carter's Grove had most recently been owned since 1928 by Pittsburgh industrialist Archibald McCrea and his wife Mary "Mollie" Corling (Johnston) Dunlop McCrea, originally of Petersburg. It was purchased from her estate by an arm of the Rockefeller Foundation and eventually transferred to the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. For many years during Winthrop's tenure, Carter's Grove was used to host dignitaries visiting Colonial Williamsburg, as well as enable archaeological research as well as host some public presentations for Colonial Williamsburg patrons.
Additionally, while serving as both Governor of Arkansas and chairman of Colonial Williamsburg, Winthrop learned that Anheuser-Busch head August Busch, II was considering establishing a brewery and possibly other developmental investments in eastern Virginia. While the details are unknown publicly, he and Busch apparently collaborated on a deal which resulted in the brewing conglomerate's development of diversified activities in the Williamsburg area, which grew to include not only the brewery, but the Busch Gardens Williamsburg theme park, and Kingsmill Resort, the Kingsmill on the James residential planned community, and several large commercial parks. To help negotiate the deal, the land which had once been Kingsmill Plantation was made available for purchase. Along with the later acquisition of smaller nearby water park, the A-B developments this fostered in the Williamsburg community generated thousands of new jobs and millions of dollars of new tax revenues.
Both Winthrop Rockefeller, who died in 1973, and August Busch II, who died in 1989 have been credited by some historians with helping develop the Greater Williamsburg area into one of the top tourism destinations in the world. They apparently felt that augmenting the attractions of the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia (Jamestown, Colonial Williamsburg, and Yorktown) with other attractions would help draw future families to the region, as well as help balance out the local economy, stimulate the hospitality industry (restaurants and lodging), and add employment opportunities.
Due to operational logistics, Carter's Grove Plantation was eventually sold (with restrictive covenants regarding use and future development) by Colonial Williamsburg. The global economy also eventually resulted in A-B setting out to divest its theme parks, the resort and other developments to new ownership.
21st century: Kingsmill area
As of 2013, Colonial Williamsburg and the developments initiated by the Rockefellers and Busch family, continued to provide Williamsburg, James City County, and much of the surrounding area with a substantial base of employment and economic activity.
Major Kingsmill area developments include:
Busch Gardens Williamsburg theme park
Quarterland Commons Commercial Park
Kingsmill Resort golf resort
Kingsmill on the James planned community (Notable and/or notorious residents have included Curtis Strange, Donald Regan, Marv Levy, and John W. Hinckley Jr.)
References
External links
Kingsmill Plantation, Dependencies, Kingsmill Pond vicinity, Williamsburg, Williamsburg, VA: 2 photos, 7 measured drawings, and 3 data pages at Historic American Buildings Survey
Geography of James City County, Virginia
Burwell family of Virginia |
4232968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel-Dieu%2C%20Paris | Hôtel-Dieu, Paris | The Hôtel-Dieu (; "God Shelter") is a public hospital located on the Île de la Cité in the 4th arrondissement of Paris, on the parvis of Notre-Dame. Tradition has it that the hospital was founded by Saint Landry in 651 AD, but the first official records date it to 829, making it the oldest in France and possibly the oldest continuously operating hospital in the world. The Hôtel-Dieu was the only hospital in the city until the beginning of the 17th century.
The original Hôtel-Dieu stood on the banks of the Seine on the southern side of the Île de la Cité. It was ravaged by fire several times and was rebuilt for the last time at its present location on the north side of the parvis of Notre Dame between 1867 and 1878, as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris.
Nowadays operated by Assistance publique – Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), the Hôtel-Dieu is a teaching hospital associated with the Faculté de Médecine Paris-Descartes.
History
Overview
Originally, the Hôtel-Dieu admitted a wide range of people: not only the sick and injured, but also needy travellers and pilgrims, and indigents. Run by the Catholic Church for many centuries, the hospital's original mission was to provide "Christian charity dedicated to the shelter, spiritual comfort and treatment of the ailing poor.":44 An 18th century essayist, Louis Rondonneau de la Motte, wrote in his Essai Historique sur l'Hôtel-Dieu (1787): "the citizen and the foreigner, the Christian and the Turk, the Jew and the Idolater are all equally welcome."
This broad, charitable mission was to dominate until the end of the Ancien Régime. By 1789, the Age of Enlightenment -- with its focus on the pursuit of knowledge via reason and evidence and on ideals such as progress, fraternity, and government dedicated to the well-being of the people -- had left its mark on the agenda for hospital reform. This ushered in a more scientific approach to hospital design that was to influence medical practice and management for more than a century. During this process, the role of the Catholic Church was diminished and then eliminated and the Hôtel-Dieu became a publicly run institution.
Middle Ages
Although tradition dates the founding of the Hôtel-Dieu back to Saint Landry, 28th bishop of Paris around 650, the first official records of an institution whose mission was to care for the destitute, infirm and sick date to 829. In 1157, letters patent mention a "Hôtel-Dieu-Saint-Christophe", referring to a chapel dedicated to this saint. Shortly thereafter, in 1165, Maurice de Sully, bishop of Paris, undertook the reconstruction of this hospital: the old buildings were destroyed in 1195 and the new constructions were completed in 1255. At that time, the buildings of the Hotel Dieu occupied the south side of the Ile de la Cité near Notre Dame.
In its first several hundred years, the Hôtel-Dieu functioned as a general purpose charitable institution operated by religious orders — it offered food and shelter in addition to medical care to needy people. This mixed social mission characterised its services for many centuries and was imitated by many other cities (for example, the Hôtel-Dieu de Beaune, founded in 1443).. However, by the 16th century, admission to the hospital was available only to the sick and injured and to pregnant women.
From the time of Louis IX onwards, the Hôtel-Dieu often housed more patients than it was designed to hold, leading to serious problems of overcrowding that would hamper the effectiveness of the hospital for centuries. From the 15th to the 16th centuries, it went from 303 beds to about 500, but the number of patients would regularly hover around 700 and would often exceed 1500 during times of conflict, food shortages or epidemics. It is estimated that the number of admissions was 25,000 per year during the 16th century.
Conditions in the hospital were in many cases deplorable, especially toward the end of the Middle Ages when the growth of Paris’ poor population outstripped the hospital's capacity. Its vast halls held 80 to 100 beds apiece. Although the halls for the most part had fireplaces or stoves, they were almost impossible to light. At one point, beds which had a width of 1.3 metres, were meant to hold 2 or 3 patients each; arranged heel to head. Later, beds meant for one or two patients were installed, but these often had to accommodate more patients than intended. For much of the Middle Ages, there was no surgical ward and surgical operations were performed in the patient’s bed, with fellow patients and bedmates as onlookers. An incomplete but emerging understanding of contagion gave rise to rules for isolating patients with contagious diseases, but it was often impossible to apply these rules in practice. The question of how much patients were given to eat was also an issue due to lack of funds, though people of the time understood that an appropriate diet would improve health outcomes.
By the end of the Middle Ages, only people who could not afford other sources of care would go to the Hôtel-Dieu. But because of the masses of destitute people in the Paris area at the time, there was no shortage of patients. As a result of high demand and finite resources, the Hôtel-Dieu eventually faced a financial crisis. This brought about the first step in the laicization of the hospital, the creation in 1505 of a council of lay governors: the Presidents of Parliament, the Chambre des Comptes, the Cour des Aides and the Prévôt des Marchands.
17th century
Poverty continued to be widespread during the17th century, and the Hôtel-Dieu offered an opportunity for many of the bourgeois and nobility to come to the aid of the poor. Nevertheless, conditions in the hospital remained horrendous and overcrowding continued to be a problem, with daily patient numbers ranging from 2000 to 4000. Hundreds of hospital staff were also lodged there.
Although the Hôtel-Dieu was a large hospital, poverty, conflict and disease engendered high demand for its services. During the Fronde, patient admissions were so high that the canopies of the beds were used for the most valid patients, allowing as many as 14 patients to be placed in a single bed. Numerous episodes of the plague carried away thousands of patients and hospital workers, including 17 Sisters of Saint Augustine, the order of nuns charged with patient care at the Hôtel-Dieu. Later in the century, hospital-derived scurvy, which was thought to be a communicable disease at the time, killed as many as 97% of the patients suffering from it. In 1670 alone, 250 patients suffered from scurvy.
The serious problems of overcrowding were recognised at the time and steps were taken to address them. In 1602, Marie de' Medici, second wife of Henry IV, brought five brothers of the Congregation of Saint-Jean-de-Dieu to found the Hôpital de la Charité. Shortly thereafter, Henry IV founded the Hôpital Saint-Louis to unclog the Hôtel-Dieu during the plague epidemic in 1605-1606.
The Hôtel-Dieu enjoyed some tax privileges. On August 5, 1626, it was authorized to build, at its own expense, a stone bridge over the southern arm of the Seine, upstream from the Petit-Pont. Hospital wards were built on top of the bridge. A decree of the Council of State of April 24, 1634 created a toll of a double denier for each man on foot, with revenues going to the hospital. This toll gave the bridge its name — the Pont au Double — and it survived until 1789. The hospital wards surmounting the bridge were a major source of pollution in the Seine.
Hospitals took the name of "Hôpital Général" (General hospital) or "Hôpital d'enfermement" (Asylum), of which the Hôtel-Dieu was one. The centralized approach to extreme poverty in France was based on the premise that medical care was a right for those without family or income, and formalized the admission process to attempt to mitigate overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. The Lieutenant Général de Police became a member of the Bureau de l’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris (Bureau for the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris) in 1690.
18th century
The problem of overcrowding continued into the 18th century. Although almost 50 hospitals and similar institutions were operating in Paris by the second half of the century, demand outpaced the supply of medical services, largely because of very rapid growth of both population and poverty. According to a census of 1791, Paris had a population of 118,884 indigents out of a total population of 650,000.
The Hôtel-Dieu's bad reputation
As always, overcrowding was accompanied by poor outcomes — including hospital-derived infections and high mortality rates. The hospital statistics developed later suggest that the Hôtel-Dieu's record was worse than that of other Parisian institutions. In his Encyclopédie of 1765, Denis Diderot stated that the Hôtel-Dieu was "the largest, the most numerous, the richest and the most dreadful of any of our hospitals." Similarly, Jacques Tenon, a influential anatomist and surgeon, stated in his Mémoires sur les hôpitaux de Paris (1788) that the Hôtel-Dieu was "the most unhealthy and uncomfortable of all hospitals", with a mortality rate of almost 25 percent, which, he noted, was much higher than the rates of other Parisian hospitals.
The Hôtel-Dieu continued to be a place that only patients who could not afford something better would go to. Its 1,200 beds were completely inadequate for housing its daily average of 3,500 patients. Women gave birth in shared beds and the average maternity stay was 35 days, mainly because of the time needed to recover from infections contracted in the maternity wars, including epidemics of puerperal fever. In-hospital epidemics of typhus and smallpox were also common. As in earlier centuries, there was insufficient effective separation of patients with communicable diseases, though the hospital was divided into wards.
Official enquiry is launched
Two serious fires occurred in 1737 and 1772. The 1772 fire destroyed a large part of the Hôtel-Dieu and killed many patients. Public outrage at the loss of life amplified ongoing public debate about what was to be done with the hospital, a debate that naturally evolved into broader discussions of possible reforms to Paris' hospital system. Louis XV ordered the demolition of the Hôtel-Dieu in 1773 after hearing of its poor patient conditions. However, the execution of the order was delayed due to the King's death.
In 1785, the project of the architect Bernard Poyet (1742-1824) was presented in a memoir entitled "On the need to transfer and rebuild the Hôtel-Dieu." Poyet proposed to build a circular hospital on an island on the Seine. Its exterior was to be a replica of the Colosseum in Rome and it was to house over 5,000 beds and an efficient system of air circulation (constant renewal of the air).
The Baron de Breteuil (1730-1807), acting for Louis XVI, instructed the Royal Academy of Sciences to evaluate the Poyet project. For this purpose, a hospital commission of 9 members was established. Members included Jacques Tenon (1724-1816) as well as other renowned scientists such as Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743–1794), Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806), and Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827).
The ensuing analysis of the Hôtel-Dieu and other Parisian hospitals was transformed into a productive discussion about broader reform of Paris's hospital system. The commission published three consecutive reports. The 1786 report concluded that the situation of the Hôtel-Dieu was irremediable and that the hospital should be moved outside of Paris. The 1787 report recommended that the Hôtel-Dieu be dismantled and that four smaller hospitals be established in various locations around Paris. The 1788 proposed that the pavilion-style of hospital be adopted, with each ward occupying a separate building to reduce disease transmission and to facilitate ventilation. The third report drew heavily on information collected by Tenon and Coulomb during their official study mission to England in the summer of 1787, during which they visited 52 hospitals, prisons and workhouses.
Publication of Tenon's Memoir
At the request of the hospital commission Tenon published his 500-page Mémoires sur les hôpitaux de Paris, which documented in detail the scandalous conditions in the Hôtel-Dieu. The Memoires criticized virtually everything about the hospital: the space, the circulation, the arrangement of the beds, the number and the mixture of the sick, the dirtiness, the rot and the bad smells, inhumanity and mortality. He notes that one in 15 mothers died in the Hôtel-Dieu's maternity ward, compared to one in 128 in Manchester. Thus, Tenon’s publication, combined with the work of the Academy, provided convincing scientific evidence in support of the Parisian's long standing prejudices against the Hôtel-Dieu.
The Memoir went further by also setting a complete agenda for the reform of hospitals. The agenda covered all aspects of hospital practice including hospital architecture and grounds, furnishing of wards, management and qualifications of staff, publication of reports on hospital outcomes and finances, as well as the keeping of individual patient charts and case histories. Tenon's Memoir would influence European and American hospital practice for at least a century.
In 1787, the Hôtel-Dieu implemented a code of medical services that transformed the hospital from a charitable establishment run by religious orders to a medical and surgical establishment run by doctors. Jacques Necker created the positions of Inspecteur général des hôpitaux civils et des maisons de force (General Inspector for civil hospitals and jails) and Commissaire du roi pour tout ce qui a trait aux hôpitaux (Royal Commissioner for all that relates to hospitals). The use of hospitals as teaching institutions was also reinforced as part of the reform movement, which studied medical practice and policy in other European countries. The Hôtel-Dieu achieved renown as a surgical training institution with the appointment of Pierre-Joseph Desault as chef de service in 1785. Desault established a successful educational clinic for surgical interns to supplement what had previously been limited to academic training.
Generally, though, the progress anticipated by the reform movement initiated under the last of the French kings was hampered by the massive changes that were occurring in broader French society during the French Revolution. Major reforms to the system of government itself needed to take place before the narrower reforms to the Parisian medical system could receive fuller attention.
19th century
By the 19th century, hospitals were playing a central role in medical instruction and research. Xavier Bichat, a pupil of Desault, expounded on his new "membrane theory" during a course taught in 1801–1802 at the Hôtel-Dieu.
In 1801, the Parisian hospitals adopted a new administrative framework: the Conseil général des hôpitaux et hospices civils de Paris (General Council for Parisian hospitals and civil hospices). The objective of improving hospital management brought about the creation of new services: the Bureau d'admission (Admissions office) and the Pharmacie centrale (Central Pharmacy). Napoleon I finally rebuilt the portions of the Hôtel-Dieu that were destroyed in the fire of 1772.
Also during this period, the Hôtel-Dieu advocated the practice of vaccination, of which Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt was a fervent supporter. Similarly, the discoveries of René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec permitted the refinement of methods of diagnosis, auscultation, and aetiology of illnesses.
The Pont au Double was demolished in 1847 and rebuilt without covering.
The Hôtel-Dieu was rebuilt between 1867 and 1878 on the opposite side of the parvise of Notre Dame, as part of Haussmann's renovation of Paris commissioned by Napoleon III. The reconstruction followed plans by architects Émile Jacques Gilbert and Arthur-Stanislas Diet.
It was not until 1908 that the Augustinian nuns left the Hôtel-Dieu for good.
Role within the current hospital system of Paris
The Hôtel-Dieu is the top casualty centre for dealing with emergency cases, being the only emergency centre for the first nine arrondissements and being the local centre for the first four.
For the last 50 years it has been home to the diabetes and endocrine illnesses clinical department. It deals almost exclusively with the screening, treatment and prevention of the complications associated with diabetes mellitus. It is also a referral service for hypoglycemia. Oriented towards informing the patient (therapeutic education) and technological innovation, it offers a large choice of care facilities for all levels of complications. It is also at the forefront of research in diabetes in areas such as new insulins and new drugs, effects of nutrition, external and implanted pumps, glucose sensors and artificial pancreas.
More recently, a major department for ophthalmology (emergencies, surgery and research) has been developed at the Hôtel-Dieu, under the supervision of Yves Pouliquen.
Notable figures
In 1748, Hyacinthe Théodore Baron, dean of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris from 1750 to 1753 and member of the Academy of Sciences, practised at this hospital.
Other notable physicians, researchers, and surgeons who practised at the hospital include Jean Méry, Forlenze, Bichat, Dupuytren, Adrien Proust, Hartmann, Desault, Récamier, Cholmen, Dieulafoy, Trousseau, Ambroise Paré, Marc Tiffeneau, Augustin Gilbert.
References
External links
Hotel Hospital Dieu concepção artística do East Villa Graphics Jun. 2012
Hospital buildings completed in the 7th century
Buildings and structures completed in 651
Hospital buildings completed in 1877
Hospitals in Paris
Teaching hospitals in France
Hospitals established in the 7th century
Île de la Cité
Buildings and structures in the 4th arrondissement of Paris
7th-century establishments in Francia |
4233107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20occupation%20of%20Estonia%20during%20World%20War%20II | German occupation of Estonia during World War II | During World War II, in the course of Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany invaded Estonia in July–December 1941, and occupied the country until 1944. Estonia had gained independence in 1918 from the then warring German and Russian Empires. However, in the wake of the August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact, the Stalinist Soviet Union had invaded and occupied Estonia in June 1940, and the country was formally annexed into the USSR in August 1940.
Initially, in the summer of 1941, the German invaders were perceived by most Estonians as liberators from the Soviet terror, having arrived only a week after the mass deportation of tens of thousands of people from Estonia and other territories that had been occupied by USSR in 1939–1941: eastern Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Although hopes were raised for the restoration of Estonia's independence, it was soon realized that Germans were but another occupying power.
The Nazi German authorities exploited occupied Estonia for their war effort and in 1941–1944 murdered tens of thousands of people (including indigenous ethnic Estonians, local Estonian Jews, Estonia's Romani people, Russians, Soviet prisoners of war, Jews from other countries, and others). For the duration of the occupation, Estonia was incorporated as Generalbezirk Estland, subordinated to the Reichskommissariat Ostland, an administrative subdivision of the German Reich.
Military occupation
Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. Three days later, on June 25, Finland declared herself to once again be in a state of war with the USSR, starting the Continuation War. On July 3, Joseph Stalin made his public statement over the radio calling for scorched-earth policy in the areas to be abandoned. Because the northernmost areas of the Baltic states were the last to be reached by the Germans, it was here that the Soviet destruction battalions had their most extreme effects. The Estonian forest brothers, numbering about 50,000, inflicted heavy casualties on the remaining Soviets; as many as 4,800 were killed and 14,000 captured.
Even though the Germans did not cross the Estonian southern border until July 7–9, Estonian soldiers who had deserted from Soviet units in large numbers, opened fire on the Red Army as early as June 22. On that day, a group of forest brothers attacked Soviet trucks on a road in the district of Harju. The Soviet 22nd Rifle Corps was the unit that lost most men, as a large group of Estonian soldiers and officers deserted from it. Furthermore, border guards of Soviet Estonia were mostly people who had previously worked for independent Estonia, and they also escaped to the forests, becoming one of the best groups of Estonian fighters. An Estonian writer Juhan Jaik wrote in 1941: "These days bogs and forests are more populated than farms and fields. The forests and bogs are our territory while the fields and farms are occupied by the enemy [i.e., the Soviets]".
The 8th Army (Major General Ljubovtsev), retreated in front of the 2nd corps of the German Army behind the Pärnu River - the Emajõgi River line on July 12. As German troops approached Tartu on July 10 and prepared for another battle with the Soviets, they realized that the Estonian partisans were already fighting the Soviet troops. The Wehrmacht stopped its advance and hung back, leaving the Estonians to do the fighting. The battle of Tartu lasted two weeks, and destroyed most of the city. Under the leadership of Friedrich Kurg, the Estonian partisans drove out the Soviets from Tartu on their own. In the meanwhile, the Soviets had been murdering citizens held in Tartu Prison, killing 192 before the Estonians captured the city.
At the end of July the Germans resumed their advance in Estonia working in tandem with the Estonian Forest Brothers. Both German troops and Estonian partisans took Narva on August 17 and the Estonian capital Tallinn on August 28. On that day, the Soviet flag shot down earlier on Pikk Hermann was replaced with the Flag of Estonia by Fred Ise. After the Soviets were driven out from Estonia, German troops disarmed all the partisan groups. The Estonian flag was soon replaced with the German one, and the 2,000 Estonian soldiers who took part in the parade in Tartu on July 29, were disbanded.
Most Estonians greeted the Germans with relatively open arms and hoped for the restoration of independence. Estonia set up an administration, led by Jüri Uluots as soon as the Soviet regime retreated and before German troops arrived. Estonian partisans that drove the Red Army from Tartu made it possible. That all was for nothing since the Germans had made their plans as set out in Generalplan Ost, they disbanded the provisional government and the territory of Estonia was organized as Generalbezirk Estland, subordinated to the Reichskommissariat Ostland, an administrative subdivision of Nazi Germany. A Sicherheitspolizei was established for internal security under the leadership of Ain-Ervin Mere.
In April 1941, on the eve on the German invasion, Alfred Rosenberg, Reich minister for the Occupied Eastern territories, a Baltic German, born and raised in Tallinn, Estonia, laid out his plans for the East. According to Rosenberg a future policy was created:
Germanization (Eindeutschung) of the "racially suitable" elements.
Colonization by Germanic people.
Exile, deportations of undesirable elements.
Rosenberg felt that the "Estonians were the most Germanic out of the people living in the Baltic area, having already reached 50 percent of Germanization through Danish, Swedish and German influence". Non-suitable Estonians were to be moved to a region that Rosenberg called "Peipusland" to make room for German colonists.
The removal of 50% of Estonians was in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost.
The initial enthusiasm that accompanied the liberation from Soviet occupation quickly waned as a result and the Germans had limited success in recruiting volunteers. The draft was introduced in 1942, resulting in some 3400 men fleeing to Finland to fight in the Finnish Army rather than join the Germans. Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 (Estonian: soomepoisid 'boys of Finland') was formed out of Estonian volunteers in Finland.
With the Allied victory over Germany becoming certain in 1944, the only option to save Estonia's independence was to stave off a new Soviet invasion of Estonia until Germany's capitulation.
Political resistance
In June 1942 political leaders of Estonia who had survived Soviet repressions held a hidden meeting from the occupying powers in Estonia where the formation of an underground Estonian government and the options for preserving continuity of the republic were discussed.
On January 6, 1943 a meeting was held at the Estonian foreign delegation in Stockholm. It was decided that, in order to preserve the legal continuity of the Republic of Estonia, the last constitutional prime minister, Jüri Uluots, must continue to fulfill his responsibilities as prime minister.
In June 1944 the elector's assembly of the Republic of Estonia gathered in secrecy from the occupying powers in Tallinn and appointed Jüri Uluots as the prime minister with the responsibilities of the President. On June 21 Jüri Uluots appointed Otto Tief as deputy prime minister.
As the Germans retreated, on September 18, 1944 Jüri Uluots formed a government led by the Deputy Prime Minister, Otto Tief. On September 20 the Nazi German flag on Pikk Hermann was replaced with the tricolor flag of Estonia. On September 22 the Red Army took Tallinn and the Estonian flag on Pikk Hermann was replaced with the Soviet flag. The Estonian underground government, not officially recognized by either the Nazi Germany or Soviet Union, fled to Stockholm, Sweden and operated in exile until 1992, when Heinrich Mark, the Prime Minister of the Republic of Estonia in duties of the President in exile, presented his credentials to the newly elected President of Estonia Lennart Meri. On February 23, 1989 the flag of the Estonian SSR had been lowered on Pikk Hermann; it was replaced with the flag of Estonia to mark Estonian Independence Day on February 24, 1989.
Estonians in German military units
The annexation of Estonia by the USSR in 1940 was complete, but never recognized internationally except by Eastern Bloc countries. After the annexation, Estonians were subject to conscription into the Red Army, which by international law is illegal if Estonia is not considered to have been a part of the USSR. When the Soviets retreated from Estonia and Germany fully occupied it, in the summer of 1941, the Germans continued the practice of dragooning Estonian men, although the majority joined the German Army voluntarily, often out of the desire to fight the USSR, which had made strong enemies with many groups of society in Estonia after introducing their Marxist economic system. Up to March 1942 drafted Estonians mostly served in the rear of the Army Group North security. On August 28, 1942 the German powers announced the legal compilation of the so-called "Estonian Legion" within the Waffen SS. Oberführer Franz Augsberger was nominated the commander of the legion. Up to the end of 1942 about 1,280 men volunteered into the training camp. Bataillon Narwa was formed from the first 800 men of the Legion to have finished their training at Heidelager, being sent in April 1943 to join the Division Wiking in Ukraine. They replaced the Finnish Volunteer Battalion, recalled to Finland for political reasons. In March 1943, a partial mobilization was carried out in Estonia during which 12,000 men were conscripted into the SS. On May 5, 1943 the 3rd Waffen-SS Brigade (Estonian), another fully Estonian unit, was formed and sent to the front near Nevel.
By January 1944, the front was pushed back by the Red Army almost all the way to the former Estonian border. Jüri Uluots, the last constitutional Prime Minister of the Republic of Estonia, the leader of Estonian underground government delivered a radio address on February 7 that implored all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service in the SS (before this, Uluots had opposed any German mobilization of Estonians.) Following Uluots' address, 38.000 conscripts jammed registration centers. Several thousand Estonians who had volunteered to join the Finnish army were transferred back across the Gulf of Finland to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. The maximum number of Estonians enrolled in German military units was 70,000. The initial formation of the volunteer Estonian Legion created in 1942 was eventually expanded to become a full-sized conscript division of the Waffen SS in 1944, the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian). Units consisting largely of Estonians — often under German officers – saw action on the Narva line throughout 1944. Many Estonians hoped that they would attract support from the Allies, and ultimately a restoration of their interwar independence, by resisting the Soviet reoccupation of their country. In the end, there was no Allied military support
The advance guard units of the 2nd Shock Army reached the border of Estonia as a part of the Kingisepp–Gdov Offensive which began on 1 February 1944. Field Marshal Walter Model was nominated the leader of the German Army Group North. The Soviet Narva Offensive (15–28 February 1944) led by Soviet General Leonid A. Govorov, the commander of the Leningrad Front, commenced. On February 24, Estonian Independence Day, the counterattack of the so-called Estonian Division to break the Soviet bridgeheads began. A battalion of Estonians led by Rudolf Bruus destroyed a Soviet bridgehead. Another battalion of Estonians led by Ain-Ervin Mere was successful against another bridgehead, at Vaasa-Siivertsi-Vepsaküla. On March 6, this work was complete. The Leningrad Front concentrated 9 corps at Narva against 7 divisions and one brigade. On March 1, the Soviet Narva Offensive (1–4 March 1944) began in the direction of Auvere. The 658th Eastern Battalion led by Alfons Rebane and the 659th Eastern Battalion commanded by Georg Sooden were involved in defeating the operation. On March 17, twenty Soviet divisions again unsuccessfully attacked the three divisions in Auvere. On April 7, the leadership of the Red Army ordered to go on the defensive. In March the Soviets committed bombing attacks towards the towns of Estonia, including the bombing of Tallinn on March 9.
On July 24 the Soviets began the new Narva Offensive (July 1944) in the direction of Auvere. The 1st battalion (Stubaf Paul Maitla) of the 45th Regiment led by Harald Riipalu and the fusiliers (previously "Narva"), under the leadership of Hatuf Hando Ruus, were involved in repelling the attack. Finally, Narva was evacuated and a new front was settled on the Tannenberg Line in the Sinimäed Hills.
On 1 August 1944, the Finnish government and President Risto Ryti were to resign. On the next day, Aleksander Warma, the Estonian Ambassador to Finland (1939–1940 (1944)) announced that the National Committee of the Estonian Republic had sent a telegram, which requested the Estonian volunteer regiment to be returned to Estonia fully equipped. On the following day, the Finnish Government received a letter from the Estonians. It had been signed in the name of "all national organizations of Estonia" by Aleksander Warma, Karl Talpak and several others, seconding the request. It was then announced that the regiment would be disbanded and that the volunteers were free to return home. An agreement had been reached with the Germans, and the Estonians were promised amnesty if they chose to return and fight in the SS. As soon as they landed, the regiment was sent to perform a counter-attack against the Soviet 3rd Baltic Front, which had managed a breakthrough on the Tartu front, and was threatening the capital Tallinn.
After an attempt to break through the Tannenberg Line failed, the main struggle was carried to the south of Lake Peipus, where on August 11, Petseri was taken and Võru on August 13. Near Tartu, the 3rd Baltic Front was stopped by the Kampfgruppe "Wagner" which involved military groups sent from Narva under the command of Alfons Rebane and Paul Vent and the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien led by Léon Degrelle.
On August 19, 1944 Jüri Uluots, in a radio broadcast, called for the Red Army to hold back and a peace agreement to be reached.
As Finland left the war on September 4, 1944 according to their peace agreement with the USSR, the defence of the mainland became practically impossible and the German command decided to retreat from Estonia. Resistance against the Soviets continued in the Moonsund Archipelago until November 23, 1944, when the Germans evacuated the Sõrve Peninsula. According to the Soviet data, the conquest of the territory of Estonia cost them 126,000 casualties. Some disregard the official figures and argue that a more realistic number is 480,000 for the Battle of Narva only, considering the intensity of the fighting at the front. On the German side, their own data shows 30,000 dead, which some have similarly seen as underrated, preferring at the minimum 45,000.
German administrators
In 1941 Estonia was occupied by German troops and after a brief period of military rule — by the Commanders of the Army Group North (in the occupied USSR) — a German civilian administration was established and, on 5 December 1941, the territory of Estonia was organized as Generalbezirk Estland, subordinated to the Reichskommissariat Ostland.
Generalkommissar
(Subordinated to the Reichskommissar Ostland.)
1941–1944 SA-Obergruppenführer Karl-Siegmund Litzmann (1893-1945)
S.S. und Polizeiführer
(The SS and Police Leader (SSPF) was responsible for internal security and war against the resistance and was directly subordinated to the Higher SS and Police Leader (HSSPF) of Ostland, not to the Generalkommissar.)
1941–1944 SS-Oberführer Hinrich Möller (1906–1974)
1944 SS-Brigadeführer Walther Schröder (1902–1973)
Lagerkommandant
(Responsible for the operation of all concentration camps within the Reichskommissariat Ostland.)
SS-Hauptsturmführer Hans Aumeier (1906–1947)
Collaboration
Estonian Self-Administration
Estonian Self-Administration (), also known as the Directorate, was the puppet government set up in Estonia during occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany. According to Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity
Although the Directorate did not have complete freedom of action, it exercised a significant measure of autonomy, within the framework of German policy, political, racial and economic. For example, the Directors exercised their powers pursuant to the laws and regulations of the Republic of Estonia, but only to the extent that these had not been repealed or amended by the German military command.
Directors
Director General
1941–1944 Hjalmar Mäe (1901–1978)
Director for Home Affairs
1941–1944 Oskar Angelus (1892–1979)
Directors for Justice
1941–1943 Hjalmar Mäe
1943–1944 Oskar Öpik
Director for Finance
1941–1944 Alfred Wendt (1902-1986)
Holocaust
The process of Jewish settlement in Estonia began in the 19th century, when in 1865 Alexander II of Russia granted them the right to enter the region. The creation of the Republic of Estonia in 1918 marked the beginning of a new era for the Jews. Approximately 200 Jews fought in combat for the creation of the Republic of Estonia and 70 of these men were volunteers. From the very first days of her existence as a state, Estonia showed her tolerance towards all the peoples inhabiting her territories. On 12 February 1925 the Estonian government passed a law pertaining to the cultural autonomy of minority peoples. The Jewish community quickly prepared its application for cultural autonomy. Statistics on Jewish citizens were compiled. They totaled 3,045, fulfilling the minimum requirement of 3000 for cultural autonomy. In June 1926 the Jewish Cultural Council was elected and Jewish cultural autonomy was declared. Jewish cultural autonomy was of great interest to the global Jewish community. The Jewish National Endowment presented the Estonian government with a certificate of gratitude for this achievement.
There were, at the time of Soviet occupation in 1940, approximately 4000 Estonian Jews. The Jewish Cultural Autonomy was immediately abolished. Jewish cultural institutions were closed down. Many of Jewish people were deported to Siberia along with other Estonians by the Soviets. It is estimated that 350–500 Jews suffered this fate. About three-fourths of Estonian Jewry managed to leave the country during this period. Out the approximately 4,300 Jews in Estonia prior to the war, almost 1000 were entrapped by the Nazis.
Round-ups and killings of Jews began immediately following the arrival of the first German troops in 1941, who were closely followed by the extermination squad Sonderkommando 1a under Martin Sandberger, part of Einsatzgruppe A led by Walter Stahlecker. Arrests and executions continued as the Germans, with the assistance of local collaborators, advanced through Estonia.
Unlike German forces, some support apparently existed among an undefined segment of the local collaborators for anti-Jewish actions. The standard form used for the cleansing operations was arrest 'because of communist activity'. The equation between Jews and communists evoked a positive response among some Estonians. Estonians often argued that their Jewish colleagues and friends were not communists and submitted proofs of pro-Estonian conduct in hope to get them released.
Estonia was declared Judenfrei quite early by the German occupation regime at the Wannsee Conference. Jews that had remained in Estonia (921 according to Martin Sandberger, 929 according to Evgenia Goorin-Loov and 963 according to Walter Stahlecker) were killed. Fewer than a dozen Estonian Jews are known to have survived the war in Estonia. The Nazi regime also established 22 concentration and labor camps on occupied Estonian territory for foreign Jews. The largest, Vaivara concentration camp housed 1,300 prisoners at a time. These prisoners were mainly Jews, with smaller groups of Russians, Dutch, and Estonians. Several thousand foreign Jews were killed at the Kalevi-Liiva camp. Four Estonians most responsible for the murders at Kalevi-Liiva were accused at war crimes trials in 1961. Two were later executed, while the Soviet occupation authorities were unable to press charges against two who lived in exile. There have been knowingly 7 ethnic Estonians: Ralf Gerrets, Ain-Ervin Mere, Jaan Viik, Juhan Jüriste, Karl Linnas, Aleksander Laak and Ervin Viks that have faced trials for crimes against humanity.
Since the reestablishment of the Estonian independence markers were put in place for the 60th anniversary of the mass executions that were carried out at the Lagedi, Vaivara and Klooga (Kalevi-Liiva) camps in September 1944.
There are three Estonians who have been honoured with The Righteous Among the Nations: Uku Masing and his wife Eha Masing and Polina Lentsman.
Estonian military units' involvement in crimes against humanity
The Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity has reviewed the role of Estonian military units and police battalions in an effort to identify the role of Estonian military units and police battalions participation during World War II in crimes against humanity.
The conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity are available online. It says that there is an evidence of Estonian units' involvement in crimes against humanity, and acts of genocide; however, the commission noted
Controversies
Views diverge on history of Estonia during World War II and following the occupation by Nazi Germany.
According to the Estonian point of view, the occupation of Estonia by Soviet Union lasted five decades, only interrupted by the Nazi invasion of 1941–1944. Estonian representatives at the European Parliament even made a motion for a resolution acknowledging the 48 years of occupation as a fact. The final version of the resolution of European parliament, however, only acknowledged Estonia's loss of independence lasting from 1940 to 1991 and that annexation of Estonia by Soviet Union was considered illegal by Western democracies.
The position of the Russian Government: Russia has denied that Soviet Union illegally annexed the Baltic republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia in 1940. The Kremlin's European affairs chief Sergei Yastrzhembsky: "There was no occupation." Russian State officials look at the events in Estonia in the end of World War II as the liberation from fascism by the Soviet Union.
Views of World War II veteran, an Estonian Ilmar Haaviste fought on the German side: "Both regimes were equally evil — there was no difference between the two except that Stalin was more cunning".
Views of World War II veteran, an Estonian Arnold Meri fought on the Soviet side: "Estonia's participation in World War II was inevitable. Every Estonian had only one decision to make: whose side to take in that bloody fight — the Nazis' or the anti-Hitler coalition's."
Views of World War II veteran, a Russian fought on the Soviet side in Estonia answering a question: How do you feel being called an "occupier"? " Viktor Andreyev: "Half believe one thing half believe another. That's in the run of things."
In 2004 controversy regarding the events of World War II in Estonia surrounded the Monument of Lihula.
In April 2007 the divergent views on history of World War II in Estonia centered around the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn.
See also
20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)
Estonian resistance movement
Judenfrei
Klooga concentration camp
Reichskommissariat Ostland
References
External links
Birn, Ruth Bettina (2001), Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. Contemporary European History 10.2, 181–98.
Estonian SS-Legion (photographs)
Estonian SS-Legion (photographs)
Hjalmar Mäe
Hjalmar Mäe (photograph)
Saksa okupatsioon Eestis
Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2003). Extermination of the Gypsies in Estonia during World War II: Popular Images and Official Policies. Holocaust and Genocide Studies 17.1, 31–61.
Occupation of the Baltic states
1941 in Estonia
Jewish Estonian history
Military history of Estonia during World War II
Estonia
Generalbezirk Estland
Politics of World War II
Estonia in World War II
German military occupations
The Holocaust in Estonia
Estonia–Germany military relations |
4233262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la%20Sutta | Brahmajāla Sutta | The Brahmajāla Sutta is the first of 34 sutta in the Dīgha Nikāya (the Long Discourses of the Buddha), the first of the five nikāya, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka of (Theravada) Buddhism. The name means Net (jāla - net, netting, entanglement) of Brahmā. The sutta is also called Atthajala (Net of Essence), Dhammajala, (Net of the Dhamma), Ditthijala (Net of Views), Anuttarasangama Vijaya (Incomparable Victory in Battle).
The sutta discusses two main topics: the elaboration of the "Ten Precepts" (Cula-sila) and the "Middle Precepts" (Majjhima-sila). Cula-sila deals with the Ten Precepts to be practiced by devout Buddhists, while Majjhima-sila gives a detailed description of the practice of the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth precepts, together with a further delineation of virtuous practices and abstentions.
The second and third parts of the sutta discuss the 62 beliefs (ditthi) which are clung to by ascetics in India. These are divided into: 18 beliefs related to the past (pubbantanuditthino), and 44 beliefs about the future (aparantakappika).
Many of these beliefs are still relevant in the modern world and thus the sutta provides Buddhist scholars with much information to ponder about the Buddha's teachings.
The elaboration of these beliefs is very detailed, focusing on how the beliefs (faiths) come to be and the way they are described and declared. The elaboration ends with the Buddha's statement about the "danger of clinging to these beliefs", as they are still influenced by desire (lobha), hatred (dosa), and ignorance (avijjā) that its faithful followers will not end in the final liberation but still in the cycle of samsara. Believers of these faiths are compared to small fish in a pond which will be captured by a fine net no matter how much they want to escape, while those who see reality as it is are beyond the net of samsara.
Beginning
The sutta starts with the Buddha travelling with his disciples between the cities of Rajagaha and Nalanda. At the same time, a Brahmin called Suppiya, with his young apprentice, Brahmadatta, were also travelling in the same direction, tailing the convoy of the sangha. Suppiya uttered some insulting words about the Buddha, his teachings, and his disciples. However, Brahmadatta praised and revered the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. The two continued debating until they arrived at the King's resting place in Ambalatthika.
Hearing this conversation, some monks discussed the nature of conflicting students and teachers the next morning. They wondered how marvellous it was that the Buddha knew the various kinds of views to be found in people. The Buddha arrived and asked what they were discussing. As a monk finished telling him, the Buddha responded,
Precepts
In the first part, the Buddha elaborates precepts that made people praise him or the Sangha as worthy of reverence. The list of the Buddha's higher precepts are categorized as follows:
Cula Sila
1. Abstain from taking another creature's life, weapons, violence.
2. Abstain from taking things which were not given.
3. Live soberly, piously, and honestly.
4. Abstain from sexual relationships.
5. Abstain from lying.
6. Speak only the truth, believable and reliable, and never contradict his own words.
7. Abstain from slander.
8. Promote, speak, and love union (harmony) and not division (conflict).
9. Abstain from rough, insulting words.
10. Speak polite, likeable, exact, well chosen words that will make people's hearts joyful, not wasting time in idle gossip.
11. Discuss the Dhamma and the Vinaya at the right time.
12. Discuss in clear, detailed, and understandable words.
Majjhima Sila
13. Abstain from hurting seeds, plants, roots, branches, cheating, trading, slavery, forgery, bribery, and criminal conduct.
14. Abstain from hoarding food, drink, clothes (robes), bedding, perfume, spices, and other tools.
15. Take food once a day.
16. Abstain from watching shows (dances, exhibitions, matches, music performances, parades, etc.).
17. Abstain from playing games (card games, board games, dice games, games of chance, racing games, acrobatics, word games, etc.).
18. Abstain from using luxurious furniture and bedding.
19. Abstain from using cosmetics, make-up, and fancy or luxurious clothes (robes).
20. Abstain from discussing people, politicians, criminals, terrors, food and beverages, clothing, places, families, cities, wars and battles, heroes, ghosts, street rumors, speculation on how the world is created, or about existence and non-existence.
21. Abstain from accusing, denying, goading or challenging (e.g., 'I practised the Dhamma devoutly, but you don't!' or 'What you say is old rubbish!' or 'You are wrong!' or 'Free yourself if you can!').
22. Abstain from being the courier or messenger of politicians or higher administrations.
23. Abstain from deceiving lay people by uttering spells to exorcise demons or make someone's fortune, acting like a holy person by reciting mantras.
Maha Sila
24. Abstain from earning money from fortune-telling, divination, clairvoyance, exorcism, conjuring, magic tricks, spells, making false medicine and herbs, healing people through magic, leading/conducting ceremonies in order to gain something (wealth, fertility, etc.).
Eighteen beliefs about the past
In the second part, the Buddha explains the major beliefs of ascetics in India. He begins by saying, "Monks, there are other things which are very deep (profound), very hard to understand, very difficult to perceive, so holy and sacred, unreached by means of mind, so subtle, that they are only to be understood and experienced by the wise. These things were perceived clearly, seen clearly and were discarded by the Tathagata, and by this act based on the truth that people praise and revered Tathagatha. What are those things?"
Eternalistic belief
Eternalism is described in the sutta as the belief which is based upon the past, and holds that the universe (loka) and the soul or self (attha) are eternal as a 'rock mountain or strong-fastened pole'. The world doesn't create new souls and therefore, the souls are living in an eternal cycle of death and rebirth, differing only in name, location, and time.
These kind of beliefs have four origins:
1. Ascetics and Brahmins who have reached a high level of meditation; due to this achievement, they were able to remember from one to tens of thousands of their past lives.
2. Ascetics and Brahmins who have reached the spiritual achievements which provided them access to memories of one to ten iterations of the Earth's formation, evolution, and destruction.
3. Ascetics and Brahmins who have managed to recall the Earth's evolutionary process from ten to forty times.
The abovementioned ascetics and Brahmins recalled how they had name, family, heirs, food, joy and sadness, then death and rebirth in their past lives. Based on their experience, they concluded that the universe and the soul must be eternal.
4. Ascetics and Brahmins who use logic and inference and come to the conclusion that the soul and universe are eternal.
The Buddha said that there are 18 types of eternalistic belief, all based on one of these four origins. All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung to their faith and did not give credence to other faiths.
Partial-eternalistic belief
The semi-eternalistic belief is described as belief that is based on the past, where the dualistic notion is asserted that there are things which are eternal and things which are not eternal.
There are four ways these beliefs come to be faith, where one believer never acknowledged the other beliefs:
The Buddha told a story about a time when the Earth was not yet formed. The sentient beings in this time normally lived in the realm of Abhassara, in radiant light and nourished by celestial joy. Then came a time when the Earth was in the process of forming yet still uninhabitable. One of these beings in the Abhassara realm died (due to the exhaustion of his karma) and was reborn in the higher realm called the Brahma realm and lived alone in the palace there. From living alone for so long a time, this being grew distressed and longed for a companion.
He then uttered, "O, let it be that another being may come here and accompany me." At the same time as the utterance, a being in the Abhassara realm died (due to the exhaustion of his good karma) and was reborn in the Brahma realm as his follower, but in many ways, similar to his feature.
Seeing this happen, the Brahma being thought, "I am Brahma, Mahābrahmā, the Almighty, Omniscient, the Lord of All, Creator, Master of all creatures. I am the source of all life, Father to everything which exists and will come to exist. These creatures are my creations. How can I conclude this? Because, just as I was thinking, "Let it be that another being may come here and accompany me", then my wish made that being come into existence."
Beings that came after thought the same thing. They worshipped and revered the Brahma because, "He was here even before I existed! Surely he is the Lord and Creator of All."
In the Brahma realm, the first being had longer and more powerful features than the latter coming beings. So, a probability existed that the latter being died in the Brahma realm, and then was reborn as a human. This human abandoned worldly affairs and became an ascetic, then by his devotion and practice, achieved the power to remember his one past life. As he recalled it, he came to the conclusion that creatures, including himself, are not eternal, had limited age, were vulnerable to change, but that Brahma is eternal, ageless, and changeless.
The second semi-eternalistic belief came from ascetics who were once Khiddapadosika gods, celestial beings that were too busy experiencing desire-based joy and fun and forgot to take their nutriments and therefore, died. As they were reborn as ascetics and achieved the ability to remember their past life, they came to a conclusion analogous to the 'Fall from Grace': "If only we were not so greedy and overzealous in our previous life, if only we had been able to control ourselves, we would not have suffered death. Now that we had made this error, we have to suffer this mortal life". Here, they concluded that the gods were eternal, and others were not.
The third semi-eternalistic belief came from the Manopadosika gods. These were the gods who always envied the other gods. This illness of mind caused their death. In the same cycle, they were reborn as ascetic Manopadosika gods, achieved the ability to remember their past life, and came to the conclusion, "Had we not been envious, we would have stayed strong and intelligent. We would never have died or fallen forever from the realm of gods.".
The fourth semi-eternalistic belief is based on logic and reflection. The people who embraced this belief concluded their faith based on their thoughts and logics as follow: "Here is what is called (atta) of eyes, nose, tongue, and our physical body, which are always changed. But, there is also atta of mind: the state of mind, awareness of 'atta', which is eternal.".
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung to their faith and didn't believe in other faiths.
The Universe (Doctrines of the Finitude and Infinity of the World)
The beliefs on the universe is based on the speculation about the infinite or the limited nature of the universe. There are four ways these beliefs were expressed:
1. The universe is infinite.
2. The universe is limited.
3. The universe is vertically limited but horizontally infinite.
4. The universe is neither limited nor infinite.
The source of these beliefs came from two reasons:
1. The frame of mind which formed these beliefs came from the object of focus of meditation taken by the ascetics who managed to reach a deep level of meditation and came to the conclusion that the world is infinite (if they used infinity as the object of meditation), or limited (if they imagined the object of their focus to be limited).
2. The people who used logic and thought and concluded that the world must be neither infinite nor limited.
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung to their faith and didn't believe in other faiths.
Ambiguous Evasion
The concept of ambiguous evasion or eel-wriggling (Pali: Amaravikkhepa) is introduced in the Brahmajala sutta. When hearing Buddhist teachings, the Buddha claims that people would react with four forms of ambiguous evasion:
Evasion out of fear or hatred of making false claims.
Evasion out of fear or hatred of attachment.
Evasion out of fear or hatred of debate.
Evasion out of fear or hatred of admitting ignorance.
In other words, when a person would hear the dharma, they would respond, "I don't know. Maybe it is true. Maybe it is not true. I can't say it's true because I don't know and I can't deny it's true because I don't know."
The idea is that the person isn't considering the arguments presented (see Kalama Sutta), but stubbornly adhering to irrational agnosticism out of feelings of fear or hatred.
Non-causality beliefs
The Non-causality beliefs stated that the Universe and the Souls happened coincidentally. The proponents of these beliefs claimed that there was/were no reason/s behind the creation of Universe and the Identity/Self.
These beliefs were expressed because of two possibilities:
1 There were gods called assannasatta, which had only body and no mental will. The absence of mental will in this state was due to the nature of repressed thoughts, not the ultimate absence of thoughts. As they died in the god realm, there was a possibility that they were reborn as ascetics who achieved the ability to recall just one past life.
Here, they concluded upon their past life that, "Before this, there were no Atta and Loka. So, the Atta and Loka were created without a cause. They simply arise spontaneously. Why do I deem so? Because I didn't exist and now I do exist."
2. The ascetics who based their thoughts on logic and thinkings, and concluded that the Soul and the Universe happened without a cause.
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung on their faith and didn't believe in another faiths.
Forty-four beliefs about the future
There are ascetics who based their beliefs on the future. The proponents of one of these beliefs, adhered that:
Perception's existence after death
A. the perception still exists after death. The difference of beliefs were described that after death, the Atta:
1. possessed physical shape (rupa)
2. possessed no shape/immaterial (arupa)
3. both had physical shape some had not (rupa and arupa)
4. neither possessed physical shape nor immaterial
5. Infinite
6. Limited
7. Both Infinite and limited
8. neither Infinite nor Limited
9. had a certain form of consciousness
10. had several form of consciousness
11.had infinite consciousness
12.had limited consciousness
13.always in joy/blissful state
14.always in suffering state
15.Both in joy and suffering
16.neither joyful nor suffering
B. the Perception vanished after death. The difference of beliefs were described that after death, the Atta was devoid of perception after dead but:
1. possessed physical shape (rupa)
2. possessed no physical shape (arupa)
3. Both had shape and no shape
4. Neither had shape nor had no shape
5. Limited
6. Unlimited
7. Both limited and unlimited
8. Neither limited nor infinite
C. Neither there was Perception or No Perception after death. The difference of these beliefs were describe that after death, the Atta was neither devoid of perception nor non-perception, but:
1. possessed physical shape (rupa)
2. possessed no physical shape (arupa)
3. Both had shape and no shape
4. Neither had shape nor had no shape
5. Limited
6. Unlimited
7. Both limited and unlimited
8. Neither limited nor infinite
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung on their faith and didn't believe in another faiths.
Annihilation (nihilism) beliefs
The proponent of these beliefs declared that after death, existence simply vanished (Atta vanished). These beliefs were described in seven type of authorities and basis:
1. that the Atta was created from the union of father and mother's essence, composed of four elements (dhatu) and on the death, these elements ceased to exist. By this manner, Atta become non-existent.
2. that not only the (1) but the physical-related desire of the celestial gods, who had physical shape and take nourishment, which also cease to exist after death.
3. that not only the (2), but the atta of Brahma gods, which were shaped of Jhana mind, and faculties of senses which cease to exist after death.
4. that not only the (3), but also the atta which had transcended the concept of Infinity, where the perception of shape had been surpassed, the perception of contact between mind and object had vanished, not paying attention to major kinds of Perception, which cease to exist after death.
5. that not only the (4), but also the atta which had reached the Realm of Infinity of Consciousness.
6. that not only the (5), but also the atta which had reached Realm of Nothingness.
7. that not only the (6) but also the atta which had reached the realm of neither Perception nor Non-Perception.
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung on their faith and didn't believe in another faiths.
Five beliefs on attainable Nibbana
The proponents of these faiths proposed that Nibbana's state of bliss could be attained in the current life. They based their faith because:
1. The joy coming from the five senses can be enjoyed and attained thoroughly. So, the Nibbana could also be attained.
2. The joy from the five senses were vulnerable to change and mortal. But the joy from the attainment of the first Jhana (Dhyana) can be enjoyed and attained thoroughly. So, with the first Jhana, the Nibbana could also be attained.
3. ..... (same with No.2) but with Second Jhana...
4. ..... (same with No.3) but with Third Jhana...
5. ..... (same with No.4) but with Fourth Jhana. So, the Nibbana could also be attained.
All of the followers of these beliefs defended and clung on their faith and didn't believe in another faiths.
The Buddha's conclusion
"The Tathagata knows these sixty-two views. He also knows the dhamma which surpasses them. Knowing that dhamma, he does not view it in the wrong way. Since he does not view it in the wrong way, he realizes by himself the extinction of defilements (i.e., greed, anger, and ignorance of the Four Ariya Truths).
Buddha finally concludes the exposition of these 'wrong' beliefs by stating that these (62) beliefs, if they are believed, will certainly cause agitations and cravings. It implies that the beliefs come to conclusion due to the inability to see the truth, as they are seized by craving (clinging), agitated by longing (feeling).
The Buddha further explains that the beliefs are originated from Contact (Phassa) as the cause. The contact is a phenomenon when the perception recognised an object beyond our Self. Then, from this brief event (like lightning in the sky, in the comparison drawn by Nagasena in Milinda Panha), rise up feelings.
Buddha states that there are no possibilities of feeling without contact. Thus, according to the law of Twelve Related Chain of Cause and Effects (Pratitya-samutpada), the people who believe in one of many of these sixty-two beliefs, will end up in round cycle of sufferings; as they have not found the truth on the cease of sufferings.
Due to their faith, they will experience feelings as a result of repeated contact through the six sense bases. In them feeling gives rise to craving; craving gives rise to clinging; clinging gives rise to current existence (upapatti bhava) and the kammic causal process (kamma bhava); the kammic causal process gives rise to rebirth; and rebirth gives rise to ageing, death, grief, lamentation, pain, distress and despair.
The Buddha states that Monks who have realized and understood the origin of contact of the six senses, and escaped the round of sufferings, would see Dhamma (Truth) of Precepts (Śīla), Concentration (Samadhi) and Wisdom (Pańńa) which surpassed all the wrong beliefs.
The Buddha then makes an analogy of a fisherman using a fine-meshed net to catch the fish in the pond. The fish represent the ascetics who cling to their beliefs. They will rise and sink in the pond, but in the end will unavoidably be caught in the net. Whereas the Buddha, who stand outside the net has found the truth and has transcended the cycle of suffering.
The Brahmajala Sutta ends with this quotation:
See also
Aggañña Sutta
God in Buddhism
Twelve Nidanas
Vipassana jhanas
Notes
Bibliography
Bhikkhu Bodhi (1978). The Discourse on the All-Embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajala Sutta and its Commentarial Exegesis, Kandy, Sri Lanka, Buddhist Publication Society
Katz, Nathan (1981). Review: The Discourse on the All-Embracing Net of Views: The Brahmajāla Sutta and Its Commentarial Exegesis by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Jeffrey Block, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 49 (3), 512-513
Rhys Davids, T. W. & C. A., trans. (1899–1921). Dialogues of the Buddha, volume II, Pali Text Society, pp. 1–52
External links
Translations
The All-embracing Net of Views, translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Prime Net, translation by Bhikkhu Sujato
Discourse on the Net of Perfect Wisdom, translation by the Burma Pitaka Association Editorial Committee
The Supreme Net , translation by unknown translator
The Perfect Net, translation by T. W. Rhys Davids (1843–1922)
Digha Nikaya |
4233893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain%20Flamingo | Captain Flamingo | Captain Flamingo is an animated series produced by a co-production between Breakthrough Films & Television, Heroic Film Company, Atomic Cartoons and animated by PASI Animation Studios and premiered on YTV on February 7, 2006, and ended on April 17, 2008.
The titular character is of unspecified young age. He has no real superpowers of note, just a desire to help "li'l kids" in trouble. His "superpowers" take the form of novelty items, such as a whoopee cushion, among other things.
Plot
Milo Powell is an ordinary young Japanese-Canadian boy, living in Halverston-in-Area (a fictional neighbourhood in Toronto, Ontario) until a kid is in trouble. Any time a kid yells "Uh-oh! Flamingo!", Milo transforms into Captain Flamingo, whose mission is to help little kids who need assistance. Captain Flamingo is aided in his missions by his best friend Lizbeth Amanda Zaragoza, who apparently has a not-so-secret crush on him. CF also has a little brother named Thor.
Quite often, when called upon to carry out a mission, Captain Flamingo is busily engaged with something else, a personal goal or problem (such as waiting in line to buy an ice cream before the truck leaves or runs out of ice cream, but someone calls to him, needing his help); like a true hero, he must, and usually does, put aside his own needs to help others (although, quite often, his actions in successfully aiding the person in distress lead to a successful outcome for his personal goals). Captain Flamingo seldom successfully solves a problem on his first try; in fact, it is not uncommon for his initial attempts to make things worse. In trying to solve the simple problems of other little kids he encounters (such as, say, a lost pencil or a missing sock), Captain Flamingo often gets into tight spots. He has, in various episodes, gotten trapped in a bubble with a full bladder, gone underwater to battle an eel, and got trapped in a deadly matrix of bouncing superballs. Despite this, he never gives up and meets every failure or setback with a new attempt. He eventually gets out of these situations by using his "Bird Brain"; this can be his own instincts, but it usually is Lizbeth. A random thought he speaks aloud might be picked up on by Lizbeth and elaborated into an actual, detailed plan (which Lizbeth will assume was what Captain Flamingo planned to do all along), or he can assume that a suggestion spoken aloud by Lizbeth is his "Bird Brain" speaking to him (although he usually misinterprets her suggestion; however, his misinterpretation usually works). In the end, Captain Flamingo always seems to stumble upon a solution either through Lizbeth's cleverness, persistent refusal to give up, and constantly trying new novelty items and plans until he succeeds, or sheer luck (or, quite often, some combination of the three).
Characters
Main
Milo Powell/Captain Flamingo: (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain) Motivated, driven Milo Powell is equipped with the imagination and faith to become a superhero. He stands proudly in his homemade super-tights, his unwieldy flamingo-beak helmet, and terry cloth cape, ready to take on an outsized world! With Milo, things rarely turn out as planned, but somehow they do always manage to turn out all right. He carries a heavy heroic burden because kids everywhere rely on him, so he approaches their problems with utmost seriousness—as if the fate of their world depended on it (and maybe it does!). In the episode "Switch Hitch", where Wendell and Milo switched lives, Milo seemed quite jealous of Wendell's feelings towards Lizbeth. It is later revealed that he may love her. When Lizbeth and the rest of his friends were walking away with an imposter in that episode, he shouted "Lizbeth, I love you-I mean how you...". He was also impersonated in "Captain Copycat" by the Warrior Monkey (Milo managed to counter the incident by impersonating the Warrior Monkey). He is a Lemming Scout, a fan of horror movies, and can understand animal languages.
Lizbeth Amanda Zaragoza: (voiced by Melanie Tonello) The Captain's best friend, sidekick, and not-so-secret Chinese-Filipino Canadian admirer, Lizbeth is focused and organized, however, she is just a puddle of emotions when it comes to Milo Powell, her favourite square-shaped boy. She is a devoted follower and chronicler of his heroics, and, unbeknownst to him, is the voice of the "birdbrain" that often inspires the Captain to save the day. Lizbeth is strong and smart but a bit of a loner because of it. Her best friend, besides Milo, is her monocled stuffed elephant confidante, Chester. Lizbeth is secure in the knowledge that girls mature faster than boys, so she knows one day Milo will catch up and appreciate her. So, for now, she is willing to guide him along and wait patiently for that special day. She acts so because Milo saved her life when they were babies when Lizbeth nearly fell out of the sandbox onto the concrete sidewalk and Milo threw himself in front of her to save her, and never forgets about it (although witnesses say that what really happened was that Milo became distracted by a butterfly, and, unable to concentrate and keep himself up at the same time, fell into a heap, unintentionally saving her). She has an allergy to several animals and plants according to "Rare Basement Window".
Thor Powell: (voiced by Nissae Isen) Thor is Milo's diaper-clad baby brother. Thor likes to crawl after Milo and ride his cape. And he likes to slobber on Milo's tights. As Thor's primary babysitter, Milo often has to juggle his younger brother and his work—sometimes literally.
Margerie Powell (Milo's real mother): (voiced by Kathy Greenwood) Milo's Japanese mother has her own life as an ornithologist. She loves her boys, but adult schedules and family events come first before little kids' desires. She is very huggy and supportive, but also extremely practical and firm. If she has said 'no' twice, Milo knows asking a third time would be foolhardy. Her first name was revealed to be Margerie by a young Mr. Powell in the episode.
David Ignacius Powell (Milo's real father): (voiced by Richard Waugh) Deadpan, monotone, and humourless, Milo's father ironically runs a humour and novelty store where Milo gets his joke products from. With a voice that borders on deep-funereal, David is still somehow a warm guy, despite his overall stiffness. His full name was revealed in the episode "Fault Line" by Milo's mother.
Owen-Only: (voiced by Scott Beaudin) Owen is the sole overprotective kid. He has been padded, helmeted, and parentally locked out of most of the thrills of being a kid. And pop-culturally, he is way behind. This character has never tasted junk food, felt the wind in his hair while riding his scooter, or told a joke where the punch line was "poo." As a result, he does not get jokes, and states the obvious, to the point of being annoying to other characters. Sugar makes Owen extremely hyperactive; his personality goes from sensible to lunatic if he gets even a taste of sugar.
Rutger (voiced by Demetrius Joyette) - Rutger is an Afro-Brazilian Canadian kid, who always bites off more than he can chew. He is excitable, somewhat like a puppy, and has no lack of confidence. But with his maverick demeanour, he is always getting himself into trouble by taking stuff on before he is ready or big enough to do it. For instance, rather than ride a dumb little dinghy in the wading pool, he'll construct a massive Titanic-like behemoth out of random floatie toys—only to have it sink dramatically, with him on board. The only kid who thinks as big as he does is the Captain; a good thing, as Rutger frequently requires his services. Rutger is a goalie in one of Halverston's hockey teams.
Max Roderick (voiced by Isabel de Carteret) - Max is one of the smartest, most sophisticated kids on the block. It is not his fault he is two feet tall and has a ridiculous Elmer Fudd or Tweety-like (a reference to Looney Tunes characters) speech problem where his r's turn into w's, and he often adds w's to his l's. Therefore, 'really' becomes 'reawwy' and 'small' becomes '.' Luckily, Captain Flamingo gets him out of trouble. A lot. Max reveals his last name is Roderick in the episode "Max Invader, Scourge Of The Universe". Also in that episode, he has his own alter ego, "Max Invader".
Avi (voiced by Matthew Ferguson) - Avi, aka 'The Avalanche Kid' is a kid that has a real knack for disaster. Is it a bad moon that hangs over his head or just the overlong bangs that hang in his eyes? Whatever the cause, Avi is seriously dexterity-challenged. All it takes from him is one "uh-oh" move to start an inevitable chain of mounting disasters. Captain Flamingo does not mind cleaning up Avi's messes, usually, but sometimes he wishes Avi would plan and call ahead, because if he is going with his mother to the china shop on Monday, Milo really should book the week off. Avi has three identical-looking younger sisters, who seem to have inherited Avi's ability to be a walking disaster, which also seems to run in his family.
Wendell Howell (voiced by Cole Caplan) - Wendell is Milo's cousin and nemesis. He and Milo are always competing against each other. Wendell loves to point out how much better he is than Milo at everything (due mostly to the fact that he is, as he never lets Milo forget, an eighth of an inch taller than Milo, but that is the only way he is superior to him). A bit of a geek, Wendell always looks for a mathematical or scientific way to gain the upper hand over Milo. He later invents his own superheroic alter ego, Commander Whooping Crane (He chose this name because Whooping Cranes are taller than Flamingos by a good eighth of an inch) who almost replaced Milo as the neighbourhood hero until he got into trouble and had to be saved by CF. In the episode "Switch Hitch", where Milo and Wendell switched lives, Wendell seemed to have feelings for Lizbeth. However, these feelings were not given back. Wendell's last name is revealed to be Howell in "Scrambled Legs".
Tabitha (voiced by Rebecca Brenner) - Tabitha is a girl who has two settings: freaked out, and really freaked out. She is on life's fast track; every moment of every day is scheduled, and she plans to finish university and have an established medical career by the time most of us are just finishing breakfast. Tabitha's many playdates, lessons, and various 'opportunities for growth' keep her busy, frazzled, and close to implosion. But when someone's life moves as fast as hers does, things eventually slip—and the Captain is always there to pick up the pieces. Her dirty blonde frizzy hair is a simple indicator of her stress level. The more stressed she is, the wilder it gets - much to her dismay. She has a brother who loves drums and a toddler brother named Tucker who is into streaking!
Sanjay (voiced by Stacey DePass) - Easily distracted, Sanjay is an Indian-Canadian kid voted "Most likely to walk into a tree while following a bird call," or "Most likely to trip into a manhole while reading and jogging at the same time." In fact, he may not even notice that he is in the middle of being saved by the fearless yet focused Captain. He has nyctophobia.
Otto (voiced by Catherine Disher) - Otto could well be a genius....or he could be a complete wacko. We'll only know for sure after he has grown up. But for now, he builds robots that go bad, constructs alternate universes that spin out of his control, and collects rocks that include most of the planet's ore supply. But the Captain saves Otto frequently and unquestioningly—and might even consider him his favourite customer. Otto has a crush on Tabitha, but unfortunately, she finds him disgusting due to his bad habit of nose-picking.
Kirsten McBradden (voiced by Sugar Lyn Beard) - Kirsten is a red-headed sweet Irish Canadian girl who really believes in Captain Flamingo and is even doing a project on him for school and once became the subject of a play where only he had speaking lines. She asks him all sorts of fangirl questions, always proceeded by, "I was just wondering...", and like Lizbeth, she has a huge crush on Milo and often concocts fake troubles to get Milo to "rescue" her and to possibly spend time with him. Her crush on Milo seems to border a bit on the psychotic and Milo seems more aware of her crush than he is of Lizbeth's. Her last name was revealed to be McBradden in the episode "Bug Out".
Ruth-Ann (voiced by Annick Obonsawin) - Ruth is Lizbeth's doppelganger-like rival; her blonde hair is even parted on the opposite side of Lizbeth. Where Lizbeth is spunky, Ruth is a shrinking violet. Where Lizbeth is straightforward, Ruth is the queen of the backhanded compliment. Worse yet, Ruth has Milo wrapped around her finger, and she strings him along like she does all the other boys in town. Ruth makes Lizbeth seethe, and more than once Lizbeth has voted not to rescue her nemesis because Lizbeth knows if Ruth runs off with Milo's heart, she'll just break it. So she fights Ruth for her square-shaped boy every time. She is the most popular girl at school and tells people what is hot and what is not and has telekinetic powers. She wants to be an actress.
Minor
Mth Greegron Ifsqamineus Rasitrkk: (voiced by Julie Lemieux) Mth is a kid from an unknown country who calls Captain Flamingo over so he can help find the Globnick which means a friend (because he cannot speak English). Captain Flamingo befriends Mth in "The Globnick".
Thrasher: (voiced by Noam Zylberman) Thrasher is an Inuit kid who calls Captain Flamingo for help so he finds his missing electric guitar in "Flamingopalooza".
Warrior Monkey: (voiced by Juan Chioran) Warrior Monkey is a former circus monkey who turned evil after his abandonment in a pet shop. He blamed Captain Flamingo for all of his problems.
Episodes
Series overview
Season 1 (2006-2007)
Season 2 (2007)
Season 3 (2008)
Telecast and home media
Captain Flamingo was first premiered on YTV on February 7, 2006, and ended on April 17, 2008, with the final episode. In repeats, Canadian Nickeldoeon also aired from November 2, 2009 (launch date) until June 3, 2013.
In the U.S., Toon Disney premiered this show on January 28, 2008, at 8:30 AM, although it was initially going for broadcast during their Jetix programming block. Captain Flamingo was removed from the Toon Disney schedule on August 12, 2008, but returned on September 2 at 5:30 a.m. When Toon Disney was rebranded to Disney XD on February 13, 2009, Captain Flamingo was once again removed, and has not aired in the U.S. since the future years.
As of 2022, the show is now streaming on both Peacock and Tubi.
In May 2006, Jetix Europe acquired the European and Middle Eastern pay-TV rights, in addition to television distribution, (serviced by Buena Vista International Television on behalf of the network) home video and consumer product rights to the series in the said territories, except for Spain and Portugal. Therefore, it started airing on European channels of the network, excluding France, in Autumn 2006.
The three DVD releases of the show were released on June 29, 2011, only in region four. Each release contained only fourteen episodes from the first season. But other regional releases have not yet been released.
References
External links
Captain Flamingo at YTV.com
Official Fan Site
2000s Canadian animated television series
2006 Canadian television series debuts
2006 Philippine television series debuts
2008 Canadian television series endings
2008 Philippine television series endings
Animated television series about children
Anime-influenced Western animated television series
Canadian children's animated comedy television series
Canadian children's animated fantasy television series
Canadian children's animated superhero television series
Canadian flash animated television series
Canadian superhero comedy television series
Child superheroes
English-language television shows
Canadian fantasy comedy television series
Fictional characters with extrasensory perception
Philippine animated television series
Philippine children's television series
Philippine comedy television series
Philippine fantasy television series
Philippine flash animated television series
Television series by 9 Story Media Group
Television series by Corus Entertainment
Television shows set in Toronto
YTV (Canadian TV channel) original programming |
4234033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfa%20Romeo%20105/115%20Series%20Coup%C3%A9s | Alfa Romeo 105/115 Series Coupés | The Alfa Romeo 105 and 115 series coupés are a range of cars made by the Italian manufacturer Alfa Romeo from 1963 until 1977, based on a shortened floorpan from the Giulia saloon. They were the successors to the Giulietta Sprint coupé.
Bodywork
The basic body shape shared by all models was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro for Bertone. It was one of his first major projects for Bertone, and borrowed heavily from his earlier design for the Alfa Romeo 2000 Sprint/2600 Sprint. The balance of glass and metal, the influence of the shape of the front and rear glass on the shape of the cabin, and the flat grille with incorporated headlamps were groundbreaking styling features for the era.
A limited production (1000 units) convertible was a modification from the standard car by Touring of Milan, offered as a catalogue model by Alfa Romeo called the Giulia Sprint GTC.
A small number of the GT Junior Zagato were also built with a very different, aerodynamic two-seater coupé body designed by Ercole Spada for Zagato of Milan. These too were offered by Alfa Romeo as catalogue models, as the GT 1300 Junior Zagato and later GT 1600 Junior Zagato.
Mechanical features
All models feature the four cylinder, all-light-alloy Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine in various cubic capacities from 1290 cc to 1962 cc, all with two valves per cylinder. All versions of this engine fitted to the 105 series coupés featured twin carburetors, except for US market 1750 GTV and 2000 GTV cars which were fitted with mechanical port fuel injection by SPICA. Competition models featured cylinder heads with twin spark plugs. Common to all models was also a 5-speed manual transmission and solid disc brakes on all four wheels, although at South Africa's Brits plant a few automatic 2000 GTVs were made for the local market. These featured the three-speed ZF automatic transmission. The rear suspension uses a solid axle with coil springs. Air conditioning and a limited slip rear differential were optional on the later models. A limited slip differential was standard on the GTV 2000 for North America 1972–1974. Factory air conditioning was available on the 1973-1974 only in the USA.
Models
The 105 series coupés featured the GT (Gran Turismo) model description, which was common to all models in one form or another.
The various models in this range can be considered in two broad categories.
On one hand were the various Gran Turismos (GT) and Gran Turismo Veloces (GTV), (veloce is Italian for "fast"). These were meant to be the most sporting cars in the Alfa Romeo range and sold very well to enthusiastic motorists around the world. The first model available was the Giulia Sprint GT (1963) which evolved into the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce (1966), the 1750 GTV (1967) and the 2000 GTV (1972–1976), with engines increasing in cubic capacity from 1570 cc (Giulia Sprint GT/GTV) through 1779 cc (1750 GTV) to 1962 cc (2000 GTV). A limited production (1000 units) convertible, the Giulia Sprint GTC, was based on the Giulia Sprint GT, modified by Touring of Milan. It was only made over two years from 1964 to 1966.
On the other hand, was the GT Junior range, which featured engines with smaller cubic capacities. GT Juniors sold in great numbers to people who wanted a sporting, stylish car that handled well, but either did not require the maximum in engine power, or could not afford the taxation on larger engine capacities in some markets - most notably, Alfa Romeo's home Italian market. Junior models began with the first GT 1300 Junior in 1966. The GT 1300 Junior continued until 1976 with the 1290 cc engine and various modifications incorporating features from the evolution of the GT's and GTV's. From 1972 a GT 1600 Junior model was also available, with the 1570 cc engine.
The 1300 Junior and 1600 Junior also became available with a very different, aerodynamic two-seater coupé body designed by Ercole Spada for Zagato of Milan. These models were the GT 1300 Junior Zagato and GT 1600 Junior Zagato.
Both categories were used to derive GTA ("Alleggerita", or "lightened") models, which were specifically intended for competition homologation in their respective engine size classes. The GTA's featured extensive modifications for racing, so they were priced much higher than the standard models and sold in much smaller numbers. Practically all GTA's made were used in competition, where they had a long and successful history in various classes and category. These models included the Giulia Sprint GTA, GTA 1300 Junior, and GTAm (a much evolved version of the GTA built by Autodelta).
Although not commonly thought of as a 105 Series coupé variant, the Alfa Romeo Montreal used a strengthened and slightly modified 105 series floorpan and suspension.
GT and GTV models
Giulia Sprint GT (1963–1965)
Tipo: 105.02, 105.04 (right hand drive). Engine: 00502.
The Alfa Romeo Giulia Sprint GT was the first Giulia sport model introduced, and was manufactured from 1963 to 1965. It was revealed at a press event held at the then newly opened Arese plant on 9 September 1963, and displayed later the same month at the Frankfurt Motor Show. In its original form the Bertone body is known as scalino (step) or "step front", because of the leading edge of the engine compartment lid which sat above the nose of the car. The Giulia Sprint GT can be distinguished from the later models by the following features:
Exterior badging: Alfa Romeo logo on the front grille, a chrome script reading "Giulia Sprint GT" on the boot lid, and rectangular "Disegno di Bertone" badges aft of the front wheel arches.
Flat, chrome grille in plain, wide rectangular mesh without additional chrome bars.
Single-piece chrome bumpers; no overriders.
Inside the cabin the padded vinyl dashboard was characterised by a concave horizontal fascia, finished in grey anti-glare crackle-effect paint. Four round instruments were inset in the fascia in front of the driver. The larger diameter inner pair were tachometer and speedometer; the outer ones were smaller combination instruments, the left hand one holding oil pressure and fuel level gauges, the right hand one oil and water temperature gauges. The steering wheel was non-dished, with three aluminium spokes, a thin bakelite rim and a centre horn button. Vinyl-covered seats with cloth centres and a fully carpeted floor were standard, while leather upholstery was an extra-cost option.
The Sprint GT's could be ordered in the Bertone De Luxe body which included extra options. One of the extra options was leather seats. There were five leather seat colours available for the Sprint GT they were dark brown leather (pelle testa di moro), red leather (pelle rossa), black, grey and beige.
After initially marketing it as a four-seater, Alfa Romeo soon changed its definition of the car to a more realistic 2+2.
The Giulia Sprint GT was fitted with the 1570 cc displacement version of Alfa Romeo's all-aluminium twin cam inline four (78 mm bore × 82 mm stroke, 6.38 L oil sump, 7.41 L radiator), which had debuted on the 1962 Giulia Berlina. Breathing through two twin-choke Weber carburettors, on the Sprint GT this engine produced or at 6000 rpm. Like all subsequent models, the Sprint GT was equipped with an all-synchromesh 5-speed manual transmission. The braking system comprised four Brembo disc brakes and a vacuum servo. The rear brakes featured an unusual arrangement with the slave cylinders mounted on the axle tubes, operating the calipers by a system of levers and cranks. According to Alfa Romeo the car could reach a top speed of "over "; Italian car magazine Quattroruote observed a top speed of in its December 1964 road test.
In total Giulia Sprint GT were produced from 1963 to 1965, when the model was superseded by the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce. Of these were right hand drive: 1,354 cars fully finished in Arese, and 920 shipped in complete knock-down kit form for foreign assembly.
Giulia GTC (1964–1966)
Tipo: 105.25, 105.29 (right hand drive). Engine: 00502.
The Alfa Romeo Giulia GTC was a cabriolet version of the Giulia Sprint GT only offered between 1965 and 1966, and built in around 1,000 examples. While entering production in 1964, the cabriolet was introduced to the press (together with the Giulia Super) at the Monza race track on 4 March 1965, and then made its public debut at the March 1965 Geneva Motor Show.
The Giulia GTC was based on the coupé's body and parts, maintaining the same specifications and performance, with the cabriolet modification being carried out by Carrozzeria Touring of Milan.
Besides the convertible top, distinguishing features are the dashboard finished in black instead of grey crackle paint, and a script reading "Giulia GTC" on the boot lid. The 2+2 seating layout was retained. To restore some of the bodyshell rigidity lost by removing the fixed roof and pillars, Carrozzeria Touring added reinforcement to several areas of the bodyshell. Through the production life of the model, several modifications to the reinforcement applied were made by Touring, apparently in an effort to increase the rigidity of the body. Carrozzeria Touring was in financial trouble when the Giulia GTC was introduced; the company went out of business shortly after production of this model ended.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; text-align:center;"
|+
! Model || 1964 || 1965 || 1966 || 1964–66
|-
| Giulia GTC (LHD) || 106 || 548 || 247 ||
|-
| Giulia GTC (RHD) || — || 54 || 45 ||
|-
! Total
| 106 || || ||
|}
Giulia Sprint GT Veloce (1965–1968)
Tipo: 105.36, 105.37 (right hand drive). Engine: 00536.
In 1966 the Giulia Sprint GT was replaced by the Alfa Romeo Giulia Sprint GT Veloce, very similar but featuring a number of improvements: a revised engine—slightly more powerful and with more torque—better interior fittings and changes to the exterior trim. The Sprint GT Veloce was introduced at the 36th Geneva Motor Show in March 1966, and then tested by the international specialist press in Gardone on the Garda Lake. Production began in 1965 and ended in 1968.
The Giulia Sprint GT Veloce can be most easily distinguished from other models by the following features:
Badging as per Giulia Sprint GT, with the addition of round enamel badges on the C-pillar—a green Quadrifoglio (four-leaf clover) on an ivory background—and a chrome "Veloce" script on the tail panel.
Black mesh grille with three horizontal chrome bars.
Grille heart has 7 bars instead of 6.
Stainless steel bumpers, as opposed to the chromed mild steel bumpers on the Giulia Sprint GT. The bumpers are the same shape, but are made in two pieces (front) and three pieces (rear) with small covers hiding the joining rivets.
Inside the main changes from the Giulia Sprint GT were imitation wood dashboard fascia instead of the previous anti-glare grey finish, front seats revised to a mild "bucket" design, and a dished three aluminium spoke steering wheel, with a black rim and horn buttons through the spokes.
The Veloce's type 00536 engine, identical to the Spider 1600 Duetto's, featured modifications compared to the Giulia Sprint GT's type 00502—such as larger diameter () exhaust valves.
As a result, it produced or at 6,000 rpm, an increase of over the previous model, and significantly more torque. According to the manufacturer top speed now exceeded .
Early Giulia Sprint GT Veloces featured the same Dunlop disc brake system as the Giulia Sprint GT, while later cars substituted ATE disc brakes as pioneered on the GT 1300 Junior in 1966. The ATE brakes featured a handbrake system entirely separate from the pedal brakes, using drum brakes incorporated in the rear disc castings.
The Veloce's could be ordered in the Bertone De Luxe body option which included extra options. One of the extra options was a leather interior. The only leather colours available for the Veloce were dark brown leather (pelle testa di moro) or red leather (pelle rossa). The seat panels had perforations in the leather.
There were three versions of the GT Veloce 1600 Version 1 (FIA 5126 Group 1, early): Had deep rear arches and Dunlop brakes front and rear. Version 2:(Referred to as Group 2 in FIA 5126). Had deep rear arches and ATE adapters on the front Dunlop uprights to take ATE calipers. The rear axle had ATE calipers. The Group 2 (Version 2) cars were built with limited slips diffs and with different ratios in the gearbox and a selection of wheel widths 5", 5.5" and 6" on a 15" diameter rim as well as some other features. Version 3 (FIA 5126 Group 1, late): Had high arches and solid ATE uprights, with no adapters as seen in the article in Classic Cars magazine page 88 April 1997. The rear axle had ATE calipers. Production of the GT Veloce 1600 started in 1965 for LHD cars and 1966 for RHD cars.
There were only 6 colors for the interior seats of the GT Veloce 1600. Two colors for leather were dark brown or red, plus two colors for vinyl they were mid grey (nero fumo) or light tan (cuoio) and two colors for a cloth/vinyl combination grey/mid grey (panno grigio unito-finta pelle nero fumo) and light tan/tan (panno cammello-finta pelle cuoio). There were only 4 colours for the door cards two for leather: dark brown leather (pelle testa di moro) or red leather (pelle rossa) and two for vinyl they were mid grey (nero fumo) or light tan (cuoio). Sources FIA documents, Alfa Romeo Italian language parts catalogue, Classic Cars magazine 1997 and Steve105:{moderator for Alfabb}.
https://www.alfabb.com/threads/105-leather-deluxe-option.227305/#post-4667561
There were only two colors for the carpet mid grey (colore nero fumo) or red (colore rosso). No documentary evidence exists (in the Italian language) that black leather or black vinyl or black cloth was used on the seats or door cards was ever used by the Alfa Romeo factory in the GT Veloce 1600. No documentary evidence exists (in the Italian language) that black carpet was ever used by the Alfa Romeo factory in the GT Veloce 1600. No evidence exist to date via Italian parts catalogue or a Certificate of origin for a GT Veloce 1600 (in the Italian language) that states GT Veloce 1600 had a black (nero) interior or an aramanto or rosso interior in vinyl. Sources Alfa Romeo Italian language parts catalogue and Steve105:{moderator for Alfabb}.
Though the Sprint GT Veloce's replacement—the 1750 GT Veloce—was introduced in 1967, production continued throughout the year and thirty final cars were completed in 1968. By then total Giulia Sprint GT Veloce production amounted to examples. 1,407 of these were right hand drive cars, and 380 right hand drive complete knock-down kits.
1750 GT Veloce (1967–1972)
Tipo: 105.44, 105.45 (right hand drive), 105.51 (USA).
Engine: 00548, 00571 (USA).
The Alfa Romeo 1750 GT Veloce (also known as 1750 GTV) entered production in late 1967 along with the 1750 Berlina sedan and 1750 Spider. The cars were first shown to the press in January 1968. The same type of engine was used to power all three versions; this rationalisation was a first for Alfa Romeo.
The 1750 GTV replaced the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce and introduced many updates and modifications. Most significantly, the engine capacity was increased to 1779 cc displacement (80 mm bore × 88.5 mm stroke, 6.61l oil capacity, 9.58l radiator capacity). Peak power from the engine was increased to at 5500 rpm. The stroke was lengthened from 82 to 88.5 mm over the 1600 engine, and a reduced rev limit from 7000 rpm to 6000 rpm. Maximum torque was increased to at 3000 rpm. A higher ratio final drive was fitted (10/41 instead of 9/41) but the same gearbox ratios were retained. The result was that, on paper, the car had only slightly improved performance compared to the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce, but on the road it was much more flexible to drive and it was easier to maintain higher average speeds for fast touring. For the United States market, the 1779 cc engine was fitted with a fuel injection system made by Alfa Romeo subsidiary SPICA, to meet emission control laws that were coming into effect at the time. Fuel injection was also featured on Canadian market cars after 1971. Carburetors were retained for other markets.
The chassis was also significantly modified. Tire size went to 165/14 Pirelli Cinturato or Michelin XAS from 155/15 Pirelli Cinturato and wheel size to 5 1/2J x 14 instead of 5J x 15, giving a wider section and slightly smaller rolling diameter. The suspension geometry was also revised, and an anti-roll bar was fitted to the rear suspension. ATE disc brakes were fitted from the outset, but with bigger front discs and calipers than the ones fitted to GT 1300 Juniors and late Giulia Sprint GT Veloces. The changes resulted in significant improvements to the handling and braking, which once again made it easier for the driver to maintain high average speeds for fast touring.
The 1750 GTV also departed significantly from the earlier cars externally. New nose styling eliminated the "stepped" hood of the Giulia Sprint GT, GTC, GTA and early GT 1300 Juniors and incorporated four headlamps. For the 1971 model year, United States market 1750 GTV's also featured larger rear light clusters (there were no 1970 model year Alfas on the US market). Besides the chrome "1750" badge on the bootlid, there was also a round Alfa Romeo badge. Similar Quadrifoglio badges to those on the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce were fitted on C pillars, but the Quadrifoglio was coloured gold instead of green. The car also adopted the higher rear wheelarches first seen on the GT 1300 Junior.
The interior was also much modified over that of earlier cars. There was a new dashboard with large speedometer and tachometer instruments in twin binnacles closer to the driver's line of sight. The instruments were mounted at a more conventional angle, avoiding the reflections caused by the upward angled flat dash of earlier cars. Conversely, auxiliary instruments were moved to angled bezels in the centre console, further from the driver's line of sight than before. The new seats introduced adjustable headrests which merged with the top of the seat when fully down. The window winder levers, the door release levers and the quarterlight vent knobs were also restyled. The remote release for the boot (trunk) lid, located on the inside of the door opening on the B-post just under the door lock striker, was moved from the right hand side of the car to the left hand side. The location of this item was always independent of whether the car was left hand drive or right hand drive.
Early (Series 1) 1750 GTV's featured the same bumpers as the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce, with the front bumper modified to mount the indicator / sidelight units on the top of its corners, or under the bumper on US market cars.
The Series 2 1750 GTV of 1970 introduced other mechanical changes, including a dual circuit braking system (split front and rear, with separate servos). The brake and clutch pedals on left hand drive cars were also of an improved pendant design, instead of the earlier floor-hinged type. On right hand drive cars the floor-hinged pedals were retained, as there was no space for the pedal box behind the carburetors. Externally, the series 2 1750 GTV is identified by new, slimmer bumpers with front and rear overriders. The combined front indicator and sidelight units were now mounted to the front panel instead of the front bumper, except again on the 1971-72 US/Canadian market cars. The interior was slightly modified, with the seats retaining the same basic outline but following a simpler design.
According to some, 44,269 1750 GTVs were made before their replacement came along. Others calculate it as 32,265 1750 GTVs, due to two typographic errors of Fusi's famous reference book. There were 1,542 AR 105 44 cars built rather than 11,542{in 1970 see explanation below}.
The GT Veloce 1750 Series 1 could be ordered in the Bertone De Luxe body which included extra options. One of the extra options was a leather interior (seats and door cards). The only leather colours available for the GT Veloce 1750 Series 1 were dark brown leather (pelle testa di moro) or red leather (pelle rossa). The seats had perforations in the leather. Source Alfa Romeo parts manual and Steve105:{moderator for Alfabb}.
There were a total of at least 32,265 1750 GTV cars not 44,269, this can be explained by how you interpret two typographic errors of Fusi's book on pages 844 and 845 see ref 3. To summarize the correction for 1970 there were 1,542 AR 105 44 cars built not 11,542. Source Alfa Romeo parts manual Fusi's book and Steve105:{moderator for Alfabb}.
The 1750 GTV could race under FIA rules with aluminium doors and boot lid. The 1750 GTV was allowed to have aluminium doors and boot lid in one of two ways. The first way was to use any 1750 GTV LHD car (starting from body number AR 1350001) or 1750 GTV RHD car (starting from body number AR 1450001) and then use homologation FIA 1565 Group 2 plus the FIA rules of 1st Jan 1970 and have them installed to run in FIA Group 2 in 1970/71. The second way was to use any 1750 GTV USA LHD car (starting from body number AR 1350001) that had been homologated as a GTAm and this time use the homologation FIA 1576 Group 2 variation 3/2V and have them installed to run in FIA Group 2 in 1970/71. In 1972 FIA rules changed and 1750 GTVs could not race with aluminium doors and boot lid in FIA events. Source Alfa Romeo parts manual and Steve105:{moderator for Alfabb}.
South Africa continued production of the 1750 until 1977 at the Rosslyn assembly plant. A total of 1138 South African (right hand drive) 1750s were assembled and sold in South Africa including 240 first series 1750s.
2000 GT Veloce (1971–1977)
Tipo: 105.21, 105.22 (right hand drive), 115.01 (USA).Engine: 00512, 01500 (USA).The Alfa Romeo 2000 GT Veloce (also known as 2000 GTV) was introduced in 1971 together with the 2000 Berlina sedan and 2000 Spider. The 2000 range was the replacement for the 1750 range. Once again the engine was rationalized throughout the range. The engine displacement was increased to 1962 cc with a change of the bore and stroke to 84 mm × 88.5 mm. Oil and radiator capacities remained unchanged. The engine produced at 5500 rpm with the SPICA fuel injection, which, once again, was only fitted to cars destined for the United States and Canadian markets, with carburetors retained for other markets producing officially the same power.
The interior trim was also changed, with the most notable differences being the introduction of a separate instrument cluster, instead of the gauges installed in the dash panel in earlier cars. Externally the 2000 GTV is most easily distinguished by the following features:
Grille with horizontal chrome bars, featuring protruding blocks forming the familiar Alfa shield in outline.
Smaller hubcaps with exposed wheel nuts.
Optional magnesium alloy wheels manufactured by Cromodora or Campagnolo of the same size as the standard 5. 1/2J × 14 steel items, styled to the "turbina" design first seen on the alloy wheels of the Alfa Romeo Montreal. "Turbina" refers to the wheel's resemblance to a jet engine inlet.
The larger rear light clusters first fitted to United States market 1750 GTV's were standard for all markets on the 2000 GTV. USA market rear turn signals were red instead of yellow on non-USA models. The side marker lamps were larger and did not have a turn signal flash feature.
From 1974 on, the 105 Series coupé models were rationalized and these external features became common to post-1974 GT 1300 Junior and GT 1600 Junior models, with only few distinguishing features marking the difference between models. The last GTV model year was 1974 for the USA. According to Marco Fazio of Alfa Romeo, the very last 1974 model year USA models were actually produced in early 1975. They could not meet 1975 USA safety and emissions regulations and thus they were brought in as model year 1974 despite carrying 1975 certificates of origin.
37,459 2000 GTVs were made before production ended.
In 1972 FIA rules changed so the 2L GTV could not race with aluminium doors and boot lid in FIA events. Source Alfa Romeo parts manual, FIA documents and Steve105.
Production ceased in 1976, though it continued until 1977 in South Africa at the Rosslyn assembly plant with a further 25 2000 GTV's (all right hand drive).
GT Junior models
GT 1300 Junior (1965–1977)Tipo: 105.30, 105.31 (right hand drive).Engine: 00530 (1965–74), 00530/S (1974 on).The Alfa Romeo GT 1300 Junior was the entry model to the Alfa Romeo coupé range. It was introduced in 1965 as the replacement for the 101 series Giulia Sprint 1300, which was the final development of the Giulietta Sprint series.
The GT 1300 Junior was fitted with the 1300 (1290 cc) twin cam engine (74 mm bore × 75 mm stroke), as fitted to the Giulietta series cars, but revised for the 105 series with reduced port sizes and other modifications. The smaller engine was introduced in order to allow buyers to choose an Alfa Romeo coupé while avoiding the higher taxes on the models with larger engine capacity, especially in Alfa Romeo's home Italian market.
The performance was low-end compared to others in its model line, with a total of . However, the GT 1300 Junior's top speed of over 100 mph and 0-60 mph time of 12.6 seconds were very good for a fully appointed coupé with an engine of only 1300 cc displacement.
The GT 1300 Junior was in production for over a decade. Throughout this period it was updated by the factory, incorporating many of the same revisions applied to the larger-engined models.
The first GT 1300 Juniors produced were based on the Giulia Sprint GT, with a simpler interior. The major external identifying feature was the black grille with just one horizontal chrome bar. The same 9/41 final drive ratio was maintained, but with a shorter 5th gear ratio of 0.85, instead of 0.79 as on all the other 105 Series coupés.
Together with the Giulia 1300 Ti, the GT 1300 Junior pioneered the use of ATE disc brakes as later fitted throughout the 105 series, replacing the Dunlop discs on earlier cars. The first few GT 1300 Juniors lacked a brake servo, and had the low rear wheelarches of the Giulia Sprint GT and Giulia Sprint GTV. From 1967, a servo was fitted as standard, together with higher rear wheelarches as adopted later on the 1750 GTV.
There were two versions of the ATE brakes: The first version consisted of an ATE adapter 105.14.22.103.03/04 on Dunlop front uprights (105.14.21.010.00,105.14.21.011.00) using an ATE caliper also optioned on the GT Veloce 1600 in 1967 (on 1000 cars as per group 2, FIA). The second version consisted of one piece ATE uprights 105.14.21.010.03, 105.14.21.011.03 with no adapter plate using an ATE caliper. Fusi's book on page 846 lists 340 RHD GT 1300 Juniors were made in 1972. Record exist on the Classic Alfa Romeo register of a RHD GT 1300 Junior which was made and delivered to the UK in 1972 AR 1296169. The 1300 GTj could not race under FIA rules with aluminium doors and boot lid. Source FIA documents, Alfa Romeo parts manual, Fusi's book and Steve105.
In 1968, concurrently with the replacement of the Giulia Sprint GT Veloce by the 1750 GTV, the GT 1300 Junior was revised with many of the new parts from the 1750 GTV. This included the dashboard, the suspension and the new wheel size of 5½ × 14J instead of 4½ × 15J. This revised GT 1300 Junior, however, retained the early "step-front" body style, which makes it the most mechanically refined production "step-front" model. Another intriguing detail is that, just as on the 1750 GTV, the remote release for the boot (trunk) lid, located on the inside of the door opening on the B-post just under the door lock striker, was moved from the right hand side of the car to the left hand side. The location of this item was always independent of whether the car was left hand drive or right hand drive. This series of GT 1300 Junior was the only model with the step-front bodyshell to have this item mounted on the left hand side. All other step-front models - Giulia Sprint GT, Giulia Sprint GT Veloce, and early GT 1300 Junior with flat dashboard - featured this item on the right hand side.
In 1968 the RHD GT 1300 Juniors still retained their flat top dash.
From 1968 onward, Alfa Romeo models for the US market were fitted with fuel injection systems instead of carburetors to comply with emissions control legislation. The only 105 Series models in which the classic twin-cam engine was fitted with fuel injection were the US market 1750 range, and the US market 2000 range which replaced the 1750s in mid-1972. No 105/115 series coupe models with 1300 or 1600cc engines were ever made with fuel injection.
In 1970 the Junior was revised a second time, and received the same nose treatment as the 1750 GTV, without the step but with only two headlights.
For 1972, new wheels featuring smaller hubcaps with exposed wheel nuts like those on the 2000 GTV were fitted. At the same time, the GT 1600 Junior was introduced alongside the GT 1300 Junior. The GT 1300 Junior was discontinued for the right hand drive UK market but continued to be available in other right hand drive markets.
From 1974 the GT1300 Junior and GT1600 Junior were both rationalised into a common range with the 2000 GTV and were rebadged as 1.3 GT Junior and 1.6 GT Junior. See below.
GT 1600 Junior (1972–1976)Tipo: 115.03 (1972–74), 105.05 (right hand drive), 115.34 (1974 on).Engine: 00536 (1972–74), 00526/AS (1974 on).The Alfa Romeo GT 1600 Junior was introduced in 1972, to plug the gap between the GT 1300 Junior and the larger-engined 2000 GTV. In the UK right-hand-drive market the GT 1300 Junior was dropped, but in many other markers the two models were available as a range. The engine was substantially the same as that of the Giulia Sprint GTV discontinued four years previously, and had the same engine type number. The final drive ratio was again 9/41 as standard on all 105 Series coupés with the 1290 cc and 1570 cc engine.
Record exist on the Classic Alfa Romeo register of a RHD GT 1300 Junior which was made and delivered to the UK in 1972 AR 1296169.
From 1974 on, the GT 1300 Junior and GT 1600 Junior were rationalised into a common range of models with the 2000 GTV and were rebadged as 1.3 GT Junior and 1.6 GT Junior, sharing most of the interior and exterior features with the larger-engined car. The only exterior differences were no bumper over-riders, lack of C-pillar green serpent badges, small rear light clusters same as pre-'74 Juniors and GT 1300 Junior or GT 1600 Junior badge on the boot. Apart from the engine size, the only mechanical differences were: smaller front brakes, as the Juniors had not adopted the larger units fitted to the 1750 GTV and 2000 GTV from 1968 on, differential ratios (Junior models 4.55:1, 2000 GTV 4.1:1) and 5th gear ratio (GT 1300 Junior 0.85:1, all other Alfa Romeo 105 models 0.79:1).
The GT Junior has a tight suspension and weighed in at just for the 1.3 variant. Because of this, the car would often go onto three wheels, lifting the inside front wheel off the road when driven enthusiastically.
Production ended in 1976-77 and totalled 91,964 units of 1.3 lt. Juniors and 13,120 units of the 1.6 lt. Juniors.
Junior Z (1969–72) and 1600 Junior Z (1972–75)Tipo: 105.93 (Junior Z), 115.24 (1600 Junior Z).Engine: 00530 (Junior Z), 00536.S (1600 Junior Z).The Alfa Romeo Junior Z was a limited production two-seater coupé with aerodynamic bodywork by Zagato of Milan. The kamm tail wedge-shaped body was designed by Ercole Spada at Zagato. The rear boot lid could be opened a crack (electrically operated) so as to aid in cabin ventilation. The Junior Z was introduced at the 51st Turin Motor Show in November 1969. Unlike Zagato's earlier, race-oriented and aluminium-bodied Giulietta SZ which had a very active competition history, the Junior Z was not specifically intended for racing and did not see much use in competition.
The Junior Z had a steel bodyshell with an aluminium bonnet and, on the earlier Junior Z, aluminium doorskins. The car was based on the floorpan, driveline and suspension of the Alfa Romeo Spider 1300 Junior. The platform was manufactured at Pininfarina factory and transferred to the coachbuilder Maggiora to be bodied, and then sent to Zagato. However the floorpan was shortened behind the rear wheels to fit the short rear overhang of the Zagato bodywork. The engine was the same 1290 cc twin cam with two twin-choke carburettors of the GT 1300 Junior and Spider 1300 Junior. It produced or at 6000 rpm, giving the car a top speed of . In the cabin driver and passenger were seated in highly bolstered bucket seats with incorporated headrests. Two large round instruments, tachometer and speedometer, faced the driver; three more auxiliary gauges were in the middle of the Zagato-designed dashboard. The steering wheel was the same two-spoke, plastic rimmed one of the other Junior models.
In total 1,117 examples were built, of which 2 bodyshells were destroyed during production because they were not within specification. Production of the Junior Z continued through 1972, and was replaced by the 1.6-litre 1600 Junior Z at the end of the year; although according to the records two more 1.3-litre cars were completed in 1972.
The 1600 Junior Z was launched at the 54th Turin Motor Show in November 1972. In this case the car was based on the unaltered floorpan of the 1600 Spider, so that the standard sized fuel tank could be left in place. As a consequence, at 4 metres long the 1600 Junior Z measured more than the 1300. This can be seen at the back where the sloping roofline runs further back and the back panel is different and lower. The lower part of the rear bumper features a bulge to make room for the spare tire. The 1570 cc engine with two twin-choke carburettors had an output or at 6000 rpm. Top speed rose to .
Besides the longer tail, a number of exterior details distinguished the 1600 Junior Z from the previous model: the arched front bumper was bulkier, the fuel filler was moved to the left hand side, the tail lights were larger items sourced from the 2000 Berlina, the door handles had black plastic housings, and the exhaust pipe was down turned. Badging on the tail now read "1600 Z" instead of "Junior Z". Inside the steering wheel was now a wood rimmed one, with horn buttons through the three metal spokes. In total 402 examples of the 1600 were made, the last one being produced in 1973; the cars were then sold until 1975.
GTA models
Giulia Sprint GTA (1965–1969)Tipo: 105.32 (Alfa Romeo), 105.02/A (IGM homologation), 105.34 (right hand drive). Engine: 00502/A or 00532/A (identical save for no. prefix.).The Alfa Romeo GTA retained the external form of the Giulia Sprint GT, but was constructed with aluminium external panels replacing the standard steel panels. The 'A' stood for "Alleggerita", Italian for "lightened". The engine was based on that of the standard 1600 cc car with a new, twin-plug head and Weber 45DCOE carburettors. The sump, camshaft cover, timing cover and clutch housing were in lightweight magnesium alloy instead of the standard aluminium alloy. Many other measures were also taken to lighten the car, and tune it for racing. All GTA's had the lower rear wheelarches as fitted to the Giulia Sprint GT's and GTV's, and very early GT 1300 Juniors. The GTA was available from the factory as a high-performance car for the road or racing. Unmodified cars in factory trim have come to be known as "GTA Stradale" but few were sold in this form. Most customers were racers and had them further modified and tuned before delivery by Autodelta, which had become a wholly owned Alfa Romeo subsidiary running its competition department.
GTA 1300 Junior (1968–1975)Tipo: 105.59. Engine: 00559.The Alfa Romeo GTA 1300 Junior (Tipo 105.59) was based on the early step-front GT 1300 Junior, incorporating the same modifications as the GTA. Its engine was not based on the standard 1300 cc motor but was instead based on the 1600cc GTA engine with the same bore but a shorter stroke (67.5 instead of 82 mm). Unlike the GTA, the GTA 1300 Junior featured the higher rear wheelarches as first seen on the GT 1300 Junior and later adopted for the 1750 GTV. Once again the GTA 1300 Junior was available as a standard car from Alfa Romeo, but most were modified by Autodelta for racing before delivery. Production of the GTAJ continued through 1975.
GTAm
The Alfa Romeo 1750 GTAm (later called 2000 GTAm when the 2000 GTV was introduced) appeared in 1969. Unlike the Giulia Sprint GTA and GTA 1300 Junior, The GTAm was not built by Alfa Romeo, was never available from the factory and was never issued its own Tipo number. There have been two schools of thought about the origin of the "Am" moniker, one explaining Am as standing for "Alleggerita maggiorata" (Italian: lightened enlarged, referring to the lightened body and enlarged cylinder capacity) and the other as standing for "America". Marco Fazio of the Alfa Romeo Documentazione Storico confirmed on the Spettacolo Sportivo in September 2011 that "America" is the official type name.
The GTAm was initially built by Autodelta and was based on the US version of the 1750 GTV (Tipo 105.51) which was fitted with a SPICA mechanical fuel injection system to meet US emissions regulations. The GTAm used the extra full-throttle power which the injection system could develop for racing. Some GTAm's were converted from European-spec carburettor-induction 1750 GTV's (Tipo 105.44) and retrofitted with the injection system. The chassis are therefore numbered randomly from the ranges assigned to Tipo 105.51 and Tipo 105.44 cars (the chassis numbers do not start with 105.51 or 105.44; the chassis numbers were separate from the Tipo numbers in the 105 and 115 series Alfas). The customer had to either buy a 1750 GTV at the factory or use an existing car. The car would be shipped to Autodelta to be converted to a GTAm (which was available in various levels of tune to suit various rules and classes of competition).
Besides the cars built by Autodelta, some racing teams and private workshops ordered parts from Autodelta and other tuners and assembled the cars themselves on a new or existing bodyshell. Because of this, and of the lack of a specific chassis number series, the total number of GTAm's built is difficult to verify. According to sources, a total of some 40 were built by Autodelta and other racing workshops.
As in the GTA and GTA 1300 Junior, the engine had a special cylinder head with twin spark plugs per cylinder in contrast to the standard car's single plugs, but this time the head was to a new design having a much smaller included angle between the valves than in previous Alfa engines. The original 1750 engine block was used, and by inserting a monosleeve instead of four individual cylinder liners, the capacity was enlarged from the standard 1779 cc to 1985 cc and later to 1999 cc. The GTAm (1969–1971) could produce up to .
Unlike the GTA and GTA Junior, in which all the outer body panels were made of aluminium alloy instead of the standard car's steel, the GTAm retained the standard steel body modified with some aluminium and/or plastic parts. Because of an increased minimum weight in 1971 (up from 920 to 940 kg), the GTAm's had less need for lightweight body parts.
For a clearer understanding of how the GTAm was built you need to check the competition rules in the period the GTAm raced, i.e. the FIA rules for 1970/71/72 plus homologation FIA 1576 Group 2 document. The twin spark engine for the GTAm was first homologated using FIA 1576 G2 variation 3/2V 1st Jan 1970. In 1972 FIA rules changed and the GTAm could not race with aluminium doors and boot lid in FIA events.
Notes
References
Alfa Romeo GT 1300 Junior Instruction Book, Alfa Romeo
Alfa Romeo Giulia, GT, Spider Owners Workshop Manual, Autobooks,
Style Auto Number nr.23 4/1969'', Style Auto Editrice
External links
Pictures of Alfa Romeo Gulia GTC (right wheel)
105 115 Series Coupes
Bertone vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Coupés
Sports cars
Cars introduced in 1963
1970s cars |
4234204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pink%20Panther%20Show | The Pink Panther Show | The Pink Panther Show is a showcase of animated shorts produced by David H. DePatie and Friz Freleng between 1969 and 1978, starring the animated Pink Panther character from the opening credits of the live-action films. The series was produced by Mirisch Films and DePatie–Freleng Enterprises, and was broadcast Saturday mornings on two American television networks: from September 6, 1969, to September 2, 1978, on NBC; and from September 9, 1978, to August 30, 1980, on ABC.
History
Format
When The Pink Panther Show first aired in 1969, it consisted of one cartoon featuring The Inspector, sandwiched by two Pink Panther entries. Due to the number of shorts produced, two episodes feature a Pink Panther cartoon sandwiched by two Inspector entries. The 30-minute show was then connected via bumper sequences featuring both the panther and Inspector together, with announcer Marvin Miller acting as an off-camera narrator talking to the panther. Bumper sequences consisted of newly animated segments as well as recycled footage from existing cartoons We Give Pink Stamps, Reel Pink, Pink Outs and Super Pink, fitted with new incidental music and voice-over work from Miller.
Pink Panther shorts that were produced after 1969 (starting with A Fly in the Pink) were made for both broadcast and theatrical release, typically appearing on television first, and released to theaters by United Artists. A number of new series were created, including the very popular The Ant and the Aardvark, Tijuana Toads (a.k.a. Texas Toads), Hoot Kloot, Misterjaw, Roland and Rattfink, The Dogfather and two Tijuana Toads spinoffs: The Blue Racer and Crazylegs Crane. The New Pink Panther Show and later shows featured newly animated bumper segments involving the Panther, the Ant and the Aardvark, Misterjaw, and the Texas Toads.
By this time, due to the violent nature of some of the cartoons, they were re-edited for television by omitting the cartoon violent scenes from their broadcasts, in order to make them more family friendly.
In 1976, the half-hour series was revamped into a 90-minute format, as It's the All New Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show Introducing Misterjaw; this version included a live-action segment, where comedian Lenny Schultz would read letters and jokes from viewers. This version performed poorly and eventually reverted to the original 30-minute version in 1977 as Think Pink Panther.
After nine years on NBC, the Pink Panther moved to ABC in 1978 and was retitled The All New Pink Panther Show and Pink Panther Encore, where it lasted two seasons before leaving the network realm entirely. The tenth season featured 16 episodes with 32 new Pink Panther cartoons, and 16 featuring Crazylegs Crane: no bumpers were produced for The All New Pink Panther Show, but 10 second "Stay tuned..." bumpers explaining an upcoming entry were produced for the first several episodes. The 32 All New Pink Panther Show entries were eventually released to theaters by United Artists.
Theme music
Henry Mancini composed "The Pink Panther Theme" for the live action films, which would be used extensively in the cartoon series as well. Doug Goodwin composed the show's opening title music while William Lava and Walter Greene composed music scores heard throughout the cartoons, many of which were variations on Mancini's "Pink Panther Theme".
Laugh track
By the time of the show's 1969 debut, fitting cartoon and children's shows with a laugh track was standard practice. In keeping with this standard, NBC added a laugh track to all seasons of The Pink Panther Show, marking the first time in history that theatrical films were fitted with a laugh track for television broadcast (Season 2 utilized an inferior laugh track, utilizing isolated laugh clips from Season 1). This was an anomaly, as other theatrical cartoon series that were aired successfully on television (i.e. Tom and Jerry, Woody Woodpecker, Looney Tunes, Popeye) did not receive this addition.
The soundtracks were restored to their original theatrical form in 1982 when the DFE theatrical package went into syndication. Repackaging over the years has resulted in both theatrical and television versions of the entries being available. The exceptions were Misterjaw and Crazylegs Crane, which were produced specifically for television and never re-released theatrically, resulting in laughter-only versions. The U.S.-based Boomerang occasionally airs versions with the laugh track intact, though these versions are more commonly found outside of the U.S., such as on the BBC Two repeats circa 2011 in the United Kingdom, The Spanish language Boomerang requires that MGM supply them with laugh track-only versions of all shorts. The Portuguese language Boomerang, France-based Gulli, and Poland channels TV 4 and TV6 also broadcast certain entries utilizing laugh track versions.
Incarnations
Over its 10 years on various television networks, The Pink Panther Show had a variety of names:
The Pink Panther Show (1969–1970, also considered the umbrella title of the series)
The New Pink Panther Show (1971–1974)
The Pink Panther and Friends (1974–1976)
It's the All New Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show Introducing Misterjaw (1976–1977)
Think Pink Panther (1977–1978)
The All New Pink Panther Show (1978–1979)
Pink Panther Encore (1979–1980)
The Pink Panther Show (1980, Syndicated)
Syndication
United Artists Television syndicated The Pink Panther Show in 1980, complete with bumpers and laugh-tracked versions of the shorts. By 1982, MGM Television began syndicating some individual cartoons to local stations to air them as they saw fit. This format did not contain the series' bumpers nor the laugh track.
The following series were included in MGM Television's syndication package:
The Pink Panther
The Inspector
The Ant and the Aardvark
Tijuana Toads/Texas Toads
Misterjaw (made-for-television series)
The following series were not included in the MGM Television distribution package:
Roland and Rattfink
The Blue Racer
Hoot Kloot
The Dogfather
Crazylegs Crane (made-for-television series)
Most television stations aired the later package released in 1982, featuring the cartoon shorts by themselves, isolated from the show's original bumpers sequences. The laugh track was also silenced on all entries except for Misterjaw. Chicago-based WGN-TV was one of the few stations to air the 1980 The Pink Panther Show syndication package. Conversely, New York City-based WPIX featured a stripped-down version of the shorts, airing the entries without the laugh track, bumpers, or theatrical opening/closing credits.
Reruns
The Pink Panther Show (1969–1971) and The New Pink Panther Show (1971–1974) has been remastered in its original format. It was previously shown on BBC Two, UK Gold, BBC One, Boomerang (2000–2009) and Cartoon Network (1993–2002). In the late 2000s, it aired in Canada on Teletoon Retro weekday mornings at 8:00am. Teletoon Retro showed all 32 episodes of The Pink Panther Show with the panther and the Inspector, all 17 episodes of The New Pink Panther Show with the panther and the Ant and the Aardvark, and select episodes of the first syndicated Pink Panther Show series (only those episodes with the middle cartoon being an Ant and Aardvark). Teletoon Retro then showed all 16 episodes of The All New Pink Panther Show, with the panther and Crazylegs Crane. The laugh track is muted for most entries.
The episodes shown on Teletoon Retro also featured remastered versions, while the wrap-around content was in rougher condition. The Inspector cartoon, Tour de Farce, had the wrong title card, that for Reaux, Reaux, Reaux Your Boat.
Cartoon Network reran The Pink Panther Show from 1997 to 1999, and intermittently in 2006, 2009, and 2012. A "no-frills" version aired on Boomerang five days a week at 5:30am, 10am and 2:30pm; the Boomerang version included four shorts and no bumpers, in the style of its other theatrical-short compilation shows. Until August 2009, Boomerang only featured shorts from The Pink Panther, The Ant and the Aardvark and The Inspector. The laugh track was present on several entries. Currently, the show remains intact on the Spanish Language Boomerang TV channel with most entries containing their original laugh track. The Pink Panther show aired on Boomerang from 2000 to 2012, and was available on the video on demand network Anime Network from 2012 to 2016.
In the Arab world, it was shown on Spacetoon from 2014 to 2017, due to Spacetoon airing The Pink Panther and low reception from Spacetoon viewers.
The show also previously aired in its original format on This TV on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 8:30am Eastern Time or 7:30 am Central Time (as part of its Cookie Jar Toons programming block) until September 22, 2011. The digital broadcast network Light TV ran the series when the network launched Christmas weekend 2016 until September 29, 2019. On June 1, 2020 to May 29, 2022, the show aired for the first time in Spanish on Galavisión, known as El show de la Pantera Rosa.
From May of 2021 to May of 2023, MeTV rerunned the show under the name Pink Panther's Party, during their Saturday morning block, Saturday Morning Cartoons, from 7:30 am to 8:00 am ET/ 6:30 to 7:00 am CT following Popeye and Pals, which currently aired from 7:00 am to 7:30 am ET/ 6:00 am to 6:30 am CT. The show is collectively called Popeye and Pink Panther's Party, combining Popeye and Pals and Pink Panther's Party into a single show. However, the channel lost the rights to air the non-WB DePatie-Freleng cartoons, which caused Popeye And Pink Panther's Party to be reverted back to Popeye and Pals, which currently only airs Popeye shorts.
Amazon Prime carries The New Pink Panther Show episodes (As of 2023) for free for Prime members.
Cast
Rich Little as Pink Panther
Daws Butler as Pug, Louie
John Byner as Charlie Ant, Blue Aardvark
Larry D. Mann as Blue Racer, Crazylegs Crane
Frank Welker as Crazylegs Crane Jr., Dragonfly
Paul Frees as Narrator, Texan hunter, The Commissioner
Don Diamond as Toro
Tom Holland as Pancho
Pat Harrington, Jr. as The Inspector, Sergeant Deux-Deux
Bob Holt as Hoot Kloot, Hoot Kloot's Horse, Dogfather
Arte Johnson as Misterjaw
Bob Ogle as Harry Halibut
Arnold Stang as Catfish
Lennie Weinrib as Roland, Rattfink, Scotland Yard Captain
Paul Winchell as Fearless Freddy
Don Messick as Sergeant Deux-Deux
Marvin Miller (actor) as Narrator, The Commissioner, The Inspector, Sergeant Deux-Deux
Larry Storch as The Commissioner
Mark Skor as The Commissioner
Mel Blanc as Drunk, Drunk's wife
Diana Maddox as Commissioner's wife
Series overview
The Pink Panther Show (1969–1970)
The first season of The Pink Panther Show (1969–1970) consisted of one The Inspector entry sandwiched by two Pink Panther entries. The show was "hosted" by The Pink Panther and The Inspector, seen during the opening sequence, which showed a boy driving the Panthermobile from the countryside to Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. During the journey, images of animals mentioned in the song (rhinoceros, tiger, cats, American mink) are seen alongside clips of the panther from Reel Pink, Come On In! The Water's Pink and Put Put Pink. Upon arrival, the Pink Panther and the Inspector then disembark from the Panthermobile and enter the famous theatre. In the ending credits, the Inspector climbs back into the Panthermobile, but leaves the Pink Panther behind, who is seen chasing after the car.
The entries utilized for the second season featured complete original theatrical titles. With only two exceptions, the first and third cartoons of each episode were Pink Panthers, and second was an Inspector. In the two exceptions, the first and third cartoons were Inspectors, and the middle one was a Pink Panther. Unlike Season 1, a full laugh track wasn't used but rather an abridged version using isolated laughs from Season 1 edited onto the soundtrack by DFE (these inferior versions currently in circulation are marked with †). Seasons 1 and 2 were repackaged as a single Season 1 in the 2000s.
Season 1 (1969–1970)
Season 2 (1970–1971)
The New Pink Panther Show (1971–1974)
The New Pink Panther Show (1971–1974) featured a new opening and closing sequence and theme song, pitting the attention-seeking Aardvark against the panther. The show's new title song, "Pantherly Pride", was written by Doug Goodwin and played over the opening sequence.
This incarnation aired The Ant and the Aardvark during the 1971–1972 season. Later seasons swapped The Ant and the Aardvark with theatrical series' Roland and Rattfink, Hoot Kloot or The Blue Racer, as well as reruns of The Inspector. Only eight new Pink Panther cartoons were produced over this three-year period (highlighted).
The Pink Panther and Friends (1974–1976)
The Pink Panther and Friends (1974–1976) followed the same format as The New Pink Panther Show. The first Pink Panther entry was a new episode, while the second was a rebroadcast of an old entry. Bumpers featuring The Inspector and The Ant and the Aardvark connected the three entries. New series The Dogfather (originally produced for theatrical release) was also added to broadcasts, in addition to The Blue Racer or Hoot Kloot.
The Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show (1976–1977)
The Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show was an attempt by DFE to revamp the traditional format of three entries airing in a 30-minute format. The show was expanded to 90 minutes, and included a live-action segment featuring comedian Lenny Schultz reading letters and jokes from viewers. The show also featured two new made-for-television series, a first for the franchise: the Texas Toads (a redubbed version of the theatrical Tijuana Toads series), and Misterjaw. New bumper sequences featuring both the Texas Toads and Misterjaw were created for the series. These new entries were aired in combination with rebroadcasts of The Pink Panther, The Inspector and The Ant and the Aardvark.
The Pink Panther Laugh-and-a-Half Hour-and-a-Half Show did not do well in the ratings, so it lasted only one season.
Think Pink Panther (1977–1978)
The final series broadcast on NBC, Think Pink Panther reverted to the traditional 30-minute format and consisted of rebroadcasts. No new cartoons were created for this show. The layout of the closing credits was based on The New Pink Panther Show.
The All New Pink Panther Show (1978)
The All New Pink Panther Show (1978) was a new version of the series commenced after NBC's broadcast of the series ended its nine-year run. For its tenth season, ABC picked up the series and requested 32 new made-for-television Pink Panther shorts, along with 16 entries for the new Crazylegs Crane segment. A disco-flavored rendition of Henry Mancini's "Pink Panther Theme" was used for the opening and closing credits, with the closing credits featuring Pink Panther disco-dancing. "Stay Tuned" bumpers were produced for seven episodes as well.
Pink Panther Encore (1979–1980)
For its 11th and final season, DFE repackaged pre-1978 entries for a total of 52 episodes. No new cartoons were created for this show.
The Pink Panther Show (1980, syndicated)
United Artists Television syndicated a weekday 30-minute Pink Panther show in 1980, complete with bumpers and laugh-tracked versions of the shorts. A new opening sequence preceding the show featured Henry Mancini's "Pink Panther Theme" played under a segment from Pink Outs featuring the Pink Panther folding the backdrop into a square to be eaten. The closer featured the last few seconds of the theme played under a scene from Reel Pink featuring the panther water skiing.
UATV created two versions of the syndication package. The first consisted of The Pink Panther, Inspector, The Ant and the Aardvark and Texas Toads entries sourced from film elements utilized during the program's original network run.
The second version consisted of The Pink Panther, The Ant and the Aardvark and Misterjaw entries sourced from new prints of the original film negatives and transferred to videotape, resulting in sharper images. As The Pink Panther and The Ant and the Aardvark entries were sourced using theatrical prints (sans laugh track), a new, less invasive laugh track being employed on sitcoms at the time was added to the soundtrack for consistency to match the made-for-television Misterjaw entries and bumper sequences that retained their respective laugh-tracked soundtracks.
The second version also incorporated several of the made-for-television Pink Panther entries from The All New Pink Panther Show. Pre-1978 Pink Panther and Ant and the Aardvark entries featured shorter opening titles with introduction music from either The New Pink Panther Show (1971–1974) or The All New Pink Panther Show (1978–1979). Closing credits featuring the Pink Panther disco dancing from The All New Pink Panther Show closed out the episodes.
Version 1
Version 2
Spanish versions
Other versions of The Pink Panther Show have been seen and aired only in Spanish.
German version
The German version of the show, Der rosarote Panther - Zu Gast bei Paulchens Trickverwandten (The Pink Panther - Being a Guest of the Pink Panther's Cartoon-relatives) which started airing on ZDF in 1973 contains four cartoons per episode. The first cartoon is always a Pink Panther entry, the second one is an Inspector short, followed by another Pink Panther cartoon, and usually ending with an Ant and the Aardvark short. However, cartoons from UPA's 1956 The Gerald McBoing-Boing Show are added into the mix starting with episode 12, making the show's format rather messy compared to its other incarnations. Several episodes start off with a Pink Panther cartoon, followed by a longer UPA cartoon, and end with another Pink Panther short. Others replace the second Pink Panther entry with a UPA cartoon, and some feature two or three UPA cartoons cut together as one 'proper' segment. Bumpers are featured in this series, but only in the first 42 episodes. All cartoons have their opening and ending titles removed; when a cartoon ends, it immediately fades into a bumper and once the bumper ends, the next cartoon starts playing with no title card or credits.
When The All New Pink Panther Show was acquired by ZDF in 1980, they edited it to fit this format as well. Some episodes start out with one Pink Panther short, followed by a Crazylegs Crane cartoon, a second Pink Panther short, and ending with another Crazylegs Crane cartoon. Others start with two Pink Panther cartoons, followed by a Crazylegs Crane entry, and ending with a third Pink Panther short. The cartoons Yankee Doodle Pink, Pet Pink Pebbles, and The Pink of Bagdad are skipped due to being reissues of previous shorts.
This incarnation of the show contains no laugh track on any of the series featured. The Pink Panther is given a name, Paulchen Panther (Paul or Little Paul the Panther), and the cartoons featuring him are given rhymed narration written by Eberhard Storeck and spoken by voice actor Gert Günther Hoffmann. A new intro and outro theme, Wer hat an der Uhr gedreht?, was composed by Fred Strittmatter and Quirin Amper Jr., with new one-minute-long intro and outro sequences being cut together from existing pieces of animation.
While most episodes are 24 or 25 minutes in length, the ones that premiered on ZDF in 1978 feature only two Pink Panther cartoons with the intro and outro sequences being only 20 seconds long each, making them only 11 minutes long. Three 23-minute-long specials, A Pink Christmas, Olym-Pinks, and Pink at First Sight were also aired under this show.
See also
List of The Pink Panther cartoons
Laugh track
References
External links
Charles Brubaker's DePatie-Freleng Website
1969 American television series debuts
1980 American television series endings
1960s American animated television series
1970s American animated television series
1980s American animated television series
1960s American anthology television series
1970s American anthology television series
1980s American anthology television series
American children's animated anthology television series
American children's animated comedy television series
American television series with live action and animation
Animated television series about mammals
English-language television shows
Television series by DePatie–Freleng Enterprises
Television series by United Artists Television |
4236149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20in%20New%20Zealand | 2002 in New Zealand | The following lists events that happened during 2002 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,989,500.
Increase since 31 December 2001: 73,400 (1.87%).
Males per 100 Females: 96.2.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Dame Silvia Cartwright PCNZM DBE QSO
Government
The 46th New Zealand Parliament continued until 10 June. Government was The Labour Party led by Helen Clark, In coalition with Alliance, led by Jim Anderton. In the 2002 general election Labour was returned to power, in coalition with The Progressive Party led by Jim Anderton, and backed with supporting supply votes by United Future, led by Peter Dunne.
Speaker of the House – Jonathan Hunt
Prime Minister – Helen Clark
Deputy Prime Minister – Jim Anderton then Michael Cullen
Minister of Finance – Michael Cullen
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Phil Goff
Chief Justice — Sian Elias
Opposition leaders
See: :Category:Parliament of New Zealand, :New Zealand elections
National – Don Brash (Leader of the Opposition)
Greens – Jeanette Fitzsimons and Rod Donald
Act – Richard Prebble
New Zealand First – Winston Peters
United Future – Peter Dunne
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – John Banks
Mayor of Hamilton – David Braithwaite
Mayor of Wellington – Kerry Prendergast
Mayor of Christchurch – Garry Moore
Mayor of Dunedin – Sukhi Turner
Events
January – Kiwibank is formed.
6 February – Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II's accession as Queen of New Zealand
30 June: The population of Canterbury reaches half a million.
27 July: 2002 general election; Labour-led government returned for a second term.
12 October: Two New Zealand tourists are killed in a series of terrorist bombings in Bali, Indonesia.
The Big Lemon & Paeroa bottle is moved to the Ohinemuri Reserve.
Arts and literature
Alison Wong wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
Montana New Zealand Book Awards:
Montana Medal: Lynley Hood, A City Possessed: The Christchurch Civic Creche Case
Deutz Medal: Craig Marriner, Stonedogs
Reader's Choice: Lynley Hood, A City Possessed: The Christchurch Civic Creche Case
First Book Awards
Fiction: Craig Marriner, Stonedogs
Poetry: Chris Price, Husk
Non-Fiction: Steve Braunias, Fool's Paradise
See 2002 in art, 2002 in literature, :Category:2002 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Two new categories were introduced this year: 'Best R&B/ Hip Hop Album' and 'Best Electronica Album'.
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: Che Fu – The Navigator
Anika Moa – Thinking Room
Neil Finn – One Nil
Salmonella Dub – Inside The Dub Plates
the feelers – Communicate
Single of the Year: Che Fu – Fade Away
Aaria – Kei A Wai Ra Te Kupu
Anika Moa – Youthful
Nesian Mystik – Nesian Style
Salmonella Dub – Love Your Ways
Top Group: Salmonella Dub – Inside The Dub Plates
the feelers – Communicate
Zed -Silencer
Top New Act: Goodshirt – Good
K'Lee – Broken Wings
Pluto – Red Light Syndrome
Top Male Vocalist: Che Fu – Navigator
Neil Finn – One Nil
Tiki Taane – Inside The Dubplates
Top Female Vocalist: Anika Moa – Thinking Room
Boh Runga – Magic Line
Hayley Westenra – Hayley Westenra
Best Folk Album: Bob Mcneill – Covenant
Beverley Young – The Tinkerman's Daughter
Jacky Tarr – Defenestration
Phil Garland – Swag O'Dreams
Best R&B/ Hip Hop Album (new category): Che Fu – Navigator
Dark Tower – Canterbury Drafts
Best Music Video: Matthew Metcalfe / Greg Rewai – Fade Away (Che Fu)
Garry Sullivan – Seed (Dimmer)
Ed Davis and Paul McLaney -Complicated (Gramsci)
Outstanding International Achievement: Salmonella Dub
Nathan Haines
Anika Moa
Best Mana Maori Album: Ruia And Ranea – Waiata of Bob Marley
Brannigan Kaa – Taputapu
T-Sistaz – Whakamanahia
Best Mana Reo Album: Rangiatea -Rangiatea Concert Party
Ruia and Ranea – Waiata of Bob Marley
Te Ati Kimihia – Te Ati Kimihia and The Children of Tane
Best Country Album: The Topp Twins – Grass Highway
Beau Redding – Dime Box
Dennis Marsh – Faded Love
Best Cast Recording/Compilation: Greg Johnson – The Best Yet
Th' Dudes – Where Are Th' Girls
Various – Live at Helen's
Best Producer: Tom Bailey & Stellar* – Magic Line (Stellar*)
Malcolm Welsford – Scorpio Writing (Garageland)
Paddy Free & Salmonella Dub – Inside The Dub Plates (Salmonella Dub)
Best Engineer: Dave Wernham, Tiki Taane And Paddy Free – 'Inside The Dub Plates' (Salmonella Dub)
Luke Tomes – Magic Line (Stellar*)
Simon Holloway – Broken Wings (K-Lee)
Best Electronica Album (new category): Sola Rosa – Solarized
Rhian Sheehan – Paradigm Shift
Shapeshifter – Real Time
Best Jazz Album: C L Bob – Stereoscope
Nathan Haines – Sound Travels
The Rodger Fox Big Band – Warriors
Best Gospel Album: The Lads – Marvel
Felt – Colour of the Sky
Parachute Band – Amazing
Best Children's Album: Fatcat & Fishface – Dog Breath
Kids Music Company Singers – On A High Note II
Michelle Scullion – Peaks To Plains
Best Classical Album: Jack Body – Pulse
New Zealand Symphony Orchestra – Landscapes
Gareth Farr – Warriors From Pluto
Best Songwriter: Anika Moa – Youthful
Che Fu – Fade Away
James Reid and Donald Reid – Communicate (The Feelers)
Best Cover Design: Kelvin Soh – Good (Goodshirt)
Che Fu and Kelvin Soh – Navigator (Che Fu)
Shayne Carter and Andrew B White – I Believe You Are A Star (Dimmer)
New Zealand Radio Programmer Award: Brad King – The Rock Network
Dallas Gurney – ZM Network
David Ridler – Channel Z
Marty Lindsay – Star FM Wanganui
See: 2002 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Tom Sharplin.
Dance
7–24 January: Inaugural Footnote Choreolab runs in Wellington under the direction of Deirdre Tarrant and guest choreographer Justin Rutzou (Australia) with New Zealand choreographers Kristian Larsen and Jacob Sullivan and 22 dancers from throughout New Zealand.
30 January – 3 February, Jan Bolwell premieres her theatre work Standing On My Hands at BATS Theatre, Wellington, subsequently touring it throughout New Zealand over the course of the year.
20–21 February, Footnote Dance Company premieres Banding Together 2002, a programme of short works by choreographers Michael Parmenter, Merenia Gray, Raewyn Hill, subsequently touring this programme throughout New Zealand. The dancers are: Annabel Reader, Tane Duncan, Melissa Tate, Georgina White, Tim Fletcher and Paora Taurima.
15–17 March, Inland by Douglas Wright Dance Company, premieres at the NZ International Festival of the Arts who commissioned the work. Subsequently, the work tours to Dunedin, Christchurch and Auckland to considerable acclaim.
19 April to 5 May, the Auckland Dance Festival (later rebranded as Tempo Dance Festival) runs throughout the month at a number of Auckland venues, presenting professional and community performances, classes, workshops, and public participatory events. Events include: Shake a Leg Youth Dance performances at ASB Theatre; Platform 2002 choreographic development project at UNITEC; Dancing City to City, ESCAPE by Black Grace Urban Youth Movement, Polished Up at St Kevins Arcade, Prayers in the Forest of Mirrors by Edna Katz-Levy at the Maidment Studio, Scratch 'n Sniff Dance Shorts, a mixed bill of dance films, short works and improvisational performances curated by Wilhimeena Gordon at Woonton's Lane in Titirangi, Sub-urban Legends by Atamira Dance Collective at UNITEC Studios, Living Room (short works by Melanie Turner, Becca Wood, Karen Barbour, Katie Burton, and film by Alyx Duncan) at UNITEC Studios, and Still Life 2002, a triple bill by Sean Curham (Speedy Horse and Royal Crown plus excerpts from the Perfect Lie) at the Dorothy Winston Centre.
19–22 April, MEDANZ Festival in Christchurch
On 3 May, Creative New Zealand launches {https://web.archive.org/web/20140726175934/http://www.creativenz.govt.nz/en/news/creative-new-zealand-launches-contemporary-dance-strategy Moving to the Future: Ngä Whakanekeneke atu ki te Ao o Apöpö], a strategy for professional contemporary dance with specific funding support for emerging artists.
On 16 June, the Mandelbrot Set presents another in their bi-monthly series of improvisational performances at The Space in Newtown, in Wellington – dancers are Lyne Pringle, Kristian Larsen and Emily Kerr with local musicians.
The rising of Matariki is formally marked with performance installations in Auckland under the title Cluster. Soundscore and imagery by Karl Chitham, performance devised and facilitated by Louise Potiki Bryant and by Light/off-site Productions with performers Corinna Hunziker, Dolina Wehipeihana, Maaka Pepene, Justine Hohaia, Karl Chitham, and Cathy Livermore (from Atamira Dance Collective).
28–29 June in Hamilton and 10–13 July in Auckland, the double bill Fracture: Reality is Fragile choreographed by Guy Ryan, and Weather Vain People choreographed by Malia Johnston is presented. Dancers were Natasha Alpe, Kerryn McMurdo, Alexa Wilson, Jenny Nichols, Geoff Gilson, Guy Ryan, Stu Armstrong.
During July, the NZ International Film Festival features a programme of NZ dance films with premieres of Fly by Shona McCullagh, Canopy by Mary Jane O'Reilly, Asylum by Wilhimeena Gordon, Wireless by Daniel Belton, and Rover by Morag Brownlie. Fly subsequently wins Official Selection for Clermond-Ferrand 2002, Winner of both the Reeldance Award and People's Choice Awards, Australia 2002
NZ School of Dance turns 35 and marks the occasion with a weekend of open performances; Student choreography season Finding Jimmy is presented at Te Whaea.
Premiere season of WHITE by Raewyn Hill (with dancers Sarah-Jayne Howard and Sarah Sproull and dramaturg Duncan Sarkies) running from 24 July – 4 August at Bats, Wellington.
Black Grace & Friends at Sky City is a season of short works and two significant events for the company. Female "guest" dancers perform with the company for the first time and the gender differences between the male and female dancers are the subject for Ieremia's new Human Language. A choreographer from outside the company is commissioned for the first time—Daniel Belton creates Whai, a kinetic sculptural work with stage-wide elastic bands manipulated by the dancers. A third work by dancer Taiaroa Royal marks the passing of his father.
The September Dance Your Sox Off festival in Wellington includes four dance seasons by professional dancers: Raewyn Hill premieres When Love Comes Calling from 4–7 September at Bats, subsequently touring to Christchurch, Dunedin and Auckland; Native is presented by Leonie Douglas and the Epitome Company (Sean McDonald, Seonaid Lyons and Claire Barret) with sound design by Blackbridge Productions – musicians Andrew McMillan and Paul Stanley, and live triggering of sound and lighting, a STAB Commission at BATS; Streamline Danceworks present new works by Leigh Evans, Angela Westerby, THROW Disposable Choreography (aka Kristian Larsen), Anne Anderson and Kay Muir, at Bats Theatre, 11–14 September; and The Mandelbrot Set presents another evening of improv contemporary dance and music at The Space, Newtown. 13 Sept. Performers: Lyne Pringle, Sarah Sproull, Emily Kerr and 5 musicians.
In Auckland, on 13 September, emerging choreographic collective Fresh Produce perform their inaugural Vacuum Packed show at Kingsland central as a fundraiser, departing on tour the next day to present their show in Nelson, Christchurch and Dunedin.
In Christchurch, The Body dance & physical theatre festival – workshops & performances runs from 13–29 September and includes 10 professional productions: Closed Circuit Orbit (touring from Wellington); Footnote's Banding Together 2002 (touring from Wellington); Poised by Hagley Dance Company; Vacuum Packed (7 short works touring from Auckland), Standing on My Hands by Jan Bolwell (touring from Wellington); Raewyn Hill's When Love Comes Calling (touring from Wellington); the Danceworks 2002 development project presents new short works by Richard Bullock and Shay Horay (for Ricochet Predicament), Sarah Franks, Sheryl Robinson (for Local Weeds), Andrew Shepherd, Fleur de Thier (for Scrambled Legs), Megan Platt, Julia Sadler (for Fresh Produce), and Sally Williams,(for the clinic); Slow Stride Eyes Open by Scrambled Legs; Wilderness/Weather by Michael Parmenter with Sarah-Jayne Howard (touring from Wellington), and three dance films by Daniel Belton – Lumin, Henge and Wireless.
In Auckland on 21 September, the 2002 Aotearoa Hip Hop Summit takes over at The Edge – 8 crews battle in finals, plus workshops and performances throughout the day. That same weekend, Axess Interdisciplinary Collective (Kerryn McMurdo, Brent Harris, and Alexa Wilson) hold a fundraiser at MIC with guests Prue Cunningham, Mark Harvey, Dion Hitchens, Val Smith, Dianna Brinsden, Charles Koroneho, Wilhemeena Gordon, DJ Joe Fish vs Krutov.
Mika Haka tours the country on return from the Edinburgh Festival.
In Auckland, Touch Compass takes to the big stage of the ASB Theatre for the first time on 28–29 September with a major new dance theatre work, Lighthouse co-developed by Catherine Chappell and Christian Penny with the cast. This subsequently tours to Tauranga and is recognised as a major highlight of the dance year.
Black Grace launches a season of short New Works by company members in Wellington at Te Whaea on 24 September, subsequently touring throughout New Zealand before closing in Auckland on 30 November
During October, two major awards are made to New Zealand choreographers – Shona McCullagh becomes a Laureate of the Arts Foundation, and Raewyn Hill winning an AMP Scholarship for international travel and study.
6–8 November The Carlisle House Project was a site specific project presented in two semi-derelict buildings on Richmond Road, Auckland. Produced by Michele Powles with choreography by Lou Potiki Bryant, Geoff Gilson, Vicky Kapo, Cathy Livermoore, Michele Powles, and Strange Fruit (Alyx Duncan and Maria Dabrowska).
In Wellington, Propulsion presented Black Body: a multi-sensory design journey involving dance theatre, literature and theatrical technology. Dancers were Kilda Northcott, Lyne Pringle and Sarah Sproull with Jean Betts, Edward Davis, David Holmes, Gabe McDonnell, Ciara Mulholland, Peter Petrovich, Lizz Santos, Heidi Simmonds, Alana Spragg, Annemiek Weterings. A STAB commission 13–23 November at Bats.
And in Dunedin, a week long creative workshop for dancers and photographers was led by choreographer Carol Brown and photographer Mattias Ek, 12–17 November. Subsequently, a week later, Wilderness/Weather by Michael Parmenter with Sarah-Jayne Howard was also presented in Dunedin.
Radio and television
29 April: Ian Fraser becomes CEO of TVNZ.
See: 2002 in New Zealand television, 2002 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
Tongan Ninja
See: :Category:2002 film awards, 2002 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:2002 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
See: 2002 in sports, :Category:2002 in sports
Athletics
Mark Bright wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:29:24 on 27 April in Rotorua, while Bernardine Portenski claims her third in the women's championship (3:01:36).
Basketball
The NBL was won by the Waikato Titans who beat the Nelson Giants 85–83 in the final
The Waikato Lady Titans won the Women's NBL, beating the Canterbury Wildcats 88–60 in the final.
Commonwealth Games
Cricket
Cricket: Various Tours, New Zealand cricket team, Chappell–Hadlee Trophy
Golf
See New Zealand Open, Check :Category:New Zealand golfers in overseas tournaments.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup – Gracious Knight
Auckland Trotting Cup – Young Rufus
New Zealand Free For All – Yulestar
Netball
see Silver Ferns, National Bank Cup ,
Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of 10 competitors in five sports.
Paralympic Games
New Zealand sends a team of two competitors in one sport.
Rugby union
Rugby: :Category:Rugby union in New Zealand, Super 14, Rugby Union World Cup, National Provincial Championship, :Category:All Blacks, Bledisloe Cup, Tri Nations Series, Ranfurly Shield
Rugby league
The New Zealand Warriors had their best season ever in the Australian NRL competition, winning the Minor Premiership and making the Grand Final, which they lost to the Sydney Roosters, 30-8
The Bartercard Cup was won by the Mt Albert Lions who defeated the Hibiscus Coast Raiders 24–20 in the grand final, the last match ever played at Carlaw Park.
The New Zealand national rugby league team played in six test matches, winning three and drawing one:
12 October – Lost to Australia 24–32;
3 November – Defeated Wales 50–22;
9 November – Defeated Great Britain 30–16;
16 November – Drew with Great Britain 14–all;
23 November – Lost to Great Britain 10–16;
30 November – Defeated France 22–14.
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Trevor Oliver (Onslow)
Soccer
The All Whites won the OFC Nations Cup held in Auckland, beating Australia 1–0 in the final. This qualified the team for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup in Mexico.
New Zealand National Soccer League was won by Miramar Rangers
The Chatham Cup is won by Napier City Rovers who beat Tauranga City United 2–0 in the final.
Births
January–June
23 January – Henrietta Christie, racing cyclist
29 January – George Bell, rugby union player
4 February – Ben Barclay, freestyle skier
7 February – Grace Nweke, netball player
11 February – Liam Lawson, motor racing driver
19 February – Marko Stamenic, association footballer
25 February – Luke Wijohn, activist
2 March – Liana Mikaele-Tu'u, rugby union player
12 March – Riley Bidois, association footballer
27 March – Marisa van der Meer, association footballer
4 April – Naufahu Whyte, rugby league player
13 April – Matthew Garbett, association footballer
14 April – Oskar van Hattum, association footballer
18 April – Ava Collins, association footballer
19 April – Taine Murray, basketball player
28 April – Tim Robinson, cricketer
1 May – Matthew Payne, rugby union player
10 May – Cool Wakushima, snowboarder
25 May – Campbell Wright, biathlete
2 June – Fonua Pole, rugby league player
3 June – Beckham Wheeler-Greenall, cricketer
11 June – Mojave King, basketball player
July–December
4 July – Alex Paulsen, association footballer
17 July – Laurence Pithie, racing cyclist
27 July – Stella Ashcroft, artistic gymnast
31 July – Keegan Jelacic, association footballer
2 August – Xavier Willison, rugby league player
13 August – Ben Old, association footballer
17 August – Michael Pickett, swimmer
17 September – Vosne Romanee, Thoroughbred racehorse
21 September – Darci Brahma, Thoroughbred racehorse
3 October
Monkey King, Standardbred racehorse
Matthew Payne, motor racing driving
16 October – Julian Dennison, actor
5 November – Jawsh 685 beat maker and music producer
7 November – Wahid, Thoroughbred racehorse
14 November – Seachange, Thoroughbred racehorse
20 December – Billy Frazer, racing driver
2 December – Master O'Reilly, Thoroughbred racehorse
12 December – Sydnee Andrews, judoka
Deaths
January–March
3 January – Jack Skinner, association football player (born 1915)
12 February – Ossie Johnson, triple jumper (born 1906)
13 February – Mike Gilbert, rugby union and rugby league player (born 1911)
15 February – Kevin Smith, actor (born 1963)
22 February
Sir Raymond Firth, ethnologist (born 1901)
Allen Johnston, Anglican bishop (born 1912)
23 February – Ossie Butt, rugby league player, selector and administrator (born 1934)
6 March – Richard Dell, malacologist (born 1920)
9 March – Gordon Hunter, rugby union player, coach and selector (born 1949)
12 March – Empire Rose, thoroughbred racehorse (foaled 1982)
14 March – Cherry Grimm, fantasy and science-fiction writer under the pseudonym Cherry Wilder (born 1930)
26 March – Roy Calvert, World War II pilot (born 1913)
27 March – Geoffrey Sim, politician (born 1911)
29 March – John Dick, rugby union player (born 1912)
April–June
2 April – Mona Leydon, swimmer (born 1915)
27 April – Lachie Grant, rugby union player (born 1923)
29 April – Jack Kelly, rugby union player, schoolteacher (born 1926)
2 May – Ross Smith, rugby union player (born 1929)
19 May – Herbert Familton, alpine skier (born 1928)
28 May – Norman King, politician (born 1914)
31 May – Roy Blair, cricketer (born 1921)
3 June – Sir Edward Somers, jurist (born 1928)
10 June – Dick Brittenden, cricket writer (born 1919)
26 June – Yvonne Rust, potter (born 1922)
27 June
Alan Brunton, poet and playwright (born 1946)
Barry Smith, preacher and author (born 1933)
July–September
9 July – Ron Scarlett, paleozoologist (born 1911)
23 July – Bill Bell, cricketer (born 1931)
3 August
Arthur Cresswell, cricketer (born 1917)
Joyce Sullivan, netball player (born 1918)
24 August – Alan Brash, church leader (born 1913)
29 August – Betty Forbes, athlete (born 1916)
9 September – Graham Kennedy, rugby league player and coach (born 1939)
24 September – Ron Jeffery, World War II spy (born 1917)
27 September – Bill Pearson, writer, critic, English literature academic (born 1922)
October–December
1 October – Ernest Bezzant, cricketer (born 1916)
3 October – Dalvanius Prime, entertainer (born 1948)
11 October – Betty Molesworth Allen, botanist (born 1913)
12 October
Stanley James, cricketer (born 1932)
Mark Parker, cricketer (born 1975)
13 October – Sir Garfield Todd, missionary, politician (born 1908)
18 October – Buddy Lucas, swimmer and surf lifesaver (born 1931)
23 October – David Lewis, sailor, explorer (born 1917)
28 October – Hyperno, thoroughbred racehorse (foaled 1973)
15 November
Betty Plant, netball player, coach and administrator, heritage campaigner (born 1920)
JJ Stewart, rugby union coach, selector and administrator (born 1923)
19 November – Gladys Pidgeon, swimmer (born 1906)
20 November – Rod Heeps, rugby union player (born 1938)
9 December – Alister Atkinson, rugby league player (born 1925)
22 December – Joe Morgan, rugby union player (born 1945)
25 December – Davina Whitehouse, actor (born 1912)
29 December – Don Clarke, rugby union player (born 1933)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
2000s in New Zealand
New Zealand
Years of the 21st century in New Zealand |
4236528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolved%20organic%20carbon | Dissolved organic carbon | Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the fraction of organic carbon operationally defined as that which can pass through a filter with a pore size typically between 0.22 and 0.7 micrometers. The fraction remaining on the filter is called particulate organic carbon (POC).
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a closely related term often used interchangeably with DOC. While DOC refers specifically to the mass of carbon in the dissolved organic material, DOM refers to the total mass of the dissolved organic matter. So DOM also includes the mass of other elements present in the organic material, such as nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. DOC is a component of DOM and there is typically about twice as much DOM as DOC. Many statements that can be made about DOC apply equally to DOM, and vice versa.
DOC is abundant in marine and freshwater systems and is one of the greatest cycled reservoirs of organic matter on Earth, accounting for the same amount of carbon as in the atmosphere and up to 20% of all organic carbon. In general, organic carbon compounds are the result of decomposition processes from dead organic matter including plants and animals. DOC can originate from within or outside any given body of water. DOC originating from within the body of water is known as autochthonous DOC and typically comes from aquatic plants or algae, while DOC originating outside the body of water is known as allochthonous DOC and typically comes from soils or terrestrial plants. When water originates from land areas with a high proportion of organic soils, these components can drain into rivers and lakes as DOC.
The marine DOC pool is important for the functioning of marine ecosystems because they are at the interface between the chemical and the biological worlds. DOC fuels marine food webs, and is a major component of the Earth's carbon cycling.
Overview
DOC is a basic nutrient, supporting growth of microorganisms and plays an important role in the global carbon cycle through the microbial loop. In some organisms (stages) that do not feed in the traditional sense, dissolved matter may be the only external food source. Moreover, DOC is an indicator of organic loadings in streams, as well as supporting terrestrial processing (e.g., within soil, forests, and wetlands) of organic matter. Dissolved organic carbon has a high proportion of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) in first order streams compared to higher order streams. In the absence of extensive wetlands, bogs, or swamps, baseflow concentrations of DOC in undisturbed watersheds generally range from approximately 1 to 20 mg/L carbon. Carbon concentrations considerably vary across ecosystems. For example, the Everglades may be near the top of the range and the middle of oceans may be near the bottom. Occasionally, high concentrations of organic carbon indicate anthropogenic influences, but most DOC originates naturally.
The BDOC fraction consists of organic molecules that heterotrophic bacteria can use as a source of energy and carbon. Some subset of DOC constitutes the precursors of disinfection byproducts for drinking water. BDOC can contribute to undesirable biological regrowth within water distribution systems.
The dissolved fraction of total organic carbon (TOC) is an operational classification. Many researchers use the term "dissolved" for compounds that pass through a 0.45 μm filter, but 0.22 μm filters have also been used to remove higher colloidal concentrations.
A practical definition of dissolved typically used in marine chemistry is all substances that pass through a GF/F filter, which has a nominal pore size of approximately 0.7 μm (Whatman glass microfiber filter, 0.6–0.8 μm particle retention). The recommended procedure is the HTCO technique, which calls for filtration through pre-combusted glass fiber filters, typically the GF/F classification.
Labile and recalcitrant
Dissolved organic matter can be classified as labile or as recalcitrant, depending on its reactivity. Recalcitrant DOC is also called refractory DOC, and these terms seem to be used interchangeably in the context of DOC. Depending on the origin and composition of DOC, its behavior and cycling are different; the labile fraction of DOC decomposes rapidly through microbially or photochemically mediated processes, whereas refractory DOC is resistant to degradation and can persist in the ocean for millennia. In the coastal ocean, organic matter from terrestrial plant litter or soils appears to be more refractory and thus often behaves conservatively. In addition, refractory DOC is produced in the ocean by the bacterial transformation of labile DOC, which reshapes its composition.
Due to the continuous production and degradation in natural systems, the DOC pool contains a spectrum of reactive compounds each with their own reactivity, that have been divided into fractions from labile to recalcitrant, depending on the turnover times, as shown in the following table...
This wide range in turnover or degradation times has been linked with the chemical composition, structure and molecular size, but degradation also depends on the environmental conditions (e.g., nutrients), prokaryote diversity, redox state, iron availability, mineral-particle associations, temperature, sun-light exposure, biological production of recalcitrant compounds, and the effect of priming or dilution of individual molecules. For example, lignin can be degraded in aerobic soils but is relatively recalcitrant in anoxic marine sediments. This example shows bioavailability varies as a function of the ecosystem's properties. Accordingly, even normally ancient and recalcitrant compounds, such as petroleum, carboxyl-rich alicyclic molecules, can be degraded in the appropriate environmental setting.
Terrestrial ecosystems
Soil
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is one of the most active and mobile carbon pools and has an important role in global carbon cycling. In addition, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) affects the soil negative electrical charges denitrification process, acid-base reactions in the soil solution, retention and translocation of nutrients (cations), and immobilization of heavy metals and xenobiotics. Soil DOM can be derived from different sources (inputs), such as atmospheric carbon dissolved in rainfall, litter and crop residues, manure, root exudates, and decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM). In the soil, DOM availability depends on its interactions with mineral components (e.g., clays, Fe and Al oxides) modulated by adsorption and desorption processes. It also depends on SOM fractions (e.g., stabilized organic molecules and microbial biomass) by mineralization and immobilization processes. In addition, the intensity of these interactions changes according to soil inherent properties, land use, and crop management.
During the decomposition of organic material, most carbon is lost as CO2 to the atmosphere by microbial oxidation. Soil type and landscape slope, leaching, and runoff are also important processes associated to DOM losses in the soil. In well-drained soils, leached DOC can reach the water table and release nutrients and pollutants that can contaminate groundwater, whereas runoff transports DOM and xenobiotics to other areas, rivers, and lakes.
Groundwater
Precipitation and surface water leaches dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from vegetation and plant litter and percolates through the soil column to the saturated zone. The concentration, composition, and bioavailability of DOC are altered during transport through the soil column by various physicochemical and biological processes, including sorption, desorption, biodegradation and biosynthesis. Hydrophobic molecules are preferentially partitioned onto soil minerals and have a longer retention time in soils than hydrophilic molecules. The hydrophobicity and retention time of colloids and dissolved molecules in soils are controlled by their size, polarity, charge, and bioavailability. Bioavailable DOM is subjected to microbial decomposition, resulting in a reduction in size and molecular weight. Novel molecules are synthesized by soil microbes, and some of these metabolites enter the DOC reservoir in groundwater.
Freshwater ecosystems
Aquatic carbon occurs in different forms. Firstly, a division is made between organic and inorganic carbon. Organic carbon is a mixture of organic compounds originating from detritus or primary producers. It can be divided into POC (particulate organic carbon; particles > 0.45 μm) and DOC (dissolved organic carbon; particles < 0.45 μm). DOC usually makes up 90% of the total amount of aquatic organic carbon. Its concentration ranges from 0.1 to >300 mg L−1.
Likewise, inorganic carbon also consists of a particulate (PIC) and a dissolved phase (DIC). PIC mainly consists of carbonates (e.g., CaCO3), DIC consists of carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3−), CO2 and a negligibly small fraction of carbonic acid (H2CO3). The inorganic carbon compounds exist in equilibrium that depends on the pH of the water. DIC concentrations in freshwater range from about zero in acidic waters to 60 mg C L−1 in areas with carbonate-rich sediments.
POC can be degraded to form DOC; DOC can become POC by flocculation. Inorganic and organic carbon are linked through aquatic organisms. CO2 is used in photosynthesis (P) by for instance macrophytes, produced by respiration (R), and exchanged with the atmosphere. Organic carbon is produced by organisms and is released during and after their life; e.g., in rivers, 1–20% of the total amount of DOC is produced by macrophytes. Carbon can enter the system from the catchment and is transported to the oceans by rivers and streams. There is also exchange with carbon in the sediments, e.g., burial of organic carbon, which is important for carbon sequestration in aquatic habitats.
Aquatic systems are very important in global carbon sequestration; e.g., when different European ecosystems are compared, inland aquatic systems form the second largest carbon sink (19–41 Tg C y−1); only forests take up more carbon (125–223 Tg C y−1).
Marine ecosystems
Sources
In marine systems DOC originates from either autochthonous or allochthonous sources. Autochthonous DOC is produced within the system, primarily by plankton organisms and in coastal waters additionally by benthic microalgae, benthic fluxes, and macrophytes, whereas allochthonous DOC is mainly of terrestrial origin supplemented by groundwater and atmospheric inputs. In addition to soil derived humic substances, terrestrial DOC also includes material leached from plants exported during rain events, emissions of plant materials to the atmosphere and deposition in aquatic environments (e.g., volatile organic carbon and pollens), and also thousands of synthetic human-made organic chemicals that can be measured in the ocean at trace concentrations.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) represents one of the Earth's major carbon pools. It contains a similar amount of carbon as the atmosphere and exceeds the amount of carbon bound in marine biomass by more than two-hundred times. DOC is mainly produced in the near-surface layers during primary production and zooplankton grazing processes. Other sources of marine DOC are dissolution from particles, terrestrial and hydrothermal vent input, and microbial production. Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) contribute to the DOC pool via release of capsular material, exopolymers, and hydrolytic enzymes, as well as via mortality (e.g. viral shunt). Prokaryotes are also the main decomposers of DOC, although for some of the most recalcitrant forms of DOC very slow abiotic degradation in hydrothermal systems or possibly sorption to sinking particles may be the main removal mechanism. Mechanistic knowledge about DOC-microbe-interactions is crucial to understand the cycling and distribution of this active carbon reservoir.
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton produces DOC by extracellular release commonly accounting between 5 and 30% of their total primary production, although this varies from species to species. Nonetheless, this release of extracellular DOC is enhanced under high light and low nutrient levels, and thus should increase relatively from eutrophic to oligotrophic areas, probably as a mechanism for dissipating cellular energy. Phytoplankton can also produce DOC by autolysis during physiological stress situations e.g., nutrient limitation. Other studies have demonstrated DOC production in association with meso- and macro-zooplankton feeding on phytoplankton and bacteria.
Zooplankton
Zooplankton-mediated release of DOC occurs through sloppy feeding, excretion and defecation which can be important energy sources for microbes. Such DOC production is largest during periods with high food concentration and dominance of large zooplankton species.
Bacteria and viruses
Bacteria are often viewed as the main consumers of DOC, but they can also produce DOC during cell division and viral lysis. The biochemical components of bacteria are largely the same as other organisms, but some compounds from the cell wall are unique and are used to trace bacterial derived DOC (e.g., peptidoglycan). These compounds are widely distributed in the ocean, suggesting that bacterial DOC production could be important in marine systems. Viruses are the most abundant life forms in the oceans infecting all life forms including algae, bacteria and zooplankton. After infection, the virus either enters a dormant (lysogenic) or productive (lytic) state. The lytic cycle causes disruption of the cell(s) and release of DOC.
Macrophytes
Marine macrophytes (i.e., macroalgae and seagrass) are highly productive and extend over large areas in coastal waters but their production of DOC has not received much attention. Macrophytes release DOC during growth with a conservative estimate (excluding release from decaying tissues) suggesting that macroalgae release between 1-39% of their gross primary production, while seagrasses release less than 5% as DOC of their gross primary production. The released DOC has been shown to be rich in carbohydrates, with rates depending on temperature and light availability. Globally the macrophyte communities have been suggested to produce ~160 Tg C yr−1 of DOC, which is approximately half the annual global river DOC input (250 Tg C yr−1).
Marine sediments
Marine sediments represent the main sites of OM degradation and burial in the ocean, hosting microbes in densities up to 1000 times higher than found in the water column. The DOC concentrations in sediments are often an order of magnitude higher than in the overlying water column. This concentration difference results in a continued diffusive flux and suggests that sediments are a major DOC source releasing 350 Tg C yr−1, which is comparable to the input of DOC from rivers. This estimate is based on calculated diffusive fluxes and does not include resuspension events which also releases DOC and therefore the estimate could be conservative. Also, some studies have shown that geothermal systems and petroleum seepage contribute with pre-aged DOC to the deep ocean basins, but consistent global estimates of the overall input are currently lacking. Globally, groundwaters account for an unknown part of the freshwater DOC flux to the oceans. The DOC in groundwater is a mixture of terrestrial, infiltrated marine, and in situ microbially produced material. This flux of DOC to coastal waters could be important, as concentrations in groundwater are generally higher than in coastal seawater, but reliable global estimates are also currently lacking.
Sinks
The main processes that remove DOC from the ocean water column are: (1) Thermal degradation in e.g., submarine hydrothermal systems; (2) bubble coagulation and abiotic flocculation into microparticles or sorption to particles; (3) abiotic degradation via photochemical reactions; and (4) biotic degradation by heterotrophic marine prokaryotes. It has been suggested that the combined effects of photochemical and microbial degradation represent the major sinks of DOC.
Thermal degradation
Thermal degradation of DOC has been found at high-temperature hydrothermal ridge-flanks, where outflow DOC concentrations are lower than in the inflow. While the global impact of these processes has not been investigated, current data suggest it is a minor DOC sink. Abiotic DOC flocculation is often observed during rapid (minutes) shifts in salinity when fresh and marine waters mix. Flocculation changes the DOC chemical composition, by removing humic compounds and reducing molecular size, transforming DOC to particulate organic flocs which can sediment and/or be consumed by grazers and filter feeders, but it also stimulates the bacterial degradation of the flocculated DOC. The impacts of flocculation on the removal of DOC from coastal waters are highly variable with some studies suggesting it can remove up to 30% of the DOC pool, while others find much lower values (3–6%;). Such differences could be explained by seasonal and system differences in the DOC chemical composition, pH, metallic cation concentration, microbial reactivity, and ionic strength.
CDOM
The colored fraction of DOC (CDOM) absorbs light in the blue and UV-light range and therefore influences plankton productivity both negatively by absorbing light, that otherwise would be available for photosynthesis, and positively by protecting plankton organisms from harmful UV-light. However, as the impact of UV damage and ability to repair is extremely variable, there is no consensus on how UV-light changes might impact overall plankton communities. The CDOM absorption of light initiates a complex range of photochemical processes, which can impact nutrient, trace metal and DOC chemical composition, and promote DOC degradation.
Photodegradation
Photodegradation involves the transformation of CDOM into smaller and less colored molecules (e.g., organic acids), or into inorganic carbon (CO, CO2), and nutrient salts (NH4−, HPO). Therefore, it generally means that photodegradation transforms recalcitrant into labile DOC molecules that can be rapidly used by prokaryotes for biomass production and respiration. However, it can also increase CDOM through the transformation of compounds such as triglycerides, into more complex aromatic compounds, which are less degradable by microbes. Moreover, UV radiation can produce e.g., reactive oxygen species, which are harmful to microbes. The impact of photochemical processes on the DOC pool depends also on the chemical composition, with some studies suggesting that recently produced autochthonous DOC becomes less bioavailable while allochthonous DOC becomes more bioavailable to prokaryotes after sunlight exposure, albeit others have found the contrary. Photochemical reactions are particularly important in coastal waters which receive high loads of terrestrial derived CDOM, with an estimated ~20–30% of terrestrial DOC being rapidly photodegraded and consumed. Global estimates also suggests that in marine systems photodegradation of DOC produces ~180 Tg C yr−1 of inorganic carbon, with an additional 100 Tg C yr−1 of DOC made more available to microbial degradation. Another attempt at global ocean estimates also suggest that photodegradation (210 Tg C yr−1) is approximately the same as the annual global input of riverine DOC (250 Tg C yr−1;), while others suggest that direct photodegradation exceeds the riverine DOC inputs.
Recalcitrant DOC
DOC is conceptually divided into labile DOC, which is rapidly taken up by heterotrophic microbes, and the recalcitrant DOC reservoir, which has accumulated in the ocean (following a definition by Hansell). As a consequence of its recalcitrance, the accumulated DOC reaches average radiocarbon ages between 1,000 and 4,000 years in surface waters, and between 3,000 and 6,000 years in the deep ocean, indicating that it persists through several deep ocean mixing cycles between 300 and 1,400 years each. Behind these average radiocarbon ages, a large spectrum of ages is hidden. Follett et al. showed DOC comprises a fraction of modern radiocarbon age, as well as DOC reaching radiocarbon ages of up to 12,000 years.
Distribution
More precise measurement techniques developed in the late 1990s have allowed for a good understanding of how dissolved organic carbon is distributed in marine environments both vertically and across the surface. It is now understood that dissolved organic carbon in the ocean spans a range from very labile to very recalcitrant (refractory). The labile dissolved organic carbon is mainly produced by marine organisms and is consumed in the surface ocean, and consists of sugars, proteins, and other compounds that are easily used by marine bacteria. Recalcitrant dissolved organic carbon is evenly spread throughout the water column and consists of high molecular weight and structurally complex compounds that are difficult for marine organisms to use such as the lignin, pollen, or humic acids. As a result, the observed vertical distribution consists of high concentrations of labile DOC in the upper water column and low concentrations at depth.
In addition to vertical distributions, horizontal distributions have been modeled and sampled as well. In the surface ocean at a depth of 30 meters, the higher dissolved organic carbon concentrations are found in the South Pacific Gyre, the South Atlantic Gyre, and the Indian Ocean. At a depth of 3,000 meters, highest concentrations are in the North Atlantic Deep Water where dissolved organic carbon from the high concentration surface ocean is removed to depth. While in the northern Indian Ocean high DOC is observed due to high fresh water flux and sediments. Since the time scales of horizontal motion along the ocean bottom are in the thousands of years, the refractory dissolved organic carbon is slowly consumed on its way from the North Atlantic and reaches a minimum in the North Pacific.
As emergent
Dissolved organic matter is a heterogeneous pool of thousands, likely millions, of organic compounds. These compounds differ not only in composition and concentration (from pM to μM), but also originate from various organisms (phytoplankton, zooplankton, and bacteria) and environments (terrestrial vegetation and soils, coastal fringe ecosystems) and may have been produced recently or thousands of years ago. Moreover, even organic compounds deriving from the same source and of the same age may have been subjected to different processing histories prior to accumulating within the same pool of DOM.
Interior ocean DOM is a highly modified fraction that remains after years of exposure to sunlight, utilization by heterotrophs, flocculation and coagulation, and interaction with particles. Many of these processes within the DOM pool are compound- or class-specific. For example, condensed aromatic compounds are highly photosensitive, whereas proteins, carbohydrates, and their monomers are readily taken up by bacteria. Microbes and other consumers are selective in the type of DOM they utilize and typically prefer certain organic compounds over others. Consequently, DOM becomes less reactive as it is continually reworked. Said another way, the DOM pool becomes less labile and more refractory with degradation. As it is reworked, organic compounds are continually being added to the bulk DOM pool by physical mixing, exchange with particles, and/or production of organic molecules by the consumer community. As such, the compositional changes that occur during degradation are more complex than the simple removal of more labile components and resultant accumulation of remaining, less labile compounds.
Dissolved organic matter recalcitrance (i.e., its overall reactivity toward degradation and/or utilization) is therefore an emergent property. The perception of DOM recalcitrance changes during organic matter degradation and in conjunction with any other process that removes or adds organic compounds to the DOM pool under consideration.
The surprising resistance of high concentrations of DOC to microbial degradation has been addressed by several hypotheses. The prevalent notion is that the recalcitrant fraction of DOC has certain chemical properties, which prevent decomposition by microbes ("intrinsic stability hypothesis"). An alternative or additional explanation is given by the "dilution hypothesis", that all compounds are labile, but exist in concentrations individually too low to sustain microbial populations but collectively form a large pool. The dilution hypothesis has found support in recent experimental and theoretical studies.
DOM isolation and analysis
DOM is found in low concentrations in nature for direct analysis with NMR or MS. Moreover, DOM samples often contain high concentrations of inorganic salts that are incompatible with such techniques. Therefore, it is necessary a concentration and isolation step of the sample. The most used isolation techniques are ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and solid-phase extraction. Among them solid-phase extraction is considered as the cheapest and easiest technique.
See also
Blackwater river
Dissolved inorganic carbon
Foam line
Microbial loop
Total organic carbon
References
External links
Hansell DA and Carlson CA (Eds.) (2014) Biogeochemistry of Marine Dissolved Organic Matter, Second edition, Academic Press. .
Environmental chemistry
Water quality indicators
Water chemistry |
4236583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual%20search | Visual search | Visual search is a type of perceptual task requiring attention that typically involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature (the target) among other objects or features (the distractors). Visual search can take place with or without eye movements. The ability to consciously locate an object or target amongst a complex array of stimuli has been extensively studied over the past 40 years. Practical examples of using visual search can be seen in everyday life, such as when one is picking out a product on a supermarket shelf, when animals are searching for food among piles of leaves, when trying to find a friend in a large crowd of people, or simply when playing visual search games such as Where's Wally?
Much previous literature on visual search used reaction time in order to measure the time it takes to detect the target amongst its distractors. An example of this could be a green square (the target) amongst a set of red circles (the distractors). However, reaction time measurements do not always distinguish between the role of attention and other factors: a long reaction time might be the result of difficulty directing attention to the target, or slowed decision-making processes or slowed motor responses after attention is already directed to the target and the target has already been detected. Many visual search paradigms have therefore used eye movement as a means to measure the degree of attention given to stimuli.
However, eyes can move independently of attention, and therefore eye movement measures do not completely capture the role of attention.
Search types
Feature search
Feature search (also known as "disjunctive" or "efficient" search) is a visual search process that focuses on identifying a previously requested target amongst distractors that differ from the target by a unique visual feature such as color, shape, orientation, or size. An example of a feature search task is asking a participant to identify a white square (target) surrounded by black squares (distractors). In this type of visual search, the distractors are characterized by the same visual features. The efficiency of feature search in regards to reaction time (RT) and accuracy depends on the "pop out" effect, bottom-up processing, and parallel processing. However, the efficiency of feature search is unaffected by the number of distractors present.
The "pop out" effect is an element of feature search that characterizes the target's ability to stand out from surrounding distractors due to its unique feature. Bottom-up processing, which is the processing of information that depends on input from the environment, explains how one utilizes feature detectors to process characteristics of the stimuli and differentiate a target from its distractors. This draw of visual attention towards the target due to bottom-up processes is known as "saliency." Lastly, parallel processing is the mechanism that then allows one's feature detectors to work simultaneously in identifying the target.
Conjunction search
Conjunction search (also known as inefficient or serial search) is a visual search process that focuses on identifying a previously requested target surrounded by distractors possessing no distinct features from the target itself. An example of a conjunction search task is having a person identify a red X (target) amongst distractors composed of black Xs (same shape) and red Os (same color). Unlike feature search, conjunction search involves distractors (or groups of distractors) that may differ from each other but exhibit at least one common feature with the target. The efficiency of conjunction search in regards to reaction time (RT) and accuracy is dependent on the distractor-ratio and the number of distractors present. As the distractors represent the differing individual features of the target more equally amongst themselves (distractor-ratio effect), reaction time(RT) increases and accuracy decreases. As the number of distractors present increases, the reaction time (RT) increases and the accuracy decreases. However, with practice the original reaction time (RT) restraints of conjunction search tend to show improvement. In the early stages of processing, conjunction search utilizes bottom-up processes to identify pre-specified features amongst the stimuli. These processes are then overtaken by a more serial process of consciously evaluating the indicated features of the stimuli in order to properly allocate one's focal spatial attention towards the stimulus that most accurately represents the target.
In many cases, top-down processing affects conjunction search by eliminating stimuli that are incongruent with one's previous knowledge of the target-description, which in the end allows for more efficient identification of the target. An example of the effect of top-down processes on a conjunction search task is when searching for a red 'K' among red 'Cs' and black 'Ks', individuals ignore the black letters and focus on the remaining red letters in order to decrease the set size of possible targets and, therefore, more efficiently identify their target.
Real world visual search
In everyday situations, people are most commonly searching their visual fields for targets that are familiar to them. When it comes to searching for familiar stimuli, top-down processing allows one to more efficiently identify targets with greater complexity than can be represented in a feature or conjunction search task. In a study done to analyze the reverse-letter effect, which is the idea that identifying the asymmetric letter among symmetric letters is more efficient than its reciprocal, researchers concluded that individuals more efficiently recognize an asymmetric letter among symmetric letters due to top-down processes. Top-down processes allowed study participants to access prior knowledge regarding shape recognition of the letter N and quickly eliminate the stimuli that matched their knowledge. In the real world, one must use prior knowledge everyday in order to accurately and efficiently locate objects such as phones, keys, etc. among a much more complex array of distractors. Despite this complexity, visual search with complex objects (and search for categories of objects, such as "phone", based on prior knowledge) appears to rely on the same active scanning processes as conjunction search with less complex, contrived laboratory stimuli, although global statistical information available in real-world scenes can also help people locate target objects. While bottom-up processes may come into play when identifying objects that are not as familiar to a person, overall top-down processing highly influences visual searches that occur in everyday life. Familiarity can play especially critical roles when parts of objects are not visible (as when objects are partly hidden from view because they are behind other objects). Visual information from hidden parts can be recalled from long-term memory and used to facilitate search for familiar objects.
Reaction time slope
It is also possible to measure the role of attention within visual search experiments by calculating the slope of reaction time over the number of distractors present. Generally, when high levels of attention are required when looking at a complex array of stimuli (conjunction search), the slope increases as reaction times increase. For simple visual search tasks (feature search), the slope decreases due to reaction times being fast and requiring less attention. However, the use of a reaction time slope to measure attention is controversial because non-attentional factors can also affect reaction time slope.
Visual orienting and attention
One obvious way to select visual information is to turn towards it, also known as visual orienting. This may be a movement of the head and/or eyes towards the visual stimulus, called a saccade. Through a process called foveation, the eyes fixate on the object of interest, making the image of the visual stimulus fall on the fovea of the eye, the central part of the retina with the sharpest visual acuity.
There are two types of orienting:
Exogenous orienting is the involuntary and automatic movement that occurs to direct one's visual attention toward a sudden disruption in his peripheral vision field. Attention is therefore externally guided by a stimulus, resulting in a reflexive saccade.
Endogenous orienting is the voluntary movement that occurs in order for one to focus visual attention on a goal-driven stimulus. Thus, the focus of attention of the perceiver can be manipulated by the demands of a task. A scanning saccade is triggered endogenously for the purpose of exploring the visual environment.
Visual search relies primarily on endogenous orienting because participants have the goal to detect the presence or absence of a specific target object in an array of other distracting objects.
Early research suggested that attention could be covertly (without eye movement) shifted to peripheral stimuli, but later studies found that small saccades (microsaccades) occur during these tasks, and that these eye movements are frequently directed towards the attended locations (whether or not there are visible stimuli). These findings indicate that attention plays a critical role in understanding visual search.
Subsequently, competing theories of attention have come to dominate visual search discourse. The environment contains a vast amount of information. We are limited in the amount of information we are able to process at any one time, so it is therefore necessary that we have mechanisms by which extraneous stimuli can be filtered and only relevant information attended to. In the study of attention, psychologists distinguish between pre-attentive and attentional processes. Pre-attentive processes are evenly distributed across all input signals, forming a kind of "low-level" attention. Attentional processes are more selective and can only be applied to specific preattentive input. A large part of the current debate in visual search theory centres on selective attention and what the visual system is capable of achieving without focal attention.
Theory
Feature integration theory (FIT)
A popular explanation for the different reaction times of feature and conjunction searches is the feature integration theory (FIT), introduced by Treisman and Gelade in 1980. This theory proposes that certain visual features are registered early, automatically, and are coded rapidly in parallel across the visual field using pre-attentive processes.
Experiments show that these features include luminance, colour, orientation, motion direction, and velocity, as well as some simple aspects of form. For example, a red X can be quickly found among any number of black Xs and Os because the red X has the discriminative feature of colour and will "pop out." In contrast, this theory also suggests that in order to integrate two or more visual features belonging to the same object, a later process involving integration of information from different brain areas is needed and is coded serially using focal attention. For example, when locating an orange square among blue squares and orange triangles, neither the colour feature "orange" nor the shape feature "square" is sufficient to locate the search target. Instead, one must integrate information of both colour and shape to locate the target.
Evidence that attention and thus later visual processing is needed to integrate two or more features of the same object is shown by the occurrence of illusory conjunctions, or when features do not combine correctly For example, if a display of a green X and a red O are flashed on a screen so briefly that the later visual process of a serial search with focal attention cannot occur, the observer may report seeing a red X and a green O.
The FIT is a dichotomy because of the distinction between its two stages: the preattentive and attentive stages. Preattentive processes are those performed in the first stage of the FIT model, in which the simplest features of the object are being analyzed, such as color, size, and arrangement. The second attentive stage of the model incorporates cross-dimensional processing, and the actual identification of an object is done and information about the target object is put together. This theory has not always been what it is today; there have been disagreements and problems with its proposals that have allowed the theory to be amended and altered over time, and this criticism and revision has allowed it to become more accurate in its description of visual search. There have been disagreements over whether or not there is a clear distinction between feature detection and other searches that use a master map accounting for multiple dimensions in order to search for an object. Some psychologists support the idea that feature integration is completely separate from this type of master map search, whereas many others have decided that feature integration incorporates this use of a master map in order to locate an object in multiple dimensions.
The FIT also explains that there is a distinction between the brain's processes that are being used in a parallel versus a focal attention task. Chan and Hayward have conducted multiple experiments supporting this idea by demonstrating the role of dimensions in visual search. While exploring whether or not focal attention can reduce the costs caused by dimension-switching in visual search, they explained that the results collected supported the mechanisms of the feature integration theory in comparison to other search-based approaches. They discovered that single dimensions allow for a much more efficient search regardless of the size of the area being searched, but once more dimensions are added it is much more difficult to efficiently search, and the bigger the area being searched the longer it takes for one to find the target.
Guided search model
A second main function of preattentive processes is to direct focal attention to the most "promising" information in the visual field. There are two ways in which these processes can be used to direct attention: bottom-up activation (which is stimulus-driven) and top-down activation (which is user-driven). In the guided search model by Jeremy Wolfe, information from top-down and bottom-up processing of the stimulus is used to create a ranking of items in order of their attentional priority. In a visual search, attention will be directed to the item with the highest priority. If that item is rejected, then attention will move on to the next item and the next, and so forth. The guided search theory follows that of parallel search processing.
An activation map is a representation of visual space in which the level of activation at a location reflects the likelihood that the location contains a target. This likelihood is based on preattentive, featural information of the perceiver. According to the guided search model, the initial processing of basic features produces an activation map, with every item in the visual display having its own level of activation. Attention is demanded based on peaks of activation in the activation map in a search for the target. Visual search can proceed efficiently or inefficiently. During efficient search, performance is unaffected by the number of distractor items. The reaction time functions are flat, and the search is assumed to be a parallel search. Thus, in the guided search model, a search is efficient if the target generates the highest, or one of the highest activation peaks. For example, suppose someone is searching for red, horizontal targets. Feature processing would activate all red objects and all horizontal objects. Attention is then directed to items depending on their level of activation, starting with those most activated. This explains why search times are longer when distractors share one or more features with the target stimuli. In contrast, during inefficient search, the reaction time to identify the target increases linearly with the number of distractor items present. According to the guided search model, this is because the peak generated by the target is not one of the highest.
Biological basis
During visual search experiments the posterior parietal cortex has elicited much activation during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) experiments for inefficient conjunction search, which has also been confirmed through lesion studies. Patients with lesions to the posterior parietal cortex show low accuracy and very slow reaction times during a conjunction search task but have intact feature search remaining to the ipsilesional (the same side of the body as the lesion) side of space.
Ashbridge, Walsh, and Cowey in (1997)
demonstrated that during the application of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the right parietal cortex, conjunction search was impaired by 100 milliseconds after stimulus onset. This was not found during feature search. Nobre, Coull, Walsh and Frith (2003)
identified using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that the intraparietal sulcus located in the superior parietal cortex was activated specifically to feature search and the binding of individual perceptual features as opposed to conjunction search. Conversely, the authors further identify that for conjunction search, the superior parietal lobe and the right angular gyrus elicit bilaterally during fMRI experiments.
In contrast, Leonards, Sunaert, Vam Hecke and Orban (2000) identified that significant activation is seen during fMRI experiments in the superior frontal sulcus primarily for conjunction search. This research hypothesises that activation in this region may in fact reflect working memory for holding and maintaining stimulus information in mind in order to identify the target. Furthermore, significant frontal activation including the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex bilaterally and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were seen during positron emission tomography for attentional spatial representations during visual search.
The same regions associated with spatial attention in the parietal cortex coincide with the regions associated with feature search. Furthermore, the frontal eye field (FEF) located bilaterally in the prefrontal cortex, plays a critical role in saccadic eye movements and the control of visual attention.
Moreover, research into monkeys and single cell recording found that the superior colliculus is involved in the selection of the target during visual search as well as the initiation of movements. Conversely, it also suggested that activation in the superior colliculus results from disengaging attention, ensuring that the next stimulus can be internally represented. The ability to directly attend to a particular stimuli during visual search experiments has been linked to the pulvinar nucleus (located in the midbrain) while inhibiting attention to unattended stimuli. Conversely, Bender and Butter (1987) found that during testing on monkeys, no involvement of the pulvinar nucleus was identified during visual search tasks.
There is evidence for the V1 Saliency Hypothesis that the primary visual cortex (V1) creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously, and this V1 saliency map is read out by the superior colliculus which receives monosynaptic inputs from V1.
Evolution
There is a variety of speculation about the origin and evolution of visual search in humans. It has been shown that during visual exploration of complex natural scenes, both humans and nonhuman primates make highly stereotyped eye movements. Furthermore, chimpanzees have demonstrated improved performance in visual searches for upright human or dog faces, suggesting that visual search (particularly where the target is a face) is not peculiar to humans and that it may be a primal trait. Research has suggested that effective visual search may have developed as a necessary skill for survival, where being adept at detecting threats and identifying food was essential.
The importance of evolutionarily relevant threat stimuli was demonstrated in a study by LoBue and DeLoache (2008) in which children (and adults) were able to detect snakes more rapidly than other targets amongst distractor stimuli. However, some researchers question whether evolutionarily relevant threat stimuli are detected automatically.
Face recognition
Over the past few decades there have been vast amounts of research into face recognition, specifying that faces endure specialized processing within a region called the fusiform face area (FFA) located in the mid fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe. Debates are ongoing whether both faces and objects are detected and processed in different systems and whether both have category specific regions for recognition and identification. Much research to date focuses on the accuracy of the detection and the time taken to detect the face in a complex visual search array. When faces are displayed in isolation, upright faces are processed faster and more accurately than inverted faces, but this effect was observed in non-face objects as well. When faces are to be detected among inverted or jumbled faces, reaction times for intact and upright faces increase as the number of distractors within the array is increased. Hence, it is argued that the 'pop out' theory defined in feature search is not applicable in the recognition of faces in such visual search paradigm. Conversely, the opposite effect has been argued and within a natural environmental scene, the 'pop out' effect of the face is significantly shown. This could be due to evolutionary developments as the need to be able to identify faces that appear threatening to the individual or group is deemed critical in the survival of the fittest. More recently, it was found that faces can be efficiently detected in a visual search paradigm, if the distracters are non-face objects, however it is debated whether this apparent 'pop out' effect is driven by a high-level mechanism or by low-level confounding features. Furthermore, patients with developmental prosopagnosia, who have impaired face identification, generally detect faces normally, suggesting that visual search for faces is facilitated by mechanisms other than the face-identification circuits of the fusiform face area.
Patients with forms of dementia can also have deficits in facial recognition and the ability to recognize human emotions in the face. In a meta-analysis of nineteen different studies comparing normal adults with dementia patients in their abilities to recognize facial emotions, the patients with frontotemporal dementia were seen to have a lower ability to recognize many different emotions. These patients were much less accurate than the control participants (and even in comparison with Alzheimer's patients) in recognizing negative emotions, but were not significantly impaired in recognizing happiness. Anger and disgust in particular were the most difficult for the dementia patients to recognize.
Face recognition is a complex process that is affected by many factors, both environmental and individually internal. Other aspects to be considered include race and culture and their effects on one's ability to recognize faces. Some factors such as the cross-race effect can influence one's ability to recognize and remember faces.
Considerations
Ageing
Research indicates that performance in conjunctive visual search tasks significantly improves during childhood and declines in later life. More specifically, young adults have been shown to have faster reaction times on conjunctive visual search tasks than both children and older adults, but their reaction times were similar for feature visual search tasks. This suggests that there is something about the process of integrating visual features or serial searching that is difficult for children and older adults, but not for young adults. Studies have suggested numerous mechanisms involved in this difficulty in children, including peripheral visual acuity, eye movement ability, ability of attentional focal movement, and the ability to divide visual attention among multiple objects.
Studies have suggested similar mechanisms in the difficulty for older adults, such as age related optical changes that influence peripheral acuity, the ability to move attention over the visual field, the ability to disengage attention, and the ability to ignore distractors.
A study by Lorenzo-López et al. (2008) provides neurological evidence for the fact that older adults have slower reaction times during conjunctive searches compared to young adults. Event-related potentials (ERPs) showed longer latencies and lower amplitudes in older subjects than young adults at the P3 component, which is related to activity of the parietal lobes. This suggests the involvement of the parietal lobe function with an age-related decline in the speed of visual search tasks. Results also showed that older adults, when compared to young adults, had significantly less activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and many limbic and occipitotemporal regions that are involved in performing visual search tasks.
Alzheimer's disease
Research has found that people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are significantly impaired overall in visual search tasks.
People with AD manifest enhanced spatial cueing, but this benefit is only obtained for cues with high spatial precision. Abnormal visual attention may underlie certain visuospatial difficulties in patients with (AD). People with AD have hypometabolism and neuropathology in the parietal cortex, and given the role of parietal function for visual attention, patients with AD may have hemispatial neglect, which may result in difficulty with disengaging attention in visual search.
An experiment conducted by Tales et al. (2000) investigated the ability of patients with AD to perform various types of visual search tasks. Their results showed that search rates on "pop-out" tasks were similar for both AD and control groups, however, people with AD searched significantly slower compared to the control group on a conjunction task. One interpretation of these results is that the visual system of AD patients has a problem with feature binding, such that it is unable to communicate the different feature descriptions for the stimulus efficiently. Binding of features is thought to be mediated by areas in the temporal and parietal cortex, and these areas are known to be affected by AD-related pathology.
Another possibility for the impairment of people with AD on conjunction searches is that there may be some damage to general attentional mechanisms in AD, and therefore any attention-related task will be affected, including visual search.
Tales et al. (2000) detected a double dissociation with their experimental results on AD and visual search. Earlier work was carried out on patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) concerning the impairment patients with PD have on visual search tasks. In those studies, evidence was found of impairment in PD patients on the "pop-out" task, but no evidence was found on the impairment of the conjunction task. As discussed, AD patients show the exact opposite of these results: normal performance was seen on the "pop-out" task, but impairment was found on the conjunction task. This double dissociation provides evidence that PD and AD affect the visual pathway in different ways, and that the pop-out task and the conjunction task are differentially processed within that pathway.
Autism
Studies have consistently shown that autistic individuals performed better and with lower reaction times in feature and conjunctive visual search tasks than matched controls without autism. Several explanations for these observations have been suggested.
One possibility is that people with autism have enhanced perceptual capacity. This means that autistic individuals are able to process larger amounts of perceptual information, allowing for superior parallel processing and hence faster target location. Second, autistic individuals show superior performance in discrimination tasks between similar stimuli and therefore may have an enhanced ability to differentiate between items in the visual search display. A third suggestion is that autistic individuals may have stronger top-down target excitation processing and stronger distractor inhibition processing than controls.
Keehn et al. (2008) used an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging design to study the neurofunctional correlates of visual search in autistic children and matched controls of typically developing children. Autistic children showed superior search efficiency and increased neural activation patterns in the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes when compared to the typically developing children. Thus, autistic individuals' superior performance on visual search tasks may be due to enhanced discrimination of items on the display, which is associated with occipital activity, and increased top-down shifts of visual attention, which is associated with the frontal and parietal areas.
Consumer psychology
In the past decade, there has been extensive research into how companies can maximise sales using psychological techniques derived from visual search to determine how products should be positioned on shelves. Pieters and Warlop (1999) used eye tracking devices to assess saccades and fixations of consumers while they visually scanned/searched an array of products on a supermarket shelf. Their research suggests that consumers specifically direct their attention to products with eye-catching properties such as shape, colour or brand name. This effect is due to a pressured visual search where eye movements accelerate and saccades minimise, thus resulting in the consumer's quickly choosing a product with a 'pop out' effect. This study suggests that efficient search is primarily used, concluding that consumers do not focus on items that share very similar features. The more distinct or maximally visually different a product is from surrounding products, the more likely the consumer is to notice it. Janiszewski (1998) discussed two types of consumer search. One search type is goal directed search taking place when somebody uses stored knowledge of the product in order to make a purchase choice. The second is exploratory search. This occurs when the consumer has minimal previous knowledge about how to choose a product. It was found that for exploratory search, individuals would pay less attention to products that were placed in visually competitive areas such as the middle of the shelf at an optimal viewing height. This was primarily due to the competition in attention meaning that less information was maintained in visual working memory for these products.
References
Neuropsychology
Perception
Cognitive psychology |
4236770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mkrtich%20Khrimian | Mkrtich Khrimian | Mkrtich Khrimian (classical ; 4 April 182029 October 1907) was an Armenian Apostolic Church leader, educator, and publisher who served as Catholicos of All Armenians from 1893 to 1907. During this period he was known as Mkrtich I of Van (Մկրտիչ Ա Վանեցի, Mkrtich A Vanetsi).
A native of Van, one of the largest cities in Turkish (Western) Armenia, Khrimian became a celibate priest (vardapet) in 1854 after the death of his wife and daughter. In the 1850s and 1860s he served as the abbot of two important monasteries in Turkish Armenia: Varagavank near Van and Surb Karapet Monastery near Mush. During this period he established schools and journals in both monasteries. He served as Patriarch of Constantinople—the most influential figure within the Ottoman Armenian community—from 1869 to 1873 and resigned due to pressure from the Ottoman government which saw him as a threat. He was the head of the Armenian delegation at the 1878 Congress of Berlin. Returning from Europe, he encouraged Armenian peasants to follow the example of Christian Balkan peoples by launching an armed struggle for autonomy or independence from the Ottoman Turks.
Between 1879 and 1885 he served as prelate of Van, after which he was forced into exile to Jerusalem. He was elected as head of the Armenian Church in 1892, however, he was enthroned more than a year later and served in that position until his death. He opposed the Russian government's attempt to confiscate the properties of the Armenian Church in 1903, which was later canceled in part due to his efforts. Khrimian further endorsed the liberation movement of the Armenian revolutionaries.
He is a towering figure in modern Armenian history and has been affectionately called Khrimian Hayrik (hayrik is diminutive for "father"). A well-known defender of Armenian interests and aspirations, his progressive activities are seen as having laid the groundwork for the rise of Armenian nationalism and the consequent national liberation movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Early life, education, and travels
Khrimian was born in the Aygestan (Aikesdan) quarter of Van. His father, a weaver, died when Mkrtich was a child and he was brought up by his uncle, Khachatur, a merchant. The root of his last name, Khrim, is the Armenian language term for Crimea, suggests a link his family had with the peninsula. He received informal education at parochial schools of Lim and Ktuts islands in Lake Van and Varagavank, where he studied classical Armenian, history, and ecclesiastical literature. Upon returning to Van in 1842, he embarked on a journey across the region and made a pilgrimage to Etchmiadzin, the center of the Armenian Church. Khrimian wished to continue his education at a European university, but this desire was never realized. He lived in Constantinople from 1844 to 1846 where he made connections with Armenian intellectuals.
Returning to Van in 1846, he married Mariam Sevikian. In 1847 he crossed to Persia and the Russian Caucasus, where he visited the Ararat plain, Shirak, and Nakhichevan. He lived in Alexandropol (Gyumri) for six months. In 1848 once again moved to Constantinople via Tiflis, Batumi, and Trabzon. From 1848 to 1850 he taught at an all-girl school in Constantinople's Khasgiugh (Hasköy) quarter. In 1851 he traveled to Cilicia where he was sent to report on the state of Armenian schools. By traveling and living in various Armenian-populated provinces, he acquired an intimate knowledge of the problems and aspirations of ordinary Armenians. He was upset with the apathy the upper and middle classes of the Armenian community of Constantinople showed towards provincial Armenians.
Returning to Van in 1853, he found himself with no immediate family left; his wife, daughter, and mother had died. He thereafter decided to devote himself to a life in the Armenian Apostolic Church. In 1854, at age 34, Khirimian was ordained as vardapet (celibate priest) at the Aghtamar Cathedral in Lake Van. In 1855 he was appointed abbot of the Holy Cross Church in Scutari (Üsküdar), near Constantinople. Khrimian began production of the periodical Artsvi Vaspurakan ("Eagle of Vaspurakan") at a publishing house located next to his Scutari church.
Van, Mush, and Constantinople
Monasteries of Varag and Surb Karapet
Khrimian returned to Van in 1857 and established the Zharangavorats School at Varagavank monastery. He founded a publishing house at the monastery, through which he resumed the publication of Artsvi Vaspurakan in 1859. Its publication continued until 1864.
In 1862 he was appointed abbot of the Surb Karapet Monastery near Mush, which meant he was also the prelate of Taron. He revitalized the monastery and transformed it into a flourishing center. He founded a school there and a journal, called Artsvik Tarono ("Eaglet of Taron"). He succeeded in convincing the wali (governor) of the Erzurum Vilayet to lower taxes for Armenians.
Patriarch of Constantinople
On 20 October 1868, Khrimian was ordained as a bishop in Etchmiadzin. On 4 September 1869 he was elected as the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, who was the de facto leader of the Armenian community of the Ottoman Empire in both religious and secular matters. According to Ali Tekkoyun, a Turkish scholar of religion, his election indicated that the Amira (wealthiest) class and the imperial authorities lost power over the Armenians as went against their interests. He cleared the patriarchate's debt and sought to increase the provincial representation in the Armenian National Assembly. As the de facto political leader of the Christian Armenian millet in the eyes of the Sublime Porte, he prepared a detailed report documenting instances of oppression, persecution, and miscarriage of justice in the Armenian provinces and presented the document to the Sublime Porte. Khrimian used the position to advance the interests and conditions of the poor and oppressed provincial Armenians.
The Khrimian report, officially titled First Report on Provincial Oppressions needs to be understood in the context of the Tanzimat reforms (1839, 1856). Aimed at centralizing the administration and improving the tax base of the government, the reforms had not been effectively implemented in the more peripheral parts of the Empire, among them the Anatolian provinces. As a consequence, the local populations often suffered from double taxation, both from the central government and from the part of local tribal leaders who had access to tax farming rights, most of them Kurdish notables. Issues explicitly mentioned in Khrimian's report include: violence committed by tax farmers against the local population, forced conversions to Islam and other crimes committed out of religious fanaticism, over-taxation, and neglect of tax farmer duties, leading to harvest losses. The report also made several suggestions on how to address the above-mentioned problems: In particular, the Kurdish tribesmen were supposed to be disarmed and taught an agricultural lifestyle. Moreover, the report asked for the creation of an effective police force, with Armenians being allowed to serve at all levels, and for transparent communication of the Sublime Porte's orders.
His outspokenness about the issues facing the Armenian population annoyed not only the Ottoman authorities but some of the Armenian wealthy elite as well. According to Gerard Libaridian, the promotion of rights of provincial Armenians "made him an enemy of many influential Armenians in Istanbul." He was compelled to resign by the Ottoman government in 1873. Armayis Vartooguian wrote in 1896 that Khrimian "could have held the post of Patriarch of Constantinople for life had he not been driven to resign by the intrigues of the Turkish Government, which disliked him very much because of his zeal for the well-being of his flock."
Following his resignation, Khrimian dedicated his time to literary pursuits.
Berlin Congress
In the aftermath of the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War, Khrimian led the Armenian delegation at the Congress of Berlin. The delegation's mission was to present a memorandum to the great powers concerning the implementation of reforms in the Armenian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The delegation's main goal was to secure substantial reforms in the Armenian provinces that would be supervised by European powers—which meant Russia in reality, as its troops where stationed in parts of Armenia. Armenians hoped that Russian pressure (and threat of intervention) would force the Ottoman government to improve conditions in the Armenian provinces. The Armenian delegation furthermore demanded some form of autonomy for the Armenian provinces, similar to the Maronite autonomy in Mount Lebanon, but did not advocate breakup of the Ottoman Empire or annexation of the Armenian provinces into Russia.
The Treaty of Berlin, which was signed on 13 July 1878, is considered a failure of the Armenian mission to the congress by historians. It failed to force the Ottoman government to implement real reforms. Panossian writes that all the Armenian delegation received were "toothless promises." In the congress, Khrimian witnessed the Christian Balkan peoples (Serbs, Montenegrins, and Bulgarians) achieving independence or some degree of autonomy.
After returning to Constantinople, Khrimian delivered a series of speeches "which secured him a place in the radicalisation of Armenian thinking, and the clear and forceful articulation of demands based on nationalist principles." He gave a well-known sermon in which he called for the armament of the Armenians in order to fight for an independent Armenia. He told his flock that "Armenia, in contrast with the Christian states of the Balkans, did not win autonomy from the Porte because no Armenian blood had been shed in the cause of freedom." Famous for its allegories, the sermon is considered to have initiated the Armenian revolutionary movement.
In the sermon, he "used an analogy of a ladle and dish with the sword and freedom in explaining the Balkan countries' struggle for freedom during the Congress. For him, the freedom of Armenia was only possible through the use of armed force." In particular, he stated: "There, where guns talk and swords make noise, what significance do appeals and petitions have?" He added:
Prelate of Van and exile
After his return from Europe, Khrimian was appointed Prelate of Van in 1879. He opened new schools, including the first agricultural school in Armenian lands. In the 1880s he supported the Armenian secret societies devoted to the cause of national liberation, such as Sev khach ("Սև խաչ", Black cross) of Van and Pashtpan hayrenyats ("Պաշտպան հայրենյաց", Defender of the Fatherland). The Ottoman government, which looked unfavorably on his activities, suspended him in 1885 and sent him to Constantinople, where he could be controlled by the authorities.
Following the 15 July 1890 Kum Kapu demonstration, four representatives of the Armenian National Assembly (Khrimian, Garegin Srvandztiants, Matthew Izmirlian, Grigoris Aleatjian) presented a report criticizing the Ottoman government for the treatment of the Armenian peasantry. In December 1890, he was exiled to Jerusalem "under pretense of being on a pilgrimage." He lived in the St. James monastery in the city's Armenian Quarter.
Catholicos
On 5 May 1892, an election held at Etchmiadzin unanimously elected Khrimian to the position of Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church. According to Vartooguian, "Khrimian's popularity was so overwhelming that any one opposing him would be recognized by the nation as a traitor. Khrimian was recognized as the standard of patriotism, and whoever sought the best interests of the nation could not but favor his election." Vartooguian adds that the Russian imperial government was displeased with his election as they sought to incorporate the Armenian Church under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church in an attempt to Russify the Armenian population.
Khrimian, aged 72, was not initially allowed to travel to Etchmiadzin by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Over a year later, after the Russian emperor's request was he granted permission to travel, but only if he did not set foot in Turkey. According to Hacikyan et al., the Ottomans feared "excessive manifestations of jubilations by the Armenians." The Ottoman government forbade Khrimian from traveling to Echmiadzin through their territory, and so he was required to travel via Jaffa, Alexandria, Trieste, Vienna, Odessa, Sevastopol, Batumi, and then Tiflis. Some 17 months after his election, he was enthroned as Catholicos on 26 September 1893. His Ottoman citizenship was revoked and he became a Russian subject.
In 1895, he traveled to Saint Petersburg to meet the Russian Tsar Nicholas II to request the implementation of reforms in the Ottoman Empire's Armenian provinces. During the Hamidian massacres of 1894–96, Khrimian provided material assistance to the Armenian refugees. Among his other accomplishments were the renovations of numerous ancient monasteries and churches.
In June 1903, the Russian government issued an edict to close down Armenian schools and confiscate the properties of the Armenian Church, including the treasures of Etchmiadzin. The act had the primary purpose of accelerating the process of Russification of the Armenian people and church.
Khrimian collaborated with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun) to organize mass demonstrations against the edict. According to the historian Rouben Paul Adalian, it was a combination of Dashnaktsutyun's popular resistance and Khrimian's personal defiance that resulted in the edict being canceled in 1905.
He consecrated the new churches of two provincial towns, Goris ( and Gavar, () in 1903 and 1905, respectively.
In 1907, Khrimian clarified the relations between the patriarch of Constantinople and emphasized the primacy of the see of Echmiadzin. In September of that year he sent a letter to Nicholas II in which he called upon the Russian government to prevent the violence then facing the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population.
Views and ideological influence
Progressivism
In the 1860s and 1870s, Khrimian was, along with Harutiun Svadjian, one of the major liberal Armenian activists in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, liberals like Grigor Artsruni, Mikael Nalbandian, and Stepanos Nazarian were active in the Russian Empire. Arra Avakian described him as a "very progressive educator." American feminist Alice Stone Blackwell wrote in 1917: "All his views were progressive" and praised his promotion of female education: "He was a strong advocate of education for girls, and in one of his books, The Family of Paradise, he argues against the prevailing Oriental idea that husbands have a right to rule over their wives by force." Derderian also noted his "belief in the importance of educating women" and his encouragement of "participation of women in spreading enlightenment principles." Another author stated that he made "voluminous contribution to progressive Armenian intellectualism." Vartooguian, writing in 1896, suggested that Khrimian "was a conservative in matters of the Church."
Nationalism
Razmik Panossian writes that Khrimian had a powerful influence on Armenian nationalism. According to Panossian, he is the "single most important nineteenth century figure to have entered Armenian consciousness as the bearer of the radical message of national liberation". According to Tekkoyun, "Khrimian was a prominent figure in the formation of the Armenian nationalism." H. F. B. Lynch, who visited Etchmiadzin in 1893, wrote about Khrimian in his book on Armenia: "With him religion and patriotism are almost interchangeable terms." In the words of Adalian, Khrimian is "revered for his patriotic fervor and staunch defense of Armenian national interests." Another author described him as a "major spokesman for Armenian nationalist aspirations on the international stage." According to Tekkoyun, Khrimian "always advocated the awareness of laymen with nationalistic and patriotic ideas, which was possible only through the medium of journals and literature." Khrimian particularly emphasized the use of vernacular language in his writings.
Khrimian's view of Armenian nationalism as a cultural reawakening transformed into nationalism as an armed revolutionary movement in response to the repressive regime of Ottoman and Russian government as well as European policies towards Armenia. Khrimian explicitly endorsed the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) in an 1896 letter to the Armenians of Van, in which he wrote:
Before this the church had maintained a distance from the Armenian revolutionary groups as the latter saw the former as a conservative institution. It was Khrimian who welcomed revolutionary activism, especially by the Dashnaktsutyun, the most influential Armenian party. According to Panossian, Khrimian thus radicalised, to a certain degree, the Armenian Church and as such secularised in its vision of the Armenian nation.
Death and legacy
Khrimian died on 29 October 1907. He was buried, like many of his predecessors, at the courtyard of Etchmiadzin Cathedral. Sculptor Sergey Merkurov made his death mask.
Khrimian was revered by Armenians during his lifetime. He was called Hayrik (diminutive for "father") since his time as abbot of Surb Karapet Monastery near Mush in the early 1860s. Sarkis Atamian claims that "[n]o man, perhaps, in Armenian history, has come to symbolize the kind, wise, paternalistic leader of his flock as did Khrimian who was given the title Hairig (little father) in affection by his people." Jack Kalpakian describes Khrimian as "second only to the mythical Haik as the nation's father figure." Khrimian largely focused his efforts on the common people rather than the Armenian elite and is thus considered a "hero of the common people." Catholicos Vazgen I (r. 1955–94) called Khrimian the "greatest revolutionary [of the Armenian peasantry]".
Panossian writes that Khrimian was committed throughout his life to the betterment of the conditions of provincial Armenian and of Armenian rights in general. Khrimian has been described as "one of the few truly great figures in the history of the Armenian Church" and "one of the most famous and beloved national-religious figures of his time." Another author called him "the most beloved Armenian patriarch of modern times." Patricia Cholakian wrote of him: "a man of great personal holiness, had been among the first to inspire the persecuted Armenians to a love of learning and a sense of pride in their heritage." The prominent linguist Hrachia Acharian called him a true Christian, a true patriot, and a true popular man.
The Missionary Herald wrote in 1891 about Khrimian: "a man to whom all the Armenian nation look up to with great respect. He has labored honestly and earnestly for good of his nation." Alice Stone Blackwell wrote of him in 1917 as "the grandest figure in modern Armenian history" and added that "He was deeply loved and venerated for his wisdom and saintliness." Prominent Armenian poet Avetik Isahakyan wrote in a 1945 article: "The Armenian people will not forget him. The more time passes, the brighter his memory will become. He will look at the Armenian people from the depth of centuries and speak with a familiar language about her cherished aspirations and immortal goals."
Khrimian is the subject of paintings of several prominent Armenian artists, such as Ivan Aivazovsky, Yeghishe Tadevosyan, and Vardges Sureniants. Armenian-American composer Alan Hovhaness wrote a concerto titled Khrimian Hairig in October 1944. In his own words, "The music was inspired by a portrait of the heroic priest Khrimian Hairig, who led the Armenian people through many persecutions." The composition was first commercially recorded in 1995 by the Manhattan Chamber Orchestra, conducted by Richard Auldon Clark. A school in Yerevan, Armenia's capital, founded by Khrimian in 1906 and renamed for the 26 Baku Commissars during the Soviet period, was renamed after him in 1989.
Publications
Khrimian authored essays and books. His most notable works are the following:
1850: Հրաւիրակ Արարատեան, Hravirak Araratian (Convoker to Ararat): "a verse essay in classical Armenian in which he assumes the role of guide and leads a group of youths though the history and geography of the ancestral homeland, extolling its ancient glories and exquisite beauty in an attempt to instill a love and passion for the mother country in the young generation"
1851: Հրաւիրակ երկրին աւետեաց, Hravirak yerkrin avetiatz (Convoker to the Promised Land): "a similar verse essay published after a trip to the Holy Land in which he leads youths on a tour of the holy sites, teaching them the essence of Christianity as they go."
1876: Խաչի ճառը, Khachi char (Discourse on the Cross)
1876: Ժամանակ եւ խորհուրդ իւր, Zhamanak yev khorhurd yur (Time and its mystery)
1876: Դրախտի ընտանիք, Drakhti entanik (The family of paradise)
1878: Սիրաք եւ Սամուէլ, Sirak yev Samuel: "a treatise on child education"
1894: Պապիկ եւ թոռնիկ, Papik yev tornik (Grandfather and grandson): Agop Jack Hacikyan et al. consider it his best work.
1900: Թագաւորաց ժողով, Tagavorats zhoghov (The meeting of kings)
1901: Վերջալոյսի ձայներ, Verjaluysi dzayner (Sounds of twilight): a collection of poetry
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Khrimian at ArmenianHouse.org
1820 births
1907 deaths
19th-century Oriental Orthodox bishops
20th-century Oriental Orthodox bishops
Armenian Apostolic Christians
Armenian Patriarchs of Constantinople
Catholicoi of Armenia
19th-century Armenian poets
20th-century Armenian poets
Armenian male writers
Armenian essayists
Armenian educators
Armenian theologians
Armenian nationalists
Armenians from the Ottoman Empire
People from Van, Turkey |
4237002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokai%20University | Tokai University | is a private non-sectarian higher education institution located in Tokyo, Japan. It was founded by Dr. Shigeyoshi Matsumae.
It was accredited under Japan's old educational system in 1946 and under the new system in 1950. In 2008, Tokai University, Kyushu Tokai University, and Hokkaido Tokai University were consolidated and reorganized into Tokai University. Its Chinese character name is the same as Tunghai University in Taiwan.
History
The Bosei Seminar was founded at Musashino to realize Dr. Shigeyoshi Matsumae's concept of education to the public.
Dr. Matsumae founded the establishing entity of the university, or the Tokai University Educational System, in 1942. The university went through phases under the Japan's old educational systems, and reorganized schools accordingly roughly upon three stages for four times.
Training institutions for engineers and industrial schools
Foundation for Telecommunications Engineering School (14 October 1937 - 21 September 1944) operated three schools for telecommunications (21 October 1937 - 21 September 1945), which were renamed firstly to Polytechnic School (21 September 1945 - March 1947) then to Tokai Higher Telecommunications Engineering School (March 1947 - March 1965).
Old technical college
Under the College Law of 27 March 1903
Before the end of World War II, technical colleges were governed under the College Law of 27 March 1903 , and the Foundation for National Defense Science and Technology Institute (8 December 1942 - 15 August 1945) operated Radio Wave Technology Development Institute (1 February 1944 - 15 August 1945), Radio Science College (18 April 1944 - 15 August 1945). In 1943 Dr. Matsumae opened the Aerial Science College (8 April 1943 - 15 August 1945), an antecedent of Tokai University in Miho, Shizuoka, Japan.
After 1945
Under Kyūsei daigaku system - the former Education Law of 6 December 1918
Foundation for National Defense Science and Technology Institute was renamed to Tokai Gakuen Foundation (15 August 1945 - May 1, 1946) under Kyūsei daigaku system, and merged three educational establishments into Tokai College (15 August 1945 - 20 October 1945) which was renamed to Tokai Science College (20 October 1945 - March 1950).
Before the Shinsei daigaku system went into effect in 1947, the Foundation was reformed to Tokai University Foundation (1 May 1946 - 7 March 1951) under former Education Law of 6 December 1918, which operated former Tokai University (1 May 1946 - 1 April 1950) where students finished university education in three years.
Under Shinsei daigaku system - the Education Law of 31 March 1947
School systems in Japan was reformed in March 1947, when colleges and universities regulated under the former law of education were reformed to four-years-system educational institutions.
Tokai University Educational System
The Tokai University Educational System is one of the largest general education and research institutions in Japan. Today, Tokai University holds its headquarters in Yoyogi, Tokyo, with eight campuses all over Japan at Sapporo, Takanawa and Yoyogi in Tokyo, Hiratsuka and Isehara in Kanagawa, Shizuoka, with Kumamoto and Aso in Kumamoto; 21 schools and faculties make up approximately 80 departments, majors, and programs. With its graduate school offering 21 courses, the total student enrollment for both undergraduate and graduate is approximately 30,000 including 775 international students as of 2017. There are 1,653 faculty members with the ratio of students per a faculty member below 30.
Undergraduate schools
Overseas field training is popular among students as they can receive language training overseas, and classes are incorporated into the curriculum for Asian Studies, European and American Studies as well as Nordic Studies. Students from other Faculty can also take courses.
School of Cultural and Social Studies
Established in April 2018.
Admission: 450
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Creative Writing; Asian Studies; European and American Studies; Media Studies; Nordic Studies
School of Letters
The university holds a collection of 6,000 archaeological artifacts of Ancient Egypt and Near East based on donation in 2010 by the family of late Professor Hachishi Suzuki, and those Ancient Egyptian papyrus documents were offered for restoration and preservation workshops during 2013 to 2015 as an international civilization project by the Research Organization. Students deciphered and published the study results for the International Projects Concerning Civilization.
Admission: 930
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: American Civilization; Asian Civilization; Creative Writing; European Civilization; English Culture and Communications; History; Japanese Literature; Media Studies; Nordic Studies; Psychological and Sociological Studies.
School of Political Science and Economics
Offers courses to prepare for civil service examination, as well as internship program co-hosted by public offices.
Admission: 450
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Economics; Business Administration; Political Science.
School of Law
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors:
School of Humanities and Culture
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Arts; Human Development; International Studies.
School of Physical Education
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Competitive Sports; Judo and Kendo; Physical Education; Physical Recreation; Sport & Leisure Management.
School of Science
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Chemistry; Mathematical Sciences; Mathematics; Physics.
School of Information Science and Technology
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Applied Computer Engineering; Human and Information Science.
School of Engineering
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus
Majors: Aeronautics and Astronautics; Applied Biochemistry; Applied Chemistry; Architecture and Building Engineering; Biomedical Engineering; Civil Engineering; Electrical and Electronic Engineering; Materials Science; Mechanical Engineering; Nuclear Engineering; Optical and Imaging Science and Technology; Precision Engineering; Prime Mover Engineering.
School of Tourism
Admission:
Location: Shōnan campus (freshmen); Yoyogi campus (sophomore and up)
Majors: 観光学科
School of Information and Telecommunication Engineering
Admission:
Location: Takanawa campus
Majors: Communication and Network Engineering; Embedded Technology; Information Media Technology; Management Systems Engineering.
School of Marine Science and Technology
Admission:
Location: Shimizu campus
Majors: Applied Biological Science; Environmental and Societal Affairs; Fisheries; Marine and Earth Science; Marine Biology; Marine Civil Engineering; Marine Mineral Resources; Marine Science; Maritime Civilizations; Navigation; Navigation and Ocean Engineering.
School of Medicine
Admission:
Location: Isehara campus
Majors: 医学科 看護学科※1
School of Health Sciences
The School of Health Sciences is merged into the School of Medicine since April 2018.
Admission: 160
Location: Isehara campus
Majors: Nursing; Social Work.; 任用資格; :w:ja:スクールカウンセラー#スクールソーシャルワーカー
School of Business Studies
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors: Business Management.
School of Business Administration
Admission:
Location: Kumamoto campus
Majors: Business Administration; Tourism Management
School of Industrial Engineering
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors: Environment Conservation Sciences; Electronics and Intelligent Systems Engineering
School of Industrial and Welfare Engineering
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors: Production Engineering; Information Engineering; Architecture and Civil Engineering.
School of Agriculture
Admission:
Location: Aso campus※2（熊本）
Majors: he応用植物科学科／応用動物科学科／バイオサイエンス学科
School of International Cultural Relations
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors:
School of Biological Science and Engineering
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors:
School of Biological Engineering
Admission:
Location: campus
Majors:
Other courses
Japanese Language Course for International Students
Shipboard Training Course
Tokai Cool Japan
Graduate schools
Master's degree programs
Agriculture; Arts; Economics; Engineering; Health Sciences; Human Environmental Studies; Industrial Engineering; Information and Telecommunication Engineering; Law; Letters; Medicine; Physical Education; Political Science; Oceanography; Regional Development Studies; Science; Science and Engineering.
Doctoral degree programs
Bioscience; Earth and Environmental Science; Economics; Letters; Medicine; Political Science; Science and Technology.
Professional graduate school
Tokai Law School
Facilities
Campuses
Yoyogi Campus with University headquarters
Address: 2-28-4 Tomigaya, Shibuya, Tokyo
Nearest station: Yoyogi-hachiman Station on Odakyu Odawara Line, or Yoyogi-koen Station on Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line.
Aso Campus
Address: Kawayou, Minamiaso-mura, Aso-gun, Kumamoto Prefecture
Nearest station:
Shonan Campus
Address: 4-1-1 Kitakaname, Hiratsuka City, Kanagawa Prefecture
Nearest station: 15 mininutes on foot from Tōkaidaigaku-mae Station of Odakyu Odawara Line
Isehara Campus
Address: Boseidai, Isehara City, Kanagawa Prefecture
Nearest station: Isehara Station on Odakyu Odawara Line
Kumamoto Campus
Address:9-1-1 Toroku, Kumamoto, Kumamoto Prefecture
Nearest station:
Sapporo Campus
Prefecture
Address: 1-1-1 Minamisawa 5-jō, Sapporo City, Hokkaidō
Nearest station:
Shimizu Campus
Address: 3-20-1 Shimizu-orido, Shizuoka City, Shizuoka Prefecture
Nearest station: Shimizu Station on JR Tōkaidō Line
Takanawa Campus
Address:2-3-23 Takanawa, Minato, Tokyo
Nearest station:
Overseas offices
Hawaii US: Tokai University Pacific Center A.K.A. Hawaii Tokai International College (HTIC)
Denmark: Tokai University European Center
Austria: Tokai University Vienna Office (Former The Matsumae Budocenter)
Russia: Tokai University Russia Office (Vladivostok), In Far Eastern Federal University
South Korea: Seoul office, In Hanyang University
Thailand:
Tokai University Asian Office at KMITL
King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL)
Hospitals affiliated to the School of Medicine
Tokai University Hospital
Highly emergency medical care center
Tokai University Ōiso Hospital
Tokai University Tokyo Hospital
Tokai University Hachiōji Hospital
Others
"Bosei-maru", the marine research vessel
Achievements
Industry-academia-government collaboration
As Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology has been encouraging joint ventures among the industry sector, academia and government functions, between 1994 and 2004, Tokai University applied 519 patents compared to Nihon University (390), Waseda University (358), Tokyo Institute of Technology (338) and 324 cases for Nagoya University. By 2004, Tokyo University as a national institute lead 1,361 joint ventures, Waseda University lead 683 as the top private institute against 278 by Tokai University ranking at the 15th place, whereas Tokai University was commissioned 211 projects (12th) while Tokyo University attracted 818 at the top.
Le Mans 24 Hours
A student team at Tōkai University fielded a car for the Le Mans 24 Hours race in 2008. This was the first time that a university team attempted to enter the race.
The team entered a Courage-Oreca LC70-YGK numbered 22 in the LMP1 class. It completed 185 laps (just under half that of the race winner), retiring due to a gearbox problem, and was not classified.
TOKAI UNIVERSITY Le Mans Project
It has been confirmed that they will race in the Asian Le Mans Series in November 2009. The team raced at the 2010 1000 km of Zhuhai and will race again at the 2011 6 Hours of Zhuhai, both races are part of the Intercontinental Le Mans Cup.
Global Green Challenge
The Tokai Challenger is a solar car. The Tokai Challenger has become the winner of the 2009 World Solar Challenge, a race for solar cars across Australia. The car was designed and tested in collaboration with students from Tokai University and several Japanese companies in the automotive industry.
The Tokai Challenger covered the 3,021 kilometers off in 29 hours 49 minutes and it took an average speed of 100.54 kilometers per hour.
Scholarships
Athletes
Sport scholarship
Foreign students
Foreign student scholarship
Foreign student special scholarship
MATSUMAE Shigeyoshi Foreign student scholarship
General
Emergency scholarship (For those with family support)
General entrance examination top performer scholarship
International exchange scholarship
Labor scholarship (Service in a university)
MATSUMAE Shigeyoshi Commemoration Fund
Faculty scholarship
Self-study scholarship
Establishment commemoration paper scholarship
Graduate school students
Graduate school scholarship
Medical/Health science department students
Medical department scholarship
SATO Kanezō scholarship loan (Department of Medical & Health science Student)
BOSEI scholarship (Department student of Health science of nursing)
Private sponsors
KAWAKAMI Masuo & UCHIDA Shoyu scholarship
SATO Kanezō Research training scholarship
TOKAI University Supporters' association scholarship
Public relations
The Tokyo 12 Universities
The university is a member of the Tokyo 12 Universities, a joint public relations body for those headquartered in Tokyo, formed in 1964. It consists of Aoyama Gakuin University, Chuo University, Hosei University, Keio University, Kokugakuin University, Meiji University, Nihon University, Rikkyo University, Senshu University, Sophia University, and Waseda University.
Collaborative administration for university facilities
The Research and Promotion Division administers Technical Collaborative Management Office to promote aggressive research activities by the faculty and student of the university, as well as to share university facilities with private companies and regions, aiming to return resources to society.
Advanced physical property evaluation facility
chemical equipment analysis room - analysis equipment/facilities shared for inorganic, organic and biochemical systems.
Affiliated institutions
Archive, memorial halls and museums
Bōsei Academic and Archive Center - Archive
Matsumae Commemoration Hall - on Shonan campus
Museum of the School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University - an aquarium and dynosaurium in one facility, Miho, Shizuoka
Shigeyoshi Matsumae Memorial Hall () - on Kumamoto campus
Boarding school
Tokai University Boarding School in Denmark (now closed)
Extension centers
Bōsei gakujuku - classes offered to children and adults on the original site of at Musashino
Regional Collaboration Center - programs on Shonan, Takanawa and Kumamoto campuses with off campus offerings co-hosted by the city of Sagamihara
Publishing
Tokai University Press
Tokai Newspress - a campus newspaper with its website
Tokai Sports - weblog for students' sports activities, discontinued January 2018
Research institutes and research centers
Creative Science and Technology Research Organization
Civilization Laboratory
Ocean Research Laboratory
Integrated Medicinal Laboratory
Advanced Life Science Institute
Educational Development Research Center
Sports Medical Science Institute
Agricultural Research Institute
Okinawa Area Studies Center
Research Institute for Science and Technology
Information Technology Center
Space Information Center
Integrated Social Science Institute
Peace Strategy International Research Institute
Micro / Nano Research and Development Center
Life Sciences Institute at the Junior College
Integrated Nursing Research Facility at Medical Technology Junior College
Tourism and Culture Research Institute at Fukuoka Junior College
Welfare facilities
Ginreiso - cottage for mountaineering/ski in Jōzankei area
Tsumagoi Training Center - Sports and lecture facilities with accommodation, open to the public, Gumma prefecture
Yamanakako Seminar House - near Lake Yamanaka
Miho Training Center - a hotel with lecture rooms, open to the public
Matsumae Hall () - on Shonan campus
International Friendship Hall - in the vicinity of Shonan campus, Hadano
International House - on Sapporo campus
International Hall - students' hall for international students on Shonan campus
Notable alumni
Mashu Baker - Japanese judoka
Nana Eikura - actress, model
Ryunosuke Haga - Japanese judoka
Tatsunori Hara - manager of the Yomiuri Giants
Eikō Harada - president of McDonald's Japan
Kosei Inoue - Japanese judoka
Toru Kamikawa - international football referee
Radomir Kovačević - Serbian-Yugoslav judoka, coach, and bronze medalist at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Yuya Kubo - pitcher for the Yomiuri Giants
Michael Leitch - Rugby Union Player
Kazuo Sawa - video game music composer and musician
Riki Nakaya - Japanese judoka
Takuya Nakayama - basketball player
Satoko Okudera - screenwriter
Akinori Otsuka - pitcher for the Texas Rangers
Kenji Sakaguchi - actor
Kunihiro Shimizu - Japan national volleyball player
Kenjiro Shinozuka - rally driver
Shingo Suetsugu
Naohisa Takato - Japanese judoka
Kazuaki Tasaka - Japanese football player
Maki Tsukada
Naoki Eiga - Japanese kendoka
Toshihide Wakamatsu - actor
Yasuhiro Yamashita - undefeated Japanese judoka
Taishi Onodera - Japanese volleyball player
Notes
References
External links
Private universities and colleges in Japan
24 Hours of Le Mans teams
Universities and colleges in Kanagawa Prefecture
Japanese junior colleges
American football in Japan
1942 establishments in Japan
Educational institutions established in 1942
Universities and colleges in Tokyo |
4237048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20ceramics | Chinese ceramics | Chinese ceramics show a continuous development since pre-dynastic times and are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era. Chinese ceramics range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese porcelain wares made for the imperial court and for export. Porcelain was a Chinese invention and is so identified with China that it is still called "china" in everyday English usage.
Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, thus few names of individual potters were recorded. Many of the most important kiln workshops were owned by or reserved for the emperor, and large quantities of Chinese export porcelain were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date, initially to East Asia and the Islamic world, and then from around the 16th century to Europe. Chinese ceramics have had an enormous influence on other ceramic traditions in these areas.
Increasingly over their long history, Chinese ceramics can be classified between those made for the imperial court to use or distribute, those made for a discriminating Chinese market, and those for popular Chinese markets or for export. Some types of wares were also made only or mainly for special uses such as burial in tombs, or for use on altars.
Terminology and categories
The earliest Chinese pottery was earthenware, which continued in production for utilitarian uses throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly less used for fine wares. Stoneware, fired at higher temperatures, and naturally impervious to water, was developed very early and continued to be used for fine pottery in many areas at most periods; the tea bowls in Jian ware and Jizhou ware made during the Song dynasty are examples.
Porcelain, on a Western definition, is "a collective term comprising all ceramic ware that is white and translucent, no matter what ingredients are used to make it or to what use it is put". The Chinese tradition recognizes two primary categories of ceramics: high-fired ( ) and low-fired ( ), so doing without stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is mostly grouped with (and translated as) porcelain. Terms such as "" or "near-porcelain" may be used for stonewares with porcelain-like characteristics. The Erya defined porcelain () as "fine, compact pottery ()".
Chinese pottery can also be classified as being either northern or southern. China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by continental drift and forming a junction that lies between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan-Qinling divide. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics; in particular the north lacks petunse or "porcelain stone", needed for porcelain on the strict definition. Ware-types can be from very widespread kiln-sites in either north or south China, but the two can nearly always be distinguished, and influences across this divide may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, with fundamental effects. The kiln types were also different, and in the north the fuel was usually coal, as opposed to wood in the south, which often affects the wares. Southern materials have high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the reverse of northern materials in each case. The northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain.
Materials
Chinese porcelain is mainly made by a combination of the following materials:
Kaolin – essential ingredient composed largely of the clay mineral kaolinite.
Porcelain stone – decomposed micaceous or feldspar rocks, historically also known as petunse.
Feldspar
Quartz
Technical developments
In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term porcelain lacks a universally accepted definition (see above). This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the late Eastern Han dynasty (100–200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), the Six Dynasties period (220–589 AD), and the Tang dynasty (618–906 AD).
Kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery. The Chinese developed effective kilns capable of firing at around before 2000 BC. These were updraft kilns, often built below ground. Two main types of kiln were developed by about 200 AD and remained in use until modern times. These are the dragon kiln of hilly southern China, usually fuelled by wood, long and thin and running up a slope, and the horseshoe-shaped mantou kiln of the north Chinese plains, smaller and more compact. Both could reliably produce the temperatures of up to or more needed for porcelain. In the late Ming, the egg-shaped kiln (zhenyao) was developed at Jingdezhen, but mainly used there. This was something of a compromise between the other types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions.
History
Important specific types of pottery, many coming from more than one period, are dealt with individually in sections lower down.
Early wares
Pottery dating from 20,000 years ago was found at the Xianrendong Cave site in Jiangxi province, making it among the earliest pottery yet found. Another reported find is from 17,000 to 18,000 years ago in the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China.
By the Middle and Late Neolithic (about 5000 to 1500 BCE) most of the larger archaeological cultures in China were farmers producing a variety of attractive and often large vessels, often boldly painted, or decorated by cutting or impressing. Decoration is abstract or of stylized animals – fish are a speciality at the river settlement of Banpo. The distinctive Majiayao pottery, with orange bodies and black paint, is characterised by fine paste textures, thin walls, and polished surfaces; the almost complete lack of defects in excavated pots suggests a high level of quality control during production. The Majiayao and other phases of the Yangshao culture are well-represented in Western museums; by the Banshan phase purple was used in slip-painting alongside black. During the 4th millennium the potter's wheel seems to scholars of Chinese ceramics to have been a Chinese invention, though several regions to the West also claim the honour. Previously coil-forming was used for large vessels.
Finds of vessels are mostly in burials; sometimes they hold the remains. By 4100–2600 BCE in the Dawenkou culture shapes later familiar from Chinese ritual bronzes begin to appear. One exceptional ritual site, Niuheliang in the far north, produced numerous human figurines, some about half life-size.
Han dynasty, 206 BC – 220 AD
On some Chinese definitions, the first porcelain was made in Zhejiang province during the Eastern Han dynasty. Shards recovered from archaeological Eastern Han kiln sites estimated firing temperature ranged from . As far back as 1000 BC, the so-called "porcelaneous wares" or "proto-porcelain wares" were made using at least some kaolin fired at high temperatures. The dividing line between the two and true porcelain wares is not a clear one. Archaeological finds have pushed the dates to as early as the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD).
The late Han years saw the early development of the peculiar art form of hunping, or "soul jar": a funerary jar whose top was decorated by a sculptural composition. This type of vessel became widespread during the following Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Six Dynasties.
The tomb figures that were to recur in the Tang were popular across society, but with more emphasis than later on model houses and farm animals. Green-glazed pottery, using lead-glazed earthenware in part of the later sancai formula, was used for some of these, though not for wares for use, as the raw lead made the glaze poisonous.
Sui and Tang dynasties, 581–907 AD
During the Sui and Tang dynasties (608 to 907 AD), a wide range of ceramics, low-fired and high-fired, were produced. These included the last significant fine earthenwares to be produced in China, mostly lead-glazed sancai (three-colour) wares. Many of the well-known lively Tang dynasty tomb figures, which were only made to be placed in elite tombs close to the capital in the north, are in sancai, while others are unpainted or were painted over a slip; the paint has now often fallen off. The sancai vessels too may have been mainly for tombs, which is where they are all found; the glaze was less toxic than in the Han, but perhaps still to be avoided for use at the dining table.
In the south, the wares from the Changsha Tongguan Kiln Site in Tongguan are significant for their first regular use of underglaze painting; examples have been found in many places in the Islamic world. However, their production tailed off as underglaze painting remained a minor technique for several centuries.
Yue ware was the leading high-fired, lime-glazed celadon of the period, and was of very sophisticated design, patronized by the court. This was also the case with the northern porcelains of kilns in the provinces of Henan and Hebei, which for the first time met the Western and Eastern definition of porcelain, being both pure white and translucent. The white Xing ware and green Yue ware were considered the finest ceramics of north and south China respectively. One of the first mentions of porcelain by a foreigner was in the Chain of Chronicles, written by the Arab traveler and merchant Suleiman in 851 AD during the Tang dynasty who recorded that:
Liao, Song, Western Xia and Jin dynasties, 907–1276
The pottery of the Song dynasty has retained enormous prestige in Chinese tradition, especially that of what later became known as the "Five Great Kilns". The artistic emphasis of Song pottery was on subtle glaze effects and graceful shapes; other decoration, where there was any, was mostly in shallow relief. Initially this was carved with a knife, but later moulds were used, with a loss of artistic quality. Painting was mostly used in the popular Cizhou ware. "What is clear is that in the Song Dynasty which tended to uphold the esthetics of conventional Confucianism, underglaze blue was not at all popular; Confucian esthetics emphasized simplicity, and the underglaze blue designs were judged to be too ornamental."
Green ware or celadons were popular, both in China and in export markets, which became increasingly important during the period. Yue ware was succeeded by Northern Celadon and then in the south Longquan celadon. White and black wares were also important, especially in Cizhou ware, and there were polychrome types, but the finer types of ceramics, for the court and the literati, remained monochrome, relying on glaze effects and shape. A wide variety of styles evolved in various areas, and those that were successful were imitated in other areas. Important kiln sites and stoneware styles included Ru, Jun, Southern Song Guan or official ware, Jian and Jizhou. Whitish porcelain continued to be improved, and included the continuation of Ding ware and the arrival of the qingbai which would replace it.
The Liao, Xia and Jin were founded by non-literate, often nomadic people who conquered parts of China. Pottery production continued under their rule, but their own artistic traditions merged to some extent with the Chinese, producing characteristic new styles.
The fine pottery of all these regions was mainly high-fired, with some earthenware produced because of its lower cost and more colourful glazes. Some of the clay used was what is called kaolinite in the West. In some cases stoneware was preferred for its darker colour or better working qualities. Potteries used the local clay, and when that was dark or coarse and they wanted a fine white body, they covered the clay with white slip before applying glaze.
Yuan dynasty, 1271–1368
The Mongol Yuan dynasty enforced the movement of artists of all sorts around the Mongol Empire, which in ceramics brought a major stylistic and technical influence from the Islamic world in the form of blue and white porcelain, with underglaze painting in cobalt. This has been described as the "last great innovation in ceramic technology". Decoration by underglaze painted patterns had long been a feature of Chinese pottery, especially in the popular Cizhou ware (mostly using black over slip), but was perhaps regarded as rather vulgar by the court and the literati class, and the finest ceramics were monochrome, using an understated aesthetic with perfect shapes and subtle glaze effects, often over shallow decoration carved or moulded into the surface.
This was a great contrast to the bright colours and complicated designs developed under the Yuan, whose organization was mostly based on Islamic art, especially metalwork, although the animal and vegetable motifs remained based on Chinese tradition. These were initially mainly made for export, but became acceptable at court, and to buyers of fine ceramics internally. Export markets readily accepted the style, which has continued to be produced ever since, both in China and around the world.
Because of this, improvements in water transportation and the re-unification under Mongol rule, pottery production started to concentrate near deposits of kaolin, such as Jingdezhen, which gradually became the pre-eminent centre for producing porcelain in a variety of styles, a position it has held ever since. The scale of production greatly increased, and the scale and organization of the kilns became industrialized, with ownership by commercial syndicates, much division of labour, and other typical features of mass production. Some other types of pottery, especially Longquan celadon and Cizhou ware, continued to flourish.
Ming dynasty, 1368–1644
The Ming dynasty saw an extraordinary period of innovation in ceramic manufacture. Kilns investigated new techniques in design and shapes, showing a predilection for colour and painted design, and an openness to foreign forms. The Yongle Emperor (1402–24) was especially curious about other countries (as evidenced by his support of the eunuch Zheng He's extended exploration of the Indian Ocean), and enjoyed unusual shapes, many inspired by Islamic metalwork. During the Xuande period (1426–35), a technical refinement was introduced in the preparation of the cobalt used for underglaze blue decoration.
Prior to this the cobalt had been brilliant in colour, but with a tendency to bleed in firing; by adding manganese the colour was duller, but the line crisper. Xuande porcelain is now considered among the finest of all Ming output. Enamelled decoration (such as the one at left) was perfected under the Chenghua Emperor (1464–87), and greatly prized by later collectors. Indeed, by the late 16th century, Chenghua and Xuande era works – especially wine cups – had grown so much in popularity, that their prices nearly matched genuine antique wares of the Song dynasty or even older. This esteem for relatively recent ceramics excited much scorn on the part of literati scholars (such as Wen Zhenheng, Tu Long, and Gao Lian, who is cited below); these men fancied themselves arbiters of taste and found the painted aesthetic 'vulgar.'
In addition to these decorative innovations, the late Ming dynasty underwent a dramatic shift towards a market economy, exporting porcelain around the world on an unprecedented scale. Thus aside from supplying porcelain for domestic use, the kilns at Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale porcelain exports to Europe starting with the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1572–1620). By this time, kaolin and pottery stone were mixed in about equal proportions. Kaolin produced wares of great strength when added to the paste; it also enhanced the whiteness of the body—a trait that became a much sought after property, especially when form blue-and-white wares grew in popularity. Pottery stone could be fired at a lower temperature () than paste mixed with kaolin, which required . These sorts of variations were important to keep in mind because the large southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly in temperature. Near the firebox it was hottest; near the chimney, at the opposite end of the kiln, it was cooler.
Qing dynasty, 1644–1911
The lengthy civil wars marking the transition from Ming to Qing caused a breakdown in the Imperial kilns system, forcing the managers to find new markets. The Transitional porcelain of about 1620 to the 1680s saw a new style in painting, mostly in blue and white, with new subject-matter of landscapes and figures painted very freely, borrowing from other media. The later part of the period saw Europe joining the existing export markets.
The Qing dynasty produced very varied porcelain styles, developing many of the innovations of the Ming. The most notable area of continuing innovation was in the increasing range of colours available, mostly in overglaze enamels. A very significant trade in Chinese export porcelain with the West developed. Court taste was highly eclectic, still favouring monochrome wares, which now used a wide range of bright glaze colours. Special glazing effects were highly regarded; new ones were developed and classic Song wares imitated with great skill. But the court now accepted wares with painted scenes in both blue and white and the new bright polychrome palettes. Technical standards at Jingdezhen were remarkably high, though falling somewhat by the middle of the 19th century.
Decoration, and sometimes shapes, became increasingly over-elaborate and fussy, and generally the Ming period is regarded as the greater; indeed in China this was the case at the time. By the 18th century the tradition had ceased to innovate in any radical way, and the vitality of painting declines.
Primary source material on Qing dynasty porcelain is available from both foreign residents and domestic authors. Two letters written by Père François Xavier d'Entrecolles, a Jesuit missionary and industrial spy who lived and worked in Jingdezhen in the early 18th century, described in detail manufacturing of porcelain in the city. In his first letter dated 1712, d'Entrecolles described the way in which pottery stones were crushed, refined and formed into little white bricks, known in Chinese as petuntse. He then went on to describe the refining of china clay kaolin along with the developmental stages of glazing and firing. He explained his motives:
In 1743, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor, Tang Ying, the imperial supervisor in the city produced a memoir entitled Twenty Illustrations of the Manufacture of Porcelain. The original illustrations have been lost, but the text is still accessible.
Types of Chinese pottery
Tang burial wares
Sancai means "three-colours": green, yellow and a creamy white, all in lead-based glazes. In fact some other colours could be used, including cobalt blue. In the West, Tang sancai wares were sometimes referred to as egg-and-spinach.
Sancai wares were northern wares made using white and buff-firing secondary kaolins and fire clays. At kiln sites located at Tongchuan, Neiqiu County in Hebei and Gongyi in Henan, the clays used for burial wares were similar to those used by Tang potters. The burial wares were fired at a lower temperature than contemporaneous whitewares. Tang dynasty tomb figures, such as the well-known representations of camels and horses, were cast in sections, in moulds with the parts luted together using clay slip. They were either painted in sancai or merely coated in white slip, often with paint added over the glaze, which has now mostly been lost. In some cases, a degree of individuality was imparted to the assembled figurines by hand-carving.
Greenwares or celadon wares
The major group of celadon wares is named for its glaze, which uses iron oxide to give a broad spectrum of colours centred on a jade or olive green, but covering browns, cream and light blues. This is a similar range to that of jade, always the most prestigious material in Chinese art, and the broad resemblance accounts for much of the attractiveness of celadon to the Chinese. Celadons are plain or decorated in relief, which may be carved, inscribed or moulded. Sometimes taken by the imperial court, celadons had a more regular market with the scholarly and middle classes, and were also exported in enormous quantities. Important types are: Yue ware, Yaozhou ware and the wider Northern Celadons, Ru ware, Guan ware, and finally Longquan celadon.
Jian ware
Jian Zhan blackwares, mainly comprising tea wares, were made at kilns located in Jianyang, Fujian province. They reached the peak of their popularity during the Song dynasty. The wares were made using locally won, iron-rich clays and fired in an oxidising atmosphere at temperatures in the region of . The glaze was made using clay similar to that used for forming the body, except fluxed with wood-ash. At high temperatures the molten glaze separate to produce a pattern called "hare's fur". When Jian wares were set tilted for firing, drips run down the side, creating evidence of liquid glaze pooling.
Jian tea wares of the Song dynasty were also greatly appreciated and copied in Japan, where they were known as tenmoku wares.
Jizhou ware
Jizhou ware was stoneware, mostly used for tea drinking. It was famous for glaze effects, including a "tortoiseshell" glaze, and the use of real leaves as glaze resists; the leaf burnt away during firing, leaving its outlines in the glaze.
Ding ware
Ding (Wade–Giles: Ting) ware was produced in Ding County, Hebei Province. Already in production when the Song emperors came to power in 940, Ding ware was the finest porcelain produced in northern China at the time, and was the first to enter the palace for official imperial use. Its paste is white, generally covered with an almost transparent glaze that dripped and collected in "tears", (though some Ding ware was glazed a monochrome black or brown, white was the much more common type). Overall, the Ding aesthetic relied more on its elegant shape than ostentatious decoration; designs were understated, either incised or stamped into the clay prior to glazing. Due to the way the dishes were stacked in the kiln, the edged remained unglazed, and had to be rimmed in metal such as gold or silver when used as tableware. Some hundred years later, a Southern Song dynasty writer commented that it was this defect that led to its demise as favoured imperial ware. Since the Song government lost access to these northern kilns when they fled south, it has been argued that Qingbai ware (see below) was viewed as a replacement for Ding.
Although not as highly ranked as Ru ware, the late Ming dynasty connoisseur Gao Lian awards Ding ware a brief mention in his volume Eight Discourses on the Art of Living. Classified under his sixth discourse, the section on "pure enjoyment of cultured idleness", Master Gao said: "The best sort has marks on it like tear-stains… Great skill and ingenuity is displayed in selecting the forms of the vessels."
Ru ware
Like Ding ware, Ru ware (Wade–Giles: ju) was produced in North China for imperial use. The Ru kilns were near the Northern Song capital at Kaifeng. In similar fashion to Longquan celadons, Ru pieces have small amounts of iron oxide in their glaze that oxidize and turn greenish when fired in a reducing atmosphere. Ru wares range in colour—from nearly white to a deep robin's egg—and often are covered with reddish-brown crackles. The crackles, or "crazing", are caused when the glaze cools and contracts faster than the body, thus having to stretch and ultimately to split, (as seen in the detail at right; see also ). The art historian James Watt comments that the Song dynasty was the first period that viewed crazing as a merit rather than a defect. Moreover, as time went on, the bodies got thinner and thinner, while glazes got thicker, until by the end of the Southern Song the 'green-glaze' was thicker than the body, making it extremely 'fleshy' rather than 'bony,' to use the traditional analogy (see section on Guan ware, below). Too, the glaze tends to drip and pool slightly, leaving it thinner at the top, where the clay peeps through.
As with Ding ware, the Song imperial court lost access to the Ru kilns after it fled Kaifeng when the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty conquered northern China, and settled at Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou) in the south. There, the Emperor Gaozong founded the Guan yao ('official kilns') right outside the new capital in order to produce imitations of Ru ware. However, posterity has remembered Ru ware as something unmatched by later attempts; Master Gao says, "Compared with Guan yao, the above were of finer substance and more brilliant luster."
Jun ware
Jun (Wade–Giles: chün) ware was a third style of porcelain used at the Northern Song court. Characterized by a thicker body than Ding or Ru ware, Jun is covered with a turquoise and purple glaze, so thick and viscous looking that appears to melting off the golden-brown body. Not only are Jun vessels more thickly potted, their shape is much more robust than the fine Jun pieces, yet both types were appreciated at the court of Emperor Huizong. Jun production was centred at Jun-tai in Yuzhou, Henan Province.
Guan ware
Guan (Wade–Giles: kuan) ware, literally means "official" ware; so certain Ru, Jun, and even Ding are Guan in the broad sense of being produced for the court. Usually the term in English only applies to that produced by an official, imperially run kiln, which did not start until the Southern Song dynasty fled from the advancing Jin dynasty and settled at Lin'an. During this period walls become very thin, with glaze thicker than the wall. The clay in the foothills around Lin'an was a brownish colour, and the glaze very viscous.
Ge ware
Ge (Wade–Giles: ko), literally "big-brother" ware, due to a legend of two brothers working in Longquan, one made the typical celadon style ceramics, the elder made ge ware, produced in his private kiln. Ming dynasty commentator Gao Lian writes that the ge kiln took its clay from the same site as Guan ware, accounting for the difficulty in distinguishing one from the other (though Gao thinks "Ge is distinctly inferior" to Guan). Overall, Ge remains somewhat elusive, but basically comprises two types—one with a 'warm rice-yellow glaze and two sets of crackles, a more prominent set of darker colour interspersed with a finer set of reddish lines' (called chin-ssu t'ieh-hsien or 'golden floss and iron threads', which can just faintly be detected on this bowl). The other Ge ware is much like Guan ware, with grayish glaze and one set of crackles. Once thought to have only been manufactured alongside Longquan celadon, per its legendary founding, Ge is now believed to have also been produced at Jingdezhen.
While similar to Guan ware, Ge typically has a grayish-blue glaze that is fully opaque with an almost matte finish. Its crackle pattern is exaggerated, often standing out in bold black. Though still shrouded in mystery, many specialists believe that Ge ware did not develop until the very late Southern Song dynasty or even the Yuan dynasty. In any case, enthusiasm for it persisted throughout the Ming dynasty; Wen Zhenheng preferred it to all other types of porcelain, in particular for brush washers and water droppers (although he preferred jade brush washers to porcelain, Guan and Ge were the best ceramic ones, especially if they have scalloped rims). Differences between later Ming imitations of Song/Yuan Ge include: Ming versions substitute a white porcelain body; they tend to be produced in a range of new shapes, for example those for the scholar's studio; glazes tend to be thinner and more lustrous; and slip is applied to the rim and base to simulate the "brown mouth and iron foot" of Guan ware.
Qingbai wares
Qingbai wares (also called 'yingqing') were made at Jingdezhen and at many other southern kilns from the time of the Northern Song dynasty until they were eclipsed in the 14th century by underglaze-decorated blue and white wares. Qingbai in Chinese literally means "clear blue-white". The qingbai glaze is a porcelain glaze, so-called because it was made using pottery stone. The qingbai glaze is clear, but contains iron in small amounts. When applied over a white porcelain body the glaze produces a greenish-blue colour that gives the glaze its name. Some have incised or moulded decorations.
The Song dynasty qingbai bowl illustrated was likely made at the Jingdezhen village of Hutian, which was also the site of the imperial kilns established in 1004. The bowl has incised decoration, possibly representing clouds or the reflection of clouds in the water. The body is white, translucent and has the texture of very-fine sugar, indicating that it was made using crushed and refined pottery stone instead of pottery stone and kaolin. The glaze and the body of the bowl would have been fired together, in a saggar in a large wood-burning dragon kiln, typical of southern kilns in the period.
Though many Song and Yuan dynasty qingbai bowls were fired upside down in special segmented saggars, a technique first developed at the Ding kilns in Hebei province. The rims of such wares were left unglazed but were often bound with bands of silver, copper or lead.
One remarkable example of qingbai porcelain is the so-called Fonthill Vase, described in a guide for Fonthill Abbey published in 1823 as "an oriental china bottle, superbly mounted, said to be the earliest known specimen of porcelain introduced into Europe".
The vase was made at Jingdezhen, probably around 1300 and was probably sent as a present to Pope Benedict XII by one of the last Yuan emperors of China, in 1338. The mounts referred to in the 1823 description were of enamelled silver-gilt and were added to the vase in Europe in 1381. An 18th-century water colour of the vase complete with its mounts exists, but the mounts themselves were removed and lost in the 19th century. The vase is now in the National Museum of Ireland. It is often held that qingbai wares were not subject to the higher standards and regulations of the other porcelain wares, since they were made for everyday use. They were mass-produced, and received little attention from scholars and antiquarians. The Fonthill Vase, given by a Chinese emperor to a pope, might appear to cast at least some doubt on this view.
Blue and white wares
Following in the tradition of earlier qingbai porcelains, blue and white wares are glazed using a transparent porcelain glaze. The blue decoration is painted onto the body of the porcelain before glazing, using very finely ground cobalt oxide mixed with water. After the decoration has been applied the pieces are glazed and fired.
It is believed that underglaze blue and white porcelain was first made in the Tang dynasty. Only three complete pieces of Tang blue and white porcelain are known to exist (in Singapore from the Indonesian Belitung shipwreck), but shards dating to the 8th or 9th century have been unearthed at Yangzhou in Jiangsu Province. It has been suggested that the shards originated from a kiln in the province of Henan. In 1957, excavations at the site of a pagoda in Zhejiang province uncovered a Northern Song bowl decorated with underglaze blue and further fragments have since been discovered at the same site. In 1970 a small fragment of a blue and white bowl, again dated to the 11th century, was also excavated in the province of Zhejiang.
In 1975, shards decorated with underglaze blue were excavated at a kiln site in Jiangxi and, in the same year, an underglaze blue and white urn was excavated from a tomb dated to 1319, in the province of Jiangsu. It is of interest to note that a Yuan funerary urn decorated with underglaze blue and underglaze red and dated 1338 is still in the Chinese taste, even though by this time the large-scale production of blue and white porcelain in the Yuan dynasty, Mongol taste had started its influence at Jingdezhen.
Starting early in the 14th century, blue and white porcelain rapidly became the main product of Jingdezhen, reaching the height of its technical excellence during the later years of the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722) and continuing in present times to be an important product of the city.
The tea caddy illustrated shows many of the characteristics of blue and white porcelain produced during the Kangxi period. The translucent body showing through the clear glaze is of great whiteness and the cobalt decoration, applied in many layers, has a fine blue hue. The decoration, a sage in a landscape of lakes and mountains with blazed rocks is typical of the period. The piece would have been fired in a saggar (a lidded ceramic box intended to protect the piece from kiln debris, smoke and cinders during firing) in a reducing atmosphere in a wood-burning egg-shaped kiln, at a temperature approaching .
Distinctive blue-and-white porcelain was exported to Japan, where it is known as Tenkei blue-and-white ware or ko sometsukei. This ware is thought to have been especially ordered by tea masters for Japanese ceremony.
Blanc de Chine
Blanc de Chine is a type of white porcelain made at Dehua in Fujian province. It has been produced from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) to the present day. Large quantities arrived in Europe as Chinese Export Porcelain in the early 18th century and it was copied at Meissen and elsewhere.
The area along the Fujian coast was traditionally one of the main ceramic exporting centres. Over 180 kiln sites have been identified extending in historical range from the Song dynasty to the present.
From the Ming dynasty, porcelain objects were manufactured that achieved a fusion of glaze and body traditionally referred to as "ivory white" and "milk white". The special characteristic of Dehua porcelain is the very small amount of iron oxide in it, allowing it to be fired in an oxidising atmosphere to a warm white or pale ivory colour. (Wood, 2007)
The porcelain body is not very plastic but vessel forms have been made from it. Donnelly, (1969, pp.xi-xii) lists the following types of product: figures, boxes, vases and jars, cups and bowls, fishes, lamps, cup-stands, censers and flowerpots, animals, brush holders, wine and teapots, Buddhist and Taoist figures, secular figures and puppets. There was a large output of figures, especially religious figures, e.g. Guanyin, Maitreya, Lohan and Ta-mo figures.
The numerous Dehua porcelain factories today make figures and tableware in modern styles. During the Cultural Revolution "Dehua artisans applied their very best skills to produce immaculate statuettes of Mao Zedong and the Communist leaders. Portraits of the stars of the new proletarian opera in their most famous roles were produced on a truly massive scale." Mao Zedong figures later fell out of favour but have been revived for foreign collectors.
Notable artists in blanc de Chine, such as the late Ming period He Chaozong, signed their creations with their seals. Wares include crisply modeled figures, cups, bowls and joss stick-holders.
Many of the best examples of blanc de Chine are found in Japan where the white variety was termed hakugorai or "Korean white", a term often found in tea ceremony circles. The British Museum in London has a large number of blanc de Chine pieces, having received as a gift in 1980 the entire collection of P.J. Donnelly.
Painted colours
Chinese court taste long favoured monochrome wares, and although the Yuan dynasty saw blue and white porcelain accepted by the court, more fully polychrome styles took much longer to be accepted. Initially blue from cobalt was almost the only pigment that could withstand the high temperature of a porcelain firing without discolouring, but gradually (mostly during the Ming period) others were found, or the extra cost of a second firing at a lower temperature to fix overglaze enamels was accepted. Copper-reds could produce highly effective results underglaze, but at the cost of an extremely high proportion of greyish rejects, some of which remain in circulation, and thousands more of which have been found when kiln waste-heaps have been excavated. Eventually underglaze blue and overglaze red became the usual way of achieving the same result.
Overglaze painting, usually called "enamels", was widely used in the popular Cizhou ware stonewares, and was sometimes experimented with by kilns producing for the court, but not until the 15th century, under the Ming, was the doucai technique used for imperial wares. This combined underglaze blue outlines with overglaze enamels in further colours. The wucai technique was a similar combination, with underglaze blue used more widely for highlights.
Two-colour wares, using underglaze blue and an overglaze colour, usually red, also produced very fine results. A number of different other methods using coloured glazes were tried, often with images lightly incised into the body. The fahua technique outlined areas of coloured decoration with raised trails of slip, and the subtle "secret" (an hua) technique decorated using very light incisions that could hardly be seen. As the range of glaze colours expanded, the taste for monochrome wares, now in the new strong colours, returned, and with it a number of special glazing effects were developed, including the return of crackle and spotty effects made by blowing powdered pigment onto the piece.
Classification by colour, the groups
The next development saw a group of 'families', or palettes of enamel colours used on Chinese porcelain. These are commonly known by their French names of , based on the dominant element in each colour palette are terms used to classify. A large proportion of these were export wares but some were made for the Imperial court.
Famille verte (, Kangxi wucai, also , susancai, ‘three colours on a plain [unglazed or thinly glazed] body’), adopted in the Kangxi period (1661–1722), uses green and iron red with other overglaze colours. It developed from the wucai (, "five colours") style.
'Famille jaune is a variation using enamels on a yellow ground (), often painted on the biscuit.
Famille noire (, modi susancai) is another subtype of , but it uses a black ground. Many and pieces were "clobbered" with the yellow or black added in the 19th century.
Famille rose (known in Chinese as fencai ( or ruancai ( / ), 'soft colours' or 'pale colours'), Yangcai (), lit. 'foreign colours'), and falangcai (, lit. 'enamel colours'), was introduced late in the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722), possibly around 1720. It used mainly pink or purple and remained popular throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries, also being widely adopted by European factories. enamel ware allows a greater range of colour and tone than was previously possible, enabling the depiction of more complex images.
Stoneware
Pottery classified as stoneware in the West is usually regarded as porcelain in Chinese terms, where a stoneware group is not recognised, and so the definition of porcelain is rather different, covering all vitrified high-fired wares. Terms such as "" and "near-porcelain" are often used to reflect this, and cover wares that in Western terms lie on the border of stoneware and porcelain. High-fired stonewares were numerous from very early on, and included many high-prestige wares, including those for imperial use, as well as great quantities of everyday utilitarian pots. Usually they achieved their reputation by their glazes. Most of the celadon group, including Longquan celadons, especially earlier ones, can be classified as stoneware, and all classic Jian wares and Jizhou wares.
By contrast, the Yixing clay teapots and cups made from Yixing clay from Jiangsu province are usually left unglazed, and not washed after use, as the clay is believed to improve the taste of the tea, especially after it acquires a patina from long use. There are in fact a number of different clays, giving a range of colours. The pots are unusual in that they are often signed by their potters, which is very rare in China, perhaps because they were associated with the literati culture, of which Jiangsu was a stronghold. The earliest datable example is from a burial of 1533 in Nanjing. Elaborately decorated examples, often with a rectangular body, were exported to Europe from the 18th century, and these and pots for local use often had poems inscribed on them. As well as teaware and desk objects such as brush-rests, fruit and other natural shapes were modelled as ornaments. Production continues today, generally using simpler shapes.
The ceramics industry under the Ming
Imperial and private kilns
The very first imperial kiln was established in the thirty-fifth year of Hongwu. Before that, there were no systematic regulations on the state-demanded porcelain production. The law stated that, if the quantity of ceramics demanded was big, potters would be conscripted and worked in the imperial kilns in Nanjing; if the quantity was small, the ceramics could be produced in private kilns in Raozhou. In either case, officials from the imperial centre were sent to supervise the production. The officials were responsible for making budgets, ensuring quality, and sending products back to the imperial court. Different rules on styles and sizes of the ceramics were put forward by the imperial court and must be strictly followed in the kilns. After 1403, imperial kilns were built, and carried out the imperial porcelain production on a large scale.
During the mid-Ming period, the demand for porcelain increased, the temporarily assigned officials were not able to handle the project. In the Xuande Period, the imperial factory in Jingdezhen was established. The factory was divided into dormitories and pavilions on the north, official offices, and prisons on the east and workshops on the west. There were wells, wood sheds, temples and lounges for potters. The imperial factory in Jingdezhen was not a mere production site but also included government administrative offices.
The imperial factory was divided into twenty-three departments, with each taking charge of different aspects of ceramics production. The work was subdivided by type and assigned to different departments like department of large vessels, small vessels, painting, carving, calligraphy, rope making and general carpentry. This subdividing of the work so that a single piece of a vessel could pass through several hands led to potters not signing pieces as they did in the private kilns. The division of labour also ensured a uniform style and size in the ceramics.
The number of imperial kilns varies during the Ming period. There were fewer than ten imperial factories in the fifteenth century, then the number increased to 58, later again to 62 and then decreased to 18.
Imperial orders demanded both individuality in the design of porcelain while also demanding large quantities of it. Understandably, these demands came from different sectors of the court that expected particular designs. For example, yellow and green products decorated with mythical flying creatures were specifically requested by the Directorate for Palace Delicacies. The need for both individual design and mass production was a recipe for exhausting demands on porcelain kilns. Many were forced to outsource their production to private kilns in order to meet court quotas. Those who managed the production at imperial factories understood the need for outsourcing as an answer to scalability. Outsourcing must have required a keen sense in picking private kilns that would deliver quality and quantity. Without cooperation and transparency between colleagues of different kilns, the satisfaction of the imperial court was in jeopardy.
In the late Ming period, the corvée system in ceramics reformed with the strong influence of commercialization. Under the new system, a person would not be conscripted to work if he paid a certain amount of money. Many good potters thus left the imperial kilns and worked in the private ones where the pay was better. The late Ming period witnessed a drastic decline in the quality of pieces from the imperial kilns and a rise of private kilns.
The private kilns existed in the early Ming dynasty and their production constituted a part of the tax income of the government. Apart from making ceramics for people's everyday life, private kilns also accepted orders from the imperial court. However, making and selling imperial style ceramics in private kilns was strictly forbidden.
During the late Ming period, private kilns rose as imperial kilns declined. Many famous workers escaped from the overworked and underpaid environment in the imperial kilns to private ones. Private kilns were more involved in commercials than the imperial kilns did. In the late Ming period, several private kilns won great popularity among the literati, who were enthusiastic about the antique style porcelain. Examples were the Cui kiln (), Zhou kiln (), and Hu kiln (). Ceramics in the late Ming dynasty was produced in high quality and quantity, making Jingdezhen one of the earliest commercial centres in the world.
Competition in the porcelain industry erupted following the failure of the corvée system. With government control at a low, investors could invest in many means of production, especially in handicraft industries. In Jingdezhen, over 70 percent of the 100,000 families occupying the 6.5 square kilometre town were involved in the porcelain industry.
The economic resurgence brought on by the porcelain industry carried along its own ramifications. There existed two sides of the porcelain industry which are described as jiating shougongye (, "family-run industry") and zuofang shougongye (, "entrepreneurial industry"). Family-run industries reveal the ruthless and inhumane side of the porcelain industry as seen in the story of Yang Shi in “An Injustice Caused by a Slight Dispute Over One Penny”. The story vividly describes a scene of domestic violence as a result of the wife, Yang Shi, purchasing a drink worth a penny to soothe her aching stomach. This story sums up the drama within family-run industries as a result of the cut-throat approach to profits. Especially within work involving relatives or immediate family, one's own self worth and concept will be diminished in the face of success for the business.
The cut-throat mentality served to blur the family hierarchy within family-run industries to some degree. Porcelain production required both the construction of pots as well as the decorations done after. Within a family-run pottery industry, the women took on this decorating role which helped to increase their value to the family. Men and women had to work harmoniously to produce good quality work and ultimately this spread throughout the porcelain industry.
Life as a potter
In the early Ming dynasty, the population could be divided into three categories: military, craftsmen, and peasants. Within the craftsmen system, most of the craftsmen were from the previous dynasty, the Yuan dynasty; others were prisoners or unemployed people. Craftsmen households members had to work throughout their lifetime, and their status was hereditary. There were two subcategories within the craftsmen system: military craftsmen, who were specialized in producing weapons; the ordinary craftsmen, who worked in various other industries. Potters belonged to the latter subcategory.
In the early Ming period, whenever the court demanded ceramics, labor would be conscripted by the court in different ways. Usually, there were different types of workers in the imperial kilns. Most of the potters were selected from the craftsman households by the local government and served in the imperial kilns for three months in every four years for free; in other cases, workers were recruited from counties near the imperial kilns and paid regularly. Usually the recruited workers were assigned to different departments.
The imperial factory was divided into twenty-three departments, with each department having managers and workers. The number of managers was usually less than five, and the number of workers was usually about ten to twenty.
Making porcelain was not easy. More than half the firings of every kiln resulted in spoilt pieces and were thrown away in the neighborhood of Jingdezhen, resulting in a huge dump of porcelain fragments that still exist today. When the kiln was in action, it was important to control the fire, which ideally should produce a constant temperature. The proper choice, preparation, colouring, firing, and the slip should be made on every stage of the production. The regulations on the potters working in the imperial kiln were severe. Potters were punished for delaying, smuggling, producing inferior goods, and other misconducts.
Overworked and underpaid, many potters refused or fled from being conscripted into the imperial kilns. By the time of Xuande period, the number of potters escaping from the corvee was about five thousand; in the first year of Jingtai, the number reached about thirty thousand. There was also a great discrepancy in the number of workers in different departments. Sometimes private kiln workers from the corresponding departments would serve as temporary workers in the imperial kilns. To regulate the potters, the government reformed the policy so that the potters would not have to work in the imperial kilns if they pay certain amount of money per month. The new law implied that the potters were no longer tied to the state government. Unable to stand the hard law and the heavy work, many talented workers found their new positions in the private kilns. The imperial kilns suffered from the lost in talented potters and labors, and the quality of the porcelain declined dramatically.
Starting from the ninth year of Jiajing, a new policy was carried out. The government prepared their own materials, utilized the private kilns to make porcelain, and paid the private kilns based on the number of porcelain produced. However, the state was usually not able to pay the amount required.
Post-production
The industrialization of Chinese porcelain during the Ming dynasty was not possible without a post-production system that honored scalability as well as scarcity. Individual retail sales were important to kilns but wholesale orders were of even higher importance. In reality, wholesale orders were the backbone of porcelain economics. Without these orders that required months to a year of work to complete, demand would have definitely been lacking.
Merchants entered provinces with little knowledge of how porcelain trade was conducted. They relied on brokers to introduce them to reliable kilns and ultimately negotiate prices. Once established, merchants took on negotiating matters. In particular, brokers helped alleviate risk for many kilns by analyzing the integrity of buyers. Due to the guild-esque nature between brokers and kiln owners, guilty knowledge of the buyer's secrets was common talk. If a buyer was deemed as unreliable, word spread throughout the province of such news. Potters claimed the license to know who the bad buyers were. This dangerous knowledge had the ability to ruin a buyer's reputation but on the contrary contributed to the success of kilns.
In observing court orders, porcelain was required for culinary, religious, and display purposes. Since porcelain was often used once and thrown away by the court, imperial orders were at a continuous flow in porcelain factories. Demand was often too high for kilns to meet which hints at the necessity for scalability.
From their respective kilns, fine porcelain was distributed over sea and land to Southeast Asia, Japan and the Middle East. The magnitude of foreign trade can be understood in a record showing over sixteen million pieces circulating through a Dutch East India Company. The land transportation showed the intensity of labor in the porcelain industry. Dozens of carts sent from Mongolia, Manchuria, Persia and Arabic countries were loaded in the Ming capital full of porcelain and other Chinese goods. Some carts reached thirty feet in height which must have required extreme attention to avoid broken porcelain. Due to the hollowness of porcelain vases, they were filled with soil and beans. The growth of the bean roots helped porcelain withstand further pressure during transportation. In order to effectively transport large amounts of porcelain, as much space in carts must have been used indicated by the thirty foot high carts. Knowing the risk that came with placing fragile porcelain next to and on top of one another, handlers of the porcelain mitigated that risk through the soil and bean method.
Like the silk industry, the porcelain industry claimed merit for its mass-producing capabilities. Potters from lower economic backgrounds stuck true to their repetitive methods mostly due to the high risk in attempting new and not tested methods. Trying new techniques could result in the loss of an entire month's worth of work so for these potters, changing their method was not a luxury they could afford. These potters were found in peasant societies outside of Jingdezhen and highlight the particular code that limited their imaginative potential. For potters within Jingdezhen, the code that governed the way their products were created was greatly influenced by international markets. These markets inspired creativity and innovation as seen in how “Jingdezhen and other pottery centres produced ceramic versions of reliquaries, alms bowls, oil lamps, and stem-cups” The difference in code did not necessarily contribute to a hierarchical division but rather a diversification in the personality behind Chinese porcelain.
Foreign trade was not always beneficial for potters because the further away that products had to go from the source (Ex: Jingdezhen) the more vulnerable cargo became. In examining a report of a Spanish voyage, about a fifth of a Chinese ship crew were killed when met by a Spanish voyager of the name Juan de Salcedo. The two ships that were raided held many Chinese valuables including porcelain and most likely were used to trade off the coast of Midoro. Overall, international markets offered great potential for potters seeking greater wealth but unfortunately came with a vulnerability to crime.
Trade on an international scale required organization between chiefs and potters. Throughout the Southeast Asian trading ports, chiefs had the power to set port fees as well as control interactions between elite merchants and foreign traders. By possessing the license to impose fees, chiefs were able to profit on almost every transaction within their respective markets and it serves to boost their brilliance in constructing such a diverse market. Potters of luxury porcelain would have to work under the rules set by the chiefs and thus their relationship constructed a hierarchy.
Fakes and reproductions
Chinese potters have a long tradition of borrowing design and decorative features from earlier wares. Whilst ceramics with features thus borrowed might sometimes pose problems of provenance, they would not generally be regarded as either reproductions or fakes. However, fakes and reproductions have also been made at many times during the long history of Chinese ceramics and continue to be made today in ever-increasing numbers.
In addition, the reign marks of earlier emperors (typically from the Ming) were often put on Qing wares, which scholars are often inclined to treat as a mark of respect or aspiration rather than an attempt to deceive, although they clearly did often mislead contemporaries, and confuse understanding.
Imitations and reproductions of Song dynasty Longquan celadon wares were made at Jingdezhen in the early 18th century, but outright fakes were also made using special clay that were artificially aged by boiling in meat broth, refiring and storage in sewers. Père d'Entrecolles records that by this means the wares could be passed off as being hundreds of years old.
In the late 19th century, fakes of Kangxi-period famille noire wares were made that were convincing enough to deceive the experts of the day. Many such pieces may still be seen in museums today, as many pieces of genuine Kangxi porcelain were given additional overglaze decoration in the late nineteenth century with famille noire enamels (a process known as "clobbering"). A body of modern expert opinion holds that porcelain decorated with famille noire enamels was not made at all during the Kangxi period, though this view is disputed.
A fashion for Kangxi period (1661 to 1722) blue and white wares grew to large proportions in Europe during the later years of the 19th century and triggered the production at Jingdezhen of large quantities of porcelain wares that strike a resemblance to ceramics of earlier periods. Such blue and white wares were not fakes or even convincing reproductions, even though some pieces carried four-character Kangxi reign-marks that continue to cause confusion to this day. Kangxi reign-marks in the form shown in the illustration occur only on wares made towards the end of the 19th century or later, without exception.
Authentication
The most widely known test is the thermoluminescence test, or TL test, which is used on some types of ceramic to estimate, roughly, the date of last firing. Thermoluminescence dating is carried out on small samples of pottery drilled or cut from the body of a piece, which can be risky and disfiguring. For this reason, the test is rarely used for dating finely potted, high-fired ceramics. TL testing cannot be used at all on some types of ceramics, particularly high-fired porcelain.
Gallery
Early wares
Han (202 BC to 220 AD)
Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui (220 to 618)
Tang (618 to 906 AD)
Song (960 to 1279 AD)
Yuan (1279 to 1368 AD)
Ming (1368 to 1644 AD)
Qing (1644 to 1912 AD)
See also
Canton porcelain (Jingdezhen porcelain decorated at Canton for export to the West)
China painting
Dangyangyu Kiln
Tiger Cave Kiln (site of much of Southern Song official celadon ware)
Vietnamese ceramics
Martaban (Chinese stoneware highly valued in the precolonial maritime trade of island Southeast Asia)
Notes
References
Ayers, J. and Bingling, Y., (2002) Blanc de Chine: Divine Images in Porcelain, China Institute, New York
Clunas, Craig. Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991 and Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2004.
Harrison-Hall, J. (2001), Ming Ceramics in the British Museum, British Museum, London
Jenyns, Soame, Ming Pottery and Porcelain, Faber and Faber, 1953
Kerr, Rose, Needham, Joseph, Wood, Nigel (2004). Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5, Part XII: Ceramic Technology. Cambridge University Press.
Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain. Translated by Katherine Watson. New York: Rizzoli, 1978
Medley, Margaret, The Chinese Potter: A Practical History of Chinese Ceramics, 3rd edition, 1989, Phaidon,
Pierson, Stacey, (1996). Earth, Fire and Water: Chinese Ceramic Technology. Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London. .
Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,
Vainker, S.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Wood, Nigel. (2007), Chinese Glazes: Their Chemistry, Origins and Re-creation, A & C Black, London, and University of Pennsylvania Press, USA
Further reading
Ayers, J and Kerr, R., (2000), Blanc de Chine Porcelain from Dehua, Art Media Resources Ltd.
Brook, Timothy. The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998. .
Donnelly, P.J. (1969), Blanc de Chine, Faber and Faber, London
Fong, Wen C, and James C.Y. Watt. Possessing the Past: Treasures from the National Palace Museum Taipei. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996.
Gao, Lian. "The Tsun Sheng Pa Chien, AD 1591, by Kao Lien." Translated by Arthur Waley. Yearbook of Oriental Art and Culture, 1, (1924–25).
Kotz, Suzanne (ed.) (1989) Imperial Taste. Chinese Ceramics from the Percival David Foundation. Chronicle Books, San Francisco. .
Li, Chu-tsing and James C.Y. Watt, eds. The Chinese scholar's studio: artistic life in the late Ming period. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987.
Li, He, (1996). Chinese Ceramics. The New Standard Guide. Thames and Hudson, London. .
Li, He and Michael Knight. Power and Glory: Court Art of China's Ming Dynasty. San Francisco: Asian Art Museum, 2008.
Moujian, S., (1986) An Encyclopedia of Chinese Art, p. 292.
Chinese pottery
History of ceramics
Chinese pottery |
4237050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine%20of%20Philadelphia | Cuisine of Philadelphia | The cuisine of Philadelphia was shaped largely by the city's mixture of ethnicities, available foodstuffs and history. Certain foods have become associated with the city.
Invented in Philadelphia in the 1930s, the cheesesteak is the most well known, and soft pretzels have long been a major part of Philadelphia culture.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the creation of two Philadelphia landmarks offering an array of food options, the Reading Terminal Market and the Italian Market. After a dismal restaurant scene during the post-war era of the 20th century, the 1970s brought a restaurant renaissance that has continued into the 21st century.
Many foods and drinks associated with Philadelphia can also commonly be linked with Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine and Italian-American cuisine.
Innovations
Philadelphia's large immigrant population has contributed to a large mixture of tastes to mingle and develop. Many types of foods have been created in or near Philadelphia or have strong associations with the city. In the 20th century, Philadelphia's foods included cheesesteak, stromboli, hoagie, soft pretzel, water ice and soda.
The cheesesteak is a sandwich traditionally made with sliced beef and melted cheese on an Italian roll. In the 1930s, the phenomenon as a steak sandwich began when hot dog vendor brothers Pat Olivieri and Harry Olivieri put grilled beef on a hot dog bun and gave it to a taxi driver. Later, after Pat and Harry had started selling the sandwich on Italian rolls, the cheesesteak was affixed in the local culture when one of their cooks put melted cheese on the sandwich.
Originally, the cheese was melted in a separate container to accommodate their large clientele who followed kosher rules, thereby not mixing dairy and meat. Today, cheese choices in Philadelphia eateries are virtually limited to American, Provolone, or Cheez Whiz. The latter is especially popular in those places that prominently carry it.
The hoagie is another sandwich that is said to have been invented in Philadelphia, undoubtedly of origin in Italian-American cuisine. It has been asserted that Italians working at the World War I era shipyard in Philadelphia, known as Hog Island where emergency shipping was produced for the war effort, introduced the sandwich, by putting various sliced meats, cheeses, and lettuce between two slices of Italian bread. This became known as the "Hog Island" sandwich; hence, the "hoagie".
Declared the official sandwich of Philadelphia in 1992, the hoagie is a sandwich made of meat and cheese with lettuce, tomatoes, and onions on an Italian roll.
Another Italian roll sandwich popularized in Philadelphia by Italian immigrants is the roast pork Italian, or Italian roast pork sandwich, a variation of the Italian street food dish known as porchetta. The sandwich consists of sliced roast pork with broccoli rabe or spinach and provolone cheese.
Philadelphia Pepper Pot, a soup of tripe, meat, and vegetables, is claimed to have been created during the American Revolutionary War and named after the home city of its creator.
Snapper soup, a thick brown turtle soup served with sherry, is a Philadelphia delicacy, generally found in area bars and seafood restaurants. In many places, it is served with oyster crackers (such as OTC Crackers, OTC being an abbreviation for "Original Trenton Cracker") and horseradish.
The snack item commonly associated with Philadelphia, but not invented there, is the soft pretzel. The soft pretzel dates back to 7th-century France and was brought over to the Philadelphia area by the Pennsylvania Dutch. Pretzels were sold in Philadelphia by numerous vendors on street corners. Federal Pretzel Baking Company defined the soft pretzel for most Philadelphians during the 1900s by first applying mass production and distribution to a distinctive baked flavored family recipe.
Another snack associated with Philadelphia is Irish potato candy. The candies have a coconut cream inside (generally made from some blend of coconut, confectioner's sugar, vanilla, and cream or cream cheese) and are rolled in cinnamon on the outside, resulting in an appearance reminiscent of small potatoes. The treats are about the size of a large marble and are especially popular around St. Patrick's Day.
Oh Ryan's of Boothwyn, Pennsylvania, claims to be the largest distributor of Irish Potatoes, shipping about 80,000 pounds to major chains and smaller candy stores, mostly in the Philadelphia area.
Water ice, known as Italian ice in other Northeastern US cities, is similarly associated with Philadelphia, and was brought to Philadelphia by Italian immigrants. Water ice likely derives from semi-frozen desserts originating in Italy, specifically granita, and has been described as a "variation on the more broadly-accepted Italian ice." Certain stands like South Philadelphia's "Pop's" or "Italiano's" became popular for their “water ice”, and Philadelphia water ice was later franchised into new markets with the spread of "Rita's Water Ice".
Philadelphia has its own regional variant of hot dog known as the Texas Tommy, originating right outside Philadelphia in Pottstown, Pennsylvania before spreading throughout the Delaware Valley region and South Jersey. The Texas Tommy hot dog is defined by its use of cheese (usually cheddar cheese) and bacon as toppings.
Some variations of the Texas Tommy use other forms of cheese, replacing the cheddar with the Cheez-Whiz found on cheesesteaks. The bacon and cheese are often wrapped around the hot dog, and the hot dog may be cooked using a variety of methods, such as deep frying, barbecuing, or grilling. Condiments such as mustard, ketchup, or relish may be used in addition to the bacon and cheese.
Chili is also sometimes added to the Texas Tommy, making the dish resemble more closely a Texas Wiener or chili dog with bacon and cheese.
Some types of soda that rose to popularity in Philadelphia include Hires Root Beer, Franks Beverages' unique Black Cherry Wishniak or Vanilla Cream, and Levis Champ Cherry.
Restaurants and markets
In early Philadelphia history the city's eating scene was dominated by taverns. By 1752, Philadelphia had 120 licensed taverns and numerous illegal taverns. The taverns ranged for all types of people and class from illegal grog shops on the waterfront that sailors frequented to the upper class taverns that members of the city government enjoyed.
Taverns such as the London Coffee House, the Blue Anchor, Tun Tavern and John Biddle's Indian King were regular meeting places for the political and business leaders of the city. The City Tavern is a replica of a historic 18th-century building located at 138 South 2nd Street and is part of the Independence National Historical Park. The tavern offers authentic 18th-century recipes, served in seven period dining rooms, three wine cellar rooms and an outdoor garden.
McGillin's Olde Ale House, located on Drury Street in Center City, is the oldest continuously operated tavern in the city, and has become a well-known place for celebrity-spotting.
Popular restaurants during the early 19th century included the United States Hotel and Parkinson's on Chestnut Street and Joseph Head Mansion's House on Spruce Street. One of the most significant restaurateurs and caterers at this time was M. Latouche, an expert in French cuisine, whose restaurant offered expensive food and a choice wine.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the large number of Italian immigrants in South Philadelphia led to the creation of the Italian Market. The market, which runs along part of south 9th Street, includes numerous types of food vendors along with other shops.
Another market, the Reading Terminal Market, opened in 1892. Created to replace the markets displaced by the construction of the Reading Terminal on Market Street in Center City, Reading Terminal Market has over 80 merchants and is a popular tourist attraction. In 1902, Joseph Horn and Frank Hardart opened the first automat in the U.S. at 818 Chestnut Street, now a retail store. The original Automat is now part of the Smithsonian Institution.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the restaurant scene was in decline. The city saw a large emigration into the suburbs, and fine dining could be found mainly in private clubs and dinner parties. But as the city started to rebound in the 1970s, Philadelphia saw a restaurant renaissance. For instance, in 1970 Georges Perrier and Peter Von Starck founded the French restaurant Le Panetiere. After a year, the two split, with Von Starck taking the Panetiere name to a different location. Perrier opened Le Bec-Fin at 13th & Spruce Street, then later at 1523 Walnut Street, which quickly became one of Philadelphia's most renowned restaurants. Another popular example is H.A Winston & Co., which evolved into a chain of restaurants located throughout the region.
The years following saw many new fine dining places open, including Four Seasons' Fountain Restaurant in 1983. Along with the up-scale restaurants, numerous ethnic and fast-food restaurants opened throughout the city.
The 1970s also saw the rise of street vendors. The vendors, building off the well-established tradition of chestnut and pretzel vendors, began selling numerous foods, especially hot dogs, cheesesteaks, and breakfast sandwiches. By taking up sidewalk space and possibly business, the vendors annoyed established stores which eventually led to numerous legal battles over ordinances which placed restrictions on vendors. The issue was surrounded by race and class overtones, but vendors have since become commonplace and even nationally renowned for serving quality food.
A wide variety of eateries now thrive in Philadelphia. The city has a growing reputation for culinary excellence, and many of the city's chefs have been honored with nominations for James Beard Awards.
Prolific local restaurateurs like Stephen Starr's STARR Restaurants and Iron Chef Jose Garces's Garces Restaurant Group operate restaurants that coexist with small chef-owned BYOBs. Major dining locations include Rittenhouse Square, Old City, Chinatown, Manayunk, East Passyunk Avenue and Fishtown.
A variety of cuisine popular with Philadelphians today include Italian, Mediterranean, Chinese, Japanese, steakhouses, French, gastropub fare, tapas, diners, delis, and pizzerias.
In September 2006, a smoking ban went into effect for Philadelphia bars and restaurants. The ban, which exempts private clubs, hotels, specialty smoking shops, and waiver-eligible bars that serve little food, had a troubled start and went unenforced until January 2007.
Just a month later Philadelphia City Council passed a ban on trans fat in restaurants, effective September 2, 2007. Other health reforms have been introduced by the Get Healthy Philly Initiative.
Other foods with Philadelphia historical roots
Cheese sauce—gooey, orange, dairy condiment carried by many street vendors. In general, Philadelphians often add cheese sauce to inexpensive food items, such as French fries and pretzels. The vast majority of cheese sauce served on Philadelphia foods is the national brand Cheez Whiz.
Funnel cake—associated with the Pennsylvania Dutch, made by pouring batter into hot cooking oil in a circular pattern and deep frying the overlapping mass until golden-brown; extremely popular in the Philadelphia area.
German butter cake—very rich type of pound cake with a buttery, pudding-like center, not to be confused with the traditional butter cake or the St. Louis version. Also called Philadelphia Butter Cake.
Good & Plenty—popular licorice pastille candy created in 1893.
Herr's—Philadelphia-area snack brand, noted for potato chips and other snack foods
Peanut Chews—popular candy produced in Philadelphia since 1917
Pork roll—although developed and mostly produced in Trenton (on the border between the Philadelphia and New York spheres of influence) and mostly associated with New Jersey culinary traditions, pork roll is widely available in the Philadelphia area and well-incorporated into Philadelphian cuisine.
Roast pork sandwich—usually served on an Italian roll and often with broccoli rabe instead of spinach and most traditionally with sharp provolone; a staple of South Philadelphia cuisine.
Scrapple—processed meat loaf made of pork scraps and trimmings combined with cornmeal and flour, is a Pennsylvanian breakfast food.
Soda—in the early 19th century, Dr. Philip Syng Physick and John Hart of Philadelphia invented carbonated water in an attempt to simulate water from natural springs. In 1807, Philadelphian pharmacist Townsend Speakman sold fruit juice and carbonated water, inventing the first soft drink. In 1875, Charles Elmer Hires invented root beer by mixing sarsaparilla, sassafras, wild cherry, wintergreen, ginger, and alcohol. He sold it at his drug store in Philadelphia.
Whoopie pie—also associated with the Pennsylvania Dutch, it is made of two round mound-shaped pieces of chocolate cake, or sometimes pumpkin or gingerbread cake, with a sweet, creamy filling or frosting sandwiched between them. Also popular in New England.
Spiced wafers—type of cookie traditionally sold in the autumn.
Stromboli—reported to have originated in 1950 in Essington, just outside Philadelphia. It is a type of turnover made with Italian bread dough filled with various kinds of cheese, Italian charcuterie or vegetables. Panzarotti is a trademark for a type of deep-fried stromboli, particularly associated with Philadelphia's South Jersey suburbs.
Tastykake—most well-known snack brand native to Philadelphia. Since 1914, the Tasty Baking Company has provided the region with its line of pre-packaged baked goods; best-known varieties include Krimpets, cupcakes, Kandy Kakes (wafer-sized chocolate and peanut butter cakes), and Tasty Pies.
Tomato pie—essentially a cheeseless pizza two-feet by three-feet in size, with extra oregano. Tomato pie is normally served cold or at room temperature. It is more often found in the Northeast section of Philadelphia and at bakeries in South Philadelphia with variations found in Trenton, New Jersey and other suburban localities.
Texas Tommy—grilled, split hot dog with bacon and cheese; a common hot dog dish in Philadelphia.
Water ice—a version of Italian ice that is popular in Philadelphia and the Delaware Valley. It is sold to order at specific shops and pre-packaged in grocery stores.
Alcoholic beverages
Beer was brewed by English colonial inhabitants of Philadelphia since the city's founding in 1682, and later by German immigrants that settled the city's countryside. Because of this, the city is strongly identified with both English-style beer (particularly porter, a variety that was virtually synonymous with Philadelphia during the American Revolutionary period) and German-style beer (such as lager), which eclipsed the English style near the end of the 19th century.
In the industry's heyday before Prohibition, more than 90 breweries operated in city limits, with another 100 located in the greater metropolitan area. A neighborhood in the city is still called Brewerytown, owing to the concentration of breweries in the area during this time. The last of the city's most successful brewers, such as the Henry F. Ortlieb Brewing Company and the Christian Schmidt Brewing Company, shut down in the 1980s.
The beer most associated with Philadelphia is Yuengling lager, brewed in nearby Pottsville, Pennsylvania and often referred to as simply "Lager" by Philadelphians and people in the Delaware Valley and South Jersey.
Recently, however, a number of highly regarded micro-breweries and brewpubs appeared in and around the city in the 1990s and 2000s, such as Victory, Yards and PBC, reviving the city's dormant brewing industry. (For more information, see Breweries in Philadelphia.) In 2011, Philadelphia was ranked as one of the 14 best beer cities in the world by Frommer's, and the city's annual beer week is among its most popular food-centric civic events.
Other notable Delaware Valley microbreweries and brewpubs include Iron Hill Breweries and the award-winning Sly Fox Brewery.
The distillation of spirits in Philadelphia has a long history, but the industry has sat idle for several decades.
One of the largest manufacturing complexes in the city, spanning 40 acres, was owned by Publicker Industries, which produced chemicals, industrial alcohols and spirits in South Philadelphia. Its Continental Distilling Company arm produced Old Hickory bourbon, Inver House Scotch and Skol vodka, among many other liquors, before the company abandoned the site in 1986.
The oldest producer of cordials and liqueurs in the U.S., Charles Jacquin et Cie, remains in operation in the city's Kensington neighborhood; the company is best known for its Pravda vodka, Jacquin's family of liqueurs and Original Bartenders Cocktails brand, well as its introduction of Chambord (sold to Brown-Forman in 2006), Creme Yvette, St-Germain and Domaine de Canton to the U.S. market.
More recently, Philadelphia Distilling opened in 2005 in the city's Fishtown neighborhood; it is the first craft distillery to open in Pennsylvania since before Prohibition, and produces Bluecoat American Dry Gin, Vieux Carré Absinthe Supérieure, Penn 1681 vodka, XXX Shine corn whiskey and The Bay, a vodka seasoned with Chesapeake Bay seasoning.
See also
Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch
Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies
Cuisine of New Jersey
Cuisine of Allentown, Pennsylvania
References |
4237181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Ranulph%20Marett | Robert Ranulph Marett | Robert Ranulph Marett (13 June 1866 – 18 February 1943) was a British ethnologist and a proponent of the British Evolutionary School of cultural anthropology. Founded by Marett's older colleague, Edward Burnett Tylor, it asserted that modern primitive societies provide evidence for phases in the evolution of culture, which it attempted to recapture via comparative and historical methods. Marett focused primarily on the anthropology of religion. Studying the evolutionary origin of religions, he modified Tylor's animistic theory to include the concept of mana. Marett's anthropological teaching and writing career at Oxford University spanned the early 20th century before World War Two. He trained many notable anthropologists. He was a colleague of John Myres, and through him, studied Aegean archaeology.
Family background
Marett was the only son of Sir Robert Pipon Marett and Julia Anne Marett. He was born in Saint Brélade. He belonged to a family, originally named Maret, that settled on Jersey from Normandy in the 13th century. The Saint Brélade branch built a manor house for themselves, La Haule Manor (today a hotel). They had substantial wealth and position, contributing high-level magistrates to the government of Jersey. Robert's father had been Bailiff of Jersey. He was one of the founders of La Patrie, a patriotic newspaper. Earlier, Philip Maret, third son of the second Seigneur of La Haule, born in 1701, had emigrated to Boston, where he became a merchant captain. His subsequent family participated in the American Revolution and the War of 1812.
Robert's mother, Julia Anne, also bore the name of Marett before marriage. She was one of the eight children of the Janvrin sisters, Esther Elizabeth and Maria Eliza, by one Philip Marett, who was not in Robert Pipon's immediate line. Philip was a name often used by the Maretts. Thus, Julia Anne was only a distant cousin of her husband. The house, however, came into Robert Ranulph's possession through his mother. Her mother was Maria Eliza Janvrin. She and Robert Pipon had four children, Robert Ranulph, Mabel Elizabeth, Philippa Laetitia, and Julia Mary. Robert Ranulph was an only son but had three sisters and a large number of cousins. The family was Anglican. Cyril Norwood said of him, in a review of his autobiography in 1941:
Born of good family, reaching back through many generations of service in Jersey, he was brought up in a good home with wise and cultured parents in a beautiful place set fair in the freedom of sky and sea. Nature in her kindness endowed him with good brains, good memory, lively imagination, and abounding physical vigour.
Education
Primary and secondary education
For his initial educational years, the young Robert was taught in a Dame school of the area. He was then placed in St. Aubin's School, a private grammar school founded in Maison Martel. This was the former home of the Martel family, merchants, in Saint Aubin, Jersey, which was not far from La Haule Manor. It had been founded in 1813 by Esther Brine and her husband, Philip le Maistre, a schoolteacher. The Brines had purchased the mansion from the Martels. In 1867, they reported a student population of about 50 boys, half of whom were boarders. For the wealthy in Jersey, this school was the only path to secondary school.
St. Aubin's had an international reputation. Robert attended between ages nine through 14, 1875–1880. On the death of Le Maistre in 1873, the new headmaster and owner was John Este Vibert, who had a military frame of mind. Many future military officers came from St. Aubin's. Vibert was also a scientist and a member of the Royal Meteorological Society. He manned a weather station in the building.
Marett went on to secondary school at Victoria College, Jersey. It was founded in 1850 on the recommendation of Queen Victoria. Marett was there from the age of 14 to 18, 1880–1884. He commuted daily by the train line which existed for several decades across the south of the island. In secondary school, and then in university, Marett was gregarious, popular, and athletic. Later, he spent his time golfing and shooting. For fun, he loved to party and prank as he had a sense of humor. He joined the Jersey Militia, which was a social club, and he was made a lieutenant at age 17. He also read avidly in La Haule's extensive library. He took a great interest in natural history.
After finishing school in 1884, he planned to start at Balliol College, Oxford University in autumn, but his father's lingering illness delayed him. His father died on November 10th. According to the British law of primogeniture, he inherited the entire estate, but for the time being, he was not interested. There were no practical changes in the management of the estate. His mother and three sisters continued living in the home. However, his mother died in 1901, and the three sisters never married. They were still in the house, all over 70, when the Germans occupied it in 1940. Leaving for Oxford, Robert never returned on a permanent basis. His own family did eventually move there, but for him, it was only a part-time home which he occupied mainly in the summer. It was an ideal summer home as it was sparsely populated, located on the shore, spacious, luxurious, but without such amenities as electricity.
College education
Though well-to-do, Marett applied for financial assistance, the award of which was based on excellence and typically demonstrated in an examination. In British English, he won an "exhibition" from the Council of Legal Education (today's Inns of Court School of Law). In this case, this was a modest financial award for the study of law. The award made him an "exhibitioner". He had to join the Inner Temple, one of the four groups of a professional association of barristers called the Inns of Court. It was (and is) primarily an educational institution qualifying lawyers to argue at the bar; that is, professionally in court.
There was an overlap with Marett's interest: Roman Law. Marett majored in classics, the study of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Anthropology as an academic subject did not exist at the time; in fact, Marett was to be one of its first professors, the first at Oxford. As required by membership in the Inner Temple, he had finally to pass a "bar examination" in Roman Law, which he did in 1891. This success did not qualify him in any way to practice law. He was never a lawyer, and he was never interested in the government of Jersey, as his father had been.
Marett received notice of his grant in November. It was too late to begin in autumn. He, therefore, petitioned to begin with the Hilary term. He had enrolled in a classics curriculum called Literae Humaniores (Lit. Hum.). It is divided into two sequential parts, Honour Moderations, or "Mods", a study of the Ancient Greek and Latin languages. He then enrolled in courses selected from a variety of classical topics, with the requirement that eight papers be written. This part is called "Greats".
Marett was finished with his Mods by 1886, with a First. Going on to the Greats, he won the Chancellor's Prize for Latin verse in 1887, which was a modest sum contingent on submission of some New Latin verse composed by the recipient. He had nearly completed the Greats by 1888, concentrating on philosophy. British degrees at the time were designed for three years. However, this specific curriculum was designed for four years.
He still had more work to do when, in early 1889, he was struck by meningitis walking home from class. Knowing he was in a possibly life-threatening condition, he intruded on the first doctor's office he saw, and he was lucky enough to be diagnosed immediately by an experienced physician. He was then unable to attend Oxford for the rest of the term. When he had recovered sufficiently, he was sent to Switzerland for final treatment. In July he was granted the degree of Bachelor of Arts (BA) in absentia with a First anyway, but he still needed to pass the Bar in Roman Law.
In Switzerland, he had the best of academic intentions. He was learning French and German. He enrolled at the University of Berlin in philosophy, which he studied for a year. However, being a young man of wealth whose father had been known internationally, he had an informal access to the upper echelons of society. He associated with Junkers and had lunch with the Kaiser. Among the Americans abroad, he met Buffalo Bill. His planned educational experiences were rapidly developing into a Grand Tour. At the end of the year (1890), he refused to go home. Touring on to Rome, he fell in with the society of Lord and Lady Dufferin, inveterate party-goers. Socialising was their stock-in-trade. Lord Dufferin was then the British ambassador to Italy. The 24-year-old Marett was dazzled, and he described the year as "rapturous". He toured Italy, Greece, and France in the company of notables, making friendships that would last a lifetime.
Finally, the time came to go home, but in 1890 he still had the Bar Exam to take. He found some tutoring work at Balliol, and became a secretary to Toynbee Hall while he was studying for the exam that he eventually passed. When the results were announced in early 1891, he was free to begin his professional career. He was awarded the Master of Arts (M.A.) later that year without additional work or examination, as is the custom at Oxford.
Career
Philosophy
Marett's first professional position was in philosophy as a Fellow at Exeter College, starting in the fall of 1891. Depending on the definitions of the institution, "Fellow" in the British system has a broad range of meanings ranging from graduate student to a senior research associate. In Marett's time at Oxford, fellow meant in essence a member of the faculty with the same basic privileges as any. Today it is necessary to ask exactly what Marett did to be paid as a fellow.
Exeter College, which was a small one in population, was undoubtedly being governed by the statutes of 1882. It provided for a Governing Body consisting of a Rector and two types of Fellows: Ordinary and Tutorial. Some in addition had special duties, such as the Bursar. Hiring was by vote of the Governing Body. There is a brief memo in the Register for Exeter College for 1890 that he was a "Tutorial fellow Ex. Coll.," presumably "Exeter College". He was a tutor of philosophy in the Oxford Tutorial System. He met with students regularly, individually or in small groups, to suggest reading for them and check their previous readings. Americans have never had this system.
As to how he may have obtained the position, he says in his autobiography that all he asks of the historian is that he be classified as "even the least of 'Jowett's men,' referring to the long-standing Master of Balliol College. He was referred to as the influential philosopher, classicist and Gladstonian partisan, named Benjamin Jowett. The aforesaid men dotted the Houses of Parliament and British society in general like stars in the sky, all promoting British liberalism. A word or two from Jowett might easily have influenced the Governing Body.
However, he got the position, and Marett resolved to set himself on the path to success. He applied for the T.H. Green Moral Philosophy Prize in 1893, a monetary award offered once every three years by Balliol College for the best paper on moral philosophy. Marett won it with The Ethics of Savage Races, which was never published. However. Edward Burnett Tylor,founder of Cultural Anthropology, was on his examining committee for the paper. The relationship between the two men continued. Marett now had demonstrated the ability to think creatively. He obviously had a career in philosophy and religion ahead of him and was made sub-rector. Jowett died that year, but Tylor's opinion would have been crucial.
Anthropology
He succeeded E.B. Tylor as Reader in Anthropology at Oxford in 1910, teaching the Diploma in Anthropology at the Pitt Rivers Museum. He worked on the palaeolithic site of La Cotte de St Brelade from 1910 to 1914, recovering some hominid teeth and other remains of habitation by Neanderthal man. In 1914 he established a Department of Social Anthropology, and in 1916 he published "The Site, Fauna, and Industry of La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey" (Archaeologia LXVII, 1916). He became Rector of Exeter College, Oxford. His students included Maria Czaplicka, Marius Barbeau, Dorothy Garrod, Earnest Albert Hooten, Henry Field and Rosalind Moss
Phases of religion
E.B. Tylor had considered animism to be the earliest form of religion, but he had not had access to Robert Codrington's linguistic data on the concept of mana in Melanesia. Codrington wrote after Tylor. Consideration of mana led Marett to retheorize Tylor's history of religion, adding an initial phase, pre-animistic religion, called pre-animism by others. A new common thread must be found to unite the three phases. Marett suggested the supernatural, or "power of awfulness" (in the original sense of the word). Marett's analysis of the history of religion was presented in The Threshold of Religion (1909) and was refined in Anthropology (1912), and Psychology and Folklore (1920).
Publications and lectures
Origin and Validity in Ethics (1902)
The Birth of Humility (1910)
Progress and History (1916)
Compendium.
The Diffusion of Culture (1927)
Man in the Making: An Introduction to Anthropology (1928)
The Raw Material of Religion (1929)
Faith, Hope and Charity in Primitive Religion (1930–1932)
Sacraments of Simple Folk (1930–1932)
Head, Heart and Hands in Human Evolution (1935)
Tylor (1936)
Man in the Making (1937), New Edition
A Jerseyman at Oxford (1941), autobiography
Marriage and family
Having established himself at Exeter, Marett entered a plateau, despite his anthropological paper. In 1896 he was already 30. Personal biology was on his mind. A new women's college had entered the Oxford system, Somerville College. It was of great interest to the unmarried dons of Oxford, such as R. R. Marett. He managed to meet one of its students, the youngest daughter, Nora, of the British explorer of Africa and subsequent Vice Consul to Zanzibar, John Kirk (1832–1922). A Scottish physician, he had been with David Livingstone when Henry Morton Stanley asked, or at least is said to have asked, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?"
Livingstone and Kirk were both dedicated to the suppression of the slave trade in Africa, a cause championed by British liberals. It presented a political paradox. Slavery could only be stopped by military opposition to the slavers. If British forces did intervene, the government was accused of building a colonial empire. This contradiction brought down the second premiership of William Gladstone in 1885, when he did not go to the assistance of Charles George Gordon at Khartoum. The latter was attempting to defend the city against Muhammad Ahmad, slaver, and new Islamic messiah. Gordon was killed. The tide turned in Britain in favor of the empire. After the Battle of Omdurman, 1896, the region was brought into the empire as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Earlier Kirk had come home from Africa to recover from exhaustion. He accepted a medical position in Zanzibar in 1868. That same year the government offered him the post of Vice-Consul there. On the strength of his new income and importance, he married his fiancée, Helen Cooke (1843–1914), and together they had a son and five daughters, one of which was Nora (1873–1954). A liberated woman for the times, she attended the new college that would bring women to Oxford, where she met Marett. Alike in political views and sentiments, they loved each other dearly, but Marett's contract with Oxford stipulated that he must not marry for a certain number of years. Those were up in 1898. He was 32, she 25. In the first decade of the 20th century, they had four children: John Ranulph (1900–1940), Philippa Suzanne (1904–1991), Joyce Elizabeth (1905–1979), and Robert Hugh Kirk (1907–1981).
See also
Marett Lecture
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Field, Henry. The Track of Man. New York: Doubleday, 1952.
External links
1866 births
1943 deaths
Anthropologists of religion
British anthropologists
British ethnologists
Fellows of Exeter College, Oxford
People associated with the Pitt Rivers Museum
People educated at Victoria College, Jersey
Rectors of Exeter College, Oxford
Presidents of the Folklore Society |
4237207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error%20correction%20code | Error correction code | In computing, telecommunication, information theory, and coding theory, forward error correction (FEC) or channel coding is a technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels.
The central idea is that the sender encodes the message in a redundant way, most often by using an error correction code or error correcting code (ECC). The redundancy allows the receiver not only to detect errors that may occur anywhere in the message, but often to correct a limited number of errors. Therefore a reverse channel to request re-transmission may not be needed. The cost is a fixed, higher forward channel bandwidth.
The American mathematician Richard Hamming pioneered this field in the 1940s and invented the first error-correcting code in 1950: the Hamming (7,4) code.
FEC can be applied in situations where re-transmissions are costly or impossible, such as one-way communication links or when transmitting to multiple receivers in multicast.
Long-latency connections also benefit; in the case of a satellite orbiting Uranus, retransmission due to errors can create a delay of five hours. FEC is widely used in modems and in cellular networks, as well.
FEC processing in a receiver may be applied to a digital bit stream or in the demodulation of a digitally modulated carrier. For the latter, FEC is an integral part of the initial analog-to-digital conversion in the receiver. The Viterbi decoder implements a soft-decision algorithm to demodulate digital data from an analog signal corrupted by noise. Many FEC decoders can also generate a bit-error rate (BER) signal which can be used as feedback to fine-tune the analog receiving electronics.
FEC information is added to mass storage (magnetic, optical and solid state/flash based) devices to enable recovery of corrupted data, and is used as ECC computer memory on systems that require special provisions for reliability.
The maximum proportion of errors or missing bits that can be corrected is determined by the design of the ECC, so different forward error correcting codes are suitable for different conditions. In general, a stronger code induces more redundancy that needs to be transmitted using the available bandwidth, which reduces the effective bit-rate while improving the received effective signal-to-noise ratio. The noisy-channel coding theorem of Claude Shannon can be used to compute the maximum achievable communication bandwidth for a given maximum acceptable error probability. This establishes bounds on the theoretical maximum information transfer rate of a channel with some given base noise level. However, the proof is not constructive, and hence gives no insight of how to build a capacity achieving code. After years of research, some advanced FEC systems like polar code come very close to the theoretical maximum given by the Shannon channel capacity under the hypothesis of an infinite length frame.
Method
ECC is accomplished by adding redundancy to the transmitted information using an algorithm. A redundant bit may be a complicated function of many original information bits. The original information may or may not appear literally in the encoded output; codes that include the unmodified input in the output are systematic, while those that do not are non-systematic.
A simplistic example of ECC is to transmit each data bit 3 times, which is known as a (3,1) repetition code. Through a noisy channel, a receiver might see 8 versions of the output, see table below.
This allows an error in any one of the three samples to be corrected by "majority vote", or "democratic voting". The correcting ability of this ECC is:
Up to 1 bit of triplet in error, or
up to 2 bits of triplet omitted (cases not shown in table).
Though simple to implement and widely used, this triple modular redundancy is a relatively inefficient ECC. Better ECC codes typically examine the last several tens or even the last several hundreds of previously received bits to determine how to decode the current small handful of bits (typically in groups of 2 to 8 bits).
Averaging noise to reduce errors
ECC could be said to work by "averaging noise"; since each data bit affects many transmitted symbols, the corruption of some symbols by noise usually allows the original user data to be extracted from the other, uncorrupted received symbols that also depend on the same user data.
Because of this "risk-pooling" effect, digital communication systems that use ECC tend to work well above a certain minimum signal-to-noise ratio and not at all below it.
This all-or-nothing tendency – the cliff effect – becomes more pronounced as stronger codes are used that more closely approach the theoretical Shannon limit.
Interleaving ECC coded data can reduce the all or nothing properties of transmitted ECC codes when the channel errors tend to occur in bursts. However, this method has limits; it is best used on narrowband data.
Most telecommunication systems use a fixed channel code designed to tolerate the expected worst-case bit error rate, and then fail to work at all if the bit error rate is ever worse.
However, some systems adapt to the given channel error conditions: some instances of hybrid automatic repeat-request use a fixed ECC method as long as the ECC can handle the error rate, then switch to ARQ when the error rate gets too high;
adaptive modulation and coding uses a variety of ECC rates, adding more error-correction bits per packet when there are higher error rates in the channel, or taking them out when they are not needed.
Types of ECC
The two main categories of ECC codes are block codes and convolutional codes.
Block codes work on fixed-size blocks (packets) of bits or symbols of predetermined size. Practical block codes can generally be hard-decoded in polynomial time to their block length.
Convolutional codes work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length. They are most often soft decoded with the Viterbi algorithm, though other algorithms are sometimes used. Viterbi decoding allows asymptotically optimal decoding efficiency with increasing constraint length of the convolutional code, but at the expense of exponentially increasing complexity. A convolutional code that is terminated is also a 'block code' in that it encodes a block of input data, but the block size of a convolutional code is generally arbitrary, while block codes have a fixed size dictated by their algebraic characteristics. Types of termination for convolutional codes include "tail-biting" and "bit-flushing".
There are many types of block codes; Reed–Solomon coding is noteworthy for its widespread use in compact discs, DVDs, and hard disk drives. Other examples of classical block codes include Golay, BCH, Multidimensional parity, and Hamming codes.
Hamming ECC is commonly used to correct NAND flash memory errors.
This provides single-bit error correction and 2-bit error detection.
Hamming codes are only suitable for more reliable single-level cell (SLC) NAND.
Denser multi-level cell (MLC) NAND may use multi-bit correcting ECC such as BCH or Reed–Solomon. NOR Flash typically does not use any error correction.
Classical block codes are usually decoded using hard-decision algorithms, which means that for every input and output signal a hard decision is made whether it corresponds to a one or a zero bit. In contrast, convolutional codes are typically decoded using soft-decision algorithms like the Viterbi, MAP or BCJR algorithms, which process (discretized) analog signals, and which allow for much higher error-correction performance than hard-decision decoding.
Nearly all classical block codes apply the algebraic properties of finite fields. Hence classical block codes are often referred to as algebraic codes.
In contrast to classical block codes that often specify an error-detecting or error-correcting ability, many modern block codes such as LDPC codes lack such guarantees. Instead, modern codes are evaluated in terms of their bit error rates.
Most forward error correction codes correct only bit-flips, but not bit-insertions or bit-deletions.
In this setting, the Hamming distance is the appropriate way to measure the bit error rate.
A few forward error correction codes are designed to correct bit-insertions and bit-deletions, such as Marker Codes and Watermark Codes.
The Levenshtein distance is a more appropriate way to measure the bit error rate when using such codes.
Code-rate and the tradeoff between reliability and data rate
The fundamental principle of ECC is to add redundant bits in order to help the decoder to find out the true message that was encoded by the transmitter. The code-rate of a given ECC system is defined as the ratio between the number of information bits and the total number of bits (i.e., information plus redundancy bits) in a given communication package. The code-rate is hence a real number. A low code-rate close to zero implies a strong code that uses many redundant bits to achieve a good performance, while a large code-rate close to 1 implies a weak code.
The redundant bits that protect the information have to be transferred using the same communication resources that they are trying to protect. This causes a fundamental tradeoff between reliability and data rate. In one extreme, a strong code (with low code-rate) can induce an important increase in the receiver SNR (signal-to-noise-ratio) decreasing the bit error rate, at the cost of reducing the effective data rate. On the other extreme, not using any ECC (i.e., a code-rate equal to 1) uses the full channel for information transfer purposes, at the cost of leaving the bits without any additional protection.
One interesting question is the following: how efficient in terms of information transfer can an ECC be that has a negligible decoding error rate? This question was answered by Claude Shannon with his second theorem, which says that the channel capacity is the maximum bit rate achievable by any ECC whose error rate tends to zero: His proof relies on Gaussian random coding, which is not suitable to real-world applications. The upper bound given by Shannon's work inspired a long journey in designing ECCs that can come close to the ultimate performance boundary. Various codes today can attain almost the Shannon limit. However, capacity achieving ECCs are usually extremely complex to implement.
The most popular ECCs have a trade-off between performance and computational complexity. Usually, their parameters give a range of possible code rates, which can be optimized depending on the scenario. Usually, this optimization is done in order to achieve a low decoding error probability while minimizing the impact to the data rate. Another criterion for optimizing the code rate is to balance low error rate and retransmissions number in order to the energy cost of the communication.
Concatenated ECC codes for improved performance
Classical (algebraic) block codes and convolutional codes are frequently combined in concatenated coding schemes in which a short constraint-length Viterbi-decoded convolutional code does most of the work and a block code (usually Reed–Solomon) with larger symbol size and block length "mops up" any errors made by the convolutional decoder. Single pass decoding with this family of error correction codes can yield very low error rates, but for long range transmission conditions (like deep space) iterative decoding is recommended.
Concatenated codes have been standard practice in satellite and deep space communications since Voyager 2 first used the technique in its 1986 encounter with Uranus. The Galileo craft used iterative concatenated codes to compensate for the very high error rate conditions caused by having a failed antenna.
Low-density parity-check (LDPC)
Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes are a class of highly efficient linear block
codes made from many single parity check (SPC) codes. They can provide performance very close to the channel capacity (the theoretical maximum) using an iterated soft-decision decoding approach, at linear time complexity in terms of their block length. Practical implementations rely heavily on decoding the constituent SPC codes in parallel.
LDPC codes were first introduced by Robert G. Gallager in his PhD thesis in 1960,
but due to the computational effort in implementing encoder and decoder and the introduction of Reed–Solomon codes,
they were mostly ignored until the 1990s.
LDPC codes are now used in many recent high-speed communication standards, such as DVB-S2 (Digital Video Broadcasting – Satellite – Second Generation), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e standard for microwave communications), High-Speed Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11n), 10GBase-T Ethernet (802.3an) and G.hn/G.9960 (ITU-T Standard for networking over power lines, phone lines and coaxial cable). Other LDPC codes are standardized for wireless communication standards within 3GPP MBMS (see fountain codes).
Turbo codes
Turbo coding is an iterated soft-decoding scheme that combines two or more relatively simple convolutional codes and an interleaver to produce a block code that can perform to within a fraction of a decibel of the Shannon limit. Predating LDPC codes in terms of practical application, they now provide similar performance.
One of the earliest commercial applications of turbo coding was the CDMA2000 1x (TIA IS-2000) digital cellular technology developed by Qualcomm and sold by Verizon Wireless, Sprint, and other carriers. It is also used for the evolution of CDMA2000 1x specifically for Internet access, 1xEV-DO (TIA IS-856). Like 1x, EV-DO was developed by Qualcomm, and is sold by Verizon Wireless, Sprint, and other carriers (Verizon's marketing name for 1xEV-DO is Broadband Access, Sprint's consumer and business marketing names for 1xEV-DO are Power Vision and Mobile Broadband, respectively).
Local decoding and testing of codes
Sometimes it is only necessary to decode single bits of the message, or to check whether a given signal is a codeword, and do so without looking at the entire signal. This can make sense in a streaming setting, where codewords are too large to be classically decoded fast enough and where only a few bits of the message are of interest for now. Also such codes have become an important tool in computational complexity theory, e.g., for the design of probabilistically checkable proofs.
Locally decodable codes are error-correcting codes for which single bits of the message can be probabilistically recovered by only looking at a small (say constant) number of positions of a codeword, even after the codeword has been corrupted at some constant fraction of positions. Locally testable codes are error-correcting codes for which it can be checked probabilistically whether a signal is close to a codeword by only looking at a small number of positions of the signal.
Interleaving
Interleaving is frequently used in digital communication and storage systems to improve the performance of forward error correcting codes. Many communication channels are not memoryless: errors typically occur in bursts rather than independently. If the number of errors within a code word exceeds the error-correcting code's capability, it fails to recover the original code word. Interleaving alleviates this problem by shuffling source symbols across several code words, thereby creating a more uniform distribution of errors. Therefore, interleaving is widely used for burst error-correction.
The analysis of modern iterated codes, like turbo codes and LDPC codes, typically assumes an independent distribution of errors. Systems using LDPC codes therefore typically employ additional interleaving across the symbols within a code word.
For turbo codes, an interleaver is an integral component and its proper design is crucial for good performance. The iterative decoding algorithm works best when there are not short cycles in the factor graph that represents the decoder; the interleaver is chosen to avoid short cycles.
Interleaver designs include:
rectangular (or uniform) interleavers (similar to the method using skip factors described above)
convolutional interleavers
random interleavers (where the interleaver is a known random permutation)
S-random interleaver (where the interleaver is a known random permutation with the constraint that no input symbols within distance S appear within a distance of S in the output).
a contention-free quadratic permutation polynomial (QPP). An example of use is in the 3GPP Long Term Evolution mobile telecommunication standard.
In multi-carrier communication systems, interleaving across carriers may be employed to provide frequency diversity, e.g., to mitigate frequency-selective fading or narrowband interference.
Example
Transmission without interleaving:
Error-free message:
Transmission with a burst error:
Here, each group of the same letter represents a 4-bit one-bit error-correcting codeword. The codeword is altered in one bit and can be corrected, but the codeword is altered in three bits, so either it cannot be decoded at all or it might be decoded incorrectly.
With interleaving:
Error-free code words:
Interleaved:
Transmission with a burst error:
Received code words after deinterleaving:
In each of the codewords "", "", "", and "", only one bit is altered, so one-bit error-correcting code will decode everything correctly.
Transmission without interleaving:
Original transmitted sentence:
Received sentence with a burst error:
The term "" ends up mostly unintelligible and difficult to correct.
With interleaving:
Transmitted sentence:
Error-free transmission:
Received sentence with a burst error:
Received sentence after deinterleaving:
No word is completely lost and the missing letters can be recovered with minimal guesswork.
Disadvantages of interleaving
Use of interleaving techniques increases total delay. This is because the entire interleaved block must be received before the packets can be decoded. Also interleavers hide the structure of errors; without an interleaver, more advanced decoding algorithms can take advantage of the error structure and achieve more reliable communication than a simpler decoder combined with an interleaver. An example of such an algorithm is based on neural network structures.
Software for error-correcting codes
Simulating the behaviour of error-correcting codes (ECCs) in software is a common practice to design, validate and improve ECCs. The upcoming wireless 5G standard raises a new range of applications for the software ECCs: the Cloud Radio Access Networks (C-RAN) in a Software-defined radio (SDR) context. The idea is to directly use software ECCs in the communications. For instance in the 5G, the software ECCs could be located in the cloud and the antennas connected to this computing resources: improving this way the flexibility of the communication network and eventually increasing the energy efficiency of the system.
In this context, there are various available Open-source software listed below (non exhaustive).
AFF3CT(A Fast Forward Error Correction Toolbox): a full communication chain in C++ (many supported codes like Turbo, LDPC, Polar codes, etc.), very fast and specialized on channel coding (can be used as a program for simulations or as a library for the SDR).
IT++: a C++ library of classes and functions for linear algebra, numerical optimization, signal processing, communications, and statistics.
OpenAir: implementation (in C) of the 3GPP specifications concerning the Evolved Packet Core Networks.
List of error-correcting codes
AN codes
Algebraic geometry code
BCH code, which can be designed to correct any arbitrary number of errors per code block.
Barker code used for radar, telemetry, ultra sound, Wifi, DSSS mobile phone networks, GPS etc.
Berger code
Constant-weight code
Convolutional code
Expander codes
Group codes
Golay codes, of which the Binary Golay code is of practical interest
Goppa code, used in the McEliece cryptosystem
Hadamard code
Hagelbarger code
Hamming code
Latin square based code for non-white noise (prevalent for example in broadband over powerlines)
Lexicographic code
Linear Network Coding, a type of erasure correcting code across networks instead of point-to-point links
Long code
Low-density parity-check code, also known as Gallager code, as the archetype for sparse graph codes
LT code, which is a near-optimal rateless erasure correcting code (Fountain code)
m of n codes
Nordstrom-Robinson code, used in Geometry and Group Theory
Online code, a near-optimal rateless erasure correcting code
Polar code (coding theory)
Raptor code, a near-optimal rateless erasure correcting code
Reed–Solomon error correction
Reed–Muller code
Repeat-accumulate code
Repetition codes, such as Triple modular redundancy
Spinal code, a rateless, nonlinear code based on pseudo-random hash functions
Tornado code, a near-optimal erasure correcting code, and the precursor to Fountain codes
Turbo code
Walsh–Hadamard code
Cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) can correct 1-bit errors for messages at most bits long for optimal generator polynomials of degree , see Mathematics of cyclic redundancy checks#Bitfilters
See also
Code rate
Erasure codes
Soft-decision decoder
Burst error-correcting code
Error detection and correction
Error-correcting codes with feedback
Linear code
Quantum error correction
References
Further reading
(xxii+762+6 pages)
(x+2+208+4 pages)
"Error Correction Code in Single Level Cell NAND Flash memories" 2007-02-16
"Error Correction Code in NAND Flash memories" 2004-11-29
Observations on Errors, Corrections, & Trust of Dependent Systems, by James Hamilton, 2012-02-26
Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups, By J. H. Conway, Neil James Alexander Sloane, Springer Science & Business Media, 2013-03-09 – Mathematics – 682 pages.
External links
lpdec: library for LP decoding and related things (Python)
Error detection and correction |
4237328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcia%20Langton | Marcia Langton | Marcia Lynne Langton (born 31 October 1951) is an Aboriginal Australian writer and academic. she is the Redmond Barry Distinguished Professor at the Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne. Langton is known for her activism in the Indigenous rights arena.
Early life and education
Marcia Langton was born in on 31 October 1951 to Kathleen (née Waddy) and grew up in south-central Queensland and Brisbane as a descendant of the Yiman and Bidjara heritage, both groups being Aboriginal Australian peoples. Her father had no presence in her life. Her mother married Scots-born, ex-Korean War veteran Douglas Langton when Marcia was a year old. Marcia was close to her maternal grandmother, Ruby, and her sister, Teresa.
She and her mother moved often, without secure housing or employment, and she attended nine primary schools. She attended Aspley State High School from 1964 to 1968, where she was a prefect and good student, but after objecting to racism in a school text, she was expelled.
She was taken to her first political meeting by Oodgeroo Noonuccal at the age of 16, so by the time she enrolled for a law/arts degree at the University of Queensland in 1969, she had already become an activist. She advocated for Indigenous land rights and against racism. She spent one year at the university, during which time she got pregnant with her son.
After hearing that Brisbane police were clamping down on Indigenous activists (at the beginning of Joh Bjelke-Petersen's premiership), she left the country aged 18, with her son. For five years she travelled and worked, from New Guinea to Japan, across Asia to Switzerland and North America. After her return (in early 1975) she moved to Sydney, perceiving it as less racist than Brisbane. While in Japan, where she lived for six months, and Asia, she found "racial invisibility" for the first time; she was not perceived as different because she was black. In Japan, Langton learnt about Buddhism, and later became a self-described "lazy Buddhist". Wiradjuri artist Brook Andrew painted Langton in a Buddhist pose. On her travels she met US servicemen who had served in the Vietnam War, and became acquainted with Afro American culture and the Black Power movement. After flying to New York City, she was kidnapped by people traffickers, but escaped.
In Sydney, Langton worked as nutrition co-ordinator at the Aboriginal Medical Service, and also worked with Fred Hollows in optical health.
After moving to Canberra in 1977, she studied anthropology at the Australian National University, working part-time, and graduated in 1984.
In 2005 she completed a PhD in geography at Macquarie University.
Early career
In Canberra, Langton worked for the Australian Law Reform Commission in its work on recognising customary law. She became a history research officer at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (now AIATSIS).
In 1988 she moved to Alice Springs in the Northern Territory and worked as senior anthropologist for the Central Land Council for six years, before being made head of the Aboriginal Issues Unit of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, which she undertook for 15 months over 1989 to 1990. After this, she wrote Too Much Sorry Business, in which she connected the high number of Aboriginal men who died in police or prison custody Northern Territory to Indigenous mortality rates, and to alcohol and other substance abuse.
Langton was then appointed assistant head of the Division of Aboriginal and Islander Affairs in Queensland (under the government of Wayne Goss), but was forced to resign 15 months later.
She also worked the Australian Film Commission, Cape York Institute for Policy and Leadership, and, in the early 1990s, the Cape York Land Council, where she met lawyer Noel Pearson. In 1992, Langton was appointed chair of AIATSIS in Canberra.
Academic career
In 1995, Langton moved full-time into university research and teaching. She spent five years as Ranger Professor of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies at Northern Territory University (now Charles Darwin University) in Darwin before moving to Melbourne.
In 2000 she was appointed Foundation Chair of Australian Indigenous Studies at the University of Melbourne, then in the arts faculty. where in 2016, she became distinguished professor, and in 2017, associate provost. In 2006, she moved to the university's faculty of medicine, to work with Indigenous academic and social health activist Ian Anderson; the Indigenous Studies Centre also moved to this faculty.
Her 2005 PhD thesis in geography at Macquarie University applies phenomenological theory to the study of Aboriginal peoples of the eastern Cape York Peninsula.
In 2012 she became the patron of the Indigenous Reading Project, a charitable organisation that uses digital technology to improve the reading ability of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children.
Activism and political views
1970s
During the early 1970s, Langton was one of three leaders of the Communist League, a small group founded by Queensland doctor John McCarthy, Peter Robb and others in 1972, which merged into the Socialist Workers Party around 1976. She has never been a member of the Communist Party of Australia.
In 1976, Langton, Bobbi Sykes, Sue Chilly (also spelt Chilli), and Naomi Mayers formed the Black Women's Action (BWA) group, which later evolved into the Roberta Sykes Foundation. BWA published a monthly community newspaper for Aboriginal people, Koori Bina (meaning "Black ears"), which ran until June 1979. Langton later wrote that the founders of the paper had been inspired by Abo Call, which had been published in 1938 in Sydney by Jack Patten (co-founder of the Aborigines Progressive Association) and Percy Reginald Stephensen. She was also involved in a number of other Black community publications, and wrote in the introduction to her 1979 Listing of Aboriginal periodicals: "the experience of producing those newspapers within a hostile white environment... because it has the power and resources, has historically defined us".
In December 1976, Langton played the part of Vena, a nurse, in Here Comes the Nigger by Gerry Bostock, which played at Black Theatre in Redfern, Sydney.
Langton went to Canberra for a year in 1977, after being elected general secretary to the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, where she enrolled for an anthropology degree at ANU.
21st century
In October 1999, Langton was one of five Indigenous leaders who were granted an audience with the Queen to discuss an apology and Indigenous recognition in the Australian Constitution.
In 2007, Langton supported The Intervention by the Howard government. By this time, along with Noel Pearson, she believed that there was a crisis in over-dependence on welfare among Indigenous people, and there was a need for greater Indigenous responsibility. These views put Pearson and Langton at odds with many other Indigenous activists.
In May 2008, the federal government appointed her to the Native Title Payments Working Group looking into reform of the Australian native title process.
She has argued that settlement with mining companies on Aboriginal land often benefits local interests more than the Australian Government, and that the proposed 2010 resource tax on mining in Australia needed a redesign to support Indigenous rights and employment. She advocated for agreements to be made directly between mining groups and Indigenous owners of the land, with Aboriginal corporations as mediators. She worked with Rio Tinto at their headquarters in Melbourne, and was impressed with their understanding of native title since the passing of the Native Title Act 1993 and their interest in working with Aboriginal communities.
In 2017 she campaigned against environmentalists, arguing that they were thwarting native title reform as part of their case against the Adani Carmichael coal mine. Her criticisms of Indigenous litigants have been rebuffed by Indigenous lawyer Tony McAvoy SC.
On 30 October 2019, Langton and Tom Calma were announced as co-chairs on the Senior Advisory Group—convened by Ken Wyatt and consisting of 20 leaders and experts from across the country—of the proposed Indigenous voice to government, under the Morrison government. In July 2021 the Indigenous Voice Co-design Process panel released its final report, often referred to as the Calma Langton report, outlining a model of a proposed Voice.
Under the Albanese government elected in 2022, the proposal changed to be an Indigenous Voice to Parliament, enshrined in the Australian Constitution. This change, along with recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution, was put to a referendum in Australia. Langton campaigned for a Yes vote in the referendum. In the course of answering an audience question in a community information meeting, she said of the No campaign that "Every time the No case raises one of their arguments, if you start pulling it apart you get down to base racism — I'm sorry to say it but that's where it lands — or just sheer stupidity". For this she was lambasted in some sectors of the media and various politicians from the No campaign, including a headline by The Australian (later corrected) which read "No Voters Branded Racist, Stupid". This was followed by Opposition Leader Peter Dutton publishing on Instagram: "No voters branded 'racist, stupid' by prominent Voice campaigner Marcia Langton". Langton refuted and criticised the reporting of her statements, and said that she would be taking legal advice with regard to Dutton's post. The referendum took place on 14 October 2023, and was defeated in all six states and by national majority.
On 1 November 2023, Langton strongly backed uniform alcohol restrictions across the Northern Territory.
Current roles and views
She is a frequent media commentator, and has served on various high-level committees on Indigenous issues. These have included the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, the directorship of the Centre for Indigenous Natural and Cultural Resource Management, chair of the Indigenous Higher Education Advisory Council, and as chair of the Cape York Institute for Policy and Leadership.
In 2023, she is regarded as conservative by left-wing and socialist organisations, but is generally apolitical.
Other activities and roles
Langton has worked in other countries (notably Canada and East Timor) on the rights of indigenous peoples , with special reference to conservation, and environmental issues, and published works on issues of gender and identity, resource management, and substance abuse.
She is also known as a film and art critic, and has appeared in several films, including Jardiwarnpa: a Warlpiri fire (an episode in the film series Blood Brothers) and Night Cries: A Rural Tragedy.
In 2012, she gave the Boyer Lectures titled The Quiet Revolution: Indigenous People and the Resources Boom.
She has been on the judging panel for the annual Horne Prize since its inception in 2016.
Recognition and honours
Langton was made a member of the Order of Australia in the 1993 Queen's Birthday Honours for "service as an anthropologist and advocate of Aboriginal issues". She was promoted to officer of the Order of Australia in the 2020 Australia Day Honours for "distinguished service to tertiary education, and as an advocate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people".
Other recognition has included:
2001: Fellow, Academy of Social Sciences in Australia
2001: Inducted onto the Victorian Honour Roll of Women
2002: Neville Bonner Award for Indigenous Education (jointly with Larissa Behrendt)
2005: Named one Australia's top 20 intellectuals in a survey conducted by The Sydney Morning Herald
2008: Winner, Victorian Premier's Literary Awards, Alfred Deakin Prize for an Essay Advancing Public Debate, for Trapped in the Aboriginal Reality Show
2008: Listed as 7th in a list of Australia's top 40 public intellectuals by the API Network
2011: Finalist, Female Actor of the Year, in Deadly Sounds Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Music, Sport, Entertainment and Community Awards
2012: Fellow of Trinity College (University of Melbourne)
2016: Fellow of Emmanuel College at The University of Queensland
2016: University of Melbourne Redmond Barry Distinguished Professor, a continuing role
2017: First Associate Provost at the University of Melbourne
2019: Winner, Indie Book Awards, for Illustrated Non-Fiction, for Welcome to Country: A Travel Guide to Indigenous Australia
2020: Commended, New South Wales Premier's Literary Awards, Indigenous Writer's Prize, for Welcome to Country: A Travel Guide to Indigenous Australia
2020: International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Small Body Nomenclature formally approves the asteroid 1979 ML as 7809 Marcialangton, in honour of her efforts to incorporate Aboriginal astronomical perspectives into the Australian National Curriculum
2021: Honorary Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technology and Engineering
Personal life
Langton has a son, who lives in New Zealand, and a daughter, who works in theatre.
Selected works
Books
Langton, M. 2018. Welcome to Country: A Travel Guide to Indigenous Australia. Hardie Grant Travel.
Davis, M. and Langton M. (eds.). 2016. It's Our Country: Indigenous Arguments for Meaningful Constitutional Recognition and Reform. Melbourne University Press.
Langton M. 2013. The Quiet Revolution: Indigenous People and the Resources Boom. ABC Books.
Langton M. and J. Longbottom (eds.) 2012. Community futures, legal architecture: foundations for Indigenous peoples in the global mining boom. London: Routledge.
Perkins, R. and Langton M. (eds). 2008. First Australians. An Illustrated History. Melbourne University Publishing, Melbourne.
Langton, M., Palmer, L., Mazel, O., K. Shain & M.Tehan (eds). 2006. Settling with Indigenous Peoples: Modern Treaty and Agreement Making. Annandale, NSW: Federation Press.
Langton, M. & M. Nakata (eds). 2005. Australian Indigenous Knowledge and Libraries. Canberra: Australian Academic and Research Libraries.
Langton, M., 2005. An Aboriginal ontology of being and place: the performance of Aboriginal property relations in the Princess Charlotte Bay area of eastern Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Unpub. PhD thesis, Human Geography/Anthropology. Sydney: Macquarie University.
Langton, M., M. Tehan, L. R. Palmer & K. Shain (eds). 2004. Honour among nations? Treaties and agreements with Indigenous peoples. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing. (Choice List of Outstanding Academic Titles 2006, American Libraries Association, Choice: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries)
Langton M. & W. Jonas., 1994. The Little Red, Yellow and Black (and Green and Blue and White) Book: a short guide to Indigenous Australia. Canberra: AIATSIS.
Langton, M., 1994. Valuing cultures: recognising Indigenous cultures as a valued part of Australian heritage. Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation. Canberra : Australian Govt. Pub. Service.
Langton, M., 1993. Well, I heard it on the radio and I saw it on the television: an essay for the Australian Film Commission on the politics and aesthetics of filmmaking by and about Aboriginal people and things. Sydney: Australian Film Commission.
Langton, M. & N. Peterson, (eds). 1983. Aborigines, Land & Land Rights. Valuing Cultures: recognising Indigenous cultures as a valued part of Australian heritage. Canberra: AGPS.
Langton, M., 1983. After the tent embassy: images of Aboriginal history in black and white photographs Sydney: Valadon Publishing.
Articles
Langton, M., 2010. The Resource Curse. Griffith Review, no. 29.
Langton, M., and O. Mazel. 2008. Poverty in the midst of plenty: Aboriginal people, the 'resource curse' and Australia's mining boom. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law. 26(1): 31–65.
Langton, M., 2008. chapter in Manne, R. (ed.) "Dear Mr Rudd: Ideas for a Better Australia". Black Inc.
Langton, M., 2007. Trapped in the Aboriginal reality show. Griffith Review Edition 19 – Re-imagining Australia. Sydney: Griffith University.
Langton, M., 2003. chapter "Grounded and Gendered: Aboriginal Women in Australian Cinema" in French, L. (ed.) Womenvision: Women and the Moving Image in Australia. Damned Publishing, Melbourne. pp. 43–56.
Films
Night Cries: a rural tragedy (1990 short film, with Tracey Moffatt and Penny McDonald)
Blood Brothers, a 1993 four-part Australian documentary series;
Jardiwarnpa: a Warlpiri fire (4th episode, written by Langton; with Ned Lander and Rachel Perkins)
Rachel Perkins' TV series First Australians (SBS television, 2008), features many commentaries by Langton
Here I Am, 2011 (feature fiction, directed by Beck Cole and starring Langton)
Footnotes
References
External links
1951 births
Living people
Australian indigenous rights activists
Women human rights activists
Australian anthropologists
Australian women anthropologists
Australian geographers
Women geographers
University of Queensland alumni
Australian National University alumni
Macquarie University alumni
Bidjara (Warrego River)
Officers of the Order of Australia
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne
University of Melbourne women
Fellows of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia
Indigenous Australian academics
Indigenous Australian women academics
Australian Buddhists |
4237730 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomero | Vomero | Vomero () is a bustling hilltop district of metropolitan Naples, Italy — comprising approximately and a population of 48,000.
Vomero is noted for its central square, Piazza Vanvitelli; the ancient Petraio, its earliest path up and down to the original city of Naples; its ancient district of Rione Antignano; Floridiana Park and Villa Floridiana; the medieval fortress, Castel Sant'Elmo; three funiculars connecting to downtown historic districts; its active pedestrian zone, aka ZTL — and its prominent location overlooking greater Naples, Mount Vesuvius, the Bay of Naples and the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Adjacent to the Arenella, Soccavo, Fuorigrotta, Chiaia, Montecalvario and Avvocata districts, the street and placenames within Vomero are typically named after noted artists, painters, sculptors, musicians, composers or architects, each with a prominent Neopolitan connection at the time of Vomero's development.
Residents go by the demonym, Vomeresi.
Etymology of Vomero
During the very earliest period, when Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, the Vomerese hill was called Bomòs (βωμός, or "high ground"). By the sixteenth century the name Vomero was used, possibly a corruption of the Greek Bomòs.
In Roman times, the hilltop area was called Paturcium, from Patulcius, a name related to Giano, the god to whom the hill was dedicated. In the early Middle Ages, via linguistic corruption, this became Patruscolo or Patruscio.
The name Vomero took hold at the end of the sixteenth century, deriving from the area's agricultural history – and initially referring to a historic farmhouse located on the hill, rather than the hill itself.
Notably, the word vomere, is used to describe a ploughshare (the blade of a plough) and was the name of agricultural game, the winner being the plowman who could trace the straightest furrow.
The hilltop's agricultural activity earned it various nicknames, including Broccoli Hill, il Quartiere dei Broccoli and Collina dei Broccoli.
Transit
To access Vomero, residents and visitors use an array of well-traveled vehicular streets and roundabouts; a system of subway, bus, funicular and metro line; and an extensive pedestrian network that includes escalators, historic stairs and paths, and a modern pedestrian zone.
The Petraio The oldest access to Vomero remains intact today: an extensive network of pedestrian stairs and paths from the city's original neighborhoods below. One of the most notable of these paths is the historic Petraio, which arose from an ancient meandering watercourse — ultimately to be improved, inhabited and connected by a series of rustic steps, alleys and ramps — varying in slope and width — and framed by buildings, churches, and small businesses.
Funiculars As development expanded between 1800 and 1900, the municipality constructed three funiculars, railways each with two counterbalanced passenger cabs attached at opposite ends of a cable system, the two cabs ascending in descending in concert between their upper and lower stations. The stations of the Chiaia, Montesanto and Central Funicular are closely located in Vomero and connect to three radially-distant lower stations across the Naples downtown.
Metro Since 1980, Vomero has been served by Line 1 of the Naples Metro, specifically at Quattro Giornate and Piazza Vanvitelli stations.
ZTL Augmenting the neighborhood sidewalks and prioritizing pedestrian movement, Vomero inaugurated an active Limited Traffic Zone (ZTL) in 1994, connecting Piazza Vanvitelli, via Cimarosa and via Alessandro Scarlatti. In 2008, the zone incorporated via Luca Giordano, linking upper and lower Vomero, the San Martino area, via Cilea, via Belvedere and the oldest area of Vomero, Antignano.
Escalators Three urban, outdoor escalators help compensate for Vomero's hilly terrain, connecting Piazza Fuga to Via Morghen and connecting the upper end of Via Scarlatti to two higher intermediate small piazzas (piazzettas) on the way to the upper station of the Montesanto Funicular and the prominent tourist destinations, Castel Sant'Elmo and the Certosa di San Martino.
Vehicular access Vehicular access to Vomero is served directly by Exit 9 of the Autostrada A56, commonly known as the Tangenziale di Napoli (Naples Bypass or simply the Tange). The exit accesses via Cilea and via Caldieri as well as via Pigna junctions, the latter which leads to the neighboring districts of Soccavo and Arenella. Car, truck, motorcycle and scooter traffic to Vomero is also accessible via numerous streets connecting to adjacent neighborhoods. Numerous bus lines connect Vomero to greater Naples.
History
Until the end of the nineteenth century, Vomero was a largely uninhabited area, relatively distant from the city of Naples. Its oldest area, around present day Antignano, consisted of scattered rural dwellings and villages remaining from Roman settlements, near what was a relatively important road. Before underground tunnels connected Fuorigrotta and Mergellina, (Galleria Laziale and Galleria Quattro Giornate), the hill road known as Via Puteolis (Pozzouli) Neapolim per colles crossed what is now the Vomero ridge as the primary connection between the Phlegraean area (e.g., Pozzouli) to the west and the city of Naples, proper. Around the 2nd century AD the street was reconfigured and renamed via Antiniana, giving name to the Antignano district, where the Miracle of San Gennaro is said to have taken place for the first time, between 413 and 431 AD.
After subsequent Norman and Swabian domination, with the Angevins, Naples in 1266 became the capital of the Kingdom of Naples, remaining the capital until the Italian Unification in 1860. During this period, development began to move uphill for strategic reasons, toward present day Vomero. The area began to populate after the construction a Carthusian Cloister, the Certosa di San Martino, in 1325. Around this time, the Angevins replaced the ancient Norman watchtower near the cloister, with the Castle of Belforte, what ultimately expanded to become Castel Sant'Elmo. The adjacent areas remained largely rural.
Under the Aragonese and subsequently the Spanish, Naples experienced a rapid population increase, due to immigration from the Iberian peninsula and the remaining kingdom. The need to enlarge the city, led Viceroy Pedro Álvarez de Toledo to direct the development of Naples outside its then current boundaries in the flattest area of the city, the present day Centro Storico. Development up the adjacent unsettled hillsides was encouraged. Laws, first in 1556, forbid construction of new buildings immediately around Castel Sant'Elmo — and, in 1583, on the adjacent hillsides.
In the period of the Viceroys following Don Pedro, the building expansion followed, leading innumerable villages and hamlets to merge. Construction on Vomero hill first appeared on maps with the seventeenth century.
During the Naples Plague of 1656, Naples nobility and clergy sought refuge, with the aristocracy establishing second homes in what would become Vomero, a trend that continued during the eighteenth century, especially after development of via Salvator Rosa (the "Infrascata street"). Noble families settling in Vomero included the Carafa, the Counts of Acerra, the Ruffo di Sicilia, the Cacciottoli, the Cangiani.
In 1809, a new administrative division of the city of Naples was formed, operated by Joachim Murat, whereby the villages of Vomero became part of the city proper, in the district of the Avvocata. Toward the middle of the 19th century, Ferdinando II commissioned Corso Maria Teresa (renamed Corso Vittorio Emanuele after 1860), establishing the effective lower border of Vomero.
In 1817, Vomero's noble residents were joined by royalty, when Ferdinand I of Bourbon acquired the future Villa Floridiana.
Founding and urbanization
Vomero residential development began in earnest in 1885, with the district's official founding (under the law "for the Restoration of Naples") and development of its rectilineal street pattern, punctuated by roundabouts — using a common European urban approach, informed by Baron Haussmann's Paris and the Roman districts of Esquilino and Testaccio. The neighborhood was conceived as an upper-middle class residential neighborhood with large villas and residential buildings, often in late Liberty style, starting near the Villa Floridiana and the area around Castel Sant'Elmo and the San Martino Certosa. The neighborhood would change distinctly in the mid-20th century.
In addition, before the law on recovery, a Piedmontese bank, the Tiberina bank, had purchased land at the Vomero between San Martino, via Belvedere and Antignano, with the intention of building a new neighborhood (Garibaldi had already thought of this to the hilly areas as potential new wards, where, however, he believed the proletariat should be hosted) The laying of the foundation stone by the sovereigns took place on 11 May 1885 and, on 20 October 1889, the new district was inaugurated, with the opening of the Funicular of Chiaia, followed by the Funicolare di Montesanto in 1891.
Until that date, but still for several decades later, life and therefore the history of the Vomerese hill and that of the city of Naples evolved separately. "I go to Naples", "I go down to Naples" were the sentences of the vomeresi to indicate the journey to the center of the city. But, after 11 May 1885, the Vomero slowly began to settle territorially with the city.
The first example of "urban" buildings was the "Four Palaces" in Piazza Vanvitelli, built at the beginning of the 20th century by Banca Tiberina. After the beginning of the works, however, the scarce reactivity of the market (due to the economic difficulties of the time and the still difficult connections between the city and the hill) pushed the bank (owner of the built-up areas and of the two funiculars) to yield in the 1899 its rights to the Bank of Italy. This caused the suspension for several years of the works envisaged by the urbanization plan (the result of the agreement signed between the Municipality and Banca Tiberina). At the beginning of the twentieth century, only a part of the buildings in the center of the Vomero (between Piazza Vanvitelli, along Via Scarlatti and Via Morghen) were made (in addition to the layout of the subdivision). All the new buildings were in neo-Renaissance style, which in Naples will last until the first three decades of the twentieth century, dragging the projects of the late nineteenth century through the years.
The Bank of Italy, to recover the capital invested, decided to sell the buildings already built and the land, and split the blocks into smaller lots that could be more easily sold. Consequently, in the early years of the twentieth century there was no impetuous urban development, but less intensive construction of small, two-storey and small-scale villas was built, surrounded by pretty gardens; which, moreover, had the ability to better enhance the landscape aspects of the places, compared to the large Umbertine buildings. The architectural taste that characterized the period, up until the mid-twenties, was that defined liberty together with the so-called neo-eclectic.
The opening of the new Central Funicular (Funiculare Centrale), in 1928, facilitating the movement between the Vomero and the center, led to a significant increase in urbanization, which again turned towards the large buildings, also built according to the various styles then in fashion (from the liberty to neo-eclecticism, to the first rationalism). The new inhabited center expanded to reach the ancient villages (Vomero Vecchio, Antignano), incorporating them.
Four Days of Naples
Vomero played a crucial role in the Four Days of Naples (27–30 September 1943), the critical juncture in World War II when the people of Naples began resisting the Germans, marking a turning point in the war.
Resistance and clashes against the German occupiers were first recorded in Vomero near the Pagliarone farm on Via Belvedere, when armed citizens stopped a car, killing it's driver, a German marshal. Subsequently, at a cross street between Via Scarlatti and Via Cimarosa, a German motorcar was overturned — causing the death of the two occupants, in turn leading to a German retaliation. After learning of the death of a Neopolitan sailor, shot with a pistol by a Nazi soldier, unrest erupted in various locations around Vomero, including at Piazza Vanvitelli, where a dozen young Vomeresi left a bar and attacked three German soldiers.
At what is now Piazza Quattro Giornate (then Piazza Mascagni, the square at Littorio Stadium), Germans had been using the stadium to imprison roughly 8,000 captured insurgent civilians. A group of Vomeresi, organized by a retired teacher, Antonio Tarsia as well as a military group commanded by Lieutenant Enzo Stimolo, mobilized to surround the site and free the captives. Roughly 200 civilians and 50 military reinforcements attacked the stadium relentlessly, raining machine gun fire from atop surrounding buildings for hours. Realizing they were trapped and outnumbered, the Germans surrendered. Negotiations later began at the German command center on Corso Vittorio Emanuele.
The previous night the armory of Castel Sant'Elmo had fallen, not without bloodshed. Germans, stationed at Villa Floridiana, intervened in force to give battle.
The Sannazaro High School became a meeting and coordination place for the Resistance, where Professor Antonio Tarsia in the Curia declared himself head of the insurgents on 30 September 1943, assuming full civil and military powers.
Today in Vomero, in addition to numerous prominently sites marking the events (e.g., Piazza Quattro Giornale, Quattro Giornale Station of Metro Line 1, The Gold Medal traffic circle) three memorial plaques mark the events: on the facade of the Liceo Sannazaro; next to the entrance of the Carabinieri barracks in Piazza Quattro Giornate; and perhaps most importantly, on Via Belvedere in front of the ancient main entrance of the Pagliarone farm, where the initial resistance occurred.
World War II to today
Housing demand and building speculation, after World War II and especially during the sixties, replaced the sober and elegant architecture of the Vomero area with tall, mostly reinforced concrete buildings. With the elimination of most gardens and green areas, and destruction of many of Vomero's Art Nouveau villas and Umbertine buildings, Vomero became a middle-class neighborhood, incorporating Arenella and pushing toward Camaldoli hill. Difficult resolutions included the infamous Chinese Wall of Mario Ottieri on Via Aniello Falcone, and the buildings on Via Caldieri.
The district still retains many examples of the original architecture, a heritage for all Italian architecture including historical buildings, such as some of the oldest noble villas (Villa del Pontano, Villa Belvedere, Villa Regina, Villa Lucia, Villa Haas, Villa Presenzano or Diaz, Villa Ricciardi, Villa Leonetti, Villa Salve) an ancient Bourbon duty building, in the Antignano district.
Between the Corso Vittorio Emanuele and the gardens of the Certosa di San Martino there is the Vigna San Martino extant for over six centuries.
Notable Vomero
Monuments, museums, historic sites
Castel Sant'Elmo (houses the museum of the 20th century)
Certosa e Museo di San Martino
Villa Floridiana and the Duca di Martina National Museum of Ceramics
Chiesa di San Gennaro ad Antignano
Chiesa di San Gennaro al Vomero
Chiesa di San Gennariello al Vomero
Chiesa del Sacro Cuore dei Salesiani
Chiesa di San Francesco d'Assisi al Vomero
Chiesa di Maria SS. del Buon Consiglio
Chiesa di Santa Maria della Libera
Chiesa della Madonna della Luce
Chiesa dell'Architiello
Film industry
In the early twentieth century, some of the first Italian film production houses were born at Vomero. The first in the city was the Partenope Film (originally Fratelli Troncone & C.), of Guglielmo, Vincenzo and Roberto Troncone, who, born in 1906, was active for about twenty years, with headquarters and theaters in via Solimena.
In 1915 the Polifilms of Giuseppe Di Luggo was officially founded. The company, founded in 1912 as a film distribution company with the name De Luggo & C., was transformed in 1914 into a film factory, originally called Napoli Film, with headquarters and theater in via Cimarosa.
In 1919 the Polifilms in economic difficulties ceded its installations and theaters of installation to Gustavo Lombardo, already owner of the distribution company SIGLA (Italian Society Gustavo Lombardo Anonima), which gave life to Lombardo Film, the future Titanus.
Napoli Film Festival is one of the most significant film festivals in Campania; it has taken place every year since 1997 in June at Castel Sant'Elmo.
Holocaust: Sergio De Simone
In front of the apartment building at Via Morghen 65 bis (at Via Bonito), a memorial plaque and a pavement Stolperstein mark the life and death of Sergio De Simone (1937-1945), a seven year old Naples-born victim of the Holocaust's Bullenhuser-Damm Massacre.
Sergio's mother fled Naples with Sergio to her family in Rijeka, Croatia. Sergio was arrested with his Jewish family; deported to Germany; subjected to human experimentation in Hamburg, Germany — and subsequently murdered. His life is commemorated annually on Naples' Remembrance Day, January 27th.
Via Morghen 65 bis:
Culture and sport
Napoli Comicon – Salone Internazionale del Fumetto is an annual fair dedicated to comics and animation that took place every year, in Castel Sant'Elmo (now held at the Mostra d'Oltremare, in the Fuorigrotta district).
Internapoli Camaldoli S.S.D. is the area's main football team. The neighborhood also hosts the sports complex that grew up around the Stadio Arturo Collana in Naples, where rugby, judo, athletics, swimming, volleyball, artistic gymnastics, skating, tennis, fencing, American football and soccer are practiced.
The stadium, built during the Fascist era with the name "Stadio dei martiri fascisti" or "Stadio Littorio", has long been the home field of Naples before the completion of the San Paolo Stadium in 1959, and is still that of the A.P. Partenope Rugby.
It was also the scene of dramatic events during the Four Days of Naples, and therefore the adjacent square took on the name of Piazza Quattro Giornate.
The Vomero was also the seat of the women's basketball team Vomero Basket, champion of Italy in the 2006–07 season, even though she played for a long time at PalaBarbuto due to the impracticability of the necklace gym.
Finally from the 2012–13 season the Stadio Arturo Collana hosts the women's soccer team of Naples.
In this district there is also the seat of the Vomero Tennis Club, which hosts every national and international tennis event.
The highest point of the neighborhood is the Certosa di San Martino, with an altitude of 251 metres.
See also
The Petraio
References
External links
Quartieri of Naples
Hills of Italy |
4237986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Cox%2C%20Baroness%20Cox | Caroline Cox, Baroness Cox | Caroline Anne Cox, Baroness Cox, (born Caroline Anne McNeill Love; born 6 July 1937) is a cross-bench member of the British House of Lords. She is also the founder of an organisation called Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART). Cox was created a Life Peer in 1982 and was a deputy speaker of the House of Lords from 1985 to 2005, as well as being a minister in government. She was also a Baroness-in-Waiting to Queen Elizabeth II. She was Founder Chancellor of Bournemouth University, Chancellor of Liverpool Hope University from 2006 to 2013, and is an Hon. Vice President of the Royal College of Nursing. She was a founder Trustee of MERLIN Medical Emergency Relief International.
She is a prominent lay Anglican, closely identified with the conservative wing of the Church of England. According to a biography by Andrew Boyd, she is a practising third-order Anglican Franciscan.
Background
Cox was born on 6 July 1937 in London. She is the daughter of Robert McNeill Love, a surgeon and co-author of the textbook known as "Bailey and Love". She was educated at Channing School in Highgate. She became a state registered nurse at London Hospital from 1958, and a staff nurse at Edgware General Hospital from 1960. She married Dr Murray Newall Cox in 1959, remaining married to him until he died in 1997. The couple had two sons and one daughter. In the late 1960s she studied for a degree at the University of London where she graduated with a first class honours degree in Sociology in 1967 and a master's degree.
Academic and thinktank career and subsequent activities
On graduating, Cox became a sociology lecturer at the Polytechnic of North London rising to become Principal Lecturer. From 1974 she was head of the Department of Sociology. An Evangelicals Now article sympathetically describes her approach to her discipline: "As a committed Christian she presented a Christian view of Sociology." According to Evangelicals Now: "It was a time of student unrest and the students organised demonstrations to disrupt lectures or meetings which they considered anti-Marxist. Cox bore the brunt of this and in 1974 the students passed a vote of no confidence in her." Her background in sociology led her to write books on the subject for nurses.
In 1975, Cox co-wrote (with John Marks and Keith Jacka) The Rape of Reason: The Corruption of the Polytechnic of North London, published by Churchill Press, attacking "Communist activity" at her workplace. She resigned from the Polytechnic in 1977 and was a tutor at the Open University. She was involved in the right-wing thinktank Institute for the Study of Conflict and contributed to its report, the Gould report, on left-wing activism in British universities, in which she focused on "Marxist bias" in the Open University.
In 1977 she moved to become Director of the Nursing Education Research Unit at Chelsea College of the University of London and remained in this post until 1984. She was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing in 1985. She was also made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. She was later founding Chancellor of Bournemouth University. In 2006 she received an honorary law degree from the University of Dundee and was installed as the Chancellor of Liverpool Hope University in the same year.
The New Right and Thatcherism
Following her work on the Gould Report, Cox became a key figure in the New Right associated with Margaret Thatcher, Keith Joseph and Enoch Powell. She co-wrote The Pied Pipers of Education (1981) for the Social Affairs Unit and worked with the Centre for Policy Studies, for which she wrote the influential pamphlet The Right to Learn (1982). Her work on education was very influential on Thatcher's education policies. She co-founded and co-directed the Educational Research Trust, founded in 1980, with John Marks; they were consulted about the drafting of the 1988 Education Reform Act, which introduced the National Curriculum, grant-maintained schools and City Technology Colleges.
She was involved in the Institute for European Defence and Security Studies, an organization funded by The Heritage Foundation in the early 1980s for which she co-authored Peace Studies: A Critical Survey in 1984 with Roger Scruton, which published by the conservative think tank Civitas. She was a director of the Conservative Philosophy Group from 1983 to 1985. With Scruton and others she wrote Education and Indoctrination. In the mid-1980s, she worked with Scruton as part of the Hillgate Group of Conservative activists; their pamphlet Whose Schools? A Radical Manifesto, which she co-authored, was published in 1986, and contained many ideas that became Government policy under Thatcher. In 1987 she co-founded the Committee for a Free Britain, funded by Rupert Murdoch, which at one point called for "the legalization of all drugs". She was the executive director of the Institute for the Study of Terrorism in 1985–1990.
Since its founding in 2007, she has been closely involved, first as an advisor and from 2009 as director, in the Centre for Social Cohesion. She is a director of the far right Gatestone Institute.
Member of House of Lords
Her peerage was announced on 15 December 1982 on a list of "working peers", on the recommendation of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, and she was granted the title of Baroness Cox, of Queensbury in Greater London, on 24 January 1983. Cox initially sat as a Conservative and served briefly as a Baroness-in-Waiting to Queen Elizabeth II. She served as a Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords from 1986 to 2006.
Section 28
She supported Section 28, which outlawed the "promotion" of homosexuality.
Education Reform bill
During the debates over the Education Reform bill, Cox worked together with Michael Alison to ensure that a commitment was made that state education was 'broadly Christian' in character. The bill later passed as the Education Reform Act 1988. She backed the reforms to reduce powers of Local Education Authorities in 1993, arguing for a more strongly religious element to teaching.
Foreign affairs
Cox became a frequent contributor to Lords debates on Africa, and also raised other "forgotten conflicts" in letters to the press. She was already highlighting fighting in Sudan in September 1992, criticising Sudan's Islamist government and backing Dr. John Garang's Sudan People's Liberation Army.
After spending two years investigating the situation in Azerbaijan, Cox criticised the government's treatment of Armenians in the breakaway region of Nagorno-Karabakh in 1993. She has stated that her stance is the "advocacy for Karabakh Armenians". In 2015, she was a member of the Armenian All-Party Parliamentary Group. She is a strong supporter of self-determination for the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh. By 2003 she had made more than 60 trips to the region. Frank Pallone, Jr., the co-chairman of the US Congressional Caucus on Armenian Issues, praised her devotion to Armenia and Karabakh. On 15 February 2006 she was awarded the Mkhitar Gosh Medal by the President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan.
Cox is one of eleven officers of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on North Korea. The Group stated that the Obama administration brought with it an opportunity for a formal cessation of hostilities and normalisation of relations with North Korea.
Great Britain has Fallen
In 2002, she controversially endorsed and hosted the launch of the book Great Britain has Fallen by Wale Babatunde, a minister at the World Harvest Christian Centre in London, which claimed "that multi-culturalism is ruining Britain by importing 'foreign practices', homosexuality is 'destructive' and that abortion can be directly equated with the Holocaust" and described lesbianism as "against nature". In response, Labour's Tom Watson called for her expulsion from the Conservative Party.
Islam
In 2003, she wrote The 'West', Islam and Islamism: Is ideological Islam compatible with liberal democracy? with John Marks, published by Civitas, which argued "that Islamist terrorism was only part of a broader ideological challenge comparable to communist propaganda efforts during the Cold War".
Cox introduced the Arbitration and Mediation Services (Equality) Bill to the House of Lords, initially on 10 May 2012. with the observation that "Equality under the law is a core value of British justice. My bill seeks to preserve that standard. Many women say: 'We came to this country to escape these practices only to find the situation is worse here.'" It had its second reading and debate on 19 October 2012, but went no further. Cox aims to prevent discrimination against Muslim women and 'jurisdiction creep' in Islamic tribunals, which would be forced to acknowledge the primacy of English law under her Bill, which would have introduced an offence carrying a five-year jail sentence for anyone falsely claiming or implying that sharia courts or councils have legal jurisdiction over family or criminal law. The bill, which would apply to all arbitration tribunals if passed, aimed to tackle discrimination, which its supporters said is inherent in the courts, by banning the sharia practice of giving woman's testimony only half the weight of men's. In a similar way to Jewish Beth Din courts, sharia tribunals can make verdicts in cases involving financial and property issues which, under the Arbitration Act 1996, are enforceable by the County Court or the High Court. Baroness Cox stated that "We cannot sit here complacently in our red and green benches while women are suffering a system which is utterly incompatible with the legal principles upon which this country is founded. If we don't do something, we are condoning it." The Bill was described by critics as "inflammatory". It did not reach a vote as it ran out of time.
Cox continues fighting to stop sharia 'seeping' into enforcing divorce settlements. Cox re-introduced her legislation on 11 June 2014. One leading Muslim Conservative Party activist said "the Bill will not help to achieve any of its intended goal but will alienate many Muslims".
Cox, speaking at a 2014 event organised by the Yuval Ne’eman Workshop for Science, Technology and Security at Tel Aviv University and The Israeli Institute for Strategic Studies, mentioned the alleged ‘Trojan Horse plot’ in her speech as an example of secret takeover strategies by ‘Islamists’ in Africa made in order to ‘Islamize’ the continent. She said "“Islam is using the freedoms of democracy to destroy it.”
In 2014, she hosted the parliamentary launch of Sharia Watch UK, an anti-Islam organisation led by UKIP candidate Anne Marie Waters. Cox said sharia law "undermines the most fundamental principles of equality enshrined in British law" in respect of its treatment of women.
In February 2023 it was revealed that Cox and Lord Pearson were members of a secret group called the New Issues Group, which had been operating out of the House of Lords for over a decade and collaborated with far-right anti-Muslim activists.
Cox has been described as part of the counter-jihad movement.
Eurosceptic and migration critic
Cox is a Eurosceptic. She rebelled over the Maastricht Treaty, supporting an amendment to require a nationwide referendum on ratification on 14 July 1993. In May 2004 she joined three other Conservative peers in signing a letter published by the UK Independence Party urging voters to support it in the elections to the European Parliament. The Leader of the Conservative Party, Michael Howard, immediately withdrew the party whip, formally expelling them from the parliamentary party. Cox now sits in the House of Lords as a crossbencher.
She sits on the Advisory Council of MigrationWatch.
Geert Wilders controversy
In February 2009, Cox courted controversy when she and UKIP peer Lord Pearson invited Dutch Freedom Party leader Geert Wilders to show the anti-Islam film Fitna before the House of Lords. However, Wilders was prevented from entering the UK on the instructions of Labour Home Secretary Jacqui Smith. In response, Cox and Pearson accused the Government of appeasing militant Islam.
In 2010, Cox and Pearson successfully hosted Wilders and his film screening in the UK, with 200 members of the English Defence League marching in support of the screening, as well as anti-fascist protests and 50 arrests. Lady Cox said the visit had been a victory for free speech, saying: "You don't have to agree but it is important to debate sensibly in a responsible and very democratic way." At the event, Wilders called for an end to immigration to Europe from Muslim countries, but that Muslims already in Europe who agree to obey the law would be welcome to remain. A Home Office spokesperson said the government "regrets the decision by Baroness Cox and Lord Pearson".
NGO work and Christian activities
Since 2009, Baroness Cox has participated in a conservative umbrella body within the Church of England, the Federation of Confessing Anglicans, led by her close associate, then Bishop of Rochester Michael Nazir-Ali.
The Tushinskaya Children's Hospital Trust
Baroness Cox is president of the Tushinskaya Children's Hospital Trust and worked closely with its late patron, Diana, Princess of Wales. Baroness Cox and the Princess of Wales opened the hospital's school of paediatric nursing in 1995. The Trust enabled parents to spend more time with their children whilst they were in hospital.
Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust
The Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust (HART), founded by Baroness Cox in 2003, works to provide lasting change through aid and advocacy for those suffering oppression and persecution, who are largely neglected by the international media . An Australian branch of HART was established in 2009.
Christian Solidarity International and Worldwide
Cox was active in Christian Solidarity International (CSI) before leading the breakaway Christian Solidarity Worldwide in 1997. She was president of the latter until 2006, when she was replaced by Jonathan Aitken, thereafter remaining as its patron.
During the 1992–93 Armenia-Azerbaijan war, CSI broke Azerbaijan’s blockade of the contested Nagorno-Karabakh territory numerous times to deliver humanitarian aid and document acts of violence against the Christian Armenian inhabitants of Nagorno-Karabakh. CSI also partnered with the Andrei Sakharov foundation to send aid to refugees from Nagorno-Karabakh. Witnessing the war on the ground, CSI published a detailed account of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War titled Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: War in Nagorno Karabakh co-authored by Cox with John Eibner. Cox visited the Lachin corridor in 2023 and called the blockade of the corridor by Azerbaijan a modern day tragedy.
CSI’s involvement with Sudan began in 1992, when two of CSI’s leaders, Cox and Eibner, traveled to southern Sudan at the invitation of local churches to observe the effects of civil war on the Christian populations there. CSI became especially involved in "redeeming" (buying and freeing) slaves in 1995.
Between 1997 and 2000, Christian Solidarity Worldwide (CSW) directly intervened to buy the freedom of alleged slaves, and in a letter to The Independent on Sunday Cox claimed and redeemed 2,281 slaves on eight visits to Sudan. Both the veracity of this claim and the rationale of slave redemption have been questioned by others in humanitarian community. Cox repeated the figure in 2011, adding that she had spent £100,000 buying and freeing slaves, tactic most anti-slavery charities condemned, arguing that such purchases only perpetuate and encourage the trade.
In 1995 she won the Wilberforce Award. She is also a patron of the Christian Institute.
Global Panel Foundation and Prague Society
Cox is a member of the Board of Advisors of the Global Panel Foundation, an NGO that works behind the scenes in crisis areas around the world. Baroness Cox is also a member of Prague Society for International Cooperation, another NGO whose main goals are networking and the development of a new generation of responsible, well-informed leaders and thinkers.
Disability activism
Cox supports disability causes as a member of the World Committee on Disability. In 2004 she was a judge for the Franklin Delano Roosevelt International Disability Award, distributed annually at the United Nations in New York to a nation that has met the goals of the UN World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons.
Syria controversy
Cox has been a supporter of Syria's President Bashar Assad. She visited him during the Syrian Civil War, during the siege of Aleppo, along with Michael Nazir-Ali, fellow crossbench peer Lord Hylton, and Andrew Ashdown, an Anglican vicar. She was widely condemned. Labour MP John Woodcock, vice-president of the All Party Parliamentary Group on Syria, said: "It is shocking to see a British parliamentarian giving international pariah al-Assad a photo opportunity to distract from the brutal and ongoing slaughter he is perpetrating on Syrian families. Whatever good intentions this British delegation has will fail; their presence at this man's side can only strengthen him as his campaign of terror continues." Liberal Democrat peer Baroness Hussein-Ece said it was "shameful" for members of the House of Lords to "sit down for a chat with a mass murderer and a war criminal". Russian state media claimed Cox said that Assad had an “openness for the development of civil society, democracy and change”. After her visit, in early 2017, she went to the US to lobby for president Assad's government. While there, she expressed doubt that Syrian government forces were responsible for Khan Shaykhun chemical attack.
In late 2017, she returned to Syria again, along with former Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey. She reportedly met with an Assad advisor named on American and European Union sanctions lists as complicit in Syrian government war crimes. Again, the visit was widely condemned by politicians and human rights groups in the UK, and described by analysts as a “propaganda coup” for the Assad government. In a subsequent parliamentary debate, she referred to Syrian rebels as "jihadists".
Media appearances
Baroness Cox regularly appears on the BBC Daily Politics television programme and has presented the "Soap Box" with "A Moral Maze". She also appears on Russia TV and other channels associated with the Russian government, as she feels they are more frank about Islam's threat to Western traditions.
Honours
Cox has been honoured with the Wilberforce Award.
Bibliography
A Sociology of Medical Practice (1975)
Rape of Reason: The Corruption of the Polytechnic of North London (Keith Jacka, with Caroline Cox and John Marks, jt au 1975)
The Right to Learn (jt au 1982)
Sociology: A Guide for Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (jt au 1983)
Choosing a State School: how to find the best education for your child (jt au 1989)
Trajectories of Despair; misdiagnosis and maltreatment of Soviet orphans (with John Eibner 1991)
Ethnic Cleansing in Progress: war in Nagorno Karabakh (1993)
Islam, Islamism and the West: Is ideological Islam compatible with liberal democracy? (2005)
Made to Care: the case for residential and village communities for people with a mental handicap
Baroness Cox: A voice for the voiceless. (1999) Boyd, A. Lion Books.
Published Biographies
Lady Cox has been the subject of two published biographies, Baroness Cox: A Voice for the Voiceless by Andrew Boyd; and Baroness Cox: Eyewitness to a Broken World by Lela Gilbert.
References
External links
Office in UK Parliament
Caroline Cox Personal Website
Further reading
"The Feisty Baroness Defending Voiceless Muslim Women", Telegraph
Survivors of Maraghar massacre: 'It was truly like a contemporary Golgotha many times over' - Caroline Cox
1937 births
Living people
Academics of the University of North London
British critics of Islam
Alumni of the University of Westminster
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of Newcastle University
British nurses
Counter-jihad activists
Crossbench life peers
Fellows of the Royal College of Nursing
Life peeresses created by Elizabeth II
Members of the Freedom Association
Nurses from London
People associated with Bournemouth University
People associated with Liverpool Hope University
People from Highgate |
4238360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marv%C3%A3o | Marvão | Marvão () is a municipality in Portalegre District in Portugal. The population in 2020 was 2,972 (and dropping at a rate of around one inhabitant per week), in an area of 154.90 km2. The present Mayor is Luís Vitorino, elected by the Social Democratic Party. The municipal holiday is September 8.
Perched on a quartzite crag of the Serra de São Mamede, Marvão's name is derived from an 8th-century Muwallad rebel, named Ibn Marwan. Ibn Marwan, who constructed the Castle of Marvão - likely on the site of an earlier Roman watchtower - as a power base when establishing an independent statelet ("emirate", duchy) - covering much of modern-day Portugal - during the Emirate of Cordoba (884-931 CE). The castle and walled village were further fortified through the centuries, notably under Sancho II of Portugal (13th century) and Denis of Portugal.
The village has generated significant tourist interest in recent years. It was included in the #1 New York Times bestselling book, 1000 Places to see Before you Die. Nobel Prize-winning author José Saramago wrote of the village, "From Marvão one can see the entire land ... It is understandable that from this place, high up in the keep at Marvão Castle, visitors may respectfully murmur, 'How great is the world'."
In the 1950s, author Huldine V. Beamish wrote of Marvão, "There is an atmosphere about the district (of Marvão) that is very ancient. At times you have the same peculiar feelings as those evoked by Stonehenge and that amazing druid monument at Callernish in the Isle of Lewis. Picking your way along the steep stony pathways, you would not be at all surprised to meet a Phoenician trader or Roman Soldier. It would be the most natural thing in the world."
An annual international classical music festival, under the artistic direction of German conductor Christoph Poppen, was launched in Marvão in July 2014. The village also hosts an international film festival, Periferías, in August each year. Other annual festivals in Marvão include 'Al-Mossassa'- a celebration of the town's Moorish past, held jointly with the Spanish city of Badajoz (also founded by Ibn Marwan) - in early October, plus a major Chestnut Festival in early November.
Parishes
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 4 civil parishes (freguesias):
Beirã
Santa Maria de Marvão
Santo António das Areias
São Salvador da Aramenha
History
Commanding views across the Tagus basin and Serra de Estrela to the north, the fortified rock of Marvão has been a site of significant strategic importance since the earliest human settlements.
Today, lying on the 'raia' that divides Portugal and Spain, Marvão has consistently stood on a frontier zone between peoples: Celtici, Vettones and Lusitani (4th-2nd century BCE); Lusitanians and the Romans of Hispania Ulterior (2nd-1st century BCE); migratory Suevi, Alans, Vandals and Visigoths (5th-7th century CE); conquering moors and Visigoths (8th century); muwallad rebels and the Cordoban emirate (9th-10th century); Portuguese nation-builders and Moors (12th-13th century); Templars and Hospitallers (12th-14th century); Portuguese and Castilians (12th century-present day); Liberals and Absolutists (19th century); the fascist regimes of Salazar and Franco (20th century).
Marvão's natural assets have contributed to the 'uniqueness' of this remote village as perceived by visitors today: (i) as nigh-impregnable 'eagle's nest' fortress - perched high on a granite crag, and bordered on the south and west by the Sever river; (ii) as vital lookout-point towards the Alcántara Bridge ( away), a wide stretch of the Tagus basin and the Serra de Estrela; (iii) as a gateway to Portugal from Spain via the Porta da Espada ('Sword Gate') mountain pass of the Serra de São Mamede.
Prehistory
The earliest dolmens in southern Portugal date from c. 4800 BCE, and this culture lasted into the Bronze Age (2000 BCE) and beyond into the Iron Age. In and around Marvão, there exists a high concentration of dolmens, rock-hewn tombs, passage mounds and megaliths, dated to the 3rd millennium BCE.
Together with the Sever-valley sites around the nearby towns of Castelo de Vide and Valencia de Alcântara (in Spain), these form one of the densest clusters of megalithic sites in Europe. Among the 200+ neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age monuments within a range of Marvão is the 7.15m high Menhir of Meada (the largest on the Iberian peninsula), oriented to be visible from the northernmost promontory of Marvão's rock (possibly based on an alignment with the lunar calendar).
Other notable sites are the Coureleiros complex of dolmens near Castelo de Vide, the Vidais dolmen (Castelo Velho) of Santo Antonio das Areias and the Las Lanchas dolmen complex of Valencia de Alcântara.
Archaeological finds from this era include substantial grave goods, for example anthropomorphic idol plaques, arrowheads and axes, and jewellery. A database of idol plaques - the Engraved Stone Plaque Registry and Inquiry Tool - lists 16 plaques found in Marvão, 14 in Castelo de Vide, and 28 in Valencia de Alcântara.
It is speculative to comment on the population of Marvão at this time. Many carved tombs and burial chambers dot the granite boulders of the landscape around Marvão, suggesting small-scale farming settlements, and some cultural emphasis on burial rites and the afterlife. Excavations of dolmens (e.g. the Cavalinhas dolmen) reveal foetal-position buried skeletons, and grave goods including weaponry (axes, arrowheads), jewellery (necklaces), ceramics and stone idols. Cave art and engravings in the Tagus valley ( north of Marvão: 40,000 items) point to a developed culture based on prehistoric norms of agriculture, hunting and transhumance.
Further, ideograms - notably, repetitions of spirals - point to both abstract ideas, religious observance, and some astronomical knowledge of lunar and solar cycles. Decorative objects - rock crystal arrowheads, floral- and zig-zagged patterned stones (pedras de raio) and ceramics, deity sculptures - also suggest the development of local systems of craftsmanship, hierarchy, magic and celebration. Recent studies of idol plaques have speculated that they depict some kind of owl deity, with their engravings acting as a means to identify the individual buried by clan, marriage and lineage.
Pre-Roman era: Lusitani and Celtici
The Iberian peninsula saw migrations of Celtic tribes from central Europe during the 6th–4th century BCE. The site of modern-day Marvão would have stood on the northern periphery of the territory of the Celtici tribe, which stretched from the Tagus to Guadiana rivers, and beyond to the Algarve and today's Huelva province in Andalucia. The area falls within the northernmost limits of the Tartessian paleohispanic language and culture, centred on Huelva in Spain, in decay throughout this period as Celticisation took place. Tartessians were the creators of the Southwestern script, one of the earliest written languages in Europe. A renowned gold hoard from the Tartessian period, the Tesoro de Aliseda was discovered in nearby Aliseda (Cáceres province), while a gold bracelet discovered in nearby São Julião (Portalegre) - sold at auction in 2013 - suggests that local tribes were relatively wealthy. The migration of the Celtici is considered part of a third or fourth wave of Celts in the 4th century BCE: this migration occurred across modern-day Aragon and into modern-day Extremadura and Alentejo, displacing the proto-Celt Lusitanians who dominated the lands north of the Tagus, and skirting the Vettones lands that stretched from Zamora to Castelo Branco.
So in the three centuries prior to Roman conquest (3rd–1st century BCE), Marvão stood at a junction of the Celtici, Lusitani, and Vettones tribes, and its dominant strategic position offered line-of-sight long into the territories of all three tribes. A locally found head of a pig-like sculpture from the Verraco (Portuguese: berrão) culture of the Vettones is displayed in Marvão's museum.
Given their strategic location, the Serra de São Mamede and Spain's Sierra de San Pedro – in particular the dominant escarpments of Marvão on the northernmost tip and Alburquerque on the southernmost tip - are likely to have played a role in conflicts between Celtiberians and Romans. While Marvão lies north of the territories of Carthaginian Iberia – which by 218 BCE reached across Southern Iberia up to the river Guadiana, the area is likely to have been crossed during the 230s and 220–218 BCE during Carthaginian slave-raiding and mercenary-recruitment campaigns focused on the Tagus valley (e.g. Hamilcar Barca's Tagus encampment at Cartaxo) and along what later became Ruta de la Plata: Iberian manpower was to play a role in the Punic Wars.
In the 2nd century BCE, Roman might asserted itself following the Punic Wars, yet progress was slow in these border regions. A series of bloody revolts and wars (195–135 BCE) pitted the Lusitanians and Vettones - most notably under the guerrilla fighter and hero Viriatus – against the expansionist Roman colonisers of Hispania Ulterior. While nominally the area was under Roman control from the early 130s BCE, for a century an unstable war zone spread from the Serra de Estrela-Tagus basin (seen from Marvão) and the Extremaduran plains between Alburquerque and the Sierra de Aracena.
Some speculation has focused on whether 'choças', the traditional circular-floorplan barns with broom-thatched roofs – found throughout Marvão, most dating from the post-medieval period - are a vernacular survivor from these Celtic times. The 'choças' of Marvão follow the rudimentary pattern of roundhouses found throughout Celtic settlements in Europe. Similarly, a number of corbelled circular drystone shelters, with a false cupola (Portuguese: chafurdão) in Marvão reflect similar Iron Age structures across Southern Europe (e.g. the Spanish bombo and Croatian trim) associated with the terracing and clearance of rocky land for farming. The Vettones culture was renowned for its cattle-rearing and Verraco (Portuguese: berrão) pig-like sculptures: porco preto rearing remains dominant in local agriculture and cuisine.
The Roman era: Ammaia
After considerable resistance from Lusitanian tribes in the 2nd-1st century BCE, the Romans gained a tentative foothold over the areas south of the Tagus and north of the Sierra Morena during the 130s BCE. While early encampments had been made in Cáceres from 139 BCE (Castra Servilia) and in Almourol (in the Tagus valley) from 138 BCE, Roman progress was only made in fits and starts. Lusitanian rebellions - notably the Sertorian War (80-72 BCE) - hampered progress, with effective Roman rule being achieved in the area under Julius Caesar's campaigns in 61-60 BCE. Throughout this period, the terrain of the Serra de São Mamede is likely to have served as ideal base for guerrilla warfare, ambushes and smuggling. Lusitania only became a fully-fledged province under Augustus in 27 BCE, with the pax Romana heralding five centuries of strong urban development across southwest Iberia.
In Marvão, gradual consolidation of Roman power led to the establishment of a substantial Roman town in the 1st century CE: Ammaia. Occupying up to 25 hectares, and with a population exceeding modern-day Marvão (5000-6000 inhabitants), Ammaia occupied the site of the present-day parish of São Salvador da Aramenha. The town flourished between the 1st century BCE and the collapse of the Roman empire in the 5th century CE.
Ammaia's location on the river Sever was a waypoint on west–east trading routes, linking towns such as Scallabis (Santarém), Eboracum (Évora), Olisipo (Lisbon) and Miróbriga (Santiago de Cacém) to the provincial capital Emerita Augusta (present-day Mérida) via Norba Caesarina (Cáceres). The mountain of Marvão would also have served as a watchtower providing line-of-sight to the vitally-important Roman bridge at Alcántara. Local agricultural production (olives, wine, figs, cattle) was supplemented by horse-breeding, pottery, and mining activity - notably rock crystal and quartz from veins on the Marvão mountain, together with open cast gold mining on the Tagus to the north. Roman Ammaia saw the development of improved irrigation and terracing across the Marvão mountain. Chestnut cultivation - replacing the local dominance of oak - is likely to have been introduced at this time. Much of the terracing and ancient watercourses on the Marvão mountain date from this era.
Limited excavations at Ammaia in the past two decades - albeit covering a mere of the town's area - have revealed a successful, expanding provincial town that included running water, a forum, baths, a bridge over the river Sever (near today's 'Ponte Velha'), and monumental gates (one gate was removed to Castelo de Vide in the 18th century, yet sadly dynamited in 1890). The Alto Alentejo region, meanwhile, was criss-crossed with efficient Roman roads, providing wider links to the Empire. Fine wares found at Ammaia suggest that the local Ammaia nobility had access to luxury glassware and jewellery, while archaeology has revealed that marble for the forum was imported from across the Empire. The high quality, for example, of the 'Mosaico das Musas' - from a Roman villa in nearby Monforte (4th century BCE) - points to the abundant riches to be made as an Alentejo landowner in the Roman era. Sadly, many artifacts from Ammaia - in particular a series of marble sculptures - were removed during the 19th and 20th centuries, notably by the Anglo-Portuguese Robinson family. These items are now in collections such as those of the British Museum.
The post-Roman era: decline of Ammaia, Alans, Suevi and the Visigoths
During the 5th-7th century, the invasion of Roman Iberia by a succession of tribes from Central Europe - the Vandals, Suevi, Alans and Visigoths - left an indelible mark on Marvão and Lusitania as a whole. Hispano-Roman urban centres across Iberia suffered two centuries of instability, violence and depopulation, and many towns fell into ruin. Ammaia was no exception.
Historic documentation for the invasion of towns around Mérida province is poor, yet these were clearly difficult times for Ammaia. It is likely that the years 409-411 were catastrophic. Following the invasion of Spain in September or October 409, invading tribes used extreme violence in conquering the cities of Roman Spain. A quotation from Hydatius - albeit about Spain in general - gives an idea of the last days of Ammaia: 'As the barbarians ran wild through Spain with the evil of pestilence raging as well, the tyrannical tax collector seized the wealth and goods stored in the cities and the soldiers devoured them. A famine ran riot, so dire that driven by hunger humans devoured human flesh: mothers too feasted on the bodies of their own children whom they had killed and cooked themselves... And thus with the four plagues of sword, famine, pestilence and wild beasts raging everywhere, the annunciation foretold by the Lord through his prophets was fulfilled'.
In Marvão, the once-thriving Roman town of Ammaia fell into ruin. Its 4th-century population of 6,000 people had represented about 0.1% of the Iberian population (6 million). Yet it would be described merely as 'ruins' in the 8th century CE. Why the decay? Fortified rural farmsteads and hilltop fortresses provided safe havens in times of conflict. It is likely that any Roman watchtower fortification on Marvão's rock would have been extended in this period. Ammaia's role as horse station and key link in the road network declined as east–west trade plummeted. The Visigothic capital was in Toledo, on the river Tagus: this favoured river transport of goods to-and-from Santarem and Lisbon. Ammaia's decline in this period can be contrasted with the buoyant Visigothic development of Idanha-a-Velha on the north of the Tagus.
The borders between tribes were in continuous flux, with Suevi (strongholds in Galicia and Braga) fighting the Alans and Visigoths. Five centuries of incumbent Hispano-Roman urban culture gave way to interaction with the nomadic, pastoralist lifestyles of tribes such as the Alans (dominant in much of former Lusitania after the Battle of Mérida). Roman imperial law-and-order succumbed to the looser hierarchies - based on blood and tribal allegiances - of the invaders from the north. War, slave-raids, banditry, religious intolerance, apartheid - the Visigoths applied a 'no mixing' policy for much of their rule - all led to economic decline across Iberia.
While little can be seen today in Marvão of this period, tradition states that the large herding dogs of Iberia were introduced by the Alans: (Portuguese mastiffs can be seen guarding livestock in fields around Marvão, while the bulky Alano Espãnol was used in Spanish bullfights).
The Islamic era: invasion, the Ibn Marwán rebellion, the Badajoz taifa, Christian reconquest
Invasion: Land of the Berbers and Western Thugūr
The Muslim invasion of al-Andalus in 711 is likely to have reached the area around Marvão during the Spring campaign of Abd al-Aziz in 714 CE (when Coimbra and Santarém were also captured). The invasion would herald five centuries of Islamic rule, until Marvão was captured by the Portuguese nation-builder Afonso I of Portugal in the 1160s.
It is believed that during unstable decades from 711 to 756 in al-Andalus, power struggles between Arab and Berber factions, together with newly converted Visigoths (muwalladi), led to a division of territory: richer agricultural lands in the Guadalquivir basin fell under Arab control, and mountainous areas such as the Serra de São Mamede were generally held by Berber clansmen. Arab sources refer to the area north of the Guadiana as Bi:lad al-Barbar or Lands of the Berbers. Following the chaotic decades of invasion, by the later 8th century CE Marvão would have formed part of the Western thughūr ('march' i.e. buffer area or boundary zone) ruled by a marcher lord, or ka'id from the old Lusitanian capital of Mérida. One of three marches, this was known as the Lower March (al-Tagr al-Adna) or Distant March (al-Tagr al-Aqsa). The Lower March - the territorial division known as Xenxir - gained a reputation for the rebelliousness and reluctance of its inhabitants to comply with governance from Cordoba, with Mérida being a seething hive of discontent, revolution and tax-refuseniks. Feuds between clansmen covered a wide area across the former Lusitania province, reaching Christian lands in the north.
Ibn Marwán: Marvão's role as stronghold for the Banu Marwan wilāya
Perhaps the most important vestige of the Islamic era is the name of the village itself: Marvão is derived from the name of Ibn Marwán, a Muwallad chieftain - and reputed founder of the Spanish city of Badajoz - who rebelled against the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba (756-929 CE). The village is mentioned as such in the 10th century by the historian Ibn Hayyan, quoting a lost original source by Isa ibn Ahmad ar-Razi, as the 'Jabal (rock) of Ammaia, known today as Ammaia of Ibn Maruán'.
Historical sources do not explain the precise role of Marvão castle itself within the 50-year statelet, or wilāya - established from 884 to 930 - controlled by Ibn Marwán, his son, grandson and great-grandson from Badajoz. While the territory of the Banu Marwan was extensive, covering much of modern-day Portugal and Extremadura, its autonomy within the Cordoban Emirate was precarious. It seems that the impenetrable fortification at Marvão acted as a deterrent to the Emirs in Córdoba. Sources quote a threat from Ibn Marwan, shortly after establishing his statelet in Badajoz 884, to 'destroy the new city' (i.e. Badajoz), and 'return to my Mountain' if Cordoban armies advance against him.
Thus Marvão - 'my mountain' - became a piece of propaganda-in-stone for Ibn Marwán. With the Marwán dynasty possessing siege-ready castles such as this, and also engaged in realpolitik with the Asturian kings in times of conflict (a key ally being Alfonso III of Asturias), there was little to be gained for the Emirate from bringing this particular rebellious marcher-state into the fold. Fortresses such as those at Marvão would now deter any spring offensives against the Banu Marwan from the Emirate in Córdoba. These offensives by the Emirate were common against another rebellious Muwalladi, notably those against Umar Ibn Hafsun, based in Bobastro near Ronda. However, the relative peace and endurance of the Banu Marwan's statelet - 46 years - testifies to the impregnability of its castles: any Emirate offensive in the São Mamede would be a bloodbath.
During its latter years, the Banu Marwan's statelet faced a major threat from reconquista-focused Christian kings from emergent states in the north. While Marvão is likely to have not been attacked in the raids of the king of León Ordoño II in 913 (which ransacked Evora to the south), it is likely to have suffered during raids during Ordoño II´s campaign to sack Mérida in 913.
Marvão under the Cordoban Caliphate
The threat of conquest from León, together with a rapid-fire series of Cordoban successes against other Muwallad rebels in the 910s-920s under Abd ar-Rahman III, is likely to have contributed to the eventual surrender of the Marwan clan to the Cordoban Caliphate in 930. Under the Caliphate (929-1031 CE), Marvão again fell under the auspices of the territorial district, or kūrah (Spanish: Cora) of Mérida, which comprised much of modern-day Portugal north of the Algarve, and comprised the Lower March (or buffer zone) bordering the Christian north.
Prior to obtaining surrender from Ibn Marvan's great-grandson, in 929 CE, the Umayyad ruler Abd-al-Rahman III had proclaimed himself Caliph of the Caliphate of Córdoba. The Umayyad Caliphate heralded a century of economic boom, maturity in governmental structures, and cultural splendour in al-Andalus, which collapsed only in the year 1008 (finally dissolving in 1031). The São Mamede mountains around Marvão are likely to have benefited during the 10th-11th century alongside the rest of al-Andalus: population increased as hamlets (aldeias) of smallholdings expanded from villas (although, in Marvão, never reaching the levels of Roman Ammaia); new shepherding pathways (karrales) criss-crossed Roman roads (calçadas), providing the dense network of mountain pathways seen today; irrigation technology and land-terracing improved, notably using gravity-flow water chutes (as-sāqiya); new crops (e.g. the doñegal fig, mulberry for silk production, citrus trees) and farming knowledge enabled more summer harvests and diversification away from the traditional vine, olive, cork oak and fig; Jewish and Christian communities were allowed considerable freedoms; some immigration occurred, with increases in the numbers of Berbers and Slavs (saqaliba, from central Europe - a notable Slav, Sabur, would be the first ruler of the taifa of Badajoz), deemed caliphate 'loyalists'. Martial traditions were kept alive by recruitment of youths to fight in summer campaigns (aceifas) against the Christian north.
Marvão under the Badajoz taifa and the Aftasids
From 1009 CE, the Cordoban Caliphate fragmented into smaller statelets, or taifas, each ruled by an emir. In 1013, Marvão fell within the new taifa of Badajoz (1013-1094), the largest taifa of al-Andalus, which stretched across Extremadura and modern-day Portugal to Lisbon and the Atlantic coast. Initially ruled by a Slav, Sabur, from the 1020s the taifa was ruled by the Aftasid dynasty, a Berber clan, with a notable emir being Muhammad ibn Abd Allah Al-Muzaffar (1045-1068).
The 11th century was to prove far less stable than the 'golden age' of Umayyad al-Andalus in the 10th century. As powerbase-fortress, Marvão is likely to have played a role in civil wars among internal factions in the Badajoz taifa during the 1020-1040s. Notably, the short-lived Taifa of Lisbon (1022-1045) was to challenge Aftasid dominance in Badajoz along the traditional land trade routes linking the Tagus through the São Mamede sierra (Santarem-Caceres). The Lisbon taifa was eventually reincorporated into the taifa of Badajoz in 1045 under Al-Muzaffar.
Such in-fighting was matched by external wars. Given its location and long line-of-sight into the Tagus basin, Marvão represented an important strategic base in the continual Muslim-Christian warring along the Lower March. In 1055, a large stretch of Moorish territory south of the Mondego river fell to the kingdom of León and Castile, led by king Ferdinand the Great (1015-1065). Coimbra would follow in 1064, and, under Ferdinand's son Alfonso VI, the vital city of Toledo in 1085. Such military successes enabled the Christian kings to exact onerous tributes, or parias, from the taifas in the south from 1055 onwards. Further, summer raiding campaigns from both Christian and Moorish forces effectively meant that the regions between the Douro river and Tagus were under continual threat - the lands south of the Douro and to the north of the Tagus became a depopulated 'buffer zone' between Christian and Moor. In 1063, a major razzia by Ferdinand sacked towns across the Seville and Badajoz taifas, and the São Mamede mountains lay en route. To make matters worse, the taifa of Badajoz was also fighting a war on its southern front: the taifa of Seville, under the poet-emirs Al-Mutamid and Al-Mutatid - was eating into territories in the Algarve . Thus throughout this period, Marvão and its neighbouring towns would have experienced the many tribulations of a martial state: the payment of taxes for wars and the paria protection money; the recruitment of its sons for battle; the billeting of any marching armies; occasional skirmishes during summer raiding campaigns; and the splitting of families during civil war.
Meanwhile, León and Castile were able to profit from the in-fighting. The Christian reconquista was moving southwards. Thus Marvão - as under Ibn Marwan - took up its deterrent role as a frontier fortress to project power beyond the court at Badajoz. Muslim domination in the region seemed on the back foot until the Battle of Sagrajas (near Badajoz, south of Marvão) in 1086. In the face of the Christian threat, the taifa emirs jointly called for assistance from Almoravid Africa under Yusuf ibn Tashfin. This crucial battle would re-establish Islamic dominance in the São Mamede for a further 70 years. The Battle of Sagrajas saw a crushing defeat of Castilian and Aragonese forces. However, for the forces of the Badajoz taifa - no doubt including fighters from Marvão - the battle of Sagrajas was a pyrrhic victory. The camp of their emir, al-Mutawakkil ibn al-Aftas, was sacked early on the morning of the battle, with many soldiers lost. The military strength of the Badajoz taifa was now much-weakened, and the Christians took advantage of this: as part of the paria tribute, the lower Tagus cities of Lisbon and Santarem were ceded in 1093 to Alfonso VI, as the Badajoz taifa attempted to defend itself from Almoravid dynasty. This effort would fail: the emir would be killed by Almoravids a year later.
The final generations of Islamic rule in Marvão: Almoravids, Almohads, reconquest
In the 1090s the Almoravids effectively annexed the taifas of al-Andalus: al-Andalus became a colony of the Almoravid empire administered from Marrakesh. In 1094, Lisbon was recaptured from Leon and Castile, and the taifa of Badajoz was toppled. The protection money (paria) sent to the Christian kingdoms was stopped. The Tagus valley now became the key dividing line between Christian and Moor: Marvão would become an outpost on the north-western frontier of an empire that stretched all the way to Mauritania.
The Almoravids are described as austere, battle-ready jihadists - who contrasted greatly with the luxury-accustomed poet-emirs of the taifa era. They were not merely interested in defending the realm, but made frequent incursions into Christian territories. The period has been described as one of 'an illiterate military caste controlling, but apart from, the native society'. It is likely that, alongside the rest of al-Andalus, Marvão experienced a number of key features of Almoravid rule: the introduction of illiterate Berber fighters from the Maghreb; drafting of its youth for military campaigns against the Christians (notably against Coimbra and Leiria) and Zaragoza taifa; a rise in religious fundamentalism; increased suppression of, and intolerance towards, Christian and Jewish communities, including forced conversion to Islam; religious cleansing (many Andalusi Christians were removed to Morocco).
Almoravid rule was not to last. They faced revolts at home in Morocco from a rival fundamentalist sect, the Almohads. Their tenuous hold on south west al-Andalus (the former Badajoz taifa and the Al-Garb) showed upon the death of the second Almoravid emir Al in Yusuf in 1143. An Algarve-centred rebellion by a Sufi sect, the al-Muridin - aided by Almohad arms - destabilised the region and set up a number of 'second taifa kingdoms' in Silves, Mértola and Tavira in the south. As well as being on the front line against the Christians, the São Mamede mountains are likely to have been on the northern edges of troop movements by the al-Muridin leader, Ibn Qasi and Almohad forces, against Almoravid centres of government (from 1146 to 1151). Indeed, collaboration and intrigue between Ibn Qasi, the Almohads, and a new Christian power - the fledgling Portugal, under Alfonso I of Portugal - is likely to have weakened the defensibility of the entire Tagus basin.
By the 1150s, Almohad rule was in the ascendancy over the Almoravids across al-Andalus. Yet Almohad rule in south-west Iberia would be short-lived: their embrace of holy war was matched by a new Christian fundamentalism in the north, which saw the reconquest as a crusade. The fledgling state of Portugal curried favour with the military orders - the Templars and the Hospitallers in particular - and, through its blood connections with the house of Burgundy, gained support from fortune-seeking crusaders from across the Pyrenees. During the 1140s, Alfonso I (Afonso Henriques) was able to capture Santarem (1147) and Lisbon (the latter with the help of English, Flemish and Rhinelander crusaders). Besides Alfonso I's actions in the Tagus valley, a particular destabilising factor in the Alto Alentejo and Extremadure were the exploits of the colourful 'Portuguese El Cid', Geraldo Sem Pavor (Gerald the Fearless). His private-army, 'commando-style' conquests of Almohad towns - such as Evora (1164), Cáceres (1164), Trujillo (1164), Juromenha (1165) - were so successful that they brought him into conflict with the King of León, Ferdinand II of León. While Marvão is not listed among Geraldo's many attacks on fortresses in this region, his and Alfonso I's encroachment on Leonese reconquest targets led Ferdinand II to campaign in the immediate vicinity of the São Mamede. Thus Ferdinand II conquered the vital Tagus crossing at Alcántara in 1165, and this campaign would ultimately define the western limits of Portuguese reconquest, establish the river Sever east of Marvão as a key section of the Portuguese-Spanish border.
In the midst of complex conflicts and territorial grabs between Almohads, Alfonso I, Ferdinand II and Geraldo Sem Pavor, after nearly 500 years of Islamic rule, Marvão fell to Alfonso I during military campaigns in 1166. This conquest was by no means definitive. In 1190, a major Almohad counter-offensive launched from Morocco under Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur retook Marvão, during a campaign against the Templar stronghold of Tomar which would recapture for the Moors much of the Algarve and the Alentejo as far as the castle at Alcácer do Sal. Further, a famous victory for the Almohads in the Guadiana valley at Alarcos, in 1195, re-established Muslim control over many lands south of the Tagus (including Trujillo and Talavera). It is likely that Marvão at this point saw similar reinforcement of its fortifications, as seen at Cáceres and Trujillo. For the following thirty years, Marvão remained on the margins of a battlezone that would ultimately determine the location of today's Portuguese-Spanish border.
The Kingdom of Portugal, the plantation of settlers, Templars and Hospitallers
Following its conquest by Alfonso I in the 1160s, and its brief recapture by Almohads in the 1190s, Marvão's situation remained fragile around the start of the 13th century: it was listed among Portuguese territories only in the termo of Castelo Branco in 1214. Marvão was a recently conquered outpost, that needed to be fully integrated into Portugal, and which stood on the edge of territories conquered by an expansionist Kingdom of León. The process of Portuguesification began under the reigns of kings Sancho I and Alfonso II. Yet it was the famous Christian victory over the Almohads at Navas de Tolosa (near Jaén) in 1212 - leaving 100,000 Moors dead - that would effectively secure this area of south-western Iberia, and establish a lasting peace. The São Mamede mountains and Guadiana valleys now became a bridgehead from which the reconquista could make strong inroads into Almohad territory in the Southern Alentejo, Algarve, Southern Extremadura and north-west Andalusia.
Marvão's role as fortress now became more important not as a Christian or Moorish outpost-against-the-infidel, but as a territorial marker for the young - and by no means militarily strong - state of Portugal against the competing Christian Kingdom of León. In 1226, Marvão was among the earliest towns on the eastern border to receive from Sancho II of Portugal its foral (i.e. royal charter, allowing the town to regulate its administration, borders and privileges).
Another aspect of 13th century statecraft that would bolster the area's 'Portugalidade' (Portuguese identity) would be the settlement of planted Christian colonists from the north (Galicia, the Minho), southern France and Flanders in territories around Marvão. This was done with royal approval, and with the intermediation of the Templars and Hospitallers. The resettlement of barren areas depopulated by centuries of warfare and bloodshed - or simply abandoned by fleeing Berber refugees - was vital to sustain the new Portuguese kingdom. Many of these settlers were Galicians, and the name of the hamlet of Galegos in Marvão is likely to refer to its 13th–14th century settlers. Other nearby settlements took names from southern France: in the nearby Templar-controlled village of Nisa (Nice), we find hamlets named Tolosa (Toulouse), Montalvão (Montauban) and Arez (Arles) to denote the origins of their settlers.
Perhaps the most important development for Marvão at this time was the donation of borderlands to the military orders. The Templars, strong allies of Alfonso I, had during the 12th century been given lands north of the Tagus, including their headquarters at Tomar, and Castelo Branco, and given broad responsibility to secure the river passage on the river. In 1199, Sancho I of Portugal awarded lands to the north of Marvão (the Herdade da Açafa). These extended across the present-day districts of Castelo de Vide and Nisa and into territories near Valencia de Alcántara that now lie in Spain. In 1232, Sancho II of Portugal donated further extensive domains south of the Tagus around Marvão and Portalegre to the Knights Hospitaller, along with the duty to fortify the frontier and help in its repopulation. The Hospitallers would dominate the administration of the region for two centuries, moving their Portuguese headquarters from Leça in Northern Portugal to nearby Crato in 1340. Much of the architecture to be admired today in Marvão can be attributed to the guiding hand of the Hospitallers in extending the castle and village in the 13th-15th centuries. Hospitaller (Maltese) crosses can be seen on houses throughout Marvão's walled village, including the door of the church that is the Municipal Museum.
Marvão´s castle: an archetype of medieval castle-building
As with other 11th-13th-century castles, the early medieval improvements and development of Marvão castle reflect the innovations brought back by crusading orders from the near east (notably the highly influential Hospitaller castle in Syria, the Krak des Chevaliers). The medieval castle seen in Marvão today mostly post-dates the year 1299, and features numerous characteristic features of a crusader-era castle: a tall central keep with raised entrance on the first floor; a series of lower, outlying turrets (some semi-circular); high-placed arrow-slits; open spaces to aid the sheltering and assembly of villagers and troops; a well, and huge rain-collecting cistern to supply water to both keep and the wider castle in the event of siege; bent entrances (both on the village and castle gates) to slow down invaders in the event of breached gates; a series of narrow killing zones (notably, in the triple gate on the village-side of the castle); extensive crenellated battlements and curtain walls that enhanced the natural defences provided by the escarpments of Marvão's rock.
Dom Dinis (King Denis) and Afonso IV
The 13th century saw considerable instability across western Iberia, intensifying the need for a clearly demarcated, strongly defended border. Under the King Denis (1261-1325), Marvão benefited from the king's focus on bolstering Portugal's border with the neighbouring Kingdom of Castile. King Denis's border pact with Ferdinand IV of Castile (1297) was followed by considerable investment in a chain of Portuguese castles along the border, with Marvão castle being considerably extended from 1299 onwards using Hospitaller expertise. On the Castilian side of the border, castles were likewise reinforced at nearby Valencia de Alcántara and Mayorga, the Order of Alcántara being a Castilian counterpart to the Hospitaller's role in Portugal.
A civil war in the Kingdom of Castile from 1296 to 1301 - which saw the Kingdom of León briefly break away from Castile - brought risk of contagion into Portugal's eastern frontier. Another major conflict occurred from 1319 to 1326: King Denis's bastard son, Afonso Sanches, lord of nearby Alburquerque was made mayordomo (akin to prime minister) of Portugal, and was nominated preferred heir, by King Denis. Sanches's castle in Alburquerque was clearly visible from Marvão, and his wife's family held nearby lands in La Codosera, making the 'raia' area a power base for Sanches. A civil war (1319-1326) where Denis's legitimate son, the future Afonso IV, rebelled against his father Kind Denis, meant that Marvão and other fortresses on the border would see action ahead of the Battle of Alvalade.
18th Century
During the Fantastic War, an attempted Spanish and French invasion of Portugal in late 1762, a Spanish force of 4–5,000 attempted to take Marvão with a frontal attack. An Anglo Portuguese garrison under Captain Thomas Browne defeated the Spaniards who fled with heavy loss, contributing to Spain asking for a truce in November.
Demographics
Marvão's population is subject to a combination of ageing, declining birthrate and rural exodus. Since the 1990s, the municipality has been losing just under one inhabitant per week.
Notable people
Maria Leal da Costa (born 1964 in Évora) a Portuguese sculptor; since 1999 has a studio in Marvão, where she lives and works
Misc.
In 2014 an undescribed species of robberfly was collected from the area around Marvão, and named after this region: Paraphamartania marvaoensis'' Mortelmans, Tomasovic & Nagy, 2014.
References
External links
Town Hall official website
13 Photos
Populated places in Portalegre District
Municipalities of Portalegre District
Portugal–Spain border crossings |
4238664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%202006%20in%20sports | March 2006 in sports |
March 30, 2006 (Thursday)
Cricket: Pakistani cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2005–06
First Test at Colombo SSC: Sri Lanka 185 (Dilshan 69) and 448/5 dec. (Sangakkara 185, Jayawardene 85, Tharanga 72) drew with Pakistan 176 (Imran Farhat 69) and 337/4 (Shoaib Malik 148). Two-Test series tied 0–0; the Second Test begins Monday in Kandy. First Test scorecard
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Cup – Quarter finals, first leg.
Sevilla 4–1 Zenit St. Petersburg
Levski Sofia 1–3 Schalke 04
Schalke score 3 in the second half to recover against 10-man Levski.
Rapid Bucharest 1–1 Steaua Bucharest
The first half of the Romanian capital's Derby ends in a draw.
FC Basel 2–0 Middlesbrough (UEFA.com)
March 29, 2006 (Wednesday)
Cricket – West Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2005–06:
Third Test: The Third and final Test between New Zealand and West Indies at Napier ends in a draw. Only 79 overs were possible on the first two days before rain washed out the match. New Zealand won the three-Test series 2–0. 3rd Test scorecard
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Quarter finals, first leg.
Internazionale 2–1 Villarreal
Lyon 0–0 A.C. Milan (UEFA.com)
March 28, 2006 (Tuesday)
Cricket:
Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005–06
Second Test: Australia defeats South Africa in Durban to win the three-Test series after its victory the week before in Cape Town. The Third Test commences in Johannesburg on Friday.
Score: Australia 369 (Ponting 103, Hussey 75) and 307/4 dec. (Ponting 116, Hayden 102) defeated South Africa 267 (Kallis 114, Lee 5/69) and 297 (Warne 6/86) by 112 runs. Australia leads three-Test series 2–0. Scorecard
2005–06 Australian cricket season
Queensland defeats Victoria by an innings and 354 runs to secure the Pura Cup. Queensland scored 6/900 declared – the eleventh highest score in first-class cricket – to win Australia's domestic four-day cricket competition. Queensland's innings included two double centuries (Maher 223, Watson 201 retired) and two centuries (Perren 173, Love 169). Complete scorecard.
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Quarter finals, first leg.
Benfica 0–0 Barcelona
Arsenal 2–0 Juventus (UEFA.com)
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Regional Finals
Cleveland Region: (1) North Carolina 75, (2) Tennessee 63
Bridgeport Region: (1) Duke 63, (2) UConn 61 (OT)
March 27, 2006 (Monday)
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Regional Finals
Albuquerque Region: (2) Maryland 75, (5) Utah 65 (OT)
San Antonio Region: (1) LSU 62, (3) Stanford 59
March 26, 2006 (Sunday)
Auto racing
Paul Dana, 30, is killed in an accident with fellow driver Ed Carpenter during the practice session for the Toyota Indy 300 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Team owner Bobby Rahal pulled the other two cars he had entered – driven by Danica Patrick and Buddy Rice — after learning of Dana's death. The race went off as scheduled, with defending series champion Dan Wheldon narrowly defeating Hélio Castroneves to win the race.
NASCAR NEXTEL Cup: Kurt Busch drives the Miller Lite No. 2 Dodge Charger to his first win with Penske Motorsports in the Food City 500 at Bristol Motor Speedway.
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Regional semi-finals
Cleveland Region
(2) Tennessee 76, (3) Rutgers 69
(1) North Carolina 70, (4) Purdue 68
Bridgeport Region
(1) Duke 86, (4) Michigan State61
(2) UConn 77, (3) Georgia 75
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Regional finals
Washington, D.C. Region: (11) George Mason 86, (1) UConn 84 (OT). The Patriots become the first mid-major school to make the Final Four since 1979, when both Penn and a Larry Bird-led Indiana State made it.
Minneapolis Region: (3) Florida 75, (1) Villanova 62. For the first time since the 1980 Final Four, and the second time since the tournament was seeded beginning in 1979, no No. 1 seeded teams made the Final Four.
Cricket: Brett Lee becomes the 12th Australian to take 200 wickets in Test cricket. ABC Sport (Australia)
Golf: Canadian Stephen Ames takes the 2006 Players Championship with a score of 14 under par, six strokes ahead of second-place Retief Goosen of South Africa. Ames will receive $1.44 million, 10 years' exemption for PGA Tour events and an invitation to the four major championships as a reward. In 2007, the event will move to May (May 10 – 13) in the month between The Masters and the U.S. Open. (ESPN)
Ice hockey
The Alberta Golden Bears win their record 12th University Cup 3–2 over the Lakehead Thunderwolves. (TSN)
Wisconsin defeats Minnesota 3–0 to win the NCAA Women's Ice Hockey Championship on the Gophers' home ice.
March 25, 2006 (Saturday)
Figure skating: American teenager Kimmie Meissner outskates the favorites (including fellow American Sasha Cohen) and wins the ISU World Figure Skating Ladies' Championship in Calgary, Alberta.
Association football
English Football League Championship – Reading F.C. earn promotion to the English Premier League
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Regional semi-finals
San Antonio Region
(1) LSU 66, (4) DePaul 56
(3) Stanford 88, (2) Oklahoma 74
Albuquerque Region
(2) Maryland 82, (3) Baylor 63
(5) Utah 57, (8) Boston College 54
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Regional finals
Atlanta Region: (4) LSU 70, (2) Texas 60 (OT)
Oakland Region: (2) UCLA 50, (1) Memphis 45
March 24, 2006 (Friday)
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Regional semi-finals
Minneapolis Region
(1) Villanova 60, (4) Boston College 59 (OT)
(3) Florida 57, (7) Georgetown 53
Washington, D.C. Regional
(11) George Mason 63, (7) Wichita State 55
(1) UConn 98, (5) Washington 92 (OT)
March 23, 2006 (Thursday)
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Regional semi-finals
Atlanta Region
(4) LSU 62, (1) Duke 54
(2) Texas 74, (6) West Virginia 71
Oakland Region
(1) Memphis 80, (13) Bradley 64
(2) UCLA 73, (3) Gonzaga 71
March 22, 2006 (Wednesday)
Cricket:
England in India 2006:
Third Test at Mumbai:England 400 (Andrew Strauss 128, Shanthakumaran Sreesanth 4/70) and 191 (Andrew Flintoff 50, Anil Kumble 4/49) beat India 279 (Mahendra Singh Dhoni 64, James Anderson 4/40) and 100 (Shaun Udal 4/14) by 212 runs. The three match series is drawn 1–1. Flintoff, England's stand-in captain, is named Man of the Match and Man of the Series.
March 21, 2006 (Tuesday)
NFL
In a three-way trade, the New York Jets traded DE John Abraham to the Atlanta Falcons for the 29th overall pick in the first round of the 2006 NFL Draft, which was acquired from the Denver Broncos for the 15th overall pick that same round.
Adam Vinatieri signed with the Indianapolis Colts. The former New England Patriots kicker, who won Super Bowl XXXVI and XXXVIII with last-second field goals will replace Mike Vanderjagt.
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Second round
Bridgeport Region
At Trenton, New Jersey:
(3) Georgia 73, (11) Hartford 54
At Norfolk, Virginia:
(1) Duke 85, (8) Southern California 51
At University Park, Pennsylvania:
(2) UConn 79, (7) Virginia Tech 56
Cleveland Region
At Norfolk:
(2) Tennessee 66, (7) George Washington 53
At Trenton:
(3) Rutgers 82, (11) TCU 48
At West Lafayette, Indiana:
(4) Purdue 61, (5) UCLA 54
Albuquerque Region
At West Lafayette:
(8) Boston College 79, (1) Ohio State 69
At University Park:
(2) Maryland 81, (7) St. John's 74
March 20, 2006 (Monday)
World Baseball Classic: Japan beats Cuba 10–6, to win the first World Baseball Classic at Petco Park in San Diego. Pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka was named Most Valuable Player.
Cricket:
West Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2005–06:
Second Test at Wellington: West Indies 192 (Morton 63, Franklin 5/53) and 215 (Gayle 68) lose to New Zealand 372 (Fleming 97, Fulton 75, Astle 65, Edwards 5/65) and 36/0 by ten wickets. New Zealand leads three-Test series 2–0. Cricinfo scorecard
American football: Paul Tagliabue, who has served as the commissioner of the NFL since 1987, will retire in July.
Auto racing: Pole sitter Kasey Kahne won the rain-delayed NASCAR NEXTEL Cup Golden Corral 500. Bill Lester, the first African-American to qualify for a top level NASCAR race since Willy T. Ribbs two decades earlier, finished in 38th place, three laps behind.
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, Second round
Bridgeport Region
At Rosemont, Illinois:
(4) Michigan State 67, (5) Kentucky 63
Cleveland Region
At Nashville:
(1) North Carolina 89, (8) Vanderbilt 70
San Antonio Region
At Denver:
(2) Oklahoma 86, (7) BYU 70
(3) Stanford 86, (6) Florida State 70
At Nashville
(1) LSU 72, (8) Washington 49
At Rosemont:
(4) DePaul 71, (12) Tulsa 67
Albuquerque Region
At Tucson, Arizona:
(3) Baylor 87, (11) New Mexico 67
(5) Utah 86, (4) Arizona State 65
March 19, 2006 (Sunday)
The 2006 Winter Paralympics in Turin, Italy, conclude with Russia leading all countries with 33 total medals.
Auto racing
NASCAR: The NEXTEL Cup Golden Corral 500 was postponed due to rain and will be raced Monday at 11 am US EST (1600 UTC).
Formula One: Giancarlo Fisichella of Italy won the Malaysian Grand Prix.
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, First round
Bridgeport Region
At Trenton, New Jersey:
(11) Hartford 64, (6) Temple 58
(3) Georgia 75, (14) Marist 60
At Norfolk, Virginia:
(1) Duke 96, (16) Southern 27: The Jaguars set an all-time record low score for an NCAA Women's Tournament game.
(8) Southern California 67, (9) South Florida 65
At University Park, Pennsylvania:
(7) Virginia Tech 82, (10) Missouri 57
(2) UConn 77, (15) Coppin State 54
Cleveland Region
At Norfolk:
(2) Tennessee 102, (15) Army 54: The Lady Vols' Candace Parker dunked twice in this game, the first time in NCAA Women's Championship history that has happened.
(7) George Washington 87, (10) Old Domintion 72
At West Lafayette, Indiana:
(4) Purdue 73, (13) Missouri State 52
(5) UCLA 74, (12) Bowling Green 61
At Trenton:
(3) Rutgers 63, (14) Dartmouth 58
(11) TCU 68, (6) Texas A&M 65
Albuquerque Region
At University Park:
(7) St. John's 78, (10) Cal 68
(2) Maryland 95, (15) Sacred Heart 54
At West Lafayette:
(8) Boston College 78, (9) Notre Dame 61
(1) Ohio State 68, (16) Oakland (MI) 45
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Second round
Oakland Region
At Auburn Hills, Michigan:
(13) Bradley 72, (5) Pitt 66
At Dallas:
(1) Memphis 72, (9) Bucknell 56
Atlanta Region
At Auburn Hills:
(6) West Virginia 67, (14) Northwestern State 54
At Dallas:
(2) Texas 75, (10) NC State 54
Washington, D.C. Region
At Dayton, Ohio:
(11) George Mason 65, (3) North Carolina 60
At Philadelphia:
(1) UConn 87, (8) Kentucky 83
Minneapolis Region
At Dayton:
(7) Georgetown 70, (2) Ohio State 52
At Philadelphia:
(1) Villanova 82, (8) Arizona 78.
March 18, 2006 (Saturday)
Cricket:
Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005–06:
First Test at Newlands, Cape Town – South Africa 205 (Clark 5/55) and 197 (Clark 4/34) loses to Australia 308 (Hayden 94, Ponting 74, Symonds 55) and 95/3 (Ntini 3/28) by seven wickets. Australia leads three-Test series 1–0. Scorecard
World Baseball Classic Semi Finals
Cuba 3, Dominican Republic 1
Japan 6, South Korea 0
Rugby union: 2006 Six Nations Championship
Italy 10 – 13 Scotland
Wales 16 – 21 France
England 24 – 28 Ireland
France win their third Six Nations title in five years, but had to struggle to overcome Wales; they then had to wait for the England-Ireland match to take place to confirm their championship – Ireland could have taken the title if they'd beaten England by 34 clear points. Ireland settle for the Triple Crown, defeating England with a last-minute try.
2006 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament, First round
Bridgeport Region
At Rosemont, Illinois:
(4) Michigan State 65, (13) Milwaukee 46
(5) Kentucky 69, (12) Chattanooga 59
San Antonio Region
At Nashville:
(9) Washington 73, (8) Minnesota 69
(1) LSU 72, (16) Florida Atlantic 48
At Rosemont:
(4) DePaul 68, (13) Liberty 43
(12) Tulsa 71, (5) NC State 61
At Denver:
(2) Oklahoma 78, (15) Pepperdine 66
(7) BYU 67, (10) Iowa 62
(6) Florida State 80, (11) Louisiana Tech 71
(3) Stanford 72, (14) Southeast Missouri State 45
Cleveland Region
At Nashville:
(1) North Carolina 75, (16) UC Riverside 51
(8) Vanderbilt 76, (9) Louisville 69
Albuquerque Region
At Tucson, Arizona:
(5) Utah 76, (12) Middle Tennessee 71
(4) Arizona State 80, (13) Stephen F. Austin 61
(3) Baylor 74, (14) Northern Arizona 56
(11) New Mexico 83, (6) Florida 59
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, Second round:
Atlanta Region
At Greensboro, North Carolina:
(1) Duke 74, (8) George Washington 61
At Jacksonville, Florida:
(4) LSU 58, (12) Texas A&M 57
Minneapolis Region
At Jacksonville:
(3) Florida 82, (11) Milwaukee 60
At Salt Lake City:
(4) Boston College 69, (12) Montana 56
Washington, D.C. Region
At Greensboro:
(7) Wichita State 80, (2) Tennessee 73
At San Diego:
(5) Washington 67, (4) Illinois 64
Oakland Region
At San Diego:
(10) Alabama vs. (2) UCLA,
At Salt Lake City:
(3) Gonzaga 90, (6) Indiana 80
Boxing: Hasim Rahman and James Toney battle to a twelve-round draw (tie) in a fight for the WBC's Heavyweight title.
March 17, 2006 (Friday)
Commonwealth Games Rugby Sevens
Final: New Zealand beat England 29–21
Bronze medal playoff: Fiji beat Australia 24–17
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, First round:
Minneapolis Region
At Dayton, Ohio:
(2) Ohio State 70, (15) Davidson 62
(7) Georgetown 54, (10) Northern Iowa 49
At Philadelphia:
(9) Arizona 94 (8) Wisconsin 75
(1) Villanova 58, (16) Monmouth 45
Atlanta Region
At Auburn Hills, Michigan:
(14) Northwestern State 64, (3) Iowa 63
(6) West Virginia 64, (11) Southern Illinois 46
At Dallas:
(10) NC State 57, (7) Cal 52
(2) Texas 60, (15) Penn 52
Oakland Region
At Dallas:
(9) Bucknell 59, (8) Arkansas 55
(1) Memphis 94, (16) Oral Roberts 78
At Auburn Hills:
(5) Pitt 79, (12) Kent State 64
(13) Bradley 76, (4) Kansas 73
Washington, D.C. Region
At Dayton:
(11) George Mason 75 (6) Michigan State 65
(3) North Carolina 69, (14) Murray State 65
At Philadelphia:
(1) UConn 72, (16) Albany 59
(8) Kentucky 69, (9) UAB 64
March 16, 2006 (Thursday)
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Cup – Round of 16, second leg, progressing teams shown in bold.
Strasbourg 2–2 FC Basel
Real Betis 0–3 Steaua Bucharest
Schalke 04 3–0 Palermo
Zenit St. Petersburg 1–1 Marseille
Levski Sofia 2–1 Udinese (UEFA.com)
World Baseball Classic, Second round
Pool 1:
Mexico defeats USA, 2–1.
Japan advances to the semifinals on a tiebreaker with the USA and Mexico.
2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, First round:
Washington, D.C. Region
At Greensboro, North Carolina:
(7) Wichita State 86, (10) Seton Hall 66
(2) Tennessee 63, (15) Winthrop 61
At San Diego:
(4) Illinois 78, (13) Air Force 69
(5) Washington 75, (12) Utah State 61
Minneapolis Region
At Jacksonville, Florida:
(11) Milwaukee 82, (6) Oklahoma 74
(3) Florida 76, (14) South Alabama 50
At Salt Lake City:
(4) Boston College 88, (13) Pacific 76 (2 OT)
(12) Montana 87, (5) Nevada 79
Atlanta Region
At Greensboro:
(8) George Washington 88, (9) UNC-Wilmington 85 (OT)
(1) Duke 70, (16) Southern 54
At Jacksonville:
(4) LSU 80, (13) Iona 64
(12) Texas A&M 66, (5) Syracuse 58
Oakland Region
At San Diego:
(10) Alabama 90, (7) Marquette 85
(2) UCLA 78, (15) Belmont 44
At Salt Lake City:
(3) Gonzaga 79, (14) Xavier (OH) 75
(6) Indiana 87, (11) San Diego State 83
NOTE: Games in San Diego were delayed by an hour due to a bomb threat inside Cox Arena.
March 15, 2006 (Wednesday)
Commonwealth Games, 2006 kicks off at Melbourne, Australia.
World Baseball Classic, Second round
Pool 1:
South Korea defeats Japan, 2–1.
Korea advances to the semifinals.
Pool 2:
Cuba defeats Puerto Rico 4–3.
Cuba will play the Dominican Republic in the semifinals.
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Cup – Round of 16, second leg, progressing teams shown in bold.
Hamburg 3–1 Rapid Bucharest
Aggregate score 3–3. Rapid win on away goals.
Sevilla 2–0 Lille
Aggregate score 2–1.
Roma 2–1 Middlesbrough
Aggregate score 2–2. Middlesbrough win on away goals.
Dogsled racing: Musher Jeff King wins XXXIV Iditarod and becomes one of five four-time champions. At 50 years of age, he is also the oldest musher to win the race. The race covered more than 1,049 mi (1,600+ km) from Anchorage, across the United States state of Alaska.
Cross-country skiing: Norwegian skier Marit Bjørgen wins the final sprint race of the season in Changchun, P.R. China to win the women's sprint World Cup overall. With one race to go in the overall World Cup, Bjørgen leads ahead of Canadian Beckie Scott. (Aftenposten)
March 14, 2006 (Tuesday)
World Baseball Classic, Second round
Pool 1:
Japan defeats Mexico, 6–1.
Pool 2:
Dominican Republic defeats Venezuela, 2–1.
The Dominicans, who give up only one hit to Venezuela, advance to the semifinals.
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Round of 16, second leg. Progressing team shown in bold.
Internazionale 1–0 Ajax (UEFA.com)
College basketball: 2006 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament: play-in game
Monmouth 71, Hampton 49: The Hawks will play Villanova in Philadelphia Friday (March 17) at approximately 3 pm US EST (2000 UTC). The win gives the NEC their first NCAA tournament win ever.
March 13, 2006 (Monday)
World Baseball Classic, Second round
Pool 1:
South Korea defeats USA, 7–3.
Pool 2:
Dominican Republic defeats Cuba, 7–3.
Venezuela defeats Puerto Rico, 6–0.
College Basketball
John Chaney retires after 24 years as head coach of Temple University's men's basketball team; Dan Leibovitz will serve as interim acting head coach.
North Carolina, Duke, Ohio State and LSU are named the top seeds for the NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament.
Cricket:
English cricket team in India in 2005–06
India defeats England by nine wickets in the Second Test at Mohali, Chandigarh. India leads the three-Test series 1–0.
West Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2005–06
New Zealand defeats West Indies by 27 runs in the First Test in Auckland. New Zealand leads the three-Test series 1–0.
March 12, 2006 (Sunday)
Dogsled racing: musher Jeff King is the first to reach Unalakleet in the Iditarod XXXIV, and wins the Gold Coast Award. The Inuit town of Unalakleet is the first checkpoint on the Norton Sound of the Bering Sea.
World Baseball Classic, Second round:
Pool 1:
USA defeats Japan, 4–3.
South Korea defeats Mexico, 2–1.
Pool 2:
Cuba defeats Venezuela, 7–2.
Puerto Rico defeats Dominican Republic, 7–1.
Auto racing:
Formula One: Defending champion Fernando Alonso defeats seven-time F1 champion Michael Schumacher to win the season-opening Bahrain Grand Prix.
A1 Grand Prix: France wins the World Cup of Motorsport by finishing second in the sprint race in Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca, California.
NASCAR: NEXTEL Cup: Matt Kenseth led the most laps, but Jimmie Johnson passed him in the last 300 yards under the green-white-checkers to win the UAW-DaimlerChrysler 400 in Las Vegas, Nevada.
Cricket – one-day international: Australian cricket team in South Africa in 2005–06:
South Africa defeats Australia by one wicket in Johannesburg.
Australia compiled a world-record score of 434–4 from 50 overs, Ricky Ponting top-scoring with 164 off 105 balls. South Africa responded with 438–9, breaking Australia's record to win the match with one ball to spare. Herschelle Gibbs top-scored for South Africa with 175 off 111 balls, while Australian fast-bowler Mick Lewis (113–0 from 10 overs) became the first bowler to concede over 100 runs in a ten-over bowling spell. The match has been named as one of the all-time great one day game. Scorecard
See full article Australia in South Africa, 5th ODI, 2006.
Rugby union: 2006 Six Nations Championship:
France 31 – 6 England
France trounce a hapless England side, and have the championship in their sights. (BBC)
College basketball:
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
ACC: (3) Duke 78, (11) Boston College 76
SEC: (16) Florida 49, South Carolina 47
Southland: Northwestern State 95, Sam Houston State 87
Big 12: (17) Kansas 80, (8) Texas 68
Big Ten: (20) Iowa 67, (7) Ohio State 60
Duke, UConn, Memphis and Villanova were named the top seeds for the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament. The play-in game will be played by Hampton and Monmouth on Tuesday, March 14.
Biathlon:
Russia's second team of Anna Bogaliy-Titovets, Sergei Tchepikov, Irina Malgina and Nikolay Krouglov won the second World Championships in mixed relay at Pokljuka, Slovenia in strong winds. The four Russians were nearly a minute ahead of silver medalist team Norway, while bronze medalists France were a further minute adrift. (SI.com)
Snowboard:
Swedish Olympic competitor Jonatan Johansson suffers a fatal accident during training for a FIS World Cup boarder cross race at Lake Placid, New York. (SI.com)
March 11, 2006 (Saturday)
Cricket:
Test cricket – Sri Lankan cricket team in Bangladesh in 2005–06:
Sri Lanka defeats Bangladesh by ten wickets in Bogra.
This match was notable for Sri Lankan spinner Muttiah Muralitharan taking his 600th Test wicket.
Rugby union: 2006 Six Nations Championship:
Wales 18 – 18 Italy
Italy win their first-ever Six Nations point away from home, while Wales leave the Millennium Stadium to a chorus of boos.
Ireland 15 – 9 Scotland
The last-ever Six Nations match at Lansdowne Road before the stadium is redeveloped sees an old-fashioned tryless game in pouring rain. Ireland's five penalties are scored by Ronan O'Gara, while Scotland's three penalties are scored by Chris Paterson.
College basketball:
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
America East: Albany 80, Vermont 67
Conference USA: (5) Memphis 57, (24) UAB 46
Atlantic 10: Xavier 62, Saint Joseph's 61
MEAC: Hampton 60, Delaware State 56
Pac-10: (13) UCLA 71, Cal 52
MAC: Kent State 71, Toledo 66
Big East: Syracuse 65, (15) Pittsburgh 61
SWAC: Southern 57, Arkansas–Pine Bluff 44
WAC: (21) Nevada 70, Utah State 63 (OT)
Mountain West: San Diego State 69, Wyoming 64 (OT)
Big West: Pacific 78, Long Beach State 70
Alpine skiing:
Benjamin Raich of Austria clinch the overall World Cup with four races to go after finishing fourth in the slalom race in Shiga Kogen, Japan. Michael Walchhofer lies second, 477 points adrift. (BBC)
Croatian Janica Kostelić wins the slalom World Cup after a second place in the race at Levi, Finland, though with a 254-point lead before the last four races in Åre she will have to take more points before she can be certain of the overall trophy. (BBC)
Cross country skiing:
Tobias Angerer of Germany clinched the overall men's World Cup title despite finishing 40th in the 50 km freestyle race in Holmenkollen, Norway, over nine minutes behind Swedish winner Anders Södergren. It is the third successive time a German wins the World Cup. (ZDF.de)
March 10, 2006 (Friday)
Dogsled racing: Musher Paul Gebhardt is the first to reach Ruby in Iditarod XXXIV, and wins the First to the Yukon Award. Ruby is the first checkpoint on the Yukon River.
Rugby union: Round 5 of the Super 14.
Chiefs 19–25 Crusaders in Hamilton. The Chiefs received one bonus point for finishing within 7 points of the winning score.
The Crusaders got an early lead, thanks to a Dan Carter try. However, the Chiefs kept in touch for the whole half and managed to take the lead in the final minute of the first half with Sitiveni Sivivatu scoring under the posts. The Crusaders managed to regain the lead in the second half and held on to the win in the dying moments.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool B
Mexico defeats Canada 9–1.
United States defeats South Africa, 17–0 in five innings.
Mexico and the United States advance to the second round.
Pool C
Cuba defeats Netherlands 11–2; Cuba and Puerto Rico advance to round two
Netherlands defeats Panama 10–0 in seven innings
Pool D: Venezuela defeats Australia 2–0; Venezuela and Dominican Republic advance to round two
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Patriot League: Bucknell 74, Holy Cross 59
March 9, 2006 (Thursday)
Dogsled racing: Musher Doug Swingley is the first to reach Cripple in Iditarod XXXIV, and wins the Dorothy Page Halfway Award. Cripple is the official halfway point of the race on even-numbered years, when the race takes the northern route.
Football:
2005–06 UEFA Cup – Round of 16, first leg.
Rapid Bucharest 2–0 Hamburg
FC Basel 2–0 Strasbourg
Middlesbrough 1–0 Roma
Steaua Bucharest 0–0 Real Betis
Palermo 1–0 Schalke 04
Marseille 0–1 Zenit St. Petersburg
Udinese 0–0 Levski Sofia
Lille 1–0 Sevilla (UEFA.com)
Major League Soccer: The Austrian beverage company Red Bull purchases the MetroStars franchise from Anschutz Entertainment Group, and renames the team New York Red Bulls.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool B: Mexico defeats South Africa 10–4.
Pool C: Puerto Rico defeats Netherlands 8–3.
Pool D
Venezuela defeats Italy 6–0.
Dominican Republic defeats Italy, 8–3.
March 8, 2006 (Wednesday)
Dogsled racing: Musher Doug Swingley is the first to reach McGrath in Iditarod XXXIV, and wins the Spirit of Alaska Award.
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Round of 16, second leg. Progressing teams shown in bold.
A.C. Milan 4–1 Bayern Munich
Liverpool 0–2 Benfica
Arsenal 0–0 Real Madrid
Lyon 4–0 PSV
The final fixture, Internazionale v Ajax will take place on Tuesday March 14,.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool B
Canada defeats South Africa 11–8.
Canada defeats the United States 8–6.
Pool C
Puerto Rico defeats Panama 2–1
Cuba defeats Panama 8–6 after 11 innings
Pool D: Italy defeats Australia 10–0
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Northeast Conference: Monmouth 49, Fairleigh Dickinson 48
Big Sky Conference: Montana 73, Northern Arizona 60
NBA:
Los Angeles Lakers 113, NO/OKC Hornets 107: In the first major sporting event in New Orleans since Hurricane Katrina, a sellout crowd at the New Orleans Arena sees Kobe Bryant score 40 points to lead the Lakers to the win.
March 7, 2006 (Tuesday)
Football: 2005–06 UEFA Champions League – Round of 16, second leg. Progressing teams shown in bold.
FC Barcelona 1–1 Chelsea
Villarreal 1–1 Rangers
Juventus 2–1 Werder Bremen
Villarreal and Juventus win on away goals.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool D: Dominican Republic defeats Venezuela 11–5
Pool B: United States defeats Mexico 2–0
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Mid-Continent Conference: Oral Roberts 85, Chicago State 72
Horizon League: Milwaukee 87, Butler 71
Sun Belt Conference: South Alabama 95, Western Kentucky 70
March 6, 2006 (Monday)
Baseball: Hall of Famer Kirby Puckett dies at age 45 in a Phoenix hospital the day after suffering a stroke.
Major League Soccer: After controversy over their original chosen nickname being potentially offensive to Hispanics, the Houston 1836 Football Club rename themselves to the Houston Dynamo. The team unveiled their new name and logo (with the same colors of orange, black and white) on the 170th anniversary of the end of the Battle of the Alamo.
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Colonial Athletic Association: UNC-Wilmington 78, Hofstra 67
MAAC: Iona 80, Saint Peter's 61
West Coast Conference: (4) Gonzaga 68, Loyola Marymount 67
March 5, 2006 (Sunday)
Dogsled racing: The Iditarod XXXIV restarts in Willow. This marks the beginning of the competitive portion of the race.
NCAA Men's College Basketball
(4) Villanova 92, Syracuse 82: In the first advance sellout for basketball ever at the Carrier Dome, Allan Ray scores 28 points and Randy Foye adds 21 for the Wildcats to spoil Gerry McNamara's last regular-season game. McNamara led all scorers with 29.
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Davidson 80, Chattanooga 55: The Wildcats exorcised the demons of last season, in which they went 16–0 in the Southern Conference but lost in the conference tournament, by crushing the Mocs.
Southern Illinois 59, Bradley 46: The Salukis eased to the Missouri Valley Conference title.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool A: South Korea defeats Japan 3–2, both advance to round two
Baseball Hall of Fame center fielder Kirby Puckett, a superstar of the Minnesota Twins from 1984 to 1995, suffers a stroke in his Scottsdale, Arizona home.
Association football: Sydney FC defeats the Central Coast Mariners 1–0 in the inaugural A-League Grand Final to become 2005–06 Champions. (Fox Sports)
March 4, 2006 (Saturday)
Dogsled racing: The ceremonial start the Iditarod XXXIV begins in Anchorage, Alaska. Eighty-three mushers and their teams of dogs are competing. The race runs more than 1,049 mi (1,600+ km) to Nome, across the United States state of Alaska.
Baseball: World Baseball Classic
Pool A
Japan defeats Chinese Taipei 14–3
South Korea defeats China 10–1
Rugby union: Super 14, Round 4
Waratahs 31–16 Sharks in Sydney
The Waratahs scored three tries to one, missing several opportunities in the final 10 minutes to get a fourth for a bonus point.
Crusaders 39–10 Blues in Christchurch.
The Blues led the Crusaders at half-time 10–9, despite having Joe Rokocoko sin-binned shortly before the interval. However the Crusaders performed well in the second half, keeping the Blues tryless, with Richie McCaw scoring 2 tries in a win over their biggest rivals.
Stormers 15–30 Highlanders in Cape Town.
The Highlanders won their second game in a row in South Africa, with wing Roy Kinikinilau scoring twice in the first half. TVZN
Cheetahs 27–25 Hurricanes in Bloemfontein
Super 14 newcomers the Cheetahs upset the Hurricanes, whose three previous matches all resulted in bonus point wins.
Cricket: West Indies in New Zealand
Match five in the five match series, New Zealand led the series 4–0 (before match).
The West Indies defeat New Zealand by 3 wickets with 2 balls to spare. New Zealand win series 4–1.
New Zealand won the toss, electing to bat, with Scott Styris scoring 90 and Dwayne Smith taking 5–45, New Zealand ending all out on 233. Good opening bowling spells from Kyle Mills and Shane Bond restricted the West Indies to just 10–1 off 10 overs. After that, every batsmen made contributions and the West Indies got home in a tight match to avoid a whitewash.
NCAA Men's College Basketball
(15) North Carolina 83, (1) Duke 76: The Tar Heels took control with an 11–0 run midway through the second half, and held on to spoil the Blue Devils' Senior Night at Cameron Indoor Stadium. Tyler Hansbrough led the Heels with 27 points; JJ Redick and Shelden Williams had 18 apiece for Duke.
Conference championship games (winners, in bold, advance to the NCAA tournament):
Belmont 74, Lipscomb 69 (OT): The Bruins won the latest incarnation of the Battle of the Boulevard, though not in Nashville, to earn the Atlantic Sun Conference title and their first NCAA berth ever.
Winthrop 51, Coastal Carolina 50: Craig Bradshaw's basket with 9.1 seconds left gave the Eagles the Big South Conference title.
Murray State 74, Samford 57: The Racers eased to the Ohio Valley Conference title.
Boxing:
Miguel Cotto defeats Gianluca Branco by an eighth-round technical knockout, to retain his WBO world Jr. Welterweight title in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. AOL.com
Joe Calzaghe unifies his WBO world Super Middleweight title with the IBF one by defeating Jeff Lacy by a unanimous twelve rounds decision in Manchester, England. AOL.com
March 3, 2006 (Friday)
Cricket: Australia in South Africa
Match two in the five match ODI series.
South Africa defeat Australia by 196 runs.
South Africa made 289/7 off their 50 overs, with Herschelle Gibbs top scoring with 66. In reply, Australia crumbled without Ricky Ponting or Andrew Symonds, both unavailable for the match, making just 93 runs. Makhaya Ntini picked up 6–22 off 9.3 overs, his best figures in an ODI.
Baseball: The inaugural World Baseball Classic begins.
Pool A
Japan defeats China 18–2 (invoking the mercy rule)
South Korea defeats Chinese Taipei 2–0
Rugby union: Super 14, Round 4
Chiefs 35–17 Reds in Hamilton
The Chiefs got off to a good start in their home opener with a try in the first ten minutes. The Reds fought back, but the Chiefs ran away with the game in the second half, with Stephen Donald scoring 20 points. The Chiefs picked up a bonus point with four tries.
Brumbies 28–7 Cats in Canberra.
The Brumbies had their first win at home this season, scoring 3 tries in their win. However, the Brumbies missed out on a bonus point, kicking the ball away twice in injury time. The loss was the Cats second in a row.
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Penn becomes the first team to clinch a berth to this year's NCAA tournament. Their 57–55 win over Yale, combined with a 61–46 Brown defeat of Princeton, gives the Quakers the Ivy League title with two games to play. Penn qualifies as regular-season champion, as the Ivy League is the only Division I conference that does not conduct a postseason tournament.
March 2, 2006 (Thursday)
NFL Football: As a result of the labor negotiations stalemate between the NFL Players and the owners, the league extends the start of the Free Agency period for a few days.
NCAA Men's College Basketball
UAB 80, (3) Memphis 74: The Blazers deny the Tigers an unbeaten Conference USA campaign, holding them scoreless for more than 8 minutes near the end of the game. This was the first road loss of the season for the Tigers.
Squash: One day after regaining the World No. 1 ranking, Jonathon Power announced his retirement from professional squash.
March 1, 2006 (Wednesday)
Cricket
West Indies in New Zealand
Match 4 in the 5 match One Day International series.
New Zealand defeat the West Indies by 91 runs in Napier. New Zealand go up 4–0.
New Zealand continued their fine form this series, with Lou Vincent scoring 102 in the Black Caps 324–6 off 50 overs. In reply, the inability to create and maintain partnerships cost the West Indies any chance at winning, with only Runako Morton scoring more the fifty, going on to make 110 not out. The West Indies will be hoping the arrival of Brian Lara can inspire them to avoid a whitewash in the final match in Auckland. cricinfo
NCAA Men's College Basketball
Florida State 79, (1) Duke 74: Despite 30 points from JJ Redick and 20 from Shelden Williams, the Blue Devils go down to their first ACC defeat of the season in Tallahassee.
Football results: Friendly internationals. With exactly 100 days to the start of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, managers try to finalise their squads:
Switzerland 3 – Scotland 1 (Reuters).
Northern Ireland 1 – Estonia 0 (Reuters).
England 2 – Uruguay 1 (Reuters).
Wales 0 – Paraguay 0 (Reuters).
Republic of Ireland 3 – Sweden 0
Russia 0 – Brazil 1
Italy 4 – Germany 1
France 1 – Slovakia 2
Netherlands 1 – Ecuador 0
Portugal 3 – Saudi Arabia 0
Spain 3 – Ivory Coast 2
Poland 0 – United States 1
Belgium 2 – Luxembourg 0 Match abandoned after 64 minutes due to a snowstorm.
Macedonia 0 – Bulgaria 1
Israel 0 – Denmark 2
Croatia 3 – Argentina 2
In a dramatic match, Croatia's Ivan Klasnić scored in the 3rd minute, but was canceled thirty seconds later by a Carlos Tevez goal, and two minutes later Lionel Messi gave Argentina the lead. Darijo Srna equalised late in the second half and Dario Šimić scored an injury time header to give victory to Croatia. (Fox Sports Australia)
Iran 3 – Costa Rica 2 (Soccerway), (Guardian)
References
03 |
4238684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-quadruplex | G-quadruplex | In molecular biology, G-quadruplex secondary structures (G4) are formed in nucleic acids by sequences that are rich in guanine. They are helical in shape and contain guanine tetrads that can form from one, two or four strands. The unimolecular forms often occur naturally near the ends of the chromosomes, better known as the telomeric regions, and in transcriptional regulatory regions of multiple genes, both in microbes and across vertebrates including oncogenes in humans. Four guanine bases can associate through Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding to form a square planar structure called a guanine tetrad (G-tetrad or G-quartet), and two or more guanine tetrads (from G-tracts, continuous runs of guanine) can stack on top of each other to form a G-quadruplex.
The placement and bonding to form G-quadruplexes is not random and serve very unusual functional purposes. The quadruplex structure is further stabilized by the presence of a cation, especially potassium, which sits in a central channel between each pair of tetrads. They can be formed of DNA, RNA, LNA, and PNA, and may be intramolecular, bimolecular, or tetramolecular. Depending on the direction of the strands or parts of a strand that form the tetrads, structures may be described as parallel or antiparallel. G-quadruplex structures can be computationally predicted from DNA or RNA sequence motifs, but their actual structures can be quite varied within and between the motifs, which can number over 100,000 per genome. Their activities in basic genetic processes are an active area of research in telomere, gene regulation, and functional genomics research.
History
The identification of structures with a high guanine association became apparent in the early 1960s, through the identification of gel-like substances associated with guanines. More specifically, this research detailed the four-stranded DNA structures with a high association of guanines, which was later identified in eukaryotic telomeric regions of DNA in the 1980s. The importance of discovering G-quadruplex structure was described through the statement, “If G-quadruplexes form so readily in vitro, Nature will have found a way of using them in vivo” - Aaron Klug, Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry (1982). Interest in in vivo function of G-quadruplexes surged after large scale genome-wide analysis showed the prevalence of potential G-quadruplex (pG4)-forming sequences within gene promoters of human, chimpanzee, mouse, and rat - presented in the First International G-quadruplex Meeting held in April 2007 in Louisville, Kentucky. In 2006, the prevalence of G-quadruplexes within gene promoters of several bacterial genomes was reported predicting G-quadruplex-mediated gene regulation. With the abundance of G-quadruplexes in vivo, these structures hold a biologically relevant role through interactions with the promoter regions of oncogenes and the telomeric regions of DNA strands. Current research consists of identifying the biological function of these G-Quadruplex structures for specific oncogenes and discovering effective therapeutic treatments for cancer based on interactions with G-quadruplexes. Early evidence for the formation of G-quadruplexes in vivo in cells was established by isolating them from cells, and later by the observation that specific DNA helicases could be identified where small molecules specific for these DNA structures accumulated in cells.
Topology
The length of the nucleic acid sequences involved in tetrad formation determines how the quadruplex folds. Short sequences, consisting of only a single contiguous run of three or more guanine bases, require four individual strands to form a quadruplex. Such a quadruplex is described as tetramolecular, reflecting the requirement of four separate strands. The term G4 DNA was originally reserved for these tetramolecular structures that might play a role in meiosis. However, as currently used in molecular biology, the term G4 can mean G-quadruplexes of any molecularity. Longer sequences, which contain two contiguous runs of three or more guanine bases, where the guanine regions are separated by one or more bases, only require two such sequences to provide enough guanine bases to form a quadruplex. These structures, formed from two separate G-rich strands, are termed bimolecular quadruplexes. Finally, sequences which contain four distinct runs of guanine bases can form stable quadruplex structures by themselves, and a quadruplex formed entirely from a single strand is called an intramolecular quadruplex.
Depending on how the individual runs of guanine bases are arranged in a bimolecular or intramolecular quadruplex, a quadruplex can adopt one of a number of topologies with varying loop configurations. If all strands of DNA proceed in the same direction, the quadruplex is termed parallel. For intramolecular quadruplexes, this means that any loop regions present must be of the propeller type, positioned to the sides of the quadruplex. If one or more of the runs of guanine bases has a 5’-3’ direction opposite to the other runs of guanine bases, the quadruplex is said to have adopted an antiparallel topology. The loops joining runs of guanine bases in intramolecular antiparallel quadruplexes are either diagonal, joining two diagonally opposite runs of guanine bases, or lateral (edgewise) type loops, joining two adjacent runs of guanine base pairs.
In quadruplexes formed from double-stranded DNA, possible interstrand topologies have also been discussed
.
Interstrand quadruplexes contain guanines that originate from both strands of dsDNA.
Structure and functional role in genome
Following sequencing of the human genome, many guanine-rich sequences that had the potential to form quadruplexes were discovered. Depending on cell type and cell cycle, mediating factors such as DNA-binding proteins on chromatin, composed of DNA tightly wound around histone proteins, and other environmental conditions and stresses affect the dynamic formation of quadruplexes. For instance, quantitative assessments of the thermodynamics of molecular crowding indicate that the antiparallel g-quadruplex is stabilized by molecular crowding. This effect seems to be mediated by alteration of the hydration of the DNA and its effect on Hoogsteen base pair bonding. These quadruplexes seemed to readily occur at the ends of chromosome. In addition, the propensity of g-quadruplex formation during transcription in RNA sequences with the potential to form mutually exclusive hairpin or G-quadruplex structures depends heavily on the position of the hairpin-forming sequence.
Because repair enzymes would naturally recognize ends of linear chromosomes as damaged DNA and would process them as such to harmful effect for the cell, clear signaling and tight regulation is needed at the ends of linear chromosomes. Telomeres function to provide this signaling. Telomeres, rich in guanine and with a propensity to form g-quadruplexes, are located at the terminal ends of chromosomes and help maintain genome integrity by protecting these vulnerable terminal ends from instability.
These telomeric regions are characterized by long regions of double-stranded CCCTAA:TTAGGG repeats. The repeats end with a 3’ protrusion of between 10 and 50 single-stranded TTAGGG repeats. The heterodimeric complex ribonucleoprotein enzyme telomerase adds TTAGGG repeats at the 3’ end of DNA strands. At these 3’ end protrusions, the G-rich overhang can form secondary structures such as G-quadruplexes if the overhang is longer than four TTAGGG repeats. The presence of these structures prevent telomere elongation by the telomerase complex.
Telomeric quadruplexes
Telomeric repeats in a variety of organisms have been shown to form these quadruplex structures in vitro, and subsequently they have also been shown to form in vivo. The human telomeric repeat (which is the same for all vertebrates) consists of many repeats of the sequenced (TTAGGG), and the quadruplexes formed by this structure can be in bead-like structures of 5 nm to 8 nm in size and have been well studied by NMR, TEM and X-ray crystal structure determination. The formation of these quadruplexes in telomeres has been shown to decrease the activity of the enzyme telomerase, which is responsible for maintaining length of telomeres and is involved in around 85% of all cancers. This is an active target of drug discovery, including telomestatin.
Non-telomeric quadruplexes
Quadruplexes are present in locations other than at the telomere. Analysis of human, chimpanzee, mouse and rat genomes showed enormous number of potential G-quadruplex (pG4)-forming sequences in non-telomeric regions. A large number of the non-telomeric G-quadruplexes were found within gene promoters, and were conserved across the species. Similarly, large number of G-quadruplexes were found in the E. coli and hundreds of other microbial genomes. Here also, like vertebrates G-quadruplexes were enriched within gene promoters. In addition, there was found more than one-billion-year conserved G-quadruplex locus in plants and algae, in gene encoding large subunit of RNA polymerase II. Although these studies predicted G-quadruplex-mediated gene regulation, it is unlikely that all pG4s would form in vivo. The proto-oncogene c-myc forms a quadruplex in a nuclease hypersensitive region critical for gene activity. Other genes shown to form G-quadruplexes in their promoter regions include the chicken β-globin gene, human ubiquitin-ligase RFP2, and the proto-oncogenes c-kit, bcl-2, VEGF, H-ras and N-ras.
Genome-wide surveys based on a quadruplex folding rule have been performed, which have identified 376,000 Putative Quadruplex Sequences (PQS) in the human genome, although not all of these probably form in vivo. A similar studies have identified putative G-quadruplexes in prokaryotes, namely the bacterium E. coli. There are several possible models for how quadruplexes could influence gene activity, either by upregulation or downregulation. One model is shown below, with G-quadruplex formation in or near a promoter blocking transcription of the gene, and hence de-activating it. In another model, quadruplex formed at the non-coding DNA strand helps to maintain an open conformation of the coding DNA strand and enhance an expression of the respective gene.
Function
It has been suggested that quadruplex formation plays a role in immunoglobulin heavy chain switching. As cells have evolved mechanisms for resolving (i.e., unwinding) quadruplexes that form. Quadruplex formation may be potentially damaging for a cell; the helicases WRN and Bloom syndrome protein have a high affinity for resolving DNA G-quadruplexes. The DEAH/RHA helicase, DHX36, has also been identified as a key G-quadruplex resolvase. In 2009, a metastasis suppressor protein NM23H2 (also known as NME2) was found to directly interact with G-quadruplex in the promoter of the c-myc gene, and transcriptionally regulate c-myc. More recently, NM23H2 was reported to interact with G-quadruplex in the promoter of the human telomerase (hTERT) gene and regulate hTERT expression In 2019, the telomere-binding-factor-2 (TRF2 or TERF2) was shown to bind to thousands of non-telomeric G-quadruplexes in the human genome by TRF2 ChIP-seq. There are many studies that implicate quadruplexes in both positive and negative transcriptional regulation, including epigenetic regulation of genes like hTERT. Function of G-quadruplexes have also been reported in allowing programmed recombination of immunologlobin heavy genes and the pilin antigenic variation system of the pathogenic Neisseria. The roles of quadruplex structure in translation control are not as well explored. The direct visualization of G-quadruplex structures in human cells as well as the co-crystal structure of an RNA helicase bound to a G-quadruplex have provided important confirmations of their relevance to cell biology. The potential positive and negative roles of quadruplexes in telomere replication and function remains controversial. T-loops and G-quadruplexes are described as the two tertiary DNA structures that protect telomere ends and regulate telomere length.
Genome Regulation through formation of G-quadruplex structures
Many of the genome regulatory processes have been linked to the formation of G-quadruplex structures, attributable to the huge role it plays in DNA repair of apurinic/apyrimidinic sites also known as AP sites. A new technique to map AP sites has been developed known as AP-seq which utilizes a biotin-labeled aldehyde-reactive probe (ARP) to tag certain regions of the genome where AP site damage occurrence has been significant. Another genome-wide mapping sequencing method known as ChIP-sequencing, was utilized to map both; damage in AP sites, and the enzyme responsible for its repair, AP endonuclease 1 (APE1). Both of these genome-wide mapping sequencing methods, ChIP-sequencing and ARP, have indicated that AP site damage occurrence is nonrandom. AP site damage was also more prevalent in certain regions of the genome that contain specific active promoter and enhancer markers, some of which were linked to regions responsible for lung adenocarcinoma and colon cancer. AP site damage was found to be predominant in PQS regions of the genome, where formation of G-quadruplex structures is regulated and promoted by the DNA repair process, base excision repair (BER). Base excision repair processes in cells have been proved to be reduced with aging as its components in the mitochondria begin to decline, which can lead to the formation of many diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). These G-quadruplex structures are said to be formed in the promoter regions of DNA through superhelicity, which favors the unwinding of the double helical structure of DNA and in turn loops the strands to form G-quadruplex structures in guanine rich regions. The BER pathway is signalled when it indicates an oxidative DNA base damage, where structures like, 8-Oxoguanine-DNA glycosylase 1 (OGG1), APE1 and G-quadruplex play a huge role in its repair. These enzymes participate in BER to repair certain DNA lesions such as 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), which forms under oxidative stress to guanine bases.
Role of Endogenous Oxidized DNA Base Damage on G4 formation
Guanine (G) bases in G-quadruplex have the lowest redox potential causing it to be more susceptible to the formation of 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), an endogenous oxidized DNA base damage in the genome. Due to Guanine having a lower electron reduction potential than the other nucleotides bases,8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), is a known major product of DNA oxidation. Its concentration is used as a measurement of oxidative stress within a cell. When DNA undergoes oxidative damage, a possible structural change in guanine, after ionizing radiation, gives rise to an enol form, 8-OH-Gua. This oxidative product is formed through a tautomeric shift from the original damage guanine, 8-oxo-Gua, and represents DNA damage that causes changes in the structure. This form allows for the base excision repair (BER) enzyme OGG1 to bind and remove the oxidative damage with the help of APE1, resulting in an AP site. Moreover, an AP site is a location in DNA that has neither a purine or a pyrimidine base due to DNA damage, they are the most prevalent type of endogenous DNA damage in cells. AP sites can be generated spontaneously or after the cleavage of modified bases, like 8-OH-Gua. The generation of an AP site enables the melting of the duplex DNA to unmask the PQS, adopting a G-quadruplex fold. With the use of genome-wide ChIP-sequencing analyses, cell-based assays, and in vitro biochemical analyses, a connection has been made between oxidized DNA base-derived AP sites, and the formation of the G-quadruplex.
DNA Oxidation Contribution to Diseases
Furthermore, the concentration of 8-oxo-dG is a known biomarker of oxidative stress within a cell, and excessive amount of oxidative stress has been linked to carcinogenesis and other diseases. When produced, 8-oxo-dG, has the ability to inactivate OGG1, thus preventing the repair of DNA damage caused by the oxidation of guanine. The possible inactivation allows for un-repaired DNA damages to gather in non-replicating cells, like muscle, and can cause aging as well. Moreover, oxidative DNA damage like 8-oxo-dG contributes to carcinogenesis through the modulation of gene expression, or the induction of mutations. On the condition that 8-oxo-dG is repaired by BER, parts of the repair protein is left behind which can lead to epigenetic alterations, or the modulation of gene expression. Upon insertion of 8-oxo-dG into thymidine kinase gene of humans, it was determine that if 8-oxo-dG was left unchecked and not repaired by BER, it can lead to frequent mutations and eventually carcinogenesis.
APE1 role in Gene Regulation
AP endonuclease 1 (APE1) is an enzyme responsible for the promotion and the formation of G-quadruplex structures. APE1 is mainly in charge of repairing damage caused to AP sites through the BER pathway. APE1 is considered to be very crucial as AP site damage is known to be the most recurring type of endogenous damage to DNA. The oxidation of certain purine bases, like guanine, forms oxidized nucleotides that impairs DNA function by mismatching nucleotides in the sequences. This is more common in PQS sequences which form oxidized structures, such as 8-oxoguanine. Once the cell is aware of oxidative stress and damage, it recruits OGG1 to the site, whose main function is to initiate the BER pathway. OGG1 does so by cleaving the oxidized base and thus creating an AP site, primarily through the process of negative superhelicity. This AP site then signals cells to engage APE1 binding, which binds to the open duplex region. The binding of APE1 then plays an important role by stabilizing the formation of G-quadruplex structures in that region. This promotes formation of G-quadruplex structures by the folding of the stand. This looping process brings four bases in close proximity that will be held together by Hoogsteen base pairing. After this stage the APE1 gets acetylated by multiple lysine residues on the chromatin, forming acetylated APE1 (AcAPE1). AcAPE1 is very crucial to the BER pathway as it acts as a transcriptional coactivator or corepressor, functioning to load transcription factors (TF) into the site of damage allowing it to regulate the gene expression. AcAPE1 is also very important since it allows APE1 to bind for longer periods of time by delay of its dissociation from the sequence, allowing the repair process to be more efficient. Deacetylation of AcAPE1 is the driving force behind the loading of these TFs, where APE1 dissociates from the G-quadruplex structures. When a study downregulated the presence of APE1 and AcAPE1 in the cell, the formation of G-quadruplex structures was inhibited, which proves the importance of APE1 for the formation of these structures. However, not all G-quadruplex structures require APE1 for formation, in fact some of them formed greater G-quadruplex structures in its absence. Therefore, we can conclude that APE1 has two important roles in genome regulation- Stabilizing the formation of g-quadruplex structures and loading the transcriptional factors onto the AP site
Cancer
Telomeres
G-quadruplex forming sequences are prevalent in eukaryotic cells, especially in telomeres, 5` untranslated strands, and translocation hot spots. G-quadruplexes can inhibit normal cell function, and in healthy cells, are easily and readily unwound by helicase. However, in cancer cells that have mutated helicase these complexes cannot be unwound and leads to potential damage of the cell. This causes replication of damaged and cancerous cells. For therapeutic advances, stabilizing the G-quadruplexes of cancerous cells can inhibit cell growth and replication leading to the cell's death.
Promoter Regions
Along with the association of G-quadruplexes in telomeric regions of DNA, G-quadruplex structures have been identified in various human proto-oncogene promoter regions. The structures most present in the promoter regions of these oncogenes tend to be parallel-stranded G-quadruplex DNA structures. Some of these oncogenes include c-KIT, PDGF-A, c-Myc and VEGF, showing the importance of this secondary structure in cancer growth and development. While the formation of G-quadruplex structure vary to some extent for the different promoter regions of oncogenes, the consistent stabilization of these structures have been found in cancer development. Current therapeutic research actively focuses on targeting this stabilization of G-quadruplex structures to arrest unregulated cell growth and division.
One particular gene region, the c-myc pathway, plays an integral role in the regulation of a protein product, c-Myc. With this product, the c-Myc protein functions in the processes of apoptosis and cell growth or development and as a transcriptional control on human telomerase reverse transcriptase. Interaction of c-Myc promoter G-quadruplex with NM23H2 was shown to regulate c-Myc in cancer cells in 2009
Regulation of c-myc through Human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) is also directly regulated through promoter G-quadruplex by interaction with the transcription factor NM23H2 where epigenetic modifications were dependent on NM23H2-G-quadruplex association. Recently, hTERT epigenetic regulation reported to be mediated through interaction of hTERT promoter G-quadruplex with the telomeric factor TRF2.
Another gene pathway deals with the VEGF gene, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, which remains involved in the process of angiogenesis or the formation of new blood vessels. The formation of an intramolecular G-quadruplex structure has been shown through studies on the polypurine tract of the promoter region of the VEGF gene. Through recent research on the role of G-quadruplex function in vivo, the stabilization of G-quadruplex structures was shown to regulate VEGF gene transcription, with inhibition of transcription factors in this pathway. The intramolecular G-quadruplex structures are formed mostly through the abundant guanine sequence in the promoter region of this specific pathway. The cyclin-dependent cell cycle checkpoint kinase inhibitor-1 CDKN1A (also known as p21) gene harbours promoter G-quadruplex. Interaction of this G-quadruplex with TRF2 (also known as TERF2) resulted in epigenetic regulation of p21, which was tested using the G-quadruplex-binding ligand 360A.
Hypoxia inducible factor 1ɑ, HIF-1ɑ, remains involved in cancer signaling through its binding to Hypoxia Response Element, HRE, in the presence of hypoxia to begin the process of angiogenesis. Through recent research into this specific gene pathway, the polypurine and polypyrimidine region allows for the transcription of this specific gene and the formation of an intramolecular G-quadruplex structure. However, more research is necessary to determine whether the formation of G-quadruplex regulates the expression of this gene in a positive or negative manner.
The c-kit oncogene deals with a pathway that encodes an RTK, which was shown to have elevated expression levels in certain types of cancer. The rich guanine sequence of this promoter region has shown the ability to form a variety of quadruplexes. Current research on this pathway is focusing on discovering the biological function of this specific quadruplex formation on the c-kit pathway, while this quadruplex sequence has been noticed in various species.
The RET oncogene functions in the transcription of kinase which has been abundant in certain types of cancer. The guanine rich sequence in the promoter region for this pathway exudes a necessity for baseline transcription of this receptor tyrosine kinase. In certain types of cancers, the RET protein has shown increased expression levels. The research on this pathway suggested the formation of a G-quadruplex in the promoter region and an applicable target for therapeutic treatments.
Another oncogene pathway involving PDGF-A, platelet-derived growth factor, involves the process of wound healing and function as mitogenic growth factors for cells. High levels of expression of PDGF have been associated with increased cell growth and cancer. The presence of a guanine-rich sequence in the promoter region of PDGF-A has exhibited the ability to form intramolecular parallel G-quadruplex structures and remains suggested to play a role in transcriptional regulation of PDGF-A. However, research has also identified the presence of G-quadruplex structures within this region due to the interaction of TMPyP4 with this promoter sequence.
Therapeutics
Telomeres are generally made up of G-quadruplexes and remain important targets for therapeutic research and discoveries. These complexes have a high affinity for porphyrin rings which makes them effective anticancer agents. However, TMPyP4 has been limited for used due to its non-selectivity toward cancer cell telomeres and normal double stranded DNA (dsDNA). To address this issue analog of TMPyP4, it was synthesized known as 5Me which targets only G quadruplex DNA which inhibits cancer growth more effectively than TMPyP4.
Ligand design and development remains an important field of research into therapeutic reagents due to the abundance of G-quadruplexes and their multiple conformational differences. One type of ligand involving a Quindoline derivative, SYUIQ-05, utilizes the stabilization of G-quadruplexes in promoter regions to inhibit the production of both the c-Myc protein product and the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT). This main pathway of targeting this region results in the lack of telomerase elongation, leading to arrested cell development. Further research remains necessary for the discovery of a single gene target to minimize unwanted reactivity with more efficient antitumor activity.
Ligands which bind quadruplexes
One way of inducing or stabilizing G-quadruplex formation is to introduce a molecule which can bind to the G-quadruplex structure. A number of ligands, which can be both small molecules and proteins, can bind to the G-quadruplex. These ligands can be naturally occurring or synthetic. This has become an increasingly large field of research in genetics, biochemistry, and pharmacology.
Cationic porphyrins have been shown to bind intercalatively with G-quadruplexes, as well as the molecule telomestatin.
The binding of ligands to G-quadruplexes is vital for anti-cancer pursuits because G-quadruplexes are found typically at translocation hot spots. MM41, a ligand that binds selectively for a quadruplex on the BCL-2 promoter, is shaped with a central core and 4 side chains branching sterically out. The shape of the ligand is vital because it closely matches the quadruplex which has stacked quartets and the loops of nucleic acids holding it together. When bound, MM41's central chromophore is situated on top of the 3’ terminal G-quartet and the side chains of the ligand associate to the loops of the quadruplex. The quartet and the chromophore are bound with a π-π bond while the side chains and loops are not bound but are in close proximity. What makes this binding strong is the fluidity in the position of the loops to better associate with the ligand side chains.
TMPyP4, a cationic porphyrin, is a more well known G4 binding ligand that helps to repress c-Myc. The way in which TMPyP4 binds to G4's is similar to MM41, with the ring stacking onto the external G-quartet and side chains associating to the loops of G4's.
When designing ligands to be bound to G-quadruplexes, the ligands have a higher affinity for parallel folded G-quadruplexes. It has been found that ligands with smaller side chains bind better to the quadruplex because smaller ligands have more concentrated electron density. Furthermore, the hydrogen bonds of ligands with smaller side chains are shorter and therefore stronger. Ligands with mobile side chains, ones that are able to rotate around its center chromophore, associate more strongly to G-quadruplexes because conformation of the G4 loops and the ligand side chains can align.
Quadruplex prediction techniques
Identifying and predicting sequences which have the capacity to form quadruplexes is an important tool in further understanding their role. Generally, a simple pattern match is used for searching for possible intrastrand quadruplex forming sequences: d(G3+N1-7G3+N1-7G3+N1-7G3+), where N is any nucleotide base (including guanine). This rule has been widely used in on-line algorithms. Although the rule effectively identifies sites of G-quadruplex formation, it also identifies a subset of the imperfect homopurine mirror repeats capable of triplex formation and C-strand i-motif formation. Moreover, these sequences also have the capacity to form slipped and foldback structures that are implicit intermediates in the formation of both quadruplex and triplex DNA structures. In one study, it was found that the observed number per base pair (i.e. the frequency) of these motifs has increased rapidly in the eumetazoa for which complete genomic sequences are available. This suggests that the sequences may be under positive selection enabled by the evolution of systems capable of suppressing non-B structure formation.
More recently, advanced web-based toolboxes for identifying G-quadruplex forming sequences were developed, including user-friendly and open access version of G4Hunter based on sliding window approach or G4RNA Screener based on machine learning algorithm.
Methods for studying G-quadruplexes
A number of experimental methods have been developed to identify G-quadruplexes. These methods can be broadly defined into two classes: biophysical and biochemical methods.
Biochemical methods
Biochemical techniques were employed to interrogate G-quadruplex formation in a longer sequence context. In the DNA polymerase stop assay, the formation of a G-quadruplex in a DNA template can act as a roadblock and cause polymerase stalling, which halts the primer extension. The dimethyl sulfate (DMS) followed by the piperidine cleavage assay is based on the fact that the formation of a G-quadruplex will prohibit the N7 guanine methylation caused by DMS, leading to a protection pattern observed at the DNA G-quadruplex region after piperidine cleavage.
Biophysical methods
The topology of the G-quadruplex structure can be determined by monitoring the positive or negative circular dichroism (CD) signals at specific wavelengths. Parallel G-quadruplexes have negative and positive CD signals at 240 and 262 nm, respectively, whereas antiparallel G-quadruplexes place these signals at 262 and 295 nm, respectively. To verify G-quadruplex formation, one should also perform the CD experiments under non-G-quadruplex stabilizing (Li+) and G-quadruplex stabilizing conditions (such as K+ or with G-quadruplex ligands), and scan toward the far-UV region (180–230 nm). Likewise, the thermostability of the G-quadruplex structure can be identified by observing the UV signal at 295 nm. Upon G-quadruplex melting, the UV absorbance at 295 nm decreases, leading to a hypochromic shift that is a distinctive feature of G-quadruplex structure. Another approach for detection of G-quadruplexes includes nanopore-based methods. Firstly, it was shown that biological nanopores can detect G-quadruplexes based on size exclusion and specific interaction of G-quadruplex and protein nanocavity. The novel approach combines solid-state nanopores and DNA nanotechnology for label-free detection of G-quadruplexes, for their mapping on dsDNA, and for monitoring G-quadruplex formation.
Role in neurological disorders
G-quadruplexes have been implicated in neurological disorders through two main mechanisms. The first is through expansions of G-repeats within genes that lead to the formation of G-quadruplex structures that directly cause disease, as is the case with the C9orf72 gene and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The second mechanism is through mutations that affect the expression of G-quadruplex binding proteins, as seen in the fragile X mental retardation gene 1 (FMR1) gene and Fragile X Syndrome.
The C9orf72 gene codes for the protein C9orf72 which is found throughout the brain in neuronal cytoplasm and at presynaptic terminals. Mutations of the C9orf72 gene have been linked to the development of FTD and ALS. These two diseases have a causal relationship to GGGGCC (G4C2) repeats within the 1st intron of C9orf72 gene. Normal individuals typically have around 2 to 8 G4C2 repeats, but individuals with FTD or ALS have from 500 to several thousand G4C2 repeats. The transcribed RNA of these repeats have been shown to form stable G-quadruplexes, with evidence showing that the G4C2 repeats in DNA have the ability to form mixed parallel-antiparallel G-quadruplex structures as well. These RNA transcripts containing G4C2 repeats were shown to bind and separate a wide variety of proteins, including nucleolin. Nucleolin is involved in the synthesis and maturation of ribosomes within the nucleus, and separation of nucleolin by the mutated RNA transcripts impairs nucleolar function and ribosomal RNA synthesis.
Fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) is a widely expressed protein coded by the FMR1 gene that binds to G-quadruplex secondary structures in neurons and is involved in synaptic plasticity. FMRP acts as a negative regulator of translation, and its binding stabilizes G-quadruplex structures in mRNA transcripts, inhibiting ribosome elongation of mRNA in the neuron's dendrite and controlling the timing of the transcript's expression. Mutations of this gene can cause the development of Fragile X Syndrome, autism, and other neurological disorders. Specifically, Fragile X Syndrome is caused by an increase from 50 to over 200 CGG repeats within exon 13 of the FMR1 gene. This repeat expansion promotes DNA methylation and other epigenetic heterochromatin modifications of FMR1 that prevent the transcription of the gene, leading to pathological low levels of FMRP.
Therapeutic approaches
Antisense-mediated interventions and small-molecule ligands are common strategies used to target neurological diseases linked to G-quadruplex expansion repeats. Therefore, these techniques are especially advantageous for targeting neurological diseases that have a gain-of-function mechanism, which is when the altered gene product has a new function or new expression of a gene; this has been detected in the C9orf72 (chromosome 9 open reading frame 72).
Antisense therapy is the process by which synthesized strands of nucleic acids are used to bind directly and specifically to the mRNA produced by a certain gene, which will inactivate it. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are commonly used to target C9orf72 RNA of the G-quadruplex GGGGCC expansion repeat region, which has lowered the toxicity in cellular models of C9orf72. ASOs have previously been used to restore normal phenotypes in other neurological diseases that have gain-of-function mechanisms, the only difference is that it was used in the absence of G-quadruplex expansion repeat regions.
The G-quadruplex decoy strategy is another promising approach for targeting cancer cells by exploiting the unique structural features of the G-quadruplex. The strategy involves designing synthetic oligonucleotides that mimic the G-quadruplex structure and compete with the endogenous G-quadruplexes for binding to transcription factors. These decoys are typically composed of a G-rich sequence that can form a stable G-quadruplex structure and a short linker region that can be modified to optimize their properties. When introduced to cancer cells the decoy can intercept associated transcription factors and bind them leading to the regulation of gene expression. Decoys have been successfully demonstrated to inhibit oncogenic KRAS in SCID mice leading to reduced tumour growth and increased median survival time.
Another commonly used technique is the utilization of small-molecule ligands. These can be used to target G-quadruplex regions that cause neurological disorders. Approximately 1,000 various G-quadruplex ligands exist in which they are able to interact via their aromatic rings; this allows the small-molecule ligands to stack on the planar terminal tetrads within the G-quadruplex regions. A disadvantage of using small-molecule ligands as a therapeutic technique is that specificity is difficult to manage due to the variability of G-quadruplexes in their primary sequences, orientation, thermodynamic stability, and nucleic acid strand stoichiometry. As of now, no single small-molecule ligand has been able to be perfectly specific for a single G-quadruplex sequence. However, a cationic porphyrin known as TMPyP4 is able to bind to the C9orf72 GGGGCC repeat region, which causes the G-quadruplex repeat region to unfold and lose its interactions with proteins causing it to lose its functionality. Small-molecule ligands, composed primarily of lead, can target GGGGCC repeat regions as well and ultimately decreased both repeat-associated non-ATG translation and RNA foci in neuron cells derived from patients with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This provides evidence that small-molecule ligands are an effective and efficient process to target GGGGCC regions, and that specificity for small-molecule ligand binding is a feasible goal for the scientific community.
Metal complexes have a number of features that make them particularly suitable as G4 DNA binders and therefore as potential drugs. While the metal plays largely a structural role in most G4 binders, there are also examples where it interacts directly with G4s by electrostatic interactions or direct coordination with nucleobases.
References
Further reading
External links
Quadruplex websites
Nanopore and Aptamer Biosensor group{NAB group}
G-Quadruplex World – a website to discuss publications and other information of interest to those working in the field of G-quadruplexes
Greglist – a database listing potential G-quadruplex regulated genes
Database on Quadruplex information: QuadBase from IGIB
GRSDB- a database of G-quadruplexes near RNA processing sites.
GRS_UTRdb - a database of G-quadruplexes in the UTRs.
G-quadruplex Resource Site
non-B Motif Search Tool at non-B DB- a web server to predict G-quadruplex forming motifs and other non-B DNA forming motifs from users' DNA sequences.
Tools to predict G-quadruplex motifs
QGRS Mapper: a web-based application for predicting G-quadruplexes in nucleotide sequences and NCBI genes from Bagga's group.
Quadfinder: Tool for Prediction and Analysis of G Quadruplex Motifs in DNA/RNA Sequences from Maiti's group, IGIB, Delhi, India
G4Hunter from Mergny's group but user need to run the code in R.
pqsfinder: an exhaustive and imperfection-tolerant search tool for potential quadruplex-forming sequences in R.
pqsfinder: online search tool using the latest R/Bioconductor package
DNA |
4238735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altenglan | Altenglan | Altenglan is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde of Kusel-Altenglan. Altenglan is a recognized tourism community. Also, named after the municipality is the Altenglan Formation, a lithostratigraphic entity, and by extension, so is Altenglanerpeton, a microsaur whose fossil remains were found therein.
Geography
Location
The municipality lies in the uplands in the Western Palatinate on the river Glan, which is the village's namesake, at an elevation in the valley of some 200 m above sea level, although the elevations within municipal limits reach almost 400 m (Bistersberg 387 m on the Glan's left bank; Kalmet 390 m on the Glan's right bank), and on the slopes of the Potzberg within the formerly self-administering municipality of Mühlbach almost 500 m. Altenglan lies roughly 5 km northeast of the district seat and nearest town, Kusel, and 25 km northwest of Kaiserslautern. In Altenglan, the Kuselbach and the Reichenbach empty into the Glan. The dale here forms a broad bowl, although the pattern is broken somewhat by the two streams that meet the Glan here, one from each side. Part of the Potzberg massif lies within Altenglan as does part of the long Remigiusberg ridge, although these hills' summits all lie outside the municipality's boundaries. The municipality has an area of 1 362 ha, of which 237 ha is wooded.
Neighbouring municipalities
Altenglan borders in the north on the municipality of Bedesbach, in the northeast on the municipality of Welchweiler, in the east on the municipality of Bosenbach, in the southeast on the municipality of Föckelberg, in the south on the municipalities of Rutsweiler am Glan and Theisbergstegen, in the southwest on the municipality of Rammelsbach, in the west on the town of Kusel and the municipality of Blaubach and in the northwest on the municipality of Erdesbach. Altenglan also meets the municipalities of Elzweiler and Haschbach am Remigiusberg at single points in the east and south respectively.
Constituent communities
Altenglan's Ortsteile are Altenglan, Mühlbach am Glan and Patersbach.
Municipality’s layout
The original settlement of Altenglan stretched along the higher parts of the left banks of both the Glan and the Kuselbach, along today's Glanstraße from the graveyard with the old church to the T-junction formed by today's Bahnhofstraße. This can clearly be seen in a stock book compiled in the mid-18th century. Other settlements on Bahnhofstraße had also already arisen by the 18th century. The last house before the bridge was the one that is now the rectory, and across the bridge (known as the Pfarrbrücke – “Parochial Bridge” – or the Schmiedebrücke – “Smithy Bridge”) stood a smith's workshop. Likewise already standing by the 18th century were houses in the area of today's Ringstraße, which the stock book describes as a gemeiner Weg – “common way”. Thus, a big triangle stretching back from the forks of the Glan and Kuselbach was settled at the time when the original cadastral survey was done in 1848. The settlement began to spread out in the 19th century towards Eckstraße and Tränkstraße, towards Neuwiesenstraße and today's Schulstraße. In the early 20th century, houses were built on Kuseler Straße. Altenglan station was built in 1868 along with the railway line between Kusel and Landstuhl. New, bigger residential areas arose after the Second World War west of Bahnhofstraße (Bildstock, Am Köpfchen, Gartenstraße) and to the side of Kuseler Straße (Alte Straße, Am Heiligen Spiegel, An den Rödwiesen). A new rectory was built in 1934 on Kuseler Straße, after the old one had been sold. The town hall, in its original form, the then municipality had built after the Second World War. Expansions took place after the founding of the Verbandsgemeinde. Most of the shops, supermarkets, banks and inns stand on the main street along with Austraße, and on Glanstraße, while the school with its gymnasium and event hall and the Verbandsgemeinde administration building (town hall) stand on Schulstraße. Adjoining the school (Gustav-Schäffner-Schule, a Regionale Schule) is a sporting ground. The sport and leisure swimming pool lies east of the village off the main road going towards Bosenbach. The mediaeval church stands in the middle of the graveyard in the village's northeast at the end of Glanstraße and across Kuseler Straße.
As a very old village, Altenglan has a relatively large municipal area, great swathes of which were opened up to development after the Second World War. The biggest tract of woodland is the Bruderwald, a typical mixed forest once owned by the Remigiusberg Monastery. Besides cropraising and livestock breeding, the municipality also worked at winegrowing to a limited extent in the time before the Second World War.
History
Antiquity
The Altenglan area was settled as early as the last period in the New Stone Age and on into Gallo-Roman times, bearing witness to which are archaeological finds. Since the name Glan is of Celtic origin, it could be that the centre was settled continuously up to the Frankish takeover of the land. From Roman times, too, traces have been preserved, such as a sculpture of a woman, the so-called “Venus of Glan”, which has since disappeared.
Middle Ages
The name Gleni appears along with the name Cosla (Kusel) in the historical work from the Archbishopric of Reims compiled by the early mediaeval historical writer Flodoard. According to the greater Remigiustestament, which is included in this work, the so-called Remigiusland with Kusel and Altenglan had supposedly already been bequeathed by King Clovis to Saint Remigius as a donation. This forgery was made possibly with the object of reinforcing the claim to Reims holdings in what is today the Western Palatinate through a reference to the famous bishop Remigius. It is highly likely that King Childebert II transferred the Remigiusland with the villages of Cosla and Gleni to Bishop Giles about 590. On these grounds, the municipality celebrated its 1,400-year jubilee in 1989. Altenglan surely exercised an important midpoint function in the Remigiusland.
In the time that followed, Altenglan's history corresponded with the Remigiusland’s. In 1112, the Remigiusland was taken over as a Vogtei by the Counts of Veldenz. In 1444, it passed as a Vogtei to the Dukes Palatine Zweibrücken, which bought the region – a Vogtei was only a protective function – in 1552. In connection with the Remigiusland, Altenglan was also mentioned in one of Louis the German’s documents, which was issued in 865, although it is only known today from a 13th-century copy. The name’s first mention in an original document, one bearing witness to an exchange of holdings by the Bishop of Worms, dates from 992.
According to Prüm Abbey’s directory of holdings, the Prümer Urbar, this abbey in the Eifel owned near a place called Glan a major holding. It is disputed today whether this meant the village of Altenglan. It is likewise disputed whether a knight named Straßenraub lived in Altenglan or indeed in Neuenglan, believed to have been the same place as today’s Hundheim. Straßenraub’s actual family name, however, was Hettenberg. Since it is known that the noble family Hettenberg had holdings at Altenglan, it is at least possible that Straßenraub lived here.
The first Schultheiß, Dylen (Till), was named in 1388. As well, a 1364 document, in which Count Heinrich I of Veldenz set forth the conditions for the support of his son, also named Heinrich, and his wife Lauretta, Altenglan was mentioned as an Amt seat along with Brücken near Ulmet. It can be assumed that Altenglan had had this administrative function since the founding of the County of Veldenz in the earlier half of the 12th century. In 1410, the two Ämter were merged, and the new seat was Pilsbach, a place on the Glan’s right bank that was later swallowed up by Ulmet. Altenglan thereby lost its central function, which it had likely had since the Early Middle Ages.
Modern times
Johannes Hoffmann’s 1588 description of Altenglan may be exaggerated, but it nevertheless gives today’s reader a little glance at the village’s original importance. Hoffmann described the village of Alten-Glan as “quite an old place” that had been built, like Trier and some other towns, more by “heathens” than anyone else, and these heathens had apparently built Altenglan into a “very great town”, girding it each side of the river Glan with ringwalls, so that the river flowed through the middle of the town.
Altenglan's first known municipal charter dates from 1567, and was renewed in 1581. At the time of the 1609 ecclesiastical Visitation, there were 37 families in the village. As a result of the Plague, the population shrank greatly even before the Thirty Years' War broke out. According to the Huberweistum, a 1630 Weistum (a Weistum – cognate with English wisdom – was a legal pronouncement issued by men learned in law in the Middle Ages and early modern times), there were then only 30 families still living in the village. That same year, Imperial troops plundered Altenglan. As in the whole swathe of countryside around Kusel, especially because of the wartime events of 1635, very few people in Altenglan survived this frightful war, and almost all the houses had been destroyed. For a long time, it was not even worth the trouble of holding church services in the church. Even after the population had built itself back up somewhat through newcomers to the village, there was more war, this time King Louis XIV's wars of conquest. About 1680, Altenglan was said to be “burnt”. Nevertheless, during the 18th century, the population once again rose quickly by both migration to the village and natural growth, and according to the 1742 stock book, there were once more 47 houses in the village.
In the time of the French Revolution, French Revolutionary troops plundered Altenglan (1794), but otherwise left it unscathed. The village now belonged to the Department of Sarre, the Arrondissement of Birkenfeld, the Canton of Kusel and the Mairie (“Mayoralty”) of Ulmet.
Recent times
After the formation of the Bavarian Rheinkreis, as the Palatinate was known after the Congress of Vienna awarded it to Bavaria, Altenglan remained in the Canton of Kusel, but now formed the seat of its own Bürgermeisterei (“mayoralty”) to which Patersbach also belonged (which is now a constituent community of Altenglan). The original 1845 cadastral survey shows 85 houses. In the time of industrialization, cloth weavers from Kusel began walking their cloth in Altenglan. The Schleip machine factory set up a wire drawing works. Beginning in 1870, the hard-stone quarrying industry expanded. Along with those who earned their livelihood at agriculture, the number of workers at quarries and factories rose steadily. In 1890, a workers’ association was founded. The workforce held fast to its political outlook even after Adolf Hitler’s 1933 seizure of power, with 15% of the voters locally voting against Hitler at the November 1933 Reichstag elections at a time when voters throughout the Third Reich were voting 99% yes (the ballots offered no alternative to Hitler, the Nazis and their sympathizers).
Towards the end of the Second World War, Altenglan had to suffer steady Allied bombings, and villagers were killed. On 9 March 1945, American troops marched in. Post-war times brought a new territorial arrangement and Altenglan was grouped into newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The Bürgermeisterei of Altenglan was kept for the time being, within the district of Kusel. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate in 1968, The village of Altenglan became an Ortsteil of a new municipality that likewise bore the name Altenglan, but also included Patersbach and Mühlbach besides. The original plan had called for Bedesbach to be part of this municipality, too, but the residents there successfully fought a campaign to keep themselves out of it. At the same time, Altenglan became the seat of a Verbandsgemeinde in 1972 to which all together 16 Ortsgemeinden belong.
Population development
In 1609, there were 37 families living in Altenglan and thus, the village had roughly 100 inhabitants. There was a drop in population, however, even before the Thirty Years' War, likely due to the Plague and other epidemics, and there were only 30 families living in Altenglan by 1630. Fewer than ten villagers survived the Thirty Years’ War, but repopulation came with newcomers, although this was interrupted, and perhaps even reversed, by King Louis XIV's wars of conquest. There was an upswing in numbers early in the 18th century. At the time when the 1749 stock book was compiled, some 50 families lived in Altenglan and thereby some 200 inhabitants. In the next one hundred years, the population doubled. By 1835, according to the original cadastral survey (dates for this vary because the survey took a long time to complete), there were some 400 people in Altenglan.
The following table shows population development over the centuries for Altenglan, with some figures broken down by religious denomination:
Municipality’s name
The oldest form of the municipality's name, Gleni, appears in the history of the Archbishopric of Reims by the mediaeval historical writer Flodoard, in a forgery of Archbishop Remigius's will no less, likely put together by Archbishop of Reims Hinkmar. This form of the name also crops up in one of Louis the German's documents from 865 or 866. Gleni is a Celtic word for flowing body of water. The name, therefore, refers to the river that flows by the village. The modern form Altenglan leads to the supposition that there must once have been another village elsewhere on the Glan, founded later, with the name Neuenglan (alt and neu are German for “old” and “new” respectively), which writer M. Dolch identifies as the village now called Hundheim. Other older forms of the name Altenglan are as follows: Aldenglane (992), Glene (1124), Glana (1138), Glannam (1154), Glayna (1342), Alden Glane (1364), Alttenglahn (1629).
Religion
As early as the Early Middle Ages, it is likely that Altenglan was an ecclesiastical hub for the area between Rammelsbach and Erdesbach. It is, however, unknown when the parish acquired its first church. The Altenglan church had its first documentary mention in 1252, and in 1290 a village priest named Nikolaus was mentioned. Altenglan was also long regarded as the residence of the mediaeval Glan chapter. Only one archpriest of the Glan chapter, though, is known to have had his seat in Altenglan. His name was Jakob von Glayn, who was mentioned in 1365. It is assumed that the designation Glankapitel (“Glan chapter”) referred to the whole Glan region and not to the archpriest's seat in particular.
At the time of the introduction of the Reformation in 1537, the militant clergyman Nikolaus Dieburg was in office. He set about defending himself against the change, not only carrying out his ecclesiastical duties but also farming his glebe and taking the vineyards into the church's care. In 1558, the first ecclesiastical Visitation since the Reformation's introduction was undertaken, while others were now undertaken at seven-year intervals thereafter. Because so few people survived the Thirty Years' War, there was no resident clergyman in Altenglan for 111 years, until 1746, and consequently no church services, either. Towards the end of this era, though, the parish had the church renovated, preserving for the time being an old Romanesque steeple. In 1747, at what was then the edge of the village, a rectory was built on the Kuselbach; this is nowadays the Autohaus Lotter – a car dealership. In 1805, the Romanesque steeple had to be torn down because it had fallen into such disrepair. It was replaced with the roofed tower that still stands today. In 1860 or 1861, the church got new bells and in 1873, it had an organ for the first time. In 1934, the old rectory was sold and a new one was built on Kuseler Straße. In 1952, the church once again got new bells and in 1962 once again a new organ.
Catholic Christians once again settled in Altenglan beginning in the late 17th century, albeit in small numbers. Their religious needs were fulfilled by the Catholic church of the town of Kusel at first, but since about 1954, the church of Rammelsbach has been responsible for that.
A small Jewish community was established in the late 18th century. By the time that Hitler's Nazis began persecuting Jews in 1933, however, there were no longer any Jews in Altenglan. There never was a synagogue.
The Protestant parish of Altenglan is a merger of two parishes, one Altenglan and the affiliated centres of Bedesbach, Patersbach and Friedelhausen, together with the other, Mühlbach am Glan. The greater parish tends a flock of roughly 3,200, with 2,400 in Altenglan and 800 in Mühlbach.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
“BL” is a voters’ group.
Mayor
Altenglan's mayor is Yvonne Draudt-Awe. The two outlying centres each have representation on council through an Ortsvorsteher. For Patersbach, this is Harry Schwarz, and for Mühlbach, Diana Schmitt.
Coat of arms
The municipality's arms might be described thus: Tierced in mantle dexter azure Saint Remigius proper vested and mitred argent garnished Or bearing in his dexter hand a book gules garnished of the second and in his sinister hand a bishop's staff of the third, over his dexter shoulder a dove displayed reversed wings inverted proper, sinister argent a lion rampant of the first armed, langued and crowned of the third, in base gules the letter V surmounted by the letter V reversed, both of the third.
Alternatively, “the letter V reversed” might be called “the letter lambda”.
Saint Remigius on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side is a reference to the village's former allegiance to the Bishopric of Reims. A disputed version of the local history from the 9th and 10th century, however, holds that King Clovis I, the Frankish Kingdom's founder, after his 496 victory over the Alamanni, donated the so-called Remigiusland, including Kusel and Altenglan, to Saint Remigius himself, the Bishop of Reims, rather than simply to the abbey that Remigius oversaw. The dove symbolizes Clovis's baptism. The Veldenz lion on the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side is a reference to the village's former allegiance to the County of Veldenz and later to the Duchy of Zweibrücken. The charge in base stems from the old Ulmet court seal, which was also once used to seal documents from Altenglan. However, another source identifies the charge as the letters A and V (although the crossbar seems to be missing from the A), supposedly standing for “Altenglan” and the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Altenglan (main centre)
Kuseler Straße 2 – Protestant parish church; Baroque aisleless church with hipped roof, marked 1720, essentially older, ridge turret 1806; Romanesque sculpture fragment; thorough renovation 1956, architect Hans-Georg Fiebiger, Kaiserslautern; at the graveyard: warriors’ memorial 1914-1918, dying warriors, 1927 by A. Bernd, Kaiserslautern
Bahnhofstraße 2 – Late Baroque house, marked 1785; lengthy building with half-hipped roof; characterizes village's appearance
Eisenbahnstraße 3 – railway station; spacious reception building, one-floor goods shed with loading ramp, 1862/1868
Eisenbahnstraße 8/10 – administrative and residential buildings of the post; two-floor winged buildings, one-floor garage wing, 1925, architects Heinrich Müller and colleagues
Friedelhauser Straße 11 – former administrative building of the Basalt Aktiengesellschaft, Linz am Rhein; Baroque Revival building with hipped roof, 1921/1922, architects Heinrich Mattar and Eduard Scheler, Cologne; in the back shed and stable buildings
Glanstraße 30 – former town hall; sandstone-framed building with half-hipped roof, 1856/57, conversion 1896; characterizes square's appearance
Mühlbach
Moorstraße 13 – Protestant church; quarrystone aisleless church with belltower, Swiss chalet style, 1933/1934, architect Government Master Builder Stahl, Landau
Near Genickelstraße 4 – former smithy; one-floor timber-frame building, partly solid, pitched-roof addition, whetstone, earlier half of the 18th century
Mühlweg 3, Mühlbacher Mühle (monumental zone) – group of buildings from the former gristmill; seven-axis sandstone-framed plastered building, expansion 1892 and oilmill (1858), barn complex (after 1845) and the millstream diverted from the Glan
Streitmühle 1 – former Seylsche Mühle (mill); Late Baroque sandstone-framed plastered building, latter half of the 18th century; weir complex; commercial buildings: shed and servants’ house, towards 1859, livestock barn and storehouse not as old; one-arched stone bridge, 1854, architect Johann Schmeisser, Kusel
Water fountain, south of the village near Moorstraße – fountain facility, sandstone and cast iron, 1846, architect Karl Klee
Patersbach
Hauptstraße 24 – sandstone-framed Quereinhaus (a combination residential and commercial house divided for these two purposes down the middle, perpendicularly to the street), 1864
Near Zum Horst 6 – former smithy, plastered building with gabled, partial skillion roof, possibly about 1865; technical equipment
Fockenmühle 2 – Fockenmühle (mill); former oilmill and gristmill; three-floor single-peak complex, essentially from the 18th century, marked 1864 and 1871 (conversions), floors added in 1922 and 1938, livestock barn 1871; technical equipment from the 1930s, millrace built leading underground and course of the Glan beginning at the mill's weir complex
Altenglan is the starting and ending point of the Draisinenstrecke (railway upon which visitors can ride draisines). The outlying centre of Mühlbach lies at the foot of the Potzberg, on whose summit stands the Potzbergturm (tower); a game park can also be found here. From Altenglan's main centre, a pleasant hike can be taken up the Remigiusberg (mountain) to the old provost's residence.
Regular events
Glaner Kerb, or dialectally the (Alten-)Glaner Kerwe, the yearly church consecration festival held on the third weekend in August since 1876
Feuerwehrfest (“Fire Brigade Festival”), held every other year on the third weekend in September
Herzdriggermarkt (market), held on the first weekend in June
Weihnachtsmarkt (“Christmas Market”), held during the second week in Advent
Clubs
The Altenglaner Carneval-Verein (Carnival club) distinguishes itself each year with ambitious “Carnival sessions”. The Katastrophenorchester (“Catastrophe Orchestra”), a joke musical ensemble, is known far and wide. Other clubs include the following:
Gewerbeverein Altenglan (commercial association)
German Red Cross local chapter
Sportverein Altenglan (sport club)
Sportfischerverein Mittleres Glantal (angling)
DLRG local chapter
Imkerverein Altenglan (beekeeping)
Gesangverein Liederkranz Altenglan (singing club)
Economy and infrastructure
Economic structure
For many years, Altenglan was a village characterized by agriculture, but with certain administrative functions. Today, agriculture plays only a subordinate role. Industrial operations arose as early as the time after the Thirty Years' War, when chalk deposits within the municipal area were worked. This was, however, given up after the Second World War. In 1835, the Altenglan mill was taken over by clothmakers from Kusel, who built it into a walking mill. The wire-drawing mill, too, was established by entrepreneurs from Kusel. The wireworks is now out of business, and the building itself has since been torn down. In 1872, the municipality reached an agreement with the railway for the use of the quarry to mine ballast and crushed stone in Altenglan for railway and road building. Beginning in 1952, industries located in Altenglan, among them Mainmetall and a concrete works.
Established businesses
The biggest industrial concern in Altenglan is the firm Main Metall, which has a foundry in Altenglan that manufactures alloys of outstanding quality that are further processed for building machines, special vehicle axles, for instance.
Two big food markets, several other shops and inns, an optician’s shop, a pharmacy, five physicians’ practices, several workshops, carpentry shops, a varnisher and a scrapyard are all located in Altenglan.
Currently, the commercial-industrial park named “Im Brühl” is being opened up, and the fire brigade has already located there. The location's favourability towards transport is one reason why the park has been steadily developing. Among others, a carpentry business and a metal construction business have opened for business there.
Transport
Because two major brooks empty into the Glan here, Altenglan has always been a transport hub, lying as it does in or near several valleys. In Altenglan, Bundesstraße 423 ends at Bundesstraße 420, along which the Kusel interchange on Autobahn A 62 (Kaiserslautern–Trier) can be reached ten kilometres to the southwest. Bundesstraße 420 itself leaves the Glan valley here and leads to Kusel and Neunkirchen in the Saarland. Bundesstraße 423 leads through the middle Glan valley by way of Homburg and Zweibrücken to the French border near Sarreguemines. Another road leads through the Reichenbach valley to Kaiserslautern.
Serving nearby Altenglan is Altenglan station on the Landstuhl–Kusel railway. There are hourly trains at this station throughout the day, namely Regionalbahn service RB 67 between Kaiserslautern and Kusel, named Glantalbahn after a former railway line that shared a stretch of its tracks with the Landstuhl–Kusel railway.
Verbandsgemeinde institutions
Available among Verbandsgemeinde institutions are a Regionale Schule, a heated swimming pool for sport and leisure, the Verbandsgemeinde administration and public works and the fire brigade.
Education
The first efforts on the municipality's part to set up a school were undertaken even before the Thirty Years' War. These efforts, though, were forever foundering for lack of any rooms designed for school classes and, perhaps worse, for lack of anybody who could work as a teacher. Only in 1694 – several decades after the Thirty Years' War – did schooling at last begin in Altenglan, although an actual schoolhouse was not dedicated until 1740. It stood at the end of the village, just outside the graveyard. While surrounding villages had only winter schools (schools geared towards agricultural communities’ practical needs, held in the winter, when farm families had a bit more time to spare), Altenglan's school had year-round classes, and so children from those outlying villages came to school in Altenglan in the warmer months. In the course of the 19th century, the school acquired a third class. On the site of the old schoolhouse, a new, bigger building arose in 1828. Only after the Second World War, however, could a fourth class be added. Beginning in 1962, children from several neighbouring villages once again attended classes in Altenglan when attempts to set up a central school had been carried to fruition. The 1969 school reform split Grundschule (primary school) and Hauptschule. All children from Hauptschulen in the Verbandsgemeinde were gathered together in the 18 classes at the new school building. A central primary school came into being at Rammelsbach. The Altenglan Hauptschule introduced the 10th school year early and today has the status of a Regionale Schule. As for adult education, Altenglan has a location of the Kreisvolkshochschule Kusel.
There are also two kindergartens in Altenglan, the Protestantische Kindergarten in Altenglan and the municipal kindergarten in Mühlbach.
Firefighting
Located in Altenglan is the Verbandsgemeinde firefighting base. Altenglan's volunteer fire brigade has existed since 1880 and thus celebrated its 125th anniversary in September 2005. The youth fire brigade has existed since 1980 and hence celebrated its 25th anniversary in the same year. From here, all deployments, even ones handled by other local brigades, are backed up by the deployment centre at the Altenglan fire station. Each year, the Altenglan fire brigade handles more than 100 deployments. The number of firefighters, however, is shrinking steadily, as it is in other Verbandsgemeinden, leading thus far to the closure of three local fire stations in the Verbandsgemeinde of Altenglan.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Heinrich Müller (1892–1968), architect of the Postbauschule
Rainer Hamm (1943– ), criminal defence lawyer and professor of criminal law.
Jörg Matheis (1970– ), author
Further reading
E. Schworm, K.-E. Seitz, L. Seitz: Altenglan - Geschichte eines alten Dorfes; Hg. OG Altenglan, 1990
Denkmaltopographie Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Kulturdenkmäler in Rheinland-Pfalz, Band 16: KREIS KUSEL, bearbeitet von Christian Schüler-Beigang, herausgegeben im Auftrag des Ministeriums für Kultur, Jugend, Familie und Frauen vom Landesamt für Denkmalpflege; Worms, Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999, S. 36f;
References
External links
Verbandsgemeinde of Altenglan homepage with information about the Ortsgemeinde of Altenglan
Mühlbach am Glan (outlying centre of Altenglan) homepage
Brief portrait of Altenglan with film at SWR Fernsehen
Kusel (district) |
4238756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glan-M%C3%BCnchweiler | Glan-Münchweiler | Glan-Münchweiler is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde of Oberes Glantal.
Geography
Location
The municipality lies in a hollow in the Glan valley in the uplands in the Western Palatinate, with peaks such as the Galgenberg, the Klopfberg, the Eckertsberg and the Wingertsberg. On the Glan’s right bank, at the foot of the Hochwald (“High Forest”) lies the outlying centre of Bettenhausen. The bottom of the dale has an elevation of 215 m above sea level. The highest elevation within municipal limits lies in the Eichenwald (“Oak Forest”) at 388 m above sea level. Glan-Münchweiler lies roughly 8 km southeast of Kusel and 25 km west of Kaiserslautern. The municipal area measures 464 ha, of which 112 ha is wooded.
Neighbouring municipalities
Glan-Münchweiler borders in the north on the municipality of Rehweiler, in the east on the municipality of Niedermohr, in the south on the municipality of Nanzdietschweiler, in the southwest on the municipality of Börsborn, in the west on the municipality of Henschtal and in the northwest on the municipality of Quirnbach.
Constituent communities
Glan-Münchweiler’s Ortsteile are Glan-Münchweiler (main centre) and Bettenhausen.
Municipality’s layout
On the terrace that juts out from the western slope into the Glan valley, monks from Hornbach Abbey established an estate in the 8th century for clearing and farming the surrounding countryside. The village core that arose here with its estate and church was fortified on the downstream side in 1344, as witnessed by “civic building”. After the Thirty Years' War, Glan-Münchweiler’s built-up area spread westwards towards what is today Marktstraße (“Market Street”). Ringstraße and Hauptstraße (“Main Street”) soon formed a residential quadrangle through which ran only one street from the village core, Kirchstraße (“Church Street”). With the opening of the building zone in the cadastral area known as “Teich” (“Pond”), the built-up area began to spread northwards in 1953 towards the slopes of the Fronberg and Galgenberg, stopping only at the ridge in many places. With the graveyard’s expansion in 1970, even Friedhofstraße (“Graveyard Street”) and the area below were opened up. The Autobahn, also finished in 1970, touches Glan-Münchweiler just at the southwest, tightly hemming the village’s development in. Only the sporting ground with its two football pitches and athletic complex could be laid out to the highway’s west. The supply road built for the Autobahn’s construction was developed after the Second World War and is now called Embachstraße. The forester’s house built in 1914 on the road leading out of Glan-Münchweiler towards Quirnbach served after the war as a kindergarten owned by the Catholic Church, although it is now under private ownership. At the turn of the millennium, Glan-Münchweiler had 27 streets and 358 houses.
History
Antiquity
The village’s beginnings and first settlers lie in the time before the Christian Era. Archaeological finds of stone hatchets within Glan-Münchweiler’s limits bear witness to settlers in the New Stone Age. The barrow fields in the Eicherwald give clues as to a certain continuity in settlement in the Iron Age. Glan-Münchweiler lies at the crossroads of some old roads. Many finds from the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD show that the place was settled in Roman times. A trove of coins unearthed in 1976 in what is now the village core, along with further clues, point to a fire in 351 or 352.
Middle Ages
After the Frankish takeover of the land, the Glan-Münchweiler area passed in about the middle of the 8th century through donation into Hornbach Abbey’s ownership. About this time, the Hornbach monks established an estate (after which the municipality is named; see Municipality’s name below) for clearing and farming the land, and also built a church, some remnants of which were found in today’s church’s foundations. The Hornbach Monastery pledged the “Münchweiler Tal” (dale) in the time that followed to the Raugraves of Neuenbaumburg and Altenbaumburg. Thus, secular lords became the fiefholders in this area. In 1383, the fief passed to the Lords of Breitenborn, and shortly thereafter to the Burgmann family of Mauchenheim. Sir Georg von der Leyen wed Eva Mauchenheimer in 1468, thus beginning the long lordship of the Counts of Leyen in the “Münchweiler Tal”, which lasted until 1801. Glan-Münchweiler acquired the status of Unteramt together with the villages of Steinbach, Haschbach, Nanzweiler, Dietschweiler, Börsborn and Gries. The seat of the Oberamt was Blieskastel. The highest lord in the land remained, however, the Dukes Palatine Zweibrücken, who exercised the blanket lordship over the Hornbach Monastery. Over the centuries, this led to disputes over questions of authority. There were usually two Schultheißen, one appointed by the Counts of Leyen and the other by the Duchy of Palatinate-Zweibrücken. The first Schultheiß appointed by the Counts of Leyen in 1490 was named Andreas Stemmler, while the first one appointed by the Duchy was named Johann Jakob Röhrich.
Modern times
The ecclesiastical, legal and social convulsions in the time of the Reformation brought new antagonisms and disputes into the “Münchweiler Tal”. The Dukes of Zweibrücken, as rightful successors to the Hornbach Monastery, were Reformed, whereas the Counts of Leyen had chosen to remain Catholic. Administration and use of landholds were forever a cause of disagreement and feuding. During the Thirty Years' War, Glan-Münchweiler was largely destroyed and plundered by Croatian mercenaries. In 1621, Glan-Münchweiler was stricken with a frightful outbreak of the Plague, which claimed most of the lives in the village. Indeed, two villages in the “Münchweiler Tal” – Reichertsweiler and Fröschweiler – died right out in the epidemic.
Recent times
The French Revolution brought the hitherto prevailing lordship arrangements to an end. Imperial Countess Marianne von der Leyen, during her flight before the French Revolutionary troops, sought shelter for a week at the Evangelical rectory. The County of Leyen was dissolved in 1801; likewise liquidated was the Duchy of Palatinate-Zweibrücken. The Palatinate was now French. Münchweiler became the seat of a mairie (“mayoralty”), belonging to which were also the villages of Steinbach, Haschbach, Nanzweiler and Dietschweiler. The village now lay in the Canton of Waldmohr, the Arrondissement of Saarbrücken and the Department of Sarre. After the Palatinate’s cession to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1816, Glan-Münchweiler was administered by the Landcommissariat of Homburg. In 1920, after the First World War, the Saar passed to France. The Canton of Waldmohr, which belonged to the Bezirksamt of Homburg, and along with it the Bürgermeisterei (“Mayoralty”) of Glan-Münchweiler, was grouped into the Kusel district. In preparation for the Battle of France in the Second World War, the Organisation Todt built a Führer Headquarters in Glan-Münchweiler, called “Waldwiese” (“Glade”). It was, however, never used as such. Since then, the complex has been completely dismantled. Considerable changes arose from the 1969-1972 administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate. On 7 June 1969, the hitherto self-administering municipality of Bettenhausen was split away from the Kaiserslautern district, grouped into the Kusel district and merged with Glan-Münchweiler to form the new municipality of Glan-Münchweiler, which itself became the seat of a newly created Verbandsgemeinde in 1972, to which also belong Börsborn, Herschweiler-Pettersheim, Hüffler, Wahnwegen, Krottelbach, Langenbach, Quirnbach, Henschtal, Steinbach am Glan, Nanzdietschweiler, Rehweiler and Matzenbach. Glan-Münchweiler retains this form to this day.
Population development
Of the just under 300 inhabitants in Glan-Münchweiler in 1610, only six “subjects/families” were left when the Thirty Years' War ended. In 1725 it was reported that there were shoemakers, shopkeepers, weavers and nailers who had joined together in guilds. By introducing cotton spinning as a cottage industry, opportunities to earn income were improved. Approval for trial digging for coal and other minerals was first granted in 1764. Glan-Münchweiler’s population figures rose in the 18th and 19th centuries, but only slowly. Quicker growth came only after the First World War.
The following table shows population development over the centuries for Glan-Münchweiler:
Municipality’s name
Sources differ on the date of first documentary mention and the name’s original form. According to Hans Weber, writing at regionalgeschichte.net, Glan-Münchweiler had its first documentary mention in 1333 as Monichwilari, derived from the Latin Monachorum Villa (“the monks’ estate”). Other names that the village has had over the ages are Monchwilre (1415), Monchwiller (1564), Münchweiler am Glan (1730), Glan-Münchweiler (as of 1885).
Nevertheless, according to the Verbandsgemeinde website and authors Wilhelm Volkert and Richard Bauer, Glan-Münchweiler had its first documentary mention as Mönchweiler in 1019. Mönch is still the German word for “monk” today (this is a reference to the monks’ estate); Weiler means “hamlet”, or originally “homestead”. In 1330, the slightly different spelling of Münchweiler was used, and then in 1867, the village was known as Münchweiler am Glan. Finally, in 1885, the village settled on the name Glan-Münchweiler, which it still bears today.
The sources at least agree that Bettenhausen had its first documentary mention in 1393 but they differ as to whether the original name was Bottenhusen (Weber) or Bottenhausen (Volkert et al.). Weber furthermore puts forth the notion that the village was likely named after a man named Botto; so the name Bettenhausen would mean “at Botto’s house”.
The name of the river Glan is of Celtic origin and means “fishing water” or “clean water”.
Religion
About 820, some monks took over the Frankish estate that had been here and built the first, Romanesque chapel, which was consecrated to Saint Pirmin, for it had been he who had founded their monastery at Hornbach. In the early 13th century, the great Gothic church arose, whose quire and vestry still exist today. Its lovely windows and graceful vault ribs make it a jewel among churches. In 1771, the church’s nave was renovated, leading to the discovery of three Viergöttersteine that had been used as part of the foundation (a Viergötterstein is a sculpted stone of monumental size designed to support a Jupiter Column; its German name means “four-god stone” in reference to the godly images carved into each of its four sides). They, of course, point to a Roman origin for Glan-Münchweiler. Further renovations to the church were undertaken in 1853-1854 and 1958. Until the Reformation, Glan-Münchweiler and its parish lay under the Hornbach Monastery’s overlordship. The abbot had patronage rights at the church. It was he who named and paid the priest and he gathered tithes from each family, as was customary. After the Reformation, the Hornbach Monastery was dissolved. The Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken had been the ones who had introduced the Reformation. The first Lutheran pastor is known to have been in the village as of 1555. A rectory was built in 1599. In 1737, this was torn down and a new one was built on the same spot. This still stands today and is still the Protestant rectory. Along with the Haus Lehné, it is one of Glan-Münchweiler’s oldest buildings. There is one thing that characterizes the local ecclesiastical history in a somewhat unusual way. It arose from the longstanding dispute over who had authority in the “Münchweiler Tal”, with both the Duke of Palatinate-Zweibrücken and the Counts of Leyen vying for supremacy. It turned into a struggle between Protestants and Catholics over who held the post of parish priest (or pastor, as the case may be) and who got to use church property and income. In 1684, the Catholics were granted the right to share the church. During the upheavals arising from French King Louis XIV’s Politique des Réunions, a further improvement in the Catholics’ favour arrived on the scene. A 1786 agreement awarded the Protestants two thirds and the Catholics one third of the church’s property. With this compromise, the two denominations for the most part lived together in peace. The simultaneum at the church lasted until 1902. The Catholic community then built its own church and received from the Protestants an indemnity of 8,000 marks.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 16 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Glan-Münchweiler’s mayor is Karl-Michael Grimm (SPD).
Coat of arms
The municipality’s arms might be described thus: Gules in base an inescutcheon azure a pale argent, issuant from behind which Saint Pirmin of the third vested, mitred and crined Or holding in his dexter hand a book of the field and in his sinister hand an abbot’s staff, the crook to sinister, of the fourth.
The human charge in the arms, Saint Pirmin, is a reference to the village’s founding by monks from the Hornbach Monastery, which Pirmin founded. The inescutcheon azure a pale argent (that is, blue with a vertical silver stripe) is a reference to the village’s former allegiance to the House of Leyen, whose counts held the fief in Glan-Münchweiler from 1486 to 1794, and who bore such arms. In its current form, the arms match a court seal from 1564.
Bettenhausen, too, once bore its own arms, for it was once a self-administering municipality. Its arms might be described thus: Per fess argent a demilion azure armed and langued Or and azure a pale of the first. The lion is a reference to the village’s former allegiance to the County of Veldenz, the Duchy of Palatinate-Zweibrücken and Electoral Palatinate. The lower half of the arms is the old Leyen arms.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Glan-Münchweiler (main centre)
Saint Pirmin’s Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Pirminus), Ringstraße 29 – two-naved Romanesque Revival sandstone block building, belltower, 1900–1902, architect Wilhelm Schulte I
Hauptstraße 16 – Protestant parish church; mediaeval rectangular quire, flanking quire tower, vestry addition in the 15th century, Baroque aisleless church, 1771 while maintaining surrounding walls, architect Philipp Heinrich Hellermann, Zweibrücken; Stumm organ from 1865; Roman spolia and sarcophagi
Beethovenstraße 4 – Protestant rectory; Quereinhaus (a combination residential and commercial house divided for these two purposes down the middle, perpendicularly to the street) with half-hipped roof, marked 1737, commercial wing 1777
Hauptstraße 2 – mill on the Glan; stately building with half-hipped roof, 1812, architect Peter Bell, Kusel; joining wing with waterwheels, part of the old mill building, 1938, later given extra floor and expanded
At Hauptstraße 13 – sandstone gateway arch, marked 1754
Hauptstraße 21 – so-called Alte Apotheke (“Old Apothecary”); house, sandstone-framed plastered building, 1862
Ringstraße 42 – former forestry office building; villalike building with hipped roof, one-floor side wing and staircase, marked 1914, architect Bruno Seyfarth, Kaiserslautern; characterizes village’s appearance
Schulstraße 1 – former school; cube with teaching-room wing and one-floor entrance and lavatory building, pitched roofs, Bauhaus style, 1932, architect Bruno Seyfarth, Kaiserslautern; characterizes village’s appearance
Bettenhausen
Bettenhausen 31 – Rüb estate complex; corner complex, essentially from the 18th century, expansion into three-sided estate in the 19th century; house with wooden gallery and half-hipped roof, marked 1751, two commercial wings, 1882/1886, shed, servants’ house; characterizes village’s appearance
Bettenhausen 33 – stately Quereinhaus, 1835; together with Rüb estate complex characterizes village’s appearance
Regular events
The traditional kermis (church consecration festival) is held on the second weekend in July. Year’s end is characterized by many club festivals and ends with a communal Christmas market.
Clubs
Participating in Glan-Münchweiler’s cultural and social life are many clubs and organizations. Foremost among these would be the “Liederkranz” singing club, founded in 1876, and the gymnastic and sport club from 1922, each with its various departments and many activities. As a pastime, nine-pin bowling has long been popular; the oldest of the many clubs has existed since 1910. In the field of culture, events staged by the folk high school at the Glantalschule (school) can be named. Moreover, the Verbandsgemeinde organizes its own concerts under the name “Kultur live”. The churches and the ecclesiastical clubs also enrich the offerings of events. The bank branches in Glan-Münchweiler also offer many exhibitions.
Economy and infrastructure
Economic structure
In the small territory held by the Counts of Leyen, the most important economic endeavour was until the early 19th century agriculture. Since the Middle Ages, though, there had been other occupations in Glan-Münchweiler having to do with administration, transport and trade. In the original 1845 cadastral survey, 36 farming businesses and 45 people who ran other kinds of businesses were listed. Improvements to economic circumstances and the building of the railway in 1868 brought along with them a measure of upward mobility among the villagers. There was a great expansion in trades, among them dealers in livestock, fruit, fertilizer, agricultural machinery, fat and coal as well as brewers and tanners. The Volksbank was founded in 1875, and the Raiffeisenbank in 1891. The only major firm in Glan-Münchweiler is Gebrüder Hanz (“Gebrüder” = “Brothers”), which is in the construction business (road and underground construction), and was founded in 1940. The most important commuting destinations are Kaiserslautern and Homburg.
Education
The first schools in the “Münchweiler Tal” were established after the Reformation. The pastor was also the schoolteacher, holding classes at either the church or the rectory. The schoolteachers and schoolmasters are known from records beginning in 1580. They were paid very meanly from church coffers for their teaching at winter school (a school geared towards an agricultural community’s practical needs, held in the winter, when farm families had a bit more time to spare) from early November to late February. They were craftsmen, mainly coopers, tailors or blacksmiths. The teacher’s workshop or some other wanting room would be where classes were held. Considerable improvements to schooling conditions were wrought by the 1710 building of the Protestant parish schoolhouse. By 1772, this had grown far too small and was torn down, only to be replaced with a new, bigger one. At this time, Glan-Münchweiler had 60 Evangelical and 30 Catholic schoolchildren. The earliest Catholic school is attested from 1686. Particularly worthy of mention in Glan-Münchweiler’s paedagogical life is that two related “teacher families” characterized teaching at the Evangelical school in an uninterrupted sequence of schoolteachers spanning two hundred years, the families Börstler and Kiefer. The new political order in 1818 (the Palatinate had recently been awarded to the Kingdom of Bavaria by the Congress of Vienna) brought schooling decisive changes. School became compulsory and year-round. In 1831, a new Evangelical schoolhouse was built, and so was a Catholic one. Both are still standing, on what is now Beethovenstraße, but both are now private houses. Both were used as schools, though, for 100 years, until the new shared school building was completed in 1932. For the disparate village schools in the “Münchweiler Tal”, the eventual building of a combination primary school-Hauptschule in 1975 on the Galgenberg was an important advance. Beginning in the 2000-2001 school year, the Hauptschule was run as part of the Regionalschule, thereby offering all students a nearby opportunity for education. The district folk high school and the district music school maintain branch locations in Glan-Münchweiler. The Evangelical parish sponsors a three-class kindergarten. A new building is being planned.
Transport
Serving Glan-Münchweiler is Glan-Münchweiler station on the Landstuhl–Kusel railway. There are hourly trains at this station throughout the day, namely Regionalbahn service RB 67 between Kaiserslautern and Kusel, named Glantalbahn after a former railway line that shared a stretch of its tracks with the Landstuhl–Kusel railway, including the former junction at Glan-Münchweiler. It also lies on the Autobahn A 62 (Kaiserslautern–Trier); the interchange is also called Glan-Münchweiler.
In the area where Glan-Münchweiler today lies, two long-distance roads crossed each other even as far back as Roman times. The building of the railway line between Landstuhl and Kusel in 1868 and of the one between Glan-Münchweiler and Homburg contributed considerably to improvements in transport links. Meeting here are Bundesstraße 423 from Homburg to Altenglan and two highways to Miesau and Landstuhl. The connection to the Autobahn A 62 (Kaiserslautern–Trier) right near the village in 1970 was a further upgrade towards being a transport hub. Nevertheless, the Autobahn and other highways, the railway and the river Glan have served as dividers and limits, greatly thwarting the village’s expansion, but there is now, given the favourable location with regard to transport and the high quality of living, a long and growing demand for building land.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Johann Christian Boerstler (b. 1752 in Glan-Münchweiler; d. about 1820 in Maryland)
Boerstler was one of the best known personalities from the families Kiefer and Boerstler, who were related by marriage, and who for almost 200 years worked as teachers in the “Münchweiler Tal”. Besides his profession, Boerstler busied himself with naturopathy. He was freedom-loving and criticized exploitation by the authorities. In 1784, he emigrated to the United States and there successfully worked as “Dr. Boersteler”. Parts of his journals have been published.
Armin Reichel (b. 31 January 1958 in Glan-Münchweiler)
A footballer.
Johann Ludwig Daniel Weber (b. 1775 in Glan-Münchweiler; d. 20 August 1854 in Glan-Münchweiler)
Weber was a mill owner and the mayor of Glan-Münchweiler. During the French Revolutionary troops’ occupation, the Bannmühle (mill) was transferred into his ownership. He furthered trade and the ideas of freedom in Glan-Münchweiler. The number of businesses rose sharply. Successors of the Weber clan from Glan-Münchweiler are today the owners of the Karlsberg brewery in Homburg (branded as Karlsbräu outside Germany to avoid confusion with the Danish brewer Carlsberg).
Famous people associated with the municipality
Otto Feick (b. 1880 in Reichweiler; d. 1959 in Schönau an der Brend)
Feick was the inventor of the Rhönrad and grew up in Glan-Münchweiler. Owing to his passive resistance to the Occupation of the Rhineland, the French removed him from the Palatinate. Up to 1925, he was developing the said gymnastic device, which he called the “Rhönrad” after his new home, the Rhön Mountains (Rad means “wheel”). By exhibiting it at the 1936 Summer Olympics, Feick made the Rhönrad world-famous. Wheel gymnastics is a sport now pursued in many countries. In Feick’s honour, the municipality has placed a Rhönrad as a monument in the middle of the roundabout on Bundesstraße 423 in the outlying centre of Bettenhausen.
Paul Nägle (b. 1907 in Wiesbaden; d. 1967 in Glan-Münchweiler)
Nägle worked as a pastor in Münsterappel and from 1950 to 1967 in Glan-Münchweiler. In many presentations, a comprehensive two-volume parish history and many publications he concerned himself intensively with both ecclesiastical and local history.
Axel A. Weber (b. 1957 in Kusel)
Weber is the former President of Deutsche Bundesbank; he spent most of his youth in Glan-Münchweiler. His parents still live there.
References
External links
Glan-Münchweiler in the collective municipality’s webpages
Kusel (district) |
4238840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nenberg-K%C3%BCbelberg | Schönenberg-Kübelberg | Schönenberg-Kübelberg is an Ortsgemeinde – a municipality belonging to a Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality – in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Oberes Glantal, and is its seat. The municipality was formed on 7 June 1969 in the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate out of the former municipalities and outlying centres of Schönenberg, Kübelberg, Schmittweiler and Sand. The centres have melded together since then and now stand as an economic hub for the southern Kusel district. By population, Schönenberg-Kübelberg is the Kusel district's biggest municipality. It is also a state-recognized tourism community.
Geography
Location
The municipality of Schönenberg-Kübelberg lies in the Western Palatinate near the boundary with the Saarland some 15 km south of Kusel, and 10 km northeast of Homburg. The two Ortsteile lie at the edge of the Landstuhler Bruch (a hollow). Kübelberg on the long mountain ridge south of the Klingbach runs seamlessly into Schönenberg to the east, while Schönenberg also melds without a break with the outlying centre of Sand. Within the municipality, the land rises from 241 m above sea level at the edge of the brook up to 264 m near the church in Kübelberg. Outside the built-up area, the highest elevations in the municipal area reach some 300 m above sea level in the Steinwald and Peterswald (forests).
Neighbouring municipalities
Schönenberg-Kübelberg borders in the north on the municipality of Brücken, in the northeast on the municipality of Gries, in the east on the municipality of Bruchmühlbach-Miesau, in the south on the municipality of Waldmohr, in the west on the municipality of Dunzweiler and in the northwest on the municipality of Dittweiler.
Constituent communities
Schönenberg-Kübelberg's Ortsteile are Schönenberg, Kübelberg, Schmittweiler and Sand. Also belonging to Schönenberg-Kübelberg are the outlying homesteads of Heidhof, Elmerthof and Klingenmühle.
Municipality’s layout
In each of the two biggest centres, the old village core can still be made out today. For Kübelberg this lies in the area of the Catholic church, west of Bundesstraße 423, and for Schönenberg east of this thoroughfare on the road branching off towards Sand. South of this road stand the village hall, which houses both the municipal and Verbandsgemeinde administration, and the Evangelical church. What were once two linear villages (by some definitions, "thorpes") have grown together, along with the outlying centre of Sand, and have also spread in every direction, southwards, particularly to the railway line, in the east end also over the railway. The central school building with a Realschule and a Hauptschule stands north of the village in the Kohlbach valley. The primary school, which is still used today, stands on Pestalozzistraße (named after an educator, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi) in Kübelberg. Near the railway line south of Schönenberg spreads a major sporting facility.
History
Antiquity
By prehistoric times, the area that is now Schönenberg-Kübelberg was already settled, as witnessed by archaeological finds within the municipal area and in neighbouring ones. A heavily damaged stone axe was found within municipal limits, and is now kept at Speyer. Several groups of barrows dating from the Iron Age are to be found in the Peterswald, south of the village. Noteworthy are two finds that were unearthed and described as early as the 19th century, a fibula and a bronze armring. Actual Roman finds have not been found within Schönenberg-Kübelberg's municipal limits, but quite a few artefacts have been unearthed in the surrounding area.
Middle Ages
In 956, Kübelberg had its first documentary mention as Cheuilunbahc, while Schönenberg had its first documentary mention in 1419. All the centres that today make up Schönenberg-Kübelberg once lay within the (originally free) Imperial Domain (Reichsland) around the Castle Lautern, which during the 10th century was for a while held by the Bishopric of Worms. It is, however, unclear whether all these centres had already arisen at the time when this area held the status of Imperial Domain. It is certain that the Amt seat was there, namely Kübelberg, and the village of Sand was there, too. Kübelberg lay next to a castle that served as the seat of an Amt within the Imperial Domain. It is likely that this castle vanished before the Middle Ages were over. In some houses on Schmittweiler Straße in Kübelberg, sparse remnants of the castle can still be made out. In the 13th century the castle belonged to the ring of fortifications in the broad area surrounding Castle Kaiserslautern. The area, now known as the Court of Kübelberg (Gericht Kübelberg), was repeatedly pledged by the Empire beginning in 1312 to various lordships, lastly to the Counts of Sponheim, under whose lordship it passed to Electoral Palatinate in 1437, which itself had already taken over the Amt of Kaiserslautern as an Imperial pledge as early as 1375. The Court of Kübelberg thus now belonged within the Electoral Palatinate to the Oberamt of Kaiserslautern. The village of Schönenberg shared this turn of events within the Amt (or Court) of Kübelberg, although there may have been the odd divergence; these, however, are not always verifiable. For instance, after the first documentary mention in 1419, the Junker of Breidenborn, as lords of the neighbouring Amt of Münchweiler, counted the Schultheiß Heinecze von Schonenberg among their subjects. In a further Breidenbach document from the 15th century, other names of inhabitants of Schönenberg were mentioned. Schönenberg must therefore have belonged, at least for a time, to the Amt of Münchweiler, and must thus also have been held by the Hornbach Monastery. A 1456 Weistum (cognate with English wisdom, this was a legal pronouncement issued by men learned in law in the Middle Ages and early modern times) from the Court of Kübelberg has been preserved as a faithful copy.
Modern times
A further preserved Weistum comes from the year 1554. Even in the description of the Ämter of Zweibrücken and Kirkel by Tilemann Stella, a Renaissance-era academic, Kübelberg is mentioned, as Kibelnberg. In 1600, the Electoral Palatinate forest superintendent Velmann described the whole area of the Court of Kübelberg, also mentioning subjects’ names in his writing, which began with a description of Schönenberg's municipal area. All the municipal area's particularities were noted, including the five ponds, which all belonged to the subjects. Following this was a description of Kübelberg's municipal area, noting its three ponds, although these ones belonged to the "heirs". During the Thirty Years' War, the villages of the Amt of Kübelberg, too, suffered serious hardship and misery. In 1635, during the siege of the Amt town of Kaiserslautern, Imperial troops, in many cases Croats, marched through the land, plundering, robbing and murdering. The villagers fled into the woods or sought shelter in small towns that belonged to Electoral Palatinate, like Wolfstein. The land was depopulated both by war and by the Plague. According to local historian Ernst Christmann, a whole swath of land including the villages of Kübelberg, Schönenberg, Sand, Elschbach and Schmittweiler lay for decades desolate. Slowly, the population figures built themselves back up with villagers who had been driven out returning to their homes, and also with others migrating to the area, although French King Louis XIV's wars brought the people further havoc. Only with the Treaty of Ryswick, which put an end to the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession), did a lasting peace set in. French migrants may well have been arriving even during the wars with the French, but at this time, it was mainly migrants from Switzerland. The population grew so quickly that emigration, mostly to the Americas, began to grow, too. In 1744, Schönenberg once again got a market, after the former Kübelberg Market had been put to an end by the Thirty Years' War. In 1779, a territorial swap resulted in a new political arrangement when Electoral Palatinate agreed to exchange its Amt of Kübelberg with twelve villages (Kübelberg, Schönenberg, Sand, Brücken, Ohmbach, Schmittweiler, Dittweiler, Frohnhofen, Altenkirchen, Ober-Miesau, Nieder-Miesau and Elschbach) and six mills for the villages of Duchroth and Oberhausen and part of the village of Niederkirchen in the Odenbach valley, all of which had hitherto belonged to the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken. From this time there also survives a description of the villages in the Amt. The short Zweibrücken interlude lasted until the outbreak of the French Revolution, during which the Amt of Kübelberg was transferred from the Oberamt of Kaiserslautern into the Oberamt of Homburg. The duke who ruled at that time, Charles II August, who had had himself a fairytale castle built in Homburg, was said to be the very model of a princely despot. He awarded himself the title "Admiral" and had a ship built – on the Neuwoog (a pond) in the Peterswald, now part of Schönenberg-Kübelberg. After little time, this ship ran aground and rotted. The Duke also forbade his subjects the use of the Peterswald so that he could use it as his hunting ground. For their part, the subjects registered their displeasure at this by chasing away any lordly lumberjacks that they found.
Recent times
The first French Revolutionary troops showed up in the area in 1793. France annexed the Rhine’s left bank in 1801. Schönenberg became the seat of a mairie ("mayoralty") to which also belonged the villages of Brücken, Gries, Kübelberg, Sand and Schmittweiler. Schönenberg and Kübelberg both lay in the Canton of Waldmohr in the Arrondissement of Saarbrücken and the Department of Sarre. In 1814, the French withdrew from the Rhine's left bank. After a transitional period, the Bavarian Rheinkreis – an exclave of the Kingdom of Bavaria – was founded in 1816. This was later called the Rheinpfalz ("Rhenish Palatinate"). The administrative entities that had come into being during French Revolutionary and later Napoleonic times were retained and Schönenberg became the seat of a Bürgermeisterei ("mayoralty") in the Canton of Waldmohr in the Landkommissariat of Homburg, although the seat actually shifted from place to place over the next century, according to where the mayor lived. After the First World War, the victorious powers grouped the Bezirksamt of Homburg into the autonomous Saar area, but not the Canton of Waldmohr, to which Schönenberg and Kübelberg both belonged. This stayed with the newly formed Free State of Bavaria – the Kaiser had been overthrown and so had the Bavarian king – and thereby with Weimar Germany. The canton belonged to the Bezirksamt of Kusel with an administrative branch of its own, which it retained until 1940, whereafter the Canton of Waldmohr was administered directly from Kusel. In 1969, Schönenberg, Kübelberg, Sand and Schmittweiler merged to form a new municipality with the name Schönenberg-Kübelberg. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate, Schönenberg-Kübelberg became the seat of a Verbandsgemeinde in 1971.
Population development
In both villages, Schönenberg and Kübelberg, the villagers originally earned their livelihoods mainly at agriculture, although alongside farmers there were also craftsmen and peat cutters. From the 19th century onwards, a general shift began in which farming fed ever fewer people directly and many farmers’ sons sought work in industry. Unlike many other villages, which offered only a few job opportunities, Schönenberg-Kübelberg today has developed considerable industry of its own. Nevertheless, many members of the workforce must commute elsewhere, to industrial works in Kaiserslautern and mines in the Saarland, or to smaller centres such as Landstuhl or Homburg. After the Second World War, many jobs arose in connection with the stationing of United States Armed Forces at Ramstein Air Base and the Miesau Army Depot. This development brought about a sharp rise in the population. With respect to religion, among Schönenberg's and Kübelberg's mainly Christian inhabitants, roughly 60% are Catholic and the other 40% Evangelical, with the Catholic share of the population having grown slightly over the last two centuries. There was once also a small Jewish community, but their share of the population was not very great. As a result of foreign families and asylum seekers settling in the municipality, a considerable Muslim community has sprung up. As early as 2000, some 16% of the population did not belong to any of the mainstream Christian denominations.
The following tables show population development over the centuries for both Schönenberg and Kübelberg up to 1961, and then for the merged municipality of Schönenberg-Kübelberg:
Schönenberg
Kübelberg
Schönenberg-Kübelberg
Municipality’s name
Schönenberg first appeared in a document in 1419 as Schonenberg, and Kübelberg first appeared in a document in 956 as Cheuilunbahc. Other names that the two centres have borne are as follows:
For Schönenberg: Schollemberg and Schowemberg (1737), Schönberg (1564), Schönnbergk (1592), Schönenberg (1797)
For Kübelberg: Kebelinbach (1018), Keyfelberch (1263), Kebelinburg (1291), Kobelnberg (1291), in castro Keulnberg (1297), Kebelinberg (1304), Kebelnberg (1305 and 1310)
The meaning of the name Schönenberg is not hard to discern. It comes from the German words schön ("lovely") and Berg ("mountain"), and thus it means a settlement at a lovely mountain. The meaning of the name Kübelberg, on the other hand, is not quite as transparent. Although it literally means "tub mountain" (which explains the canting charge in the civic coat of arms), writers Dolch and Greule think that the name may be linked to the old German waterway name Cheuilun. Furthermore, in the Ortsteil of Kübelberg once stood a mediaeval motte-and-bailey castle, the Burg Kübelberg, and it is believed that this caused a shift in the placename ending from —bach to —berg. The first part of Kübelberg's name changed steadily over time before settling on its current form about 1600.
Vanished villages
Mentioned in the historical record is a place named Wunnenberg, at which it is likely another castle stood. This was known as Wonnenberg, Wonnenburg, Winnenberg or Winnenburg. The actual 1358 document mentioning it says "Wunnenberg, gelegen bei Keblinberg" ("Wunnenberg, lying near Keblinberg"). A certain correspondence in meaning can be seen between schön ("lovely") and Wonne ("blissfulness" or "delight"). It may well therefore be that this Wunnenberg and Schönenberg were one and the same. There was also a place in the Peterswald that could be regarded as the seed that gave rise to today's Schönenberg-Kübelberg. It was called Neunkirchen, and it was mentioned in a document as early as 937 as a donation to the Bishopric of Worms. It was then mentioned several times in the 10th century, and again in the 15th century, before cropping up in a 16th-century record as an abandoned estate in the Peterswald.
Religion
As mentioned above, in 937, even before Kübelberg's first documentary mention, the now vanished village of Neunkirchen (then called Niunchiricha), which lay right near today's Schönenberg-Kübelberg, appeared in the historical record as a donation to the Bishopric of Worms, perhaps as a country church outside any built-up area. It cannot be ruled out that this church was already consecrated to Saint Valentine. During the Middle Ages, Kübelberg was not only the seat of an Amt and a court, but also the hub of a parish whose boundaries changed over time. By no means was the parish coextensive with the court region. The Reformation came to both Schönenberg and Kübelberg, and on the basis of the traditional rule of cuius regio, eius religio, all inhabitants of Electoral Palatinate were obliged to convert to the new belief. In the Reformation's early years, both Lutheranism and the Reformed church were trying to become the predominant belief; in the end, the latter gained the upper hand locally. Any ecclesiastical victory between Protestant denominations, however, was quite moot, for the two villages mostly died out in the Thirty Years' War, and the church in Kübelberg was destroyed. Thereafter, what predominated was religious freedom, and believers from any Christian denomination were welcome to settle in the villages. The pattern of postwar settlement, though, was not the same in both villages: more Protestants settled in Schönenberg, whereas more Catholics settled in Kübelberg. During King Louis XIV's wars in the Palatinate, the French also promoted the settlement of Catholics, and in general, during the 18th century, the Electors of the Palatinate ever more strongly advocated in favour of Catholicism. The results can still be seen today with about 60% of the two villages’ combined population being Catholic and the other 40% being Evangelical. Saint Valentine's Church (Kirche St. Valentin) in Kübelberg goes back to a mediaeval building, parts of whose tower are still preserved. In 1702, the new Catholic church was built with support from the Order of Malta, who then held rights in Kübelberg. The new church was attended by all Catholics living in the surrounding area. It was repeatedly remodelled and acquired a new organ in 1841 built by the Stumm organ-building family. In 1963, the church was extensively expanded, whereby the old nave became the chancel, and on the south side, a great, modern hall church arose. The Evangelical Christians at first had no central church. The Reformed community was bigger, and they attended church services in Miesau. The Lutherans had a small church in Brücken at their disposal. After the unification of the Reformed and Lutheran faiths in the Palatine Union of 1818, the Evangelical Christians from Kübelberg orientated themselves towards Waldmohr, while the ones from Schönenberg stayed with the parish of Miesau. Only in 1954 was the parish of Schönenberg, which still exists now, established, and to this belong the villages of Kübelberg, Sand and Schmittweiler (the whole municipality, in other words). Schönenberg has had an Evangelical church since 1935, which at first was a converted tollhouse. The Evangelical church that stands in Kübelberg was built in 1971 and acquired a belltower in 1986. Today, the Catholics in both the municipality's main centres belong to the Catholic deaconry of Homburg and the Evangelicals belong to the Evangelical deaconry of Homburg.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 22 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
"FWG" is a voters’ group.
Mayor
Schönenberg-Kübelberg's mayor is Thomas Wolf (CDU).
Coat of arms
The municipality's arms might be described thus: Azure a bend sinister wavy argent charged with a cross pattée in pale sable, in dexter chief a daisy proper and in sinister base a tub, handle to sinister, Or hooped of the second.
The bend sinister wavy (slanted wavy stripe) refers to the municipality's wealth of water at the edge of the Landstuhler Bruch. The daisy stands for Schönenberg and the tub (Kübel in German, thus making this a canting charge) stands for Kübelberg. The arms have been borne since 1975 when they were approved by the Regierungsbezirk administration. Before this time, Schönenberg and Kübelberg each bore their own arms. Schönenberg's were azure three tubs one and two, handles to dexter argent hooped Or (a reference to the Court of Kübelberg), while Kübelberg's were gules a pile throughout between two tubs Or and charged with a wall and a tower embattled of the same masoned sable on a field lozengy argent and azure. Before amalgamation, the centres of Sand and Schmittweiler bore no arms.
Town partnerships
Schönenberg-Kübelberg fosters partnerships with the following places:
Szabadszállás, Bács-Kiskun County, Hungary
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Kübelberg
Saint Valentine’s Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Valentinus), Kirchengasse 5 – Baroque aisleless church, 1702–1709, marked 1790, tower raised 1826; Stumm organ from 1841, expansion-conversion 1963
Kirchengasse 1–6 (monumental zone) – distinctive village square appearance around the Catholic church with the former Catholic schoolhouse (no. 3), the former nurses’ residence (no. 4), rectory (no. 6), wayside cross and a small Quereinhaus (a combination residential and commercial house divided for these two purposes down the middle, perpendicularly to the street; no. 1)
Near Saarbrücker Straße 71 – warriors’ memorial 1914-1918 and 1939-1945, 1935 by Richard Menges, Kaiserslautern, expansion 1956
Sand
Miesauer Straße 39 – one-floor Quereinhaus with knee wall, 1898, in the righthand corner stable and shed
Schmittweiler
Höcherbergstraße 2 – former school; sandstone-framed plastered building, 1879 architect possibly Regional Building Director (Bezirksbauschaffner) Rottmüller, Homburg; characterizes village's appearance
Höcherbergstraße 5 – Quereinhaus, dwelling wing with knee wall about 1780, commercial wing, partly timber-frame, between 1806 and 1842
Lindenstraße 2 – stately Quereinhaus, marked 1844, in the righthand corner a pigsty; characterizes village's appearance
Lindenstraße 16 – Quereinhaus with half-hipped roof, marked 1839
Schönenberg
Bahnhofstraße 48/52 (monumental zone) – railway station with side buildings (pissoir and storage building) and railway hotel; railway station (no. 52) sandstone-block building, 1903/1904, spire light after 1920; railway hotel: sandstone-framed building with half-hipped roof, 1908
Glanstraße 50 – dwelling wing of a former Quereinhaus, partly timber-frame (plastered), 18th century, wooden gallery and enclosure possibly from the latter half of the 19th century; characterizes street's appearance
Regular events
Schönenberg-Kübelberg has old customs such as the Carnival parade (Faschingsumzug) at Shrovetide, the St. Martin's Day children's parade and its own ways of celebrating kermises, as well as newer customs such as Halloween, among others. The best known event is the Easter Market (Ostermarkt) that the people of Schönenberg have been holding since 1744 on the second Sunday before Easter. The Johannisfest is a regional folk festival held on the second Sunday before the Nativity of St. John the Baptist (24 June). The Schönenberger Kerwe (kermis), called the Bartholomäusfest ("Saint Bartholomew’s Festival") falls on the first Sunday before Saint Bartholomew's Day (24 August). There are an Oktoberfest on the first weekend in October and a Christmas Market on the third day of Advent. The Seefest ("Lake Festival") in July, meanwhile, is gaining in importance. The people of Kübelberg celebrate their church consecration festival on the first Sunday in September. There are other festivals in the outlying centres of Sand and Schmittweiler.
Clubs
Schönenberg-Kübelberg is blessed with a vast array of clubs. The following ones are registered with the authorities:
Angelsportverein (angling)
Brieftaubenzüchterverein (carrier pigeon raising)
Bündnis 90/Die Grünen (political party)
CDU Gemeindeverband (CDU municipal organization)
CDU-Ortsverein (CDU local association)
China-Kampfkunst (martial arts)
Deutsches Rotes Kreuz (German Red Cross)
Elisabethenverein
Evangelischer Kirchenchor (Evangelical church choir)
Evangelischer Krankenpflegeverein Schönenberg-Gries (nursing)
Evangelische Christusgemeinde ("Community of Christ")
FFW Schönenberg-Kübelberg (volunteer fire brigade)
Fördergemeinschaft der Realschule (Realschule promotional association)
Förderkreis KJGF
Förderverein TuS Schönenberg (sport club promotional association)
Förderverein für Jugendarbeit in der evangelischen Kirchengemeinde (promotional association for youth work in the Evangelical church community)FWG "bürgernah" (voters’ group)Gesangverein 1899 Frohsinn (singing club)Gesangverein Liederkranz 1921 Kübelberg (singing club)Gesangverein Liederkranz Schmittweiler (singing club)Gewerbeverein (homeowners’, flatowners’ and landowners’ association)Heimatliebe SchönenbergIG Bergbau und Energie Schönenberg-Kübelberg (trade union)Junge UnionJugendfeuerwehr (youth fire brigade)Karate-Dojo (martial arts)Katholische Frauengemeinschaft (Catholic women’s association)Katholische Junge Gemeinde (Catholic youth association)Katholische Kirchengemeinde Kübelberg (Kübelberg Catholic church community)Katholischer Kirchenchor (Catholic church choir)Katholisches Bildungswerk (Catholic education works)Kleintierzuchtverein (small-animal raising)Kolpingfamilie (Kolping family)Komitee Erhaltung Glanbahn (railway preservation society)Kulturhistorischer Verein "Gericht Kübelberg" (cultural history)Landfrauenverein Sand (countrywomen’s club)Männergesangverein 1899 Sand (men’s singing club)Modellbahnfreunde Schönenberg-Kübelberg (model railways)Obst- und Gartenbauverein (fruit and vegetable growing)Pensionärsverein Kübelberg (pensioners’ club)Pensionärsverein Schmittweiler (pensioners’ club)Pensionärsverein Schönenberg/Sand (pensioners’ club)Pfälzerwaldverein (hiking)Pfälzischer Bauern- und Winzerschaft (farmers’ and winegrowers’ association)Pfarrkapelle Kübelberg (orchestra)Pferdefreunde Kübelberg (horses)Schachverein VG Schönenberg (chess)Schiffsmodellbauclub (ship model building)Schützenbruderschaft Schönenberg (shooting)SPD Ortsverein Schönenberg (political party)Sportverein 1920 Kübelberg (sport club)Sportverein 1920 Sand (sport club)Sportverein 1928 Schmittweiler (sport club)Tennisclub 78TTraberclub TTC Sand 1962Turnverein 1970 (gymnastic club)TuS 1890 Schönenberg (sport club)VdK Ortsverband Schönenberg-Kübelberg (advocacy and help for those with handicaps)Verbandsgemeindefeuerwehr (Verbandsgemeinde fire brigade)Verein Partnerschaft überwindet Grenzen ("Partnership Overcomes Borders")Verein der Vogelfreunde (birds)Verein für Deutsche Schäferhunde (German Shepherds)Vereinsunion SandEconomy and infrastructure
Economic structure
Owing to its central location in the south of Kusel district, Schönenberg-Kübelberg has grown into a local supply and service centre. There are several hypermarkets and discount stores as well as many one-line businesses filling household and craft needs, a car dealership with workshops, a big motor vehicle scrapping and salvaging business, craft businesses in building and architectural engineering, a construction company, a building supply wholesaler, bank branches and professionals such as lawyers and physicians.
In both Schönenberg and Kübelberg, the villagers earned their livelihoods mainly from agriculture, although there were also craftsmen and peat cutters. Beginning in the 19th century, there was a gradual shift that led to agriculture directly feeding ever fewer people, and many farm boys seeking work in industry. Unlike many other villages, which offer very little in the way of job opportunities, Schönenberg-Kübelberg has developed considerable industry of its own. Nevertheless, many working people must commute to work, to the industrial operations in Kaiserslautern and to the mines in the Saarland, even to smaller centres like Landstuhl and Homburg. After the Second World War, many jobs became available in the course of the stationing of US Forces at Ramstein Air Base and Miesau Army Depot. This development spurred a strong upswing in the population.
Education
In the course of the Reformation, the Electors promoted schooling. As early as 1510, a schoolteacher is believed to have taught classes in Kübelberg, even though the village did not yet have any schoolhouse. In 1615, the Reformed pastor Nicolaus reported to the Oberamt of Kaiserslautern: "At Kübelberg is a schoolmaster, Petrus Matzenbach. Has a salary from the Collector of 30 Rhenish guilders … also seven malter of corn. … This schoolmaster is hardworking, good at his calling …". During the Thirty Years' War (which began only three years after Pastor Nicolaus’s report), schooling fell by the wayside, and it only began again once many children began growing up in the families that came to settle the village after the war. In Schönenberg and Kübelberg, schooling took different directions in each village. Kübelberg, as a new Catholic parish, established in the early 18th century a Catholic school, though the schoolteacher had to wait a long time for his monetary and material emoluments, since according to the rules, there was still supposed to be a Protestant schoolteacher. The Catholic school also sought out Catholic children from the neighbouring villages, mainly from Schönenberg. The building of the Catholic schoolhouse in Kübelberg about 1705 was financed by the pastor himself. Until then, school was taught at private houses or at the rectory. In 1754, the Schultheiß reported to the Oberamt that the Catholic schoolmaster in Kübelberg had to teach 60 children and received 10 Malter of corn and 25 guilders each year, lived in a small, not well-built house and had at his disposal a little garden. About the children’s behaviour there was no complaint. Given the steady population growth, the available schoolhouse soon was no longer big enough for the village. In 1797, the people of Kübelberg got a new schoolhouse for all the area’s Catholic children. In this building, which would later become the convent, school was taught until 1910. In 1848, the municipality bought up the inn to convert it into a school, too. The number of Catholic children rose more quickly than the number of Evangelical children, and thus Schönenberg soon found itself having to make an equalization payment to Kübelberg. The year 1965 marked the last time that a school for Kübelberg alone stood on Pestalozzistraße in Kübelberg. Since the establishment of the Schulzentrum Süd, this building has served as a primary school for the whole, merged municipality of Schönenberg-Kübelberg. The Protestant children, mainly those from Schönenberg, at first attended school in neighbouring Miesau. Only about 1730 did the municipality of Schönenberg build a schoolhouse for the Reformed and Lutheran children. It was expanded in 1802. In 1821, a new Evangelical schoolhouse was built in Schönenberg, though after a few decades, it was no longer up to the task at hand. Thus, a new one was built in 1910, although great population growth also quickly made this one too small, particularly as Schönenberg introduced Christian community school. So, with the Second World War looming, Schönenberg began to build yet another schoolhouse, but this was left unfinished until after the war, whereupon it was built into a private house. For a while, the district maintained an agricultural vocational school near the Schönenberg schoolhouse in the time after the war. In 1972, there was a thorough reform of schooling. All schoolchildren from all four of Schönenberg-Kübelberg’s centres now attend a single primary school, which has no local peculiarities, nor denominational affiliations. From 1979 to 1982, the Schulzentrum Süd ("School Centre South") was built for all the Hauptschule students of the Verbandsgemeinde (Erich-Kästner-Schule). Also housed at this complex is a Realschule. The primary school pupils from the whole municipality are now taught at the schoolhouse on Pestalozzistraße. The nearest Gymnasium is in Homburg (not even in the same state), while special schools can be found in Kusel and Brücken. Nearby universities are in Homburg (Saarland University, Faculty of Medicine), Kaiserslautern (Kaiserslautern University of Technology), Trier (University of Trier) and Saarbrücken (Saarland University).
Transport
Schönenberg-Kübelberg is linked by Bundesstraße 423 (Mandelbachtal - Altenglan) to the national road network. Some 5 km to the south runs the Autobahn A 6 (Saarbrücken–Mannheim) with an interchange at Waldmohr, while roughly 13 km to the northeast runs the Autobahn A 62 (Kaiserslautern–Trier) with an interchange at Kusel. The former railway station on the Glan Valley Railway (Glantalbahn) in the municipality itself has been abandoned. Homburg and the even nearer Bruchmühlbach-Miesau have stations on the Mannheim–Saarbrücken railway (Pfälzische Ludwigsbahn). Public passenger transport is provided by bus routes that radiate from the municipality in almost every direction.
Famous people
Famous people associated with the municipality
Albert Buchheit (b. 1862 in Contwig; d. 1933 in Kirchmohr)
A Catholic priest, Buchheit was a well known church historian and author of the book Die säkularisierten Kirchengüter der Pfalz'' ("The Secularized Church Properties of the Palatinate"). After 1920, he was also the pastor in Kübelberg.
Josef Hanß (b. 1871 in Steinwenden; d. 1957 in Landau)
A Catholic priest and author of religious writings, Hanß was a co-founder of the Sacred Heart Monastery (Herz-Jesu-Kloster) in the Schöntal near Neustadt an der Weinstraße. After he was ordained in 1894 he was chaplain in Kübelberg.
Emil Nesseler (b. 1891 in Lauterecken; d. 1952 in Ludwigshafen)
A schoolteacher and manager of the Palatine Teachers’ Association, Nesseler was an author of regional historical literature, particularly dealing with the Ludwigshafen area. He was also the city archivist in Ludwigshafen and designed maps as instructional materials. After 1920, he was also a schoolteacher in Schönenberg.
Peter Josef Ohmer (b. 1881; d. 1968 in Bad Bergzabern)
A Catholic priest and author of regional historical writings, Ohmer was active in the municipality of Hatzenbühl in many ways, and became an honorary citizen there. About 1904, he was chaplain in Kübelberg.
References
External links
Municipality’s official webpage
Kusel (district) |
4238857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldmohr | Waldmohr | Waldmohr is a town in the Kusel district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Oberes Glantal.
Geography
Location
The municipality lies at the western end of the Landstuhl Marsh (a depression), right at the state boundary with the Saarland roughly 15 km southwest of Kusel, and 10 km north of Homburg. Spreading out along a length of the Glan into the hills on each side, Waldmohr's municipal area reaches elevations of 362 m above sea level at the Waldziegelhütte (an outlying centre whose name means “forest brickworks”) and 234 m above sea level at the Eichelscheid (another outlying centre). The chain of hills, Steines, Fuchsberg, Bolsten, Schachen and Heidenkopf with Oehlbühl, which slope down to the south towards the Glan, and the mountain ridges, Häupel, Mühlfeld, Härtel, and Krämmel, which even out gently towards the north and east, are heavily settled along the greater thoroughfares leading to the heart of the village. Landesstraße 355 bypasses the village to the east and links it to the Autobahn. The river Glan, which rises in neighbouring Höchen, receives considerable contributions at Waldmohr's municipal limit, where the Branschbach and the Mörschbach empty into it at the edge of the Dörrberg. Several big ponds (Dörrbergweiher and Mohrmühlweiher) and many fishing ponds enrich the landscape's appearance. The old tank trench at the Eichelscheiderhof has long been a renaturated stretch of the Glan
Neighbouring municipalities
Waldmohr borders in the north on the municipality of Schönenberg-Kübelberg, in the east on the municipality of Bruchmühlbach-Miesau, in the south on the town of Homburg (not to be confused with the municipality of Homberg), in the west on the town of Bexbach and in the northwest on the municipality of Dunzweiler.
Constituent communities
Waldmohr's Ortsteile are Waldmohr (main centre), Eichelscheiderhof (10) and Waldziegelhütte (112). Also belonging to Waldmohr are the outlying homesteads of Bahnhaus (5), Bolsterhof (14), Erlenhof (6), Mohrmühle (24), Oehlbühlerhof (2), Waldhaus (3) and Autobahnrasthaus (0). Figures in parentheses are population figures as of 2000.
Eichelscheiderhof
Originally a noble estate belonging to the Duchy of Palatine Zweibrücken, the Eichelscheiderhof once stood within Jägersburg's municipal limits. With the formation of the Saar zone of occupation under a League of Nations mandate in 1920, the estate was split from Jägersburg and added to Waldmohr. The name first crops up in Tielemann Stella's writings from 1587 as Eichenschitt, and refers to the wealth of oaktrees in the area (Eiche means “oak” in German). The Eichelscheider Hof itself had its first documentary mention at the time of its founding in 1704. While the Jägersburg Hunting Palace (Jagdschloss Jägersburg) was being built near the district seat of Homburg, the estate was converted into a lordly stud farm, serving the famous Zweibrücken breeding until the end of the Second World War. Napoleon’s parade horse came from the Eichelscheider Hof. The stables are laid out horseshoe-shaped with a great inner yard, and parts have been converted to dwellings. The gateway dominates the estate's appearance. To the right of the stables stands the former manor house. The village of Jägersburg belonged wholly to Waldmohr. Only when the Saar was occupied in 1918 was Jägersburg taken away from Waldmohr. Jägersburg thereby became a self-administering municipality, although it has since been merged into Homburg.
Municipality’s layout
The very old linking roads to neighbouring villages are mostly still preserved and usable. The economically important forest paths used for logging and hiking are maintained and in good condition, whereas others are being reclaimed by the wilderness and are disappearing. Farm lanes, too, are only passable if the fields that they reach are still being used. During the Flurbereinigung undertaken in the late 1950s, which saw various parcels of land consolidated, many fieldpaths were swept away. As of 1990, the municipality of Waldmohr had all together 563.9 ha of wooded land, of which 365 ha was state-owned, 159.3 ha was municipally owned and 39.6 ha was privately owned. As of 1983, Waldmohr had an area of 1 307 ha, of which 363 ha, or 27.2%, was under agricultural use. According to the municipal plan, 18.5 ha is given over to existing bodies of water. Various rural cadastral names point to historical ownership, location, particular soil conditions or former bodies of water. A few examples include: Kirchelborn or Kirckelborn, Spickelberg, Warbach, Bolsten, Häupel, Heiligenwald, etc. In 1901, the forestry office building came into service. The region over which it holds sway is today one of the biggest in the Palatinate. In 1257, the Mohrmühle, one of the oldest mills in the region, had its first documentary mention. The old mill, where from sometime before 1610 until 1645 in the Thirty Years' War direct ancestors of former President of Germany Richard von Weizsäcker lived, is now a destination for outings with a restaurant. In the 1960s, another old mill, the Waldmohrer Mühle, built in 1715, was falling into ever greater disrepair and ended up being torn down. Only a couple of rural cadastral names (in den Mühlwiesen, auf dem Mühlfeld) now recall the actual mill. It was both a gristmill and a sawmill in its time. Three outlying farmsteads (Aussiedlerhöfe) are still worked nowadays. These are Oehlbühlerhof (founded in 1958; area 0.9 ha), Bolsterhof (founded in 1958; area 0.9 ha) and Erlenhof (founded in 1965; area 0.8 ha). The Oehlbühlerhof is tended by the owner of the Erlenhof.
History
In 830, Waldmohr had its first documentary mention in the Lorsch codex as villa Moraha – “village on the boggy brook”. In 1449, the village passed into the lordship of the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken and remained under their rule until the duchy itself was swept away by the events of the French Revolution in 1794. Under French rule, Waldmohr became the seat of the like-named canton in the Department of Sarre, thus beginning the village's history as an administrative seat. After the French occupation ended, the Palatinate passed to the Kingdom of Bavaria, with Waldmohr retaining its function as the cantonal seat for 57 villages between Kirkel and Glan-Münchweiler. It lost its place as such only after the separation of the Saar after the First World War. In 1920, Waldmohr was assigned to the Bezirksamt of Kusel and downgraded to a Bezirksamt branch location. In 1946, it was grouped into the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate, and in 1971, when it became the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Waldmohr, it regained some of its lost glory.
Antiquity
The barrows that go back to middle Late Hallstatt times (about 550 BC) on both sides of the Rhineland-Palatinate-Saarland boundary in the Kuhwald (“Cow Forest”) visibly bear witness even today to early settlement, and after archaeological digs at two of them in 1995 and 1996 they became an attraction for those interested in history. The old highway is still today recognizable along almost its whole length, and much broader than an ordinary country path. In various descriptions from the 14th to the 16th century, it is called the Mohrerweg or Landstraße von Mor nach Erbach (“Highway from Mor to Erbach”), with Mor or Mohr in each case referring to Waldmohr (the prefix Wald— simply means “forest”). Long-settled villagers still speak today of the old Homburger Weg (Erbach lies near Homburg, and is today a constituent community of that town), while in Erbach, it is seen as the Waldmohrer Weg. This east-west road link is of Roman origin, if not even older. After the Romans withdrew in the early 5th century, the region was almost empty of people, and only once the Franks had come to take the land was it slowly settled once more. In this time, the Bliesgau was grouped administratively into Francia.
Middle Ages
The placename Moraha was used for centuries more, even after the name Waltmore had had its first documentary mention in 1418. From 1190 to 1441, a knightly family named “von Moran” was mentioned as being among the vassals of the Counts of Homburg. Several times, the counts pledged the village and court of More, or at least parts thereof, for example, between 1383 and 1410 to the Counts of Veldenz, and once again to the same noble house between 1449 and 1475. In 1312, forty farmers were living in Waldmohr. From 1475 to 1815, the Schultheißerei of Waldmohr belonged to the Duchy of Palatine Zweibrücken. As early as 1404, Waldmohr was mentioned as being the seat of a lower court.
Modern times
In 1535, the Reformation was introduced, after a parish had existed since at least 1219 according to records. The existence of a school in Waldmohr is mentioned for the first time in a 1564 Visitation report. In 1605 came the first mention of an actual schoolhouse. In 1609, the village had 225 Reformed inhabitants at 42 “hearth places” (for which, read “households”). Waldmohr did not fare well in the Thirty Years' War, when troops burnt it down in 1622 and destroyed it utterly in 1635. In 1688 and 1689, the village was once again beset and burnt down in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession). From 1679 to 1697, Waldmohr – along with the whole region – found itself under French rule. In 1701, a new schoolhouse was built. In 1704, the Eichelscheiderhof had its first documentary mention, as did the Waldziegelhütte in 1749. Between 1752 and 1757, Duke Christian IV had the Eichelscheiderhof stud farm built on the site of the estate of that name. It was built in the shape of a small palatial residence with its gateway into the horseshoe-shaped complex.
In 1765, near the old village church auf der Fels (“On the Cliff”), the new Evangelical church was consecrated. In 1775, a directory of Reformed parishioners (for Waldmohr only), not counting shepherds, menservants or maidservants, listed 54 men, 71 women, 91 boys and 89 girls. The parish belonged until the establishment of the Oberamt of Homburg in 1781 to the Inspection of Zweibrücken, to which the village also belonged administratively.
From 1798 to 1815, Waldmohr was seat of the like-named canton in the Department of Sarre, and seat, too, of a mairie (“mayoralty”), belonging to which were Waldmohr, Jägersburg, Kleinottweiler, Höchen, Frohnhofen, Breitenbach, Altenkirchen and Dittweiler. Besides Waldmohr, the canton also included Kübelberg, Schönenberg, Sand, Miesau, Elschbach, Scheidenberg (Schanzer Mühle), Ohmbach and Brücken. The canton belonged to the Arrondissement of Saarbrücken. An 1812 record mentions a cantonal prison in Waldmohr. In 1813, Waldmohr had 683 inhabitants.
Recent times
Beginning in 1816, after Napoleon’s downfall and the Congress of Vienna, Waldmohr belonged to the Kingdom of Bavaria, within which it was once again seat of the like-named canton, but now within the Landcommissariat of Homburg in the Rheinkreis (the Palatinate under Bavarian rule). The Canton of Waldmohr now contained 57 villages, estates and mills. That same year, the village was given a magistrates’ court. In 1824, the common schoolhouse was built on Bahnhofstraße (“Railway Station Street”). A new steeple was dedicated in 1831 on the occasion of the Silver Jubilee of King Maximilian I Joseph's coronation. In 1834, the municipality founded Catholic education. Completed in 1850 was the town hall, which also housed the court, which from the very beginning caused a space problem. Only in 1901 could the municipality open its own courthouse – today a community centre – and at the same time a forester's office across the street. In 1855, a post office was set up in Waldmohr, in its own building.
In 1873, the Waldmohr municipal health insurance fund took up its healthcare function, and was only dissolved on 31 December 1913 by the Reichsversicherungsordnung (“Imperial Insurance Order”), whereupon it was taken over by the general health insurance fund. Journalism began in Waldmohr in 1892 with the publication of the first edition of the Waldmohrer Zeitung (meaning simply “Waldmohr Newspaper”), and in 1895, the first master forester for the Waldmohr forester's office region was named.
In 1916, electric light came to Waldmohr, after gaslights had replaced petroleum lamps in 1905. The Waldziegelhütte, on the other hand, had been electrified in 1914, the same year that a motorized bus route began running from Waldmohr to Bexbach, Oberbexbach and the Frankenholz mine. A telephone exchange was built on Bahnhofstraße in 1928.
From 1920 until the Saar's reintegration into Germany in 1935, after Adolf Hitler and the Nazis had swept the Weimar Republic away and instituted the Third Reich, Waldmohr was a border village. One consequence was that Waldmohr was split away from the Bezirksamt (equivalent to Kreis – district) of Homburg to which it had belonged, and a branch location of the Bezirksamt of Kusel was therefore set up in Waldmohr for all municipalities that had likewise belonged to the now occupied Bezirksamt. In 1927, a branch location of the Kusel labour office was also located in the village.
With the approach of the Second World War, the first fortifications began to appear in Waldmohr's municipal area in 1938. This was part of the Westwall, commonly known in English as the Siegfried Line. There were tank trenches, dragon's teeth, bunkers and road barriers, all installed by Organisation Todt. In the autumn of that year, more than two thousand soldiers (horse-drawn artillery) were posted to the Kuhwald. Until 1995, a big horse's drinking trough recalled this event. Organisation Todt built the Siegfried Line's second Main Battle Line (Hauptkampflinie, HKL) in and around Waldmohr, with more than 30 bunkers (although 70 had been planned). On Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), SS commandoes from outside the village perpetrated great destruction at Jewish villagers’ homes, particularly at Dr. Salomon's (dentist) and Dr. Levi's (general practitioner), among others. In 1944, more fortifications, trenches, dams and road barriers were laid out, along with so-called Tobruk bunkers. During the war, bombs fell on Höcherstraße and Glanstraße (streets), as well as in the surrounding countryside, causing deaths and damage to houses.
After the war, from 1946 to 1960, Waldmohr once again became a border village as the Saar was once again occupied by the victorious Allies. Shortly after the 1948 currency reform, though, new businesses were coming to the municipality and setting up industrial operations. In 1958, the labour office branch and the municipal revenue agency were housed in a new office building on the street then called Hauptstraße (“Main Street”, but now called Saarpfalzstraße, or “Saar-Palatinate Street”). In 1960, a 70-hectare commercial-industrial park began to open up in the Kuhwald and on the heath. In 1964, a modern school with a gymnasium and a small indoor swimming pool was opened. In 1971, the Verbandsgemeinde of Waldmohr was founded, with Waldmohr itself as the administrative seat. Besides Waldmohr, the new Verbandsgemeinde comprised Dunzweiler and Breitenbach. In 1980, the municipality celebrated its 1,150-year jubilee by dedicating a new marketplace and the new village centre. On 6 October 2020, Waldmohr received town rights from the government of Rhineland-Palatinate.
Population development
Waldmohr was as early as the Middle Ages one of the bigger villages. In 1312, forty farmers were living there. According to Tilemann Stella, it was 43 in 1547. In 1609, the village had 225 Reformed inhabitants in 42 households, according to a church protocol. The population was greatly reduced in the Thirty Years' War, leaving only six subjects (families) in Waldmohr in 1655 (seven years after the war ended). Nonetheless, the number of families rose again quickly, but then the Nine Years' War wrought further decimation. A 1675 record reads “Waldmohr, burnt down, 16 families”.
During the 18th century, growth became continuous, although by now, a few families were emigrating. In 1696, there were 24 “hearth places” (households; 1 clergyman, 1 schoolteacher, 15 farmers, 1 cooper, 1 cabinetmaker, 1 shepherd, 2 maids, 3 menservants and 3 day labourers). In 1718, 42 residences were counted in Waldmohr; by 1760 this had risen to 70. In 1813, in late Napoleonic times, Waldmohr had 683 inhabitants. Old documents convey to the modern reader only a few villagers’ names, and indeed until the early 15th century, usually only first names were recorded. An “immigration patent” issued by the Duke of Zweibrücken after the 1648 Peace of Westphalia was meant to raise the region's population after the wartime devastation. Only a second such patent issued in 1698 by Duke Karl XII met with great success, bringing many families from Switzerland to Waldmohr (Munzinger, Agne, Hollinger, Sandmeyer, Danner, Gerhard, Bächle, Blum, Burckhardt, Klein, Keller, Cloß, Jakoby, Kurtz).
According to the original 1845 cadastral survey, it seems that destitution (division of inheritance, hunger, early death) and the 1848/1849 political upheavals were the main forces driving people to emigrate from the region. Many names are accompanied by notes such as “out of the country – in the land of America”. Nevertheless, in the latter half of the 19th century, ever more people were coming to Waldmohr, even with the fee for becoming a local citizen having been set at 102.85 marks in 1878. During the building of the Nordfeldbahndamm – a railway embankment – between 1902 and 1904, several Italians were employed who settled in the village. The two world wars exacted a heavy toll in blood, particularly the Second World War, which claimed many victims. With the separation of the Saar from the rest of Germany after both world wars, many customs officials and their families came to Waldmohr. Both in Weimar times and after the Second World War, miners’ families moved to the Ruhr area or the Aachen mining region either out of need for work or for better wages. In the 1940s and 1950s, ethnic Germans driven out of Germany's former eastern territories came to settle in Waldmohr. Only the location of industry and opening of valuable building land over the past few decades, however, coupled with good infrastructure development over that time, has led to steady population growth through migration, mainly from the Homburg area, Neunkirchen and the Glan valley. Also, quite a few Turkish families came beginning in 1971. After the Soviet Union's downfall, many ethnically German families from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan – former Volga Germans and Black Sea Germans – came to the village. The commonest names in the village these days are still Bächle, Bauer, Becker, Blum, Braun, Burkart/Burkhardt, Ecker, Emich, Hoffmann, Jung, Kampa, Keller, Kiefer, Klein, Krupp, Leibrock, Lothschütz, Maurer, Metzger, Müller, Rapp, Schäfer, Schmidt/Schmitt, Schneider, Schwarz, Simon, Trumm, Wagner, Weber, Weiß/Weis/Weiss, Wolf, Wunn and Zimmer.
The following table shows population development over the centuries for Waldmohr, with some figures broken down by religious denomination:
Municipality’s name
As early as prehistoric and protohistoric times, the Waldmohr area was settled, as archaeological finds (such as blades, small lacrymatories, remnants of smelting ovens) and barrows bear witness. The first documentary mention dates from AD 830 and is found in a document from Lorsch Abbey, the Lorsch codex (also known as the Reichsurbar, Codex Laureshamensis; kept at the State Archive in Munich), in which the three royal estates of Lutra, Nannenstuol and Mörahha are named (the last one corresponding with the second syllable in “Waldmohr”). The name's meaning comes mainly from the Old High German terms mor for “wetland” (Old English had the same word, and the English “moor” and the German Moor are both still used today) and ahha for either “brook” or “water”. A few researchers, however, derive the mör part of the name from the Latin mora, which can mean either a stay or a rhetorical pause (a royal estate as a rest stop?).
The word ahha crops up a number of times in Old High German poetry from Carolingian times, spelt with only one H, thus aha, and always means “water”. Over the centuries, the village called itself, using various spellings, mora, Mohra, More, Moir, Mohr and mor or Mor. Only in 1418 did the name Waltmore crop up. The name, later Waltmor, Waltmohr, Waldmoor, Waldtmohr and eventually Waldmohr, only became generally customary in the 17th century; the prefix was meant to distinguish “Mohr” from other, nearby, similarly named places such as Kirchmohr, Niedermohr and Obermohr, among others.
Religion
In the time of the Reformation, under the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, all the inhabitants had to convert, at the Duke's behest, to Lutheranism, that is, until 1588, when Duke Johannes I made them all convert once again, this time to Calvinism. Only beginning in 1648 – after the Thirty Years' War – could Lutherans, Reformed believers and Catholics once more live side-by-side in the Duchy of Palatine Zweibrücken.
With the new arrangement of parish areas in 1821, Dunzweiler, along with the Waldziegelhütte, passed to the parish of Breitenbach, and to make for a fair endowment, the parochial estate in Waldmohr was also signed over to the parish of Breitenbach. The parish still holds property in Waldmohr to this day. In 1902, the Catholic community, which belonged to the parish of Kübelberg, had 371 souls. Only in 1929 did Waldmohr welcome its own pastor. The two Catholic parishes of Waldmohr and Breitenbach would thereafter be administered together. The oldest church or chapel likely stood on the stony ridge, upon which the later church was built, upon whose foundations and walls, in turn, the current Protestant church from 1765 stands. It was said to be at that time a village hub of sorts, and the first known graveyard in the village – the churchyard – was there. In 1814, another graveyard was laid out in the Krämmel (a cadastral area), and expanded in 1852. The current graveyard in the Brüchelchen dates from 1898. This has already twice been expanded, and in 1958 it got a new mortuary. In 1924, a forest graveyard was also built at the Waldziegelhütte, right at Saint Mary's Chapel (Marienkapelle), likewise built at that time.
In August 1923, the Catholic parish's long planned so-called “Emergency Church” (Notkirche) was consecrated. It was later torn down, and on its former site arose Saint George’s Church (St. Georgskirche) in 1960. The “White Hall” (Weiße Halle), a Catholic parish community centre, was likewise torn down. It had at one time housed a shoe factory and outlet. Now it was to get a new building and it went into service as a meeting place in 1992. In 1866, the Stumm organ at the Protestant church was dedicated.
At the time when the Palatine Union came into effect in 1818, which united the Reformed and Lutheran churches, the small Lutheran parish had all together 620 parishioners, 130 of whom lived in Waldmohr.
Politics
Municipal council
The council is made up of 22 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
“FWG” is a voters’ group.
Mayor
Waldmohr's mayor is Jürgen Schneider (SPD).
Coat of arms
The municipality's arms might be described thus: Per fess gules a lion rampant couped at the line of partition at the knees argent, and Or the letters W and M interlaced in pale sable.
Until 1982, Waldmohr bore different, but nonetheless very similar, arms. The main difference was in the tinctures, whereas the charges were almost the same. The field tinctures were argent and sable (silver and black) while the lion, which was a demilion in the old arms (couped at the waist rather than the knees as in the newer arms), was azure armed and langued gules (blue, but with red claws and tongue) and the two interlaced letters were argent. Those arms had been approved in 1925, and the change was brought about after an expert opinion from Dr. Debus that cited the much longer time that Waldmohr had spent under the Counts of Homburg than under the Counts of Veldenz. Accordingly, the Veldenz lion was changed for the Homburg one. The lower field's tinctures represent the Palatine colours, and the two letters, W and M, may well be a municipal mark, for Waldmohr.
In the 19th century, when a professor from Munich suggested using a Moor's head as a charge in the coat of arms, the municipal council was outraged and bluntly refused the suggestion. This would, of course, have made the arms canting, for the word used for this charge was Mohrenkopf (Kopf means “head”).
Town partnerships
Waldmohr fosters partnerships with the following places:
Is-sur-Tille, Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), France since 3 April 2004
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Waldmohr (main centre)
Protestant parish church, Blücherstraße 3 – aisleless church, marked 1765, architect Philipp Heinrich Hellermann, Zweibrücken, expansion 1903, tower, marked 1831, on Late Gothic ground floor; Stumm organ from 1861
Bahnhofstraße 45 – former post office; building with hipped roof, Swiss chalet style, 1926, architect Heinrich Müller, Speyer
Eichelscheiderstraße – warriors’ memorial 1914-1918 and 1939-1945, base by F. Cullmann and B. Marx, Waldmohr, soldier sculpture by Ludwig Rech, Zweibrücken, 1930, added to after 1945; across street memorial stone for the victims of National Socialism
Rathausstraße 3 – rectory; Classicist plastered building, 1864-1866; characterizes village's appearance; attendant former clergyman's garden and barn
Rathausstraße 12/14 – town hall and until 1901 Royal Bavarian Amt court; stone-block building on pedestal floor with hipped roof, Rundbogenstil, 1849/1850, architect Regional Building Officer Portscheller, Homburg; characterizes village's appearance
At Rathausstraße 37 – fountain well, stone trough, cast-iron post, earlier half of the 19th century
Rathausstraße 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12/14, 16, village core (monumental zone) – village core around intersection of Blücherstraße and Höcher Straße with Hauptstraße, with church and town hall, commercial houses and farmhouses from the 18th and 19th centuries
Saarpfalzstraße 11 – forestry office; sandstone-block building, 1901, architect Christian Jakoby, Waldmohr, shed from time of building
Saarpfalzstraße 12 – former Royal Bavarian Amt court; U-shaped sandstone-block building, risalto with crow-stepped gable, 1900/1901
Former “Consolidiertes Nordfeld” mine (monumental zone) – foundation of the twin headframe and engine house, tailing heaps, former railway right-of-way, about 1900
Former Nordfeld mine loading ramp, on the Weiherstraße extension in the forest – ramp some 8 m high, 1902
Eichelscheiderhof
Eichelscheiderhof 2–5 – former Eichelscheider Hof Ducal Zweibrücken stud farm; one-floor horseshoe-shaped stable building with two-floor gatehouse, dwelling and commercial building, high hipped roofs, 1752-1757
Music
Well known is the Westricher Madrigalchor (the Westrich is an historic region that encompasses areas in both Germany and France), a mixed choir that in 1998 sprang from the singing association (Sängervereinigung), under the direction of Thomas Gräff.
The Musikverein Waldmohr e.V. was founded, in its current form, on 8 October 1922. The first official mention of a “Waldmohr Music Club” was on the occasion of the fourth Palatine Music Festival (Pfälzisches Musikfest), which was held in Speyer in January 1830. Today, the Musikverein Waldmohr is made up of a youth wind orchestra and a saxophone quartet.
Clubs
Cultural life in Waldmohr is characterized by a very active and multifaceted branch location of the district folk high school, the Sängervereinigung 1872, the Catholic church choir, the Protestant singing circle, the Musikverein with its various music groups, the promotional circle for art, and various other sporting, social and community service clubs:
TV Waldmohr (sport club)
VfB Waldmohr (sport club)
HSV Waldmohr (sport club)
ASV Waldmohr (sport club)
Schützenverein Waldmohr (shooting club)
Reit- und Fahrverein Waldmohr (equestrian club)
TC Waldmohr (tennis club)
Behinderten-Sportclub Waldmohr (disabled sports)
DLRG
Karateclub Waldmohr
Verein „Dorf für Kinder“ (“Village for Children”)
Pfälzerwaldverein Waldmohr (hiking)
Obst- und Gartenbauverein Waldmohr (gardening and fruitgrowing)
DRK (German Red Cross)
Pensionärverein Waldmohr (pensioners’ club)
Both churches, with their many bodies and groups
VdK (advocacy group)
Reservisten-Kameradschaft (military)
“Krea-Mief” theatre club
Regular events
Besides the various Shrovetide (Fastnacht) events held by some clubs, the dance in May, the Marketplace Festival, the kermis (church consecration festival), the Christmas Market, the Dörrbergfest and the Weiherfest held by the clubs and parties, there is hardly any upholding of old customs, unless the kindergartens’ yearly Martinmas parades are counted (11 November). Also, on Epiphany, the Sternsinger go door-to-door. The primary school-Hauptschule choir actively participates in many municipal events.
Natural monuments
Within municipal limits lies the “Bruchwiesen Waldmohr” recreation area, within which the river Glan has been renaturated. Regarded as a natural monument is the Heldenhain (“Heroes’ Grove”) with its stand of limetrees. The old oaktree standing on the north slope of the Dörrberg is considered worthy of protection and is to be incorporated into the municipal plan as such.
Economy and infrastructure
Agriculture
In recent decades, the amount of land under agricultural use has been slowly but steadily shrinking with the decline of full-time and even part-time farming. More than half the agricultural land is still cropland. The greenbelt areas make up about 45% of it, and land used for special cultivation hardly 1%; these have no economic importance. Grain farming has been decreasing since 1971. Potato farming claims the lion's share of the cropland. Fodder farming has even grown, leading to growth in livestock rearing, too. Over the last few decades, cattle and swine have been growing in numbers, even though the odd farming operation has been given up.
Woodland
As mentioned above, Waldmohr had 563.9 ha of wooded land in 1990. This represents a gain of 5% over the total wooded land in 1970. Extensive common beech forests dominate, and only in the Eichelscheid area are spruce and pine the main trees. The woods on the Dörrberg and Eichelscheid in particular have a protective function, and a recreational function. The Schachenwald is set out as a recreational forest for seniors and also serves as a noise barrier and valuable stand of trees.
Industry and employment
Before industrialization, almost all the villagers worked as farmers, craftsmen, day labourers, tradesmen, forestry workers or bureaucrats. After the middle of the 19th century, many went to work at the ironworks in Homburg and Neunkirchen, and later to the mines on the Nordfeld, in Frankenholz and in Neunkirchen. With the coalmine shutdowns and the onset of the steel crisis in the 1960s, Waldmohr began with the laying out of a 70-hectare commercial-industrial park, bringing the village many new jobs; thus today, 2,700 workers earn their livelihoods here. Nevertheless, more and more people commute to jobs elsewhere.
Waldmohr earns its living today mainly from industrial operations and craft businesses. It is the district's biggest industrial location. The biggest employer, with roughly 590 employees as of 2000, is the firm CS Schmal Möbel GmbH (furniture). Over the last few years, the firm Minitec, founded in 1986, has grown greatly. As of 2006, it has roughly 190 employees. The firm has at its disposal a patent for aluminium parts whereby drilling is no longer needed.
Of the many small craft businesses of bygone days, little is left. The smith, the wainwright, the locksmith and cabinetmakers of all descriptions are no longer found in the village. There are, however, a shoemaker’s shop, a butcher’s shop, a bakery, a furrier’s shop, two roofing businesses, three barber/hairdresser’s shops, a carpentry business, a plasterer’s shop and two painting businesses, which can be described as ordinary craft businesses. Other businesses in Waldmohr are a wholesale bakery, five sanitary businesses, three electrical speciality shops, five automotive repair shops, three building companies, a sawmill, a sculpture studio, two tiler’s businesses, two craft metalworking shops and a wholesale metalworking business. Among other small and midsize businesses are a marble workshop, a printing shop, a furniture factory, a prefabricated building business and prefabricated cellar manufacturer, a drywall-making business and a window-making business.
Since the introduction of the weekly market in 1993 – market day is Saturday – the market has been well received by the villagers. Moreover, the various flea markets and the Christmas market enjoy great popularity. Unfortunately, the Turnerjahrmarkt (“Gymnasts’ Yearly Market”) has in recent years fallen by the wayside.
In addition to Schmal's employment of 450 or so, a number of other companies are important employers. The firm Kampa, which makes high-quality prefabricated houses, currently employs 320 people at its Waldmohr works. Working at the firms Metronic and WIG von Grünenwald are 120 and 50 employees respectively. Stehma has a workforce of 75 building steel halls. A notary, two lawyers and several architectural offices have a great deal to do.
Despite Waldmohr's emergent industry, 1,069 workers commute daily to the Saarland, 855 of them to Homburg alone. Commuting to Kaiserslautern and other workplaces in the Palatinate are 362 workers. On the other hand, there is also a daily inflow of commuters, 384 of whom come from the Saarland, 528 from other places in the Kusel district and 64 from elsewhere in the Palatinate. There has been an upward trend in inbound commuters in recent years.
Public institutions
Waldmohr is home to the administration of the like-named Verbandsgemeinde.
Education
It was in 1564, in a Visitation report by the clergyman, that a school in the village was first mentioned, but apparently, it did not have its own building. Such a thing as a schoolhouse in Waldmohr was not mentioned until 1605. A 1613 report said that nobody in the village could read or write. Learning was not very efficient, and hence only met with slight success. The teachers were so poorly paid that they often had to put up with hunger. A teacher's wages were first mentioned in 1589. The teacher at the Reformed school received 4 Malter of grain and 8 Gulden in gold from the church treasury, and from the municipality 2 Malter of grain for ringing the bells. In 1596, the then schoolteacher received a small amount of land for the schoolyard as remuneration. Nevertheless, no teacher ever stayed very long before seeking a better paying job. After the Thirty Years' War, the historical record tells of a school in Waldmohr once again in 1659, eleven years after the war had ended. Employment there was, however, apparently no better after all those years, for the teachers were still changing so often that the post was often left unfilled. Only in 1728 was this pattern broken, when schoolteacher Schwartz from Quirnbach came to Waldmohr and stayed until his death in 1761. In the earlier half of the 18th century, the Lutherans and the Catholics likewise each had their own school. Attending the Reformed school in 1783 were 79 pupils, while in 1809, the Lutheran school had 25. The earliest figures for the Catholic school come from 1825, when it had 25 pupils. All together, there were 256 schoolchildren attending the village's schools that year, leading the government to institute a third teaching post (by this time, there was Lutheran-Reformed unity). It was for the Catholic school. The Catholic teacher's yearly salary was 200 Gulden. The Protestant teachers were paid 450 Gulden; this was not all in cash, however. It was made up of a dwelling, a garden, a hillside plot, 2 Morgen of meadowland, 6 hL of grain, 3 klafters of wood, from each of 120 households 1 barrel of grain, from each of 160 schoolchildren 1 Gulden in cash from the church treasury, the municipal coffer and special ecclesiastical events. The recompense was also split between two teachers. The head teacher got 250 Gulden with the remaining 200 Gulden going to his assistant. In 1862, teachers’ salaries were reformed and payments in kind were dropped. In 1870, a continuation school (Fortbildungsschule) was established whose classes ran from November to early February each year. At this time, the municipality had three schools, two Protestant and one Catholic.
With the establishment of the communal Christian school in 1877, teachers’ salaries were reformed yet again. Under the new terms (1878), each member of the teaching staff received 897.38 marks. In 1901, superannuation payments were specially introduced, and teachers’ pay was in 1905 raised to 1,500 marks. The Fortbildungsschule, which had long been run as a Sunday school (inasmuch as classes were held on Sunday; it was not religious), became a Wednesday afternoon school beginning in 1906. In 1935, the eighth school year was introduced, in 1966/1967 the ninth and in 1991/1992 the tenth.
The Rothenfeldschule is a combined primary school and Regionale Schule with the tenth class. Since the 2007/2008 school year it has been the only school in Rhineland-Palatinate to offer year-round daycare.
Public utilities
On Breitenbacher Straße stands a modern electrical substation owned by Pfalzwerke, which ensures the electrical supply for both home and industry. Waldmohr manages to do without any partnerships to ensure its water supply, having its own deep wells, pumphouses and cisterns. A sewage treatment plant costing 10,000,000 DM (about €5,113,000), built to handle a capacity of 10,000 inhabitants, has been brought into service and uses the most modern wastewater treatment. The whole village is supplied with both electricity and natural gas. At the turn of the 20th century, the village even owned its own gasworks, although this was shut down in the First World War owing to unprofitability.
Transport
Saarpfalzstraße, which was built as a relief and bypass road for the former Hauptstraße (now Rathausstraße), is now the main road within the municipality, and as Bundesstraße 423 also the most important road for through traffic. Also particularly busy within the municipality are Landesstraße 354, leading to the commercial-industrial park and, by way of Landesstraße 355, to interchange 50 on the Autobahn A 6 (Saarbrücken–Mannheim) – sometimes called Via Carolina – and the Waldmohr service centre with its motel, and Kreisstraße (District Road) 3 from the village centre to Höchen and Bexbach. Also heavily frequented are Bahnhofstraße and Rathausstraße. As early as 1985, the daily number of vehicles at the edge of the village going towards Kübelberg reached 4,852, and at the edge of the village going towards Jägersburg, it reached 5,505. The Autobahn links Waldmohr not only to the national road network, but also to France and the Czech Republic.
The Nordfeldbahn (railway) was built in 1903. The railway line from Homburg to Bad Münster, dedicated in 1904, was closed in 1981. The last passenger train was a three-unit railbus that with the end of the 1980-1981 winter timetable did its last run between Glan-Münchweiler and Homburg on 30 May 1981 – complete with a bunch of gorse fastened onto the front. In 1990, the tracks were torn up and in 1993, the bridge across Landesstraße 354 was torn down, leaving only an industrial spur between the Waldmohr commercial-industrial park and Homburg.
Public transport is integrated into the VRN. The Glantalbahn (railway), which once ran through Waldmohr, is no longer used along this stretch of the right-of-way. The nearest line is now the Saarbrücken-Heidelberg line, which runs some 6 km south of Waldmohr. Bus routes run by Regionalbus Saar-Westpfalz link Waldmohr with Homburg Central Station, Bruchmühlbach-Miesau and Landstuhl, all on that railway line. Kusel station at the district seat and Glan-Münchweiler station on the Landstuhl–Kusel railway can also be reached directly by bus.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
Theodor Berkmann (1802–1870), jurist, politician and revolutionary
Ludwig Ritterspacher (1883–1964), politician (CDU)
Fritz Schwitzgebel (1888–1957), politician (NSDAP)
Kurt Eichner (1898–1969), politician (NSDAP)
Eugen Kampa (1913–????), a carpenter by trade, he married a building-element entrepreneur's daughter in Minden, and in 1945 he took over his father-in-law's business, expanding it into an important maker of prefabricated houses with 17 locations; Kampa-Werk II was in Waldmohr.
Georg Fleischer (d. 1973), a furniture manufacturer, he owned a furniture factory in Eilenburg, Saxony that was expropriated in East German times; he settled in Waldmohr in 1951, where he founded a new factory, which at times employed more than 100 employees and made the well known Pfalzmöbel line of furniture; after Fleischer's death, the factory soon failed.
References
External links
Municipality’s official webpage
Kusel (district) |
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